THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
SECOND
THIRD
FOURTH
FIFTH
SIXTH
SEVENTH
EIGHTH
NINTH
TENTH
ELEVENTH
edition, published in three volumes, 1768 1771.
ten 17771784.
eighteen 1788 1797.
twenty 1801 1810.
twenty 1815 1817.
twenty 1823 1824.
twenty-one 1830 1842.
twenty-two 1853 1860.
twenty-five 1875 1889.
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes, 1902 1903.
published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 1911.
COPYRIGHT
in all countries subscribing to the
Bern Convention
by
THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
of the
UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
All rights reserved
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL
INFORMATION
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME
AUSTRIA LOWER to BISECTRIX
Cambridge, England:
at the University Press
New York, 35 West 32nd Street
1910
Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
by
The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company
INITIALS USED IN VOLUME III. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL
CONTRIBUTORS, 1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE
ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
4
A. C. P. ANNA C. PAUES, PH.D. [
Lecturer in Germanic Philology at Newnham College, Cambridge. Formerly H Bible, English.
Fellow of Newnham College. Author of A Fourteenth Century Biblical Version ; &c. I
A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. / Beaumont and Fletcher
See biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON C.
A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.Soc. f
Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls' J Balnaves;
College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- "\ Barnes, Robert;
1901. Lothian prizeman (Oxford), 1892; Arnold prizeman, 1898. Author of Bilney.
England under the Protector Somerset; Henry VIII.; Life of Thomas Cranmer; &c.
A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. J" g eza>
Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. L
A. G. G. SIR ALFRED GEORGE GREENHILL, M.A., F.R.S. f
Formerly Professor of Mathematics in the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author J Ballistics
of Differential and Integral Calculus with Applications; Hydrostatics; Notes on\
Dynamics; &c.
A. HL ARTHUR HASSALL, M. A. f Austria-Hunirarv rr;<iarv (i
Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Author of A Handbook of European J Ausina-nungary. tlislory \
History; The Balance of Power; &c. Editor of the 3rd edition of T. H. Dyer's | part).
History of Modern Europe.
A. H. N. ALBERT HENRY NEWMAN, LL.D., D.D. f
Professor of Church History, Baylor University, Texas. Professor at McMaster J T>__ij_i c . t
University, Toronto, 1881-1901. Author of The Baptist Churches in the United] Ba P ll ' >ls - American.
States; Manual of Church History; A Century of Baptist Achievement. I
A. H.-S. SIR A. HouruM-ScHiNDLER, C.I.E. f Azerbaijan; Bakhtiari;
General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. \ Bander Abbasi; Barf urush.
A. H. S. REV. ARCHIBALD HENRY SAYCE, D.LITT., LL.D. f Bab y lon 5 Babylonia and
See the biographical article: SAYCE, A. H. Assyria; Belshazzar;
Berossus.
A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. r
Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News J Bahia: Slate;
(Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. [ Bahia: City.
A. L. ANDREW LANG.
See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.
A. N. ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. f :_,. nf
See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. \ B s OI
A. P. H. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. [
President, South African Medical Congress, 1893. Author of South African Studies ; Rautnlnnri> fTitinrv (i*
&c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in medical J ,
practice in South Africa till 1 896. Member of Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and Becnuanaiand (in part).
Political Prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for Hitchin division of Herts, 1910.
A. Sp. ARCHIBALD SHARP.
Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent.
f
\
A. St H. G. ALFRED ST HILL GIBBONS. f
Major, East Yorkshire Regiment. Explorer in South Central Africa. Author of \ Barotse, Barotseland.
Africa from South to North through Marotseland. \_
A.W.* AwHURWiLLEYF.RSD.se. JBalanoglossus.
Director of Colombo Museum, Ceylon. L
(Austria-Hungary: History (in
A. W. H.* ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. part) ;
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. L Bavaria: History (in part).
'A complete list, showing all individual contributors, with the articles so signed, appears in the final volume.
v
1972
vi INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. W. Po. ALFRED WILLIAM POLLARD, M.A. f
Assistant Keeper of Printed Books, British Museum. Fellow of King s College,
London. Hon. Secretary Bibliographical Society. Editor of Books about Books; H Bibliography and Bibliology.
and Bibliographica. Joint-editor of the Library. Chief Editor of the " Globe "
Chaucer.
B. K. PRINCE BOJIDAR KARAGEORGEVITCH (d. 1908). C
Artist, art critic, designer and goldsmith. Contributor to the Paris Figaro, the I Bas i,kirtseff
Magazine of Art, &c. Author of Enchanted India. Translator of the works of Tolstoi |
and Jokai, &c.
C. THE EARL OF CREWE, K.G., F.S.A. -fnanville
See the biographical article: CREWE, IST EARL OF. \ **
C. A. C. CHARLES ARTHUR CONANT. (~
Member of Commission on International Exchange of U.S., 19x13. Treasurer, I Banks ana Banking :
Morton Trust Co., New York, 1902-1906. Author of History of Modern Banks | American.
of Issue; The Principles of Money and Banking; &c. I
C. B.* CHARLES BEMONT, D. is L., Lrrr.D. (Oxon.). -f Baluze Beam
See the biographical article: BEMONT, C. I.
f
l -\
I
See the biographical article: BEMONT, C.
C. F. A. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. f Austrian Succession War :
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal -
Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.
C. F. B. CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D. f
Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of I Bimetallism
Dublin. Author of Public Finance; Commerce of Nations; Theory of International j
Trade; &c.
C. H. T. CUTHBERT HAMILTON TURNER, M.A. ,
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford ; Fellow of the British Academy. Speaker's nivi. . \r T i i
Lecturer in Biblical Studies in the University of Oxford, 1906-1909. First Editor I al
of the Journal of Theological Studies, 1899-1902. Author of " Chronology of the 1 Chronology.
New Testament," and " Greek Patristic Commentaries on the Pauline Epistles "
in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, &c.
C. H. W. J. REV. CLAUDE HERMANN WALTER JOHNS, M.A., LITT.D. r
Master of St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Assyriology, Queens'
College, Cambridge, and King's College, London. Author of Assyrian Deeds and\ Babylonian Law.
Documents of the 7th Century B.C.; The Oldest Code of Laws; Babylonian and Assyrian
Laws; Contracts and Letters; &c. I
C. J. L. SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.).
Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office. Fellow of King's I
College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, 1889-^ Bihar! Lai.
1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of
Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c,
C. Mi. CHEDOMILLE MIJATOVICH. r
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Pleni-J
potentiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900, and 1902-]
I93- I
C. PL REV. CHARLES PLUMMER, M.A. r
Fellow and Chaplain of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1901. \ Bede.
Author of Life and Times of Alfred the Great; &c.
C. R. B. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.LITT., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. r
Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Beatus*
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. \ f,
Lothian prizeman (Oxford), 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of Benaim.
Henry the Navigator ; The Dawn of Modern Geography ; &c. L
C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). r
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com- n.i,,,* ( A w \
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General 1 Belrul W f art >-
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; Life of
Lord Clive; &c. I
D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, D.D. r
Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, U.S.A. \ Bairam -
D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. fn>ii,^. r J.L j
Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon ; J < *. l * eo & ra P lt y and
India in the iQlh Century ; History of Belgium ; Belgian Life in Town and Country ; &c. [ Statistics.
D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. r
Balliol College, Oxford. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis comprising The J Bach, J. S.;
Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical ] Beethoven.
works.
D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M:A. , Baalbek'
Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Barca- '
Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naukratis, 1899 and J r / /. ,N
1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Athens, ] Belrut W* P art )',
1897-1900; Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. [ Bengazi.
D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Austrian Succession War:
Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, J Naval;
1217-1688; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. 1 Avil6s; Bainbridge, William;
I Barbary Pirates.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
Vll
D. Mn.
D. S. M.*
D. S.-S.
E. B.
E. Br.
E. CI.
E. C. B.
E.F.S.
E. G.
E. G. B.
E. H. H.
Ed. M.
E. Ma.
E. M. T.
E. N. S.
E. Pr.
E. Tn.
E.V.
F. C. B.
F. C. C.
REV. PUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A. f
Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London { Berry, Charles Albert.
Missionary Society. I
DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT. r
Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford; Fellow of New College. Author of Arabic J A TII _
Papyri of the Bodleian Library ; Mohammed and the Rise of Islam ; Cairo, Jerusalem ] A * um -
and Damascus.
DAVID SETH-SMITH, F.Z.S.
Curator of Birds to the Zoological^ Society of London.
Avicultural Society.
kept in Captivity.
EDWARD BRECK, PH.D.
Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times.
Author of Wilderness Pets.
Formerly President of the J
Author of Parrakeets, a Practical Handbook to those Species ] AVlar y-
I
ERNEST BARKER, M.A.
Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Oxford,
of Merton College. Craven Scholar (Oxford), 1895.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor
EDWARD CLODD.
Vice- President of the Folk-Lore Society. Author of Story of Primitive Man;
Primer of Evolution; Tom Tit Tot; Animism; Pioneers of Evolution
Base-Ball.
Baldwin I. to IV. of
Jerusalem.
Baer.
RIGHT REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Lnr. (Dubl.).
Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath.
f Basilian Monks;
I Benedict of Nursia;
I Benedictines;
[St Bernardin of Siena.
EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. /-
Assistant-Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of D
Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects: Joint-editor { Bearusley, Aubrey Vincent.
of Bell's " Cathedral "Series.
Baggesen; Ballade;
Barnfleld;
Beaumont, Sir John;
Belgium: Literature;
I Biography.
EDWARD GRANVILLE BROWNE, M.A., M.R.C.S., M.R.A.S. r
Sir Thomas Adams's Professor of Arabic and Fellow of Pembroke College, Cam-
bridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Author of A Traveller's Narrative, J Babiism.
written to Illustrate the Episode of the Bab; The New History of Mirzd AH Muhammed \
the Bab; Literary History of Persia; &c. |_
ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. r
Lecturer and Assistant Librarian, and formerly Fellow of Pembroke College, < Bastarnae.
Cambridge. University Lecturer in Palaeography.
EDUARD MEYER, D.LITT. (Oxon.), LL.D., PH.D. f Bactria; Bagoas;
Professor of Ancient History in..the University of Berlin. Author of Geschichte des -I Bahrain; Balash;
Alterthums ; Geschichte des alien Agyptens ; Die Israeliten und ihre Nachbarstamme ; &c. I Behistun
EDWARD MANSON.
f C mparative Lesislation ' Author of Bankruptcy:
Autographs.
SIR EDWARD MAUNDE THOMPSON, G.C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., Lirr.D.
Director and Principal Librarian, British Museum, 1888-1909. Fellow of the British
Academy. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France and of the Royal
Prussian Academy of Sciences. Author of Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeo-
graphy. Editor of the Chronicon Angliae, &c. Joint-editor of Publications of the
Palaeographical Society.
E. N. STOCKLEY. (
Captain, Royal Engineers. Instructor in Construction at the School of Military J
Engineering, Chatham. For some time in charge of the Barracks Design Branch of 1
the War Office. I
EDGAR PRESTAGE. f
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. Com- J Azurara;
mendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal | Barros.
Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society. I
REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON, S.J. (d. 1907).
Author of The English Black Monks of St Benedict ; History of the Jesuits in England. \
REV. EDMUND VENABLES, M.A., D.D. (1819-1895).
Canon and Precentor of Lincoln. Author of Episcopal Palaces of England.
FRANCIS CRAWFORD BURKITT, M.A., D.D.
Norrisian Professor of Divinity, Cambridge.
(* part)-
Fellow of the British Academy.
y.
Part-editor L of The Four Gospels in Syriac transcribed from the SinaiticJ. BiWe: <* Testament, Higher
Criticism.
.
Palimpsest. Author of The Gospel History and its Transmission; Early Eastern }
Christianity; &c.
FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen).
Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. - Baptism.
Author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Morals; &c.
viii INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
F. G. FREDERICK GREENWOOD. -iBeaconsfleld, Earl of.
See the biographical article: GREENWOOD, FREDERICK.
F. G. M. B. FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. -fBernicia.
Fellow and Lecturer of Clare College, Cambridge. \.
F. LI. G. FRANCIS LLEWELYN GRIFFITH, M.A., PH.D., F.S.A.
Reader in Egyptology, Oxford. Editor of the Archaeological Survey and Archaeo- I g eg
logical Reports of the Egypt Exploration Fund. Fellow of the Imperial German |
Archaeological Institute.
F. L. L. LADY LUGARD. 4 Bauchi.
See the biographical article : LUGARD, SIR F. J. D.
F. P. FRANK PODMORE, M.A. (d. 1910). J . , ,. . .
Pembroke College, Oxford. Author of Studies in Psychical Research; Modern 1 Automatic Writing.
Spiritualism; &c.
rBasutoland (in part) ;
F. R. C. FRANK R. CANA. J Bahr-el-Ghazal (in part) ;
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. iBechuanaland (in part).
F. R. M. FRANCIS RICHARD MAUNSELL, C.M.G.
Lieut.-Col., Royal Artillery. Military Vice-Consul, Sivas, Trebizond, Van (Kurd- J BaiDurt;
istan), 1897-1898. Military Attache, British Embassy, Constantinople, 1901-1905. | Bashkala.
Author of Central Kurdistan; &c.
F. W. R.* FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S. fAventurine;
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879-1902. -
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889.
G. A. B. GEORGE A. BOULENGER, F.R.S., D.Sc., Pn.D. f Axolotl;
In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British "i R a t rac hj a
Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.
G. A. Gr. GEORGE ABRAHAM GRIERSON, C.I.E., PH.D. D.Lrrr. (Dublin). r
Member of the Indian Civil Service, 18731903. In charge of Linguistic Survey of Bengali*
India, 1898-1902. Gold Medallist, Asiatic Society, 1909. Vice-President of the 4 - '
Royal Asiatic Society. Formerly Fellow of Calcutta University. Author of The
Languages of India ; &c.
G. B. B. GERARD BALDWIN BROWN, M.A. J
Professor of Fine Arts, University of Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Brasenose ] Basilica (in part).
College, Oxford. Author of From Schola to Cathedral; The Fine Arts; &c. l
G. B. G.* GEORGE BUCHANAN GRAY, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.). [Bible: Old Testament,
Professor of Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, Mansfield College, Oxford. J Textual Criticism, and
Examiner in Hebrew, University of Wales. Author of The Divine Discipline of 1 Hieher Criticism
Israel ; &c.
G. E. REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HisT.S.
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. J Belgium: History.
Hon. Member Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Associa-
tion of Literature.
G. F. Z. G. F. ZIMMER, A.M.Inst.C.E.
Author of Mechanical Handling of Material.
G. G. S. GEORGE GREGORY SMITH, M.A. f
Professor of English Literature, Queen's University, Belfast. Author of The Days \ BarbOUT, John.
of James IV.; The Transition Period; Specimens of Middle Scots; &c.
G. H. C. GEORGE HERBERT CARPENTER, B.Sc. [
Professor of Zoology in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. President of the J Bee.
Association of Economic Biologists. Member of the Royal Irish Academy. Author 1
of Insects: their Structure and Life ; &c. I
G. Sa. GEORGE EDWARD BATEMAN SAINTSBURY, LL.D., D.Litt. J_
See the biographical article: SAINTSBURY, G. E. B. Balzac, H. fle.
| Avempaee; Averroes;
G. W. T. REV. GRIFFITHES WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Avicenna; BaidawT;
Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old \ Baladhurl; BehS ud-Din;
Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford. Beha ud-DIn Zuhair
[BTrunl.
H. Br. HENRY BRADLEY, M.A., PH.D. r
Joint-editor of the New English Dictionary (Oxford). Fellow of the British Academy. \ Beowulf
Author of The Story of the Goths; The Making of English; &c. [
H. Ch. HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Editor of the nth edition of ] Balfour, A. J.
the Encyclopaedia Britannica. Co-editor of the loth edition.
H. C. R. SIR HENRY CRESWICKE RAWLINSON, BART., K.C.B. f D .
See the biographical article: RAWLINSON, SIR H. C. ^Bagdad: City.
H. Fr. HENRI FRANTZ.
[RI rRANTZ. Barve* Bastion-Lepage*
Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux Arts (Paris). \Baudry, P. J. A.
H. F. G. HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D. c
Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge \ Bird.
Author of Amphibia and Reptiles " in the Cambridge Natural History.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
IX
H. H. H.*
H. H. J.
H. H. R.
H. M. W.
H. N. D.
H. W. C. D.
H. W. S.
LA.
J. An.
J. A. H.
J. B. B.
J. D. B.
J. F.-K.
J. F. St.
J. H. R.
J. HI. R.
J. M. M.
J. P.-B.
J. G. Sc.
J. P. E.
HERBERT HENSLEY HENSON. M.A., D.D.
Canon of Westminster Abbey and Rector of St Margaret's, Westminster. Proctor
in Convocation since 1902. Formerly Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Select J Bible English Revised Ver-
Preacher (Oxford), 1895-1896; (Cambridge), 1901. Author of Apostolic Christianity; ]
Moral Discipline in the Christian Church ; The National Church ; Christ and the Nation ;
&c.
SIR HARRY HAMILTON JOHNSTON, D.Sc., G.C.M.G., K.C.B.
See the biographical article: JOHNSTON, SIR H. H.
Bantu Languages.
HDGH MDNRO Ross.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Lincoln College, Oxford.
Supplement. Author of British Railways.
Editor of The Times Engineering 1 Bell: House Bell.
H. MARSHALL WARD, M.A., F.R.S., D.Sc. (d. 1905).
Formerly Professor of Botany, Cambridge. President of the British Mycological
Society. Author of Timber and some of its Diseases; The Oak; Sack's Lectures on
the Physiology of Plants; Grasses; Disease in Plants; &c.
HENRY NEWTON DICKSON, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.G.S. [
Professor of Geography, University College, Reading. Author of Elementary i Baltic Sea.
Meteorology; Papers on Oceanography; &c.
Bacteriology (in part);
Berkeley, Miles Joseph.
HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls', Oxford, 1895- 'i
1902. Author of Charlemagne; England under the Normans and Angevins, 1066-1272. L ADuas.
I Becket;
H. WICKHAM STEED.
Correspondent of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna.
ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
Reader in . Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President,
Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short History of Jewish Litera-
ture; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; &c. L
JOSEPH ANDERSON, LL.D. r
Keeper of the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, and Assistant Secretary
of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Honorary Professor of Antiquities to < Barrow.
the Royal Scottish Academy. Author of Scotland in Early Christian and Pagan
Times.
Austria-Hungary: History (in
part);
Bertani.
Bahya Ibn Paquda.
JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.Sc.
Curator and Librarian at the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
JOHN BAGNELL BURY, LL.D., LITT.D.
See the biographical article: BURY, J. B.
( Avonian; Bajocian;
J Barton Beds;
| Bathonian Series;
I Bed: Geology.
f Baldwin I. and II.:
I of Romania;
I Basil I. and II.: Emperors;
I Belisarius.
JAMES DAVID BOURCHIER, M.A., F.R.G.S. [
King's College, Cambridge. Correspondent of The Times in South-Eastern Europe. J Balkan Peninsula
Commander of the Orders of Prince Danilo of Montenegro and of the Saviour of 1
Greece, and Officer of the Order of St Alexander of Bulgaria.
JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLY, LITT.D., F.R.HiST.S. f
Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, Liverpool University. Auala Horrors-
Norman McColl Lecturer, Cambridge University. Fellow of the British Academy. \
Member of the Council of the Hispanic Society of America. Knight Commander of BeU -
the Order of Alphonso XII. Author of A History of Spanish Literature.
JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A.
Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic.
Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.
JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and
Pedigree; &c.
Bible: Old Testament:
and Versions.
Baron; Baronet;
Battle Abbey Roll;
Bayeux Tapestry;
Beauchamp.
Texts
JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D. r
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge J Barras;
University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon I. ; Napoleonic ] Beauharnais Eugene de
Studies; The Development of the European Nations; The Life of Pitt; &c.
JOHN MALCOLM MITCHELL. ( . _. _ . /. .,.
Sometime Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Lecturer in Classics, East London-^ f aC , ,' "* ncis V". P art >'>
College (University of London). Joint editor of Grote's History of Greece. { Berkeley, George (in part).
JAMES GEORGE JOSEPH PENDEREL-BRODHURST.
Editor of the Guardian (London).
/Bed: Furniture;
\ Berain.
SIR JAMES GEORGE SCOTT, K.C.I.E. r
Superintendent and Political Officer, Southern Shan States. Author of Burma, a \ Bhamo.
Handbook; The Upper Burma Gazetteer, &c.
JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN. c
Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. I Bailiff: Bailli;
Member of the Institute of France. Author of Cours elementaire d'histoire du droit 1 Basoche.
fran^ais; &c.
x INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J. P. Pe. REV. JOHN PUNNETT PETERS, PH.D., D.D.
Canon Residentiary, Cathedral of New York. Formerly Professor of Hebrew, Bagdad: Vilayet;
University of Pennsylvania. In charge of Expedition of University of Pennsylvania J Bagdad: City '
conducting excavations at Nippur, 1888-1895. Author of Scriptures, Hebrew and Basra
Christian; Nippur, or Explorations and Adventures on the Euphrates; &c. I
J. R. P. SIR JOHN RAHERE PAGET, BART., K.C. f Bank , , nd Rani,!,,.,.
Bencher of the Inner Temple. Formerly Gilbart Lecturer on Banking. Author of 4 Ba " KS ana canning.
The Law of Banking; &c. [ English Law.
J. Sm.* JOHN SMITH, C.B. f
Formerly Inspector-General in Companies' Liquidation, 1890-1904, and Inspector- H Bankruptcy.
General in Bankruptcy. L
J. S. P. JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.Sc., F.G.S. f
Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Basalt;
burgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby 1 Batholite.
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I
J. T. Be. JOHN T. BEALBY. J Baikal;
Joint author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical "j Bessarabia (in part)
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet, &c. I
J. YD. JULIEN VlNSON. [
Formerly Professor of Hindustani and Tamil at the Ecole des Langues Orientales, I Basques (in part).
Paris. Author of Le Basque et les langues mexicaines ; &c. L
J. V. B. JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D. (St Andrews).
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apostolic 1 Barnabas.
Age;&c.
3. W. He. JAMES WYCLIFFE HEADLAM, M.A. f Au , tria ,. rj^ tnr .
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly * US "a-ungary. History ,
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at 1 Bamberger; Bebel;
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German Benedetti; Beust.
Empire; &c.
K. L. REV. KIRSOPP LAKE, M.A. [ Bible: New Testament: Texts
Lincoln College, Oxford. Professor of Early Christian Literature and New Testa- J an d Versions and Textual
ment Exegesis in the University of Leiden. Author of The Text of the New Testament ; \ r 't' '
The Historical Evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus Christ; &c.
f Bagpipe; Banjo;
K. S. KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER. J Barbiton; Barrel-organ;
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra. | Bass Clarinet; Basset Horn;
I Bassoon; Batyphone.
L. A. LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D. / Beecher, Henry Ward.
See the biographical article: ABBOTT, L. L
L. D.* Louis MARIE OLIVIER DUCHESNE. I" Benedict (I.-X.)
See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O. L
L. J. S. LEONARD JAMES SPENCER, M.A., F.G.S. C Autunite; Axinite;
Assistant, Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. Azurite; BaryteS'
Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. H p a rtni>alpito- Pinvito-
Editor of the Mineralogical Magazine. BarytocalClte, Bauxite,
L. V.* LUIGI VILLARI. r Azeglio; Bandiera, A. and E.;
Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent I Bassi Ueo-
in East of Europe. Author of Italian Life in Town and Country; &c. "!' , . ' _.
I Bentivoglio, Giovanni.
L. W. K. LEONARD WILLIAM KING, M.A., F.S.A.
Assistant to the Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Antiquities, British Museum.
Lecturer in Assyrian at King's College, London. Conducted Excavations at
Kuyunjik (Nineveh) for British Museum. Author of Assyrian Chrestomathy;
Annals of the Kings of Assyria; Studies in Eastern History; Babylonian Magic and
Sorcery ; &c.
Babylonia and Assyria:
Chronology.
M. A. C. MAURICE A. CANNEY, M.A. r
Assistant Lecturer in Semitic Languages in the University of Manchester. Formerly J
Exhibitioner of St John's College, Oxford. Pusey and Ellerton Hebrew Scholar | Baur.
(Oxford), 1892; Kennicott Hebrew Scholar, 1895; Houghton Syriac Prize, 1896. (_
M. Br. MARGARET BRYANT. f Beaumont and Fletcher:
M. D. Ch. SIR MACKENZIE DALZELL CHALMERS, K.C.B., C.S.I., M.A.
Trinity College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Permanent Under- Secretary J Bill of Exchange
of State for Home Department. Author of Digest of the Law of Bills of Exchange ; &c. \
M. G. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. (Leipzig). r
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice-President, Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic." and By- { Bassarab.
zantine Literature, 1886 and 1891. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira;
The Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle. I
M. H. C. MONTAGUE HUGHES CRACKANTHORPE, K.C., D.C.L. f
Honorary Fellow, St John's College, Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's Inn. President J ,; _
of the Eugenics Education Society. Formerly Member of the General Council 1 Berm 8 Sea
of the Bar and of the Council of Legal Education, and Standing Counsel to the
University of Oxford.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES xi
***** "
M. Ja. MORRIS JASTROW, PH.D.
Professor of Semitic Languages, University of Pennsylvania. Author of Religion <
of the Babylonians and Assyrians; &c. Babylonian and Assyrian
Religion; Bel; Belit.
f Avaray; Bar-le-Duc;
M. P.* LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. Batarnay; Bauftremont;
Auxiliary of the Institute of France (Academy of Moral and Political Sciences), -s Beauharnais- Beauieu-
Author of L' Industrie du sel en Franche-Comte. Beauvillier '
Bellegarde: Family.
N. B. W. N. B. WAGLE. f
Formerly Lecturer on Sanskrit at the Robert Money Institution, Bombay. Vice- I
President of the London Indian Society. Author of Industrial Development of] Bhau Daji.
India; &c.
N. H. M. REV. NEWTON HERBERT MARSHALL., M.A., PH.D. (Halle). f
Minister of Heath Street Baptist Church, Hampstead, London. Author of Gegen- "j Baptists.
wartige Richtungen der Religionsphilosophie in England ; Theology and Truth.
N. M. NORMAN MCLEAN, M.A. f Bardaisan;
Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of Christ's College, Cambridge. University Lecturer J Bar-Hebraeus;
in Aramaic. Examiner for the Oriental Languages Tripos and the Theological 1 Bar-SallbT.
Tripos at Cambridge.
N. V. JOSEPH MARIE NOEL VALOIS.
Member of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres. Honorary Archivist at J Basel, Council Of;
the Archives Nationales. Formerly President of the Societe de 1'Histoire de France ] Benedict XIII. (anti-pope).
and of the Societe de 1'Ecole de Chartes.
N. W. T. NORTHCOTE WraTBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the -< Automatism.
Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of Thought Transference; Kinship and
Marriage in Australia; &c.
0. Ba. OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Beard; Berkeley (Family);
Editor of The Ancestor, 1902-1905. 1 Bill (Weapon).
0. Br. OSCAR BRIUANT. -| Austria-Hungary: Statistics.
0. He. OTTO HENKER, PH.D. f
On the Staff of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany. { Binocular Instrument
P. A. PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY. f
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. -\ AutO-da-F6.
Author of Les Idees morales chez les heterodoxes latines an debut du XIII' siecle.
P. A. A. PHILIP A. ASHWORTH, M.A., Doc. JURIS. f j} avar j a: Statistics-
New College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History] TI.,I-_
of the English Constitution. I Berlm -
P. A. K. PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. f Baikal; Baku;
See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A. \ Bessarabia (in part).
P. C. M. PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D.
Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- Biogenesis*
parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891.
Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of Outlines of
Biology; &c.
P. C. Y. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE. M.A. f _
Magdalen College, Oxford. \ Balfour, Sir James.
P. GI. PETER GILES, M.A., LITT.D., LL.D. C
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. University J T
Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philological 1
Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology; &c. I
P. S. PHILIP SCHIDROWITZ, PH.D., F.C.S. f
Member of Council, Institute of Brewing; Member of Committee of Society of J Beer.
Chemical Industry. Author of numerous articles on the Chemistry and Technology 1
of Brewing, Distilling, &c. L
R.A.* ROBERT ANCHEL j Billaud-Varenne.
Archivist of the Departement de 1 Eure. L
R. Ad. ROBERT ADAMSON, M.A., LL.D. [ Bacon, Francis;
See the biographical article: ADAMSON, ROBERT. Bacon, Roger; Beneke;
L Berkeley, Bishop.
R. A. S. M. ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A. fBashan-
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explora- { 5
tion Fund. Joint author of Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900. [ Betnlenem.
R. C. J. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L., LITT.D. f D fc ,.,
See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. \ uaccnyiicies.
R. Gn. SIR ROBERT GIFFEN, F.R.S. j Bagehot;
See the biographical article: GIFFEN, SIR R. "i Balance of Trade.
R. H. C. REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., LITT.D. (Oxon.).
Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British
Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. Author and \ Baruch.
Editor of Book of Enoch; Book of Jubilees; Apocalypse of Baruch; Assumption of
Moses ; A scension of Isaiah ; Testaments of XII. Patriarchs ; &c.
Xll
B. H. I. P.
R. J. H.
R. L.*
R. L. S.
R. M.*
R. N. B.
S. A. C.
S. C.
S. R. D.
T. A. J.
T. As.
T. A. I.
T. Ba.
T. E. H.
T. G. C.
T. H. D.
T. H. H.
T. H. H.*
T. L. P.
T. 0.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
SIR ROBERT HARRY INGLIS PALGRAVE, F.R.S. f Ban . , B ,_ v ,__
Director of Barclay & Co., Ltd., Bankers. Editor of the Economist, 1871-1883. J B nKs and BanKing:
Author of Notes on Banking in Great Britain and Ireland, Sweden, Denmark and I General.
Hamburg ; &c. Editor of Dictionary of Political Economy.
Formerly Editor of the St James's] Beresford, John.
RONALD JOHN McNEiLL, M.A.
Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Gazette (London).
RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. f Avahi; Aye-Aye;
Trinity College, Cambridge. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, J Babirusa;
1874-1882. Author of Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British } D.J,,....,.
Museum; The Deer of all Lands; &c.
ROBERT Louis STEVENSON.
See the biographical article:
STEVENSON, R. L. B.
J;
li
| Beranger.
ROBERT MUIR, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).
Professor of Pathology, University of Glasgow. Professor of Pathology at St
Andrews, 1898-1899. Author of Manual of Bacteriology; &c.
ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the
Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, .
1613-1723 ; Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1460
to 1796; Charles XII. and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire; Gustavus III. and
his Contemporaries; The Pupils of Peter the Great; &c.
STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A. r
Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer and formerly Fellow, Gonville]
and Caius College. Author of Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses ~)
and Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on Old Testament History; &c.
SIDNEY COLVIN, M.A., Lrrr.D. J
See the biographical article : COLVIN, SIDNEY. 1
SAMUEL ROLLES DRIVER, D.D., LITT.D.
See the biographical article: DRIVER, S. R.
THOMAS ATHOL JOYCE, M.A.
Assistant in Department of Ethnography, British Museum.
Anthropological Institute.
Bacteriology: Pathological
Aspects.
Bakocz; Balassa; Banff y;
Bar, Confederation of;
Baross; Basil;
Bathory; Batthyany;
Bela HI. and IV.; Bern;
Beothy; Bernstorff;
Bestuzhe v-Ry umin ;
Bethlen; Bezborodko; Biren.
Baal;
Benjamin.
Baldovinetti;
Bellini.
Bible: Old Testament: Canon
and Chronology.
Hon. Sec., Royal 1 Bechuana.
THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A.
Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow (Oxford). Corresponding Member of the Imperial
German Archaeological Institute. Author of the Classical Topography of the Roman
Campagna; &c.
THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
Trinity College, Dublin.
SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
Auximum; Avella;
Avellino; Avernus; Baiae;
Bari; Barletta; Bassano;
Belluno; Benevento;
Bergamo; Bertinoro.
/Bailiff; Bill
I Bill of Sale.
Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of J
the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of Problems of]
International Practice and Diplomacy; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, K.C., D.C.L., LL.D. r
Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls' College, Oxford. Formerly
Professor of International Law in the University of Oxford. Bencher of Lincoln's J Bentham Jeremy.
Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Jurisprudence; \
Alberici Gentilis de jure belli; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties in a Mari-
time War; &c.
THOMAS G. CARVER, M.A., K.C. (d. 1906). r
Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Cambridge. 8th Wrangler, 1871. Author of J Avrair
On the Law Relating to the Carriage of Goods by Sea. [ A
REV. THOMAS HERBERT DARLOW, M.A. f
Literary Superintendent of the British and Foreign Bible Society. Sometime
Scholar of Clare College, Cambridge. Author of Historical Catalogue of Printed '
Editions of Holy Scriptures (vol. i. with H. G. Moule) ; &c.
Bible Societies.
THOMAS HENRY HUXLEY, F.R.S.
See the biographical article: HUXLEY, THOMAS H.
SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.
Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-
1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S. (London), 1887. H. M. Commissioner for the Persa-
Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of The Indian Borderland; The Gates of India; &c.
REV. THOMAS LESLIE PAPILLON, M.A.
Hon. Canon of St Albans. Formerly Fellow, Dean and Tutor of New College,
Oxford. Fellow of Merton College. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology; &c.
THOMAS OKEY.
Examiner in Basket Work for the City of London Guilds and Institute.
-{ Biology (in part).
Badakshan;
Bahrein Islands;
Bajour; Balkh;
Baluchistan; Barman;
Bela; Bhutan.
Bell.
Basket.
INITIALS AND HEADINGS TO ARTICLES
xiu
T. W. R. D.
V. H. B.
W. A. B. C.
W. A. G.
W. A. P.
W. Bo.
W. B. Ca.
W. C. P.
W. E. D.
W. E. G.
W. H. Be.
W. H. Ha.
W. J. H.*
W. L. D.
W. M. S.
W. P. C.
W. P. J.
W. P. R.
W. R. L.
W. Sa.
T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, M.A., LL.D., PH.D.
Professor of Comparative Religion in the University of Manchester. Formerly
Professor of Pali and Buddhist Literature, University College, London. Fellow of-
the British Academy. Secretary and Librarian of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1885-
1902. Author of Early Buddhism; Buddhist India; &c.
Bharahat.
VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, M.A., D.Sc.
Professor of Botany in the University of Leeds.
College, Cambridge.
Formerly Fellow of St John's \ Bacteriology: Botany.
REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., PH.D.
Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's
College, Lampeter, 1880^-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature
and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889.
Baden: Switzerland;
Barcelonnette; Basel;
Basses-Alpes; Beaulie'j;
Bellinzona; Bern; Bienne.
WALTER ARMSTRONG GRAHAM. r
His Siamese Majesty's Resident Commissioner for the Siamese Malay State of
Kelantan. Commander, Order of the White Elephant. Member of the Burma i Bangkok.
Civil Service, 1889-1903. Author of The French Roman Catholic Mission in Siam;
Kelantan, a Handbook ; &c. L
WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College,
Oxford. Author of Modern Europe; The War of Creek Independence; &c.
Austria-Hungary: History
(in part) ;
Babeuf; Balance of Power;
Baron; Bates;
Bavaria: History; Beguines;
Berlin: Congress and Treaty of;
Bernard, St; Biretta.
WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.TH. f
Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of -{ Basilides.
Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c.
W. BROUGHTON CARR.
Formerly Editor of the British Bee Journal and the Bee-Keepers' Record.
Bee: Bee-keeping.
WILLIAM CHARLES POPPLEWELL, M.Sc., A.M.I.C.E.
Lecturer in Engineering in Manchester School of Technology (University of Man- -\ Bellows and Blowing Machines.
Chester). Author of Compressed Air; Heat Engines; &c.
WILLIAM ERNEST DALBY, M.A., M.lNST.C.E., M.I.M.E. r
Professor of Civil and Mechanical Engineering at the City and Guilds of London
Institute Central Technical College, South Kensington. Associate Member of the 1 Bearings.
Institute of Naval Architects. Author of The Balancing of Engines; Valves and
Valve Gear Mechanisms ; &c. L
SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. ("
Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, \ Bahr-el-Ghazal (in part).
Egypt. Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt, 1904-1908.
WILLIAM HENRY BENNETT, M.A., D.D., D.Lrrr. (Cantab.). (
Professor of Old Testament Exegesis in New and Hackney Colleges, London. I Balaam;
Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. Lecturer in Hebrew at Firth 1 R n i T phiih
College, Sheffield. Author of Religion of the Post-Exilic Prophets; &C|
WILLIAM HENRY HADOW, M.A., Mus.Doc. ("
Principal, Armstrong College, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of J - .
Worcester College, Oxford. Member of Council, Royal College of Music. Editor 1 D a '
Oxford History of Music. Author of Studies in Modern Music ; &c.
WILLIAM JAMES HUGHAN.
Past Senior Grand Deacon of Freemasons of England, 1874.
of Grand Lodges of Egypt, Quebec and lona, &c.
WILLIAM LESLIE DAVIDSON, LL.D.
T
Hon. Senior Warden \ Banker-Marks.
L
LIAM LESLIE DAVIDSON, LL.D. r
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, Aberdeen University. Author of The Loeic of\ Rain Alnxanifar
Definition; Christian Ethics; &c. Editor of Alexander Bain's Autobiography. \
to George
of Life of
Bancroft, George.
/Bath, William Pulteney,
\ Marquess of.
High Bailiff of County Courts, -| Barrie, J. M.
WILLIAM MILLIGAN SLOANE, PH.D., LL.D.
Professor of History, Columbia University, New York. Secretary
Bancroft while American Ambassador in Berlin, 1872-1875. Author
Napoleon Bonaparte.
WILLIAM PRIDEAUX COURTNEY.
See the article: COURTNEY, L. H., BARON.
WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.
University College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
Cardiff. Author of Romantic Professions ; &c.
HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES. r
Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner J D
for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice New 1 Bauance
Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of The Long White Cloud, a History of New Zealand ; &c. L
W. R. LETHABY, F.S.A.
Principal of the Central School of Arts and Crafts under the London County Council. \ Baotisterv
Author of Architecture, Mysticism and Myth; &c.
WILLIAM SANDAY, D.D., LL.D., LITT.D.
Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, and Canon of Christ Church, Oxford. Chap-
^w^^t^is^ afrf?s<^eawsa i Biwe: - T " tament: ca >
Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans ; &c.
XIV
W. T. Ca.
W. T. T. D.
W. W.
w.We.
w. Wr.
W.R.S.
W. W. E.*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS TO ARTICLES
WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.Z.S. f
Assistant in charge of Crustacea, Natural History Museum, South Kensington, -s Barnacle.
Author of " Crustacea " in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology.
SIR WILLIAM TURNER THISELTON-DYER, F.R.S., K.C.M.G., C.I.E., D.Sc. LL.D., r
PH.D., F.L.S.
Hon. Student of Christ Church, Oxford. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, J Rentham Georee
1885-1905. Botanical Adviser to Secretary of State for Colonies, 1902-1906.
Joint-author of Flora of Middlesex. Editor of Flora Capenses and Flora of Tropical
Africa.
f Averroes;
I Avicenna.
WILLIAM WALLACE, M.A.
See the biographical article: WALLACE, WILLIAM (1844-1897).
REV. WENTWORTH WEBSTER (d. 1906).
Author of Basque Legends; &c.
/Basque Provinces;
I Basques.
WILLISTON WALKER, PH.D., D.D.
Professor of Church History, Yale University. Author of History of the Congre- -\ Bacon, Leonard.
gational Churches in the United States ; The Reformation ; John Calvin ; Sac.
W. ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM ROBERTSON.
Baal.
WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, PH.D. ("
Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York. -^ Benedict XI., XII., XIII., XIV.
Author of Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen. I
PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES
Azo Compounds.
Azoimide.
Azores.
Baader, F. X.
Baber.
Baby-Farming.
Bachelor.
Backgammon.
Baden: Grand Duchy.
Badger.
Badminton.
Bagatelle.
Bahamas.
Balaklava.
Bale, John.
Baliol.
Ballet.
Ballot
Balneotherapeutics.
Bamboo.
Ban.
Banana.
Bank-notes.
Barbados.
Barbarossa.
Barbed Wire.
Barcelona.
Barclay, Alexander.
Barere de Vieuzac.
Barium.
Barlaam and Josaphat.
Barlay.
Barnes, William.
Barometer.
Barrister.
Barrow, Isaac.
Bastiat, F.
Bastille.
Baths.
Battery.
Baudelaire.
Bautzen.
Baxter, Richard.
Bayard, P. T.
Bazaine.
Bean.
Bear.
Bear - Baiting and Bull-
Baiting.
Beaton.
Beaufort: Family.
Beaufort, Henry.
Beaumarchais.
Beaumont: Family.
Becher.
Beddoes, Thomas Lovell.
Bedford, Earls and Dukes of.
Bedfordshire.
Bedouins.
Beecher, Lyman.
Behar.
Beheading.
Bejart.
Belfast: Ireland.
Belfort: Town.
Bell, Sir Charles.
Belladonna.
Bellarmine.
Bellary.
Belle-Isle, C. L. A. F., Due de.
Benares.
Benedek.
Benediction.
Benefice.
Benevolence.
Bengal.
Bengel.
Benin.
Benjamin (Judah Philip).
Benson (Archbishop of Canter-
bury).
Bentley, Richard.
Benton.
Benzaldehyde.
Benzene.
Benzoic Acid.
Berar.
Berbers.
Berengarius.
Beresford, Lord Charles.
Beresford, Viscount.
Bergen.
Beri-Beri.
Berkshire.
Berlioz.
Bermondsey.
Bermudas.
Bernhardt, Sarah.
Bermouth.
Berthelob.
Berwick (Duke of).
Berwickshire.
Berwick-upon-Tweed.
Beryllium.
Besancon.
Bessemer, Sir Henry.
Bet and Betting.
Betrothal.
Beyle.
Bezique.
Bhagalpur.
Bible Christians.
Bichromates and Chromates.
Bidder.
Bigamy.
Bijapur.
Bikanir.
Bilaspur.
Bilbao.
Billiards.
Binomial.
Birch.
Birkenhead.
Birmingham.
Birney, James G.
Biron, Armand de Gontaut.
Birth.
Biscay (Vizcaya).
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME III
AUSTRIA, LOWER (Ger. Niederosterreich or Osterreich unler
der Enns, " Austria below the river Enns "), an archduchy and
crownland of Austria, bounded E. by Hungary, N. by Bohemia
and Moravia, W. by Bohemia and Upper Austria, and S. by
Styria. It has an area of 7654 sq. m. and is divided into two
parts by the Danube, which enters at its most westerly point,
and leaves it at its eastern extremity, near Pressburg. North
of this line is the low hilly country, known as the Waldviertel,
which lies at the foot and forms the continuation of the Bohemian
and Moravian plateau. Towards the W. it attains in the Weins-
berger Wald, of which the highest point is the Peilstein, an altitude
of 3478 ft., and descends towards the valley of the Danube
through the Gfohler Wald (2368 ft.) and the Manhartsgebirge
(1758 ft.). Its most south-easterly offshoots are formed by the
Bisamberg (1180 ft.), near Vienna, just opposite the Kahlenberg.
The southern division of the province is, in the main, mountainous
and hilly, and is occupied by the Lower Austrian Alps and their
offshoots. The principal groups are: the Voralpe (5802 ft.), the
Diirrenstein (6156 ft.), the Otscher (6205 ft.), the Raxalpe
(6589 ft.) and the Schneeberg (6806 ft.), which is the highest
summit in the whole province. To the E. of the famous ridge
of Semmering are the groups of the Wechsel (5700 ft.) and the
Leithagebirge (1674 ft.). The offshoots of the Alpine group
are formed by the Wiener Wald, which attains an altitude of
2929 ft. in the Schopfl and ends N.W. of Vienna in the Kahlen-
berg (1404 ft.) and Leopoldsberg (1380 ft.).
Lower Austria belongs to the watershed of the Danube, which
with the exception of the Lainsitz, which is a tributary of the
Moldau, receives all the other rivers of the province. Its principal
affluents on the right are: the Enns, Ybbs, Erlauf, Pielach,
Traisen, Wien, Schwechat, Fischa and Leitha; on the left the
Isper, Krems, Kamp, Gollersau and the March. Besides the
Danube, only the Enns and the March are navigable rivers.
Amongst the small Alpine lakes, the Erlaufsee and the Lunzer
See are worth mentioning. Of its mineral springs, the best
known are the sulphur springs of Baden, the iodine springs of
Deutsch-Altenburg, the iron springs of Pyrawarth, and the
thermal springs of VOSLAU. In general the climate, which varies
with the configuration of the surface, is moderate and healthy,
although subject to rapid changes of temperature. Although
43 - 4 % of the total area is arable land, the soil is only of moderate
fertility and does not satisfy the wants of this thickly-populated
province. Woods occupy 34-2%, gardens and meadows 13-1%
and pastures 3-2%. Vineyards occupy 2% of the total area
and produce a good wine, specially those on the sunny slopes
of the Wiener Wald. Cattle-rearing is not well developed, but
game and fish are plentiful. Mining is only of slight importance,
small quantities of coal and iron-ore being extracted in the
Alpine foothill region; graphite is found near Muhldorf. From
an industrial point of view, Lower Austria stands, together with
Bohemia and Moravia, in the front rank amongst the Austrian
provinces. The centre of its great industrial activity is the
capital, Vienna (<?..) ; but in the region of the Wiener Wald
up to the Semmering, owing to its many waters, which can be
transformed into motive power, many factories are spread. The
principal industries are, the metallurgic and textile industries in
all their branches, milling, brewing and chemicals; paper,
leather and silk; cloth, objets de luxe and millinery; physical
and musical instruments; sugar, tobacco factories and food-
stuffs. The very extensive commerce of the province has also
its centre in Vienna. The population of Lower Austria in 1900
was 3,100,493, which corresponds to 405 inhabitants per sq. m.
It is, therefore, the most densely populated province of Austria.
According to the language in common use, 93 % of the population
rn. i
AUSTRIA, UPPER AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
was German, 4-66 % was Czech, and the remainder was composec
of Poles, Slovaks, Ruthenians, Croatians and Italians. According
to religion 92-47 % of the inhabitants were Roman Catholics
5-07% were Jews; 2-11% were Protestants and the remainder
belonged to the Greek church. In the matter of education,
Lower Austria is one of the most advanced provinces of Austria,
and 99-8% of the children of school-going age attended school
regularly in 1900. The local diet is composed of 78 members,
of which the archbishop of Vienna, the bishop of St Polten and
the rector of the Vienna University are members ex officio.
Lower Austria sends 64 members to the Imperial Reichsrat at
Vienna. For administrative purposes, the province is divided
into 22 districts and three towns with autonomous munici-
palities: Vienna (1,662,269), the capital (since 1905 including
Floridsdorf, 36,590), Wiener-Neustadt (28,438) and Waidhofen
on the Ybbs (4447). Other principal towns are: Baden(i2,447),
Bruck on the Leitha (5134), Schwechat (8241), Korneuburg
(8298), Stokerau (10,213), Krems (12,657), Modling (15,304),
Reichenau (7457), Neunkirchen (10,831), St Polten (14,510^
and Klosterneuburg (11,595).
The original archduchy, which included Upper Austria, is the
nucleus of the Austrian empire, and the oldest possession of
the house of Habsburg in its present dominions.
See F. Umlauft, Das Erzherzogtum Osterreich unter der Enns,
vol. i. of the collection Die Lander Osterreich- Ungarns in Wort und
Bild (Vienna, 1881-1889, 15 vols.); Die osterreichisch-ungarische
Monarchic in Wort und Bild, vol. 4 (Vienna, 1886-1902, 24 vols.) ;
M. Vansca, Gesch. Nieder- u. Ober-Osterreichs (in Heeren's Staaten-
gesch., Gotha, 1905).
AUSTRIA, UPPER (Ger. Oberosterreich or Osterreich ob der
Enns, " Austria above the river Enns "), an archduchy and
crown-land of Austria, bounded N. by Bohemia, W. by Bavaria,
S. by Salzburg and Styria, and E. by Lower Austria. It has an
area of 4631 sq. m. Upper Austria is divided by the Danube
into two unequal parts. Its smaller northern part is a prolonga-
tion of the southern angle of the Bohemian forest and contains
as culminating points the Plocklstein (45 10 f t.) and the Sternstein
(3690 ft.). The 'southern part belongs to the region of the
Eastern Alps, containing the Salzkammergut and Upper Austrian
Alps, which are found principally in the district of Salzkammergut
(q.v.). To the north of these mountains, stretching towards the
Danube, is the Alpine foothill region, composed partly of terraces
and partly of swelling undulations, of which the most important
is the Hausruckwald. This is a wooded chain of mountains,
with many branches, rich in brown coal and culminating in the
Goblberg (2950 ft.). Upper Austria belongs to the watershed
of the Danube, which flows through it from west to east, and
receives here on the right the Inn with the Salzach, the Traun,
the Enns with the Steyr and on its left the Great and Little Miihl
rivers. The Schwarzenberg canal between the Great Miihl and
the Moldau establishes a direct navigable route between the
Danube and the Elbe. The climate of Upper Austria, which
varies according to the altitude, is on the whole moderate; it is
somewhat severe in the north, but is mild in Salzkammergut.
The population of the duchy in 1900 was 809,918, which is
equivalent to 174-8 inhabitants per sq. m. It has the greatest
density of population of any of the Alpine provinces. The
inhabitants are almost exclusively of German stock and Roman
Catholics. For administrative purposes, Upper Austria is
divided into two autonomous municipalities, Linz (58,778) the
capital, and Steyr (17,592) and 12 districts. Other principal
towns are Wels (12,187), Ischl (9646) and Gmunden (7126). The
local diet, of which the bishop of Linz is a member ex officio, is
composed of 50 members and the duchy sends 22 members to
the Reichsrat at Vienna. The soil in the valleys and on the
lower slopes of the hills is fertile, indeed 35-08% of the whole
area is arable. Agriculture is well developed and relatively
large quantities of the principal cereals are produced. Upper
Austria has the largest proportion of meadows in all Austria,
18-54%, while 2-49% is lowland and Alpine pasturage. Of the
remainder, woods occupy 34-02 %, gardens 1-99 % and 4-93 % is
unproductive. Cattle-breeding is also in a very advanced stage
and together with the timber-trade forms a considerable resource
of the province. The principal mineral wealth of Upper Austria
is salt, of which it extracts nearly 50% of the total Austrian
production. Other important products are lignite, gypsum and
a variety of valuable stones and clays. There are about thirty
mineral springs, the best known being the salt baths of Ischl
and the iodine waters at Hall. The principal industries are the
iron and metal manufactures, chiefly centred at Steyr. Next in
importance are the machine, linen, cotton and paper manu-
factures, the milling, brewing and distilling industries and
shipbuilding. The principal articles of export are salt, stone,
timber, live-stock, woollen and iron wares and paper.
See Edlbacher, Landeskunde von Oberosterreich (Linz, 2nd ed.,
1883) ; Vansca, op. cit. in the preceding article.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, or the AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN MONARCHY
(Ger. Osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchic or Osterreichisch-
ungarisches Reich), the official name of a country situated in
central Europe, bounded E. by Russia and Rumania, S. by
Rumania, Servia, Turkey and Montenegro, W. by the Adriatic
Sea, Italy, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and the German Empire,
and N. by the German Empire and Russia. It occupies about
the sixteenth part of the total area of Europe, with an area (1905)
of 239,977 sq. m. The monarchy consists of two independent
states: the kingdoms and lands represented in the council of
the empire (Reichsrat), unofficially called Austria (q.v.) or
Cisleithania; and the " lands of St Stephen's Crown," un-
officially called Hungary (q.v.) or Transleithania. It received
its actual name by the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I.
of the i4th of November 1868, replacing the name of the Austrian
Empire under which the dominions under his sceptre were
formerly known. The Austro-Hungarian monarchy is very
often called unofficially the Dual Monarchy. It had in 1901 a
population of 45,405,267 inhabitants, comprising therefore
within its borders, about one-eighth of the total population of
Europe. By the Berlin Treaty of 1878 the principalities of
Bosnia and Herzegovina with an area of 19,702 sq. m., and a
population (1895) of 1,591,036 inhabitants, owning Turkey as
suzerain, were placed under the administration of Austria-
Hungary, and their annexation in 1908 was recognized by the
Powers in 1909, so that they became part of the dominions
of the monarchy.
Government. Thepresent constitution of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy (see AUSTRIA) is based on the Pragmatic Sanction of
the emperor Charles VI., first promulgated on the igth of April
1713, whereby the succession to the throne is settled in the
dynasty of Habsburg-Lorraine, descending by right of primo-
geniture and lineal succession to male heirs, and, in case of their
extinction, to the female line, and whereby the indissolubility
and indivisibility of the monarchy are determined; is based,
further, on the diploma of the emperor Francis Joseph I. of the
20th of October 1860, whereby the constitutional form of
government is introduced; and, lastly, on the so-called Ausgleich
or "Compromise," concluded on the 8th of February 1867,
whereby the relations between Austria and Hungary were
regulated.
The two separate states Austria and Hungary are com-
pletely independent of each other, and each has its own parlia-
ment and its own government. The unity of the monarchy is
expressed in the common head of the state, who bears the title
Emperor of Austria and Apostolic King of Hungary, and in the
common administration of a series of affairs, which affect both
halves of the Dual Monarchy. These are: (i) foreign affairs,
including diplomatic and consular representation abroad;
(2) the army, including the navy, but excluding the annual
voting of recruits, and the special army of each state; (3) finance
in so far as it concerns joint expenditure.
For the administration of these common affairs there are
three joint ministries: the ministry of foreign affairs and of the
mperial and royal house, the ministry of war, and the ministry
of finance. It must be noted that the authority of the joint
ministers is restricted to common affairs, and that they are
not allowed to direct or exercise any influence on affairs of govern-
ment affecting separately one of the halves of the monarchy.
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
The minister of foreign affairs conducts the international rela-
tions of the Dual Monarchy, and can conclude international
treaties. But commercial treaties, and such state treaties as
impose burdens on the state, or parts of the state, or involve
a change of territory, require the parliamentary assent of both
states. The minister of war is the head for the administration of
all military affairs, except those of the Austrian Landwehr and of
the Hungarian Honveds, which are committed to the ministries
for national defence of the two respective states. But the
supreme command of the army is vested in the monarch, who
has the power to take all measures regarding the whole army.
It follows, therefore, that the total armed power of the Dual
Monarchy forms a whole under the supreme command of the
sovereign. The minister of finance has charge of the finances of
common affairs, prepares the joint budget, and administers the
joint state debt. (Till 1909 the provinces of Bosnia and Herze-
govina were also administered by the joint minister of finance,
excepting matters exclusively dependent on the minister of war.)
For the control of the common finances, there is appointed a
joint supreme court of accounts, which audits the accounts of
the joint ministries.
Budget. Side by side with the budget of each state of the Dual
Monarchy, there is a common budget, which comprises the expendi-
ture necessary for the common affairs, namely for the conduct of
foreign affairs, for the army, and for the ministry of finance. The
revenues of the joint budget consist of the revenues of the joint
ministries, the net proceeds of the customs, and the quota, or the
proportional contributions of the two states. This quota is fixed
for a period of years, and generally coincides with the duration of
the customs and commercial treaty. Until 1897 Austria contri-
buted 70 %, and Hungary 30 % of the joint expenditure, remaining
after deduction of the common revenue. It was then decided that
from 1897 to July 1907 the quota should be 66J5 for Austria, and
33A for Hungary. In 1907 Hungary's contribution was raised to
36-4%. Of the total charges 2 % is first of all debited to Hungary
on account of the incorporation with this state of the former military
frontier.
The Budget estimates for the common administration were as
follows in 1905:
Revenue
Mjnjstry of Foreign Affairs .... 21,167
Ministry of War 305,907
Ministry of Finance 4,870
Board of Control 18
The Customs 4,780,000
Proportional contributions 15,650,448
Total . . 20,762,410
Expenditure
Ministry of Foreign Affairs .... 485,480
Ministry of War:
Army 12,679,160
Navy 2,306,100
Ministry of Finance 177,000
Board of Control 13,250
Extraordinary Military Expenditure . . . 4,785,500
Extraordinary Military Expenditure in Bosnia 315,920
Total . . 20,762.410
The following table gives in thousands sterling the joint budget
for the years 1875-1905 :
Expenditure.
| Debt. Besides the debts of each state of the Dual Monarchy,
there is a general debt, which is borne jointly by Austria and Hun-
gary. The following table gives in millions sterling the amount of
the general debt for the years 1875-1905:
1875-
1885.
1895.
1900.
1905-
232-41
231-02
229-67
226-81
224-31
I875-
1885.
I895-
1900.
1905-
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Ministry of War (Army and
396
368-7
333
433-4
493-8
Navy)
Ministry of Finance
Supreme Court of Accounts .
9005-4
154-2
10-5
10,085
167-2
10-6
12-539
170-4
10-7
13,887-5
175
12-5
18,087-7
177-1
13-3
Total
9566-1
10,631-5
13.053-1
14,508-4
20,430-3
Revenue.
For the above Departments .
Customs
432
OQ7-J.
258-2
AQ2-2
260-7
260-3
331-9
Proportional Contributions .
8136-7
9971-1
8316-4
9045-8
5.650-4
Total
9566-1
10,631-5
13.053-1
14.508-4
20.430-3
Delegations. The constitutional right of voting money
applicable to the common affairs and of its political control
is exercised by the Delegations, which consist each of sixty
members, chosen for one year, one-third of them by the Austrian
Herrenhaus (Upper House) and the Hungarian Table of Magnates
(Upper House), and two-thirds -of them by the Austrian and the
Hungarian Houses of Representatives. The delegations are
annually summoned by the monarch alternately to Vienna and
to Budapest. Each delegation has its separate sittings, both
alike public. Their decisions are reciprocally communicated
in writing, and, in case of non-agreement, their deliberations
are renewed. Should three such interchanges be made without
agreement, a common plenary sitting is held of an equal number
of both delegations; and these collectively, without discussion,
decide the question by common vote. The common decisions
of both houses require for their validity the sanction of the
monarch. Each delegation has the right to formulate resolutions
independently, and to call to account and arraign the common
ministers. In the exercise of their office the members of both
delegations are irresponsible, enjoying constitutional immunity.
Army. The military system of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy is similar in both states, and rests since 1868 upon the
principle of the universal and personal obligation of the citizen
to bear arms. Its military force is composed of the common
army (K. und K.); the special armies, namely the Austrian
(K.K.) Landwehr, and the Hungarian Honveds, which are
separate national institutions, and the Landsturm or levy-in-
mass. As stated above, the common army stands under the
administration of the joint minister of war, while the special
armies are under the administration of the respective ministries
of national defence. The yearly contingent of recruits for the
army is fixed by the military bills voted by the Austrian and
Hungarian parliaments, and is generally determined on the
basis of the population, according to the last census returns.
It amounted in 1905 to 103,100 men, of which Austria furnished
59,211 men, and Hungary 43,889. Besides 10,000 men are
annually allotted to the Austrian Landwehr, and 12,500 to the
Hungarian Honveds. The term of service is 2 years (3 years in
the cavalry) with the colours, 7 or 8 in the reserve and 2 in the
Landwehr; in the case of men not drafted to the active army
the same total period of service is spent in various special
reserves.
For the military and administrative service of the army the Dual
Monarchy is divided into 16 military territorial districts (15 of which
correspond to the 15 army corps) and 108 supplementary districts
(105 for the army, and 3 for the navy). In 1902, since which year no
material change was made in the formal organization of the army,
there were 5 cavalry divisions and 31 in-
fantry divisions, formed in 15 army corps,
which are located as follows: I. Cracow, II.
Vienna, III. Graz, IV. Budapest, V. Press-
burg, VI. Kaschau, VII. Temesvar, VIII.
Prague, IX. Josefstadt, X. Przemysl, XI.
Lemberg, XII. Herrmannstadt, XIII. Agram,
XIV. Innsbruck, XV. Serajewo. In addition
there is the military district of Zara. The
usual strength of the corps is, 2 infantry divi-
sions (4 brigades, 8 or 9 regiments, 32 or 36
battalions), I cavalry brigade (18 squadrons),
and i artillery brigade (16-18 batteries or
128-144 field-guns), besides technical and
departmental units and in some cases fortress
artillery regiments. The infantry is organized
into line regiments, Jager and Tirolese regi-
ments, the cavalry into dragoons, lancers,
Uhlans and hussars, the artillery into regi-
ments. The Austrian Landwehr (which re-
tains the old designation K.K., formerly
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
applied to the Austrian regular army) is organized in 8 divisions of
varying strength, the " Royal Hungarian ' Landwehr or Honveds
in 7 divisions, both Austrian and Hungarian Landwehr having in
addition cavalry (Uhlans and hussars) and artillery. It is probable
that a Landwehr or Honveds division will, in war, form part of
each army corps except in the case of the Vienna corps, which has
3 divisions in peace. The remaining men of military age (up to 42)
as usual form the Landsturm. It is to be noted that this Land-
sturm comprises many men who would elsewhere be classed as
Landwehr.
The strength of the Austro-Hungarian army on a peace footing
was as follows in 1905:
Officers.
Men.
Horses.
Guns.
Infantry
Common Army .
10,801
187,604
1,152
Austrian Landwehr .
1,883
23-905
174
Hungarian Honveds
2,258
21,149
262
Cavalry
Common Army .
1,890
45,486
40,740
Austrian Landwehr .
170
1,861
1,282
Hungarian Honveds
390
4,170
3-510
Field Artillery ....
1,630
27,612
14.520
1048
Fortress Artillery .
408
7,722
I3 1
Technical troops
588
9-935
19
(Pioneers, and Railway and
Telegraph Regiment)
Transport Service
461
4-312
3,097
Sanitary Service .
85
3,062
Total . .
20,564
336,818
64,887
1048
Belonging to the
Common Army .
15,863
285,733
59,659
1048
Austrian Landwehr .
2,053
25,766
1,456
Hungarian Honveds
2,648
25.319
3-772
The troops stationed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1905 (376
officers and 6372 men) are included in the total for the common
army.
The peace strength of the active army in combatants is thus about
350,000 officers and men, inclusive of the two Landwehrs and of the
Austrian " K.K." guards, the Hungarian crown guards, the gen-
darmerie, &c. The numbers of the Landsturm and the war strength
of the whole armed forces are not published. It is estimated that
the first line army in war would consist of 460,000 infantry, 49,000
cavalry, 78,000 artillery, 21,000 engineers, &c., beside train and non-
combatant soldiers. The Landwehr and Honved would yield 219,000
infantry and 18,000 cavalry, and other reserves 223,000 men. These
figures give an approximate total strength of 1,147,000, not inclusive
of Landsturm.
Fortifications. The principal fortifications in Austria-Hungary
are: Cracow and Przemysl in Galicia; Komarom, the centre of the
inland fortifications, Peterv4rad, O-Arad and Temesvar in Hungary ;
Serajewo, Mostar and Bilek in Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Alpine
frontiers, especially those in Tirol, have numerous fortifications,
whose centre is formed by Trent and Franzensfeste ; while all the
military roads leading into Carinthia have been provided with strong
defensive works, as at Malborgeth, Predil Pass, &c. The two capitals,
Vienna and Budapest, are not fortified. On the Adriatic coast, the
naval harbour of Pola is strongly fortified with sea and land defences ;
then come Trieste, and several places in Dalmatia, notably Zara and
Cattaro.
Navy. The Austro-Hungarian navy is mainly a coast defence
force, and includes also a flotilla of monitors for the Danube. It is
administered by the naval department of the ministry of war. It
consisted in 1905 of 9 modern battleships, 3 armoured cruisers, 5
cruisers, 4 torpedo gunboats, 20 destroyers and 26 torpedo boats.
There was in hand at the same time a naval programme to build 12
armourclads, 5 second-class cruisers, 6 third-class cruisers, and a
number of torpedo boats. The headquarters of the fleet are at Pola,
which is the principal naval arsenal and harbour of Austria; while
another great naval station is Trieste.
Trade. On the basis of the customs and commercial agreement
between Austria and Hungary, concluded in 1867 and renewable
every ten years, the following affairs, in addition to the common
affairs of the monarchy, are in both states treated according to the
same principles : Commercial affairs, including customs legislation ;
legislation on the duties closely connected with industrial production
on beer, brandy, sugar and mineral oils; determination of legal
tender and coinage, as also of the principles regulating the Austro-
Hungarian Bank; ordinances in respect of such railways as affect
the interests of both states. In conformity with the customs and
commercial compact between the two states, renewed in 1899,
the monarchy constitutes one identical customs and commercial
territory, inclusive of Bosnia and Herzegovina and the principality
of Liechtenstein.
The foreign trade of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy is shown in
the following table:
Year.
Imports.
Exports.
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
70,666,000
68,833,000
71,666,000
78,200,000
85,200,000
89,430,000
80,916,000
78,541,000
79,708,000
88,600,000
86,200,000
93,500,000
The following tables give the foreign trade of the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy as regards raw material and manufactured goods :
Imports.
Articles.
Value in Millions Sterling.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
Raw material (including "|
articles of food; raw
material for agriculture >
and industry ; and mining
41-5
40-5
41-8
45-9
51-9
and smelting products) J
Semi-manufactured goods .
9-6
9-6
10-3
10-6
10-8
Manufactured goods.
19-5
18-7
19-5
21-6
22-5
Exports.
Articles.
Value in Millions Sterling.
1900.
1901.
1902.
1903.
1904.
Raw material (as above)
Semi-manufactured goods .
Manufactured goods.
34-1
12-6
34-2
34-1
ii-i
33-3
35-8
n-i
32-8
39
12-4
37-2
35'3
12-6
38-3
The most important place of derivation and of destination for the
Austro-Hungarian trade is the German empire with about 40 %
of the imports, and about 60 % of the exports. Next in importance
comes Great Britain, afterwards India, Italy, the United States of
America, Russia, France, Switzerland, Rumania, the Balkan states
and South America in about the order named. The principal articles
of import are cotton and cotton goods, wool and woollen goods, silk
and silk goods, coffee, tobacco and metals. The principal articles of
export are wood, sugar, cattle, glass and glassware, iron and iron-
ware, eggs, cereals, millinery, fancy goods, earthenware and pottery,
and leather goods.
The Austro-Hungarian Bank. Common to the two states of the
monarchy is the " Austro-Hungarian Bank," which possesses a legal
exclusive right to the issue of bank-notes. It was founded in 1816,
and had the title of the Austrian National Bank until 1878, when it
received its actual name. In virtue of the new bank statute of the
year 1899 the bank is a joint-stock company, with a stock of
8,780,000. The bank's notes of issue must be covered to the extent
of two-fifths by legal specie (gold and current silver) in reserve;
the rest of the paper circulation, according to bank usage. The
state, under certain conditions, takes a portion of the clear profits of
the bank. The management of the bank and the supervision exercised
over it by the state are established on a footing of equality, both
states having each the same influence. The accounts of the bank at
the end of 1900 were as follows: capital, 8,750,000; reserve fund,
428,250; note circulation, 62,251,000; cash, 50,754,000. In
1907 the reserve fund was 548,041; note circulation, 84,501,000;
cash, 60,036,625. The charter of the bank, which expired in 1897,
was renewed until the end of 1910. In the Hungarian ministerial
crisis of 1909 the question of the renewal of the charter played a
conspicuous part, the more extreme members of the Independence
party demanding the establishment of separate banks for Austria
and Hungary with, at most, common superintendence (see History,
below). (O. BR.)
HISTORY
I. The Whole Monarchy.
The empire of Austria, as the official designation of the
territories ruled by the Habsburg monarchy, dates back only to
1804, when Francis II., the last of the Holy Roman fhetuie
emperors, proclaimed himself emperor of Austria as "Emperor
Francis I. His motive in doing so was to guard f
against the great house of Habsburg being relegated '
to a position inferior to the parvenus Bonapartes, in the event
of the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, or of the possible
election of Napoleon as his own successor on the throne of
Charlemagne. The title emperor of Austria, then, replaced that
of " Imperator Romanorum semper Augustus " when the Holy
Empire came to an end in 1806. From the first, however, it
was no more than a title, which represented but ill the actual
relation of the Habsburg sovereigns to their several states.
Austria.'
I.,
- Capitals of Countries
Capitals of Provinces
Capitals of Counties in Hungary
Canals
Railways...
B
1 6"
H
24
K
V
r,
V
5O AUSTRIA- HUNGARY
Scale, 1:3,800,000
Scale, 1:3,800,000
English Miles
40 60 So 100
o 20 40
24"
HISTORY)
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
5
Magyars and Slavs never willingly recognized a style which
ignored their national rights and implied the superiority of the
German elements of the monarchy; to the Germans it was a
poor substitute for a title which had represented the political
unity of the German race under the Holy Empire. For long
after the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815 the " Kaiser "as such
exercised a powerful influence over the imaginations of the
German people outside the Habsburg dominions; but this was
because the title was still surrounded with its ancient halo and
the essential change was not at once recognized. The outcome of
the long struggle with Prussia, which in 1866 finally broke the
spell, and the proclamation of the German empire in 1871 left
the title of emperor of Austria stripped of everything but a
purely territorial significance. It had, moreover, by the compact
with Hungary of 1867, ceased even fully to represent the relation
of the emperor to all his dominions; and the title which had
been devised to cover the whole of the Habsburg monarchy
sank into the official style of the sovereign of but a half; while
even within the Austrian empire proper it is resented by those
peoples which, like the Bohemians, wish to obtain the same
recognition of their national independence as was conceded to
Hungary. In placing the account of the origin and development
of the Habsburg monarchy under this heading, it is merely for
the sake of convenience.
The first nucleus round which the present dominions of the
house of Austria gradually accumulated was the mark which lay
along the south bank of the Danube, east of the river
Origin of Enns, founded about A.D. 800 as a defence for the
Austria! Prankish kingdom against the Slavs. Although its
total length from east to west was only about 60 m.,
it was associated in the popular mind with a large and almost
unbroken tract of land in the east of Europe. This fact, together
with the position of the mark with regard to Germany in general
and to Bavaria in particular, accounts for the name Osterreich
(Austria), i.e. east empire or realm, a word first used in a charter
of 996, where the phrase in regione vulgari nomine Ostarrichi
occurs. The development of this small mark into the Austro-
Hungarian monarchy was a slow and gradual process, and falls
into two main divisions, which almost coincide with the periods
during which the dynasties of Babenberg and Habsburg have
respectively ruled the land. The energies of the house of Baben-
berg were chiefly spent in enlarging the area and strengthening
the position of the mark itself, and when this was done the house
of Habsburg set itself with remarkable perseverance and mar-
vellous success to extend its rule over neighbouring territories.
The many vicissitudes which have attended this development
have not, however, altered the European position of Austria,
which has remained the same for over a thousand years. Stand-
ing sentinel over the valley of the middle Danube, and barring
the advance of the Slavs on Germany, Austria, whether mark,
duchy or empire, has always been the meeting-place of the
Teuton and the Slav. It is this fact which gives it a unique
interest and importance in the history of Europe, and which
unites the ideas of the Germans to-day with those of Charlemagne
and Otto the Great.
The southern part of the country now called Austria was
inhabited before the opening of the Christian era by the Taurisci,
a Celtic tribe, who were subsequently called the Norici,
habitants. anc ^ wno were con quered by the Romans about 14 B.C.
Their land was afterwards included in the provinces of
Pannonia and Noricum, and under Roman rule, Vindobona,
the modern Vienna, became a place of some importance. The
part of the country north of the Danube was peopled by the
Marcomanni and the Quadi, and both of these tribes were fre-
quently at war with the Romans, especially during the reign of
the emperor Marcus Aurelius, who died at Vindobona in A.D. 180
when campaigning against them. Christianity and civilization
obtained entrance into the land, but the increasing weakness of
the Roman empire opened the country to the inroads of the
barbarians, and during the period of the great migrations it was
ravaged in quick succession by a numberof these tribes, prominent
among whom were the Huns. The lands on both banks of the
river shared the same fate, due probably to the fact to which
Gibbon has drawn attention, that at this period the Danube
was frequently frozen over. About 500 the district was settled
by the Slovenes, or Corutanes, a Slavonic people, who formed
part of the kingdom of Samo, and were afterwards included in
the extensive kingdom of the Avars. The Franks claimed some
authority over this people, and probably some of the princes
of the Slovenes had recognized this claim, but it could not be
regarded as serious while the Avars were in possession of the
land. In 791 Charlemagne, after he had established his authority
over the Bojuvarii or Bavarians, crossed the river Enns, and
moved against the Avars. This attack was followed by
campaigns on the part of his lieutenants, and in 805 the Avars
were finally subdued, and their land incorporated with the
Prankish empire. This step brought the later Austria definitely
under the rule of the Franks, and during the struggle E*tuMi*b-
Charlemagne erected a mark, called the East Mark, meat of
to defend the eastern border of his empire. A series of <* Ba*t
margraves ruled this small district from 799 to 907, Mart -
but as the Prankish empire grew weaker, the mark suffered
more and more from the ravages of its eastern neighbours.
During the 9th century the Prankish supremacy vanished, and
the mark was overrun by the Moravians, and then by the
Magyars, or Hungarians, who destroyed the few remaining traces
of Prankish influence.
A new era dawned after Otto the Great was elected German
king in 936, and it is Otto rather than Charlemagne who must
be regarded as the real founder of Austria. In August
955 he gained a great victory over the Magyars on the
Lechfeld, freed Bavaria from their presence, and re-
founded the East Mark for the defence of his kingdom.
In 976 his son, the emperor Otto II., entrusted the government
of this mark, soon to be known as Austria, to Leopold, a member
of the family of Babenberg (q.v.), and its administration was
conducted with vigour and success. Leopold and his descendants
ruled Austria until the extinction of the family in 1246, and by
their skill and foresight raised the mark to an important place
among the German states. Their first care was to push its
eastern frontier down the Danube valley, by colonizing the lands
on either side of the river, and the success of this work may be
seen in the removal of their capital from Pochlarn to Melk, then
to Tulln, and finally about 1140 to Vienna. The country as far
as the Leitha was subsequently incorporated with Austria, and
in the other direction the district between the Enns and the Inn
was added to the mark in 1156, an important date in oochyot
Austrian history. Anxious to restore peace to Germany Austria
in this year, the new king, Frederick I., raised Austria created,
to the rank of a duchy, and conferred upon it ex- ll56 '
ceptional privileges. The investiture was bestowed not only
upon Duke Henry but upon his second wife, Theodora; in case
of a failure of male heirs the duchy was to descend to females;
and if the duke had no children he could nominate his successor.
Controlling all the jurisdiction of the land, the duke's only
duties towards the Empire were to appear at any diet held in
Bavaria, and to send a contingent to the imperial army for any
campaigns in the countries bordering upon Austria. In 1186
Duke Leopold I. made a treaty with Ottakar IV., duke of Styria,
an arrangement which brought Styria and upper Austria to the
Babenbergs in 1192, and in 1229 Duke Leopold II. purchased
some lands rom the bishop of Freising, and took the title of
lord of Carniola. When the house of Babenberg became extinct
in 1246, Austria, stretching from Passau almost to Pressburg,
had the frontiers which it retains to-day, and this increase of
territory had been accompanied by a corresponding increase in
wealth and general prosperity. The chief reason for this pros-
perity was the growth of trade along the Danube, which stimu-
lated the foundation, or the growth, of towns, and brought
considerable riches to the ruler. Under the later Babenbergs
Vienna was regarded as one of the most important of German
cities, and it was computed that the duke was as rich as the
archbishop of Cologne, or the margrave of Brandenburg, and
was surpassed in this respect by only one German prince, the
6
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
ake
king of Bohemia. The interests of the Austrian margraves and
dukes were not confined to the acquisition of wealth either in
land or chattels. Vienna became a centre of culture and learning,
and many religious houses were founded and endowed. The
acme of the early prosperity of Austria was reached
under Duke Leopold II., surnamed the Glorious, who
* __ _] * * 1
reigned from 1194101230.116 gave a code ot municipal
law to Vienna, and rights to other towns, welcomed the Minne-
singers to his brilliant court, and left to his subjects an enduring
memory of valour and wisdom. Leopold and his predecessors
were enabled, owing to the special position of Austria, to act
practically as independent rulers. Cherishing the privilege of
1156, they made treaties with foreign kings, and arranged
marriages with the great families of Europe. With full control of
jurisdiction and of commerce, no great bishopric nor imperial
city impeded the course of their authority, and the emperor
interfered only to settle boundary disputes.
The main lines of Austrian policy under the Babenbergs were
warfare with the Hungarians and other eastern neighbours, and
a general attitude of loyalty towards the emperors. The story
of the Hungarian wars is a monotonous record of forays, of
assistance given at times to the Babenbergs by the forces of
the Empire, and ending in the gradual eastward advance of
Austria. The traditional loyalty to the emperors, which was
cemented by several marriages between the imperial house and
the Babenbergs, was, however, departed from by the margrave
Leopold II., and by Duke Frederick II. During the investiture
struggle Leopold deserted the emperor Henry IV., who deprived
him of Austria and conferred it upon Vratislav II., duke of the
Bohemians. Unable to maintain his position, Vratislav was soon
driven out, and in 1083 Leopold again obtained possession of
the mark, and was soon reconciled with Henry. Very similar
Dake was the result of the conflict between the emperor
Frederick Frederick II. and Duke Frederick II. Ignoring the
n., the privilege of 1156, the emperor claimed certain rights
Quarrel- j n Austria, and summoned the duke to his Italian diets.
Frederick, who was called the Quarrelsome, had irri-
tated both his neighbours and his subjects, and complaints of his
exactions and confiscations reached the ears of the emperor.
After the duke had three times refused to appear before the
princes, Frederick placed him under the ban, declared the duchies
of Austria and Styria to be vacant, and, aided by the king of
Bohemia, the duke of Bavaria and other princes, invaded the
country in 1236. He met with very slight opposition, declared
the duchies to be immediately dependent upon the Empire,
made Vienna an imperial city, and imposed other changes upon
End of the ^ ne constitution of Austria. After his departure,
house of however, the duke returned, and in 1239 was *in
Baben- possession of his former power, while the changes made
by the emperor were ignored. Continuing his career of
violence and oppression, Duke Frederick was killed in battle by
the Hungarians in June 1246, when the family of Babenberg
became extinct.
The duchies of Austria and Styria were now claimed by the
emperor Frederick II. as vacant fiefs of the Empire, and their
Dispute as g vernment was entrusted to Otto II., duke of Bavaria.
to the Frederick, however, who was in Italy, harassed and
Austrian afflicted, could do little to assert the imperial authority,
and his enemy, Pope Innocent IV., bestowed the two
duchies upon Hermann VI., margrave of Baden,
whose wife, Gertrude, was a niece of the last of the Babenbergs.
Hermann was invested by the German king, William, count of
Holland, but he was unable to establish his position, and law
and order were quickly disappearing from the 'duchies. The
deaths of Hermann and of the emperor in 1250, however, paved
the way for a settlement. Weary of struggle and disorder, and
despairing of any help from the central authority, the estates
of Austria met at Triibensee in 1251, and chose Ottakar, son of
Wenceslaus I., king of Bohemia, as their duke. This step was
favoured by the pope, and Ottakar, eagerly accepting the offer,
strengthened his position by marrying Margaret, a sister of
Duke Frederick II., and in return for his investiture promised
suo.es-
sion.
his assistance to William of Holland. Styria appears at this
time to have shared the fortunes of Austria, but it was claimed
by Bela IV., king of Hungary, who conquered the
land, and made a treaty with Ottakar in 1254 which
confirmed him in its possession. The Hungarian 4^"
rule was soon resented by the Styrians, and Ottakar,
who had become king of Bohemia in 1253, took advantage of
this resentment, and interfered in the affairs of the duchy. A
war with Hungary was the result, but on this occasion victory
rested with Ottakar, and by a treaty made with Bela, in March
1261, he was recognized as duke of Styria. In 1269 Ottakar
inherited the duchy of Carinthia on the death of Duke Ulrich III.,
and, his power having now become very great, he began to
aspire to the German throne. He did something to improve
the condition of the duchies by restoring order, introducing
German colonists into the eastern districts, and seeking to
benefit the inhabitants of the towns.
In 1273 Rudolph, count of Habsburg, became German king,
and his attention soon turned to Ottakar, whose power menaced
the occupant of the German throne. Finding some
support in Austria, Rudolph questioned the title of Rudolph
the Bohemian king to the three duchies, and sought bur *
to recover the imperial lands which had been in the
possession of the emperor Frederick II. Ottakar was summoned
twice before the diet, the imperial court declared against him,
and in July 1275 he was placed under the ban. War was the
result, and in November 1276 Ottakar submitted to Rudolph,
and renounced the duchies of Austria, Styria and Carinthia.
For some time the three duchies were administered by Rudolph
in his capacity as head of the Empire, of which they formed part.
Not content with this tie, however, which was personal to
himself alone, the king planned to make them hereditary posses-
sions of his family, and to transfer the headquarters of the
Habsburgs from the Rhine to the Danube. Some opposition
was offered to this scheme; but the perseverance of the king
overcame all difficulties, and one of the most important events in
European history took place on the 27th of December
1282, when Rudolph invested his sons, Rudolph and burgs
Albert, with the duchies of Austria and Styria. He estab-
retained Carinthia in his own hands until 1286, when, Us
in return for valuable services, he bestowed it upon
Meinhard IV., count of Tirol. The younger Rudolph
took no part in the government of Austria and Styria, which was
undertaken by Albert, until his election as German king in 1 298.
Albert appears to have been rather an arbitrary ruler. In 1 288
he suppressed a rising of the people of Vienna, and he made the
fullest use of the ducal power in asserting his real or supposed
rights. At this time the principle of primogeniture was unknown
in the house of Habsburg, and for many years the duchies were
ruled in common by two, or even three, members of the family.
After Albert became German king, his two elder sons, Rudolph
and Frederick, were successively associated with him in the
government, and after his death in 1308, his four younger sons
shared at one time or another in the administration of Austria
and Styria. In 1314 Albert's son, Frederick, was chosen German
king in opposition to Louis IV., duke of Upper Bavaria, after-
wards the emperor Louis IV., and Austria was weakened by the
efforts of the Habsburgs to sustain Frederick in his contest with
Louis, and also by the struggle carried on between another
brother, Leopold, and the Swiss. A series of deaths among the
Habsburgs during the first half of the i4th century left Duke
Albert II. and his four sons as the only representatives of the
family. Albert ruled the duchies alone from 1344 to 1356, and
after this date his sons began to take part in the government.
The most noteworthy of these was Duke Rudolph IV.,
a son-in-law of the emperor Charles IV., who showed
his interest in learning by founding the university of
Vienna in 1365. Rudolph's chief aim was to make
Austria into an independent state, and he forged a series of
privileges the purport of which was to free the duchy from all
its duties towards the Empire. A sharp contest with the emperor
followed this proceeding, and the Austrian duke, annoyed that
"'
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Austria was not raised to the dignity of an electorate by the
Golden Bull of 1356, did not shrink from a contest with Charles.
In 1361, however, he abandoned his pretensions, but claimed
the title of archduke (q.v.) and in 1364 declared that the posses-
sions of the Habsburgs were indivisible. Meanwhile the acquisi-
tion of neighbouring territories had been steadily pressed on.
In 1335 the duchy of Carinthia, and a part of Carniola, were
inherited by Dukes Albert II. and Otto, and in 1363 Rudolph IV.
obtained the county of Tirol. In 1364 Carniola was made into
an hereditary duchy; in 1374 part of Istria came under the
rule of the Habsburgs; in 1382 Trieste submitted voluntarily
to Austria, and at various times during the century, other
smaller districts were added to the lands of the Habsburgs.
Rudolph IV. died childless in 1365, and in 1379 his two
remaining brothers, Leopold III. and Albert III., made a
division of their lands, by which Albert retained Austria proper
and Carniola, and Leopold got Styria, Carinthia and Tirol.
Leopold was killed in 1386 at the battle of Sempach, and Albert
became guardian for his four nephews, who subsequently ruled
their lands in common. The senior line which ruled in Austria
was represented after the death of Duke Albert III. in 1395 by
his son, Duke Albert IV., and then by his grandson, Duke
Albert V., who became German king as Albert II. in 1438.
Albert married Elizabeth, daughter of Sigismund, king of
Hungary and Bohemia, and on the death of his father-in-law
assumed these two crowns. He died in 1439, and just after his
death a son was born to him, who was called Ladislaus
Minority p O sthumus, and succeeded to the duchy of Austria and
to t^e kingdoms of Hungary and Bohemia. William
and Leopold, the two eldest sons of Duke Leopold III.,
and, with their younger brothers Ernest and Frederick, the
joint rulers of Styria, Carinthia and Tirol, died early in the
1 5th century, and in 1406 Ernest and Frederick made a division
of their lands. Ernest became duke of Styria and Carinthia,
and Frederick, count of Tirol. Ernest was succeeded in 1424
by his sons, Frederick and Albert, and Frederick in 1439 by his
son, Sigismund, and these three princes were reigning when
King Albert II. died in 1439. Frederick, who succeeded Albert
as German king, and was soon crowned emperor as Frederick III.,
acted as guardian for Sigismund of Tirol, who was a minor, and
also became regent of Austria in consequence of the
at the infancy of Ladislaus. His rule was a period of struggle
emperor and disorder, owing partly to the feebleness of his own
Frederick character, partly to the wish of his brother, Albert, to
share his dignities. The Tirolese soon grew weary of
his government, and, in 1446, Sigismund was declared of age.
The estates of Austria were equally discontented and headed an
open revolt, the object of which was to remove Ladislaus from
Frederick's charge and deprive the latter of the regency. The
Popular leading spirit in this movement was Ulrich Eiczing
revolt (Eitzing or von Eiczinger, d. before 1463), a low-born
under adventurer, ennobled by Albert II., in whose service
E/cz/n "^ k a d accumu l atec l vast wealth and power. In 1451
and Count he organized an armed league, and in December, with
utrich of the aid of the populace, made himself master of Vienna,
whither he had summoned the estates. In March 1452
he was joined by Count Ulrich of Cilli, while the Hungarians and
the powerful party of the great house of Rosenberg in Bohemia
attached themselves to -the league. Frederick, who had hurried
back from Italy, was besieged in August in the Vienna Neustadt,
and was forced to deliver Ladislaus to Count Ulrich, whose
influence had meanwhile eclipsed that of Eiczing. Ladislaus
now ruled nominally himself, under the tutelage of Count Ulrich.
The country was, however, distracted by quarrels between the
party of the high aristocracy, which recognized the count of
Cilli as its chief, and that of the lesser nobles, citizens and
populace, who followed Eiczing. In September 1453 the latter,
by a successful tmeute, succeeded in ousting Count Ulrich, and
remained in power till February 1455, when the count once
more entered Vienna in triumph. Ulrich of Cilli was killed
before Belgrade in November 1456; a year later Ladislaus
himself died (November 1457). Meanwhile Styria and Carinthia
were equally unfortunate under the rule of Frederick and
Albert; and the death of Ladislaus led to still further complica-
tions. Austria, which had been solemnly created an Auitria
archduchy by the emperor Frederick in 1453, was created
claimed by the three remaining Habsburg princes, and " *
lower Austria was secured by Frederick, while Albert a<Kh y-
obtained upper Austria. Both princes were unpopular, and in
1462 Frederick was attacked by the inhabitants of Vienna, and
was forced to surrender lower Austria to Albert, whose spend-
thrift habits soon made his rule disliked. A further struggle
between the brothers was prevented by Albert's death in 1463,
when the estates did homage to Frederick. The emperor was
soon again at issue with the Austrian nobles, and was
attacked by Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary,
who drove him from Vienna in 1485. Although ham-
pered by the inroads of the Turks, Matthias pressed
on, and by 1487 was firmly in possession of Austria, Styria and
Carinthia, which seemed quite lost to the Habsburgs.
The decline in the fortunes of the family, however, was
to be arrested by Frederick's son, Maximilian, afterwards the
emperor Maximilian I., who was the second founder The
of the greatness of the house of Habsburg. Like his emperor
ancestor, Rudolph, he had to conquer the lands over
which his descendants were destined to rule, and by
arranging a treaty of succession to the kingdoms of Hungary
and Bohemia, he pointed the way to power and empire in
eastern Europe. Soon after his election as king of the Romans
in 1486, Maximilian attacked the Hungarians, and in 1400 he
had driven them from Austria, and recovered his hereditary lands.
In the same year he made an arrangement with his kinsman,
Sigismund of Tirol, by which he brought this county under his
rule, and when the emperor Frederick died in 1493, Maximilian
united the whole of the Austrian lands under his sway. Continu-
ing his acquisitions of territory, he inherited the possessions of
the counts of Gorz in 1500, added some districts to Tirol by
intervening in a succession war in Bavaria, and acquired Gradisca
in 1512 as the result of a struggle with Venice. He did much for
the better government of the Austrian duchies. Bodies were
established for executive, financial and judicial purposes, the
Austrian lands constituted one of the imperial circles which
were established in 1512, and in 1518 representatives of the
various diets (Landtage) met at Innsbruck, a proceeding which
marks the beginning of an organic unity in the Austrian lands.
In these ways Maximilian proved himself a capable and energetic
ruler, although his plans for making Austria into a kingdom, or
an electorate, were abortive.
At the close of the middle ages the area of Austria had in-
creased to nearly 50,000 sq. m., but its internal condition does
not appear to have improved in proportion to this Austr i aat
increase in size. The rulers of Austria lacked the the dose
prestige which attached to the electoral office, and, of the
although five of them had held the position of German mlddle
king, the four who preceded Maximilian had added
little or nothing to the power and dignity of this position. The
ecclesiastical organization of Austria was imperfect, so long as
there was no archbishopric within its borders, and its clergy
owed allegiance to foreign prelates. The work of unification
which was so successfully accomplished by Maximilian was
aided by two events, the progress of the Turks in south-eastern
Europe, und the loss of most of the Habsburg possessions on the
Rhine. The first tended to draw the separate states together
for purposes of defence, and the second turned the attention of
the Habsburgs to the possibilities of expansion in eastern
Europe. (A. W. H.*)
At the time of the death of the emperor Maximilian in 1519
the Habsburg dominions in eastern Germany included the
duchies of Upper and Lower Austria, Styria, Carinthia, AuttrlM
Carniola and the county of Tirol. Maximilian was un< / er
succeeded as archduke of Austria as well as emperor by Chmrie* v.
his grandson Charles of Spain, known in history as the *" d f**""
emperor Charles V. To his brother Ferdinand Charles *
resigned all his Austrian lands, including his claims on Bohemia
8
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
and Hungary. Austria and Spain were thus divided, and, in
spite of the efforts of the archduke Charles in the Spanish
Succession War, were never again united, for at the battle of
Mohacs, on the 28th of August 1526, Suleiman the
Magnificent defeated and killed Louis, king of Bohemia
results. and of Hungary, whose sister Anne had married
Ferdinand. By this victory the Turks conquered and
retained, till the peace of Karlowitz in 1699, the greater part of
Hungary. During most of his life Ferdinand was engaged in
combating the Turks and in attempting to secure Hungary. In
John Zapolya, who was supported by Suleiman, Ferdinand
found an active rival. The Turks besieged Vienna in 1530 and
made several invasions of Hungary and Austria. At length
Ferdinand agreed to pay Suleiman an annual tribute for the
small portion about 12,228 sq. m. of Hungary which he held.
During Charles V.'s struggles with the German Protestants,
Ferdinand preserved a neutral attitude, which contributed to
gain Germany a short period of internal peace. Though Ferdi-
nand himself did not take a leading part in German religious or
foreign politics, the period was one of intense interest to Austria.
Throughout the years from 1519 to 1648 there are, said Stubbs,
two distinct ideas in progress which " may be regarded as giving
a unity to the whole period. . . . The Reformation is one, the
claims of the House of Austria is the other." Austria did not
benefit from the reign of Charles V. The emperor was too much
absorbed in the affairs of the rest of his vast dominions,
and eS ' nota bly those of the Empire, rent in two by religious
AustHa. differences and the secular ambitions for which those
were the excuse, to give any effective attention to its
needs. The peace of Augsburg, 1555, which recognized a dualism
within the Empire in religion as in politics, marked the failure of
his plan of union (see CHARLES V.; GERMANY; MAURICE OF
SAXONY) ; and meanwhile he had been able to accomplish nothing
to rescue Hungary from the Turkish yoke. It was left for his
brother Ferdinand, a ruler of consummate wisdom (1556-1564)
"to establish the modern Habsburg-Austrian empire with its
exclusive territorial interests, its administrative experiments,
its intricacies of religion and of race."
Before his death Ferdinand divided the inheritance of the
German Habsburgs between his three sons. Austria proper was
The policy ' e ^ to h' s eldest son Maximilian, Tirol to the archduke
ofFerdi- Ferdinand; and Styria with Carinthia and Carniola
oandand to the archduke Charles. Under the emperor Maxi-
m/Wan//. mman II- d 564-1 S?6), who was also king of Bohemia
and Hungary, a liberal policy preserved peace, but
he was unable to free his government from its humiliating
position of a tributary to the Turk, and he could do nothing
to found religious liberty within his dominions on a permanent
basis. The whole of Austria and nearly the whole of Styria
were mainly Lutheran; in Bohemia, Silesia and Moravia,
various forms of Christian belief struggled for mastery; and
Catholicism was almost confined to the mountains of Tirol.
The The accession of Rudolph II. 1 (1576-1612), a fanatical
reign of Spanish Catholic, changed the situation entirely.
Rudolph Under him the Jesuits were encouraged to press on
the counter-Reformation. In the early part of his
reign there was hardly any government at all. In Bohemia a
state of semi-independence existed, while Hungary preferred
the Turk to the emperor. In both kingdoms Rudolph had
failed to assert his sovereign power except in fitful attempts to
extirpate heresy. With anarchy prevalent within the Austrian
dominions some action became necessary. Accordingly in 1606
The the archdukes made a compact agreeing to acknowledge
family the archduke Matthias as head of the "family. This
< i606 PaCt ' arran g emen t proved far from successful. Matthias,
who was emperor from 1612 to 1619, proved unable
to restore order, and when he died Bohemia was practically
independent. His successor Ferdinand II. (1619-1637) was
strong of will; and resolved to win back Germany to the Catholic
faith. As archduke of Styria he had crushed out Protestantism
in that duchy, and having been elected king of Bohemia in 1618
1 Rudolph V. as archduke of Austria, II. as emperor.
was resolved to establish there the rule of the Jesuits. His
attempt to do so led to the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War
(see BOHEMIA; THIRTY YEARS' WAR). Till 1630 the
fortunes of Austria brightened under the active rule y^,^ '"'
of Ferdinand, who was assisted by Maximilian of War.
Bavaria and the Catholic League, and by Wallenstein.
The Palatinate was conquered, the Danish king was overthrown,
and it seemed that Austria would establish its predominance
over the whole of Germany, and that the Baltic would become
an Austrian lake. The fortunes of Austria never seemed brighter
than in 1628 when Wallenstein began the siege of Stralsund.
His failure, followed by the arrival of Gustavus Adolphus in
Germany in 1630, proved the death blow of Austrian hopes.
In 1632 Gustavus Adolphus was killed, in 1634 Wallenstein was
assassinated, and in 1635 France entered into the war. The
Thirty Years' War now ceased to be a religious struggle The
between Catholicism and Protestantism; it resolved Swedish
itself, into a return to the old political strife between and French
France and the Habsburgs. Till 1648 the Bourbon '
and Habsburg powers continued the war, and at the
peace of Westphalia Austria suffered severe losses. Ferdinand
III. (1637-1657) was forced to yield Alsace to France, to grant
territorial supremacy, including the right of making The peace
alliances, to the states of the Empire, and to acknow- of West-
ledge the concurrent jurisdiction of the imperial p .^fg a '
chamber and the Aulic council. The disintegration
of the Holy Roman Empire was now practically accomplished,
and though the possession of the imperial dignity continued to
give the rulers of Austria prestige, the Habsburgs henceforward
devoted themselves to their Austrian interests rather than to
those of the Empire.
In 1657 Leopold I., who had already ruled the Austrian
dominions for two years, succeeded his father Ferdinand and
was crowned emperor in the following year. His long LeopoW /
reign of 48 years was of great importance for Austria,
as determining both the internal character and the external policy
of the monarchy. The long struggle with France to which the
ambitions of Louis XIV. gave rise, and which culminated in the
War of Spanish Succession, belongs less to the history of Austria
proper than to that of Germany and of Europe. Of more
importance to Austria itself was the war with Sweden (1657-60)
which resulted in the peace of Oliva, by which the independence
of Poland was secured and the frontier of Hungary safeguarded,-
and the campaigns against the Turks (1662-64 and 1683-99),
by which the Ottoman power was driven from Hungary, and
the Austrian attitude towards Turkey and the Slav peoples of
the Balkans determined for a century to come. The first war,
due to Ottoman aggression in Transylvania, ended
with Montecuculi's victory over the grand vizier at Turkey.
St Gothard on the Raab on the ist of August 1664.
The general political situation prevented Leopold from taking
full advantage of this, and the peace of Vasvar (August 10)
left the Turks in possession of Nagyvarad (Grosswardein) and
the fortress of Ersekujv&r (Neuhausel), Transylvania being
recognized as an independent principality. The next Turkish
war was the direct outcome of Leopold's policy in Hungary,
where the persecution of the Protestants and the suppression
of the constitution in 1658, led to a widespread conspiracy.
This was mercilessly suppressed; and though after a period
of arbitrary government (1672-1679), the palatinate and the
constitution, with certain concessions to the Protestants, were
restored, the discontent continued. In 1683, invited by Hun-
garian malcontents and spurred on by Louis XIV., the Turks
burst into Hungary, overran the country and appeared before
the walls of Vienna. The victory of the i2th of September,
gained over the Turks by John Sobieski (see JOHN III. SOBIESKI,
KING or POLAND) not only saved the Austrian capital, but was
the first of a series of successes which drove the Turks perman-
ently beyond the Danube, and established the power of Austria
in the East. The victories of Charles of Lorraine at Parkany
(1683) and Esztergom (Gran) (1685) were followed by the
capture of Budapest (1686) and the defeat of the Ottomans at
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Monies (1688). In 1688 the elector took Belgrade; in 1691
Louis William I. of Baden won the battle of Slankamen, and
on the i ith of September 1697 Prince Eugene gained the crowning
victory of Zenta. This was followed, on the 26th of January
1699, by the peace of Karlowitz, by which Slavonia, Transylvania
and all Hungary, except the banat of Temesvar, were ceded to
the Austrian crown. Leopold had wisely decided to initiate a
conciliatory policy in Hungary. At the diet of Pressburg
(1687-1688) the Hungarian crown had been made hereditary
in the house of Habsburg, and the crown prince Joseph had
been crowned hereditary king of Hungary (q.v.). In 1697
Transylvania was united to the Hungarian monarchy. A
further fact of great prospective importance was the im-
migration, after an abortive rising against the Turks, of some
30,000 Slav and Albanian families into Slavonia and southern
Hungary, where they were granted by the emperor Leopold
a certain autonomy and the recognition of the Orthodox
religion.
By the conquest of Hungary and Transylvania Leopold
completed the edifice of the Austrian monarchy, of which the
foundations had been laid by Ferdinand I. in 1526. He had
also done much for its internal consolidation. By the death of
the archduke Sigismund in 1665 he not only gained Tirol, but
a considerable sum of money, which he used to buy back the
Silesian principalities of Oppeln and Ratibor, pledged by
Ferdinand III. to the Poles. In the administration of his
dominions, too, Leopold succeeded in strengthening the authority
of the central government. The old estates, indeed, survived;
but the emperor kept the effective power in his own hands, and
to his reign are traceable the first beginnings of that system of
centralized bureaucracy which was established under Maria
Theresa and survived, for better or for worse, till the revolution
of 1848. It was under Leopold, also, that the Austrian standing
army was established in spite of much opposition; the regiments
raised in 1672 were never disbanded. For the intellectual life
of the country Leopold did much. In spite of his intolerant
attitude towards religious dissent, he proved himself an en-
lightened patron of learning. He helped in the establishment
of the universities of Innsbruck and Olmutz; and under his
auspices, after the defeat of the Turks in 1683, Vienna began to
develop from a mere frontier fortress into one of the most
brilliant capitals of Europe. (See LEOPOLD I.)
Leopold died in 1705 during the war of Spanish Succession
( 1 702-13), which he left as an evil inheritance to his sons Joseph I.
Warot (d. 1711) and Charles VI. The result of the war was
Spanish a further aggrandizement of the house of Austria;
k ut not to tne extent *h at h a ^ Deen hoped. Apart
from the fact that British and Austrian troops had been
unable to deprive Philip V. of his throne, it was from the point
of view of Europe at large by no means desirable that Charles VI.
should succeed in reviving the empire of Charles V. By the
treaty of Utrecht, accordingly, Spain was left to the House of
Bourbon, while that of Austria received the Spanish Netherlands,
Sardinia and Naples.
The treaty of Karlowitz, and the settlement of 1713-1714,
marked a new starting-point in the history of Austria. The
stH efforts of Turkey to regain her ascendancy in eastern
from /7/5 Europe at the expense of the Habsburgs had ended
to 1740. in failure, and henceforward Turkish efforts were
confined to resisting the steady development of Austria
in the direction of Constantinople. The treaties of Utrecht,
Rastadt and Baden had also re-established and strengthened
the position of the Austrian monarchy in western Europe.
The days of French invasions of Germany had for the time ceased,
and revenge for the attacks made by Louis XIV. was found in
the establishment of Austrian supremacy in Italy and in the
substitution of Austrian for Spanish domination in the Nether-
lands.
The situation, though apparently favourable, was full of
difficulty, and only a statesman of uncommon dexterity could
have guided Austria with success through the ensuing years.
Composed of a congeries of nationalities which included Czechs,
Magyars, Ruthenes, Rumanians, Germans, Italians, Flemings
and other races, and with territories separated by many miles,
the Habsburg dominions required from their ruler patience,
tolerance, administrative skill and a full knowledge of the
currents of European diplomacy. Charles VI. possessed none
of these qualities; and when he died in 1740, the weakness
of the scattered Habsburg empire rendered it an object of the
cupidity of the continental powers. Yet, though the War of
Spanish Succession had proved a heavy drain on the resources
of the hereditary dominions of the Austrian crown, Charles VI.
had done much to compensate for this by the successes of his
arms in eastern Europe. In 1716, in alliance with Venice, he
declared war on the Turks; Eugene's victory at Peterwardein
involved the conquest of the banat of Temesvar, and was followed
in 1717 by the capture of Belgrade. By the treaty signed at
Passarowitz on the zist of July 1718, the banat, which rounded
off Hungary and Belgrade, with the northern districts of Servia,
were annexed to the Habsburg monarchy.
Important as these gains were, the treaty none the less once
more illustrated the perpetual sacrifice of the true interests of
the hereditary dominions of the house of Habsburg to its
European entanglements. Had the war continued, Austria
would undoubtedly have extended her conquests down the
Danube. But Charles was anxious about Italy, then in danger
from Spain, which under Alberoni's guidance had occupied
Sardinia and Sicily. On the 2nd of August 1718, accordingly,
Charles joined the Triple Alliance, henceforth the Quadruple
Alliance. The coercion of Spain resulted in a peace by which
Charles obtained Sicily in exchange for Sardinia. The shifting
of the balance of power that followed belongs to the history of
Europe (q.v.) ; for Austria the only important outcome was that
in 1731 Charles found himself isolated. Being without a son, he
was now anxious to secure the throne for his daughter
Maria Theresa, in accordance with the Pragmatic p^gm a tic
Sanction of the igth of April 1713, in which he had Sanction.
pronounced the indivisibility of the monarchy, and
had settled the succession on his daughter, in default of a male
heir. It now became his object to secure the adhesion of the
powers to this instrument. In 1731 Great Britain and Holland
agreed to respect it, in return for the cession of Parma, Piacenza
and Guastalla to Don Carlos; but the hostility of the Bourbon
powers continued, resulting in 1733 in the War of Polish Succes-
sion, the outcome of which was the acquisition of Lorraine by
France, and of Naples, Sicily and the Tuscan ports by Don
Carlos, while the power of the Habsburg monarchy in northern
Italy was strengthened by the acquisition of Parma, Piacenza
and Guastalla. At the same time Spain and Sardinia adhered
to the Pragmatic Sanction. Francis, the dispossessed duke of
Lorraine, was to be compensated with Tuscany. On the I2th
of February 1736 he was married to the archduchess Maria
Theresa, and on the nth of May following he signed the formal
act ceding Lorraine to France.
The last years of Charles VI. were embittered by the disastrous
outcome of the war with Turkey (1738-1739), on which he had
felt compelled to embark in accordance with the terms
of a treaty of alliance with Russia signed in 1726. Belgrade,
After a campaign of varying fortunes the Turks beat 1139.
the imperial troops at Krotzka on the 23rd of July
1739 and laid siege to Belgrade, where on the ist of September
a treaty was signed, which, with the exception of the banat,
surrendered everything that Austria had gained by the treaty
of Passarowitz. On the 2oth of October 1740, Charles died,
leaving his dominions in no condition to resist the attacks of
the powers, which, in spite of having adhered to the Pragmatic
Sanction, now sought to profit from weakness. Yet for
their internal development Charles had done much. His religious
attitude was moderate and tolerant, and he did his best to pro-
mote the enlightenment of his subjects. He was zealous, too,
for the promotion of trade and industry, and, besides the East
India Company which he established at Ostend, he encouraged
the development of Trieste and Fiume as sea-ports and centres
of trade with the Levant.
m. i a
IO
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
Maria
Theresa.
The accession of Maria Theresa to the throne of the Habsburgs
marks an important epoch in the history of Austria. For a
while, indeed, it seemed that the monarchy was on
the point of dissolution. To the diplomacy of the
i8th century the breach of a solemn compact was but
lightly regarded; and Charles VI. had neglected the advice of
Prince Eugene to leave an effective army of 200,000 men as a
more solid guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction than the signa-
tures of the powers. As it was, the Austrian forces, disorganized
in the long confusion of the Turkish wars, were in no condition
to withstand Frederick the Great, when in 1 740, at the head of
the splendid army bequeathed to him by his father, he invaded
Silesia (see AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF). The Prussian
victory at Mollwitz (April 10, 1741) brought into the field against
Austria all the powers which were ambitious of expansion at
her expense: France, Bavaria, Spain, Saxony and Sardinia.
Nor was the peril wholly external. Apart from the perennial
discontents of Magyars and Slavs, the confusion and corruption
of the administration, and the misery caused by the ruin of the
finances, had made the Habsburg dynasty unpopular even in its
German states, and in Vienna itself a large section of public
opinion was loudly in favour of the claims of Charles of Bavaria.
Yet the war, if it revealed the weakness of the Austrian monarchy,
revealed also unexpected sources of strength. Not the least of
these was the character of Maria Theresa herself, who to the
fascination of a young and beautiful woman added a very
masculine resolution and judgment. In response to her personal
appeal, and also to her wise and timely concessions, the Hun-
garians had rallied to her support, and for the first time in history
awoke not only to a feeling of enthusiastic loyalty to a Habsburg
monarch, but also to the realization that their true interests
were bound up with those of Austria (see HUNGARY: History).
Although, then, as the result of the war, Silesia was by the
treaty of Dresden transferred from Austria to Prussia, while in
Italy by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 cessions were
made at the expense of the house of Habsburg to the Spanish
Don Philip and to Sardinia, the Austrian monarchy as a whole
had displayed a vitality that had astonished the world, and was
in some respects stronger than at the beginning of the struggle,
notably in the great improvement in the army and in the posses-
sion of generals schooled by the experience of active service.
The period from 1747 to 1756, the year of the outbreak of the
Seven Years' War, was occupied in preparations for carrying
into effect the determination of Maria Theresa to recover the
lost provinces. To give any chance of success, it was recognized
that a twofold change of system was necessary: in internal and
in external affairs. To strengthen the state internally a complete
revolution of its administration was begun under the auspices
of Count F. W. Haugwitz (1700-1765); the motley system which
had survived from the middle ages was gradually replaced by
an administrative machinery uniformly organized and central-
ized; and the army especially, hitherto patched together from
the quotas raised and maintained by the various diets and
provincial estates, was withdrawn from their interference.
These reforms were practically confined to the central provinces
of the monarchy; for in Hungary, as well as in the outlying
territories of Lombardy and the Netherlands, it was recognized
that the conservative temper of the peoples made any revolu-
tionary change in the traditional system inadvisable.
Meanwhile, in foreign affairs, it had become clear that for
Austria the enemy to be dreaded was no longer France, but
Prussia, and Kaunitz prepared the way for a diplomatic
French"' revolution, which took effect when, on the ist of May
alliance, 1756, Austria and France concluded the first treaty
and Seven of Versailles. The long rivalry between Bourbons and
Means' Habsburgs was thus ended, and France and Austria
remained in alliance or at peace until the outbreak of
the French Revolution. So far as Austria was concerned, the
Seven Years' War (q.v.) in which France and Austria were ranged
against Prussia and Great Britain, was an attempt on the part
of Maria Theresa to recover Silesia. It failed; and the peace of
Hubertsburg, signed on the isth of February 1763, left Germany
Bavaria.
divided between Austria and Prussia, whose rivalry for the
hegemony was to last until the victory of Koniggratz (1866) de-
finitely decided the issue in favour of the Hohenzollern monarchy.
The loss of Silesia led Austria to look for " compensation "
elsewhere. The most obvious direction in which this could be
sought was in Bavaria, ruled by the decadent house
of Wittelsbach, the secular rival of the house of
Habsburg in southern Germany. The question of the
annexation of Bavaria by conquest or exchange had
occupied the minds of Austrian statesmen throughout the
century: it would not only have removed a perpetual menace
to the peace of Austria, but would have given to the Habsburg
monarchy an overwhelming strength in South Germany. The
matter came to an issue in 1777, on the death of the elector
Maximilian III. The heir was the elector palatine Charles
Theodore, but Joseph II., who had been elected emperor in 1765,
in succession to his father, and appointed co-regent with his
mother claimed the inheritance, and prepared to assert his
claims by force. The result was the so-called War of Bavarian
Succession. As a matter of fact, however, though the armies
under Frederick and Joseph were face to face in the field, the
affair was settled without actual fighting; Maria Theresa, fearing
the chances of another struggle with Prussia, overruled her son
at the last moment, and by the treaty of Teschen agreed to be
content with the cession of the Quarter of the Inn (Innviertel)
and some other districts.
Meanwhile the ambition of Catherine of Russia, and the war
with Turkey by which the empire of the tsars was advanced to
the Black Sea and threatened to establish itself south
of the Danube, were productive of consequences of Austria
enormous importance to Austria in the East. Russian ana the
control of the Danube was a far more serious menace Ottoman
to Austria than the neighbourhood of the decadent
Ottoman power; and for a while the policy of Austria towards
the Porte underwent a change that foreshadowed her attitude
towards the Eastern Question in the ipth century. In spite of
the reluctance of Maria Theresa, Kaunitz, in July 1771, concluded
a defensive alliance with the Porte. He would have exchanged
this for an active co-operation with Turkey, could Frederick
the Great have been persuaded to promise at least neutrality
in the event of a Russo- Austrian War. But Frederick was un-
willing to break with Russia, with whom he was negotiating the
partition of Poland; Austria in these circumstances dared not
take the offensive; and Maria Theresa was compelled to pur-
chase the modification of the extreme claims of Russia in Turkey
by agreeing to, and sharing in, the spoliation of Poland. Her
own share of the spoils was the acquisition, by the
first treaty of partition (August 5, 1772), of Galicia
and Lodomeria. Turkey was left in the lurch; and
Austrian troops even occupied portions of Moldavia, in order
to secure the communication between the new Polish provinces
and Transylvania. At Constantinople, too, Austria once more
supported Russian policy, and was rewarded, in 1777, by the
acquisition of Bukovina from Turkey. In Italy the influence of
the House of Austria had been strengthened by the marriage
of the archduke Ferdinand with the heiress of the d'Estes of
Modena, and the establishment of the archduke Leopold in the
grand-duchy of Tuscany.
In internal affairs Maria Theresa may be regarded as the
practical founder of the unified Austrian state. The new system
of centralization has already been referred to. It only / nterna/
remains to add that, in carrying out this system, Maria reforms
Theresa was too wise to fall into the errors afterwards under
made by her son and successor. She was no doctrin-
aire, and consistently acted on the principle once laid
down by Machiavelli, that while changing the substance, the
prince should be careful to preserve the form of old institutions.
Alongside the new bureaucracy, the old estates survived in
somnolent inactivity, and even in Hungary, though the ancient
constitution was left untouched, the diet was only summoned
four times during the reign, and reforms were carried out, without
protest, by royal ordinance. It was under Maria Theresa, too,
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
ii
that the attempt was first made to make German the official
language of the whole monarchy; an attempt which was partly
successful even in Hungary, especially so far as the army was
concerned, though Latin remained the official tongue of the diet,
the county-assemblies and the courts.
The social, religious and educational reforms of Maria Theresa
also mark her reign as the true epoch of transition from medieval
to modern conditions in Austria. In religious matters the
empress, though a devout Catholic and herself devoted to the
Holy See, was carried away by the prevailing reaction, in which
her ministers shared, against the pretensions of the papacy.
The anti-papal tendency, known as Febronianism (g.v.), had made
immense headway, not only among the laity but among the
clergy in the Austrian dominions. By a new law, papal bulls
could not be published without the consent of the crown, and
the direct intercourse of the bishops with Rome was forbidden;
the privileges of the religious orders were curtailed; and the
education of the clergy was brought under state control. It was,
however, only with reluctance that Maria Theresa agreed to
carry out the papal bull suppressing the Society of Jesus; and,
while declaring herself against persecution, she could never be
persuaded to accept the views of Kaunitz and Joseph in favour
of toleration. Parallel with the assertion of the rights of the
state as against the church, was the revolution effected in the
educational system of the monarchy. This, too, was taken from
the control of the church; the universities were remodelled and
modernized by the introduction of new faculties, the study of
ecclesiastical law being transferred from that of theology to that
of jurisprudence, and the elaborate system of elementary and
secondary education was established, which survived with slight
modification till 1869.
The death of Maria Theresa in 1780 left Joseph II. free to
attempt the drastic revolution from above, which had been
Joseph II. restrained by the wise statesmanship of his mother.
and He was himself a strange incarnation at once of
" Joseph- doctrinaire liberalism and the old Habsburg autocracy.
Of the essential conditions of his empire he was con-
stitutionally unable to form a conception. He was a disciple,
not of Machiavelli, but of Rousseau; and his scattered
dominions, divided by innumerable divergences of racial and
class prejudice, and enncumbered with traditional institutions
to which the people clung with passionate conservatism, he
regarded as so much vacant territory on which to build up his
ideal state. He was, in fact, a Revolutionist who happened also
to be an emperor. " Reason " and " enlightenment " were his
watchwords; opposition to his wise measures he regarded as
obscurantist and unreasonable, and unreason, if it proved
stubborn, as a vice to be corrected with whips. In this spirit
he at once set to work to reconstruct the state, on lines that
strangely anticipated the principles of the Constituent Assembly
of 1789. He refused to be crowned or to take the oath of the
local constitutions, and divided the whole monarchy into thirteen
departments, to be governed under a uniform system. In
ecclesiastical matters his policy was also that of " reform from
above," the complete subordination of the clergy to the state,
and the severance of all effective ties with Rome. This treatment
of the " Fakirs and Ulemas " (as he called them in his letters),
who formed the most powerful element in the monarchy, would
alone have ensured the failure of his plans, but failure was made
certain by the introduction of the conscription, which turned
even the peasants, whom he had done much to emancipate,
against him. The threatened revolt of Hungary, and the actual
revolt of Tirol and of the Netherlands (see BELGIUM: History)
together with the disasters of the war with Turkey, forced him,
before he died, to the formal reversal of the whole policy of
reform.
In his foreign policy Joseph II. had been scarcely less unhappy.
In 1784 he had resumed his plan of acquiring Bavaria for Austria
by negotiating with the elector Charles Theodore its exchange
for the Netherlands, which were to be erected for his benefit
into a " Kingdom of Burgundy." The elector was not unwilling,
but the scheme was wrecked by the opposition of the heir to
Leopold
II.
the Bavarian throne, the duke of Zweibrucken, in response to
whose appeal Frederick the Great formed, on the 23rd of July
1785, a confederation of German princes (Ftirstenbund) for the
purpose of opposing the threatened preponderance of Austria.
Prussia was thus for the first time formally recognized as the
protector of the German states against Austrian ambition, and
had. at the same time become the centre of an anti-Austrian
alliance, which embraced Sweden, Poland and the maritime
powers. In these circumstances the war with Turkey, on which
Joseph embarked, in alliance with Russia, in 1788, would hardly
have been justified by the most brilliant success. The first
campaign, however, which he conducted in person was a dismal
failure; the Turks followed the Austrian army, disorganized
by disease, across the Danube, and though the transference of
the command to the veteran marshal Loudon somewhat retrieved
the initial disasters, his successes were more than counterbalanced
by the alliance, concluded on the 3ist of January 1790, between
Prussia and Turkey. Three weeks later, on the 2oth of February
1790, Joseph died broken-hearted.
The situation needed all the statesmanship of the new ruler,
Leopold II. This was less obvious in his domestic than in his
foreign policy, though perhaps equally present. As
grand-duke of Tuscany Leopold had won the reputation
of an enlightened and liberal ruler; but meanwhile
" Josephinism " had not been justified by its results, and the
progress of the Revolution in France was beginning to scare even
enlightened princes into reaction. Leopold, then, reverted to
the traditional Habsburg methods; the old supremacy of the
Church, regarded as the one effective bond of empire, was
restored; and the Einheitsstaat was once more resolved into its
elements, with the old machinery of diets and estates, and the
old abuses. It was the beginning of that policy of " stability "
associated later with Metternich, which was to last till the
cataclysm of 1848. For the time, the policy was justified by
its results. The spirit of revolutionary France had not yet
touched the heart of the Habsburg empire, and national rivalries
were expressed, not so much in expansive ambitions, as in a
somnolent clinging to traditional privileges. Leopold, therefore,
who made his debut on the European stage as the executor of
the ban of the Empire against the insurgent Liegeois, was free to
pose as the champion of order against the Revolution, without
needing to fear the resentment of his subjects. He played this
role with consummate skill in the negotiations that led up to the
treaty of Reichenbach (August 15, 1790), which ended the
quarrel with Prussia and paved the way to the armistice of
Giurgevo with Turkey (September 10). Leopold was now free
to deal with the Low Countries, which were reduced to order
before the end of the year. On the 4th of August 1791, was
signed at Sistova the definitive peace with Turkey, which
practically established the status quo.
On the 6th of October 1790, Leopold had been crowned Roman
emperor at Frankfort, and it was as emperor, not as Habsburg,
that he first found himself in direct antagonism to the Austria
France of the Revolution. The fact that Leopold's aa a the
sister, Marie Antoinette, was the wife of Louis XVI. French
had done little to cement the Franco-Austrian alliance,
which since 1763 had been practically non-existent;
nor was it now the mainspring of his attitude towards revolu-
tionary France. But by the decree of the 4th of August, which
in the general abolition of feudal rights involved the possessions
of many German princes enclaves in Alsace and Lorraine, the
Constituent Assembly had made the first move in the war
against the established European system. Leopold protested
as sovereign of Germany; and the protest was soon enlarged
into one made in the name of Europe. The circular letter of
Count Kaunitz, dated the 6th of July 1791, calling on the
sovereigns to unite against the Revolution, was at once the
beginning of the Concert of Europe, and in a sense the last
manifesto of the Holy Roman Empire as " the centre of political
unity." But the common policy proclaimed in the famous
declaration of Pillnitz (August 27), was soon wrecked upon the
particular interests of the powers. Both Austria and Prussia
12
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
were much occupied with the Polish question, and to have
plunged into a crusade against France would have been to have
left Poland, where the new constitution had been proclaimed
on the 3rd of May, to the mercy of Russia. Towards the further
development of events in France, therefore, Leopold assumed
at first a studiously moderate attitude; but his refusal to
respond to the demand of the French government for the dis-
persal of the corps of Emigres assembled under the protection
of the German princes on the frontier of France, and the insistence
on the rights of princes dispossessed in Alsace and Lorraine,
precipitated the crisis. On the 25th of January 1792 the French
Assembly adopted the decree declaring that, in the event of no
satisfactory reply having been received from the emperor by the
ist of March, war should be declared. On the 7th of February
Austria and Prussia signed at Berlin an offensive and defensive
treaty of alliance. Thus was ushered in the series of stupendous
events which were to change the face of Europe and profoundly
to affect the destinies of Austria. Leopold himself did not live
to see the beginning of the struggle; he died on the ist of March
1792, the day fixed by the Legislative Assembly as that on which
the question of peace or war was to be decided.
The events of the period that followed, in which Austria
necessarily played a conspicuous part, are dealt with elsewhere
Effects of ( see EUROPE, FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS,
tbeRevol- NAPOLEON, NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). Here it will
utionary only be necessary to mention those which form per-
Wars. manent landmarks in the progressive conformation of
the Austrian monarchy. Such was the second partition
of Poland (January 23, 1793), which eliminated the " buffer
state " on which Austrian statesmanship had hitherto laid such
importance, and brought the Austrian and Russian frontiers into
contact. Such, too, was the treaty of Campo Formio (October 17,
1797) which ended the first revolutionary war. By this treaty
the loss of the Belgian provinces was confirmed, and though
Austria gained Venice, the establishment of French preponder-
ance in the rest of Italy made a breach in the tradition of Habs-
burg supremacy in the peninsula, which was to have its full
effect only in the struggles of the next century. The rise of
Napoleon, and his masterful interference in Germany, produced
a complete and permanent revolution in the relations of Austria
to the German states. The campaigns which issued in the treaty
of Luneville (February 9, 1801) practically sealed the fate of the
old Empire. Even were the venerable name to survive, it was
felt that it would pass, by the election of the princes now tributary
to France, from the house of Habsburg to that of Bonaparte.
Francis II. determined to forestall the possible indignity of the
The subordination of his family to an upstart dynasty.
"Empire On the I4th of May 1804, Napoleon was proclaimed
' emperor of the French; on the nth of August
End of the Francis II. assumed the style of Francis I., hereditary
Holy emperor of Austria. Two years later, when the defeat
Roman o f Austerlitz had led to the treaty of Pressburg
mpre. (January i, 1806), by which Austria lost Venice and
Tirol, and Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine had broken
the unity of Germany, Francis formally abdicated the title and
functions of Holy Roman emperor (August 6, 1806).
Austria had to undergo further losses and humiliations,
notably by the treaty of Vienna (1809), before the outcome of
Napoleon's Russian campaign in 1812 gave her the opportunity
for recuperation and revenge. The skilful diplomacy of Metter-
nich, who was now at the head of the Austrian government,
enabled Austria to take full advantage of the situation created
by the disaster to Napoleon's arms. His object was to recover
Austria's lost possessions and if possible to add to them, a policy
which did not necessarily involve the complete overthrow of the
French emperor. Austria, therefore, refused to join the alliance
between Russia and Prussia signed on the I7th of March 1813,
but pressed on her armaments so as to be ready in any event.
Her opportunity came after the defeats of the Allies at Liitzen
and Bautzen and the conclusion of an armistice at Pleswitz.
Between 200,000 and 300,000 Austrian troops were massed in
Bohemia; and Austria took up the r61e of mediator, prepared
to throw the weight of her support into the scale of whichever
side should prove most amenable to her claims. The news of
the battle of Vittoria, following on the reluctance of Napoleon
to listen to demands involving the overthrow of the whole
of his political system in central Europe, decided Austria in
favour of the Allies. By this fateful decision Napoleon's fall
was assured. By the treaty of Trachenberg (July 12, 1813)
the Grand Alliance was completed; on the i6th, I7th and
1 8th of October the battle of Leipzig was fought; and the
victorious advance into France was begun, which issued,
on the nth of April 1814, in Napoleon's abdication. (See
NAPOLEON, NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS, EUROPE.)
It was a recognition of the decisive part played by Austria
in these great events that Vienna was chosen as the scene of the
great international congress summoned (September
1814) for the purpose of re-establishing the balance /vSnmi.
of power in Europe, which Napoleon's conquests had
upset. An account of the congress is given elsewhere (see
VIENNA, CONGRESS OF). The result for Austria was a triumphant
vindication of Metternich's diplomacy. He had, it is true, been
unable to prevent the retention of the grand-duchy of Warsaw
by Alexander of Russia; but with the aid of Great Britain and
France (secret treaty of January 3, 1815) he had frustrated
the efforts of Prussia to absorb the whole of Saxony, Bavaria
was forced to disgorge the territories gained for her by Napoleon
at Austria's expense, Illyria and Dalmatia were regained, and
Lombardy was added to Venetia to constitute a kingdom under
the Habsburg crown; while in the whole Italian peninsula
French was replaced by Austrian influence. In Germany the
settlement was even more fateful for Austria's future. The
Holy Empire, in spite of the protests of the Holy See, was not
restored, Austria preferring the loose confederation of sovereign
states (Staatenbund) actually constituted under her presidency.
Such a body, Metternich held, " powerful for defence, powerless
for offence," would form a guarantee of the peace of central
Europe and of the preponderance of Austria; and in its councils
Austrian diplomacy, backed by the weight of the Habsburg
power beyond the borders of Germany, would exercise a greater
influence than any possible prestige derived from a venerable
title that had become a by-word for the union of unlimited
pretensions with practical impotence. Moreover, to the refusal
to revive the Empire which shattered so many patriotic hopes
in Germany Austria added another decision yet more fateful.
By relinquishing her claim to the Belgian provinces and other
outlying territories in western Germany, and by acquiescing in
the establishment of Prussia in the Rhine provinces, she abdicated
to Prussia her position as the bulwark of Germany against France,
and hastened the process of her own gravitation towards the
Slavonic East to which the final impetus was given in 1866.
In order to understand the foreign policy of Austria, insepar-
ably associated with the name of Metternich, during the period
from the close of the congress of Vienna to the out- /,,/ c .,-,,..,/
break of the revolutions of 1848, it is necessary to know affairs of
something of the internal conditions of the monarchy AusM *
before and during this time. In 1792 Leopold II. had jc" a ^/ //
been succeeded by his son Francis II. His popular and
designation of " our good Kaiser Franz " this monarch /Wetter-
owed to a certain simplicity of address and bonhomie nlch '
which pleased the Viennese, certainly not to his serious qualities
as a ruler. He shared to the full the autocratic temper of the
Habsburgs, their narrow-mindedness and their religious and
intellectual obscurantism; and the qualities which would have
made him a kindly, if somewhat tyrannical, father of a family,
and an excellent head clerk, were hardly those required by the
conditions of the Austrian monarchy during a singularly critical
period of its history.
The personal character of the emperor, moreover, gained a
special importance owing to the modifications that were made
in the administrative system of the empire. This had been origin-
ally organized in a series of departments: Aulic chanceries for
Austria, for Hungary and Transylvania, a general Aulic chamber
for finance, domains, mines, trade, post, &c., an Aulic council
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
of war, a general directory of accounts, and a chancery of the
household, court and state. The heads of all these departments
had the rank of secretaries of state and met in council under
the royal presidency. In course of time, however, this body
became too unwieldy for an effective cabinet, and Maria Theresa
established the council of state. During the early years of the
reign of Francis, the emperor kept himself in touch with the
various departments by means of a cabinet minister; but he
had a passion for detail, and after 1805 he himself undertook
the function of keeping the administration together. At the
same time he had no personal contact with ministers, who might
communicate with him only in writing, and for months together
never met for the discussion of business. The council of state
was, moreover, itself soon enlarged and subdivided; and in
course of time the emperor alone represented any synthesis of
the various departments of the administration. The jurisdiction
of the heads of departments, moreover, was strictly denned,
and all that lay outside this was reserved for the imperial decision.
Whatever was covered by established precedent could be settled
by the department at once; but matters falling outside such
precedent, however insignificant, had to be referred to the
throne. 1 A system so inelastic, and so deadening to all initiative,
could have but one result. Gradually the officials, high and low,
subjected to an elaborate system of checks, refused to take
any responsibility whatever; and the minutest administrative
questions were handed up, through all the stages of the bureau-
cratic hierarchy, to be shelved and forgotten in the imperial
cabinet. For Francis could not possibly himself deal with all
the questions of detail arising in his vast empire, even had he
desired to do so. In fact, his attitude towards all troublesome
problems was summed up in his favourite phrase, " Let us sleep
upon it ": questions unanswered would answer themselves.
The result was the gradual atrophy of the whole administrative
machine. The Austrian government was not consciously
tyrannical, even in Italy; and Francis himself, though deter-
mined to be absolute, intended also to be paternal. Nor would
the cruelties inflicted on the bolder spirits who dared to preach
reform, which made the Austrian government a by-word among
the nations, alone have excited the passionate spirit of revolt
which carried all before it in 1848. The cause of this is to be
sought rather in the daily friction of a system which had ceased
to be efficient and only succeeded in irritating the public opinion
it was powerless to curb.
Metternich himself was fully conscious of the evil. He
recognized that the fault of the government lay in the fact that
it did not govern, and he deplored that his own function, in a
decadent age, was but " to prop up mouldering institutions."
He was not constitutionally averse from change; and he was
too clear-sighted not to see that, sooner or later, change was
inevitable. But his interest was in the fascinating game of diplo-
macy; he was ambitious of playing the leading part on the great
stage of international politics; and he was too consummate
a courtier to risk the loss of the imperial favour by any insistence
on unpalatable reforms, which, after all, would perhaps only
reveal the necessity for the complete revolution which he feared.
The alternative was to use the whole force of the government
to keep things as they were. The disintegrating force of the
ever-simmering racial rivalries could be kept in check by the
army ; Hungarian regiments garrisoned Italy, Italian regiments
guarded Galicia, Poles occupied Austria, and Austrians Hungary.
The peril from the infiltration of " revolutionary " ideas from
without was met by the erection round the Austrian dominions
of a Chinese wall of tariffs and censors, which had, however, no
more success than is usual with such expedients. 2 The peril
from the independent growth of Liberalism within was guarded
against by a rigid supervision of the press and the re-establish-
ment of clerical control over education. Music alone flourished,
1 Thus, while the number of recruits, though varying from year
to year, could be settled by the war department, the question of
the claim of a single conscript for exemption, on grounds not recog-
nized by precedent, could only be settled by imperial decree.
' Forbidden books were the only ones read, and forbidden news-
papers the only ones believed.
free from government interference; but, curiously enough,
the movements, in Bohemia, Croatia and elsewhere, for the
revival of the national literatures and languages which were
to issue in the most difficult problem facing the Austrian govern-
ment at the opening of the aoth century were encouraged in
exalted circles, as tending to divert attention from political
to purely scientific interests. Meanwhile the old system of
provincial diets and estates was continued or revived (in 1816 in
Tirol and Vorarlberg, 1817 in Galicia, 1818 in Carniola, 1828 in
the circle of Salzburg), but they were in no sense representative,
clergy and nobles alone being eligible, with a few delegates from
the towns, and they had practically no functions beyond register-
ing the imperial decrees, relative to recruiting or taxation, and
dealing with matters of local police.* Even the ancient right of
petition was seldom exercised, and then only to meet with the
imperial disfavour. And this stagnation of the administration
was accompanied, as might have been expected, by economic
stagnation. Agriculture languished, hampered, as in France
before the Revolution, by the feudal privileges of a noble caste
which no longer gave any equivalent service to the state; trade
was strangled by the system of high tariffs at the frontier and
internal octrois; and finally public credit was shaken to its
foundations by lavish issues of paper money and the neglect to
publish the budget.
The maintenance within the empire of a system so artificial
and so unsound, involved in foreign affairs the policy of pre-
venting the success of any movements by which it Metier-
might be threatened. The triumph of Liberal principles nich-s
or of national aspirations in Germany, or elsewhere policy of
in Europe, might easily, as the events of 1848 proved,
shatter the whole rotten structure of the Habsburg monarchy,
which survived only owing to the apathy of the popula-
tions it oppressed. This, then, is the explanation of the
system of " stability " which Metternich succeeded in imposing
for thirty years upon Europe. If he persuaded Frederick
William III. that the grant of a popular constitution would be
fatal to the Prussian monarchy, this was through no love of
Prussia; the Carlsbad Decrees and the Vienna Final Act were
designed to keep Germany quiet, lest the sleep of Austria should
be disturbed; the lofty claims of the Troppau Protocol were but
to cover an Austrian aggression directed to purely Austrian ends;
and in the Eastern Question, the moral support given to the
" legitimate " authority of the sultan over the " rebel " Greeks
was dictated solely by the interest of Austria in maintaining
the integrity of Turkey. (See EUROPE: History; GERMANY:
History; ALEXANDER I. of Russia; METTERNICH, &c.)
Judged by the standard of its own aims Metternich's diplomacy
was, on the whole, completely successful. For fifteen years
after the congress of Vienna, in spite of frequent alarms, the
peace of Europe was not seriously disturbed; and even in 1830,
the revolution at Paris found no echo in the great body of the
Austrian dominions. The isolated revolts in Italy were easily
suppressed; and the insurrection of Poland, though it provoked
the lively sympathy of the Magyars and Czechs, led to no actual
movement in the Habsburg states. For a moment, indeed,
Metternich had meditated taking advantage of the popular
feeling to throw the weight of Austria into the scale in favour
of the Poles, and thus, by re-establishing a Polish kingdom under
Austrian influence, to restore the barrier between the two
empires which the partition of Poland had destroyed. But
cautious counsels prevailed, and by the victory of the Russian
arms the status quo was restored (see POLAND).
The years that followed were not wanting in signs of the coming
storm. On the 2nd of March 1835 Francis I. died, and was
succeeded by his son Ferdinand I. The new emperor Ferdl-
was personally amiable, but so enfeebled by epilepsy aaad I.
as to be incapable of ruling; a veiled regency had to
be constituted to carry on the government, and the
vices of the administration were further accentuated by weakness
and divided counsels at the centre. Under these circumstances
' In Hungary the diet was not summoned at all between 1811
and 1825, nor in Transylvania between 1811 and 1834."
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
popular discontent made rapid headway. The earliest symptoms
of political agitation were in Hungary, where the diet began to
show signs of vigorous life, and the growing Slav separatist
movements, especially in the south of the kingdom, were rousing
the old spirit of Magyar ascendancy (see HUNGARY: History).
For everywhere the Slav populations were growing restive under
the German-Magyar domination. In Bohemia the Czech literary
movement had developed into an organized resistance to the
established order, which was attacked under the disguise of a
criticism of the English administration in Ireland. " Repeal "
became the watchword of Bohemian, as of Irish, nationalists
(see BOHEMIA). Among the southern Slavs the "Illyrian"
movement, voiced from 1836 onward in the Illyrian National
Gazette of Ljudevit Gaj, was directed in the first instance to a
somewhat shadowy Pan-Slav union, which, on the interference
of the Austrian government in 1844, was exchanged for the more
definite object of a revival of " the Triune Kingdom " (Croatia,
Slavonia, Dalmatia) independent of the Hungarian crown (see
CROATIA, &c.). In the German provinces also, in spite of
Metternich's censors and police, the national movements in
Germany had gained an entrance, and, as the revolution of 1848
in Vienna was to show, the most advanced revolutionary views
were making headway.
The most important of all the symptoms of the approaching
cataclysm was, however, the growing unrest among the peasants.
As had been proved in France in 1789, and was again
to be shown in Russia in 1906, the success of any
political revolution depended ultimately upon the
attitude of the peasant class. In this lies the main
significance of the rising in Galicia in 1846. This was in its origin
a Polish nationalist movement, hatched in the little independent
republic of Cracow. As such it had little importance; though,
owing to the incompetence of the Austrian commander, the
Poles gained some initial successes. More fateful was the
attitude of the Orthodox Ruthenian peasantry, who were divided
from their Catholic Polish over-lords by centuries of religious
and feudal oppression. The Poles had sought, by lavish promises,
to draw them into their ranks; their reply was to rise in support of
the Austrian government. In the fight at Gdow (February 26th) ,
where Benedek laid the foundations of the military reputation
that was to end so tragically at Koniggratz, flail and scythe
wrought more havoc in the rebel ranks than the Austrian mus-
ketry. Since, in spite of this object-lesson, the Polish nobles
still continued their offers, the peasants consulted the local
Austrian authorities as to what course they should take; and
the local authorities, unaccustomed to arriving at any decision
without consulting Vienna, practically gave them carte blanche
to do as they liked. A hideous jacquerie followed for three or
four days; during which cartloads of dead were carried into
Tarnow, where the peasants received a reward for every " rebel "
brought in.
This affair was not only a scandal for which the Austrian
government, through its agents, was responsible; but it placed
the authorities at Vienna in a serious dilemma. For the
Ruthenians, elated by their victory, refused to return to work,
and demanded the abolition of all feudal obligations as the reward
of their loyalty. To refuse this claim would have meant the
indefinite prolongation of the crisis; to concede it would have
been to invite the peasantry of the whole empire to put forth
similar demands on pain of a general rising. On the I3th of
April 1846 an imperial decree abolished some of the more
burdensome feudal obligations; but this concession was greeted
with so fierce an outcry, as an authoritative endorsement of the
atrocities, that it was again revoked, and Count Franz von Stadion
was sent to restore order in Galicia. The result was, that the
peasants saw that though their wrongs were admitted, their sole
hope of redress lay in a change of government, and added the
dead weight of their resentment to the forces making for revolu-
tion. It was the union of the agrarian with the nationalist
movements that made the downfall of the Austrian system
inevitable.
The material for the conflagration in Austria was thus all
prepared when in February 1848 the fall of Louis Philippe
fanned into a blaze the smouldering fires of revolution throughout
Europe. On the 3rd of March, Kossuth, in the diet
at Pressburg, delivered the famous speech which was
the declaration of war of Hungarian Liberalism against 1348.
the Austrian system. " From the charnel-house of
the Vienna cabinet," he exclaimed, " a pestilential air breathes
on us, which dulls our nerves and paralyses the flight of our
spirit." Hungary liberated was to become the centre of freedom
for all the races under the Austrian crown, and the outcome was
to be a new " fraternization of the Austrian peoples." In the
enthusiasm of the moment the crucial question of the position
to be occupied by the conflicting nationalities in this" fraternal
union " was overlooked. Germanism had so far served as the
basis of the Austrian system, not as a national ideal, but because
" it formed a sort of unnational "media ting, and common element
among the contradictory and clamorous racial tendencies."
But with the growth of the idea of German unity, Germanism
had established a new ideal, of which the centre lay beyond the
boundaries of the Austrian monarchy, and which was bound to
be antagonistic to the aspirations of other races. The new
doctrine of the fraternization of the Austrian races would
inevitably soon come into conflict with the traditional German
ascendancy strengthened by the new sentiment of a united
Germany. It was on this rock that, both in Austria and in
Germany, the revolution suffered shipwreck.
Meanwhile events progressed rapidly. On the 1 1 th of March
a meeting of " young Czechs " at Prague drew up a petition
embodying nationalist and liberal demands; and on the same
day the diet of Lower Austria petitioned the crown to summon
a meeting of the delegates of the diets to set the Austrian finances
in order. To this last proposal the government, next day, gave
its consent. But in the actual temper of the Viennese the
slightest concession was dangerous. The hall of the diet was
invaded by a mob of students and workmen, Kossuth's speech
was read and its proposals adopted as the popular programme,
and the members of the diet were forced to lead a tumultuous
procession to the Hofburg, to force the assent of the government
to a petition based on the catch-words of the Revolution. The
authorities, taken by surprise, were forced to temporize and agreed
to lay the petition before the emperor. Meanwhile Fall of
round the hall of the diet a riot had broken out; the Metier-
soldiers intervened and blood was shed. The middle
classes now joined the rebels; and the riots had become
a revolution. Threatened by the violence of the mob,
Metternich, on the evening of the i3th of March, escaped from
the Hofburg and passed into exile in England.
The fall of Metternich was the signal for the outburst of the
storm, not in Austria only, but throughout central Europe.
In Hungary, on the 3131 of March, the government was forced
to consent to a new constitution which virtually erected Hungary
into an independent state. On the 8th of April a separate
constitution was promised to Bohemia; and if the petition of
the Croats for a similar concession was rejected, this was due
to the armed mob of Vienna, which was in close alliance with
Kossuth and the Magyars. The impotence of the Austrian
government in this crisis was due to the necessity of keeping
the bulk of the Austrian forces in Italy, where the news of
Metternich's fall had also led to a concerted rising against the
Habsburg rule (see ITALY). Upon the fortunes of war in the
peninsula depended the ultimate issue of the revolutions so far
as Austria was concerned.
The army and the prestige of the imperial tradition were, in
fact, the two sheet-anchors that enabled the Habsburg monarchy
to weather the storm. For the time the latter was the only one
available; but it proved invaluable, especially in Germany,
in preventing any settlement, until Radetzky's victory of
Novara had set free the army, and thus once more enabled Austria
to back her policy by force. The Austrian government, in no
position to refuse, had consented to send delegates from its
German provinces to the parliament of united Germany, which
met at Frankfort on the i8th of May 1848. The question at
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
once arose of the place of the Austrian monarchy in united
Germany. Were only its German provinces to be included ?
Or was it to be incorporated whole ? As to the first, the Austrian
government would not listen to the suggestion of a settlement
which would have split the monarchy in half and subjected it
to a double allegiance. As to the second, German patriots could
not stomach the inclusion in Germany of a vast non-German
population. The dilemma was from the first so obvious that
the parliament would have done well to have recognized at once
that the only possible solution was that arrived at, after the
withdrawal of the Austrian delegates, by the exclusion of Austria
altogether and the offer of the crown of Germany to Frederick
William of Prussia. But the shadow of the Holy Empire,
immemorially associated with the house of Habsburg, still
darkened the counsels of German statesmen. The Austrian
archduke John had been appointed regent, pending the election
of an emperor; and the political leaders could neither break
loose from the tradition of Austrian hegemony, nor reconcile
themselves with the idea of a mutilated Germany, till it was too
late, and Austria was once more in a position to re-establish the
system devised by her diplomacy at the congress of Vienna.
(See GERMANY: History.)
This fatal procrastination was perhaps not without excuse,
in view of the critical situation of the Austrian monarchy during
1848. For months after the fall of Metternich Austria was
practically without a central government. Vienna itself, where
on the 1 4th of March the establishment of a National Guard
was authorized by the emperor, was ruled by a committee of
students and citizens, who arrogated to themselves a voice in
imperial affairs, and imposed their will on the distracted ministry.
On the 1 5th of March the government proposed to summon a
central committee of local diets; but this was far from satisfying
public opinion, and on the 25th of April a constitution was
proclaimed, including the whole monarchy with the exception
of Hungary and Lombardo-Venetia. This was, however, met
by vigorous protests from Czechs and Poles, while its provisions
for a partly nominated senate, and the indirect election of
deputies, excited the wrath of radical Vienna. Committees of
students and national guards were formed; on the I3th of May
a Central Committee was established; and on the isth a fresh
insurrection broke out, as a result of which the government
once more yielded, recognizing the Central Committee, admitting
the right of the National Guard to take an active part in politics,
and promising the convocation of a National Convention on the
basis of a single chamber elected by universal suffrage. On the
1 7th the emperor left Vienna for Innsbruck " for the benefit of
his health," and thence, on the 2oth, issued a proclamation in
which he cast himself on the loyalty of his faithful provinces,
and, while confirming the concessions of March, ignored those
of the 1 5th of May. The flight of the emperor had led to a
revulsion of feeling in Vienna; but the issue of the proclamation
and the attempt of the government to disperse the students by
closing the university, led to a fresh outbreak on the 26th. Once
more the ministry conceded all the demands of the insurgents,
and even went so far as to hand over the public treasury and
the responsibility of keeping order to a newly constituted
Committee of Public Safety.
The tide was now, however, on the turn. The Jacobinism
of the Vienna democracy was not really representative of any
widespread opinion even in the German parts of
move? Austria, while its loud-voiced Germanism excited
meats. the lively opposition of the other races. Each of
these had taken advantage of the March troubles to
press its claims, and everywhere the government had shown
the same yielding spirit. In Bohemia, where the attempt to
hold elections for the Frankfort parliament had broken down
on the opposition of the Czechs and the conservative German
aristocracy, a separate constitution had been proclaimed on the
8th of April ; on March the 23rd the election by the diet of Agram
of Baron Joseph Jellachich as ban of Croatia was confirmed,
as a concession to the agitation among the southern Slavs; on
the 1 8th of March Count Stadion had proclaimed a new con-
stitution for Galicia. Even where, as in the case of the Serbs
and Rumans, the government had given no formal sanction
to the national claims, the emperor was regarded as the ultimate
guarantee of their success; and deputations from the various
provinces poured into Innsbruck protesting their loyalty.
To say that the government deliberately adopted the Machia-
vellian policy of mastering the revolution by setting race against
race would be to pay too high a compliment to its capacity.
The policy was forced upon it; and was only pursued consciously
when it became obvious. Count Stadion began it in Galicia,
where, before bombarding insurgent Cracow into submission
(April 26), he had won over the Ruthenian peasants by the
abolition of feudal dues and by forwarding a petition to the
emperor for the official recognition of their language alongside
Polish. But the great object lesson was furnished by the events
in Prague, where the quarrel between Czechs and Germans,
radicals and conservatives, issued on the I2th of June in a rising
of the Czech students and populace. The suppression of this
rising, and with it of the revolution in Bohemia, on the i6th of
June, by Prince Windischgratz, was not only the first victory of
the army, but was the signal for the outbreak of a universal race
war, in which the idea of constitutional liberty was sacrificed
to the bitter spirit of national rivalry. The parliament at
Frankfort hailed Windischgratz as a national hero, and offered
to send troops to his aid; the German revolutionists in Vienna
welcomed every success of Radetzky's arms in Italy as a victory
for Germanism. The natural result was to drive the Slav
nationalities to the side of the imperial government, since,
whether at Vienna or at Budapest, the radicals were their worst
enemies.
The i6th of June had been fatal to the idea of an independent
Bohemia, fatal also to Pan-Slav dreams. To the Czechs the most
immediate peril now seemed that from the German parliament,
and in the interests of their nationality they were willing to
join the Austrian government in the struggle against German
liberalism. The Bohemian diet, summoned for the ipth, never
met. Writs were issued in Bohemia for the election to the
Austrian Reichsrath; and when, on the zoth of July, this
assembled, the Slav deputies were found to be in a majority.
This fact, which was to lead to violent trouble later, was at first
subordinate to other issues, of which the most important was
the question of the emancipation of the peasants. After long
debates the law abolishing feudal services the sole permanent
outcome of the revolution was carried on the 3ist of August,
and on the 7th of September received the imperial consent.
The peasants thus received all that they desired, and their vast
weight was henceforth thrown into the scale of the government
against the revolution.
Meanwhile the alliance between the Slav nationalities and the
conservative elements within the empire had found a powerful
representative in Jellachich, the ban of Croatia. At jetiachlch
first, indeed, his activity had been looked at askance and
at Innsbruck, as but another force making for dis-
integration. He had apparently identified himself
with the " Illyrian " party, had broken off all communications
with the Hungarian government, and, in spite of an imperial
edict issued in response to the urgency of Batthyani, had
summoned a diet to Agram, which on the gth of June decreed
the separation of the " Triune Kingdom " from Hungary. The
imperial government, which still hoped for Magyar aid against
the Viennese revolutionists, repudiated the action of the ban,
accused him of disobedience and treason, and deprived him of
his military rank. But his true motives were soon apparent;
his object was to play off the nationalism of the " Illyrians "
against the radicalism of Magyars and Germans, and thus to
preserve his province for the monarchy; and the Hungarian
radicals played into his hands. The fate of the Habsburg empire
depended upon the issue of the campaign in Italy, which would
have been lost by the withdrawal of the Magyar and Croatian
regiments; and the Hungarian government chose this critical
moment to tamper with the relations of the army to the
monarchy. In May a National Guard had been established;
'
i6
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
and the soldiers of the line were invited to join this, with the
promise of higher pay; on the ist of June the garrison of Pest
took the oath to the Constitution. On the loth Jellachich issued
a proclamation to the Croatian regiments in Italy, bidding them
remain and fight for the emperor and the common Fatherland.
His loyalty to the tradition of the imperial army was thus
announced, and the alliance was cemented between the army
and the southern Slavs.
Jellachich, who had gone to Innsbruck to lay the Slav view
before the emperor, was allowed to return to Agram, though not
as yet formally reinstated. Here the diet passed a resolution
denouncing the dual system and demanding the restoration of
the union of the empire. Thus was proclaimed the identity of
the Slav and the conservative points of view; the radical
"Illyrian " assembly had done its work, and on the pth of July
Jellachich, while declaring it " permanent," prorogued it
indefinitely "with a paternal greeting," on the ground that the
safety of the Fatherland depended now " more upon physical
than upon moral force." The diet thus prorogued never met
again. Absolute master of the forces of the banat, Jellachich
now waited until the intractable politicians of Pest should give
him the occasion and the excuse for setting the imperial army
in motion against them.
The occasion was not to be long postponed. Every day the
rift between the dominant radical element in the Hungarian
parliament and imperial court was widened. Kossuth
and his followers were evidently aiming at the complete
separation of Hungary from Austria; they were in sympathy,
if not in alliance, with the German radicals in Vienna and
Frankfort; they were less than half-hearted in their support
of the imperial arms in Italy. The imperial government, pressed
by the Magyar nationalists to renounce Jellachich and all his
works, equivocated and procrastinated, while within its councils
the idea of a centralized state, to replace the loose federalism
of the old empire, slowly took shape under the pressure of the
military party. It was encouraged by the news from Italy,
where, on the zsth of July, Radetzky had won the battle of
Custozza, and on the 6th of August the Austrian standard once
more floated over the towers of Milan. At Custozza Magyar
hussars, Croats from the Military Frontier, and Tirolese sharp-
shooters had fought side by side. The possibility was obvious of
combating the radical and nationalist revolution by means of
the army, with its spirit of comradeship in arms and its imperialist
tradition.
So early as the beginning of July, Austrian officers, with the
permission of the minister of war, had joined the Serb insurgents
who, under Stratemirovic, were defying the Magyar power in the
banat. By the end of August the breach between the Austrian
and Hungarian governments was open and complete; on the
4th of September Jellachich was reinstated in all his honours, and
on the nth he crossed the Drave to the invasion of Hungary.
The die was thus cast; and, though efforts continued to be
made to arrange matters, the time for moderate counsels was
passed. The conservative leaders of the Hungarian nationalists,
Eotvos and Deak, retired from public life; and, though Batthyani
consented to remain in office, the slender hope that this gave
of peace was ruined by the flight of the palatine (September 24)
and the murder of Count Lamberg, the newly appointed com-
missioner and commander-in-chief in Hungary, by the mob at
Pest (September 27). The appeal was now to arms; and the
fortunes of the Habsburg monarchy were bound up with the fate
of the war in Hungary (see HUNGARY: History).
Meanwhile, renewed trouble had broken out in Vienna, where
the radical populace was in conflict alike with the government
and with the Slav majority of the Reichsrath. The German
democrats appealed for aid to the Hungarian government; but
the Magyar passion for constitutional legality led to delay, and
before the Hungarian advance could be made effective, it was too
late. On the 7th of October the emperor Ferdinand had fled
from Schonbrunn to Olmutz, a Slav district, whence he issued
a proclamation inviting whoever loved "Austria and freedom"
to rally round the throne. On the nth Windischgratz proclaimed
his intention of marching against rebellious Vienna, and on the
i6th an imperial rescript appointed him a field-marshal and
commander-in-chief of all the Austrian armies except that of
Italy. Meanwhile, of the Reichsrath, the members of the Right
and the Slav majority had left Vienna and announced a meeting
of the diet at Briinn for the 2oth of October; all that remained
in the capital was a rump of German radicals, impotent in the
hands of the proletariat and the students. The defence of the
city was hastily organized under Bern, an ex-officer of Napoleon;
but in the absence of help from Hungary it was futile. On the
28th of October Windischgratz began his attack; on the ist
of November he was master of the city.
The fall of revolutionary Vienna practically involved that of
the revolution in Frankfort and in Pest. From Italy the con-
gratulations of Radetzky's victorious army came to Windisch-
gratz, from Russia the even more significant commendations
of the emperor Nicholas. The moral of the victory was painted
for all the world by the military execution of Robert Blum,
whose person, as a deputy of the German parliament, should
have been sacrosanct. The time had, indeed, not yet come to
attempt any conspicuous breach with the constitutional principle;
but the new ministry was such as the imperial sentiment would
approve, inimical to the German ideals of Frankfort, devoted
to the traditions of the Habsburg monarchy. At its head was
Prince Felix Schwarzenberg (q.v.), the " army-diplomat," a
statesman at once strong and unscrupulous. On the 27th of
November a proclamation announced that the continuation of
Austria as a united state was necessary both for Germany and
for Europe. On the 2nd of December the emperor Ferdinand,
bound by too many personal obligations to the revolutionary
parties to serve as a useful instrument for the new Accession
policy, abdicated, and his nephew Francis Joseph of Francis
ascended the throne. The proclamation of the new Jose P l ><
emperor was a gage of defiance thrown down to Magyars '
and German unionists alike: " Firmly determined to preserve
undimmed the lustre of our crown," it ran, " but prepared to
share our rights with the representatives of our peoples, we trust
that with God's aid and in common with our peoples we shall
succeed in uniting all the countries and races of the monarchy
in one great body politic."
While the Reichsrath, transferred to Kremsier, was discussing
" fundamental rights " and the difficult question of how to
reconcile the theoretical unity with the actual dualism of the
empire, the knot was being cut by the sword on the plains of
Hungary. The Hungarian retreat after the bloody battle of
Kapolna (February 26-27, 1849) was followed by the dissolution
of the Kremsier assembly, and a proclamation in which the
emperor announced his intention of granting a constitution to
the whole monarchy " one and indivisible." On the 4th of
March the constitution was published; but it proved all but as
distasteful to Czechs and Croats as to the Magyars, and the
speedy successes of the Hungarian arms made it, for the while,
a dead letter. It needed the intervention of the emperor
Nicholas, in the loftiest spirit of the Holy Alliance, before even
an experimental unity of the Habsburg dominions could be
established (see HUNGARY: History).
The capitulation of Vilagos, which ended the Hungarian
insurrection, gave Schwarzenberg a free hand for completing
the work of restoring the status quo ante and the influence of
Austria in Get many. The account of the process by which this,
was accomplished belongs to the history of Germany (q.v.).
Here it will suffice to say that the terms of the Convention of
Olmutz (November 29, 1850) seemed at the time a complete
triumph for Austria over Prussia. As a matter of fact, however,
the convention was, in the words of Count Beust, " not a Prussian
humiliation, but an Austrian weakness." It was in the power
of Austria to crush Prussia and to put an end to the dual influence
in the Confederation which experience had proved to be unwork-
able; she preferred to re-establish a discredited system, and to
leave to Prussia time and opportunity to gather strength for the
inevitable conflict.
In 1851 Austria had apparently triumphed over all its
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
difficulties. The revolutionary movements had been sup-
pressed, the attempt of Prussia to assume the leadership
in Germany defeated, the old Federal Diet of 1815
of Austria. had been restored. Vienna again became the centre
of a despotic government the objects of which were to
Germanize the Magyars and Slavs, to check all agitation for a
constitution, and to suppress all attempts to secure a free press.
For some ten years the Austrian dominion groaned under one of
the worst possible forms of autocratic government. The failure
of the Habsburg emperor to perpetuate this despotic r6gime was
due (i) to the Crimean War, (2) to the establishment of Italian
unity, and (3) to the successful assertion by Prussia of its claim
to the leadership in Germany. The disputes which resulted in
the Crimean War revealed the fact that " gratitude " plays but
a small part in international affairs. In the minds of Austrian
statesmen the question of the free navigation of the Danube,
which would have been imperilled by a Russian occupation of
the Principalities, outweighed their sense of obligation to Russia,
on which the emperor Nicholas had rashly relied. That Austria
at first took no active part in the war was due, not to any senti-
mental weakness, but to the refusal of Prussia to go along with
her and to the fear of a Sardinian attack on her Italian provinces.
But, on the withdrawal of the Russian forces from the Princi-
palities, these were occupied by Austrian troops, and on the
2nd of December 1854, a treaty of alliance was signed at Vienna,
between Great Britain, Austria and France, by which Austria
undertook to occupy Moldavia and Walachia during the con-
tinuance of the war and " to defend the frontier of the said
principalities against any return of the Russian forces." By
Article III., in the event of war between Russia and Austria the
alliance both offensive and defensive was to be made effective
(Hertslet, No. 252). With the progressive disasters of the
Russian arms, however, Austria grew bolder, and it was the
ultimatum delivered by her to the emperor Alexander II. in
December 1855, that forced Russia to come to terms (Treaty
of Paris, March 30, 1856).
Though, however, Austria by her diplomatic attitude had
secured, without striking a blow, the settlement in her sense
of the Eastern Question, she emerged from the contest without
allies and without friends. The " Holy Alliance " of the three
autocratic northern powers, recemented at Munchengratz in
1833, which had gained for Austria the decisive intervention
of the tsar in 1849, had been hopelessly shattered by her attitude
during the Crimean War. Russia, justly offended, drew closer
her ties with Prussia, where Bismarck was already hatching
the plans which were to mature in 1866; and, if the attitude
of Napoleon in the Polish question prevented any revival of
the alliance of Tilsit, the goodwill of Russia was assured for
France in the coming struggle with Austria in Italy. Already
the isolation of Austria had been conspicuous in the congress
of Paris, where Cavour, the Sardinian plenipotentiary, laid bare
before assembled Europe the scandal of her rule in Italy. It
was emphasized during the campaign of 1859, when Sardinia,
in alliance with France, laid the foundations of united Italy.
The threat of Prussian intervention, which determined the pro-
visions of the armistice of Villafranca, was due, not to love of
Austria, but to fear of the undue aggrandizement of France.
The campaign of 1859, and the diplomatic events that led up
to it, are dealt with elsewhere (see ITALY, ITALIAN WARS,
NAPOLEON III., CAVOUR) . The results to Austria were two-fold.
Externally, she lost all her Italian possessions except Venice;
internally, her failure led to the necessity of conciliating public
opinion by constitutional concessions.
The proclamation on the z6th of February 1861 of the new
constitution for the whole monarchy, elaborated by Anton von
Schmerling, though far from satisfying the national aspirations
of the races within the empire, at least gave Austria a temporary
popularity in Germany; the liberalism of the Habsburg monarchy
was favourably contrasted with the " reactionary " policy of
Prussia, where Bismarck was defying the majority of the diet
in his determination to build up the military power of Prussia.
The meeting of the princes summoned to Frankfort by the
emperor Francis Joseph, in 1863, revealed the ascendancy
of Austria among the smaller states of the Confederation; but
it revealed also the impossibility of any consolidation of the
Confederation without the co-operation of Prussia, which stood
outside. Bismarck had long since decided that the matter could
only be settled by the exclusion of Austria altogether, and
that the means to this end were not discussion, but " Blood and
Iron." The issue was forced by the developments of the tangled
Schleswig-Holstein Question (?..), which led to the definitive
breach between the two great German powers, to the campaign
of 1866, and the collapse of Austria on the field of Koniggratz
(July 3. See SEVEN WEEKS' WAR). (W. A. P.; A. HL.)
The war of 1866 began a new era in the history of the Austrian
empire. By the treaty of Prague (August 23, 1866) the emperor
surrendered the position in Germany which his ancestors had held
for so many centuries; Austria and Tirol, Bohemia and Salzburg,
ceased to be German, and eight million Germans were cut off
from all political union with their fellow-countrymen. At the
same time the surrender of Venetia completed the work of 1859,
and the last remnant of the old-established Habsburg domination
in Italy ceased. The war was immediately followed by a re-
organization of the government. The Magyar nation, Estabiigh-
as well as the Czechs, had refused to recognize the meat of
validity of the constitution of 1861 which had estab- '*" dual
lished a common parliament for the whole empire; n """ nhy -
they demanded that the independence of the kingdom of
Hungary should be restored. Even before the war the necessity
of coming to terms with the Hungarians had been recognized.
In June 1865 the emperor Francis Joseph visited Pest and
replaced the chancellors of Transylvania and Hungary, Counts
Francis Zichy and Nadasdy, supporters of the February con-
stitution, by Count Majlath, a leader of the old conservative
magnates. This was at once followed by the resignation of
Schmerling, who was succeeded by Count Richard Belcredi.
On the 20th of September the Reichsrath was prorogued, which
was equivalent to the suspension of the constitution; and in
December the emperor opened the Hungarian diet in person,
with a speech from the throne that recognized the validity of the
laws of 1848. Before any definite arrangement as to their
re-introduction could be made, however, the war broke out;
and after the defeats on the field of battle the Hungarian diet
was able to make its own terms. They recognized no union
between their country and the other parts of the monarchy
except that which was based on the Pragmatic Sanction. 1 All
recent innovations, all attempts made during the last hundred
years to absorb Hungary in a greater Austria, were revoked.
An agreement was made by which the emperor was to be crowned
at Pest and take the ancient oath to the Golden Bull ; Hungary
(including Transylvania and Croatia) was to have its own
parliament and its own ministry; Magyar was to be the official
language; the emperor was to rule as king; there was to be com-
plete separation of the finances; not even a common nationality
was recognized between the Hungarians and the other subjects
of the emperor; a Hungarian was to be a foreigner in Vienna,
an Austrian a foreigner in Budapest. A large party wished
indeed that nothing should be left but a purely personal union
similar to that between England and Hanover. Deak and the
majority agreed, however, that there should be certain institu-
tions common to Hungary and the rest of the monarchy; these
were (i) foreign affairs, including the diplomatic and consular
service; (2) the army and navy; (3) the control of the expenses
required for these branches of the public service.
Recognizing in a declaratory act the legal existence of these
common institutions, they also determined the method by which
they should be administered. In doing so they carried out with
great exactitude the principle of dualism, establishing in form
a complete parity between Hungary on one side and the other
territories of the king on the other. They made it a condition
1 For the separate political histories of Austria and Hungary
see the section on II. Austria Proper, below, and HUNGARY;
the present section deals with the history of the whole monarchy
as such.
i8
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
that there should be constitutional government in the rest of the
monarchy as well as in Hungary, and a parliament in which
all the other territories should be represented. From both the
Hungarian and the Austrian parliament there was to be elected
a Delegation, consisting of sixty members; to these
Delegations the common ministers were to be re-
sponsible, and to them the estimates for the joint
services were to be submitted. The annual meetings were to
be held alternately in Vienna and in Pest. They were very care-
ful that these Delegations should not overshadow the parliaments
by which they were appointed. The Delegations were not to
sit together; each was to meet separately; they were to com-
municate by writing, every document being accompanied
by a translation in Magyar or German, as the case might be;
only if after three times exchanging notes they failed to agree
was there to be a common session; in that case there would be
no discussion, and they were to vote in silence; a simple majority
was sufficient. There were to be three ministers for common
purposes (i) for foreign affairs; (2) for war; (3) for finance;
these ministers were responsible to the Delegations, but the
Delegations were really given no legislative power. The minister
of war controlled the common army, but even the laws determin-
ing the method by which the army was to be recruited had to
be voted separately in each of the parliaments. The minister
of finance had to lay before them the common budget, but they
could not raise money or vote taxes; after they had passed the
budget the money required had to be provided by the separate
parliaments. Even the determination of the proportion which
each half of the monarchy was to contribute was not left to the
Delegations. It was to be fixed once every ten years by separate
committees chosen for that purpose from the Austrian Reichsrath
and the Hungarian parliament, the so-called Quota- Deputations.
In addition to these " common affairs " the Hungarians, indeed,
recognized that there were certain other matters which it was
desirable should be managed or identical principles in the two
halves of the monarchy namely, customs and excise currency;
the army and common railways. For these, however, no common
institutions were created; they must be arranged by agreement;
the ministers must confer and then introduce identical acts in the
Hungarian and the Austrian parliaments.
The main principles of this agreement were decided during
the spring of 1867; but during this period the Austrians were
not really consulted at all. The negotiations on behalf
ttte- f ' ne cour t f Vienna were entrusted to Beust, whom
meat. the emperor appointed chancellor of the empire and
also minister-president of Austria. He had no previous
experience of Austrian affairs, and was only anxious at once to
bring about a settlement which would enable the empire to take
a strong position in international politics. In the summer of
1867, however (the Austrian Reichsrath having met), the two
parliaments each elected a deputation of fifteen members to
arrange the financial settlement. The first matter was the debt,
amounting to over 3000 million gulden, in addition to the floating
debt, which had been contracted during recent years. The
Hungarians laid down the principle that they were in no way
responsible for debts contracted during a time when they had
been deprived of their constitutional liberties; they consented,
however, to pay each year 295 million gulden towards the interest.
The whole responsibility for the payment of the remainder of
the interest, amounting annually to over a hundred million gulden,
and the management of the debt, was left to the Austrians.
The Hungarians wished that a considerable part of it should be
repudiated. It was then agreed that the two states should form
a Customs Union for the next ten years; the customs were to
be paid to the common exchequer; all sums required in addition
to this to meet the expenses to be provided as to 30% by
Hungary and as to 70 % by Austria. After the financial question
had been thus settled, the whole of these arrangements
were then, on the 2ist and the 24th of December 1867, enacted
by the two parliaments, and the system of dualism was estab-
lished.
The acts were accepted in Austria out of necessity; but no
parties were really satisfied. The Germans, who accepted the
principle of dualism, were indignant at the financial arrange-
ments; for Hungary, while gaining more than an equal share
of power, paid less than one-third of the common expenses.
On the other hand, according to British ideas of taxable capacity,
Hungary paid, and still pays, more than her share. The Ger-
mans, however, could at least hope that in the future the financial
arrangements might be revised; the complaints of the Slav
races were political, and within the constitution there was no
means of remedy, for, while the settlement gave to the Hungarians
all that they demanded, it deprived the Bohemians or Galicians
of any hope that they would be able to obtain similar independ-
ence. Politically, the principle underlying the agreement was
that the empire should be divided into two portions; in one of
these the Magyars were to rule, in the other the Germans; in
either section the Slav races the Serbs and Croatians, the Czechs,
Poles and Slovenes were to be placed in a position of political
inferiority. *
The logical consistency with which the principle of Dualism was
carried out is shown in a change of title. By a letter to Beust of
the idth of November 1868 the emperor ordered that he should
henceforward be styled, not as before ' Emperor of Austria, King of
Hungary, King of Bohemia, &c.," but " Emperor of Austria, King
of Bohemia, &c., and Apostolic King of Hungary," thereby signify-
ing the separation of the two districts over which he rules. His
shorter style is " His Majesty the Emperor and King," and " His
Imperial and Apostolic Royal Majesty "; the lands over which he
rules are called " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy " or " The
Austrian-Hungarian Realm." The new terminology, " Imperial
and Royal " (Kaiserlich und Koniglich), has since then been applied
to all those branches of the public service which belong to the
common ministries; this was first the case with the diplomatic
service; not till 1889 was it applied to the army, which for some
time kept up the old style of Kaiserlich-Koniglich; in 1895 it was
applied to the ministry of the imperial house, as office always held
by the minister for foreign affairs. The minister for foreign affairs
was at first called the Reichskanzler ; but in 1871, when Andrassy
succeeded Beust, this was given up in deference to Hungarian feeling,
for it might be taken to imply that there was a single state of which
he was minister. The old style Kaiserlich-Koniglich, the " K.K."
which has become so familiar through long use, is still retained in the
Austrian half of the monarchy. There are, therefore, e.g., three
ministries of finance : the Kaiserlich und Koniglich for joint affairs ;
the Kaiserlich-Koniglich for Austrian affairs; the Kirdlye for
Hungary.
The settlement with Hungary consisted then of three parts:
(i) the political settlement, which was to be permanent and
has since remained part of the fundamental constitu-
tion of the monarchy; (2) the periodical financial a tt a irs
settlement, determining the partition of the common
expenses as arranged by the Quota-Deputations and ratified
by the parliaments; (3) the Customs Union and the agreement
as to currency a voluntary and terminable arrangement made
between the two governments and parliaments. The history
of the common affairs which fall under the management of the
common ministries is, then, the history of the foreign policy
of the empire and of the army. It is with this and this alone that
the Delegations are occupied, and it is to this that we must now
turn. The annual meetings call for little notice; they have
generally been the occasion on which the foreign minister has
explained and justified his policy; according to the English
custom, red books, sometimes containing important despatches,
have been laid before them; but the debates have caused less
embarrassment to the government than is generally the case
in parliamentary assemblies, and the army budget has generally
been passed with few and unimportant alterations.
For the first four years, while Beust was chancellor, the
foreign policy was still influenced by the feelings left by the war
of 1866. We do not know how far there was a real a
intention to revenge Koniggratz and recover the policy"
position lost in Germany. This would be at least a
possible policy, and one to which Beust by his previous history
would be inclined. There were sharp passages of arms with the
1 Baron H. de Worms, The Austro-Hungarian Empire (London,
1876), and Beust's Memoirs.
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
Prussian government regarding the position of the South German
states; a close friendship was maintained with France; there
were meetings of the emperor and of Napoleon at Salzburg in
1868, and the next year at Paris; the death of Maximilian in
Mexico cast a shadow over the friendship, but did not destroy
it. The opposition of the Hungarians and financial difficulties
probably prevented a warlike policy. In 1870 there were dis-
cussions preparatory to a formal alliance with France against
the North German Confederation, but nothing was signed. 1 The
war of 1870 put an end to all ideas of this kind; the German
successes were so rapid that Austria was not exposed to the
temptation of intervening, a temptation that could hardly have
been resisted had the result been doubtful or the struggle pro-
longed. The absorption of South Germany in the German
empire took away the chief cause for friction; and from that
time warm friendship, based on the maintenance of the estab-
lished order, has existed between the two empires. Austria
gave up all hope of regaining her position in Germany; Germany
disclaimed all intention of acquiring the German provinces of
Austria. Beust's retirement in 1871 put the finishing touch on
the new relations. His successor, Count Andrassy, a Hungarian,
established a good understanding with Bismarck; and in 1872
the visit of the emperor Francis Joseph, accompanied by his
minister, to Berlin, was the final sign of the reconciliation with
his uncle. The tsar was also present on that occasion, and for
the next six years the close friendship between the three empires
removed all danger of war. Three years later the full reconcilia-
tion with Italy followed, when Francis Joseph consented to visit
Victor Emmanuel in Venice.
The outbreak of disturbance in the Balkans ended this period
of calm. The insurrection in Bosnia and Herzegovina immedi-
ately affected Austria; refugees in large numbers
Eastern crossed the frontier and had to be maintained by
question, the government. The political problem presented was
a very difficult one. The sympathy of the Slav
inhabitants of the empire made it impossible for the government
of Vienna to regard with indifference the sufferings of Christians
in Turkey. Active support was impossible, because the Hun-
garians, among whom the events of 1848 had obliterated the
remembrance of the earlier days of Turkish conquest, were full
of sympathy for the Turks. It was a cardinal principle of
Austrian policy that she could not allow the erection of new
Slav states on her southern frontier. Moreover, the disturbances
were fomented by Russian agents, and any increase of Russian
influence (for which the Pan-Slav party was working) was full
of danger to Austria. For a time the mediation of Germany
preserved the good understanding between the two eastern
empires. In 1875 Andrassy drafted a note, which was accepted
by the powers, requiring Turkey to institute the reforms necessary
for the good government of the provinces. Turkey agreed to
do this, but the insurgents required a guarantee from the Powers
that Turkey would keep her engagements. This could not be
given, and the rebellion continued and spread to Bulgaria. The
lead then passed to Russia, and Austria, even after the outbreak
of war, did not oppose Russian measures. At the beginning of
1877 a secret understanding had been made between the two
powers, by which Russia undertook not to annex any territory,
and in other ways not to take steps which would be injurious
to Austria. The advance of the Russian army on Constantinople,
however, was a serious menace to Austrian influence; Andrassy
therefore demanded that the terms of peace should be submitted
to a European conference, which he suggested should meet at
Vienna. The peace of San Stefano violated the engagements
made by Russia, and Andrassy was therefore compelled to ask
for a credit of 60 million gulden and to mobilize a small portion
of the army; the money was granted unanimously in the
Hungarian Delegation, though the Magyars disliked a policy
the object of which .appeared to be not the defence of Turkey
against Russia, but an agreement with Russia which would
give Austria compensation at the expense of Turkey; in
1 See General Le Brun, Souvenirs militaires (1866-1870, Paris,
1895); also, Baron de Worms, op. cit., and the article on BEUST.
the Austrian Deputation it was voted only by a majority
of 39 to 20, for the Germans were alarmed at the report that
it would be used for an occupation of part of the Turkish
territory.
The active share taken by Great Britain, however, relieved
Austria from the necessity of having recourse to further measures.
By an arrangement made beforehand, Austria was Bomi*
requested at the congress of Berlin to undertake the ana
occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herze-
govina an honourable but arduous task. The **"
provinces could not be left to the Turks; Austria could not
allow them to fall under Russian influence. The occupation
was immediately begun, and 60,000 Austrian troops, under the
command of General Philippovich, 2 crossed the frontier on the
ZQth of July. The work was, however, more difficult than had
been anticipated; the Mahommedans offered a strenuous
resistance; military operations were attended with great difficulty
in the mountainous country; 200,000 men were required, and
they did not succeed in crushing the resistance till after some
months of obstinate fighting. The losses on either side were
very heavy; even after the capture of Serajevo in August, the
resistance was continued; and besides those who fell in battle,
a considerable number of the insurgents were put to death under
military law. The opposition in the Delegations, which met at
the end of the year, was so strong that the government had to
be content with a credit to cover the expenses for 1879 of less
than half what they had originally asked, and the supplementary
estimate of 40,000,000 gulden for 1878 was not voted till the
next year. In 1879 the Porte, after long delay, recognized the
occupation on the distinct understanding that the sovereignty
of the sultan was acknowledged. A civil administration was
then established, the provinces not being attached to either
half of the empire, but placed under the control of the joint
minister of finance. The government during the first two years
was not very successful; the Christian population were dis-
appointed at finding that they still had, as in the old days, to
pay rent to the Mahommedan begs. There were difficulties
also between the Roman Catholics and the members of the
Greek Church. In 1881 disturbances in Dalmatia spread over
the frontier into Herzegovina, and another expedition had to
be sent to restore order. When this was done Benjamin de
Kallay was appointed minister, and under his judicious govern-
ment order and prosperity were established in the provinces.
In accordance with another clause of the treaty of Berlin, Austria
was permitted to place troops in the sanjak of Novi-Bazar, a
district of great strategic importance, which separated Servia
and Montenegro, and through which the communication between
Bosnia and Salonica passed. This was done in September 1879,
an agreement with Turkey having specified the numbers and
position of the garrison. Another slight alteration of the frontier
was made in the same year, when, during the delimitation of
the new frontier of Montenegro, the district of Spizza was
incorporated in the kingdom of Dalmatia.
The congress of Berlin indirectly caused some difficulties with
Italy. In that country was a large party which, under the
name of the " Irredentists," demanded that those
Italian-speaking districts, South Tirol, Istria and ' t ^ y ,"f
Trieste, which were under Austrian rule, should be dentists.
joined to Italy; there were public meetings and riots
in Italy; the Austrian flag was torn down from the consulate in
Venice and the embassy at Rome insulted. The excitement spread
across the frontier; there were riots in Trieste, and in Tirol it
was necessary to make some slight movement of troops as a
sign that the Austrian government was determined not to
surrender any territory. For a short time there was appre-
hension that the Italian government might not be strong enough
to resist the movement, and might even attempt to realize these
wishes by means of an alliance with Russia; but the danger
quickly passed away.
In the year 1879 the European position of the monarchy was
' Josef, Freiherr Philippovic von Philippsberg (1818-1889),
belonged to an old Christian noble family of Bosnia.
20
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
placed on a more secure footing by the conclusion of a formal
alliance with Germany. In the autumn of that year Bismarck
visited Vienna and arranged with Andrassy a treaty
A "'? ace by which Germany bound herself to support Austria
Germany, against an attack from Russia, Austria-Hungary
pledging herself to help Germany against a combined
attack of France and Russia; the result of this treaty, of which
the tsar was informed, was to remove, at least for the time,
the danger of war between Austria-Hungary and Russia. It
was the last achievement of Andrassy, who had already resigned,
but it was maintained by his successor, Baron Haymerle, and
after his death in 1881 by Count Kaln6ky. It was strengthened
in 1882 by the adhesion of Italy, for after 1881 the Italians re-
quired support, owing to the French occupation of Tunis, and
after five years it was renewed. Since that time it has been the
foundation on which the policy of Austria-Hungary has depended,
and it has survived all dangers arising either from commercial
differences (as between 1880 and 1890) or national discord.
The alliance was naturally very popular among the German
Austrians; some of them went so far as to attempt to use it to
influence internal policy, and suggested that fidelity to this
alliance required that there should be a ministry at Vienna
which supported the Germans in their internal struggle with
the Slavs; they represented it as a national alliance of the
Teutonic races, and there were some Germans in the empire who
supported them in this view. The governments on both sides
could of course give no countenance to this theory; Bismarck
especially was very careful never to let it be supposed that he
desired to exercise influence over the internal affairs of his ally.
Had he done so, the strong anti-German passions of the Czechs
and Poles, always inclined to an alliance with France, would have
been aroused, and no government could have maintained the
alliance. After 1880, the exertions of Count Kaln6ky again
established a fairly good understanding with Russia, as was
shown by the meetings of Francis Joseph with the tsar in 1884
and 1885, but the outbreak of the Bulgarian question in 1885
again brought into prominence the opposed interests of Russia
and Austria-Hungary. In the December of this year Austria-
Hungary indeed decisively interfered in the war between Bulgaria
and Servia, for at this time Austrian influence predominated
in Servia, and after the battle of Slivnitza the Austro-Hungarian
minister warned Prince Alexander of Bulgaria that if he advanced
farther he would be met by Austro-Hungarian as well as Servian
troops. But after the abdication of Alexander, Count Kalnoky
stated in the Delegations that Austria-Hungary would not permit
Russia to interfere with the independence of Bulgaria. This
decided step was required by Hungarian feeling, but it was a
policy in which Austria-Hungary could not depend on the support
of Germany, for as Bismarck stated Bulgaria was not worth
the bones of a single Pomeranian grenadier. Austria-Hungary
also differed from Russia as to the position of Prince Ferdinand
of Bulgaria, and during 1886-1887 much alarm was caused by
the massing cf Russian troops on the Galician frontier. Councils
of war were summoned to consider how this exposed and distant
province was to be defended, and for some months war was
considered inevitable; but the danger was averted by the re-
newal of the Triple Alliance and the other decisive steps taken
at this time by the German government (see GERMANY). 1
Since this time the foreign policy of Austria-Hungary has
been peaceful and unambitious; the close connexion with
Germany has so far been maintained, though during the last
few years it has been increasingly difficult to prevent the violent
passions engendered by national enmity at home from reacting
on the foreign policy of the monarchy; it would scarcely be
possible to do so, were it not that discussions on foreign policy
take place not in the parliaments but in the Delegations where
the numbers are fewer and the passions cooler. In May 1895
Count Kaln6ky had to retire, owing to a difference with Banffy,
the Hungarian premier, arising out of the struggle with Rome.
He was succeeded by Count Goluchowski, the son of a well-
1 Sir Charles Dilke, The Present Position of European Politics
(London, 1887).
known Polish statesman. In 1898 the expulsion of Austrian
subjects from Prussia, in connexion with the Anti-Polish policy
of the Prussian government, caused a passing irritation, to which
Count Thun, the Austrian premier, gave expression. The chief
objects of the government in recent years have been to maintain
Austro-Hungarian trade and influence in the Balkan states by the
building of railways, by the opening of the Danube for navigation,
and by commercial treaties with Rumania, Servia and Bulgaria;
since the abdication of King Milan especially, the affairs of Servia
and the growth of Russian influence in that country have caused
serious anxiety.
The disturbed state of European politics and the great increase
in the military establishments of other countries made it desirable
for Austria also to strengthen her military resources. The ^
The bad condition of the finances rendered it, however,
impossible to carry out any very great measures. In 1868 there
had been introduced compulsory military service in both Austria
and Hungary; the total of the army available in war had been
fixed at 800,000 men. Besides this joint army placed under the
joint ministry of war, there was in each part of the monarchy
a separate militia and a separate minister for national defence.
In Hungary this national force or honved was kept quite distinct
from the ordinary army; in Austria, however (except in Dalmatia
and Tirol, where there was a separate local militia), the Landwehr,
as it was called, was practically organized as part of the standing
army. At the renewal of the periodical financial and economic
settlement (Ausgleich) in 1877 no important change was made,
but in 1882 the system of compulsory service was extended to
Bosnia and Herzegovina, and a reorganization was carried out,
including the introduction of army corps and local organization
on the Prussian plan. This was useful for the purposes of speedy
mobilization, though there was some danger that the local and
national spirit might penetrate into the army. In 1886 a law
was carried in either parliament creating a Landslurm, and
providing for the arming and organization of the whole male
population up to the age of forty-two in case of emergency,
and in 1889 a small increase was made in the annual number
of recruits. A further increase was made in 1892-1893. In
contrast, however, with the military history of other continental
powers, that of Austria-Hungary shows a small increase in the
army establishment. Of recent years there have been signs of an
attempt to tamper with the use of German as the common
language for the whole army. This, which is now the principal
remnant of the old ascendancy of German, and the one point of
unity for the whole monarchy, is a matter on which the govern-
ment and the monarch allow no concession, but in the Hungarian
parliament protests against it have been raised, and in 1899 and
1900 it was necessary to punish recruits from Bohemia, who
answered the roll call in the Czechish zde instead of the
German hier.
In those matters which belong to the periodical and terminable
agreement, the most important is the Customs Union, which
was established in 1867, and it is convenient to treat
separately the commercial policy of the dual state. 2 customs
At first the customs tariff in Austria-Hungary, as in union.
most other countries, was based on a number of
commercial treaties with Germany, France, Italy, Great Britain,
&c., each of which specified the maximum duties that could be
levied on certain articles, and all of which contained a " most
favoured nation " clause. The practical result was a system
very nearly approaching to the absence of any customs duties,
and for the period for which these treaties lasted a revision of the
tariff could not be carried out by means of legislation. After
the year 1873, a strong movement in favour of protective duties
made itself felt among the Austrian manufacturers who were
affected by the competition of German, English and Belgian
goods, and Austria was influenced by the general movement in
economic thought which about this time caused the reaction
1 Matlekovits, Die Zollpolitik der osterreichish-ungarischen
Monarchic (Leipzig, 1891), gives the Hungarian point of view;
Bazant, Die Handelspohtik Osterreich-Ungarns (1875-1892, Leipzig,
1894).
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
21
against the doctrines of free trade. Hungary, on the other hand,
was still in favour of free trade, for there were no important
manufacturing industries in that country, and it required a
secure market for agricultural produce. After 1875 the com-
mercial treaties expired; Hungary thereupon also gave notice
to terminate the commercial union with Austria, and negotiations
began as to the principle on which it was to be renewed. This
was done during the year 1877, ar "d in the new treaty, while raw
material was still imported free of duty, a low duty was placed
on textile goods as well as on corn, and the excise on sugar and
brandy was raised. All duties, moreover, were to be paid in
gold this at once involving a considerable increase. The
tariff treaties with Great Britain and France were not renewed,
and all attempts to come to some agreement with Germany
broke down, owing to the change of policy which Bismarck
was adopting at this period. The result was that the system
of commercial treaties ceased, and Austria -Hungary was free
to introduce a fresh tariff depending simply on legislation,
an "autonomous tariff" as it is called. With Great Britain,
France and Germany, there was now only a " most favoured
nation " agreement; fresh commercial treaties were made with
Italy (1879), Switzerland and Servia (1881). During 1881-1882
Hungary, desiring means of retaliation against the duties on
corn and the impediments to the importation of cattle recently
introduced into Germany, withdrew her opposition to protective
duties; the tariff was completely revised, protective duties were
introduced on all articles of home production, and high finance
duties on other articles such as coffee and petroleum. At the
same time special privileges were granted to articles imported by
sea, so as to foster the trade of Trieste and Fiume; as in Germany
a subvention was granted to the great shipping companies,
the Austrian Lloyd and Adria; the area of the Customs Union
was enlarged so as to include Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia, as
well as Bosnia and Herzegovina. In 1887 a further increase
of duties was laid on corn (this was at the desire of Hungary as
against Rumania, for a vigorous customs war was being carried
on at this time) and on woollen and textile goods. Austria,
therefore, during these years completely gave up the principle
of free trade, and adopted a nationalist policy similar to that
which prevailed in Germany. A peculiar feature of these
treaties was that the government was empowered to impose
an additional duty (Retorsionszott) on goods imported from
countries in which Austria-Hungary received unfavourable
treatment. In 1881 this was fixed at 10 % (5 % for some
articles), but in 1887 it was raised to 30 and 15 % respectively.
In 1892 Austria-Hungary joined with Germany, Italy, Belgium,
and Switzerland in commercial treaties to last for twelve years,
the object being to secure to the states of central Europe a stable
and extended market; for the introduction of high tariffs in
Russia and America had crippled industry. Two years later
Austria-Hungary also arranged with Russia a treaty similar
to that already made between Russia and Germany; the
reductions in the tariff secured in these treaties were applicable
also to Great Britain, with which there still was a most favoured
nation treaty. The system thus introduced gave commercial
security till the year 1903.
The result of these and other laws was an improvement in financial
conditions, which enabled the government at last to take in hand
Reform t ' le lon g-delayed task of reforming the currency. Hitherto
ofthe * he currenc y had been partly in silver (gulden), the
currency. "Austrian currency " which had been introduced in 1857,
partly in paper money, which took the form of notes issued
by the Austro-Hungarian Bank. This institution had, in 1867,
belonged entirely to Austria; it had branches in Hungary, and its
notes were current throughout the monarchy, but the direction was
entirely Austrian. The Hungarians had not sufficient credit to
establish a national bank of their own, and at the settlement of 1877
they procured, as a concession to themselves, that it should be con-
verted into an Austro-Hungarian bank, with a head office at Pest
as well as at Vienna, and with the management divided between the
twocountries. This arrangement was renewed in 1887. Inl848the
government had been obliged to authorize the bank to suspend cash
payments, and the wars of 1859 and 1866 had rendered abortive all
attempts to renew them. The notes, therefore, formed an incon-
vertible paper currency. The bank by its charter had the sole right
of issuing notes, but during the war of 1866 the government, in order
to raise money, had 'itself issued notes (Staatsnoten) to the value of
312 million gulden, thereby violating the charter of the bank. The
operation begun in 1892 was therefore threefold : (i) the substitution
of a gold for a silver standard ; (2) the redemption of the Staatsnoten ;
(3) the resumption of cash payments by the bank.
In 1867 Austria-Hungary had taken part in the monetary confer-
ence which led to the formation of the Latin Union ; it was intended
to join the Union, but this was not done. A first step, however, had
been taken in this direction by the issue of gold coins of the value of
eight and four gulden. No attempt was made, however, to regulate
the relations of these coins to the " Austrian " silver coinage; the
two issues were not brought into connexion, and every payment
was made in silver, unless it was definitely agreed that it should be
paid in gold. In 1879, owing to the continued depreciation of silver,
the free coinage of silver was suspended. In 1892 laws introducing
a completely new coinage were carried in both parliaments, in accord-
ance with agreements made by the ministers. The unit in the new
issue was to be the krone, divided into 100 heller; the krone being
almost of thejsame value (24-25th) as the franc. (The twenty-krone
piece in gold weighs 6-775 f?r-. the twenty-franc piece 6-453.) The
gold krone was equal to -42 of the gold gulden, and it was declared
equal to -5 of the silver gulden, so much allowance being made for the
depreciation of silver. The first step towards putting this act into
practice was the issue of one-krone pieces (silver), which circulated
as half gulden, and of nickel coins; all the copper coins and other
silver coins were recalled, the silver gulden alone being left in cir-
culation. The coinage of the gold four- and eight-gulden was
suspended. Nothing more could DC done till the supply of gold had
been increased. The bank was required to buy gold (during 1892 it
bought over forty M. gulden), and was obliged to coin into twenty-
or ten-krone pieces all gold brought to it for that purpose. Then
a loan of 150 M. gulden at 4% was made, and from the gold (chiefly
bar gold and sovereigns) which Rothschild, who undertook the loan,
paid in, coins of the new issue were struck to the value of over 34
million kronen. This was, however, not put into circulation; it
was used first for paying off the Staatsnoten. By 1894 the state was
able to redeem them to the amount of 200 million gulden, including
all those for one gulden. It paid them, however, not in gold, but in
silver (one-krone pieces and gulden) and in bank notes, the coins and
notes being provided by the bank, and in exchange the newly-coined
gold was paid to the bank to be kept as a reserve to cover the issue
of notes. At the same time arrangements were made between Austria
and Hungary to pay off about 80 million of exchequer bills which had
been issued on the security of the government salt-works, and were
therefore called " salinenscheine." In 1899 the remainder of the
Staatsnoten (112 million gulden) were redeemed in a similar manner.
The bank had in this way acquired a large reserve of gold, and in the
new charter which was (after long delay) passed in 1899, a clause
was introduced requiring the resumption of cash payments, though
this was not to come into operation immediately. Then from
1st January 1900 the old reckoning by gulden was superseded, that
by krone being introduced in all government accounts, the new silver
being made a legal tender only for a limited amount. For the time
until the 1st of July 1908, however, the old gulden were left in cir-
culation, payments made in them, at the rate of two kronen to one
gulden, being legal up to any amount.
This important reform has thereby been brought to a satisfactory
conclusion, and at a time when the political difficulties had reached
a most acute stage. It is indeed remarkable that notwithstanding
the complicated machinery of the dual monarchy, and the numerous
obstacles which have to be overcome before a reform affecting both
countries can be carried out, the financial, the commercial, and the
foreign policy has been conducted since 1870 with success. The
credit of the state has risen, the chronic deficit has disappeared, the
currency has been put on a sound basis, and part of the unfunded
debt has been paid off. Universal military service has been intro-
duced, and alj this has been done in the presence of difficulties greater
than existed in any other civilized country.
Each of the financial and economic reforms described above
was, of course, the subject of a separate law, but, so far as they
are determined at the general settlement which takes The
place between Austria and Hungary every ten years, Autgieich
they are comprised under the expression " Ausgleich " wlth
(compact or compromise), which includes especially Hun x ar y-
the determination of the Quo'ta, and to this extent they are all
dealt with together as part of a general settlement and bargain.
In this settlement a concession on commercial policy would be
set off against a gain on the financial agreement; e.g. in 1877
Austria gave Hungary a share in the management of the bank,
whDe the arrangement for paying the bonus on exported sugar
was favourable to Austria; on the other hand, since the increased
duty on coffee and petroleum would fall more heavily on Austria,
the Austrians wished to persuade the Hungarians to pay a larger
quota of the common expenses, and there was also a dispute
whether Hungary was partly responsible for a debt of 80 M.
22
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
gulden to the bank. Each measure had, therefore, to be considered
not only on its own merits, but in relation to the general balance
of advantage, and an amendment in one might bring about
the rejection of all. The whole series of acts had to be carried
in two parliaments, each open to the influence of national
jealousy and race hatred in its most extreme form, so that the
negotiations have been conducted under serious difficulties, and
the periodical settlement has always been a time of great anxiety.
The first settlement occupied two full years, from 1876, when
the negotiations began, to June 1878, when at last all the bills
were carried successfully through the two parliaments; and it
was necessary to prolong the previous arrangements (which
expired at the end of 1877) till the middle of 1878. First the
two ministries had to agree on the drafts of all the bills; then
the bills had to be laid before the two parliaments. Each
parliament elected a committee to consider them, and the two
committees carried on long negotiations by notes supplemented
by verbal discussions. Then followed the debates in the two
parliaments; there was a ministerial crisis in Austria, because
the House refused to accept the tax on coffee and petroleum
which was recommended by the ministers; and finally a great
council of all the ministers, with the emperor presiding, deter-
mined the compromise that was at last accepted. In 1887
things went better; there was some difficulty about the tariff,
especially about the tax on petroleum, but Count Taaffe had a
stronger position than the Austrian ministers of 1877. Ten
years later, on the third renewal, the difficulties were still greater.
They sprang from a double cause. First the Austrians were
determined to get a more favourable division of the common
expenses; that of 1867 still continued, although Hungary had
grown relatively in wealth. 1 Moreover, a proposed alteration
in the taxes on sugar would be of considerable advantage to
Hungary; the Austrians, therefore, demanded that henceforth
the proportion should be not 68-6:31-4 but 58:42. On this
there was a deadlock; all through 1897 and 1898 the Quota-
Deputations failed to come to an agreement. This, however,
was not the worst. Parliamentary government in Austria had
broken down; the opposition had recourse to obstruction, and
no business could be done. Their object was to drive out the
Badeni government, and for that reason the obstruction was
chiefly directed against the renewal of the Ausgleich; for,
as this was the first necessity of state, no government could
remain in office which failed to carry it through. The extreme
parties of the Germans and the antf-Semites were also, for racial
reasons, opposed to the whole system. When, therefore, the
government at the end of 1897 introduced the necessary measures
for prolonging the existing arrangements provisionally till the
differences with Hungary had been settled, scenes of great dis-
order ensued, and at the end of the year the financial arrange-
ments had not been prolonged, and neither the bank charter
nor the Customs Union had been renewed. The government,
therefore (Badeni having resigned) , had to proclaim the necessary
measures by imperial warrant. Next year it was even worse,
for there was obstruction in Hungary as well as in Austria; the
Quota-Deputations again came to no agreement, and the pro-
posals for the renewal of the Bank charter, the reform of the
currency, the renewal of the Customs Union, and the new taxes
on beer and brandy, which were laid before parliament both
at Vienna and Pest, were not carried in either country; this time,
therefore, the existing arrangements had to be prolonged pro-
visionally by imperial and royal warrant both in Austria and
Hungary. During 1899 parliamentary peace was restored in
Hungary by the resignation of Banffy; in Austria, however,
though there was again a change, of ministry the only result
was that the Czechs imitated the example of the Germans and
resorted to obstruction so that still no business could be done.
The Austrian ministry, therefore, came to an agreement with the
Hungarians that the terms of the new Ausgleich should be
1 The only change was that as the military frontier had been given
over to Hungary, Hungary in consequence of this addition of terri-
tory had to pay 2%, the remaining 98% being divided as before,
so that the real proportion was 31-4 and 68-6.
finally proclaimed in Austria by imperial warrant; the
Hungarians only giving their assent to this in return for con-
siderable financial concessions.
The main points of the agreement were: (l) the Bank charter
was to be renewed till 1910, the Hungarians receiving a larger
share in the direction than they had hitherto enjoyed; (2) the
Customs Union so far as it was based on a reciprocal and binding
treaty lapsed, both sides, however, continuing it in practice, and
promising to do so until the 3ist of December 1907. Not later than
1901 negotiations were to be begun for a renewal of the alliance,
and if possible it was to be renewed from the year 1903, in which
year the commercial treaties would expire. If this were done, then
the tariff would be revised before any fresh commercial treaties were
made. If it were not done, then no fresh treaties would be made
extending beyond the year 1907, so that if the Commercial Union of
Austria and Hungary were not renewed before 1907, each party
would be able to determine its own policy unshackled by any previous
treaties. These arrangements in Hungary received the sanction of
the parliament; but this could not be procured in Austria, and they
were, therefore, proclaimed by imperial warrant; first of all, on
2Oth July, the new duties on beer, brandy and sugar; then on
23rd September the Bank charter, &c. In November the Quota-
Deputations at last agreed that Hungary should henceforward pay
33 j\, a very small increase, and this was also in Austria proclaimed
in the same way. The result was that a working agreement was
made, by which the Union was preserved. (J. W. HE.)
Since the years 1866-1871 no period of Austro-Hungarian
development has been so important as the years 1903-1907.
The defeat of the old Austria by Prussia at Sadowa Aastm ,
in 1866, the establishment of the Dual Monarchy Hungarian
in 1867 and the foundation of the new German empire crisis,
in 1 87 1, formed the starting-point of Austro-Hungarian 1W) 3-
history properly so called; but the Austro-Hungarian
crisis of 1903-1906 a crisis temporarily settled but not defini-
tively solved, and the introduction of universal suffrage in
Austria, discredited the. original interpretation of the dual
system and raised the question whether it represented the
permanent form of the Austro-Hungarian polity.
At the close of the igth century both states of the Dual
Monarchy were visited by political crises of some severity.
Parliamentary life in Austria was paralysed by the feud between
Germans and Czechs that resulted directly from the Badeni
language ordinances of 1897 and indirectly from the development
of Slav influence, particularly that of Czechs and Poles during
the Taaffe era (1879-1893). Government in Austria was carried
on by cabinets of officials with the help of the emergency
clause (paragraph 14) of the constitution. Ministers, nominally
responsible to parliament, were in practice responsible only to
the emperor. Thus during the closing years of last and the
opening years of the present century, political life in Austria
was at a low ebb and the constitution was observed in the
letter rather than in spirit.
Hungary was apparently better situated. Despite the campaign
of obstruction that overthrew the Banffy and led to the formation
of the Szell cabinet in 1899, the hegemony of the Liberal party
which, under various names, had been the mainstay of dualism
since 1867, appeared to be unshaken. But clear signs of the
decay of the dualist and of the growth of an extreme nationalist
Magyar spirit were already visible. The Army bills of 1889,
which involved an increase of the peace footing of the joint
Austro-Hungarian army, had been carried with difficulty,
despite the efforts of Koloman Tisza and of Count Julius Andrassy
the Elder. Demands tending towards the Magyarization of
the joint army had been advanced and had found such an echo
in Magyar public opinion that Count Andrassy was obliged
solemnly to warn the country of the dangers of nationalist
Chauvinism and to remind it of its obligations under the Compact
of 1867. The struggle over the civil marriage and divorce laws
that filled the greater part of the nineties served and was perhaps
intended by the Liberal leaders to serve as a diversion in favour
of the Liberal-dualist standpoint; nevertheless, Nationalist
feeling found strong expression during the negotiations of
Banffy and Szell with various Austrian premiers for the renewal
of the economic Ausgleich, or " Customs and Trade Alliance."
At the end of 1902 the Hungarian premier, Szell, concluded with
the Austrian premier, K6rber,a new customs and trade alliance
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
comprising a joint Austro-Hungarian tariff as a basis for the
negotiation of new commercial treaties with Germany, Italy
and other states. This arrangement, which for the sake of
ibrevity will henceforth beref erred to as the Szfill-Korber Compact,
was destined to play an important part in the history of the
next few years, though it was never fully ratified by either
parliament and was ultimately discarded. Its conclusion was
prematurely greeted as the end of a period of economic strife
between the two halves of the monarchy and as a pledge of a
decade of peaceful development. Events were soon to demon-
strate the baselessness of these hopes.
In the autumn of 1902 the Austrian and the Hungarian
igovernments, at the instance of the crown and in agreement
with the joint minister for war and the Austrian and
Hungarian ministers for national defence, laid before
their respective parliaments bills providing for an
increase of 21,000 men in the annual contingents of recruits.
16,700 men were needed for the joint army, and the remainder
for the Austrian and Hungarian national defence troops (Land-
wehr and honved). The total contribution of Hungary would
have been some 6500 and of Austria some 14,500 men. The
military authorities made, however, the mistake of detaining
in barracks several thousand supernumerary recruits (i.e.
recruits liable to military service but in excess of the annual
103,000 enrollable by law) pending the adoption of the Army
bills by the two parliaments. The object of this apparently
high-handed step was to avoid the expense and delay of summon-
ing the supernumeraries again to the colours when the bills
should have received parliamentary sanction; but it was not
unnaturally resented by the Hungarian Chamber, which has
ever possessed a lively sense of its prerogatives. The Opposition ,
consisting chiefly of the independence party led by Francis
Kossuth (eldest son of Louis Kossuth), made capital out of the
grievance and decided to obstruct ministerial measures until
the supernumeraries should be discharged. The estimates
could not be sanctioned, and though Kossuth granted the Szell
cabinet a vote on account for the first four months of 1903, the
Government found itself at the mercy of the Opposition. At
the end of 1902 the supernumeraries were discharged too late
to calm the ardour of the Opposition, which proceeded to demand
that the Army bills should be entirely withdrawn or that, if
adopted, they should be counterbalanced by concessions to
Magyar nationalist feeling calculated to promote the use of the
Magyar language in the Hungarian part of the army and to
render the Hungarian regiments, few of which are purely Magyar,
more and more Magyar in character. Szell, who vainly advised
the crown and the military authorities to make timely conces-
sions, was obliged to reject these demands which enjoyed the
secret support of Count Albert Apponyi, the Liberal president
of the Chamber and of his adherents. The obstruction of the
estimates continued. On the ist of May the Szell cabinet found
itself without supply and governed for a time " ex-lex "; Szell,
who had lost the confidence of the crown, resigned and was
succeeded (June 26) by Count Khuen-Hedervary, previously
ban, or governor, of Croatia. Before taking office Khuen-
Hedervary negotiated with Kossuth and other Opposition
leaders, who undertook that obstruction should cease if the
Army bills were withdrawn. Despite the fact that the Austrian
Army bill had been voted by the Reichsrath (February 19),
the crown consented to withdraw the bills and thus compelled
the Austrian parliament to repeal, at the dictation of the Hun-
garian obstructionists, what it regarded as a patriotic measure.
Austrian feeling became embittered towards Hungary and the
action of the crown was openly criticized.
Meanwhile the Hungarian Opposition broke its engagement.
Obstruction was continued by a section of the independence
The party; and Kossuth, seeing his authority ignored,
Magyar resigned the leadership. The obstructionists now
words of raised the cry that the German words of command
MM m tne j o j nt arm y mus t be replaced by Magyar words
in the regiments recruited from Hungary a demand which,
apart from its disintegrating influence on the army, the crown
considered to be an encroachment upon the royal military
prerogatives as defined by the Hungarian Fundamental Law
XII. of 1867. Clause n of the law runs: " In pursuance of
the constitutional military prerogatives of His Majesty, every-
thing relating to the unitary direction, leadership and inner
organization of the whole army, and thus also of the Hungarian
army as a complementary part of the whole army, is recognized
as subject to His Majesty's disposal." The cry for the Magyar
words of command on which the subsequent constitutional
crisis turned, was tantamount to a demand that the monarch
should differentiate the Hungarian from the Austrian part of
the joint army, and should render it impossible for any but
Magyar officers to command Hungarian regiments, less than
half of which have a majority of Magyar recruits. The partisans
of the Magyar words of command based their claim upon clause
12 of the Fundamental Law XII. of 1867 which runs:
" Nevertheless the country reserves its right periodically to
complete the Hungarian army and the right of granting recruits,
the fixing of the conditions on which the recruits are granted, the
fixing of the term of service and all the dispositions concerning
the stationing and the supplies of the troops according to existing
law both as regards legislation and administration." Since
Hungary reserved her right to fix the conditions on which
recruits should be granted, the partisans of the Magyar words
of command argued that the abolition of the German words
of command in the Hungarian regiments might be made such
a condition, despite the enumeration in the preceding clause n,
of everything appertaining to the unitary leadership and inner
organization of the joint Austro-Hungarian army as belong-
ing to the constitutional military prerogatives of the crown.
Practically, the dispute was a trial of strength between Magyar
nationalist feeling and the crown. Austrian feeling strongly
supported the monarch in his determination to defend the unity
of the army, and the conflict gradually acquired an intensity
that appeared to threaten the very existence of the dual system.
When Count Khuen-Hedervary took office and Kossuth
relinquished the leadership of the independence party, the ex-
tension of the crisis could not be foreseen. A few extreme
nationalists continued to obstruct the estimates, and it appeared
as though their energy would soon flag. An attempt to quicken
this process by bribery provoked, however, an outburst of feeling
against Khuen-Hedervary who, though personally innocent,
found his position shaken. Shortly afterwards Magyar resent-
ment of an army order issued from the cavalry manoeuvres at
Chlopy in Galicia in which the monarch declared that he would
" hold fast to the existing and well-tried organization of the
army" and would never "relinquish the rights and privileges
guaranteed to its highest war-lord"; and of a provocative
utterance of the Austrian premier Korber in the Reichsrath
led to the overthrow of the Khuen-Hedervary cabinet (September
30) by an immense majority. The cabinet fell on a motion of
censure brought forward by Kossuth, who had profited by the
bribery incident to resume the leadership of his party.
An interval of negotiation between the crown and many
leading Magyar Liberals followed, until at the end of October 1 903
Count Stephen Tisza, son of Koloman Tisza, accepted
a mission to form a cabinet after all others had declined.
As programme Tisza brought with him a number
of concessions from the crown to Magyar nationalist feeling
in regard to military matters, particularly in regard to military
badges, penal procedure, the transfer of officers of Hungarian
origin from Austrian to Hungarian regiments, the establishment
of military scholarships for Magyar youths and the introduction
of the two years' service system. In regard to the military
language, the Tisza programme which, having been drafted
by a committee of nine members, is known as the " programme
of the nine " declared that the responsibility of the cabinet
extends to the military prerogatives of the crown, and that
" the legal influence of parliament exists in this respect as in
respect of every constitutional right." The programme, however,
expressly excluded for " weighty political reasons affecting
great interests of the nation " the question of the military
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
language; and on Tisza's motion the Liberal party adopted
an addendum, sanctioned by the crown: " the party maintains
the standpoint that the king has a right to fix the language of
service and command in the Hungarian army on the basis of his
constitutional prerogatives as recognized in clause 1 1 of law XII.
of 1867."
Notwithstanding the concessions, obstruction was continued
by the Clericals and the extreme Independents, partly in the
hope of compelling the crown to grant the Magyar words of
command and partly out of antipathy towards the person of
the young calvinist premier. In March 1904, Tisza, therefore,
introduced a drastic " guillotine " motion to amend the standing
orders of the House, but withdrew it in return for an undertaking
from the Opposition that obstruction would cease. This time
the Opposition kept its word. The Recruits bill and the estimates
were adopted, the Delegations were enabled to meet at Budapest
where they voted 22,000,000 as extraordinary estimates for
the army and navy and especially for the renewal of the field
artillery and the negotiations for new commercial treaties
with Germany and Italy were sanctioned, although parliament
had never been able to ratify the Szell-Korber compact with
the tariff on the basis of which the negotiations would have to
be conducted. But, as the autumn session approached, Tisza
foresaw a new campaign of obstruction, and resolved to revert
to his drastic reform of the standing orders. The announcement
of his determination caused the Opposition to rally against him,
and when on the i8th of November the Liberal party adopted
a " guillotine " motion by a show of hands in defiance of orthodox
procedure, a section of the party seceded. On the i3th of
December the Opposition, infuriated by the formation of a special
corps of parliamentary constables, invaded and wrecked the
Chamber. Tisza appealed to the country and suffered, on the
26th of January 1905, an overwhelming defeat at the hands
of a coalition composed of dissentient Liberals, Clericals, In-
dependents and a few Banffyites. The Coalition gained an
absolute majority and the Independence party became the
strongest political group. Nevertheless the various adherents
of the dual system retained an actual majority in the Chamber
and prevented the Independence party from attempting to
realize its programme of reducing the ties between Hungary and
Austria to the person of the joint ruler. On the 2$th of January,
the day before his defeat, Count Tisza had signed on behalf
of Hungary the new commercial treaties concluded by the
Austro-Hungarian foreign office with Germany and Italy on
the basis of the Szell-Korber tariff. He acted ultra vires, but by
his act saved Hungary from a severe economic crisis and retained
for her the right to benefit by economic partnership with Austria
until the expiry of the new treaties in 1917.
A deadlock, lasting from January 1905 until April 1906,
ensued between the crown and Hungary and, to a great extent,
Dead/ * Between Hungary and Austria. The Coalition, though
of'iyos. possessing the majority in the Chamber, resolved not
to take office unless the crown should grant its demands,
including the Magyar words of command and customs
separation from Austria. The crown declined to concede these
points, either of which would have wrecked the dual system as
interpreted since 1867. The Tisza cabinet could not be relieved
of its functions till June 1905, when it was succeeded by a non-
parliamentary administration under the premiership of General
Baron Fejervary, formerly minister for national defence. Seeing
that the Coalition would not take office on acceptable terms,
Fejervary obtained the consent of the crown to a scheme,
drafted by Kristoffy, minister of the interior, that the dispute
between the crown and the Coalition should be subjected to
the test of universal suffrage and that to this end the franchise
in Hungary be radically reformed. The scheme alarmed the
Coalition, which saw that universal suffrage might destroy not
only the hegemony of the Magyar nobility and gentry in whose
hands political power was concentrated, but might, by admitting
the non-Magyars to political equality with the Magyars, under-
mine the supremacy of the Magyar race itself. Yet the Coalition
did not yield at once. Not until the Chamber had been dissolved
by military force (February 19, 1906) and an open breach of the
constitution seemed within sight did they come to terms with
the crown and form an administration. The miserable state
of public finances and the depression of trade doubtless helped
to induce them to perform a duty which they ought to have
performed from the first; but their chief motive was the desire
to escape the menace of universal suffrage or, at least, to make
sure that it would be introduced in such a form as to safeguard
Magyar supremacy over the other Hungarian races.
The pact concluded (April 8, 1906) between the Coalition and
the crown is known to have contained the following conditions:
All military questions to be suspended until after the
introduction of universal suffrage; the estimates 1906
and the normal contingent of recruits to be voted for
1905 and 1906; the extraordinary military credits, sanctioned
by the delegations in 1904, to be voted by the Hungarian
Chamber; ratification of the commercial treaties concluded
by Tisza; election of the Hungarian Delegation and of the
Quota-Deputation; introduction of a suffrage reform at least
as far reaching as the Kristoffy scheme. These " capitulations "
obliged the Coalition government to carry on a dualist policy,
although the majority of its adherents became, by the general
election of May 1906, members of the Kossuth or Independence
party, and, as such, pledged to the economic and political
separation of Hungary from Austria save as regards the person
of the ruler. Attempts were, however, made to emphasize the
independence of Hungary. During the deadlock (June 2, 1905)
Kossuth had obtained the adoption of a motion to authorize
the compilation of an autonomous Hungarian tariff, and on the
28th of May 1906, the Coalition cabinet was authorized by the
crown to present the Szell-Korber tariff to the Chamber in the
form of a Hungarian autonomous tariff distinct from but identical
with the Austrian tariff. This concession of form having been
made to the Magyars without the knowledge of the Austrian
government, Prince Konrad Hohenlohe, the Austrian premier,
resigned office; and his successor, Baron Beck, eventually
(July 6) withdrew from the table of the Reichsrath the whole
Szell-Korber compact, declaring that the only remaining
economic ties between the two countries were freedom of trade,
the commercial treaties with foreign countries, the joint state
bank and the management of excise. If the Hungarian govern-
ment wished to regulate its relationship to Austria in a more
definite form, added the Austrian premier, it must conclude a
new agreement before the end of the year 1907, when the recipro-
city arrangement of 1899 would lapse. The Hungarian govern-
ment replied that any new arrangement with Austria must be
concluded in the form of a commercial treaty as between two
foreign states and not in the form of a " customs and trade
alliance."
Austria ultimately consented to negotiate on this basis.
In October 1907 an agreement was attained, thanks chiefly to
the sobering of Hungarian opinion by a severe economic
crisis, which brought out with unusual clearness the
fact that separation from Austria would involve a 1907.
period of distress if not a commercial ruin for Hungary.
Austria also came to see that separation from Hungary would
seriously enhance the cost of living in Cisleithania and would
deprive Austrian manufacturers of their best market. The
main features of the new " customs and commercial treaty "
were: (i) Each state to possess a separate but identical customs
tariff. (2) Hungary to facilitate the establishment of direct
railway communication between Vienna and Dalmatia, the
communication to be established by the end of 1911, each state
building the sections of line that passed through its own territory.
(3) Austria to facilitate railway communication between Hungary
and Prussia. (4) Hungary to reform her produce and Stock
Exchange laws so as to prevent speculation in agrarian produce.
(5) A court of arbitration to be established for the settlement
of differences between the two states, Hungary selecting four
Austrian and Austria four Hungarian judges, the presidency of
the court being decided by lot, and each government being repre-
sented before the court by its own delegates. (6) Impediments
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
to free trade in sugar to be practically abolished. (7) Hungary
to be entitled to redeem her share of the old Austrian debt
(originally bearing interest at 5 and now at 4-2%) at the
rate of 4-325% within the next ten years; if not redeemed
within ten years the rate of capitalization to decrease annually
by i 1 ! % until it reaches 4-2 %. This arrangement represents a
potential economy of some 2,000,000 capital for Hungary as
compared with the original Austrian demand that the Hungarian
contribution to the service of the old Austrian debt be capitalized
at 4-2 %. (8) The securities of the two governments to rank
as investments for savings banks, insurance companies and
similar institutions in both countries, but not as trust fund
investments. (9) Commercial treaties with foreign countries
to be negotiated, not, as hitherto, by the joint minister for
foreign affairs alone, but also by a nominee of each government.
(10) The quota of Austrian and Hungarian contribution to
joint expenditure to be 63-6 and 36-4 respectively an increase
of 2 % in the Hungarian quota, equal to some 200,000 a year.
The economic dispute between Hungary and Austria was thus
settled for ten years after negotiations lasting more than twelve
years. One important question, however, that of the future of
the joint State Bank, was left over for subsequent decision.
During the negotiations for the customs and commercial treaty,
the Austrian government attempted to conclude for a longer
period than ten years, but was unable to overcome Hungarian
resistance. Therefore, at the end of 1917, the commercial
treaties with Germany, Italy and other countries, and the Austro-
Hungarian customs and commercial treaty, would all lapse.
Ten years of economic unity remained during which the Dual
Monarchy might grow together or grow asunder, increasing
accordingly in strength or in weakness. (H. W. S.)
During this period of internal crisis the international position
of the Dual Monarchy was threatened by two external dangers.
The unrest in Macedonia threatened to reopen the Eastern
Question in an acute form; with Italy the irredentist attitude
of the Zanardelli cabinet led in 1902-1903 to such strained
relations that war seemed imminent. The southern Tirol, the
chief passes into Italy, strategic points on the Istrian and
Dalmatian coasts, were strongly fortified, while in the interior
the Tauern, Karawanken and Wochein railways were constructed,
partly in order to facilitate the movement of troops towards the
Italian border. The tension was relaxed with the fall of the
Zanardelli government, and comparatively cordial relations
were gradually re-established.
In the affairs of the Balkan Peninsula a temporary agreement
with Russia was reached in 1903 by the so-called " February
Programme," supplemented in the following October
crisis. by the " Miirzsteg Programme" (see MACEDONIA;
TURKEY; EUROPE: History). The terms of theMurzsteg
programme were observed by Count Goluchowski, in spite of
the ruin of Russian prestige in the war with Japan, so long as
he remained in office. In October 1906, however, he retired,
and it was soon clear that his successor, Baron von Aerenthal, 1
was determined to take advantage of the changed European
situation to take up once more the traditional policy of the
Habsburg monarchy in the Balkan Peninsula. He gradually
departed from the Miirzsteg basis, and in January 1908
deliberately undermined the Austro-Russian agreement by
obtaining from the sultan a concession for a railway from the
Bosnian frontier through the sanjak of Novibazar to the Turkish
terminus at Mitrovitza. This was done in the teeth of the
expressed wish of Russia; it roused the helpless resentment
of Servia, whose economic dependence upon the Dual Monarchy
was emphasized by the outcome of the war of tariffs into which
she had plunged in 1906, and who saw in this scheme another
link in the chain forged for her by the Habsburg empire; it
1 Alois, Count Lexa von Aerenthal, was born on the 27th of
September 1854 at Gross-Skal in Bohemia, studied at Bonn and
Prague, was attach^ at Paris (1877) and afterwards at St Petersburg,
envoy extraordinary at Bucharest (1895) and ambassador at St
Petersburg (1896). He was created a count on the emperor's 79th
birthday in 1909.
offended several of the great powers, who seemed to see in this
railway concession the price of the abandonment by Austria-
Hungary of her interest in Macedonian reforms. That Baron
von Aerenthal was able to pursue a policy apparently so rash,
was due to the fact that he could reckon on the support of
Germany. The intimate relations between the two powers
had been revealed during the dispute between France and
Germany about Morocco; in the critical division of the 3rd
of March 1906 at the Algeciras Conference Austria-Hungary,
alone of all the powers, had sided with Germany, and it was a
proposal of the Austro-Hungarian plenipotentiary that formed
the basis of the ultimate settlement between Germany and
France (see MOROCCO: History). The cordial relations thus
emphasized encouraged Baron Aerenthal, in the autumn of
1908, to pursue a still bolder policy. The revolution in Turkey
had entirely changed the face of the Eastern Question; the
problem of Macedonian reform was swallowed up in that of the
reform of the Ottoman empire generally, there was even a
danger that a rejuvenated Turkey might in time lay claim to
the provinces occupied by Austria-Hungary under the treaty
of Berlin ; in any case, the position of these provinces, governed
autocratically from Vienna, between a constitutional Turkey
and a constitutional Austria-Hungary, would have been highly
anomalous. In the circumstances Baron Aerenthal determined
on a bold policy. Without consulting the co-signatory powers
of the treaty of Berlin, and in deliberate violation cf its provisions,
the king-emperor issued, on the I3th of October, a decree
annexing Bosnia and Herzegovina to the Habsburg Monarchy,
and at the same time announcing the withdrawal of the Austro-
Hungarian troops from the sanjak of Novibazar. (See EUROPE :
History.)
Meanwhile the relations between the two halves of the Dual
Monarchy had again become critical. The agreement of 1907
had been but a truce in the battle between two
irreconcilable principles : between Magyar nationalism, JJ//JJL'
determined to maintain its ascendancy in an inde- cuttles.
pendent Hungary, and Habsburg imperialism, equally
determined to preserve the economic and military unity of the
Dual Monarchy. In this conflict the tactical advantage lay
with the monarchy; for the Magyars were in a minority in
Hungary, their ascendancy was based on a narrow and artificial
franchise, and it was open to the king-emperor to hold in terrorem
over them an appeal to the disfranchised majority. It was the
introduction of a Universal Suffrage Bill by Mr Joseph Kristoffy,
minister of the interior in the " unconstitutional " cabinet of
Baron Fejervary, which brought the Opposition leaders in the
Hungarian parliament to terms and made possible the agreement
of 1907. But the Wekerle ministry which succeeded that of
Fejervary on the 9th of April 1906 contained elements which
made any lasting compromise impossible. The burning question
of the " Magyar word of command " remained unsettled, save
in so far as the fixed determination of the king-emperor had
settled it; the equally important question of the renewal of
the charter of the Austro-Hungarian State Bank had also
formed no part of the agreement of 1907. On the other hand,
the Wekerle ministry was pledged to a measure of franchise
reform, a pledge which they showed no eagerness to redeem,
though the granting of universal suffrage in the Austrian half
of the Monarchy had made such a change inevitable. In March
1908 Mr Hallo laid before the Hungarian parliament a formal
proposal that the charter of the Austro-Hungarian Bank, which
was to expire at the end of 1910, should not be renewed; and
that, in the event of failure to negotiate a convention between
the banks of Austria and Hungary, a separate Hungarian Bank
should be established. This question, obscured during the winter
by the Balkan crisis, once more became acute in the spring of
1909. In the Coalition cabinet itself opinion was sharply divided,
but in the end the views of the Independence party prevailed,
and Dr Wekerle laid the proposal for a separate Hungarian
Bank before the king-emperor and the Austrian government.
Its reception was significant. The emperor Francis Joseph
pointed out that the question of a separate Bank for Hungary
26
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
did not figure in the act of 1867, and could not be introduced
into it, especially since the capital article of the ministerial pro-
gramme, i.e. electoral reform, was not realized, nor near being
realized. This was" tantamount to an appeal from the Magyar
populus to the Hungarian plebs, the disfranchised non-Magyar
majority; an appeal all the more significant from the fact that
it ignored the suffrage bill brought in on behalf of the Hungarian
government by Count Julius Andrissy in November 1908, a bill
which, under the guise of granting the principle of universal
suffrage, was ingeniously framed so as to safeguard and even
to extend Magyar ascendancy (see HUNGARY: History). In
consequence of this rebuff Dr Wekerle tendered his resignation
on the zyth of April. Months passed without it being possible
to form a new cabinet, and a fresh period of crisis and agitation
was begun. (W. A. P.)
II. Austria Proper since 1867.
As already explained, the name Austria is used for convenience
to designate those portions of the possessions of the house of
Habsburg, which were not included by the settlement of 1867
among the lands of the Hungarian crown. The separation of
Hungary made it necessary to determine the method by which
these territories 1 were henceforth to be governed. It was the
misfortune of the country that there was no clear legal basis
on which new institutions could be erected. Each of the terri-
tories was a separate political unit with a separate history, and
some of them had a historic claim to a large amount of self-
government; in many the old feudal estates had survived till
1848. Since that year the empire had been the subject of
numerous experiments in government; by the last, which
began in 1860, Landtage or diets have been instituted in each
of the territories on a nearly uniform system and with nearly
identical powers, and by the constitution published in February
1861 (the February Constitution, as it is called), which is still
Tae the ultimate basis for the government, there was
February instituted a Reichsrath or parliament for the whole
Constitu- empire; it consisted of a House of Lords (Herren-
haus), in which sat the archbishops and prince bishops,
members of the imperial family, and other members appointed
for life, besides some hereditary members, and a Chamber of
Deputies. The members of the latter for each territory were
not chosen by direct election, but by the diets. The diets
themselves were elected for six years; they were chosen generally
(there were slight local differences) in the following way: (a)
a certain number of bishops and rectors of universities sat in
virtue of their office; (fr) the rest of the members were chosen
by four electoral bodies or curiae, (i) the owners of estates
which before 1848 had enjoyed certain feudal privileges, the
so-called great proprietors; (2) the chambers of commerce;
(3) the towns; (4) the rural districts. In the two latter classes
all had the suffrage who paid at least ten gulden in direct taxes.
The districts were so arranged as to give the towns a very large
representation in proportion to their populations. In Bohemia,
e.g., the diet consisted of 241 members: of these five were
ex officio members; the feudal proprietors had seventy; the
towns and chambers of commerce together had eighty -seven ;
the rural districts seventy-nine. The electors in the rural
districts were 236,000, in the towns 93,000. This arrangement
seems to have been deliberately made by Schmerling, so as to
1 It is impossible to avoid using the word " Austria " to designate
these territories, though it is probably incorrect. Officially the word
" Austria " is not found, and though the sovereign is emperor of
Austria, an Austrian empire appears not to exist ; the territories are
spoken of in official documents as " the kingdoms and lands repre-
sented in the Reichsrath." The Hungarians and the German party
in Austria have expressed their desire that the word Austria should
be used, but it has not been gratified. On the other hand, expressions
such as " Austrian citizens," " Austrian law " are found. The
reason of this peculiar use is probably twofold. On the one hand, a
reluctance to confess that Hungary is no longer in any sense a part
of Austria; on the other hand, the refusal of the Czechs to recognize
that their country is part of Austria. Sometimes the word Erbldnder,
which properly is applied only to the older ancestral dominions of the
houseof Habsburg, is used for want of a better word.
give greater power to the German inhabitants of the towns;
the votes of the proprietors would, moreover, nearly always give
the final decision to the court and the government, for the
influence exercised by the government over the nobility would
generally be strong enough to secure a majority in favour of the
government policy.
This constitution had failed; territories so different in size,,
history and circumstances were not contented with similar
institutions, and a form of self-government which satisfied
Lower Austria and Salzburg did not satisfy Galicia and Bohemia.
The Czechs of Bohemia, like the Magyars, had refused to recog-
nize the common parliament on the ground that it violated the
historic rights of the Bohemian as of the Hungarian crown,
and in 1865 the constitution of 1861 had been superseded, while
the territorial diets remained. In 1867 it was necessary once
more to summon, in some form or another, a common parliament
for the whole of Austria, by which the settlement with Hungary
could be ratified.
This necessity brought to a decisive issue the struggle between
the parties of the Centralists and Federalists. The latter
claimed that the new constitution must be made by centra/-
agreement with the territories; the former maintained /sts ana
that the constitution of 1861 was still valid, and Federal-
demanded that in accordance with it the Reichsrath '***'
should be summoned and a " constitutional " government
restored. The difference between the two parties was to a great
extent, though not entirely, one of race. The kernel of the
empire was the purely German district, including Upper and
Lower Austria, Salzburg, Tirol (except the south) and Vorarlberg,.
all Styria except the southern districts, and a large part of
Carinthia. There was strong local feeling, especially in Tirol,
but it was local feeling similar to that which formerly existed
in the provinces of France; among all classes and parties there
was great loyalty both to the ruling house and to the idea of the
Austrian state; but while the Liberal party, which was dominant
in Lower Austria and Styria, desired to develop the central
institutions, there was a strong Conservative and Clerical party
which supported local institutions as a protection against the
Liberal influence of a centralized parliament and bureaucracy,
and the bishops and clergy were willing to gain support in the
struggle by alliance with the Federalists.
Very different was it in the other territories where the majority
of the population was not German and where there was a
lively recollection of the time when they were not
Austrian. With Palacky, they said, " We existed g
before Austria; we shall continue to exist after it lands.
is gone." Especially was this the case in Bohemia.
In this great country, the richest part of the Austrian dominions,
where over three-fifths of the population were Czech, racial
feeling was supported by the appeal to historic law. A great
party, led by Palacky and Rieger, demanded the restoration of
the Bohemian monarchy in its fullest extent, including Moravia
and Silesia, and insisted that the emperor should be crowned
as king of Bohemia at Prague as his predecessors had been, and
that Bohemia should have a position in the monarchy similar
to that obtained by Hungary. Not only did the party include
all the Czechs, but they were supported by many of the great
nobles who were of German descent, including Count Leo Thun,
his brother-in-law Count Heinrich Clam-Martinitz, and Prince
Friedrich von Schwarzenberg, cardinal archbishop of Prague,
who hoped in a self-governing kingdom of Bohemia to preserve
that power which was threatened by the German Liberals. The
feudal nobles had great power arising from their wealth, the
great traditions of their families, and the connexion with the
court, and by the electoral law they had a large number of
representatives in the diet. On the other hand the Germans
of Bohemia, fearful of falling under the control of the Czechs,
were the most ardent advocates of centralization. The Czechs
were supported also by their fellow-countrymen in Moravia,
and some of the nobles, headed by Count Belcredi, brother of
the minister; but in Briinn there was a strong German party.
In Silesia the Germans had a considerable majority, and as
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
27
there was a large Polish element which did not support the
Czechs, the diet refused to recognize the claims of the
Bohemians.
The Poles of Galicia stood apart from the other Slav races.
The German-speaking population was very small, consisting
chiefly of government officials, railway servants and Jews;
but there was a large minority (some 43%) of Ruthenes. The
Poles wished to gain as much autonomy as they could for their
own province, but they had no interest in opposing the central-
ization of other parts; they were satisfied if Austria would
surrender the Ruthenes to them. They were little influenced
by the pan-Slav agitation; it was desirable for them that
Austria, which gave them freedom and power, should continue
strong and united. Their real interests were outside the
monarchy, and they did not cease to look forward to a restoration
of the Polish kingdom. The great danger was that they might
entangle Austria in a war with Russia.
The southern Slavs had neither the unity, nor the organization,
nor the historical traditions of the Czechs and Poles; but the
Slovenes, who formed a large majority of the population in
Carniola, and a considerable minority in the adjoining territory
of Carinthia and the south of Styria, demanded that their
language should be used for purposes of government and educa-
tion. Their political ideal was an " Illyrian " kingdom, including
Croatia and all the southern Slavs in the coast district, and a
not very successful movement had been started to establish a
so-called Illyrian language, which should be accepted by both
Croats and Slovenes. There was, however, another element in
the southern districts, viz. the Serbs, who, though of the same
race and language as the Croats, were separated from them by
religion. Belonging to the Orthodox Church they were attracted
by Russia. They were in constant communication with Servia
and Montenegro; and their ultimate hope, the creation of a
great Servian kingdom, was less easy to reconcile with loyalty
to Austria. Of late years attempts have been made to turn the
Slovenian national movement into this direction, and to attract
the Slovenes also towards the Orthodox non-Austrian Slavs.
In the extreme south of Dalmatia is a small district which had
not formed part of the older duchy of Dalmatia, and had not been
South joined to the Austrian empire till 1814; in former years
ntimniia P art f 't formed the republic of Ragusa, and the rest
Mjaltaalta, { . . ,, . <ni i ft>
belonged to Albania. The inhabitants of this part, who
chiefly belonged to the Greek Church, still kept up a close connexion
with Albania and with Montenegro, and Austrian authority was
maintained with difficulty. Disturbances had already broken out
once before; and in 1869 another outbreak took place. This district
had hitherto been exempted from military service; by the law of
1869, which introduced universal military service, those who had
hitherto been exempted were required to serve, not in the regular
army but in the militia. The inhabitants of the district round the
Bocche di Cattaro (the Bocchesi, as they are commonly called) refused
to obey this order, and when a military force was sent it failed to
overcome their resistance; and by an agreement made at Knezlac
in December 1869, Rodics, who had taken command, granted the
insurgents all they asked and a complete amnesty. After the con-
quest of Bosnia another attempt was made to enforce military
service; once more a rebellion broke out, and spread to the
contiguous districts of Herzegovina. This time, however, the govern-
ment, whose position in the Balkans had been much strengthened
by the occupation of the new provinces, did not fear to act with
decision. A considerable force was sent under General Baron Stephan
von Jovanovich (1828-1885); they were supported from sea by the
navy, and eventually the rebellion was crushed. An amnesty was
proclaimed, but the greater number of the insurgents sought refuge
in Montenegro rather than submit to military service.
The Italians of Trieste and Istria were the only people of the
empire who really desired separation from Austria; annexation
to Italy was the aim of the Italianissimi, as they were called.
The feeling was less strong in Tirol, where, except in the city of
Trent, they seem chiefly to have wished for separate local
institutions, so that they should no longer be governed from
Innsbruck. The Italian-speaking population on the coast of
Dalmatia only asked that the government should uphold them
against the pressure of the Slav races in the interior, and for this
reason were ready to support the German constitutionalists.
The party of centralization was then the Liberal German
party, supported by a few Italians and the Ruthenes, and as
years went by it was to become the National German party.
They hoped by a common parliament to create the Herman
feeling of a common Austrian nationality, by German Coattitu-
schools to spread the use of the German language.
Every grant of self-government to the territories
must diminish the influence of the Germans, and bring about a
restriction in the use of the German language; moreover, in
countries such as Bohemia, full self-government would almost
certainly mean that the Germans would become the subject race.
This was a result which they could not accept. It was intolerable
to them that just at the time when the national power of the
non-Austrian Germans was so greatly increased, and the Germans
were becoming the first race in Europe, they themselves should
resign the position as rulers which they had won during the last
three hundred years. They maintained, moreover, that the
ascendancy of the Germans was the only means of preserving the
unity of the monarchy; German was the only language in which
the different races could communicate with one another; it must
be the language of the army, the civil service and the parliament.
They laid much stress on the historic task of Austria in bringing
German culture to the half-civilized races of the east. They
demanded, therefore, that all higher schools and universities
should remain German, and that so far as possible the elementary
schools should be Germanized. They looked on the German
schoolmaster as the apostle of German culture, and they looked
forward to the time when the feeling of a common Austrian
nationality should obscure the national feeling of the Slavs, and
the Slavonic idioms should survive merely as the local dialects of
the peasantry, the territories 'becoming merely the provinces
of a united and centralized state. The total German population
was not quite a third of the whole. The maintenance of their
rule was, therefore, only possible by the exercise of great political
ability, the more so, since, as we have seen, they were not united
among themselves, the clergy and Feudal party being opposed
to the Liberals. Their watchword was the constitution of 1861,
which had been drawn up by their leaders; they demanded
that it should be restored, and with it parliamentary government.
They called themselves, therefore, the Constitutional party.
But the introduction of parliamentary government really added
greatly to the difficulty of the task before them. In the old days
German ascendancy had been secured by the common army, the
civil service and the court. As soon, however, as power was
transferred to a parliament, the Germans must inevitably be in
a minority, unless the method of election was deliberately
arranged so as to give them a majority. Parliamentary discus-
sion, moreover, was sure to bring out those racial differences
which it was desirable should be forgotten, and the elections
carried into every part of the empire a political agitation which
was very harmful when each party represented a different race.
The very first events showed one of those extraordinary
changes of policy so characteristic of modern Austrian history.
The decision of the government on the constitutional question
was really determined by immediate practical necessity. The
Hungarians required that the settlement should be ratified by a
parliament, therefore'a parliament must be procured which would
do this. It must be a parliament in which the Germans had a
majority, for the system of dualism was directly opposed to the
ambitions of the Slavs and the Federalists. Belcredi, who had
come into power in 1865 as a Federalist, and had suspended
the constitution of 1861 on the 2nd of January 1867, ordered
new elections for the diets, which were then to elect deputies to
an extraordinary Reichsrath which should consider the Ausgleich,
or compact with Hungary. The wording of the decree implied
that the February constitution did not exist as of law; the
Germans and Liberals, strenuously objecting to a "feudal-
federal " constitution which would give the Slavs a preponder-
ance in the empire, maintained that theFebruaryconsti-
tution was still in force, and that changes could only be
introduced bya regular Reichsrath summoned in accord-
ance wkh it, protested against the decree, and, in some cases,
threatened not to take part in the elections. As the Federalists
'
28
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
were all opposed to the Ausgleich, it was clear that a Reichsrath
chosen in these circumstances would refuse to ratify it, and this
was probably Belcredi's intention. As the existence of the empire
would thereby be endangered, Beust interfered; Belcredi was
dismissed, Beust himself became minister-president on the 7th
of February 1867, and a new edict was issued from Vienna
ordering the diets to elect a Reichsrath, according to the con-
stitution, which was now said to be completely valid. Of course,
however, those diets in which there was a Federalist majority,
viz. those of Bohemia, Moravia, Carinthia and Tirol, which were
already pledged to support the January policy of the government,
did not acquiesce in the February policy; and they, refused to
elect except on terms which the government could not accept.
The first three were immediately dissolved. In the elections
which followed in Bohemia the influence of the government was
sufficient to secure a German majority among the landed pro-
prietors; the Czechs, who were therefore in a minority, declared
the elections invalid, refused to take any part in electing deputies
for the Reichsrath, and seceded altogether from the diet. The
result was that Bohemia now sent a large German majority to
Vienna, and the few Czechs who were chosen refused to take their
seat in the parliament. Had the example of the Czechs been
followed by the other Slav races it would still have been difficult
to get together a Reichsrath to pass the Ausgleich.
compact It was, however, easier to deal with the Poles of Galicia,
with the for they had no historical rights to defend ; and by
Po/es- sending delegates to Vienna they would not sacrifice
any principle or prejudice any legal claim; they had only to
consider how they could make the best bargain. Their position
was a strong one; their votes were essential to the government,
and the government could be useful to them; it could give them
the complete control over the Ruthenes. A compact then was
easily arranged.
Beust promised them that there should be a special minister
for Galicia, a separate board for Galician education, that Polish
should be the language of instruction in all secondary schools,
that Polish instead of German should be the official language in
the law courts and public offices, Ruthenian being only used
in the elementary schools under strict limitations. On these
terms the Polish deputies, led by Ziemialkowski, agreed to go to
Vienna and vote for the Ausgleich.
When the Reichsrath met, the government had a large
majority ; and in the House, in which all the races except the
Czechs were represented, the Ausgleich was ratified
The con- almost unanimously. This having been done, it was
oti/t67. possible to proceed to special legislation for the
territories, which were henceforward officially known
as " the kingdoms and lands represented in the Reichsrath."
A series of fundamental laws were carried, which formally
established parliamentary government, with responsibility of
ministers, and complete control over the budget, and there were
included a number of clauses guaranteeing personal rights and
liberties in the way common to all modern constitutions. The
influence of the Poles was still sufficient to secure considerable
concessions to the wishes of the Federalists, since if they did not
get what they wished they would leave the House, and the
Slovenes, Dalmatians and Tirolese would certainly follow them.
Hence the German Liberals were prevented from introducing
direct elections to the Reichsrath, and the functions of the
Reichsrath were slightly less extensive than they had hitherto
been. Moreover, the Delegation was to be chosen not by the
House as a whole, but by the representatives of the separate
territories. This is one reason for the comparative weakness
of Austria as compared with Hungary, where the Delegation is
elected by each House as a whole; the Bohemian representatives,
e.g., meet and choose 10 delegates, the Galicians 7, those from
Trieste i ; the Delegation, is, therefore, not representative of the
majority of the chamber of deputies, but includes representa-
tives of all the groups which may be opposing the government
there, and they can carry on their opposition even in the Delega-
tion. So it came about in 1869, that on the first occasion when
there was a joint sitting of the Delegations to settle a point in the
budget, which Hungary had accepted and Austria rejected, the
Poles and Tirolese voted in favour of the Hungarian proposal.
As soon as these laws had been carried (December 1867),
Beust retired from the post of minister-president ; and in
accordance with constitutional practice a parliament- The
ary ministry was appointed entirely from the ranks Burger
of the Liberal majority; a ministry generally known Mini*-
as the " Burger Ministerium " in which Giskra and terium.
Herbst the leaders of the German party in Moravia and
Bohemia were the most important members. Austria now
began its new life as a modern constitutional state. From this
time the maintenance of the revised constitution of 1867 has
been the watchword of what is called the Constitutional party.
The first use which the new government made of their power
was to settle the finances, and in this their best work was done.
Among them were nearly all the representatives of trade and
industry, of commercial enterprise and financial speculation;
they were the men who hoped to make Austria a great industrial
state, and at this time they were much occupied with railway
enterprise. Convinced free-traders, they hoped by private
energy to build up the fortunes of the country, parliamentary
government which meant for them the rule of the educated
and well-to-do middle class being one of the means to this end.
They accepted the great burden of debt which the action of
Hungary imposed upon the country, and rejected the proposals
for repudiation, but notwithstanding the protest of foreign
bondholders they imposed a tax of 16 % on all interest on the
debt. They carried out an extension of the commercial treaty
with Great Britain by which a further advance was made in
the direction of free trade.
Of equal importance was their work in freeing Austria from
the control of the Church, which checked the intellectual life
of the people. The concordat of 1855 had given the The
Church complete freedom in the management of all Liberals
ecclesiastical affairs; there was full liberty of inter- and the
course with Rome, the state gave up all control over coacordat -
the appointment of the clergy, and in matters of church discipline
the civil courts had no voice the clergy being absolutely subject
to the power of the bishops, who could impose temporal as well
as spiritual penalties. The state had even resigned to the Church
all authority over some departments of civil life, and restored
the authority of the canon law. This was the case as regards
marriage; all disputes were to be tried before ecclesiastical
courts, and the marriage registers were kept by the priests.
All the schools were under the control of the Church; the bishops
could forbid the use of books prejudicial to religion; in ele-
mentary schools all teachers were subject to the inspection of
the Church, and in higher schools only Roman Catholics could
be appointed. It had been agreed that the whole education
of the Roman Catholic youth, in all schools, private as well as
public, should be in accordance with the teaching of the Roman
Catholic Church. The authority of the Church extended even
to the universities. Some change in this system was essential;
the Liberal party demanded that the government should simply
state that the concordat had ceased to exist. To this, however,
the emperor would not assent, and there was a difficulty in over-
throwing an act which took the form of a treaty. The govern-
ment wished to come to some agreement by friendly discussion
with Rome, but Pius IX. was not willing to abate anything of
his full claims. The ministry, therefore, proceeded by internal
legislation, and in 1868 introduced three laws : (i) a marriage law
transferred the decisions on all questions of marriage from the
ecclesiastical to the civil courts, abolished the authority of the
canon law, and introduced civil marriage in those cases where
the clergy refused to perform the ceremony; (2) the control of
secular education was taken from the Church, and the manage-
ment of schools transferred to local authorities which were to
be created by the diets; (3) complete civil equality between
Catholics and non-Catholics was established. These laws were
carried through both Houses in May amid almost unparalleled
excitement, and at once received the imperial sanction, notwith-
standing the protest of all the bishops, led by Joseph Othmar
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
29
von Rauscher (1797-1875), cardinal archbishop of Vienna, who
had earned his red hat by the share he had taken in arranging the
concordat of 1855, and now attempted to use his great personal
influence with the emperor (his former pupil) to defeat the bill.
The ministry had the enthusiastic support of the German
population in the towns. They were also supported by the
teaching profession, which desired emancipation from ecclesi-
astical control, and hoped that German schools and German
railways were to complete the work which Joseph II. had begun.
But the hostility of the Church was dangerous. The pope, in an
allocution of 22nd June 1868, declared that these " damnable
and abominable laws " which were " contrary to the concordat,
to the laws of the Church and to the principles of Christianity,"
were "absolutely and for ever null and void." The natural
result was that when they were carried into effect the bishops
in many cases refused to obey. They claimed that the laws were
inconsistent with the concordat, that the concordat still was
in force, and that the laws were consequently invalid. The
argument was forcible, but the courts decided against them.
Rudigier, bishop of Linz, was summoned to a criminal court for
disturbing the public peace; he refused to appear, for by the
concordat bishops were not subject to temporal jurisdiction;
and when he was condemned to imprisonment the emperor at
once telegraphed his full pardon. In the rural districts the
clergy had much influence; they were supported by the peasants,
and the diets of Tirol and Vorarlberg, where there was a clerical
majority, refused to carry out the school law.
On the proclamation of papal infallibility in 1870, the government
took the opportunity of declaring that the concordat had lapsed,
on the ground that there was a fundamental change in the character
of the papacy. Nearly all the Austrian prelates had been opposed
to the new doctrine; many of them remained to the end of the
council and voted against it, and they only declared their submission
with great reluctance. The Old Catholic movement, however, never
made much progress in Austria. Laws regulating the position of
the Church were carried in 1874. (For the concordat see Laveleye,
La Prtisse et I'Autriche, Paris, 1870.)
During 1868 the constitution then was open to attack on two
sides, for the nationalist movement was gaining ground in
National- Bohemia and Galicia. In Galicia the extreme party,
ism la Oa- headed by Smolka, had always desired to imitate the
iida and Czechs and not attend at Vienna; they were outvoted,
but all parties agreed on a declaration in which the
final demands of the Poles were drawn up; 1 they asked that
the powers of the Galician diet should be much increased, and
that the members from Galicia should cease to attend the
Reichsrath on the discussion of those matters with which the
Galician diet should be qualified to deal. If these demands
were not granted they would leave the Reichsrath. In Bohemia
the Czechs were very active; while the Poles were parading their
hostility to Russia in such a manner as to cause the emperor
to avoid visiting Galicia, some of the Czech leaders attended a
Slav demonstration at Moscow, and in 1868 they drew up and
presented to the diet at Prague a " declaration " which has since
been regarded as the official statement of their claims. They
asked for the full restoration of the Bohemian kingdom; they
contended that no foreign assembly was qualified to impose
taxes in Bohemia; that the diet was not qualified to elect
representatives to go to Vienna, and that a separate settlement
must be made with Bohemia similar to that with Hungary.
This declaration was signed by eighty-one members, including
many of the feudal nobles and bishops. 2 The German majority
declared that they had forfeited their seats, and ordered new
elections. The agitation spread over the country, serious riots
took place, and with a view to keeping order the government
decreed exceptional laws. Similar events happened in Moravia,
and in Dalmatia the revolt broke out among the Bocchesi.
Before the combination of Clericals and Federalists the
ministry broke down; they were divided among themselves;
Counts Taaffe and Alfred Potocki, the minister of agriculture,
wished to conciliate the Slav races a policy recommended
1 The documents are printed in Baron de Worms, op. cit.
1 It is printed in the Europdischer Geschichtskolentler (1868).
by Beust, probably with the sympathy of the emperor; the
others determined to cripple the opposition by taking away
the elections for the Reichsrath from the diets. Pffiia-
Taaffe and his friends resigned in January 1870, but mcotaiy
the majority did not long survive. In March, after breakdown
long delay, the new Galician demands were definitely '
rejected; the whole of the Polish club, followed by the Tirolese
and Slovenes, left the House, which consequently consisted of
no members the Germans and German representatives from
Bohemia and Moravia. It was clearly impossible to govern with
such a parliament. Not four years had gone by, and the new
constitution seemed to have failed like the old one. The only
thing to do was to attempt a reconciliation with the Slavs. The
ministry resigned, and Potocki and Taaffe formed a government
with this object. Potocki, now minister-president, then entered
on negotiations, hoping to persuade the Czechs to accept the
constitution. Rieger and Thun were summoned to Vienna;
he himself went to Prague, but after two days he had to give
up the attempt in despair. Feudals and Czechs all supported
the declaration of 1868, and would accept no compromise, and
he returned to Vienna after what was the greatest disappoint-
ment of his life. Government, however, had to be carried on;
the war between Germany and France broke out in July, and
Austria might be drawn into it; the emperor could not at such
a crisis alienate either the Germans or the Slavs. The Reichsrath
and all the diets were dissolved. This time in Bohemia the
Czechs, supported by the Feudals and the Clericals, gained a
large majority; they took their seats in the diet only to declare
that they did not regard it as the legal representative of the
Bohemian kingdom, but merely an informal assembly, and
refused to elect delegates for the Reichsrath. The Germans
in their turn now left the diet, and the Czechs voted an address
to the crown, drawn up by Count Thun, demanding the restora-
tion of the Bohemian kingdom. When the Reichsrath met
there were present only 130 out of 203 members, for the whole
Bohemian contingent was absent; the government then, under
a law of 1868, ordered that as the Bohemian diet had sent no
delegates, they were to be chosen directly from the people.
Twenty-four Constitutionalists and thirty Declarunten were
chosen; the latter, of course, did not go to Vienna, but the
additional twenty-four made a working majority by which the
government was carried on for the rest of the year.
But Potocki's influence was gone, and as soon as the European
crisis was over, in February 1871, the emperor appointed a
ministry chosen not from the Liberals but from the fj, e
Federalists and Clericals, led by Count Hohenwart ministry
and A. E. F. Schaffle, a professor at the university of otHoaea-
Vienna, chiefly known for his writings on political wart "
economy. They attempted to solve the problem by granting
to the Federalists all their demands. So long as parliament was
sitting they were kept in check; as soon as it had voted supplies
and the Delegations had separated, they ordered new elections
in all those diets where there was a Liberal majority. By the
help of the Clericals they won enough seats to put the Liberals
in a minority in the Reichsrath, and it would be possible to revise
the constitution if the Czechs consented to come. They would
only attend, however, on their own terms, which were a com-
plete recognition by the government of the claims made in the
Declaration. This was agreed to; and on the 1 2th of September
at the opening of the diet, the governor read a royal message
recognizing the separate existence of the Bohemian kingdom,
and promising that the emperor should be crowned as king at
Prague. It was received with delight throughout Bohemia,
and the Czechs drew a draft constitution of fundamental rights.
On this the Germans, now that they were in a minority, left the
diet, and began preparations for resistance. In Upper Austria,
Moravia and Carinthia, where they were outvoted by the
Clericals, they seceded, and the whole work of 1867 was on the
point of being overthrown. Were the movement not stopped
the constitution would be superseded, and the union with
Hungary endangered. Beust and Andrassy warned the emperor
of the danger, and the crown prince of Saxony was summoned
3
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
by Beust to remonstrate with him. A great council was called
at Vienna (October 20), at which the emperor gave his decision
that the Bohemian demands could not be accepted. The Czechs
must come to Vienna, and consider a revision of the constitution
in a constitutional manner. Hohenwart resigned, but at the
same time Beust was dismissed, and a new cabinet was chosen
once more from among the German Liberals, under the leadership
of Prince Adolf Auersperg, whose brother Carlos had been one
of the chief members in the Burger Ministerium. For the second
time in four years the policy of the government had completely
changed within a few months. On i2th September the decree
had been published accepting the Bohemian claims; before the
end of the year copies of it were seized by the police, and men
were thrown into prison for circulating it.
Auersperg's ministry held office for eight years. They began
as had the Burger Ministerium, with a vigorous Liberal central-
Au re _ izing policy. In Bohemia they succeeded at first in
perg-s almost crushing the opposition. In 1872 the diet was
ministry, dissolved; and the whole influence of the government
i79* was usec ^ to P rocure a German majority. Koller, the
governor, acted with great vigour. Opposition news-
papers were suppressed; cases in which Czech journalists were
concerned were transferred to the German districts, so that they
were tried by a hostile German jury. Czech manifestoes were
confiscated, and meetings stopped at the slightest appearance
of disorder; and the riots were punished by quartering soldiers
upon the inhabitants. The decision between the two races
turned on the vote of the feudal proprietors, and in order to win
this a society was formed among the German capitalists of
Vienna (to which the name of Chabrus was popularly given)
to acquire by real or fictitious purchase portions of those estates
to which a vote was attached. These measures were successful ;
a large German majority was secured; Jews from Vienna sat
in the place of the Thuns and the Schwarzenbergs; and as for
many years the Czechs refused to sit in the diet, the government
could be carried on without difficulty. A still greater blow to
the Federalists was the passing of a new electoral law in 1873.
The measure transferred the right of electing members of the
Reichsrath from the diets to the direct vote of the people, the
result being to deprive the Federalists of their chief weapon;
it was no longer possible to take a formal vote of the legal repre-
sentatives in any territory refusing to appoint deputies, and
if a Czech or Slovene member did not take bis seat the only
result was that a single constituency was unrepresented, and
the opposition weakened. The measure was strongly opposed.
A petition with 250,000 names was presented from Bohemia;
and the Poles withdrew from the Reichsrath when the law was
introduced. But enough members remained to give the legal
quorum, and it was carried by 1 20 to 2 votes. At the same time
the number of members was increased to 353, but the proportion
of representatives from the different territories was maintained
and the system of election was not altered. The proportion of
members assigned to the towns was increased, the special
representatives of the chambers of commerce and of the landed
proprietors were retained, and the suffrage was not extended.
The artificial system which gave to the Germans a parliamentary
majority continued.
At this time the Czechs were much weakened by quarrels
among themselves. A new party had arisen, calling themselves
Radicals, but generally known as the Young Czechs,
sens/on/." They disliked the alliance with the aristocracy and the
clergy; they wished for universal suffrage, and recalled
the Hussite traditions. They desired to take their seats in the
diet, and to join with the Germans in political Deform. They
violently attacked Rieger, the leader of the Old Czechs, who
maintained the alliance with the Feudalists and the policy of
passive opposition. Twenty-seven members of the diet led by
Gregr and Stadkowsky, being outvoted in the Czech Club,
resigned their seats. They were completely defeated in the
elections which followed, but for the next four years the two
parties among the Czechs were as much occupied in opposing one
another as in opposing the Germans. These events might have
secured the predominance of the Liberals for many years. The
election after the reform bill gave them an increased majority
in the Reichsrath. Forty-two Czechs who had won seats did
not attend; forty- three Poles stood aloof from all party com-
bination, giving their votes on each occasion as the interest
of their country seemed to require; the real opposition was
limited to forty Clericals and representatives of the other
Slav races, who were collected on the Right under the leadership
of Hohenwart. Against them were 227 Constitutionalists, and
it seemed to matter little that they were divided into three
groups; there were 105 in the Liberal Club under the leadership
of Herbst, 57 Constitutionalists, elected by the landed proprietors,
and a third body of Radicals, some of whom were more
democratic than the old Constitutional party, while others laid
more stress on nationality. They used their majority to carry a
number of important laws regarding ecclesiastical affairs. Yet
within four years the government was obliged to turn for support
to the Federalists and Clericals, and the rule of the German
Liberals was overthrown. Their influence was in-
directly affected by the great commercial crisis of 1 8 73 . crisis of
For some years there had been active speculations on 1873.
the Stock Exchange; a great number of companies,
chiefly banks and building societies, had been founded on a very
insecure basis. The inevitable crisis began in 1872; it was
postponed for a short time, and there was some hope that the
Exhibition, fixed for 1873, would bring fresh prosperity; the
hope was not, however, fulfilled, and the final crash, which
occurred in May, brought with it the collapse of hundreds of
undertakings. The loss fell almost entirely on those who had
attempted to increase their wealth by speculative investment.
Sound industrial concerns were little touched by it, but specula-
tion had become so general that every class of society was affected,
and in the investigation which followed it became apparent that
some of the most distinguished members of the governing Liberal
party, including at least two members of the government, were
among those who had profited by the unsound finance. It
appeared also that many of the leading newspapers of Vienna,
by which the Liberal party was supported, had received money
from financiers. For the next two years political interest was
transferred from parliament to the law courts, in which financial
scandals were exposed, and the reputations of some of the leading
politicians were destroyed. 1
This was to bring about a reaction against the economic
doctrines which had held the field for nearly twenty years; but
the full effect of the change was not seen for some
time. What ruined the government was the want of ^^erai
unity in the party, and their neglect to support a ministry.
ministry which had been taken from their own ranks.
In a country like Austria, in which a mistaken foreign policy or
a serious quarrel with Hungary might bring about the disruption
of the monarchy, parliamentary government was impossible
unless the party which the government helped in internal
matters were prepared to support it in foreign affairs and in the
commercial policy bound up with the settlement with Hungary.
This the constitutional parties did not do. During discussions
on the economic arrangement with Hungary in 1877 a large
number voted against the duties on coffee and petroleum, which
were an essential part of the agreement; they demanded,
moreover, that the treaty of Berlin should be laid before the
House, and 112 members, led by Herbst, gave a vote hostile to
some of its provisions, and in the Delegation refused the supplies
necessary for the occupation of Bosnia. They doubtless were
acting in accordance with their principles, but the situation was
such that it would have been impossible to carry out their wishes;
the only result was that the Austrian ministers and Andrissy
had to turn for help to the Poles, who began to acquire the
position of a government party, which they have kept since then.
At the beginning of 1879 Auersperg's resignation, which had long
been offered, was accepted. The constitutionalists remained
1 See Wirth, Geschichte der Handelskrisen (Frankfort, 1885); and
an interesting article by Schaffle in the Zeitschrift f. Staatswissen-
schaft (Stuttgart, 1874).
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
in power; but in the reconstructed cabinet, though Stremayr
was president, Count Taaffe, as minister of the interior, was the
most important member.
Parliament was dissolved in the summer, and Taaffe, by
private negotiations, first of all persuaded the Bohemian feudal
proprietors to give the Feudalists, who had long been excluded,
a certain number of seats; secondly, he succeeded where Potocki
had failed, and came to an agreement with the Czechs; they
had already, in 1878, taken their seats in the diet at Prague, and
now gave up the policy of " passive resistance," and consented
to take their seats also in the parliament at Vienna.
On entering the House they took the oath without reservation,
but in the speech from the throne the emperor himself stated
that they had entered without prejudice to their
Taaffe convictions, and on the first day of the session Rieger
read a formal reservation of right. The Liberals had
also lost many seats, so that the House now had a completely
different aspect; the constitutionalists were reduced to 91
Liberals and 54 Radicals; but the Right, under Hohenwart,
had increased to 57, and there were 57 Poles and 54 Czechs.
A combination of these three parties might govern against the
constitutionalists. Taaffe, who now became first minister, tried
first of all to govern by the help of the moderates of all parties,
and he included representatives of nearly every party in his
cabinet. But the Liberals again voted against the government
on an important military bill, an offence almost as unpardonable
in Austria as in Germany, and a great meeting of the party
decided that they would not support the government. Taaffe,
therefore, was obliged to turn for support to the Right. The
German members of the government resigned, their place was
taken by Clericals, Poles and Czechs, Smolka was elected
president of the Lower House of the Reichsrath, and the German
Liberals found themselves in a minority opposed by the " iron
ring " of these three parties, and helpless in the parliament of
their own creation. For fourteen years Taaffe succeeded in
maintaining the position he had thus secured. He was not
himself a party man; he had sat in a Liberal government; he
had never assented to the principles of the Federalists, nor was
he an adherent of the Clerical party. He continued to rule
according to the constitution; his watchword was " unpolitical
politics," and he brought in little contentious legislation. The
great source of his strength was that he stood between the Right
and a Liberal government. There was a large minority of
constitutionalists; they might easily become a majority, and
the Right were therefore obliged to support Taaffe in order to
avert this. They continued to support him, even if they did
not get from him all that they could have wished, and the
Czechs acquiesced in a foreign policy with which they had little
sympathy. Something, however, had to be done for them, and
from time to time concessions had to be made to the Clericals
and the Federalists.
The real desire of the Clericals was an alteration of the school
law, by which the control of the schools should be restored to
the Church and the period of compulsory education
Clericals, reduced. In this, however, the government did not
meet them, and in 1882 the Clericals, under Prince
Alfred v. Liechtenstein, separated from Hohenwart's party and
founded their own club, so that they could act more freely. Both
the new Clerical Club and the remainder of the Conservatives
were much affected by the reaction against the doctrines of
economic Liberalism. They began to adopt the principles of
Christian Socialism expounded by Rudolf Mayer and Baron von
Vogelfang, and the economic revolt against the influence of
capital was with them joined to a half-religious attack upon the
Jews. They represented that Austria was being governed by a
close ring of political financiers, many of whom were Jews or in
the pay of the Jews, who used the forms of the constitution,
under which there was no representation of the working classes,
to exploit the labour of the poor at the same time that they
ruined the people by alienating them from Christianity in " god-
less schools." It was during these years that the foundation for
the democratic clericalism of the future was laid. The chief
political leader in this new tendency was Prince Aloys v. Liechten-
stein, who complained of the political influence exercised by the
chambers of commerce, and demanded the organization of
working men in gilds. It was by their influence that a law was
introduced limiting the rate of interest, and they co-operated
with the government in legislation for improving the material
condition of the people, which had been neglected during the
period of Liberal government, and which was partly similar to
the laws introduced at the same time in Germany.
There seems no doubt that the condition of the workmen in the
factories of Moravia and the oil-mines of Galicia was peculiarly
unfortunate; the hours of work were very long, the
conditions were very injurious to health, and there
were no precautions against accidents. The report of tioa.
a parliamentary inquiry, called for by the Christian
Socialists, showed the necessity for interference. In 1883 a law
was carried, introducing factory inspection, extending to mines
and all industrial undertakings. The measure seems to have
been successful, and there is a general agreement that the
inspectors have done their work with skill and courage. In
1884 and 1885 important laws were passed regulating the work
in mines and factories, and introducing a maximum working day
of eleven hours in factories, and ten hours in mines. Sunday
labour was forbidden, and the hours during which women and
children could be employed were limited. Great power was
given to the administrative authorities to relax the application
of these laws in special cases and special trades. This power
was at first freely used, but it was closely restricted by a further
law of 1893. In 1887-1888 laws, modelled on the new German
laws, introduced compulsory insurance against accidents and
sickness. These measures,*! though severely criticized by the
Opposition, were introduced to remedy obvious, and in some
cases terrible social evils. Other laws to restore gilds among
working men had a more direct political object. Another form
of state socialism was the acquisition of railways by the state.
Originally railways had been built by private enterprise, sup-
ported in some cases by a state guarantee; a law of 1877 per-
mitted the acquisition of private lines; when Taaffe retired the
state possessed nearly 5000 m. of railway, not including those
which belonged to Austria and Hungary conjointly. In 1899
a minister of railways was appointed. In this policy military
considerations as well as economic were of influence. In every
department we find the same reaction against the doctrines of
laissez-faire. In 1889 for the first time the Austrian budget
showed a surplus, partly the result of the new import duties,
partly due to a reform of taxation.
For a fuller description of these social reforms, see the Jahrbuch
fur Gesetzgebung (Leipzig, 1886, 1888 and 1894); also the annual
summary of new laws in the Zeitschrift fur Staatswissenschaft (Stutt-
gart). For the Christian Socialists, see Nitti, Catholic Socialism
(London, 1895).
Meanwhile it was necessary for the government to do some-
thing for the Czechs and the other Slavs, on whose support
they depended for their majority. The influence of
the government became more favourable to them in JJnroare
the matter of language, and this caused the struggle question.
of nationalities to assume the first place in Austrian .
public life a place which it has ever since maintained. The
question of language becomes a political one, so far as it concerns
the use of different languages in the public offices and law courts,
and in the schools. There never was any general law laying
down clear and universal rules, but since the time of Joseph II.
German had been the ordinary language of the government.
All laws were published in German; German was the sole
language used in the central public offices in Vienna, and the
language of the court and of the army; moreover, in almost
every part of the monarchy it had become the language of what
is called the internal service in the public offices and law courts;
all books and correspondence were kept in German, not only in
the German districts, but also in countries such as Bohemia and
Galicia. The bureaucracy and the law courts had therefore be-
come a network of German-speaking officialism extending over
the whole country; no one had any share in the government
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
unless he could speak and write German. The only excep-
tion was in the Italian districts; not only in Italy itself (in
Lombardy, and afterwards in Venetia), but in South Tirol,
Trieste, Istria and Dalmatia, Italian has always been used,
even for the internal service of the government offices, and
though the actual words of command are now given in German
and the officers are obliged to know Serbo-Croatian it remains to
this day the language of the Austrian navy. Any interference
with the use of German would be a serious blow to the cause of
those who hoped to Germanize the whole empire. Since 1867 the
old rules have been maintained absolutely as regards the army,
and German has also, as required by the military authorities,
become the language of the railway administration. It remains
the language of the central offices in Vienna, and is the usual,
though not the only, language used in the Reichsrath. In
1869 a great innovation was made, when Polish was introduced
throughout the whole of Galicia as the normal language of
government; and since that time the use of German has almost
entirely disappeared in that territory. Similar innovations have
also begun, as we shall see, in other parts.
Different from this is what is called the external service. Even
in the old days it was customary to use the language of the
district in communication between the government offices and
private individuals, and evidence could be given in the law
courts in the language generally spoken. This was not the result
of any law, but depended on administrative regulations of the
government service; it was practically necessary in remote
districts, such as Galicia and Bukovina, where few of the popu-
lation understood German. In some places a Slav-speaking
individual would himself have to provide the interpreter, and
approach the government in German. Local authorities, e.g.
town councils and the diets, were free to use what language
they wished, and in this matter the Austrian government has
shown great liberality. The constitution of 1867 kid down a
principle of much importance, by which previous custom became
established as a right. Article 19 runs: "All races of the
empire have equal rights, and every race has an inviolable right
to the preservation and use of its own nationality and language.
The equality of all customary (landesilblich) languages in school,
office and public life, is recognized by the state. In those
territories in which several races dwell, the public and educational
institutions are to be so arranged that, without applying com-
pulsion to learn a second Landessprache, each of the races re-
ceives the necessary means of education in its own language."
The application of this law gives great power to the government,
for everything depends on what is meant by landesublich, and
it rests with them to determine when a language is customary.
The Germans demand the recognition of German as a customary
language in every part of the empire, so that a German may
claim to have his business attended to in his own language, even
in Dalmatia and Galicia. In Bohemia the Czechs claim that their
language shall be recognized as customary, even in those districts
such as Reichenberg, which are almost completely German;
the Germans, on the other hand, claim that the Czech language
shall only be recognized in those towns and districts where
there is a considerable Czech population. What Taaffe's
Administration did was to interpret this law in a sense more
favourable to the Slavs than had hitherto been the case.
Peculiar importance is attached to the question of education.
The law of 1867 required that the education in the elementary
schools in the Slav districts should be given in Czech or Slovenian,
as the case might be. The Slavs, however, required that, even
when a small minority of Slav race settled in any town, they
should not be compelled to go to the German schools, but
should have their own school provided for them; and this
demand was granted by Prazak, minister of education under
Count Taaffe. The Germans had always hoped that the people
as they became educated would cease to use their own particular
language. Owing to economic causes the Slavs, who increase
more rapidly than the Germans, tend to move westwards, and
large numbers settle in the towns and manufacturing districts.
It might have been expected that they would then cease to use
their own language and become Germanized; but, on the con-
trary, the movement of population is spreading their language
and they claim that special schools should be provided for them,
and that men of their own nationality should be appointed to
government offices to deal with their business. This has hap-
pened not only in many places in Bohemia, but in Styria, and
even in Vienna, where there has been a great increase in the
Czech population and a Czech school has been founded. The
introduction of Slavonic into the middle and higher schools has
affected the Germans in their most sensitive point. They have
always insisted that German is the Kultur-sprache. On one
occasion Count A. Auersperg (Anastasius Griin) entered the
diet of Carniola carrying the whole of the Slovenian literature
under his arm, as evidence that the Slovenian language could not
well be substituted for German as a medium of higher education.
The first important regulations which were issued under the
law of 1867 applied to Dalmatia, and for that country between
1872 and 1876 a series of laws and edicts were issued determining
to what extent the Slavonic idioms were to be recognized.
Hitherto all business had been done in Italian, the language of
a small minority living in the seaport towns. The effect of these
laws has been to raise Croatian to equality with Italian. It
has been introduced in all schools, so that nearly all educa-
tion is given in Croatian, even though a knowledge of Italian
is quite essential for the maritime population; and it is only
in one or two towns, such as Zara, the ancient capital of the
country, that Italian is able to maintain itself. Since 1882
there has been a Slav majority in the diet, and Italian has been
disused in the proceedings of that body. In this case the con-
cessions to the Servo-Croatians had been made by the Liberal
ministry; they required the parliamentary support of the
Dalmatian representatives, who were more numerous than the
Italian, and it was also necessary to cultivate the loyalty of the
Slav races in this part so as to gain a support for Austria against
the Russian party, which was very active in the Balkan Peninsula.
It was better to sacrifice the Italians of Dalmatia than the
Germans of Carinthia. 1
It was not till 1879 that the Slovenes received the support
of the government. In Carniola they succeeded, in 1882, in
winning a majority in the diet, and from this time, while the diet
of Styria is the centre of the German, that of Carniola is the
chief support of the Slovene agitation. In the same year they
won the majority in the town council of Laibach, which had
hitherto been German. They were able, therefore, to introduce
Illyrian as the official language, and cause the names of the streets
to be written up in Illyrian. This question of street names is,
as it were, a sign of victory. Serious riots broke out in some
of the towns of Istria when, for the first time, Illyrian was used
for this purpose as well as Italian. In Prague the victory of the
Czechs has been marked by the removal of all German street
names, and the Czech town council even passed a by-law
forbidding private individuals to have tablets put up with the
name of the street in German. In consequence of a motion by
the Slovene members of the Reichsrath and a resolution of the
diet of Carniola, the government also declared Slovenian to be a
recognized language for the whole of Carniola, for the district
of Cilli in Styria, and for the Slovene and mixed districts in the
south of Carinthia, and determined that in Laibach a Slovene
gymnasium should be maintained as well as the German one.
The Germans complain that in many cases the government acted
very unfairly to them. They constantly refer to the case of Klagen-
furt. _ This town in Carinthia had a population of 16,491 German-
speaking Austrians; the Slovenian-speaking population numbered
568, of whom 1 80 were inhabitants of the gaol or the hospital. The
government, however, in 1880 declared Slovenian a customary
language, so that provision had to be made in public offices and law
courts for dealing with business in Slovenian. It must be remem-
bered, however, that even though the town was German, the rural
population of the surrounding villages was chiefly Slovene.
It was in Bohemia and Moravia that the contest was fought
out with the greatest vehemence. The two races were nearly
equal, and the victory of Czech would mean that nearly two
1 For Dalmatia, see T. G. Jackson, Dalmatia, &c. (Oxford, 18891.
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
33
million Germans would be placed in a position of subordination;
but for the last twenty years there had been a constant encroach-
ment by Czech on German. This was partly due to the direct
action of the government. An ordinance of 1880 determined
that henceforward all business which had been brought before
any government office or law court should be dealt with, within
the office, in the language in which it was introduced; this
applied to the whole of Bohemia and Moravia, and meant that
Czech would henceforward have a position within the government
service. It was another step in the same direction when, in
1886, it was ordered that " to avoid frequent translations "
business introduced in Czech should be dealt with in the same
language in the high courts of Prague and Briinn. Then not
only were a large number of Czech elementary schools founded,
but also many middle schools were given to the Czechs, and
Czech classes introduced in German schools ; and, what affected
the Germans most, in 1882 classes in Czech were started in the
university of Prague a desecration, as it seemed, of the oldest
German university.
The growth of the Slav races was, however, not merely the
result of government assistance ; it had begun long before Taaffe
assumed office ; it was to be seen in the census returns and in the
results of elections. Prague was no longer the German city it
had been fifty years before ; the census of 1880 showed 36,000
Germans to 120,000 Czechs. It was the same in Pilsen. In
1861 the Germans had a majority in this town; in 1880 they were
not a quarter of the population. This same phenomenon, which
occurs elsewhere, cannot be attributed to any laxity of the
Germans. The generation which was so vigorously demanding
national rights had themselves all been brought up under the
old system in German schools, but this had not implanted in
them a desire to become German. It was partly due to economic
causes the greater increase among the Czechs, and the greater
migration from the country to the towns ; partly the result
of the romantic and nationalist movement which had arisen
about 1830, and partly the result of establishing popular educa-
tion and parliamentary government at the same time. As soon
as these races which had so long been ruled by the Germans
received political liberty and the means of education, they
naturally used both to reassert their national individuality.
It may be suggested that the resistance to the German language
is to some extent a result of the increased national feeling among
the Germans themselves. They have made it a matter of principle.
In the old days it was common for the children of German parents
in Bohemia to learn Czech; since 1867 this has ceased to be the
case. It may almost be said that they make it a point of honour
not to do so. A result of this is that, as educated Czechs are gener-
ally bilingual, it is easier for them to obtain appointments in districts
where a knowledge of Czech is required, and the Germans, therefore,
regard every order requiring the use of Czech as an order which
excludes Germans from a certain number of posts. This attitude of
hostility and contempt is strongest among the educated middle
class; it is not shown to the same extent by the clergy and the
nobles.
The influence of the Church is also favourable to the Slav races,
not so much from principle as owing to the fact that they supply
more candidates for ordination than the Germans. There is no
doubt, however, that the tendency among Germans has been to
exalt the principle of nationality above religion, and to give it an
absolute authority in which the Roman Catholic Church cannot
acquiesce. In this, as in other ways, the Germans in Austria have
been much influenced by the course of events in the German empire.
This hostility of the Church to the German nationalist movement
led in 1898 to an agitation against the Roman Catholic Church, and
among the Germans of Styria and other territories large numbers left
the Church, going over either to Protestantism or to Old Catholicism.
This " Los von Rom " movement, which was caused by the con-
tinued alliance of the Clerical party with the Slav parties, is more
of the nature of a political demonstration than of a religious move-
ment.
The Germans, so long accustomed to rule, now saw their old
ascendancy threatened, and they defended it with an energy
German that increased with each defeat. In 1880 they founded a
hostility, great society, the Deutscher Schulverein, to establish and
assist German schools. It spread over the whole of the
empire; in a few years it numbered 100,000 members, and had an
income of nearly 300,000 gulden ; no private society in Austria
III. 2
had ever attained so great a success. In the Reichsrath a motion
was introduced, supported by all the German Liberal parties,
demanding that German should be declared the language of state
and regulating the conditions under which the other idioms
could be recognized ; it was referred to a committee from which
it never emerged, and a bill to the same effect, introduced in
1886, met a similar fate. In Bohemia they demanded, as a means
of protecting themselves against the effect of the language
ordinances, that the country should be divided into two parts;
in one German was to be the sole language, in the other Czech
was to be recognized. A proposal to this effect was introduced
by them in the diet at the end of 1886, but since 1882 the Germans
had been in a minority. The Czechs, of course, refused even to
consider it; it would have cut away the ground on which their
whole policy was built up, namely, the indissoluble unity of the
Bohemian kingdom, in which German and Czech should through-
out be recognized as equal and parallel languages. It was
rejected on a motion of Prince Karl Schwarzenberg without
discussion, and on this all the Germans rose and left the diet,
thereby imitating the action of the Czechs in old days when they
had the majority.
These events produced a great change on the character of the
German opposition. It became more and more avowedly
racial; the defence of German nationality was put
in the iron t of their programme. The growing national
animosity added bitterness to political life, and de-
stroyed the possibility of a strong homogeneous party
on which a government might depend. The beginning of this
movement can be traced back to the year 1870. About that time
a party of young Germans had arisen who professed to care little
for constitutionalism and other " legal mummies," but made
the preservation and extension of their own nationality their
sole object. As is so often the case in Austria, the movement
began in the university of Vienna, where a Leseverein (reading
club) of German students was formed as a point of cohesion for
Germans, which had eventually to be suppressed. The first
representative of the movement in parliament was Herr von
Schonerer, who did not scruple to declare that the Germans
looked forward to union with the German empire. They were
strongly influenced by men outside Austria. Bismarck was their
national hero, the anniversary of Sedan their political festival,
and approximation to Germany was dearer to them than the
maintenance of Austria. After 1878 a heightening of racial
feeling began among the Radicals, and in 1881 all the German
parties in opposition joined together in a club called the United
Left, and in their programme put in a prominent place the defence
of the position of the Germans as the condition for the existence
of the state, and demanded that German should be expressly
recognized as the official language. The younger and more
ardent spirits, however, found it difficult to work in harmony
with the older constitutional leaders. They complained that
the party leaders were not sufficiently decisive in the measures
for self-defence. In 1885 great festivities in honour of Bismarck's
eightieth birthday, which had been arranged in Graz, were
forbidden by the government, and the Germans of Styria were
very indignant that the party did not take up the matter with
sufficient energy. After the elections of 1885 the Left, therefore,
broke up again into two clubs, the " German Austrian," which
included the more moderate, and the " German," which wished
to use sharper language. The German Club, e.g., congratulated
Bismarck on his measures against the Poles; the German
Austrians refused to take cognizance of events outside Austria
with which they had nothing to do. Even the German Club was
not sufficiently decided for Herr von Schonerer and his friends,
who broke off from it and founded a " National German Union."
They spoke much of Germanentum and Unverfiilschtes Deutsch-
tum, and they advocated a political union with the German
empire, and were strongly anti-Hungarian and wished to resign
all control over Galicia, if by a closer union with Germany
they could secure German supremacy in Bohemia and the
south Slav countries. They play the same part in Austria as does
the " pan-Germanic Union " in Germany. When in 1888 the
34
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
Bohem a.
two clubs, the German Austrians and the Germans, joined once
more under the name of the " United German Left " into a
new club' with eighty-seven members, so as the better to guard
against the common danger and to defeat the educational
demands of the Clericals, the National Germans remained apart
with seventeen members. They were also infected by the growing
spirit of anti-Semitism. The German parties had originally
been the party of the capitalists, and comprised a large number
of Jews; this new German party committed itself to violent
attacks upon the Jews, and for this reason alone any real
harmony between the different branches would have been
impossible.
Notwithstanding the concessions about language the Czechs
had, however, made no advance towards their real object the
recognition of the Bohemian kingdom. Perhaps the leaders of
the party, who were now growing old, would have been content
with the influence they had already attained, but they were
hard pressed at home by the Young Czechs, who were more
impatient. When Count Thun was appointed governor of
Bohemia their hopes ran high, for he was supposed to favour
the coronation of the emperor at Prague. In 1890, however,
instead of proceeding to the coronation as was expected, Taaffe
n agree- attempted to bring about a reconciliation between
meat the opposing parties. The influence by which his
policy was directed is not quite clear, but the Czechs
j^j J )een Q recent y ears l ess eas y (- o <j ea l w it] 1) an( J
Taaffe had never really shown any wish to alter the constitution;
his policy always was to destroy the influence of parliament
by playing off one party against the other, and so to win a clear
field for the government. During the month of January con-
ferences were held at Vienna, with Taaffe in the chair, to which
were invited representatives of the three groups into which
the Bohemian representatives were divided, the German party,
the Czechs, and the Feudal party. After a fortnight's discussion
an agreement was made on the basis of a separation between the
German and the Czech districts, and a revision of the electoral
law. A protocol enumerating the points agreed on was signed
by all who had taken part in the conference, and in May bills
were laid before the diet incorporating the chief points in the
agreement. But they were not carried; the chief reason being
that the Young Czechs had not been asked to take part in the con-
ference, and did not consider themselves bound by its decisions;
they opposed the measures and had recourse to obstruction, and
a certain number of the Old Czechs gradually came over to them.
Their chief ground of criticizing the proposed measures was that
they would threaten the unity of the Bohemian country. 1 At
the elections in 1891 a great struggle took place between the Old
and the Young Czechs. The latter were completely victorious ;
Rieger, who had led the party for thirty years, disappeared
from the Reichsrath. The first result was that the proposed
agreement with Bohemia came to an end. But the disappearance
of the Old Czechs made the parliamentary situation very insecure.
The Young Czechs could not take their place; their Radical
and anti-clerical tendencies alarmed the Feudalistsand Clericalists
who formed so large a part of the Right; they attacked the
alliance with Germany; they made public demonstration of
their French sympathies; they entered into communication
with other Slav races, especially the Serbs of Hungary and
Bosnia; they demanded universal suffrage, and occasionally
supported the German Radicals in their opposition to the Clerical
parties, especially in educational matters; under their influence
disorder increased in Bohemia, a secret society called the
Umlodina (an imitation of the Servian society of that name) was
discovered, and stringent measures had to be taken to preserve
order. The government therefore veered round towards the
German Liberals; some of the ministers most obnoxious to the
Germans resigned, and their places were taken by Germans.
For two years the government seemed to waver, looking now to
the Left, now to Hohenwart and his friends; for a time Taaffe
really had the support of all parties except the Young Czechs.
1 On this see Menger, Der Ausgleich mil Bohmen (Vienna, 1891),
where the documents are printed.
After two years he gave up his cautious policy and took a
bold move. In October 1893 he introduced a reform bill. Univer-
sal suffrage had long been demanded by the working
men and the Socialists; the Young Czechs also had
put it on their programme, and many of the Christian
Socialists and anti-Semites desired an alteration of the franchise.
Taaffe's bill, while keeping the curiae of the feudal proprietors
and the chambers of commerce as they were, and making no
change in the number of members, proposed to give the franchise
in both towns and rural districts to every one who could read and
write, and had resided six months in one place. This was
opposed by the Liberals, for with the growth of socialism and
anti-Semitism, they knew that the extension of the franchise
would destroy their influence. On this Taaffe had probably
calculated, but he had omitted to inquire what the other parties
would do. He had not even consulted Hohenwart, to whose
assistance he owed his long tenure of power. Not even the
pleasure of ruining the Liberals was sufficient to persuade the
Conservatives to vote for a measure which would transfer the
power from the well-to-do to the indigent, and Hohenwart
justly complained that they ought to have been secure against
surprises of this kind. The Poles also were against a measure
which would give more influence to the Ruthenes. The position
of the government was hopeless, and without waiting for a division
Taaffe resigned.
The event to which for fourteen years the Left had looked
forward had now happened. Once more they could have a
share in the government, which they always believed Tne
belonged to them by nature. Taught by experience coalition
and adversity, they did not scruple to enter into an ministry,
alliance with their old enemies, and a coalition ministry l893 '
was formed from the Left, the Clericals and the Poles. The
president was Prince Alfred Windisch-Gratz, grandson of the
celebrated general, one of Hohenwart's ablest lieutenants;
Hohenwart himself did not take office. Of course an administra-
tion of this kind could not take a definite line on any controversial
question, but during 1894 they carried through the commercial
treaty with Russia and the laws for the continuance of the
currency reform. The differences of the clubs appeared, how-
ever, in the discussions on franchise reform; the government,
not strong enough to have a policy of its own, had referred the
matter to a committee; for the question having once been
raised, it was impossible not to go on with it. This would
probably have been fatal to the coalition, but the final blow
was given by a matter of very small importance arising from the
disputes on nationality. The Slovenes had asked that in the
gymnasium at Cilli classes in which instruction was given in
Slovenian should be formed parallel to the German classes.
This request caused great excitement in Styria and the neigh-
bouring districts; the Styrian diet (from which the Slovene
minority had seceded) protested. The Slovenes were, however,
members of the Hohenwart Club, so Hohenwart and his followers
supported the request, which was adopted by the ministry. The
German Left opposed it; they were compelled to do so by the
popular indignation in the German districts; and when the
vote was carried against them (i2th June 1895) they made it a
question of confidence, and formally withdrew their support
from the government, which therefore at once resigned.
After a short interval the emperor appointed as minister-
president Count Badeni, who had earned a great reputation
as governer of Galicia. He formed an administration
the merit of which, as of so many others, was that it was
to belong to no party and to have no programme. He
hoped to be able to work in harmony with the moderate elements
of the Left; his mission was to carry through the composition
(Ausgleich) with Hungary; to this everything else must be sub-
ordinated. During 1896 he succeeded in carrying a franchise
reform bill, which satisfied nearly all parties. AH the old categories
of members were maintained, but a fifth curia was added, in which
almost any one might vote who had resided six months in one place
and was not in domestic service; in this way seventy-two would
be added to the existing members. This matter having been
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
35
settled, parliament was dissolved. The result of the elections of
1897 was the return of a House so constituted as to make any
strong government impossible. On both sides the anti-Semitic
parties representing the extreme demagogic elements were present
in considerable numbers. The United German Left had almost
disappeared; it was represented only by a few members chosen
by the great proprietors; in its place there were the three parties
the German Popular party, the German Nationalists, and the
German Radicals who all put questions of nationality first and
had deserted the old standpoint of the constitution. Then there
were the fourteen Social Democrats who had won their seats under
the new franchise. The old party of the Right was, however,
also broken up; side by side with forty -one Clericals there were
twenty-eight Christian Socialists led by Dr Lueger, a man of
great oratorical power, who had won a predominant influence in
Vienna, so long the centre of Liberalism, and had quite eclipsed
the more modest efforts of Prince Liechtenstein. As among
the German National party, there were strong nationalist ele-
ments in his programme, but they were chiefly directed against
Jews and Hungarians; Lueger had already distinguished
himself by his violent attacks on Hungary, which had caused
some embarrassment to the government at a time when the
negotiations for the Ausgleich were in progress. Like anti-Semites
elsewhere, the Christian Socialists were reckless and irresponsible,
appealing directly to the passions and prejudices of the most
ignorant. There were altogether 200 German members of the
Reichsrath, but they were divided into eight parties, and nowhere
did there seem to be the elements on which a government could
be built up.
The parliamentary situation is best explained by the following
table showing the parties :
German Liberals 1897. 1901.
Constitutional Landed Proprietors . 28 28
German Radicals .... 49 41
German Popular Party ... 42 51
Schoenerer Group .... 5 21
Kronawetter I
Democrat^ I
Social Democrats
German Conservatives
German Clericals
Catholic Popular Party
Christian Socialists
Federalist Great Proprietors
Czechs
Young Czechs
Radical Young Czechs
Clerical Czechs .
Agrarian Czechs .
Poles-
Polish Club . . ' .
Stoyalovski Group
Popular Polish Party .
Slovenes
Clerical Slovenes .
Radical
Italians
Liberal Italians .
Clerical
126
H
3
28
16
60
i
I
I
141
10
37
23
60
16
53
4
2
6
- 63 - 65
59
6
3
60
ii
68 71
Croatian! .
Serbs
Ruthenes
Ruthenes
Young Ruthenes .
Rumanians
Rumanians .
Young Rumanians
Total
II
16
19
ii
2
6
5
n
5
i
425
16
19
9
2
II
5
425
The most remarkable result of the elections was the disappear-
ance of the Liberals in Vienna. In 1879, out of 37 members
returned in Lower Austria, 33 were Liberals, but now they were
Socialism.
replaced to a large extent by the Socialists. It was impossible
to maintain a strong party of moderate constitutionalists, on
whom the government could depend, unless there was a large
nucleus from Lower Austria. The influence of Lueger was very
embarrassing; he had now a majority of two-thirds in the town
council, and had been elected burgomaster. The emperor had
refused to confirm the election; he had been re-elected, and
then the emperor, in a personal interview, appealed to him to
withdraw. He consented to do so; but, after the election of
1897 had given him so many followers in the Reichsrath, Badeni
advised that his election as burgomaster should be confirmed.
There was violent antipathy between the Christian Socialists
and the German Nationalists, and the transference of their
quarrels from the Viennese Council Chamber to the Reichsrath
was very detrimental to the orderly conduct of debate.
The limited suffrage had hitherto prevented socialism from
becoming a political force in Austria as it had in Germany, and
the national divisions have always impeded the
creation of a centralized socialist party. The first
object of the working classes necessarily was the attainment
of political power; in 1867 there had been mass demonstrations
and petitions to the government for universal suffrage. During
the next years there was the beginning of a real socialist move-
ment in Vienna and in Styria, where there is a considerable
industrial population; after 1879, however, the growth of the
party was interrupted by the introduction of anarchical doctrines.
Most's paper, the Freiheit, was introduced through Switzerland,
and had a large circulation. The anarchists, under the leadership
of Peukert, seem to have attained considerable numbers. In
1883-1884 there were a number of serious strikes, collisions
between the police and the workmen, followed by assassinations;
it was a peculiarity of Austrian anarchists that in some cases
they united robbery to murder. The government, which was
seriously alarmed, introduced severe repressive measures; the
leading anarchists were expelled or fled the country. In 1887,
under the leadership of Dr Adler, the socialist party began to
revive (the party of violence having died away), and since then
it has steadily gained in numbers; in the forefront of the political
programme is put the demand for universal suffrage. In no
country is the ist of May, as the festival of Labour, celebrated
so generally.
Badeni after the election sent in his resignation, but the
emperor refused to accept it, and he had, therefore, to do the best
he could and turn for support to the other nationalities. The
strongest of them were the fifty-nine Poles and sixty Young
Czechs; he therefore attempted, as Taaffe had done, to come
to some agreement with them. The Poles were always ready
to support the government ; among the Young Czechs the more
moderate had already attempted to restrain the wilder spirits
of the party, and they were quite prepared to enter into negotia-
tions. They did not wish to lose the opportunity which now
was open to them of winning influence over the administration.
What they required was further concession as to the language
in Bohemia. In May 1897 Badeni, therefore, published his
celebrated ordinances. They determined (i) that all corre-
spondence and documents regarding every matter ne
brought before the government officials should be language
conducted in the language in which it was first intro- "H"ance*
duced. This applied to the whole of Bohemia, and
meant the introduction of Czech into the government offices
throughout the whole of the kingdom; (2) after 1903 no
one was to be appointed to a post under the government in
Bohemia until he had passed an examination in Czech. These
ordinances fulfilled the worst fears of the Germans. The German
Nationalists and Radicals declared that no business should be
done till they were repealed and Badeni dismissed. They
resorted to obstruction. They brought in repeated motions to
impeach the ministers, and parliament had to be prorogued in
June, although no business of any kind had been transacted.
Badeni had not anticipated the effect his ordinances would have;
as a Pole he had little experience in the western part of the
empire. During the recess he tried to open negotiations, but
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
the Germans refused even to enter into a discussion until the
ordinances had been withdrawn. The agitation spread through-
out the country; great meetings were held at Eger and Aussig,
which were attended by Germans from across the frontier, and
led to serious disturbances; the cornflower, which had become
the symbol of German nationality and union with Germany, was
freely worn, and the language used was in many cases treasonable.
The emperor insisted that the Reichsrath should again be
summoned to pass the necessary measures for the agreement
with Hungary; scenes then took place which have no parallel
in parliamentary history. To meet the obstruction it was
determined to sit at night, but this was unsuccessful. On one
occasion Dr Lecher, one of the representatives of Moravia, spoke
for twelve hours, from 9 P.M. till 9 A.M., against the Ausgleich.
The opposition was not always limited to feats of endurance of
this kind. On the 3rd of November there was a free fight in the
House; it arose from a quarrel between Dr Lueger and the
Christian Socialists on the one side (for the Christian Socialists
had supported the government since the confirmation of Lueger
as burgomaster) and the German Nationalists under Herr Wolf,
a German from Bohemia, the violence of whose language had
already caused Badeni to challenge him to a duel. The Nation-
alists refused to allow Lueger to speak, clapping their desks,
hissing and making other noises, tiU at last the Young Czechs
attempted to prevent the disorder by violence. On the 24th of
November the scenes of disturbance were renewed. The pre-
sident, Herr v. Abrahamovitch, an Armenian from Galicia,
refused to call on Schonerer to speak. The Nationalists therefore
stormed the platform, and the president and ministers had to
fly into their private rooms to escape personal violence, until
the Czechs came to their rescue, and by superiority in numbers
and physical strength severely punished Herr Wolf and his
friends. The rules of the House giving the president no authority
for maintaining order, he determined, with the assent of the
ministers, to propose alterations in procedure. The next day,
when the sitting began, one of the ministers, Count Falkenhayn,
a Clerical who was very unpopular, moved " That any member
who continued to disturb a sitting after being twice called to
order could be suspended for three days by the president, and
for thirty days by the House." The din and uproar was such
that not a word could be heard, but at a pre-arranged signal
from the president all the Right rose, and he then declared that
the new order had been carried, although the procedure of the
House required that it should be submitted to a committee.
The next day, at the -beginning of the sitting, the Socialists
rushed on the platform, tore up and destroyed all the papers
lying there, seized the president, and held him against the wall.
After he had escaped, eighty police were introduced into the
House and carried out the fourteen Socialists. The next day
Hen Wolf was treated in the same manner. The excitement
spread to the street. Serious disorders took place in Vienna and
in Graz; the German opposition had the support of the people,
and Lueger warned the ministers that as burgomaster he would
be unable to maintain order in Vienna; even the Clerical
Germans showed signs of deserting the government. The
Badeni em P eror . hastily summoned to Vienna, accepted
nilgai. Badeni's resignation, the Germans having thus by
obstruction attained part of their wishes. The new
minister, Gautsch, a man popular with all parties, held office for
three months; he proclaimed the budget and the Ausgleich,
and in February replaced the language ordinances by others,
under which Bohemia was to be divided into three districts
one Czech, one German and one mixed. The Germans, however,
were not satisfied with this; they demanded absolute repeal.
The Czechs also were offended; they arranged riots at Prague;
the professors in the university refused to lecture unless the
German students were defended from violence; Gautsch
resigned, and Thun, who had been governor of Bohemia, was
appointed minister. Martial law was proclaimed in Bohemia,
and strictly enforced. Thun then arranged with the Hungarian
ministers a compromise about the Ausgleich.
The Reichsrath was again summoned, and the meetings were
sad
Czechs.
less disturbed than in the former year, but the Germans still
prevented any business from being done. The Germans now had
a new cause of complaint. Paragraph 14 of the
Constitutional law of 1867 provided that, in cases of conflict
pressing necessity, orders for which the assent of the between
Reichsrath was required might, if the Reichsrath were Germans
not in session, be proclaimed by the emperor; they had
to be signed by the whole ministry, and if they were
not laid before the Reichsrath within four months of its meeting,
or if they did not receive the approval of both Houses, they
ceased to be valid. The Germans contended that the application
of this clause to the Ausgleich was invalid, and demanded that
it should be repealed. Thun had in consequence to retire, in
September 1899. His successor, Count Clary, began by with-
drawing the ordinances which had been the cause of so much
trouble, but it was now too late to restore peace. The Germans
were not sufficiently strong and united to keep in power a
minister who had brought them the relief for which they had
been clamouring for two years. The Czechs, of course, went
into opposition, and used obstruction. The extreme German
party, however, took the occasion to demand that paragraph
14 should be repealed. Clary explained that this was impossible,
but he gave a formal pledge that he would not use it. The
Czechs, however, prevented him passing a law on excise which
was a necessary part of the agreements with Hungary; it was,
therefore, impossible for him to carry on the government without
breaking his word; there was nothing left for him to do but to
resign, after holding office for less than three months. The
emperor then appointed a ministry of officials, who were not
bound by his pledge, and used paragraph 14 for the necessary
purposes of state. They then made way for a ministry under
Herr v. Korber. During the early months of 1900 matters were
more peaceful, and Korber hoped to be able to arrange a com-
promise; but the Czechs now demanded the restoration of their
language in the internal service of Bohemia, and on 8th June,
by noise and disturbance, obliged the president to suspend the
sitting. The Reichsrath was immediately dissolved, the emperor
having determined to make a final attempt to get together a
parliament with which it would be possible to govern. The
new elections on which so much was to depend did not take
place till January 1901. They resulted in a great increase of
the extreme German Nationalist parties. Schonerer and the
German Radicals the fanatical German party who in their
new programme advocated union of German Austria with the
German empire now numbered twenty-one, who chiefly came
from Bohemia. They were able for the first time to procure the
election of one of their party in the Austrian Delegation, and
threatened to introduce into the Assembly scenes of disorder
similar to those which they had made common in the Reichsrath.
All those parties which did not primarily appeal to national
feeling suffered loss; especially was this the case with the two
sections of the Clericals, the Christian Socialists and the Ultra-
montanes; and the increasing enmity between the German
Nationalists (who refused even the name German to a Roman
Catholic) and the Church became one of the most conspicuous
features in the political situation. The loss of seats by the
Socialists showed that even among the working men the national
agitation was gaining ground; the diminished influence of the
anti-Semites was the most encouraging sign.
Notwithstanding the result of the elections, the first months
of the new parliament passed in comparative peace. There was
a truce between the nationalities. The Germans were more
occupied with their opposition to the Clericals than with their
feud with the Slavs. The Czechs refrained from obstruction,
for they did not wish to forfeit the alliance with the Poles
and Conservatives, on which their parliamentary strength
depended, and the Germans used the opportunity to pass
measures for promoting the material prosperity of the country,
especially for an important system of canals which would
bring additional prosperity to the coal-fields and manufactures
of Bohemia. (J. W. HE.)
The history of Austria since the general election of 1901 is the
HISTORY]
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
37
history of franchise reform as a crowning attempt to restore
parliament to normal working conditions. The premier, Dr
von Korber, who had undertaken to overcome obstruc-
tion and who hoped to effect a compromise between
policy. Germans and Czechs, induced the Chamber to sanction
the estimates, the contingent of recruits and other
" necessities of state " for 1901 and 1902, by promising to under-
take large public works in which Czechs and Germans were alike
interested. These public works were chiefly a canal from the
Danube to the Oder; a ship canal from the Danube to the
Moldau near Budweis, and the canalization of the Moldau from
Budweis to Prague; a ship canal running from the projected
Danube-Oder canal near Prerau to the Elbe near Pardubitz,
and the canalization of the Elbe from Pardubitz to Melnik; a
navigable connexion between the Danube-Oder Canal and the
Vistula and the Dniester. It was estimated that the construction
of these four canals would require twenty years, the funds being
furnished by a 4% loan amortizable in ninety years. In addition
to the canals, the cabinet proposed and the Chamber sanctioned
the construction of a " second railway route to Trieste " de-
signed to shorten the distance between South Germany, Salzburg
and the Adriatic, by means of a line passing under the Alpine
ranges of central and southern Austria. The principal sections
of this line were named after the ranges they pierced, the chief
tunnels being bored through the Tauern, Karawanken and
Wochein hills. Sections were to be thrown open to traffic as
soon as completed and the whole work to be ended during 1909.
The line forms one of the most interesting railway routes in
Europe. The cost, however, greatly exceeded the estimate
sanctioned by parliament; and the contention that the parlia-
mentary adoption of the Budget in 1901-1902 cost the state
100,000,000 for public works, is not entirely unfounded. True,
these works were in most cases desirable and in some cases
necessary, but they were hastily promised and often hastily
begun under pressure of political expediency. The Korber
administration was for this reason subsequently exposed to
severe censure.
Despite these public works Dr von Korber found himself
unable to induce parliament to vote the Budgets for 1903,
KSrber's IOO 4 or IQO 5> an< ^ was obliged to revert to the expedient
pariia- employed by his predecessors of sanctioning the esti-
meatary mates by imperial ordinance under paragraph 14 of
the constitution. His attempts in December 1902
and January 1903 to promote a compromise between
Czechs and Germans proved equally futile. Korber proposed
that Bohemia be divided into 10 districts, of which 5 would be
Czech, 3 German and 2 mixed. Of the 234 district tribunals,
133 were to be Czech, 94 German and 7 mixed. The Czechs
demanded on the contrary that both their language and German
should be placed on an equal footing throughout Bohemia, and
be used for all official purposes in the same way. As this demand
involved the recognition of Czech as a language of internal
service in Bohemia it was refused by the Germans. Thence-
forward, until his fall on the 3ist of December 1904, Korber
governed practically without parliament. The Chamber was
summoned at intervals rather as a pretext for the subsequent
employment of paragraph 14 than in the hope of securing its
assent to legislative measures. The Czechs blocked business by
a pile of " urgency motions " and occasionally indulged in noisy
obstruction. On one occasion a sitting lasted 57 hours without
interruption. In consequence of Czech aggressiveness, the
German parties (the German Progressists, the German Populists,
the Constitutional Landed Proprietors and the Christian Socialists)
created a joint executive committee and a supreme committee of
four members to watch over German racial interests.
By the end of 1904 it had become clear that the system of
government by paragraph 14, which Dr von Korber had perfected
was not effective in the long run. Loans were needed
(Putsch f r military an( l other purposes, and paragraph 14
premier. itself declares that it cannot be employed for the
contraction of any lasting burden upon the exchequer,
nor for any sale of state patrimony. As the person of the premier
cultles.
had become so obnoxious to the Czechs that his removal would
be regarded by them as a concession, his resignation was suddenly
accepted by the emperor, and, on the ist of January 1005,
a former premier, Baron von Gautsch, was appointed in his
stead. Parliamentary activity was at once resumed ; the Austrc-
Hungarian tariff contained in the Szell-Korber compact was
adopted, the estimates were discussed and the commercial
treaty with Germany ratified. In the early autumn, however,
a radical change came over the spirit of Austrian politics. For
nearly three years Austria had been watching with bitterness
and depression the course of the crisis in Hungary. Parliament
had repeatedly expressed its disapproval of the Magyar demands
upon the crown, but had succeeded only in demonstrating its
own impotence. The feeling that Austria could be compelled by
imperial ordinance under paragraph 14 to acquiesce in whatever
concessions the crown might make to Hungary galled Austrian
public opinion and prepared it for coming changes. In August
1905 the crown took into consideration and in September
sanctioned the proposal that universal suffrage be introduced
into the official programme of the Fejervary cabinet then engaged
in combating the Coalition in Hungary. It is not to be supposed
that the king of Hungary assented to this programme without
reflecting that what he sought to further in Hungary, it would
be impossible for him, as emperor of Austria, to oppose in
Cisleithania. His subsequent action justifies, indeed, the belief
that, when sanctioning the Fejervary programme, the monarch
had already decided that universal suffrage should be introduced
in Austria; but even he can scarcely have been prepared for the
rapidity with which the movement in Austria gained ground and
accomplished its object.
On the isth of September 1905 a huge socialist and working-
class demonstration in favour of universal suffrage took place
before the parliament at Budapest. The Austrian
Socialist party, encouraged by this manifestation and
influenced by the revolutionary movement in Russia,
resolved to press for franchise reform in Austria also. An initial
demonstration, resulting in some bloodshed, was organized in
Vienna at the beginning of November. At Prague, Graz and
other towns, demonstrations and collisions with the police were
frequent. The premier, Baron Gautsch, who had previously
discountenanced universal suffrage while admitting the desira-
bility of a restricted reform, then changed attitude and per-
mitted an enormous Socialist demonstration, in support of
universal suffrage, to take place (November 28) in the Vienna
Ringstrasse. Traffic was suspended for five hours while an orderly
procession of workmen, ten abreast, marched silently along the
Ringstrasse past the houses of parliament. The demonstration
made a deep impression upon public opinion. On the same day
the premier promised to introduce by February a large measure
of franchise reform so framed as to protect racial minorities
from being overwhelmed at the polls by majorities of other races.
On the 23rd of February 1906 he indeed brought in a series of
franchise reform measures. Their main principles were the
abolition of the curia or electoral class system and the establish-
ment of the franchise on the basis of universal suffrage; and the
division of Austria electorally into racial compartments within
which each race would be assured against molestation from other
races. The Gautsch redistribution bill proposed to increase the
number of constituencies from 425 to 455, to allot a fixed number
of constituencies to each province and, within each province, to
each race according to its numbers and tax-paying capacity.
The reform bill proper proposed to enfranchise every male
citizen above 24 years of age with one year's residential
qualification.
At first the chances of the adoption of such a measure seemed
small. It was warmly supported from outside by the Social
Democrats, who held only n seats in the House; inside, the
Christian Socialists or Lueger party were favourable on the
whole as they hoped to gain seats at the expense of the German
Progressives and German Populists and to extend their own
organization throughout the empire. The Young Czechs, too,
were favourable, while the Poles reserved their attitude. Hostile
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
[HISTORY
premier.
in principle and by instinct, they waited to ascertain the mind of
the emperor, before actively opposing the reform. With the
exception of the German Populists who felt that a German
" Liberal " party could not well oppose an extension of popular
rights, all the German Liberals were antagonistic, some bitterly,
to the measure. The Constitutional Landed Proprietors who
had played so large a part in Austrian politics since the 'sixties,
and had for a generation held the leadership of the German element
in parliament and in the country, saw themselves doomed and
the leadership of the Germans given to the Christian Socialists.
None of the representatives of the curia system fought so
tenaciously for their privileges as did the German nominees of
the curia of large landed proprietors. Their opposition proved
unavailing. The emperor frowned repeatedly upon their efforts.
Baron Gautsch fell in April over a difference with the Poles, and
his successor, Prince Konrad zu Hohenlohe-Schillingsfurst,
who had taken over the reform bills, resigned also,
six weeks later, as a protest against the action of the
crown in consenting to the enactment of a customs
tariff in Hungary distinct from, though identical with,
the joint Austro-Hungarian tariff comprised in the Szell-K6rber
compact and enacted as a joint tariff by the Reichsrath. A new
cabinet was formed (June 2) by Baron von Beck, permanent
under secretary of state in the ministry for agriculture, an
official of considerable ability who had first acquired prominence
as an instructor of the heir apparent, Archduke Francis Ferdinand,
in constitutional and administrative law. By dint of skilful
negotiation with the various parties and races, and steadily
supported by the emperor who, on one occasion, summoned
the recalcitrant party leaders to the Hofburg ad audiendum
oerbum and told them the reform " must be accomplished,"
Baron Beck succeeded, in October 1906, in attaining a final
agreement, and on the ist of December in securing the adoption
of the reform. During the negotiations the number of con-
stituencies was raised to 516, divided, according to provinces, as
follows:
Bohemia . . 130 previously no
Galicia . . 106 78
Lower Austria 64 46
Moravia . 49 43
Styria . . 30 27
Tirol . . 25 21
Upper Austria 22 20
Austrian Silesia 15 12
Bukovina . 14 1 1
Carniola . 12 n
Dalrnatia. . n 1 1
Carinthia . 10 IO
Salzburg . . 77
Istria . . 65
Gorz and Gradisca 6 5
Trieste and territory 5 5
Vorarlberg . . . . 4 4
In the allotment of the constituencies to the various races their
tax-paying capacity was taken into consideration. In mixed
districts separate constituencies and registers were established
for the electors of each race, who could only vote on their own
register for a candidate of their own race. Thus Germans were
obliged to vote for Germans and Czechs for Czechs; and, though
there might be victories of Clerical over Liberal Germans or of
Czech Radicals over Young Czechs, there could be no victories
of Czechs over Germans, Poles over Ruthenes, or Slovenes over
Italians. The constituencies were divided according to race as
follows:
Germans of all parties . . . 233 previously 205
Italians
Czechs of all parties .... 108
81
Clerical Populists .
Poles 80
71
Liberals . . . .
Southern Slavs* (Slovenes, Croats,
Serbs) 37
27
Rumanians
Ruthenes 34
ii
Rumanian Club
Italians 19
18
Jews
Rumanians 5
5
Zionists
These allotments were slightly modified at the polls by the
Democrats . . . .
victory of some Social Democratic candidates not susceptible
of strict racial classification. The chief feature of the allotment
Unclassified, vacancies, &c. .
was, however, the formal overthrow of the fiction that Austria
is preponderatingly a German country and not a country pre-
ponderatingly Slav with a German dynasty and a German
facade. The German constituencies, though allotted in a
proportion unduly favourable, left the Germans, with 233 seats,
in a permanent minority as compared with the 259 Slav seats.
Even with the addition of the " Latin " (Rumanian and Italian)
seats the " German-Latin block " amounted only to 257. This
" block " no longer exists in practice, as the Italians now tend
to co-operate rather with the Slavs than with the Germans.
The greatest gainers by the redistribution were the Ruthenes,
whose representation was trebled, though it is still far from
being proportioned to their numbers. This and other anomalies
will doubtless be corrected in future revisions of the allotment,
although the German parties, foreseeing that any revision must
work out to their disadvantage, stipulated that a two-thirds
majority should be necessary for any alteration of the law.
After unsuccessful attempts by the Upper House to introduce
plural voting, the bill became law in January 1907, the peers
insisting only upon the establishment of a fixed
maximum number or numerus clausus, of non-heredi- election
tary peers, so as to prevent the resistance of the Upper igor.
Chamber from being overwhelmed at any critical
moment by an influx of crown nominees appointed ad hoc. The
general election which took place amid considerable enthusiasm
on the I4th of May resulted in a sweeping victory for the Social
Democrats whose number rose from n to 87; in a less complete
triumph for the Christian Socialists who increased from 27 to 67;
and in the success of the extremer over the conservative elements
in all races. A classification of the groups in the new Chamber
presents many difficulties, but the following statement is approxi-
mately accurate. It must be premised that, in order to render
the Christian Socialist or Lueger party the strongest group in
parliament, an amalgamation was effected between them and
the conservative Catholic party:
German Conservatives
Christian Socialists ....
German Agrarians ....
German Liberals
Progressives
Populists
Pan-German radicals (Wolf group)
Unattached Pan-Germans
,, Progressives .
Czechs-
Czech Agrarians ....
Young Czechs ....
Czech Clericals ....
Old Czechs . . .
Czech National Socialists
Realists .
Unattached Czech ....
Social Democrats
Of all races
Poles-
Democrats
Conservatives
Populists
Centre
Independent Socialist
Ruthenes
National Democrats
Old or Russophil Ruthenes .
Slovenes
Clericals
Southern Slav Club
Croats
Serbs
Slovene Liberals '
Total.
96
19
15
29
13
3
2
' 177
28
18
17
7
9
2
I
82
87 8 7
26
15
18
12
I
25
5
17
20
II
4
4
i
72
30
37
IS
5
516
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
39
The legislature elected by universal suffrage worked fairly
smoothly during the first year of its existence. The estimates
were voted with regularity, racial animosity was somewhat less
prominent, and some large issues were debated. The desire not
to disturb the emperor's Diamond Jubilee year by untoward
scenes doubtless contributed to calm political passion, and it
was celebrated in 1908 with complete success. But it was no
sooner over than the crisis over the annexation of Bosnia and
Herzegovina, which is dealt with above, eclipsed all purely
domestic affairs in the larger European question. (H. W. S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. I. Sources. A collection of early authorities
on Austrian history was published in 3 vols. folio by Hieronymus
Fez (Leipzig, 1721-1725) under the title Scriptores rerum Austria-
carum veteres et genuini, of which a new edition was printed at
Regensburg in 1745, and again, under the title of Rerum A ustriacarum
scnptores, by A. Rauch at Vienna in 1793-1794- It was not, how-
ever, till the latter half of the igth century that the vast store of
public and private archives began to be systematically exploited.
Apart from the material published in the Monumenta Germ. Hist.
of Pertz and his collaborators, there are several collections devoted
specially to the sources of Austrian history. Of these the most
notable is the Fontes rerum Austriacarum, published under the
auspices of the Historical Commission of the Imperial Academy
of Sciences at Vienna; the series, of which the first volume was
published in 1855, is divided into two parts : (i.) Scriptores, of which
the gth vol. appeared in 1904; (ii.) Diplomataria et Ada, of which
the 58th vol. appeared in 1906. It covers the whole range of Austrian
history, medieval and modern. Another collection is the Quellen
und Forschungen zur Geschichte, Literatur und Sprache Osterreichs
und seiner Kronlander, edited by J. Him and J. E. Wackernagel
(Graz, 1895, &c.), of which vol. x. appeared in 1906. Besides these
there are numerous accounts and inventories of public and private
archives, for which see Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde (ed. 1906),
pp. 14-15, 43, and suppl. vol. (1907), pp. 4-5. Of collections of
treaties the most notable is that of L. Neumann, Recueil des traites
conclus par I'Autriche avec les puissances etrangeres depuis 1763
(6 vols., Leipzig, 1855: c.), continued by A. de Plason (18 vols.,
Vienna, 1877-1905). In 1007, however, the Imperial Commission for
the Modern History of Austria issued the first volume of a new
series, Osterreichische Staatsvertrage, which promises to be of the
utmost value. Like the Recueil des traites conclus par la Russie of
T. T. de Martens, it is compiled on the principle of devoting separate
volumes to the treaties entered into with the several states; this
is obviously convenient as enabling the student to obtain a clear
review of the relations of Austria to any particular state throughout
the whole period covered. For treaties see also J. Freiherr von
Vasque von Piittlingen, Vbersicht der osterreichischen Staatsvertrdge
seit Maria Theresa bis auf die neueste Zeit (Vienna, 1868); and
L. Bittner, Chronologisches Verzeichnis der osterreichischen Staats-
vertrdge (Band G, 1526-1723, Vienna, 1903).
2. Works. (a) General. Archdeacon William Coxe's History
of the House of Austria, 1218-1792 (3 vols., London, 1817), with its
continuation by W. Kelly (London, 1853; new edition, 1873),
remains the only general history of Austria m the English language.
It has, of course, long been superseded as a result of the research
indicated above. The amount of work that has been devoted to this
subject since Coxe's time will be seen from the following list of books,
which are given in the chronological order of their publication:
J. Majlath, Geschichte des osterreichischen Kaiserstaates (5 vols.,
Hamburg, 1834-1850); Count F. von Hartig, Genesis der Revolution
in Osterreich im Jahre 1848 (Leipzig, 1851; 3rd edition, enlarged,
ib., 1851 ; translated as appendix to Coxe's House of Austria,
ed. 1853), a work which created a great sensation at the time and
remains of much value; W. H. Stiles, Austria in 1848-1840 (2 vols.,
New York, 1852), by an eye-witness of events; M. Biidinger,
Osterreichische Gesch. bis zum Ausgange des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts,
vol. i. to A.D. 1055 (Leipzig, 1858); A. Springer, Geschichte Oster-
reichs seit dent Wiener Frieden, 1809 (2 vols. to 1849; Leipzig, 1863-
1865) ; A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria Theresias (io vols., Vienna,
1863-1879); the series Osterreichische Gesch. fur das Volk, 17 vols.,
by various authors (Vienna, 1864, &c.), for which see Dahlmann-
Waitz, p. 86; H. Bidermann, Gesch. der osterreichischen Gesamt-
staatsidee, 1526-1804, parts i and 2 to 1740 (Innsbruck, 1867, 1887);
J. A. Freiherr von Helfert, Gesch. Osterreichs vom Ausgange des
Oktoberaufstandes, 1848, vols. i.-iy. (Leipzig and Prague, 1869-
1889) ; W. Rogge, Osterreich von Vildgos bis zur Gegenwart (3 vols.,
Leipzig and Vienna, 1872, 1873), and Osterreich seit der Katastrophe
Hohenwart-Beust (Leipzig, 1879), written from a somewhat violent
German standpoint; Franz X. Krones (Ritter von Marchland),
Handbuch der Gesch. Osterreichs (5 vols., Berlin, 1876-1879), with
copious references, Gesch. der Neuzeit Osterreichs vom iSten Jahr-
hundert bis auf die Gegenwart (Berlin, 1879), from the German-liberal
point of view, and Grundriss der osterreichischen Gesch. (Vienna,
1882); Baron Henry de Worms, The Austro-Hungarian Empire
(London, 2nd ed., 1876); Louis Asseline, Histoire de I'Autriche
depuis la mart de Marie Therlse (Paris, 1877), sides with the Slavs
against Germans and Magyars; Louis Leger, Hist, de I'Aulriche-
Hongrie (Paris, 1879), also strongly Slavophil; A. Wolf, Geschicht-
liche Bilder aus Osterreich (2 vols., Vienna, 1878-1880), and Oster-
reich unter Maria Theresia, Joseph II. und Leopold I. (Berlin, 1882) ;
E. Wertheimer, Gesch. Osterreichs und Ungarns im ersten Jahrzehnt
des loten Jahrhunderts (2 vols., Leipzig. 1884-1890); A. Huber,
Gesch. Osterreichs, vols. i. to v. up to 1648 (in Heeren's Gesch.
der europ. Staaten, Gotha, 1885-1895); J. Emmer, Kaiser Franz
Joseph I., fiinfzig Jahre osterreichischer Gesch. (2 vols., Vienna,
1898); F. M. Mayer, Gesch. Osterreichs mil besonderer Rucksicht auf
das Kulturleben (2 vols. 2nd ed., Vienna, 1900-1001); A. Dopsch,
Forschungen zur inneren Gesch. Osterreichs, vol. i. i (Innsbruck, 1003) ;
Louis Eisenmann, Le Compromis austro-hongrois de 1867 (Pans,
1904); H. Friedjung, Osterreich von 1848 bis 1860 (Stuttgart,
1908 seq.); Geoffrey Drage, Austria-Hungary (London, 1900).
(b) Constitutional. E. Werunsky, Osterreichische Reichs- und
Rechtsgeschichte (Vienna, 1894, &c.); A. Bechmann, Lehrbuch der
osterreichischen Reichsgesch. (Prague, 1895-1896); A. Huber,
Osterreichische Reichsgesch. (Leipzig and Vienna, 1895, 2nd ed. by
A. Dopsch, ib., 1901); A. Luscnin von Ebengreuth, Osterreichische
Reichsgesch. (2 vols., Bamberg, 1895, 1896), a work of first-class
importance; and Grundriss der osterreichischen Reichsgesch. (Bam-
berg, 1899); G. Kolmer, Parlament und Verfassung in Osterreich,
vols. i. to iii. from 1848 to 1885 (Vienna, 1902-1905). For relations
with Hungary see I. Andrassy, Ungarns Ausgleich mil Osterreich,
1867 (Leipzig, 1897); L. Eisenmann, Le Compromis austro-hongrois
de 1867 (Pans, 1904).
(c) Diplomatic. A Beer, Zehn Jahre osterreichischer Politik, 1801-
1810 (Leipzig, 1877), and Die orientalische Politik Osterreichs seit
1774 (Prague and Leipzig, 1883); A. Fournier, Gentz und Cobenzl:
Gesch. der ost. Politik in den Jahren 1801-1805 (Vienna, 1880); F.
von Demelitsch, Metternich und seine auswdrlige Politik, vol. i.
(1809-1812, Stuttgart, 1898); H. Ubersberger, Osterreich und
Russland seit dent Ende des iften Jahrhunderts, vol. i. 1488 to 1605
(Kommission fur die neuere Gesch. Osterreichs, Vienna, 1905). See
further the bibliographies to the articles on METTERNICH, GENTZ,
&c. For the latest developments of the " Austrian question " see
Andre Cheradame, L' Europe et la question d'Autriche au seuil du
XX' siecle (Paris, 1901), and L'Allemagne, la France et la question
d'Autriche (76, 1902); Rene Henry, Questions d'Aulriche-Hongrie
et question a' orient (Paris, 1903), with preface by Anatole Leroy-
Beaulieu; " Scotus Viator," The Future of Austria-Hungary (London,
1907).
(d) Racial Question. There is a very extensive literature on the
question of languages and race in Austria. The best statement of
the legal questions involved is in Josef Ulbrith and Ernst Mischler's
Osterr. Staatswbrterbuch (3 vols., Vienna, 1894-1897; 2nd ed. 1904,
&c.). See also Dummreicher, Sudostdeutsche Betrachtungen(Leipzig,
1893); Hainisch, Die Zukunft der Deutsch-Osterreither (Vienna,
1892); Herkner, Die Zukunft der Deutsch-Osterreicher (ib. 1893);
L. Leger, La Save, le Danube et le Balkan (Paris, 1884); Bressnitz
von Sydacoff, Die panslavistische Agitation (Berlin, 1899) ; Bertrand
Auerbach, Les Races et les nationalites en Autriche-Hongrie (Paris,
1898).
(e) Biographical. C. von Wurzbach, Biographisches Lexikon des
Kaisertums Osterreich (60 vols., Vienna, 1856-1891); also the All-
gemeine deutsche Biographie.
Many further authorities, whether works, memoirs or collections
of documents, are referred to in the lists appended to the articles in
this book on the various Austrian sovereigns and statesmen. For
full bibliography see Dahlmann-Waitz, Quellenkunde (ed. 1906, and
subsequent supplements) ; many works, covering particular periods,
are also enumerated in the bibliographies in the several volumes of
the Cambridge Modern History. (W. A. P.)
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION, WAR OF THE (i74o- I74 8). This
war began with the invasion of Silesia by Frederick II. of Prussia
in 1740, and was ended by the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen)
in 1748. After 1741 nearly all the powers of Europe were
involved in the struggle, but the most enduring interest of the
war lies in the struggle of Prussia and Austria for Silesia. South-
west Germany, the Low Countries and Italy were, as usual, the
battle-grounds of France and Austria. The constant allies of
France and Prussia were Spain and Bavaria; various other
powers at intervals joined them. The cause of Austria was
supported almost as a matter of course by England and Holland,
the traditional enemies of France. Of Austria's allies from
time to time Sardinia and Saxony were the most important.
i. Frederick's Invasion of Silesia, 1740. Prussia in 1740
was a small, compact and thoroughly organized power, with an
army 100,000 strong. The only recent war service of this army
had been in the desultory Rhine campaign of 1733-35. It wa s
therefore regarded as one of the minor armies of Europe, and
few thought that it could rival the forces of Austria and France.
But it was drilled to a perfection not hitherto attained, and the
Prussian infantry soldier was so well trained and equipped that
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
he could fire five shots to the Austrian's three, though the
cavalry and artillery were less efficient. But the initial advantage
of Frederick's army was that it had, undisturbed by wars,
developed the standing army theory to full effect. While the
Austrians had to wait for drafts to complete the field forces,
Prussian regiments could take the field at once, and thus
Frederick was able to overrun Silesia almost unopposed. His
army was concentrated quietly upon the Oder, and without
declaration of war, on the i6th of December 1740, it crossed
the frontier into Silesia. The Austrian generals could do no
more than garrison a few fortresses, and with the small remnant
of their available forces fell back to the mountain frontier of
Bohemia and Moravia. The Prussian army was soon able to
go into winter quarters, holding all Silesia and investing the
strong places of Glogau, Brieg and Neisse.
2. Silesian Campaign of 1741. In February 1741, the
Austrians collected a field army under Count Neipperg (1684-
1774) and made preparations to reconquer Silesia. The
Austrians in Neisse and Brieg still held out. Glogau, however,
was stormed on the night of the gth of March, the Prussians,
under Prince Leopold (the younger) of Anhalt-Dessau, executing
their task in one hour with a mathematical precision which
excited universal admiration. But the Austrian army in Moravia
was now in the field, and Frederick's cantonments were dispersed
over all Upper Silesia. It was a work of the greatest difficulty
to collect the army, for the ground was deep in snow, and before
it was completed Neisse was relieved and the Prussians cut off
from their own country by the march of Neipperg from Neisse
on Brieg; a few days of slow manoeuvring between these places
ended in the battle of Mollwitz (loth April 1741), the first pitched
battle fought by Frederick and his army. The Prussian right
wing of cavalry was speedily routed, but the day was retrieved
by the magnificent discipline and tenacity of the infantry.
The Austrian cavalry was shattered in repeated attempts to
ride them down, and before the Prussian volleys the Austrian
infantry, in spite of all that Neipperg and his officers could do,
gradually melted away. After a stubborn contest the Prussians
remained masters of the field. Frederick himself was tar away.
He had fought in the cavalry melee, but after this, when the
battle seemed lost, he had been persuaded by Field Marshal
Schwerin to ride away. ; Schwerin thus, like Marshal Saxe at
Fontenoy, remained behind to win the victory, and the king
narrowly escaped being captured by wandering Austrian hussars.
The immediate result of the battle was that the king secured
Brieg, and Neipperg fell back to Neisse, where he maintained
himself and engaged in a war of manoeuvre during the summer.
But Europe realized suddenly that a new military power had
arisen, and France sent Marshal Belleisle to Frederick's camp to
negotiate an alliance. Thenceforward the " Silesian adventure "
became the War of the Austrian Succession. The elector of
Bavaria's candidature for the imperial dignity was to be sup-
ported by a French "auxiliary" army, and other French
forces were sent to observe Hanover. Saxony was already
watched by a Prussian army under Prince Leopold of Anhalt-
Dessau, the "old Dessauer," who had trained the Prussian army
to its present perfection. The task of Sweden was to prevent
Russia from attacking Prussia, but her troops were defeated, on
the 3rd of September 1741, at Wilmanstrand by a greatly
superior Russian army, and in 1742 another great reverse was
sustained in the capitulation of Helsingfors. In central Italy
an army of Neapolitans and Spaniards was collected for the
conquest of the Milanese.
3. The Allies in Bohemia. The French duly joined the
elector's forces on the Danube and advanced on Vienna; but
the objective was suddenly changed, and after many counter-
marches the allies advanced, in three widely-separated corps, on
Prague. A French corps moved via Amberg and Pilsen. The
elector marched on Budweis, and the Saxons (who had now
joined the allies) invaded Bohemia by the Elbe valley. The
Austrians could at first offer little resistance, but before long a
considerable force intervened at Tabor between the Danube and
the allies, and Neipperg was now on the march from Neisse to
join in the campaign. He had made with Frederick the curious
agreement of Klein Schnellendorf (gth October 1741), by which
Neisse was surrendered after a mock siege, and the Austrians
undertook to leave Frederick unmolested in return for his
releasing Neipperg's army for service elsewhere. At the same
time the Hungarians, moved to enthusiasm by the personal
appeal of Maria Theresa, had put into the field a levee en masse,
or " insurrection," which furnished the regular army with an
invaluable force of light troops. A fresh army was collected
under Field Marshal Khevenhiiller at Vienna, and the Austrians
planned an offensive winter campaign against the Franco-
Bavarian forces in Bohemia and the small Bavarian army that
remained on the Danube to defend the electorate. The French
in the meantime had stormed Prague on the 26th of November,
the grand-duke Francis, consort of Maria Theresa, who com-
manded the Austrians in Bohemia, moving too slowly to save the
fortress. The elector of Bavaria, who now styled himself arch-
duke of Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia (ipth December
1741) and elected to the imperial throne as Charles VII. (24th
January 1742), but no active measures were undertaken. In
Bohemia the month of December was occupied in mere skirmishes.
On the Danube, Khevenhiiller, the best general in the Austrian
service, advanced on the 27th of December, swiftly drove back
the allies, shut them up in Linz, and pressed on into Bavaria.
Munich itself surrendered to the Austrians on the coronation day
of Charles VII. At the close of this first act of the campaign
the French, under the old Marshal de Broglie, maintained a
precarious foothold in central Bohemia, menaced by the main
army of the Austrians, and Khevenhiiller was ranging unopposed
in Bavaria, while Frederick, in pursuance of his secret obligations,
lay inactive in Silesia. In Italy the allied Neapolitans and
Spaniards had advanced towards Modena, the duke of which
state had allied himself with them, but the vigilant Austrian
commander Count Traun had outmarched them, captured
Modena, and forced the duke to make a separate peace.
4. Campaign of 1742. Frederick had hoped by the truce
to secure Silesia, for which alone he was fighting. But with the
successes of Khevenhiiller and the enthusiastic " insurrection "
of. Hungary, Maria Theresa's opposition became firmer, and she
divulged the provisions of the truce, in order to compromise
Frederick with his allies. The war recommenced. Frederick
had not rested on his laurels; in the uneventful summer cam-
paign of 1741 he had found time to begin that reorganization of
his cavalry which was before long to make it even more efficient
than his infantry. Charles VII., whose territories were overrun
by the Austrians, asked him to create a diversion by invading
Moravia. In December 1741, therefore, Schwerin had crossed
the border and captured Olmiitz. Glatz also was invested, and
the Prussian army was concentrated about Olmiitz in January
1742. A combined plan of operations was made by the French,
Saxons and Prussians for the rescue of Linz. But Linz soon fell;
Broglie on the Moldau, weakened by the departure of the
Bavarians to oppose Khevenhiiller, and of the Saxons to join
forces with Frederick, was in no condition to take the offensive,
and large forces under Prince Charles of Lorraine lay in his front
from Budweis to Iglau. Frederick's march was made towards
Iglau in the first place. Briinn was invested about the same
time (February), but the direction of the march was changed,
and instead of moving against Prince Charles, Frederick pushed
on southwards by Znaim and Nikolsburg. The extreme outposts
of the Prussians appeared before Vienna. But Frederick's
advance was a mere foray, and Prince Charles, leaving a screen
of troops in front of Broglie, marched to cut off the Prussians
from Silesia, while the Hungarian levies poured into Upper
Silesia by the Jablunka Pass. The Saxons, discontented and
demoralized, soon marched off to their own country, and
Frederick with his Prussians fell back by Zwittau and Leuto-
mischl to Kuttenberg in Bohemia, where he was in touch with
Broglie on the one hand and (Glatz having now surrendered)
with Silesia on the other. No defence of Olmiitz was attempted,
and the small Prussian corps remaining in Moravia fell back
towards Upper Silesia. Prince Charles, in pursuit of the king,
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
marched by Iglau and Teutsch (Deutsch) Brod on Kuttenberg,
and on the lyth of May was fought the battle of Chotusitz or
Czaslau, in which after a severe struggle the king was victorious.
His cavalry on this occasion retrieved its previous failure, and
its conduct gave an earnest of its future glory not only by its
charges on the battlefield, but its vigorous pursuit of the defeated
Austrians. Almost at the same time Broglie fell upon a part of
the Austrians left on the Moldau and won a small, but morally
and politically important, success in the action of Sahay, near
Budweis (May 24, 1742). Frederick did not propose another
combined movement. His victory and that of Broglie dis-
posed Maria Theresa to cede Silesia in order to make good
her position elsewhere, and the separate peace between Prussia
and Austria, signed at Breslau on the nth of June, closed
the First Silesian War. The War of the Austrian Succession
continued.
5. The French at Prague. The return of Prince Charles,
released by the peace of Breslau, put an end to Broglie's offensive.
The prince pushed back the French posts everywhere, and his
army converged upon Prague, where, towards the end of June
1742, the French were to all intents and purposes surrounded.
Broglie had made the best resistance possible with his inferior
forces, and still displayed great activity, but his position was one
of great peril. The French government realized at last that
it had given its general inadequate forces. The French army
on the lower Rhine, hitherto in observation of Hanover and other
possibly hostile states, was hurried into Franconia. Prince
Charles at once raised the siege of Prague (September 14),
called up Khevenhuller with the greater part of the Austrian
army on the Danube, and marched towards Amberg to meet the
new opponent. Marshal Maillebois (1682-1762), its commander,
then manoeuvred from Amberg towards the Eger valley, to gain
touch with Broglie. Marshal Belleisle, the political head of
French affairs in Germany and a very capable general, had
accompanied Broglie throughout, and it seems that Belleisle
and Broglie believed that Maillebois' mission was to regain a
permanent foothold for the army in Bohemia; Maillebois,
on the contrary, conceived that his work was simply to disengage
the army of Broglie from its dangerous position, and to cover
its retreat. His operations were no more than a demonstration,
and had so little effect that Broglie was sent for in haste to
take over the command from him, Belleisle at the same time
taking over charge of the army at Prague. Broglie's command
was now on the Danube, east of Regensburg, and the imperial
(chiefly Bavarian) army of Charles VII. under Seckendorf aided
him to clear Bavaria of the Austrians. This was effected with
ease, for Khevenhuller and most of his troops had gone to
Bohemia. Prince Charles and Khevenhuller now took post
between Linz and Passau, leaving a strong force to deal with
Belleisle in Prague. This, under Prince Lobkowitz, was little
superior in numbers or quality to the troops under Belleisle,
under whom served Saxe and the best of the younger French
generals, but its light cavalry swept the country clear of pro-
visions. The French were quickly on the verge of starvation,
winter had come, and the marshal resolved to retreat. On the
night of the i6th of December 1742, the army left Prague to
be defended by a small garrison under Chevert, and took the
route of Eger. The retreat (December 16-26) was accounted
a triumph of generalship, but the weather made it painful and
costly. The brave Chevert displayed such confidence that
the Austrians were glad to allow him freedom to join the main
army. The cause of the new emperor was now sustained only
in the valley of the Danube, where Broglie and Seckendorf
opposed Prince Charles and Khevenhuller, who were soon joined
by the force lately opposing Belleisle.
In Italy, Traun held his own with ease against the Spaniards
and Neapolitans. Naples was forced by a British squadron to
withdraw her troops for home defence, and Spain, now too weak
to advance in the Po valley, sent a second army to Italy via
France. Sardinia had allied herself with Austria, and at the same
time neither state was at war with France, and this led to curious
complications, combats being fought in the Isere valley between
the troops of Sardinia and of Spain, in which the French took
no part.
6. The Campaign of 1743 opened disastrously for the emperor.
The French and Bavarian armies were not working well to-
gether, and Broglie and Seckendorf had actually quarrelled.
No connected resistance was offered to the converging march
of Prince Charles's army along the Danube, Khevenhuller from
Salzburg towards southern Bavaria, and Prince Lobkowitz
(1685-1755) from Bohemia towards the Naab. The Bavarians
suffered a severe reverse near Braunau (May 9, 1743), and now
an Anglo-allied army commanded by King George II., which
had been formed on the lower Rhine on the withdrawal of
Maillebois, was advancing southward to the Main and Neckar
country. A French army, under Marshal Noailles, was being
collected on the middle Rhine to deal with this new force. But
Broglie was now in full retreat, and the strong places of Bavaria
surrendered one after the other to Prince Charles. The French
and Bavarians had been driven almost to the Rhine when
Noailles and the king came to battle. George, completely
outmanoeuvred by his veteran antagonist, was in a position of
the greatest danger between Aschaffenburg and Hanau in the
defile formed by the Spessart Hills and the river Main. Noailles
blocked the outlet and had posts all around, but the allied
troops forced their way through and inflicted heavy losses on
the French, and the battle of Dettingen is justly reckoned as
a notable victory of the British arms (June 27). Both Broglie,
who, worn out by age and exertions, was soon replaced by
Marshal Coigny (1670-1759), and Noailles were now on the strict
defensive behind the Rhine. Not a single French soldier re-
mained in Germany, and Prince Charles prepared to force the
passage of the great river in the Breisgau while the king of
England moved forward via Mainz to co-operate by drawing
upon himself the attention of both the French marshals. The
Anglo-allied army took Worms, but after several unsuccessful
attempts to cross, Prince Charles went into winter quarters.
The king followed his example, drawing in his troops to the north-
ward, to deal, if necessary, with the army which the French
were collecting on the frontier of Flanders. Austria, England,
Holland and Sardinia were now allied. Saxony changed sides,
and Sweden and Russia neutralized each other (peace of Abo,
August 1743). Frederick was still quiescent; France, Spain
and Bavaria alone continued actively the struggle against Maria
Theresa.
In Italy, the Spaniards on the Panaro had achieved a Pyrrhic
victory over Traun at Campo Santo (February 8, 1743), but the
next six months were wasted in inaction, and Lobkowitz, joining
Traun with reinforcements from Germany, drove back the
enemy to Rimini. The Spanish-Piedmontese war in the Alps
continued without much result, the only incident of note being
a combat at Casteldelfmo won by the king of Sardinia in person.
7. Campaign of 1744. With 1744 began the Second Silesian
War. Frederick, disquieted by the universal success of the
Austrian cause, secretly concluded a fresh alliance with Louis XV.
France had posed hitherto as an auxiliary, her officers in Germany
had worn the Bavarian cockade, and only with England was she
officially at war. She now declared war direct upon Austria
and Sardinia (April 1744). A corps was assembled at Dunkirk
to support the cause of the Pretender in Great Britain, and Louis
in person, with 00,000 men, prepared to invade the Austrian
Netherlands, and took Menin and Ypres. His presumed
opponent was the allied army previously under King George and
now composed of English, Dutch, Germans and Austrians. On
the Rhine, Coigny was to make head against Prince Charles,
and a fresh army under the prince de Conti was to assist the
Spaniards in Piedmont and Lombardy. This plan was, however,
at once dislocated by the advance of Charles, who, assisted by
the veteran Traun, skilfully manoeuvred his army over the Rhine
near Philipsburg (July i), captured the lines of Weissenburg,
and cut off the French marshal from Alsace. Coigny, however,
cut his way through the enemy at Weissenburg and posted him-
self near Strassburg. Louis XV. now abandoned the invasion
of Flanders, and his army moved down to take a decisive part
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
in the war in Alsace and Lorraine. At the same time Frederick
crossed the Austrian frontier (August).
The attention and resources of Austria were fully occupied,
and the Prussians were almost unopposed. One column passed
through Saxony, another through Lusatia, while a third advanced
from Silesia. Prague, the objective, was reached on the 2nd of
September. Six days later the Austrian garrison was compelled
to surrender, and the Prussians advanced to Budweis. Maria
Theresa once again rose to the emergency, a new " insurrection"
took the field in Hungary, and a corps of regulars was assembled
to cover Vienna, while the diplomatists won over Saxony to the
Austrian side. Prince Charles withdrew from Alsace, unmolested
by the French, who had been thrown into confusion by the
sudden and dangerous illness of Louis XV. at Metz. Only
Seckendorf with the Bavarians pursued him. No move was
made by the French, and Frederick thus found himself after
all isolated and exposed to the combined attack of the Austrians
and Saxons. Marshal Traun, summoned from the Rhine, held
the king in check in Bohemia, the Hungarian irregulars inflicted
numerous minor reverses on the Prussians, and finally Prince
Charles arrived with the main army. The campaign resembled
that of 1742; the Prussian retreat was closely watched, and
the rearguard pressed hard. Prague fell, and Frederick, com-
pletely outmanoeuvred by the united forces of Prince Charles
and Traun, regained Silesia with heavy losses. At the same
time, the Austrians gained no foothold in Silesia itself. On the
Rhine, Louis, now recovered, had besieged and taken Freiburg,
after which the forces left in the north were reinforced and
besieged the strong places of Flanders. There was also a slight
war of manoeuvre on the middle Rhine.
In 1 744 the Italian war became for the first time serious. A
grandiose plan of campaign was formed, and as usual the French
and Spanish generals at the front were hampered by the orders
of their respective governments. The object was to unite the
army in Dauphine with that on the lower Po. The adhesion of
Genoa was secured, and a road thereby obtained into central
Italy. But Lobkowitz had already taken the offensive and
driven back the Spanish army of Count de Gages towards the
Neapolitan frontier. The king of Naples at this juncture was
compelled to assist the Spaniards at all hazards. A combined
army was formed at Velletri, and defeated Lobkowitz there on
the nth of August. The crisis past, Lobkowitz then went to
Piedmont to assist the king against Conti, the king of Naples
returned home, and de Gages followed the Austrians with a
weak force. The war in the Alps and the Apennines was keenly
contested. Villefranche and Montalban were stormed by Conti
on the 2oth of April, a desperate fight took place at Peyre-Longue
on the i8th of July, and the king of Sardinia was defeated in a
great battle at Madonna del Olmo (September 30) near Coni
(Cuneo) . Conti did not, however, succeed in taking this fortress,
and had to retire into Dauphin6 for his winter quarters. The
two armies had, therefore, failed in their attempt to combine,
and the Austro-Sardinians still lay between them.
8. Campaign of 1745. The interest of the next campaign
centres in the three greatest battles of the war Hohenfriedberg,
Kesselsdorf and Fontenoy. The fisst event of the year was the
Quadruple Alliance of England, Austria, Holland and Saxony,
concluded at Warsaw on the 8th of January. Twelve days
previously, the death of Charles VII. submitted the imperial
title to a new election, and his successor in Bavaria was not a
candidate. The Bavarian army was again unfortunate; caught
in its scattered winter quarters (action of Amberg, January 7),
it was driven from point to point, and the young elector had to
abandon Munich once more. The peace of Fiissen followed on
the 22nd of April, by which he secured his hereditary states on
condition of supporting the candidature of the grand-duke
Francis, consort of Maria Theresa. The " imperial " army
ceased ipso facto to exist, and Frederick was again isolated. No
help was to be expected from France, whose efforts this year
were centred on the Flanders campaign. In effect, on the loth
of May, before Frederick took the field, Louis XV. and Saxe
had besieged Tournay, and inflicted upon the relieving army of
the duke of Cumberland the great defeat of Fontenoy (q.v.).
In Silesia the customary small war had been going on for some
time, and the concentration of the Prussian army was not
effected without severe fighting. At the end of May, Frederick,
withabout 65,000 men, lay in the camp of Frankenstein, between
Glatz and Neisse, while behind the Riesengebirge about Landshut
Prince Charles had 85,000 Austrians and Saxons. On the 4th
of June was fought the battle of Hohenfriedberg (q.v.) or Striegau,
the greatest victory as yet of Frederick's career, and, of all his
battles, excelled perhaps by Leuthen and Rossbach only.
Prince Charles suffered a complete defeat and withdrew through
the mountains as he had come. Frederick's pursuit was method-
ical, for the country was difficult and barren, and he did not
know the extent to which the enemy was demoralized. The
manoeuvres of both leaders on the upper Elbe occupied all the
summer, while the political questions of the imperial election
and of an understanding between Prussia and England were
pending. The chief efforts of Austria were directed towards
the valleys of the Main and Lahn and Frankfort, where the
French and Austrian armies manoeuvred for a position from
which to overawe the electoral body. Marshal Traun was
successful, and the grand-duke became the emperor Francis I.
on the i3th of September. Frederick agreed with England to
recognize the election a few days later, but Maria Theresa would
not conform to the treaty of Breslau without a further appeal
to the fortune of war. Saxony joined in this last attempt. A
new advance of Prince Charles quickly brought on the battle
of Soor, fought on ground destined to be famous in the war of
1866. Frederick was at first in a position of great peril, but his
army changed front in the face of the advancing enemy and by
its boldness and tenacity won 'a remarkable victory (September
30). But the campaign was not ended. An Austrian contingent
from the Main joined the Saxons under Marshal Rutowski, and a
combined movement was made in the direction of Berlin by
Rutowski from Saxony and Prince Charles from Bohemia. The
danger was very great. Frederick hurried up his forces from
Silesia and marched as rapidly as possible on Dresden, winning
the actions of Katholisch-Hennersdorf (November 24) and
Gorlitz (November 25). Prince Charles was thereby forced
back, and now a second Prussian army under the old Dessauer
advanced up the Elbe from Magdeburg to meet Rutowski.
The latter took up a strong position at Kesselsdorf between
Meissen and Dresden, but the veteran Leopold attacked him
directly and without hesitation (December 14). The Saxons
and their allies were completely routed after a hard struggle,
and Maria Theresa at last gave way. In the peace of Dresden
(December 25) Frederick recognized the imperial election, and
retained Silesia, as at the peace of Breslau.
9. Operations in Italy, 1745-1747. The campaign in Italy
this year was also no mere war of posts. In March 1745
a secret treaty allied the Genoese republic with France, Spain
and Naples. A change in the command of the Austrians
favoured the first move of the allies. De Gages moved from
Modena towards Lucca, the French arid Spaniards in the Alps
under Marshal Maillebois advanced through the Riviera to
the Tanaro, and in the middle of July the two armies were
at last concentrated between the Scrivia and the Tanaro,
to the unusally large number of 80,000. A swift march on
Piacenza drew the Austrian commander thither, and in his
absence the allies fell upon and completely defeated the Sardinians
at Bassignano (September 27), a victory which was quickly
followed by the capture of Alessandria, Valenza and Casale.
Jomini calls the concentration of forces which effected the
victory " le plus remarquable de toute la guerre." But the
complicated politics of Italy brought it about that Maillebois
was ultimately unable to turn his victory to account. Indeed,
early in 1746, Austrian troops, freed by the peace with Frederick,
passed through Tirol into Italy; the Franco-Spanish winter
quarters were brusquely attacked, and a French garrison of
6000 men at Asti was forced to capitulate. At the same time
Count Browne with an Austrian corps struck at the allies on the
lower Po, and cut off their communication with the main body
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
43
in Piedmont. A series of minor actions thus completely destroyed
the great concentration. The allies separated, Maillebois
covering Liguria, the Spaniards marching against Browne. The
latter was promptly and heavily reinforced, and all that the
Spaniards could do was to entrench themselves at Piacenza;
the Spanish Infant as supreme commander calling up Maillebois
to his aid. The French, skilfully conducted and marching
rapidly, joined forces once more, but their situation was critical,
for only two marches behind them the army of the king of
Sardinia was in pursuit, and before them lay the principal army
of the Austrians. The pitched battle of Piacenza (June 16) was
hard fought, and Maillebois had nearly achieved a victory when
orders from the Infant compelled him to retire. That the army
escaped at all was in the highest degree creditable to Maillebois
and to his son and chief of staff, under whose leadership it
eluded both the Austrians and the Sardinians, defeated an
Austrian corps in the battle of Rottofreddo (August 12), and
made good its retreat on Genoa. It was, however, a mere remnant
of the allied army which returned, and the Austrians were soon
masters of north Italy, including Genoa (September). But they
met with no success in their forays towards the Alps. Soon
Genoa revolted from the oppressive rule of the victors, rose and
drove out the Austrians (December 5-11), and the French, now
commanded by Belleisle, took the offensive (1747). Genoa
held out against a second Austrian siege, and after the plan of
campaign had as usual been referred to Paris and Madrid, it
was relieved, though a picked corps of the French army under
the chevalier de Belleisle, brother of the marshal, was defeated
in the almost impossible attempt (July 19) to storm the en-
trenched pass of Exiles (Col di Assietta), the chevalier, and with
him the elite of the French nobility, being killed at the barricades.
Before the steady advance of Marshal Belleisle the Austrians
retired into Lombardy, and a desultory campaign was waged
up to the conclusion of peace.
In North America the most remarkable incident of what
has been called " King George's War " was the capture of the
French Canadian fortress of Louisburg by a British expedition
(April 2o-June 16, 1745), of which the military portion was
furnished by the colonial militia under Colonel (afterwards
Lieu tenant-General Sir William) Pepperell (1696-1759) of
Maine. Louisburg was then regarded merely as a nest of priva-
teers, and at the peace it was given up, but in the Seven Years'
War it came within the domain of grand strategy, and its second
capture was the preliminary step to the British conquest of
Canada. For the war in India, see INDIA: History.
10. Later Campaigns. The last three campaigns of the war
in the Netherlands were illustrated by the now fully developed
genius of Marshal Saxe. After Fontenoy the French carried all
before them. The withdrawal of most of the English to aid in
suppressing the 'Forty-Five rebellion at home left their allies in
a helpless position. In 1746 the Dutch and the Austrians were
driven back towards the line of the Meuse, and most of the
important fortresses were taken by the French. The battle of
Roucoux (or Raucourt) near Liege, fought on the i ith of October
between the allies under Prince Charles of Lorraine and the
French under Saxe, resulted in a victory for the latter. Holland
itself was now in danger, and when in April 1747 Saxe's army,
which had now conquered the Austrian Netherlands up to the
Meuse, turned its attention to the United Provinces, the old
fortresses on the frontier offered but slight resistance. The
prince of Orange and the duke of Cumberland underwent a severe
defeat at Lauffeld (Lawfeld, &c., also called Val) on the 2nd of
July 1747, and Saxe, after his victory, promptly and secretly
despatched a corps under (Marshal) Lowendahl to besiege Bergen-
op-Zoom. On the i8th of September Bergen-op-Zoom was
stormed by the French, and in the last year of the war Maestricht,
attacked by the entire forces of Saxe and Lowendahl, surrendered
on the 7th of May 1748. A large Russian army arrived on the
Meuse to join the allies, but too late to be of use. The quarrel
of Russia and Sweden had been settled by the peace of Abo in
1 743, and in 1746 Russia had allied herself with Austria. Eventu-
ally a large army marched from Moscow to the Rhine, an event
which was not without military significance, and in a manner
preluded the great invasions of 1813-1814 and 1815. The
general peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) was signed on the
1 8th of October 1748.
n. General Character of the War. Little need be said of the
military features of the war. The intervention of Prussia as a
military power was indeed a striking phenomenon, but her
triumph was in a great measure due to her fuller application of
principles of tactics and discipline universally recognized though
less universally enforced. The other powers reorganized their
forces after the war, not so much on the Prussian model as on the
basis of a stricter application of known general principles.
Prussia, moreover, was far ahead of all the other continental
powers in administration, and over Austria, in particular, her
advantage in this matter was almost decisive of the struggle.
Added to this was the personal ascendancy of Frederick, not yet
a great general, but energetic and resolute, and, further, opposed
to generals who were responsible for their men to their individual
sovereigns. These advantages have been decisive in many wars,
almost in all. The special feature of the war of 1740 to 1748,
and of other wars of the time, is the extraordinary disparity
between the end and the means. The political schemes to be
executed by the French and other armies were as grandiose as
any of modern times; their execution, under the then conditions
of time and space, invariably fell short of expectation, and the
history of the war proves, as that of the Seven Years' War was
to prove, that the small standing army of the i8th century
could conquer by degrees, but could not deliver a decisive blow.
Frederick alone, with a definite end and proportionate means
wherewith to achieve it, succeeded completely. The French,
in spite of their later victories, obtained so little of what they
fought for that Parisians could say to each other, when they
met in the streets, " You are as stupid as the Peace." And if,
when fighting for their own hand, the governments of Europe
could so fail of their purpose, even less was to be expected when
the armies were composed of allied contingents, sent to the war
each for a different object. The allied national armies of 1813
co-operated loyally, for they had much at stake and worked for
a common object; those of 1741 represented the divergent
private interests of the several dynasties, and achieved nothing.
^BIBLIOGRAPHY. Besides general works on Frederick's life and
reign, of which Carlyle, Preuss and v. Taysen are of particular
importance, and Frederick's own works, see the Prussian official Die
I. und II. schlesischen Kriege (Berlin, 1890-1895) ; Austrian official
Kriege der Kaiserin Maria Theresia; Gesch. des osterr. Erbfolge-
krieges (Vienna, from 1895) ; Jpmini, Traite des grandes operations
militaires, introduction to vol. i. (Paris, 4th edition, 1851); C. von
B.-K., Geist und Staff im Kriege (Vienna, 1895); v. Arneth, Maria
Teresias ersten Regierungsjahre(i86z) ' v.Schoning, Die -; erste Jahre
der Regierung Friedrichs des Grossen; Bernhardi, Friedrich der
Grosse als Feldherr (Berlin, 1881); v. Canitz, Nachrichten, &c., iiber
die Taten und Schicksale der Reiterei, &c. (Berlin, 1861) ; Grunhagen,
Gesch. des I. schlesischen Krieges (Gotha, 1881-1882); Orlich, Gesch.
der schlesischen Kriege; Deroy, Beitrdge zur Gesch. des osterr.
Erbfolgekrieges (Munich, 1883); Crousse, La Guerre de la succession
dans les provinces belgiques (Paris, 1885); Duncker, Militarised, &c.,
Aktenstiicke zur Gesch. des I. schles. Krieges; Militar-Wochenblatt
supplements 1875, 1877, 1878, 1883, 1891, 1901, &c. (Berlin); Mit-
teilungen des k.k. Kriegsarchivs, from 1887 (Vienna); Baumgart,
Die Litteratur, &c., iiber Friedrich d. Gr. (Berlin, 1886); Fortescue,
History of the British Army, vol. ii. ; F. H. Skrine, Fontenoy and the
War of the Austrian Succession (London, 1906); Francis Parkman,
A Half-Century of Conflict (1892). (C. F. A.)
Naval Operations.
The naval operations of this war were languid and confused.
They are complicated by the fact that they were entangled with
the Spanish war, which broke out in 1739 in consequence of the
long disputes between England and Spain over their conflicting
claims in America. Until the closing years they were conducted
with small intelligence or spirit. The Spanish government was
nerveless, and sacrificed its true interest to the family ambition
of the king Philip V., who wished to establish his younger sons
as ruling princes in Italy. French administration was corrupt,
and the government was chiefly concerned in its political interests
in Germany. The British navy was at its lowest point of energy
44
AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION
and efficiency after the long administration of Sir Robert Walpole.
Therefore, although the war contained passages of vigour, it
was neither interesting nor decisive on the sea.
War on Spain was declared by Great Britain on the 23rd of
October 1739. It was universally believed that the Spanish
colonies would fall at once before attack. A plan was laid for
combined operations against them from east and west. One
force, military and naval, was to assault them from the West
Indies under Admiral Edward Vernon. Another, to be commanded
by Commodore George Anson, afterwards Lord Anson, was to
round Cape Horn and to fall upon the Pacific coast. Delays,
bad preparations, dockyard corruption, and the unpatriotic
squabbles of the naval and military officers concerned caused
the failure of a hopeful scheme. On the 2ist of November 1739
Admiral Vernon did indeed succeed in capturing the ill-defended
Spanish harbour of Porto Bello (in the present republic of
Panama) a trifling success to boast of. But he did nothing to
prevent the Spanish convoys from reaching Europe. The Spanish
privateers cruised with destructive effect against British trade,
both in the West Indies and in European waters. When Vernon
had been joined by Sir Chaloner Ogle with naval reinforcements
and a strong body of troops, an attack was made on Cartagena
in what is now Colombia (March 9-April 24, 1741). The
delay had given the Spanish admiral, Don Bias de Leso, time
to prepare, and the siege failed with a dreadful loss of life to the
assailants. Want of success was largely due to the incompetence
of the military officers and the brutal insolence of the admiral.
The war in the West Indies, after two other unsuccessful attacks
had been made on Spanish territory, died down and did not
revive till 1748. The expedition under Anson sailed late, was
very ill provided, and less strong than had been intended. It
consisted of six ships and left England on the i8th of September
1740. Anson returned alone with his flagship the " Centurion "
on the isth of June 1744. The other vessels had either failed
to round the Horn or had been lost. But Anson had harried the
coast of Chile and Peru and had captured a Spanish galleon of
immense value near the Philippines. His cruise was a great
feat of resolution and endurance.
While Anson was pursuing his voyage round the world, Spain
was mainly intent on the Italian policy of the king. A squadron
was fitted out at Cadiz to convey troops to Italy. It was watched
by the British admiral Nicholas Haddock. When the blockading
squadron was forced off by want of provisions, the Spanish
admiral Don Jose Navarro put to sea. He was followed, but
when the British force came in sight of him Navarro had been
joined by a French squadron under M. de Court (December 1741).
The French admiral announced that he would support the
Spaniards if they were attacked and Haddock retired. France
and Great Britain were not yet openly at war, but both were
engaged in the struggle in Germany Great Britain as the ally
of the queen of Hungary, Maria Theresa; France as the supporter
of the Bavarian claimant of the empire. Navarro and M. de
Court went on to Toulon, where they remained till February
1744. A British fleet watched them, under the command of
admiral Richard Lestock, till Sir Thomas Mathews was sent
out as commander-in-chief, and as minister to the court of Turin.
Partial manifestations of hostility between the French and
British took place in different seas, but avowed war did not
begin till the French government issued its declaration of the
30th of March, to which Great Britain replied on the 3ist. This
formality had been preceded by French preparations for the
invasion of England, and by a collision between the allies and
Mathews in the Mediterranean (.see TOULON, BATTLE OF). On
the i ith of February a most confused battle was fought, in which
the van and centre of the British fleet was engaged with the rear
and centre of the allies. Lestock, who was on the worst possible
terms with his superior, took no part in the action. He en-
deavoured to excuse himself by alleging that the orders of
Mathews were contradictory. Mathews, a puzzle-headed and
hot-tempered man, fought with spirit but in a disorderly way,
breaking the formation of his fleet, and showing no power of
direction. The mismanagement of the British fleet in the battle,
by arousing deep anger among the people, led to a drastic reform
of the British navy which bore its first fruits before the war ended.
The French invasion scheme was arranged in combination with
the Jacobite leaders, and soldiers were to be transported from
Dunkirk. But though the British government showed itself
wholly wanting in foresight, the plan broke down. In February
1744, a French fleet of twenty sail of the line entered the Channel
under Jacques Aymar, comte de Roquefeuil, before the British
force under admiral John Norris was ready to oppose him.
But the French force was ill equipped, the admiral was nervous,
his mind dwelt on all the misfortunes which might possibly
happen, and the weather was bad. M. de Roquefeuil came
up almost as far as the Downs, where he learnt that Sir John
Norris was at hand with twenty-five sail of the line, and thereupon
precipitately retreated. The military expedition prepared at
Dunkirk to cross under cover of Roquefeuil's fleet naturally
did not start. The utter weakness of the French at sea, due to
long neglect of the fleet and the bankrupt state of the treasury,
was shown during the Jacobite rising of 1745, when France made
no attempt to profit by the distress of the British government.
The Dutch having by this time joined Great Britain, made a
serious addition to the naval power opposed to France, though
Holland was compelled by the necessity for maintaining an army
in Flanders to play a very subordinate part at sea. Not being
stimulated by formidable attack, and having immediate interests
both at home and in Germany, the British government was slow
to make use of its latest naval strength. Spain, which could do
nothing of an offensive character, was almost neglected. During
1745 the New England expedition which took Louisburg (April
30- June 16) was covered by a British naval force, but the opera-
tions were in a general way sporadic, subordinated to the supply
of convoy, or to unimportant particular ends. In the East
Indies, Mahe de la Bourdonnais made a vigorous use of a small
squadron to which no effectual resistance was offered by the
British naval forces. He captured Madras (July 24-September
9, 1746), a set-off for Louisburg, for which it was exchanged at
the close of the war. In the same year a British combined naval
and military expedition to the coast of France the first of a long
series of similar ventures which in the end were derided as
" breaking windows with guineas " was carried out during
August and October. The aim was the capture of the French
East India company's dockyard at L'Orient, but it was not
attained.
From 1747 till the close of the war in October 1748 the naval
policy of the British government, without reaching a high level,
was yet more energ||jc and coherent. A closer watch was kept
on the French coast, and effectual means were taken to intercept
communication between France and her American possessions.
In the spring information was obtained that an important convoy
for the East and West Indies was to sail from L'Orient. In
the previous year the British government had allowed a French
expedition under M. d'Anville to fail mainly by its own weakness.
In 1747 a more creditable line was taken. An overwhelming
force was employed under the command of Anson to intercept
the convoy in the Channel. It was met, crushed and captured,
or driven back, on the 3rd of May. On the i4th of October
another French convoy, protected by a strong squadron, was
intercepted by a well-appointed and well-directed squadron of
superior numbers the squadrons were respectively eight French
and fourteen British in the Bay of Biscay. The French
admiral Desherbiers de 1'Etenduere made a very gallant resist-
ance, and the fine quality of his ships enabled him to counteract
to some extent the superior numbers of Sir Edward Hawke,
the British admiral. While the war-ships were engaged, the
merchant vessels, with the small protection which Desherbiers
could spare them, continued on their way to the West Indies.
Most of them were, however, intercepted and captured in those
waters. This disaster convinced the French government of
its helplessness at sea, and it made no further effort.
The last naval operations took place in the West Indies,
where the Spaniards, who had for a time been treated as a negli-
gible quantity, were attacked on the coast of Cuba by a British
AUTHENTIC AUTOGRAPHS
45
squadron under Sir Charles Knowles. They had a naval force
under Admiral Regio at Havana. Each side was at once
anxious to cover its own trade, and to intercept that of the other.
Capture was rendered particularly desirable to the British by
the fact that the Spanish homeward-bound convoy would be
laden with the bullion sent from the American mines. In the
course of the movement of each to protect its trade, the two
squadrons met on the ist of October 1 748 in the Bahama Channel.
The action was indecisive when compared with the successes
of British fleets in later days, but the advantage lay with Sir
Charles Knowles. He was prevented from following it up by the
speedy receipt of the news that peace had been made in Europe
by the powers, who were all in various degrees exhausted. That
it was arranged on the terms of a mutual restoration of conquests
shows that none of the combatants could claim to have estab-
lished a final superiority. The conquests, of the French in the
Bay of Bengal, and their military successes in Flanders, enabled
them to treat on equal terms, and nothing had been taken from
Spain.
The war was remarkable for the prominence of privateering
on both sides. It was carried on by the Spaniards in the West
Indies with great success, and actively at home. The French
were no less active in all seas. Mahe de la Bourdonnais's
attack on Madras partook largely of the nature of a privateering
venture. The British retaliated with vigour. The total number
of captures by French and Spanish corsairs was in all probability
larger than the list of British partly for the reason given by
Voltaire, namely, that more British merchants were taken because
there were many more British merchant ships to take, but partly
also because the British government had not yet begun to enforce
the use of convoy so strictly as it did in later times.
See Beatson's Naval and Military Memoirs (London, 180,1) ;
La Marine militaire de la France sous le regne de Louis XV, by
G. Lacbur-Gayet (Paris, 1902); The Royal Navy, by Sir W. L.
Clowes and others (London, 1891, &c.). (D. H.)
AUTHENTIC (from Gr. avOivn]*, one who does a thing
himself), genuine, as opposed to counterfeit, true or original.
In music it is one of the terms used for the ecclesiastical modes.
The title of A uthentics was also used for Justinian's Novells.
AUTOCEPH ALDUS (from Gr. airis, self, and Ke<aXifr, head),
of independent headship, a term used of certain ecclesiastical
functionaries and organizations.
AUTOCHTHONES (Gr. auroj, and \Biav, earth, i.e. people sprung
from earth itself; Lat. terrigenae; see also under ABORIGINES),
the original inhabitants of a country as opposed to settlers, and
those of their descendants who kept themselves free from an
admixture of foreign peoples. The practice in ancient Greece
of describing legendary heroes and men of ancient lineage as
" earthborn " greatly strengthened the doctrine of autochthony;
for instance, the Athenians wore golden grasshoppers in their
hair in token that they were born from the soil and had always
lived in Attica (Thucydides i. 6; Plato, Menexenus, 245). In
Thebes, the race of Sparti were believed to have sprung from
a field sown with dragons' teeth. The Phrygian Corybantes
had been forced out of the hill-side like trees by Rhea, the great
mother, and hence were called 5tvdpo<t>vtl$. It is clear from
Aeschylus (Prometheus, 447) that primitive men were supposed
to have at first lived like animals in caves and woods, till by
the help of the gods and heroes they were raised to a stage
of civilization.
AUTOCLAVE, a strong closed vessel of metal in which liquids
can be heated above their boiling points under pressure. Ety-
mologically the word indicates a self-closing vessel (airrix, self, and
clavis, key, or davus, nail), in which the tightness of the joints
is maintained by the internal pressure, but this characteristic
is frequently wanting in the actual apparatus to which the name
is applied. The prototype of the autoclave was the digester of
Denis Papin, invented in 1681, which is still used in cooking,
but the appliance finds a much wider range of employment in
chemical industry, where it is utilized in various forms in the
manufacture of candles, coal-tar colours, &c. Frequently an
agitator, passing through a stuffing-box, is fitted so that the
contents may be stirred, and renewable linings are provided in
cases where the substances under treatment exert a corrosive
action on metal.
AUTOCRACY (Gr. avTOKpartia, absolute power), a term
applied to that form of government which is absolute or irre-
sponsible, and vested in one single person. It is a type of
government usually found amongst eastern peoples; amongst
more civilized nations the only example is that of Russia, where
the sovereign assumes as a title " the autocrat of all the
Russias."
AUTO-DA-FE, more correctly AUTO-DE-FE (act of faith), the
name of the ceremony during the course of which the sentences
of the Spanish inquisition were read and executed. The auto-
da-fe was almost identical with the sermo generalis of the medieval
inquisition. It never took place on a feast day of the church,
but on some famous anniversary: the accession of a Spanish
monarch, his marriage, the birth of an infant, &c. It was public:
the king, the royal family, the grand councils of the kingdom,
the court and the people being present. The ceremony comprised
a procession in which the members of the Holy Office, with its
familiars and agents, the condemned persons and the penitents
took part; a solemn mass; an oath of obedience to the inquisi-
tion, taken by the king and all the lay functionaries; a sermon
by the Grand Inquisitor; and the reading of the sentences,
either of condemnation or acquittal, delivered by the Holy
Office. The handing over of impenitent persons, and those who
had relapsed, to the secular power, and their punishment, did
not usually take place on the occasion of an auto-da-f6, properly
so called. Sometimes those who were condemned to the flames
were burned on the night following the ceremony. The first
great auto-da-fe's were celebrated when Thomas de Torquemada
was at the head of the Spanish inquisition (Seville 1482, Toledo
1486, &c.). The last, subsequent to the time of Charles III.,
were held in secret; moreover, they dealt with only a very small
number of sentences, of which hardly any were capital. The
isolated cases of the torturing of a revolutionary priest in Mexico
in 1816, and of a relapsed Jew and of a Quaker in Spain during
1826, cannot really be considered as auto-da-fes. (P. A.)
AUTOGAMY (from Gr. ainfo, self, and ya/da, marriage),
a botanical term for self-fertilization. (See ANGIOSPERMS.)
AUTOGENY, AUTOGENOUS (Gr. ainoye^), spontaneous
generation, self-produced. Haeckel distinguished autogeny and
plltsmogeny, applying the former term when the formative fluid
in which the first living matter was supposed to arise was in-
organic and the latter when it was organic, i.e. contained the
requisite fundamental substances dissolved in the form of
complicated and fluid combinations of carbon. In " autogenous
soldering " two pieces of metal are united by the melting of the
opposing surfaces, without the use of a separate fusible alloy
or solder as a cementing material.
AUTOGRAPHS. Autograph (Gr. O.VT(K, self, yp&<j>tu>, to
write) is a term applied by common usage either to a document
signed by the person from whom it emanates, or to one written
entirely by the hand of such person (which, however, is also
more technically described as holograph, from 8Xos, entire,
yp&Qtiv, to write), or simply to an independent signature.
The existence of autographs must necessarily have been
coeval with the invention of letters. Documents in the hand-
writing of their composers may possibly exist among the early
papyri of Egypt and the clay tablets of Babylonia and Assyria,
and among the early examples of writing in the East. But the
oriental practice of employing professional scribes in writing
the body of documents and of using seals for the purpose of
" signing " (the " signum " originally meaning the impression
of the seal) almost precludes the idea. When we are told ( i Kings
xxi. 8) that Jezebel wrote letters in Ahab's name and sealed
them with his seal, we are, of course, to understand that the
letters were written by the professional scribes and that
the impression of the king's seal was the authentication,
equivalent to the signature of western nations; and again,
when King Darius " signed " the writing and the decree (Dan.
vi. 9), he did so with his seal. To find documents which we can
4 6
AUTOGRAPHS
recognize with certainty to be autographs, we must descend
to the Ptolemaic and Roman periods of Egyptian history, which
are represented by an abundance of papyrus documents of all
kinds, chiefly in Greek. Among them are not a few original
letters and personal documents, in which we may see the hand-
writing of many lettered and unlettered individuals who lived
during the 3rd century B.C. and in succeeding times, and which
prove how very widespread was the practice of writing in those
days. We owe it to the dry and even atmosphere of Egypt that
these written documents have been preserved in such numbers.
On the other hand, in Italy and Greece ancient writings have
perished, save the few charred papyrus rolls and waxen tablets
which have been recovered from the ruins of Herculaneum and
Pompeii. These tablets, however, have a special value, for many
of them contain autograph signatures of principals and witnesses
to legal deeds to which they were attached, together with im-
pressions of seals, in compliance with the Roman law which
required the actual subscriptions, or attested marks, of the
persons concerned.
But, when we now speak of autographs and autograph collec-
tions, we use such terms in a restricted sense and imply documents
or signatures written by persons of some degree of eminence or
notoriety in the various ranks and professions of life; and
naturally the only early autographs in this sense which could
be expected to survive are the subscriptions and signatures of
royal personages and great officials attached to important public
deeds, which from their nature have been more jealously cared
for than mere private documents.
Following the Roman practice, subscriptions and signatures
were required in legal documents in the early centuries of our
era. Hence we find them in the few Latin deeds on papyrus
which have come to light in Egypt; we find them on the well-
known Dacian waxen tablets of the 2nd century; and we find
them in the series of papyrus deeds from Ravenna and other
places in Italy between the sth and loth centuries. The same
practice obtained in the Prankish empire. The Merovingian
kings, or at least those of them who knew how to write, sub-
scribed their diplomas and great charters with their own hands;
and their great officers of state, chancellors and others, counter-
signed in autograph. The unlettered Merovingian kings made
use of monograms composed of the letters of their names; and,
curiously, the illiterate monogram was destined to supersede
the literate subscriptions. For the monogram was adopted by
Charlemagne and his successors as a recognized symbol of their
subscription. It was their signum manuale, their sign manual.
In courtly imitation of the royal practice, monograms and other
marks were adopted by official personages, even though they
could write. The notarial marks of modern times are a survival
of the practice. By the illiterate other signs, besides the mono-
gram, came to be employed, such as the cross, &c., as signs
manual. The monogram was used by French monarchs from
the reign of Charlemagne to that of Philip the Fair, who died in
1314. It is very doubtful, however, whether in any instance this
sign manual was actually traced by the monarch's own hand.
At the most, the earlier sovereigns appear to have drawn one
or two strokes in their monograms, which, so far, may be called
their autographs. But in the later period not even this was
done; the monogram was entirely the work of the scribe.
(See DIPLOMATIC.)
The employment of marks or signs manual went out of general
use after the 1 2th century, in the course of which the affixing
or appending of seals became the common method of executing
deeds. But, as education became more general and the practice
of writing more widely diffused, the usage grew up in the course
of the i4th century of signing the name-signature as well as of
affixing the seal; and by the isth century it had become estab-
lished, and it remains to the present time. Thus the signum
manuale had disappeared, except among notaries; but the term
survived, and by a natural process it was transferred to the
signature. In the present day it is used to designate the " sign
manual " or autograph signature of the sovereign.
The Anglo-Saxon kings of England did not sign their charters,
their names being invariably written by the official scribes.
After the Norman conquest, the sign manual, usually a cross,
which sometimes accompanied the name of the sovereign, may
in some instances be autograph; but no royal signature is to be
found earlier than the reign of Richard II. Of the signatures
of this king there are two examples, of the years 1386 and 1389,
in the Public Record Office; and there is one, of 1397, in the
British Museum. Of his father, the Black Prince, there is in the
Record Office a motto-signature, De par Homont (high courage) ,
Ich dene, subscribed to a writ of privy seal of 1370. The kings
of the Lancastrian line were apparently ready writers. Of the
handwriting of both Henry IV. and Henry V. there are specimens
both in the Record Office and in the British Museum. But by
their time writing had become an ordinary accomplishment.
Apart from the autographs of sovereigns, those of famous
men of the early middle ages can hardly be said to exist, or, if they
do exist, they are difficult to identify. For example, there is
a charter at Canterbury bearing the statement that it was written
by Dunstan; but, as there is a duplicate in the British Museum
with the same statement, it is probable that both the one and
the other are copies. The autograph MSS. of the chronicles of
Ordericus Vitalis, of Robert de Monte, and of Sigebert of
Gembloux are in existence; and among the Cottonian MSS.
there are undoubtedly autograph writings of Matthew of Paris,
the English chronicler of Henry III.'s reign. There are certain
documents in the British Museum in the hand of William of
Wykeham; and among French archives there are autograph
writings of the historian Joinville. These are a few instances.
When we come to such a collection as the famous Paston Letters,
the correspondence of the Norfolk family of Paston of the isth
century, we find therein numerous autographs of historical
personages of the time.
From the i6th century onward, we enter the period of modern
history, and autograph documents of all kinds become plentiful.
And yet in the midst of this plenty, by a perverse fate, there is
in certain instances a remarkable dearth. The instance of
Shakespeare is the most famous. But for three signatures to
the three sheets of his will, and two signatures to the conveyances
of property in Blackfriars, we should be without a vestige of
his handwriting. For certain other signatures, professing to
be his, inscribed in books, may be dismissed as imitations.
Such forgeries come up from time to time, as might be expected,
and are placed upon the market. The Shakespearean forgeries,
however, of W. H. Ireland were perpetrated rather with a
literary intent than as an autographic venture.
Had autograph collecting been the fashion in Shakespeare's
days, we should not have had to deplore the loss of his and of
other great! writers' autographs. But the taste had not then
come into vogue, at least not in England. The series of auto-
graph documents which were gathered in such a library as that
of Sir Robert Cotton, now in the British Museum, found their
way thither on account of their literary or historic interest, and
not merely as specimens of the handwriting of distinguished
men. Such a series also as th&t formed by Philippe de Bethune,
Comte de Selles et Charost, and his son, in the reign of Louis XIV.,
consisting for the most part of original letters and papers, now
in the Bibliotheque Nationale, might have been regarded as the
result of autograph collecting did we not know that it. was
brought together for historical purposes. It was in Germany
and the Low Countries that the practice appears to have origi-
nated, chiefly among students and other members of the
universities, of collecting autograph inscriptions and signatures
of one's friends in albums, alba amicorum, little oblong pocket
volumes of which a considerable number have survived, a very
fair collection being in the British Museum. The earliest
album in the latter series is the Egerton MS. 1178, beginning
with an entry of the year 1554. Once the taste was established,
the collecting of autographs of living persons was naturally
extended to those of former times; and many collections,
famous in their day, have been formed, but in most instances
only to be dispersed again as the owners tired of their fancy or
as their heirs failed to inherit their tastes along with their
AUTOLYCUS AUTOMATIC WRITING
47
possessions. The most celebrated collection formed in England
in recent years is that of the late Mr Alfred Morrison, which still
remains intact, and which is well known by means of the
sumptuous catalogue, with its many facsimiles, compiled by
the owner.
The rivalry of collectors and the high prices which rare or
favourite autographs realize have naturally given encouragement
to the forger. False letters of popular heroes and of popular
authors, of Nelson, of Burns, of Thackeray, and of others,
appear from time to time in the market: in some instances
clever imitations, but more generally too palpably spurious to
deceive any one with experience. Like the Shakespearean
forgeries of Ireland, referred to above, the forgeries of Chatterton
were literary inventions; and both were poor performances.
One of the cleverest frauds of this nature in modern times was
the fabrication, in the middle of the ipth century, of a series
of letters of Byron and Shelley, with postmarks and seals com-
plete, which were even published as bona fide documents (Brit.
Mus., Add. MS. 19,377).
There are many published collections of facsimiles of autographs
of different nations. Among those published in England the follow-
ing may be named: British Autography, by J. Thane (1788-1793,
with supplement by Daniell, 1854) ; Autographs of Royal, Noble,
Learned and Remarkable Personages in English History, by J. G.
Nichols (1829); Facsimiles of Original Documents of Eminent
Literary Characters, by C. J. Smith (1852); Autographs of the Kings
and Queens and Eminent Men of Great Britain, by J. Netherclift
(1835) ; One Hundred Characteristic Autograph Letters, by J. Nether-
clift and Son (1849); The Autograph Miscellany, by F. Netherclift
(1855); The Autograph Souvenir, by F. G. Netherclift and R. Sims
(1865); The Autographic Mirror (1864-1866); The Handbook of
Autographs, by F. G. Netherclift (1862); The Autograph Album,
by L. B. Phillips (1866); Facsimiles of Autographs (British Museum
publication), five series (1896-1900). Facsimiles of autographs also
appear in the official publications, Facsimiles of National MSS.,
from William the Conqueror to Queen Anne (Master of the Rolls)
1865-1868; Facsimiles of National MSS. of Scotland (Lord Clerk
Register), 1867-1871; and Facsimiles of National MSS. of Ireland
(Public Record Office, Ireland), 1874-1884. (E. M. T.)
AUTOLYCUS, in Greek mythology, the son of Hermes and
father of Anticleia, mother of Odysseus. He lived at the foot
of Mount Parnassus, and was famous as a thief and swindler. On
one occasion he met his match. Sisyphus, who had lost some
cattle, suspected Autolycus of being the thief, but was unable
to bring it home to him, since he possessed the power of changing
everything that was touched by his hands. Sisyphus accordingly
burnt his name into the hoofs of his cattle, and, during a visit
to Autolycus, recognized his property. It is said that on this
occasion Sisyphus seduced Autolycus's daughter Anticleia, and
that Odysseus was really the son of Sisyphus, not of Laertes,
whom Anticleia afterwards married. The object of the story
is to establish the close connexion between Hermes, the god of
theft and cunning, and the three persons Sisyphus, Odysseus,
Autolycus who are the incarnate representations of these
practices. Autolycus is also said to have instructed Heracles
in the art of wrestling, and to have taken part in the Argonautic
expedition.
Iliad, x. 267; Odyssey, xix. 395; Ovid, Metam. xi. 313; Apollo-
dorus i. 9; Hyginus, Fab. 201.
AUTOLYCUS OF PITANE, Greek mathematician and astro-
nomer, probably nourished in the second half of the 4th century
B.C., since he is said to have instructed Arcesilaus. His extant
works consist of two treatises; the one, Ilepi Kivovnevris a<baipas,
contains some simple propositions on the motion of the sphere,
the other, lifpl tmroXlav ml dvo-fuv, in two books, discusses
the rising and setting of the fixed stars. The former treatise is
historically interesting for the light it throws on the development
which the geometry of the sphere had already reached even
before Autolycus and Euclid (see THEODOSIUS OF TRIPOLIS).
There are several Latin versions of Autolycus, a French translation
by Forcadel (1572), and an admirable edition of the Greek text with
Latin translation by F. Hultsch (Leipzig, 1885).
AUTOMATIC WRITING, the name given by students of
psychical research to writing performed without the volition
of the agent. The writing may also take place without any
consciousness of the words written ; but some automatists are
aware of the word which they are actually writing, and perhaps
of two or three words on either side, though there is rarely any
clear perception of the meaning of the whole. Automatic writing
may take place when the agent is in a state of trance, spontaneous
or induced, in hystero-epilepsy or other morbid states; or in a
condition not distinguishable from normal wakefulness. Auto-
matic writing has played an important part in the history of
modern spiritualism. The phenomenon first appeared on a large
scale in the early days (c. 1850-1860) of the movement in America.
Numerous writings are reported at that period, many of con-
siderable length, which purported for the most part to have been
produced under spirit guidance. Some of these were written in
" unknown tongues." Of those which were published the most
notable are Andrew J. Davis's Great Harmonia, Charles Linton's
The Healing of the Nations, and J. Murray Spear's Messages
from the Spirit Life.
In England also the early spiritualist newspapers were filled
with " inspirational " writing, Pages of the Paraclete, &c. The
most notable series of English automatic writings are the Spirit
Teachings of the Rev. W. Stainton Moses. The phenomenon, of
course, lends itself to deception, but there seems no reason to
doubt that in the great majority of the cases recorded the writing
was in reality produced without deliberate volition. In the
earlier years of the spiritualist movement, a " planchette," a
little heart-shaped board running on wheels, was employed to
facilitate the process of writing.
Of late years, whilst the theory of external inspiration as the
cause of the phenomenon has been generally discredited, auto-
matic writing has been largely employed as a method of experi-
mentally investigating subconscious mental processes. Knowledge
which had lapsed from the primary consciousness is frequently
revealed by this means; e.g. forgotten fragments of poetry or
foreign languages are occasionally given. An experimental
parallel to this reproduction of forgotten knowledge was devised
by Edmund Gurney. [He showed that information communicated
to a subject in the hypnotic trance could be subsequently
reproduced through the handwriting, whilst the attention of the
subject was fully employed in conversing or reading aloud; or
an arithmetical problem which had been set during the trance
could be worked out under similar conditions without the apparent
consciousness of the subject.
Automatic writing for the most part, no doubt, brings to the
surface only the debris of lapsed memories and half-formed
impressions which have never reached the focus of consciousness
the stuff that dreams are made of. But there are indications
in some cases of something more than this. In some spontaneous
instances the writing produces anagrams, puns, nonsense verses
and occasional blasphemies or obscenities; and otherwise
exhibits characteristics markedly divergent from those of the
normal consciousness. In the well-known case recorded by Th.
Flournoy (Des Indes a la planete Mars) the automatist produced
writing in an unknown character, which purported to be the
Martian language. The writing generally resembles the ordinary
handwriting of the agent, but there are sometimes marked
differences, and the same automatist may employ two or three
distinct handwritings. Occasionally imitations are produced of
the handwriting of other persons, living or dead. Not infrequently
the writing is reversed, so that it can be read only in a looking-
glass (Spiegelschr iff) ; the ability to produce such writing is
often associated with the liability to spontaneous somnambulism.
The hand and arm are often insensible in the act of writing.
There are some cases on record in which the automatist has seemed
to guide his hand not by sight, but by some special extension of
the muscular sense (Carpenter, Mental Physiology, 128; W.
James, Proceedings American S.P.R. p. 554).
Automatic writing frequently exhibits indications of telepathy.
The most remarkable series of automatic writings recorded in this
connexion are those executed by the American medium, Mrs
Piper, in a state of trance ( Proceedings S. P. R.). These writings
appear to exhibit remarkable telepathic powers, and are thought
by some to indicate communication with the spirits of the
dead.
AUTOMATISM AUTONOMY
The opportunities afforded by automatic writing for communi-
cating with subconscious strata of the personality have been
made use of by Pierre Janet and others in cases of hystero-
epilepsy, and other forms of dissociation of consciousness.
A patient in an attack of hysterical convulsions, to whom oral
appeals are made in vain, can sometimes be induced to answer in
writing questions addressed to the hand, and thus to reveal the
secret of the malady or to accept therapeutic suggestions.
See Edmonds and Dexter, Spiritualism (New York, 1853); Epes
Sargent, Planchette, the Despair of Science (Boston, U.S.A., 1869);
Mrs de Morgan, From Matter to Spirit (London, 1863) ; W. Stainton
Moses, Spint Teachings (London, 1883) ; Proceedings S.P R. passim;
Th. Flournoy, Des Indes d la planete Mars (Geneva, 1900) ; F. Pod-
more, Modern Spiritualism (London, 1902); F. W. H. Myers,
Human Personality (London, 1903); Pierre Janet, L'Automalisme
psychologique (2nd ed. ( Paris, 1894) ; Morton Prince, The Dissocia-
tion of a Personality (London, 1906). (F. P.)
AUTOMATISM. In philosophical terminology this word is
used in two main senses: (i) in ethics, for the view that man
is not responsible for his actions, which have, therefore, no moral
value; (2) in psychology, for all actions which are not the result
of conation or conscious endeavour. Certain actions being
admittedly automatic, Descartes maintained that, in regard of
the lower animals, all action is purely mechanical. The same
theory has since been applied to man, with this difference that,
accompanying the mechanical phenomena of action, and entirely
disconnected with it, are the phenomena of consciousness. Thus
certain physical changes in the brain result in a given action;
the concomitant mental desire or volition is in no sense causally
connected with, or prior to, the physical change. This theory,
which has been maintained by T. Huxley (Science atid Culture)
and Shadworth Hodgson (Metaphysic of Experience and Theory
of Practice) , must be distinguished from that of the psychophysical
parallelism, or the " double aspect theory " according to which
both the mental state and the physical phenomena result from a
so-called " mind stuff," or single substance, the material or cause
of both.
Automatic acts are of two main kinds. Where the action
goes on while the attention is focused on entirely different
subjects (e.g. in cycling), it is purely automatic. On the other
hand, if the attention is fixed on the end or on any particular
part of a given action, and the other component parts of the action
are performed unconsciously, the automatism may be called
relative.
See G. F. Stout, Anal. Psych, i. 258 foil.; Wm. James, Princ.
of Psych, i. chap. 5; also the articles PSYCHOLOGY, SUGGESTION,
Sensory Automatism is the term given by students of psychical
research to a centrally initiated hallucination. Such hallucina-
tions are commonly provoked by crystal-gazing (q.v.), but
auditory hallucinations may be caused by the use of a shell
(shell-hearing), and the other senses are occasionally affected.
Motor Automatism, on the other hand, is a non-reflex move-
ment of a voluntary muscle, executed in the waking state but not
controlled by the ordinary waking consciousness. Phenomena
of this kind play a large part in primitive ceremonies of divina-
tion (q.v.) and in our own day furnish much of the material of
Psychical Research. At the lowest level we have vague move-
ments of large groups of muscles, as in " bier-divination," where
the murderer or his residence is inferred from the actions of the
bearers; of a similar character but combined with more specialized
action are many kinds of witch seeking. These more specialized
actions are most typically seen in the Divining Rod (q.v.; see
also TABLE-TURNING), which indicates the presence of water
and is used among the uncivilized to trace criminals. At a
higher stage still we have the delicate movements necessary for
Automatic Writing (q.v.) or Drawing. A parallel case to
Automatic Writing is the action of the speech centres, resulting
in the production of all kinds of utterances from trance speeches
in the ordinary language of the speaker to mere unintelligible
babblings. An interesting form of speech automatism is known
as Glossolalia; in the typical case of Helene Smith, Th. Flournoy
has shown that these utterances may reach a higher plane and
form a real language, which is, however, based on one already
known to the speaker.
See Man (1904), No. 68; Folklore, xiii. 134; Myers in Proc.
S.P.R. ix. 26, xii. 277, xv. 403 ; Flournoy, Des Indes a la planete
Mars and in Arch, de Psychologic; Myers, Human Personality.
(N. W. T.)
AUTOMATON (from aiiTOS,self , and fiaw, to seize) , a self -moving
machine, or one in which the principle of motion is contained
within the mechanism itself. According to this description,
clocks, watches and all machines of a similar kind, are automata,
but the word is generally applied to contrivances which simulate
for a time the motions of animal life. If the human figure and
actions be represented, the automaton has sometimes been called
specially an androides. We have very early notices of the con-
struction of automata, e.g. the tripods of Vulcan, and the moving
figures of Daedalus. In 400 B.C., Archytas of Tarentum is said
to have made a wooden pigeon that could fly, and during the
middle ages numerous instances of the construction of automata
are recorded. Regiomontanus is said to have made of iron a fly,
which would flutter round the room and return to his hand,
and also an eagle, which flew before the emperor Maximilian
when he was entering Nuremberg. Roger Bacon is said to have
forged a brazen head which spoke, and Albertus Magnus to have
had an androides, which acted as doorkeeper, and was broken
to pieces by Aquinas. Of these, as of some later instances, e.g.
the figure constructed by Descartes and the automata exhibited
by Dr Camus, not much is accurately known. But in the
i8th century, Jacques de Vaucanson, the celebrated mechanician,
exhibited three admirable figures, the flute-player, the tam-
bourine-player, and the duck, which was capable of eating,
drinking, and imitating exactly the natural voice of that fowl.
The means by which these results had been produced were
clearly seen, and a great impulse was given to the construction
of similar figures. Knauss exhibited at Vienna an automaton
which wrote; a father and son named Droz constructed several
ingenious mechanical figures which wrote and played music;
Frederick Kaufmann and Leonard Maelzel made automatic
trumpeters who could play several marches. The Swiss have
always been celebrated for their mechanical ingenuity, and they
construct most of the curious toys, such as flying and singing
birds, which are frequently met with in industrial exhibitions.
The greatest difficulty has generally been experienced in devising
any mechanism which shall successfully simulate the human
voice (not to be compared with the gramophone, which repro-
duces mechanically a real voice). No attempt has been
thoroughly successful, though many have been made. A figure
exhibited by Fabermann of Vienna remains the best. Kempelen's
famous chess-player for many years astonished and puzzled
Europe. This figure, however, was no true automaton, although
the mechanical contrivances for concealing the real performer
and giving effect to his desired movements were exceedingly
ingenious. J. N. Maskelyne, in more recent times (1875-1880),
has been prominent in exhibiting his automata, Psycho (who
played cards) and Zoe (who drew pictures), at the Egyptian
Hall, London, but the secret of these contrivances was well kept.
(See CONJURING.)
AUTOMORPHISM (from Gr. afa-oj, self, and juoptfnj, form), the
conception and interpretation of other people's habits and ideas
on the analogy of one's own.
AUTONOMY (Gr. a6r6s, self, and v6/ws, law), in general,
freedom from external restraint, self-government. The term is
usually coupled with a qualifying adjective. Thus, political
autonomy is self-government in its widest sense, independence
of all control from without. Local autonomy is a freedom of
self-government within a sphere marked out by some superior
authority; e.g. municipal corporations in England have their
administrative powers marked out for them by acts of parliament,
and in so far as they govern themselves within these limits
exercise local autonomy. Administrative or constitutional
autonomy, such as exists in the British colonies, implies an
extent of self-government which falls short only of complete
independence. The term is used loosely even in the case of e.g.
religious bodies, individual churches and other communities
AUTOPSY AUVERGNE
49
which enjoy a measure of self-government in certain specified
respects.
In philosophy, the term (with its antithesis " heteronomy ")
was applied by Kant to that aspect of the rational will in which,
qua rational, it is a law to itself, independently alike of any
external authority, of the results of experience and of the im-
pulses of pleasure and pain. In the sphere of morals, the ultimate
and only authority which the mind can recognize is the law
which emerges from the pure moral consciousness. This is the
only sense in which moral freedom can be understood. (See
ETHICS; KANT.) Though the term "autonomy" in its fullest
sense implies entire freedom from causal necessity, it can also
be used even in determinist theories for relative independence
of particular conditions, theological or conventional.
AUTOPSY (Gr. avrfc, self, and 3^, sight, investigation),
a personal examination, specifically a post-mortem (" after
death ") examination of a dead body, to ascertain the cause of
death, &c. The term " necropsy " (Gr. vKp6i, corpse) is
sometimes used in this sense. (See CORONER and MEDICAL
JURISPRUDENCE.)
AUTRAN, JOSEPH (1813-1877), French poet, was born at
Marseilles on the zoth of June 1813. In 1832 he addressed an
ode to Lamartine, who was then at Marseilles on his way to the
East. The elder poet persuaded the young man's father to
allow him to follow his poetic bent, and Autran remained from
that time a faithful disciple of Lamartine. His best known
work is La Mer (1835), remodelled in 1852 as Les Poemes de la
mer. Ludibria ventis (1838) followed, and the success of these
two volumes gained for Autran the librarianship of his native
town. His other most important work is his Vie rurale (1856),
a series of pictures of peasant life. The Algerian campaigns
inspired him with verses in honour of the common soldier.
Milianah (1842) describes the heroic defence of that town, and
in the same vein is his Laboureitrs et soldats (1854). Among his
other works are the Paroles de Salomon (1868), pltres rustiques
(1861), Sonnets capricieux, and a tragedy played with great
success at the Odeon in 1848, La Fille d'Eschyle. A definitive
edition of his works was brought out between 1875 and 1881.
He became a member of the French Academy in 1868, and died
at Marseilles on the 6th of March 1877.
AUTUN, a town of east-central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Sadne-et-Loire, 62 m. S.W. of Dijon
on the Paris-Lyon railway to Nevers. Pop. (1906) 11,927.
Autun is pleasantly situated on the slope of a hill at the foot of
which runs the Arroux. Its former greatness is attested by
many Roman remains, the chief of which are two well-preserved
stone gateways, the Porte d' Arroux and the Porte St Andre,
both pierced with four archways and surmounted by arcades.
There are also remains of the old ramparts and aqueducts, of a
square tower called the Temple of Janus, of a theatre and of an
amphitheatre. A pyramid in the neighbouring village of
Couhard was probably a sepulchral monument. The chapel
of St Nicolas (i2th century) contains many of the remains
discovered at Autun. The cathedral of St Lazare, once the
chapel attached to the residence of the dukes of Burgundy, is
in the highest part of the town. It belongs mainly to the I2th
century, but the Gothic central tower and the chapels were
added in the i$th century by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of
Burgundy, born at Autun. The chief artistic features of the
church are the group of the Last Judgment sculptured on the
tympanum above the west door, and the painting by Ingres
representing the martyrdom of St Symphorien, which took
place at Autun in 179. In the cathedral square stands the
fountain of St Lazare, a work of the Renaissance. The h6tel
Rolin, a house of the isth century, contains the collections of
the " Aeduan literary and scientific society." The h6tel de
ville, containing a museum of paintings, the law-court and the
theatre are modern buildings. Autun is the seat of a bishopric,
of tribunals of first instance and of commerce, and has an
ecclesiastical seminary, a communal college and a cavalry school.
Among the industries of the town are the extraction of oil from
the bituminous schist obtained in the neighbourhood, leather
manufacture, metal-founding, marble-working, and the manu-
facture of machinery and furniture. Autun is the commercial
centre for a large part of the Morvan, and has considerable
trade in timber and cattle.
Autun (Augustodunum) succeeded Bibracte as capital of the
Aedui when Gaul was reorganized by Augustus. Under the
Romans, it was a flourishing town, covering double its present
extent and renowned for its schools of rhetoric. In the succeed-
ing centuries its prosperity drew upon it the attacks of the
barbarians, the Saracens and the Normans. The counts of
Autun in 880 became dukes of Burgundy, and the town was
the residence of the latter till 1276. It was ravaged by the
English in 1379, and, in 1591, owing to its support of the League,
had to sustain a siege conducted by Marshal Jean d'Aumont,
general of Henry IV.
See H. de Fontenay, Autun et ses monuments (Autun, 1889).
AUTUNITE, or CALCO-URANITE, a mineral which is one of the
" uranium micas," differing from the more commonly occurring
torbernite (q.v.) or cupro-uranite in containing calcium in place of
copper. It is a hydrous uranium and calcium phosphate,
Ca (UOi)i(PO 4 ) 2 +8(or 12)H 2 O. Though closely resembling the
tetragonal torbernite in form, it crystallizes in the orthorhombic
system and is optically biaxial. The crystals have the shape
of thin plates with very nearly square outline (89 17' instead
of 90). An important character is the perfect micaceous
cleavage parallel to the basal plane, on which plane the lustre
is pearly. The colour is sulphur-yellow, and this enables the
mineral to be distinguished at a glance from the emerald-green
torbernite. Hardness 2-2$; specific gravity 3-05-3- 19. Autunite
is usually found with pitchblende and other uranium minerals,
or with ores of silver, tin and iron; it sometimes coats
joint-planes in gneiss and pegmatite. Falkenstein in Saxony,
St Symphorien near Autun (hence the name of the species),
and St Day in Cornwall are well-known localities for this
mineral. (L. J. S.)
AUVERGNE, formerly a province of France, corresponding
to the departments of Cantal and Puy-de-D6me, with the
arrondissement of Brioude in Haute-Loire. It contains many
mountains volcanic in origin (Plomb du Cantal, Puy de D6me,
Mont Dore), fertile valleys such as that of Limagne, vast pasture-
lands, and numerous medicinal springs. Up to the present
day the population retains strongly-marked Celtic characteristics.
In the time of Caesar the Arverni were a powerful confederation,
the Arvernian Vercingetorix being the most famous of the Gallic
chieftains who fought against the Romans. Under the empire
Arvernia formed part of Prima Aquitania, and the district shared
in the fortunes of Aquitaine during the Merovingian and Caro-
lingian periods. Auvergne was the seat of a separate countship
before the end of the 8th century; the first hereditary count
was William the Pious (886). By the marriage of Eleanor of
Aquitaine with Henry Plantagenet, the countship passed under
the suzerainty of the kings of England, but at the same time it
was divided, William VII., called the Young (1145-1168), having
been despoiled of a portion of his domain by his uncle William
VIII. .called the Old, who was supported by Henry II. of England,
so that he only retained the region bounded by the Allier and the
Coux. It is this district that from the end of the I3th century
was called the Dauphins d' Auvergne. This family quarrel
occasioned the intervention of Philip Augustus, king of France,
who succeeded in possessing himself of a large part of the country,
which was annexed to the royal domains under the name of
Terre d' Auvergne. As the price of his concurrence with the king
in this matter, the bishop of Clermont, Robert I. (1195-1227),
was granted the lordship of the town of Clermont, which subse-
quently became a countship. Such was the origin of the four
great historic lordships of Auvergne. The Terre d'Auvergne
was first an appanage of Count Alphonse of Poitiers (1241-1271),
and in 1360 was erected into a duchy in the peerage of France
(duch6-pairie) by King John II. in favour of his son John, through
whose daughter the new title passed in 1416 to the house of
Bourbon. The last duke, the celebrated constable Charles of
Bourbon, united the domains of the Dauphinf to those of the
5
AUXANOMETER AVA
duchy, but all were confiscated by the crown in consequence
of the sentence which punished the constable's treason in 1527.
The countship, however, had passed in 1422 to the house of
La Tour, and was not annexed to the domain until 1615. The
administration of the royal province of Auvergne was organized
under Louis XIV. At the time of the revolution it formed what
was called a "government," with two divisions: Upper Auvergne
(Aurillac), and Lower Auvergne (Clermont).
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Baluze, Histoire genealogique de la maison
d' Auvergne (1708) ; Andre Imberdis, Histoire generate de I' Auvergne
(1867); J. B. M. Bielawski, Histoire de la comte d' Auvergne el de
sa capitate Vic-le-Comte (1868); B. Gonot, Catalogue des ouvrages
imprimes et manuscrits concernant I' Auvergne (1849). See further
Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist., TopobiUiographie, s.v.
AUXANOMETER (Gr. av^avetv, to increase, IJXTOOV, measure),
an apparatus for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants.
AUXENTIUS (fl. c. 370), of Cappadocia, an Arian theologian
of some eminence (see ARIUS). When Constantine deposed the
orthodox bishops who resisted, Auxentius was installed into
the seat of Dionysius, bishop of Milan, and came to be regarded
as the great opponent of the Nicene doctrine in the West. So
prominent did he become, that he was specially mentioned by
name in the condemnatory decree of the synod which Damasus,
bishop of Rome, urged by Athanasius, convened in defence
of the Nicene doctrine (A.D. 369). When the orthodox emperor
Valentinian ascended the throne, Auxentius was left undisturbed
in his diocese, but his theological doctrines were publicly attacked
by Hilary of Poitiers.
The chief source of information about him is the Liber contra
Auxentium in the Benedictine edition of the works of Hilary.
AUXERRE, a town of central France, capital of the department
of Yonne, 38 m. S.S.E. of Sens on the Paris-Lyon railway,
between Laroche and Nevers. Pop. (1906) 16,971. Itissituated
on the slopes and the summit of an eminence on the left bank
of the Yonne, which is crossed by two bridges leading to suburbs
on the right bank. The town is irregularly built and its streets
are steep and narrow, but it is surrounded by wide tree-lined
boulevards, which have replaced the ancient fortifications, and
has some fine churches. That of St Etienne, formerly the
cathedral, is a majestic Gothic building of the I3th to the i6th
centuries. It is entered by three richly sculptured portals,
over the middle and largest of which is a rose window; over the
north portal rises a massive tower, but that which should sur-
mount the south portal is unfinished. The lateral entrances
are sheltered by tympana and arches profusely decorated with
statuettes. The plan consists of a nave, with aisles and lateral
chapels, transept and choir, with a deambulatory at a slightly
lower level. Beneath the choir, which is a fine example of early
Gothic architecture, extends a crypt of the nth century with
mural paintings of the I2th century. The church has some fine
stained glass and many pictures and other works of art. The
ancient episcopal palace, now used as prefecture, stands behind
the cathedral; it preserves a Romanesque gallery of the i2th
century. The church of St Eusebe belongs to the I2th, I3th and
1 6th centuries. Of the abbey church of St Germain, built in
the i3th and I4th centuries, most of the nave has disappeared,
so that its imposing Romanesque tower stands apart from it;
crypts of the gth century contain the tombs of bishops of Auxerre.
The abbey was once fortified and a high wall and cylindrical
tower remain. The buildings (i8th century) are partly occupied
by a hospital and a training-college. The church of St Pierre,
in the Renaissance style of the i6th and i7th centuries, is con-
spicuous for the elaborate ornamentation of its west facade.
The old law-court contains the museum, with a collection of
antiquities and paintings, and a library. In the middle of the
town is a gateway surmounted by a belfry, dating from the isth
century. Auxerre has statues of Marshal Davout, J. B . J. Fourier
and Paul Bert, the two latter natives of the town. The town
is the seat of a court of assizes, and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, and a branch of the Bank of France. A lycee
for girls, a communal college and training colleges are among its
educational establishmen ts. Manufactures of ochre, of which there
are quarries in the vicinity, and of iron goods are carried on. The
canal of Nivernais reaches as far as Auxerre, which has a busy
port and carries on boat-building. Trade is principally in the
choice wine of the surrounding vineyards, and in timber and
coal.
Auxerre (Autessiodurum) became the seat of a bishop and a
civitas in the 3rd century. Under the Merovingian kings the
abbey of St Germain, named after the 6th bishop, was founded,
and in the gth century its schools had made the town a seat of
learning. The bishopric was suppressed in 1790.
The countship of Auxerre was granted by King Robert I.
to his son-in-law Renaud, count of Nevers. It remained in the
house of Nevers until 1 184, when it passed by marriage to that of
Courtenay. Other alliances transferred it successively to the
families of Donzy, Chatillon, Bourbon and Burgundy. Alice
of Burgundy, countess of Auxerre, married John of Chalons
(d. 1309), and several counts of Auxerre belonging to the house
of Chalons distinguished themselves in the wars against the
English during the i4th century. John II., count of Auxerre,
was killed at the battle of Crecy (1346), and his grandson, John
IV., sold his countship to King Charles V. in 1370.
AUXILIARY (from Lat. auxilium, help), that which gives aid
or support; the term is used in grammar of a verb which
completes the tense, mood or voice of another verb; in engineer-
ing, e.g. of the low steam power used to supplement the sail-
power in sailing ships, still occasionally used in yachts, sealers
or whalers; and in military use, of foreign or allied troops,
more properly of any troops not permanently maintained
under arms. In the British army the term " Auxiliary Forces "
was employed formerly to include the Militia, the Imperial
Yeomanry and the Volunteers.
AUXIMUM (mod. Osimo), an ancient town in Picenum, situated
on an isolated hill 8 m. from the Adriatic, on the road from
Ancona to Nuceria. It was selected by the Romans as a fortress
to protect their settlements in northern Picenum, and strongly
fortified in 174 B.C. The walls erected at that period, of large
rectangular blocks of stone, still exist in great part. Auximum
became a colony at latest in 157 B.C. It often appears in the
history of the civil wars, owing to its strong position. Pompey
was its patron, and intended that Caesar should find resistance
here in 49 B.C. It appears to have been a place of some im-
portance in imperial times, as inscriptions and the monuments
of its forum (the present piazza) show. In the 6th century it is
called by Procopius the chief town of Picenum, Ancona being
spoken of as its harbour. (T. As.)
AUXONNE, a town of eastern France, in the department
of C6te d'Or, 19 m. E.S.E. of Dijon on the Paris-Lyon rail-
way to Belfort. , Pop. (1906) 2766 (town); 6307 (commune).
Auxonne is a quiet town situated in a wide plain on the left bank
of the Sa6ne. It preserves remains of ramparts, a stronghold of
the 1 6th century flanked by cylindrical towers, and a sculptured
gateway of the isth century. Vauban restored these works in
the latter half of the I7th century, and built the arsenal now used
as a market. The church of Notre-Dame dates from the I4th
century. Of the two towers surmounting its triple porch only
that to the south is finished. A lofty spire rises above a third
tower over the crossing. The h&tel de ville (isth century) and
some houses of the Renaissance period are also of architectural
interest. A statue of Napoleon I. as a sub-lieutenant com-
memorates his sojourns in the town from 1788 to 1791. Auxonne
has a tribunal of commerce and a communal college. Its
industries are unimportant, but it has a large trade in the vege-
tables produced by the numerous market gardens in the vicinity.
Auxonne, the name of which is derived from its position on
the Sa&ne (ad Sonam), was in the middle ages chief place of a
countship, which in the first half of the i3th century passed to
the dukes of Burgundy. The town received a charter in 1229
and derived some importance from the mint which the dukes of
Burgundy founded in it. It was invested by the allies in 1814,
and surrendered to an Austrian force in the following year.
AVA, the ancient capital of the Burman empire, now a
subdivision of the Sagaing district in the Sagaing division of
Upper Burma. It is situated on the Irrawaddy on the opposite
AVADANA AVEBURY
bank to Sagaing, with which it was amalgamated in 1889.
Amarapura, another ancient capital, lies 5 m. to the north-east
of Ava, and Mandalay, the present capital, 6 m. to the north.
The classical name of Ava is Yadanapura, " the city of precious
gems." It was founded by Thadomin Paya in A.D. 1364 as
successor to Pagan, and the religious buildings of Pagn were to
a certain extent reproduced here, although on nothing like the
same scale as regards either size or splendour. It remained the
seat of government for about four centuries with a succession of
thirty kings. In 1782 a new capital, Amarapura, was founded
by Bodaw PayS, but was deserted again in favour of Ava by King
Baggidaw in 1823. On his deposition by King Tharawaddi
in 1837, the capital reverted to Amarapura; but finally in 1860
the last capital of Mandalay was occupied by King Mindon.
For picturesque beauty Ava is unequalled in Burma, but it is
now more like a park than the site of an old capital. Traces of
the great council chamber and various portions of the royal palace
are still visible, but otherwise the secular buildings are completely
destroyed; and most of the religious edifices are also dilapidated.
AVADANA, the name given to a type of Buddhist romance
literature represented by a large number of Sanskrit (Nepalese)
collections, of which the chief are the Avadanasataka (Century
of Legends), and the Divyavadana (The Heavenly Legend).
Though of later date than most of the canonical Buddhist books,
they are held in veneration by the orthodox, and occupy much
the same position with regard to Buddhism that the Puranas
do towards Brahminism.
AVAHI, the native name of a Malagasy lemur (Avahis laniger)
nearly allied to the indri (q.v.), and the smallest representative
of the subfamily Indrisinae, characterized by its woolly coat, and
measuring about 28 in. in length, of which rather more than half
is accounted for by the tail. Unlike the other members of the
group, the avahi is nocturnal, and does not associate in small
troops, but is met with either alone or in pairs. Very slow in
its movements, it rarely descends to the ground, but, when it does,
walks upright like the other members of the group. It is found
throughout the forests which clothe the mountains on the east
coast of Madagascar, and also in a limited district on the north-
west coast, the specimens from the latter locality being of smaller
size and rather different in colour. The eastern phase is generally
rusty red above, with the inner sides of the limbs white; while
the predominant hue in the western form is usually yellowish
brown. (See PRIMATES.) (R. L.*)
AVALANCHE (adopted from a French dialectic form, avalance,
descent), a mass of snow and ice mingled with earth and stones,
which rushes down a mountain side, carrying everything before
it, and producing a strong wind which uproots trees on each side
of its course. Where the supply of snow exceeds the loss by
evaporation the surplus descends the mountain sides, slowly
in the form of glaciers, or suddenly in ice-falls or in avalanches.
A mass of snow may accumulate upon a steep slope and become
compacted into ice by pressure, or remain loosely aggregated.
When the foundation gives way. owing to the loosening effect
of spring rains or from any other cause, the whole mass slides
downward. A very small cause will sometimes set a mass of
overloaded snow in motion. Thunder or even a loud shout is
said to produce this effect when the mass is just poised, and
Swiss guides often enjoin absolute silence when crossing dangerous
spots.
AVALLON, a town of central France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Yonne, 34 m. S.S.E. of Auxerre on a
branch of the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906) 5197. The
town, with wide streets and picturesque promenades, is finely
situated on a promontory, the base of which is washed on the
south by the Cousin, on the east and west by small streams.
Its chief building, the church of St Lazare, dates from the 1 2th
century. The two western portals are adorned with sculpture
in the ornate Romanesque style; the tower on the left of the
facade was rebuilt in the I7th century. The Tour de L'Horloge,
pierced by a gateway through which passes the Grande Rue, is
a isth century structure containing a museum on its second
floor. Remains of the ancient fortifications, including seven of
the flanking towers, are still to be seen. Avallon has a statue of
Vauban, the military engineer. The public institutions include
the subprefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal
college. The manufacture of biscuits and gingerbread, and of
leather and farm implements is carried on, and there is consider-
able traffic in wood, wine, and the live-stock and agricultural
produce of the surrounding country.
Avallon (Aballo) was in the middle ages the seat of a viscounty
dependent on the duchy of Burgundy, and on the death of
Charles the Bold passed under the royal authority.
AVALON (also written AVALLON, AVOLLON, AVILION and
AVELION), in Welsh mythology the kingdom of the dead, after-
wards an earthly paradise in the western seas, and finally, in the
Arthurian romances, the abode of heroes to which King Arthur
was conveyed after his last battle. In Welsh the name is Ynys
yr Afallon, usually interpreted " Isle of Apples," but possibly
connected with the Celtic tradition of a king over the dead named
Avalloc (in Welsh Afallach). If the traditional derivation is
correct, the name is derived from the Welsh a/a/, an apple, and,
as no other large fruit was well known to the races of northern
Europe, is probably intended to symbolize the feasting and
enjoyments of elysium. Other forms of the name are Ynysvitrin
and Ynysgutrin, " Isle of Glass " which appear to be identical
with Glasberg, the Teutonic kingdom of the dead. Perhaps
owing to a confusion between Glasberg or Ynysvitrin and the
Anglo-Saxon Glaestinga-burh, Glastonbury, the name " Isle of
Avalon " was given to the low ridge in central Somersetshire
which culminates in Glastonbury Tor, while Glastonbury itself
came to be called Avalon. Attempts have also been made to
identify Avalon with other places in England and Wales.
See Studies in the Arthurian Legend, by J. Rhys (Oxford, 1891) ;
also ARTHUR (KING) ; ATLANTIS.
AVARAY, a French territorial title belonging to a family
some of whose members have been conspicuous in history. The
Bearnaise family named Besiade moved into the province of
Qrleanais in the I7th century, and there acquired the estate of
Avaray. In 1667 Theophile de Besiade, marquis d'Avaray,
obtained the office of grand bailiff of Orleans, which was held by
several of his descendants after him. Claude Antoine de Besiade,
marquis d'Avaray, was deputy for the bailliage of Orleans in
the states-general of 1789, and proposed a Declaration of the
Duties of Man as a pendant to the Declaration of the Rights of
Man; he subsequently became a lieutenant-general in 1814,
a peer of France in 1815, and due d'Avaray in 1818. Antoine
Louis Francois, comte d'Avaray, son of the above, distinguished
himself during the Revolution by his devotion to the comte de
Provence, afterwards Louis XVIII., whose emigration he
assisted. Having nominally become king in 1799, that prince
created the estate of Ile-Jourdain a duchy, under the title of
Avaray, in favour of the comte d'Avaray, ^whom he termed his
" liberator." (M. P.*)
AVARS, or AVARI, an East Caucasian people, the most renowned
of the Lesghian tribes, inhabiting central Daghestan (see
LESGHIANS). They are the only Lesghian tribe who possess a
written language, for which they make use of the Arabic char-
acters. They are often confused with the Avars whose empire
on the Danube was broken by Charlemagne; but Komarov
asserts that they are of more recent origin as a tribe, their name
being Lowland Turki for " vagrant " or " refugee."
AVATAR, a Sanskrit word meaning " descent," specially
used in Hindu mythology (and so in English) to express the
incarnation of a deity visiting the earth for any purpose. The
ten Avatars of Vishnu are the most famous. The Hindus
believe he has appeared (i) as a fish, (2) as a tortoise, (3) as a
hog, (4) as a monster, half man half lion, to destroy the giant
Iranian, (5) as a dwarf, (6) as Rama, (7) again as Rama for the
purpose of killing the thousand-armed giant Cartasuciriargunan,
(8) as Krishna, (9) as, Buddha. They allege that the tenth
Avatar has yet to occur and will be in the form of a white-winged
horse (Kalki) who will destroy the earth.
AVEBURY, JOHN LUBBOCK, IST BARON (1834- ),
English banker, politician and naturalist, was born in London
AVEBURY AVELLA
on the 30th of April 1834, the son of Sir John William Lubbock,
3rd baronet, himself a highly distinguished man of science.
John Lubbock was sent to Eton in 1845; but three years later
was taken into his father's bank, and became a partner at
twenty-two. In 1865 he succeeded to the baronetcy. His love
of science kept pace with his increasing participation in public
affairs. He served on commissions upon coinage and other
financial questions; and at the same time acted as president
of the Entomological Society and of the Anthropological
Institute. Early in his career several banking reforms of great
importance were due to his initiative, while such works as
Prehistoric Times (1865) and The Origin of Civilization (1870)
were proceeding from his pen. In 1870, and again in 1874, he was
elected a member of parliament for Maidstone. He lost the
seat at the election of 1880; but was at once elected member
for London University, of which he had been vice-chancellor
since 1872. He carried numerous enactments in parliament,
including the Bank Holidays Act 1871, and bills dealing with
absconding debtors, shop hours regulations, public libraries,
open spaces, and the preservation of ancient monuments, and
he proved himself an indefatigable and influential member of
the Unionist party. A prominent supporter of the Statistical
Society, he took an active part in criticizing the encroachment
of municipal trading and the increase of the municipal debt.
He was elected the first president of the Institute of Bankers in
1879; in 1881 he was president of the British Association, and
from 1881 to 1886 president of the Linnaean Society. He
received honorary degrees from the universities of Oxford,
Cambridge (where he was Rede lecturer in 1886), Edinburgh,
Dublin and Wurzburg; and in 1878 was appointed a trustee
of the British Museum. From 1888 to 1892 he was president
of the London Chamber of Commerce; from 1889 to 1890 vice-
chairman and from 1890 to 1892 chairman of the London County
Council. During the same period he served on royal commissions
on education and on gold and silver. In 1890 he was appointed
a privy councillor; and was chairman of the committee of
design on the new coinage in 1891. In 1900 he was raised to
the peerage, under the title of Baron Avebury, and he continued
to play a leading part in public life, not only by the weight of
his authority on many subjects, but by the readiness with which
he lent his support to movements for the public benefit. Among
other matters he was a prominent advocate of proportional
representation. As an original author and a thoughtful
popularizer of natural history and philosophy he had few rivals
in his day, as is evidenced by the number of editions issued of
many of his writings, among which the most widely-read have
been: The Origin and Metamorphoses of Insects (1873), British
Wild Flowers (1875), Ants, Bees and Wasps (1882), Flowers,
Fruit and Leaves (1886), The Pleasures of Life (1887), The Senses,
Instincts and Intelligence of Animals (1888), The Beauties of
Nature (1892), The Use of Life (1894).
AVEBURY, a village in the Devizes parliamentary division
of Wiltshire, England, on the river Kennet, 8 m. by road from
Marlborough. The fine church of St James contains an early
font with Norman carving, a rich Norman doorway, a painted
reredos, and a beautiful old roodstone in good preservation.
Avebury House is Elizabethan, with a curious stone dovecot.
The village has encroached upon the remains of a huge stone
circle (not quite circular), surrounded by a ditch and rampart
of earth, and once approached by two avenues of monoliths.
Within the larger circle were two smaller ones, placed not in the
axis of the great one but on its north-eastern side, each of which
consisted of a double concentric ring of stones; the centre being
in one case a menhir or pillar, in the other a dolmen or tablestone
resting on two uprights. Few traces remain, as the monoliths
have been largely broken up for building purposes. The circle
is the largest specimen of primitive stone monuments in Britain,
measuring on the average 1200 ft. in diameter. The stones are
all the native Sarsens which occur everywhere in the district,
and show no evidence of having been hewn. Those still re-
maining vary in size from 5 to 20 ft. in height above ground,
and from 3 to 12 ft. in breadth. As in the case of Stonehenge,
the purpose for which the Avebury monument was erected
has been the source of much difference of opinion among anti-
quaries, Dr Stukely (Stonehenge a Temple restored to the British
Druids, 1740) regarding it as a Druidical temple, while Fergusson
(Rude Stone Monuments, 1872) believed that it, as well as Silbury
Hill, marks the site of the graves of those who fell in the last
Arthurian battle at Badon Hill (A.D. 520). The majority of anti-
quaries, however, see no reason for dissociating its chronological
horizon from that of the numerous other analogous monuments
found in Great Britain, many of which have been shown to be
burial places of the Bronze Age. Excavations were carried out
here in 1908, but without throwing any important new light on
the monument.
There are many barrows on the neighbouring downs, besides
traces of a double oval of monoliths on Hackpen hill, and the
huge mound of Silbury Hill. Waden Hill, to the south, has been,
like Badbury, identified with Badon Hill, which was the tradi-
tional scene of the twelfth and last great battle of King Arthur
in 520. The Roman road from Winchester to Bath skirts the
south side of Silbury Hill.
At the time of the Domesday Survey, the church of Avebury
(Avreberie, Abury), with two hides attached, was held in chief
by Rainbold, a priest, and was bestowed by Henry III. on the
abbot and monks of Cirencester, who continued to hold it until
the reign of Henry VIII. The manor of Avebury was granted
in the reign of Henry I. to the Benedictine monks of St George
of Boucherville in Normandy, and a cell from that abbey was
subsequently established here. In consequence of the war
with France in the reign of Edward III., this manor was annexed
by the crown, and was conferred on the newly founded college
of New College, Oxford, together with all the possessions,
spiritual and temporal, of the priory.
AVEIA, an ancient town of the Vestini, on the Via Claudia
Nova, 6 m. S.E. of Aquila, N.E. of the modern village of Fossa.
Some remains of ancient buildings still exist, and the name
Aveia still clings to the place. The identification was first
made by V. M. Giovenazzi, Delia Citta di Aveia ne' Vestini
(Rome, 1773). Paintings in the church of S. Maria ad Cryptas,
of the 1 2th to isth centuries, are important in the history of art.
An inscription of a stationarius of the 3rd century, sent here on
special duty (no doubt for the suppression of brigandage), was
found here in 1902 (A. von Domaszewski, Rom. Mitt., 1902, 330).
AVEIRO, a seaport, episcopal see, and the capital of an
administrative district, formerly included in the province of Beira,
Portugal; on the river Vouga, and the Lisbon-Oporto railway.
Pop. (1900) 9979. Aveiro is built on the southern shore of a
marshy lagoon, containing many small islands, and measuring
about ism. from north to south, with an average breadth of
about i m. The Barra Nova, an artificial canal about 33 ft.
deep, was constructed between 1801 and 1808, and gives access to
the Atlantic ocean. The local industries include the preparation
of sea-salt, the catching and curing of fish, especially sardines
and oysters, and the gathering of aquatic plants (molic.o). There
is also a brisk trade in wine, oil and fruit; while the Aveiro
district contains copper and lead mines, besides much good
pasture-land.
Aveiro is probably the Roman Talabriga. In the i6th century
it was the birthplace of Joao Affonso, one of the first navigators
to visit the fishing-grounds of Newfoundland; and it soon
became famous for its fleet of more than sixty vessels, which
sailed yearly to that country, and returned laden with dried
codfish. During the same century the cathedral was built, and
the city was made a duchy. The title " duke of Aveiro " became
extinct when its last holder, Dom Jos6 Mascarenhas e Lancaster,
was burned alive for high treason, in 1759. The administrative
district of Aveiro coincides with the north-western part of the
province of Beira; pop. (1900) 303,169; area, 1065 sq. m.
AVELLA (anc. Abella), a city of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Avellino, 23 m. N.E. of Naples by rail. Pop. (1901)
4107. It is finely situated in fertile territory and its nuts (nuces
Abellanae) and fruit were renowned in Roman days. About 2 m.
to the north-east lies Avella Vecchia, the ancient Abella, regarded
AVELLINO AVENTINUS
53
by the ancients as a Chalcidian colony. An important Oscan
inscription relates to a treaty with Nola, regarding a joint tempi
of Hercules, attributable to the 2nd century B.C. Under the
early empire it had already become a colony and had perhaps
been one since the time of Sulla. It has remains of the walls 01
the citadel and of an amphitheatre, and lay on the road from
Nola to Abellinum, which was here perhaps joined by a branch
from Suessula.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), 411 seq.
(T. As.)
AVELLINO, a city and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, the
capital of the province of Avellino,ii5o ft. above sea-level, 28 m.
direct and 59 m. by rail E.N.E. of Naples, at the foot of Monte
Vergine. Pop. (1901) 23,760. There are ruins of the castle
constructed in the gth or roth century, in which the antipope
Anacletus II. crowned Count Roger II. king of Sicily and Apulia.
Avellino is the junction of lines to Benevento and Rocchetta S.
Antonio. The name is derived from the ancient Abellinum, the
ruins of which lie 2 m. north-east, close to the village of Atri-
palda, and consist of remains of city walls and an amphitheatre in
opus reticulatum, i.e. of the early imperial period, when Abellinum
appears to have been the chief place of a tribe, to which belonged
also the independent communities of the A bellinates cognomine
Protropi among the Hirpini, and the Abellinates cognominati
Marsi among the Apulian(Nissen, Italische Landeskunde, ii.822).
It lay on the boundary of Campania and the territory of the
Hirpini, at the junction of the roads from Nola (and perhaps
also from Suessula) and Salernum to Beneventum.
TheMonte Vergine (4165 ft.) lies 4m. to the N.W. of Avellino;
upon the summit is a sanctuary of the Virgin, founded in 1119,
which contains a miraculous picture attributed to S. Luke
(the greatest festival is on the 8th of September). The present
church is baroque in style, but contains some works of art of
earlier periods. The important archives have been transported
to Naples. (T. As.)
AVEMPACE [Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya, known as
Ibn Bajja or Ibn Sa'igh, i.e. son of the goldsmith, the name
being corrupted by the Latins into Avempace, Avenpace or
Aben Pace], the earliest and one of the most distinguished of
the Arab philosophers of Spain. Little is known of the details
of his life. He was born probably at Saragossa towards the close
of the 1 1 th century. According to Ibn Khaqan, a contemporary
writer, he became a student of the exact sciences and was also a
musician and a poet. But he was a philosopher as well, and
apparently a sceptic. He is said to have rejected the Koran, to
have denied the return to God, and to have regarded death as the
end of existence. But even in that orthodox age he became
vizier to the amir of Murcia. Afterwards he went to Valencia,
then to Saragossa. After the fall of Saragossa (1119) he went to
Seville, then to Xativa, where he is said to have returned to Islam
to save his life. Finally he retired to the Almoravid court at
Fez, where he was poisoned in 1138. Ibn 'Usaibi ' a gives a list
of twenty-five of his works, but few of these remain. He had
a distinct influence upon Averroes (see ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY).
For his life see M'G. de Slane's trans, of Ibn Khallikan's Bio-
graphical Dictionary (Paris and London, 1842), vol. iii. pp. 130 ff.,
and Ibn 'Usaibi'a's biography translated in P. de Gayangos' edition
of the History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain, by al-Maqqari
(London, 1840), vol. ii., appendix, p. xii. List of extant works in
C. Brpckelmann's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur, vol. i. p. 460.
For his philosophy cf. T. J. de Boer's The History of Philosophy in
Islam (London, 1903), ch. vi. (G. W. T.)
AVENARIUS, RICHARD HEINRICH LUDWIG (1843-1896),
German philosopher, was born in Paris on the igth of November
1 843 . His education, begun in Zurich and Berlin, was completed
at the university of Leipzig, where he graduated in 1876. In
1877 he became professor of philosophy in Zurich, where he
died on the i8th of August 1896. At Leipzig he was one of the
founders of the Akademisch-philosophische Verein, and was the
first editor of the Vierteljahrsschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Philo-
sophie. In 1868 he published an essay on the Pantheism of
Spinoza. His chief works are Philosophic als Denken der Welt
gemiiss dem Princip des kleinsten Kraftmasses (1876) and the
Kritik der reinen Erfahrung (1888-1800). In these works he
made an attempt to co-ordinate thought and action. Like
Mach, he started from the principle of economy of thinking, and
in the Kritik endeavoured to explain pure experience in relation
to knowledge and environment. He discovers that statements
dependent upon environment constitute pure experience. This
philosophy, called Empirio-criticism, is not, however, a realistic
but an idealistic dualism, nor can it be called materialism.
See Wundt, Philos. Stud. xiii. (1807); Carstanjen and Willy
in Zeitsch. f. uriss. Philos. xx. (1896), 361 ff.; xx. 57 ff. ; xxii.
S3 ff.; J. Petzoldt's Einfitkrung in d. Philos. d. reinen Erfahrung
(1900).
AVENGER OF BLOOD, the person, usually the nearest
kinsman of the murdered man, whose duty it was to avenge his
death by killing the murderer. In primitive societies, before
the evolution of settled government, or the uprise of a
systematized criminal law, crimes of violence were regarded as
injuries of a personal character to be punished by the sufferer or
his kinsfolk. This right of vengeance was common to most
countries, and in many was the subject of strict regulations and
limitations. It was prevented from running into excesses by
the law of sanctuary (q.v.) and in many lands the institution of
blood-money, and the wergild offered the wrong-doer a mode of
escaping from his enemies' revenge. The Mosaic law recognized
the right of vengeance, but not the money-compensation. The
Koran, on the contrary, while sanctioning the vengeance, also
permits pecuniary commutation for murder.
AVENGERS, or VENDICATORI, a secret society formed about
1186 in Sicily to avenge popular wrongs. The society was
finally suppressed by King William II., the Norman, who hanged
the grand master and branded the members with hot irons.
AVENTAIL, or AVANTAILLE (O. Fr. esvenlail, presumably from
a Latin word exveniaculum, air-hole), the mouthpiece of an old-
fashioned helmet, movable to admit the air.
AVENTINUS (1477-1534), the name taken by JOHANN TUE-
MAIR, author of the Annales Boiorum, or Annals of Bavaria,
from Aventinum, the Latin name of the town of Abensberg,
where he was born on the 4th of July 1477. Having studied at
Ingolstadt, Vienna, Cracow and Paris, he returned to Ingolstadt
in 1507, and in 1509 was appointed tutor to Louis and Ernest,
the two younger sons of Albert the Wise, the late duke of Bavaria-
Munich. He retained this position until 1517, wrote a Latin
grammar, and other manuals for the use of his pupils, and in
1515 travelled in Italy with Ernest. Encouraged by William IV.,
duke of Bavaria, he began to write the Annales Boiorum, about
1317, and finishing this book in 1521, undertook a German
version of it, entitled Bayersche Chronik, which he completed
some years later. He assisted to found the Sodalitas litteraria
Angilostadensis, under the auspices of which several old manu-
scripts were brought to light. Although Aventinus did not
definitely adopt the reformed faith, he sympathized with the
reformers and their teaching, and showed a strong dislike for
^he monks. On this account he was imprisoned in 1528, but his
r riends soon effected his release. The remainder of his life was
somewhat unsettled, and he died at Regensburg on the gth of
January 1534. The Annales, which are in seven books, deal
with the history of Bavaria in conjunction with general history
from the earliest times to 1460, and the author shows a strong
sympathy for the Empire in its struggle with the Papacy. He
:ook immense pains with his work, and to some degree anticipated
the modern scientific method of writing history. The Annales
were first published in 1 554, but many important passages were
omitted in this edition, as they reflected on the Roman Catholics.
A more complete edition was published at Basel in 1580 by
Nicholas Cisner. Aventinus, who has been called the " Bavarian
ierodotus," wrbte other books of minor importance, and a
complete edition of his works was published at Munich (1881-
^886). More recently a new edition (six vols.) has appeared.
See T. Wiedemann, Johann Turmair gen. Aventinus (Freising,
858); \V. Dittmar, Aventin (Nordlingen, 1862); J. von Dollinger,
Aventin und seine Zeit (Munich, 1877); S. Riezler, Zum Schulze der
neuesten Edition von Aventins Annalen (Munich, 1886); F. X. von
Wegele, Aventin (Bamberg, 1890).
54
AVENTURINE AVERAGE
AVENTURINE, or AVANTURINE, a variety of quartz containing
spangles of mica or scales of iron-oxide, which confer brilliancy
on the stone. It is found chiefly in the Ural Mountains, and
is cut for ornamental purposes at Ekaterinburg. Some of the
Siberian aventurine, like that of the vase given by Nicholas I.
to Sir R. Murchison, in 1843, is a micaceous iron-stained quartz,
of but little beauty. Most aventurine is of reddish brown or
yellow colour, but a green variety, containing scales of fuchsite or
chrome-mica, is also known. This green aventurine, highly valued
by the Chinese, is said to occur in the Bellary district in India.
Aventurine felspar, known also as Sun-stone (q.v.) is found
principally at Tvedestrand in south Norway, and is a variety
of oligoclase enclosing micaceous scales of haematite. Other
kinds of felspar, even orthoclase, may however also show the
aventurine appearance. Both plagioclastic and orthoclastic
aventurine occur at several localities in the United States.
The mineral aventurine takes its name from the well-known
aventurine-glass of Venice. This is a reddish brown glass
with gold-like spangles, more brilliant than most of the
natural stone. The story runs that this kind of glass was
originally made accidentally at Murano by a workman, who
let some copper filings fall into the molten " metal," whence
the product was called awenturino. From the Murano glass
the name passed to the mineral, which displayed a rather
similar appearance. (F. W. R.*)
AVENUE (the past participle feminine of Fr. avenir, to come
to), a way of approach; more particularly, the chief entrance-
road to a country house, with rows of trees on each side; the
trees themselves are said to form the avenue. In modern times
the word has been much used as a name for streets in towns,
whether with or without trees, such as Fifth Avenue in New York,
or Shaftesbury Avenue in London.
AVENZOAR, or ABUMERON [Abu Merwan 'Abdal-Malik ibn
Zuhr], Arabian physician, who flourished at the beginning of the
1 2th century, was born at Seville, where he exercised his pro-
fession with great reputation. His ancestors had been celebrated
as physicians for several generations, and his son was afterwards
held by the Arabians to be even more eminent in his profession
than Avenzoar himself. He was a contemporary of Averroes,
who, according to Leo Africanus, heard his lectures, and learned
physic of him. He belonged, in many respects, to the Dog-
matists or Rational School, rather than to the Empirics. He was
a great admirer of Galen; and in his writings he prdtests
emphatically against quackery and the superstitious remedies
of the astrologers. He shows no inconsiderable knowledge of
anatomy in his remarkable description of inflammation and
abscess of the mediastinum in his own person, and its diagnosis
from common pleuritis as well as from abscess and dropsy of
the pericardium. In cases of obstruction or of palsy of the gullet,
his three modes of treatment are ingenious. He proposes to
support the strength by placing the patient in a tepid bath of
nutritious liquids, that might enter by cutaneous imbibition,
but does not recommend this. He speaks more favourably of the
introduction of food into the stomach by a silver tube; and
he strongly recommends the use of nutritive enemata. From
his writings it would appear that the offices of physician, surgeon
and apothecary were already considered as distinct professions.
He wrote a book entitled The Method of Preparing Medicines
and Diet, which was translated into Hebrew in the year 1280,
and thence into Latin by Paravicius, whose version, first printed
at Venice, 1490, has passed through several editions.
AVERAGE, a term found in two main senses, (i) The first,
which occurs in old law, is from a Law-Latin averagium, and is
connected with the Domesday Book avera, -the " day's work
which the king's tenants gave to the sheriff "; it is supposed
to be a form of the O. Fr. owe (ceuvre), work, affected by aver,
the O. Eng. word for cattle or property, but the etymology is
uncertain. As meaning some form of feudal service rendered
by tenants to their superiors, it survived for a long time in the
Scottish phrase " arriage and carriage," this form of the word
being due to a contraction into " arage." (2) The second word,
which represents the modern usages, is also uncertain in its
derivation, but corresponded with the Fr. avarie, and was early
spelt " averays," recurring also as " avaria," " averia," and
meaning a certain tax on goods, and then more precisely in mari-
time law any charge additional to " freight " (see AFFREIGHT-
MENT), payable by the owner of goods sent by ship. Hence the
modern employment of the term for particular and general
average (see below) in marine insurance. The essential of
equitable distribution, involved in this sense, was transferred
to give the word " average " its more colloquial meaning of an
equalization of amount, or medium among various quantities,
or nearest common rate or figure. (For a discussion of the ety-
mology, see the New English Dictionary, especially the concluding
note with reference to authorities.)
In Shipping. Average, in modern law, is the term used in
maritime commerce to signify damages or expenses resulting
from the accidents of navigation. Average is either general or
particular. General average arises when sacrifices have been
made, or expenditures incurred, for the preservation of the ship,
cargo and freight, from some peril of the sea or from its effects.
It implies a subsequent contribution, from all the parties con-
cerned, rateably to the values of their respective interests, to
make good the loss thus occasioned. Particular average signifies
the damage or partial loss happening to the ship, goods, or
freight by some fortuitous or unavoidable accident. It is borne
by the parties to whose property the 'misfortune happens or
by their insurers. The term average originally meant what is
now distinguished as general average; and the expression
" particular average," although not strictly accurate, came to
be afterwards used for the convenience of distinguishing those
damages or partial losses for which no general contribution could
be claimed.
Although nothing can be more simple than the fundamental
principle of general average, that a loss incurred for the advantage
of all the coadventurers should be made good by them all in
equitable proportion to their stakes in the adventure, the applica-
tion of this principle to the varied and complicated cases which
occur in the course of maritime commerce has given rise to many
diversities of usage at different periods and in different countries.
It is soon discovered that the principle cannot be applied in any
settled or consistent manner unless by the aid of rules of a
technical and sometimes of a seemingly arbitrary character.
The difficulty, which at one time seemed nearly insuperable,
of bringing together the rules in force in the several maritime
countries, has been to a large extent overcome not by legislation
but by framing a set of rules covering the principal points of
difference in such a manner as to satisfy, on the whole, those
who are practically concerned, and to lead them to adopt these
rules in their contracts of affreightment and contracts of insur-
ance (see INSURANCE: Marine). The honour of the achievement
belongs to a small number of men who recognized the History of
need of uniformity. The work began in May 1860 at the York-
a congress held at Glasgow, under the presidency of A "t wer P
Lord Brougham, assisted by Lord Neaves. Further
congresses were held in London (1862), and at York (1864),
when a body of rules known as the " York Rules " was agreed
to. There the matter stood, until it was taken up by the
" Association for the Reform and Codification of the Law of
Nations" at conferences held at the Hague (1875), Bremen
(1876) and Antwerp (1877). Some changes were made in
the " York Rules "; and so altered, the body of rules was
adopted at the last-named conference, and was styled the
" York and Antwerp (or York-Antwerp) Rules." The value
of these rules was quickly perceived, and practical use of them
followed. But they proved to be insufficient, or unsatisfactory,
on some points; and again, in the autumn of 1890, a conference
on the subject was held, this time at Liverpool, by the same
Association, under the able presidency of Dr F. Sieveking,
president of the Hanseatic High Court of Appeal at Hamburg.
Important changes were then made, carrying further certain
departures from English law, already apparent in the earlier
rules, in favour of views prevailing upon the continent of Europe
and in the United States. The new rules were styled the York-
AVERAGE
55
Antwerp Rides 1890. In practice they quickly displaced those
of 1877; and in 1892, at a conference of the same Association
held at Genoa, it was formally declared that theonly international
rules of general average having the sanction and authority of the
association were the York-Antwerp Rules as revised in 1890,
and that the original rules were rescinded. It is this later
body of rules which is now known as the York-Antwerp Rules.
Reference is now to be found in most English contracts of carriage
and contracts of insurance, to these rules, as intended to govern
the adjustment of G.A. between the parties; with the result that
(so far as the rules cover the ground) adjustments do not depend
upon the law of the place of destination, and so do not vary
according to the destination, or the place at which the voyage
may happen to be broken up, as used formerly to be the case.
The rules are as follows:
RULE I. JETTISON OF DECK CARGO
No jettison of deck cargo shall be made good as G.A.
Every structure not built in with the frame of the vessel shall be
considered to be a part of the deck of the vessel.
RULE II. DAMAGE BY JETTISON AND SACRIFICE FOR THE
COMMON SAFETY
Damage done to a ship and cargo, or either of them, by or in
consequence of a sacrifice made for the common safety, and by
water which goes down a ship's hatches opened, or other opening
made for the purpose of making a jettison for the common safety,
shall be made good as G.A.
RULE III. EXTINGUISHING FIRE ON SHIPBOARD
Damage done to a ship and cargo, or either of them, by water or
otherwise, including damage by oeaching or scuttling a burning
ship, in extinguishing a fire on board the ship, shall be made good
as G.A. ; except that no compensation shall be made for damage
to such portions of the ship and bulk cargo, or to such separate
packages of cargo, as have been on fire.
RULE IV. CUTTING AWAY WRECK
Loss or damage caused by cutting away the wreck or remains of
spars, or of other things which have previously been carried away
by sea-peril, shall not be made good as G.A.
RULE V. VOLUNTARY STRANDING
When a ship is intentionally run on shore, and the circumstances
are such that if that course were not adopted she would inevitably
sink, or drive on shore or on rocks, no loss or damage caused to
the ship, cargo and freight, or any of them, by such intentional
running on shore, shall be made good as G.A. But in all other
cases where a ship is intentionally run on shore for the common
safety, the consequent loss or damage shall be allowed as G.A.
RULE VI. CARRYING PRESS OF SAIL DAMAGE TO OR Loss
OF SAILS
Damage to or loss of sails and spars, or either of them, caused by
forcing a ship off the ground or by driving her higher up the ground,
for the common safety, shall be made good as G.A. ; but where a
ship is afloat, no loss or damage caused to the ship, cargo and freight,
or any of them, by carrying a press of sail, shall be made good as
G.A.
RULE VII. DAMAGE TO ENGINES IN REFLOATING A SHIP
Damage caused to machinery and boilers of a ship which is
ashore and in a position of peril, in endeavouring to refloat, shall
be allowed in G.A., when shown to have arisen from an actual
intention to float the ship for the common safety at the risk of
such damage.
RULE VIII. EXPENSES OF LIGHTENING A SHIP WHEN ASHORE,
AND CONSEQUENT DAMAGE
When a ship is ashore, and, in order to float her, cargo, bunker
coals and ship's stores, or any of them, are discharged, the extra
cost of lightening, lighter hire, and reshipping (if incurred), and
the loss or damage sustained thereby, shall be admitted as G.A.
RULE IX. CARGO, SHIP'S MATERIALS, AND STORES BURNT
FOR FUEL
Cargo, ship's materials and stores, or any of them, necessarily
burnt for fuel for the common safety at a time of peril, shall be
admitted as G.A., when and only when an ample supply of fuel
had been provided ; but the estimated quantity of coals that would
have been consumed, calculated at the price current at the ship's
last port of departure at the date of her leaving, shall be charged
to the shipowner and credited to the G.A.
RULE X. EXPENSES AT PORT OF REFUGE, &c.
(a) When a ship shall have entered a port or place of refuge, or
shall have returned to her port or place of loading, in consequence
of accident, sacrifice, or other extraordinary circumstances, which
render that necessary for the common safety, the expenses of
entering such port or place shall be admitted as G.A. ; and when
she shall have sailed thence with her original cargo, or a part of it,
the corresponding expenses of leaving such port or place, consequent
upon such entry or return, shall likewise be admitted as G.A.
(b) The cost of discharging cargo from a ship, whether at a port
or place of loading, call or refuge, shall be admitted as G.A., when
the discharge was necessary for the common safety or to enable
damage to the ship, caused by sacrifice or accident during the voyage,
to be repaired, if the repairs were necessary for the safe prosecution
of the voyage.
(c) Whenever the cost of discharging cargo from a ship is ad-
missible as G.A., the cost of reloading and storing such cargo on
board the said ship, together with all storage charges on such cargo,
shall likewise be so admitted. But when the ship is condemned
or does not proceed on her original voyage, no storage expenses
incurred after the date of the ship s condemnation or of the abandon-
ment of the voyage shall be admitted as G.A.
(d) If a ship under average be in a port or place at which it is
practicable to repair her, so as to enable her to carry on the whole
cargo, and if, in order to save expenses, either she is towed thence
to some other port or place of repair or to her destination, or the
cargo or a portion of it is transhipped by another ship, or otherwise
forwarded, then the extra cost of such towage, transhipment and
forwarding, or any of them (up to the amount of the extra expense
saved), shall be payable by the several parties to the adventure in
proportion to the extraordinary expense saved.
RULE XI. WAGES AND MAINTENANCE OF CREW IN PORT or
REFUGE, &c.
When a ship shall have entered or shall have been detained in any
port or place under the circumstances, or for the purposes of the
repairs, mentioned in Rule X., the wages payable to the master,
officers and crew, together with the cost of maintenance of the same,
during the extra period of detention in such port or place until the
ship shall or should have been made ready to proceed upon her
voyage, shall be admitted as G.A. But when this ship is condemned
or does not proceed on her original voyage, the wages and mainten-
ance of the master, officers and crew, incurred after the date of the
ship's condemnation or of the abandonment of the voyage, shall not
be admitted as G.A.
RULE XII. DAMAGE TO CARGO IN DISCHARGING, &c.
Damage done to or loss of cargo necessarily caused in the act of
discharging, storing, reloading and stowing shall be made good as
G.A. when and only when the cost of those measures respectively
is admitted as G.A.
RULE XIII. DEDUCTIONS FROM COST OF REPAIRS
In adjusting claims for G.A., repairs to be allowed in G.A. shall
be subject to the following deductions in respect of " new for old,"
viz.:
In the case of iron or steel ships, from date of original register to
the date of accident :
Up to f All repairs to be allowed in full, except painting
i year old -I or coating of bottom, from which one-third is to be
(A.) [ deducted.
One-third to be deducted off repairs to and re-
newal of woodwork of hull, masts and spars, furni-
ture, upholstery, crockery, metal and glassware, also
Between sails, rigging, ropes, sheets and hawsers (other than
i and 3 years-*, wire and chain), awnings, covers and painting.
(B.) One-sixth to be deducted off wire rigging, wire
ropes and wire hawsers, chain cables and chains,
donkey engines, steam winches and connexions,
steam cranes and connexions; other repairs in full.
Deductions as above under clause B, except that
one-sixth be deducted off ironwork of masts and
| spars, and machinery (inclusive of boilers and their
I mountings).
f Deductions as above under clause C, except that
Between one-third be deducted off ironwork of masts and
6 and loyears-i spars, repairs to and renewal of all machinery (in-
(D.) elusive of boilers and their mountings), and all
I hawsers, ropes, sheets and rigging.
Between f One-third to be deducted off all repairs and re-
10 & 15 years! newals, except ironwork of hull and cementing and
(.) chain cables, from which one-sixth to be deducted.
I Anchors to be allowed in full.
f One-third to be deducted off all repairs and re-
's newals. Anchors to be allowed in full. One-sixth
I to be deducted off chain cables.
The deductions (except as to provisions and stores,
machinery and boilers) to be regulated by the age of
the ship, and not the age of the particular part of
Generally \ her to which they apply. No painting bottom to be
(G.) ] allowed if the bottom has not been painted within six
months previous to the date of accident. No deduc-
tion to be made in respect of old material which is
repaired without being replaced by new, and pro-
L visions and stores which have not been in use.
Between
3 and 6 years
(C.)
AVERAGE
In the case of wooden or composite ships :
When a ship is under one year old from date of original register,
at the time of accident, no deduction " new for old " shall be
made. After that period a deduction of one-third shall be
made, with the following exceptions :
Anchors shall be allowed in full. Chain cables shall be
subject to a deduction of one-sixth only.
No deduction shall be made in respect of provisions and
stores which had not been in use.
Metal sheathing shall be dealt with, by allowing in full
the cost of a weight equal to the gross weight of metal sheath-
ing stripped off, minus the proceeds of the 6ld metal. Nails,
felt and labour metalling are subject to a deduction of one-
third.
In the case of ships generally:
In the case of all ships, the expense of straightening bent iron-
work, including labour of taking out and replacing it, shall
be allowed in full.
Graving dock dues, including expenses of removals, cart-
ages, use of shears, stages and graving dock materials, shall
be allowed in full.
RULE XIV. TEMPORARY REPAIRS
No deductions " new for old " shall be made from the cost of
temporary repairs of damage allowable as G.A.
RULE XV. Loss OF FREIGHT
Loss of freight arising from damage to or loss of cargo shall be
made good as G.A., either when caused by a G.A. act or when
the damage to or loss of cargo is so made good.
RULE XVI. AMOUNT TO BE MADE GOOD FOR CARGO LOST OR
DAMAGED BY SACRIFICE
The amount to be made good as G.A. for damage or loss of goods
sacrificed shall be the loss which the owner of the goods has sustained
thereby, based on the market values at the date of the arrival of the
vessel or at the termination of the adventure.
RULE XVII. CONTRIBUTORY VALUES
The contribution to a G.A. shall be made upon the actual values
of the property at the termination of the adventure, to which shall
be added the amount made good as G.A. for property sacrificed;
deduction being made from the shipowner's freight and passage-
money at risk, of such port charges and crew's wages as would not
have been incurred had the ship and cargo been totally lost at the
date of the G.A. act or sacrifice, and have not been allowed as G.A. ;
deduction being also made from the value of the property of all
charges incurred in respect thereof subsequently to the G.A. act,
except such charges as are allowed in G.A.
Passengers' luggage and personal effects, not shipped under bill
of lading, shall not contribute to G.A.
RULE XVIII. ADJUSTMENT
Except as provided in the foregoing rules, the adjustment shall
be drawn up in accordance with the law and practice that would
have governed the adjustment had the contract of affreightment
not contained a clause to pay G.A. according to these rules.
The above rules differ in some important respects from
English common law, and from former English practice. They
follow ideas upon the subject of G.A. which have prevailed in
practice in foreign countries (though often in apparent opposition
to the language of the codes), in preference to the more strict
principle of the common law applied by English courts. That
principle requires that, in order to have the character of G.A.
a sacrifice or expenditure must be made for the common safety
of the several interests in the adventure and under the pressure
of a common risk. It is not enough that the sacrifice or expendi-
ture is prudent, or even necessary to enable the common adven-
ture to be completed. G.A., on the English view, only arises
where the safely of the several interests is at stake. " The idea
of a common commercial adventure, as distinguished from the
common safety from the sea," is not recognized. It is not
sufficient " that an expenditure should have been made to
benefit both cargo owner and shipowner." 1
Thus expenses incurred after ship and cargo are in safety, say at
a port of refuge, are not generally, by English law, to be treated
Port of as G.A. ; although the putting into port may have
refuge ex- been f r safety, and therefore a G.A. act. If the put-
pease*. tm g ' nto P rt has been necessitated by a G.A. sacrifice,
as by cutting away the ship's masts, the case is different ;
the port expenses, the expenses of repairing the G.A. damage, and
the incidental expenses of unloading, storing and reloading the
cargo are, in such a case, treated as consequences of the original
sacrifice, and therefore subjects for contribution. But where the
reason for putting in is to avoid some danger, such as a storm or
1 Per Bowen, L.J., in Svensden v. Wallace, 1883, 13 Q.B.D. at p. 84.
hostile cruiser, or to effect repairs necessitated by some accidental
damage to the ship, the G.A. sacrifice is considered to be at an end
when the port has been reached, if the ship and cargo are then in
physical safety. The subsequent expenditure in the port is said not
to flow from that sacrifice, but from the necessity of completing the
voyage, and is incurred in performance of the shipowner's obligation
under his contract. The practice of English average adjusters has
indeed modified this strict view by treating the expense of unloading
as G.A. ; but it may well be doubted whether that practice can be
legally supported. Moreover, expenditure in the port which is in-
curred in protecting the cargo as in warehousing it, is by English
practice treated as a charge to be borne by the cargo for whose
benefit it was incurred.
If we turn now to York-Antwerp Rule X., it will be seen that a
much broader view is adopted. Whatever the reason for putting
into the port of refuge, provided it was necessary for the common
safety, the expenses of going in, and the consequent expenses of
getting out (if she sails again with all or part of her original cargo),
are allowed as G.A., Rule X. (a). Further, the cost of discharging
the cargo to enable damage to the ship to be repaired, whether
caused by sacrifice or by accident during the voyage, is to be allowed
as G.A., " if the repairs were necessary for the safe prosecution of
the voyage," Rule X. (6). And that is to be so even where such re-
pairs are done at a port qf call, as well as where done at a port of
refuge. Again, when the cost of discharging is treated as G.A., so
also are to be the expenses of storing the cargo on shore, and of re-
loading and stowing it on board, after the repairs have been done
(Rule X. (c) ), together with any damage or loss incidental to those
operations (Rule XII.).
Further, by Rule XI. the wages of the master, officers and crew,
and the cost of their maintenance, during the detention of a ship
under the circumstances, or for the purpose of the repairs mentioned
in Rule X., are to be allowed in G.A. It is questionable whether
English law allows the wages and maintenance of the crew at a port
of refuge in any .case. Where the detention is to repair accidental
damage it seems clear that they are not allowed. And in practice
under common law, the allowance is never made; so that Rule XI.
is an important concession to the shipowner. Like the changes
introduced by Rule X., it is a change towards the practice in foreign
countries.
It may be noted that the rules do not afford equal protection to
a shipper in the comparatively infrequent case of his being put to
expense by the delay at a port of refuge. Thus a shipper of cattle
is not entitled to have the extra wages and provisions of his cattle-
men on board, nor the extra fodder consumed by the cattle during
the stay at a repairing port, made as good as G.A. under Rules XI.
and X. (Anglo-Argentine &c. Agency v. Temperley Shipping Co.,
1899, 2 Q.B. 403).
As to the acts which amount to G.A. sacrifices, as distinguished
from expenditures, the York-Antwerp Rules do not much alter
English common law. They do, however, make definite Oeaeral
provisions upon some points on which authority was average
scanty or doubtful. (See Rules I.-IX.) And in Rule I., sacrifices.
as to jettison of deck cargo, a change is made from the
common law rule, for the jettison is not allowed as G.A. even though
the cargo be carried on deck in accordance with an established
custom of the particular trade.
Rule III. deals with damage done in extinguishing fire on board
a ship. Modern decisions have cleared away the old doubts whether
such damage to ship or cargo should, at law, be allowed in G.A.
But recent cases in the United States have raised the question
whether the allowance should be made where the fire occurs in port,
and is extinguished, not by the master, but by a public authority
acting in the interests of the public. The Supreme Court of the
United States decided against the allowance in 1894 in a case of
Ralli v. Troup (157 U.S. 386). The ship had there been scuttled
to put out a fire on board, by the port authority, acting upon their
own judgment, but with the assent of the master. It was held that
the damage suffered by ship and cargo ought not to be made good
by G.A. contributions; for the sacrifice had not been made "by
some one specially charged with the control and safety of that ad-
venture," but was the compulsory act of a public authority. On
the other hand, in the English case of Papayanni v. Grampian S.S.
Co. (I. Com. Ca. 448), Mathew, J., held that the scuttling of a ship
at a port of refuge in Algeria, by orders of the captain of the port,
was a G.A. act. It had been done in the interest of ship and cargo,
and there was no evidence of any other motive.
Rule V. deals with the question whether, and under what con-
ditions, a voluntary stranding of the ship is a G.A. act, in a manner
which will probably be held to express the law in England when
the matter comes up for decision.
Rules VI. and VII. deal with the damage sustained by the ship,
or her appliances, in efforts to force her off the ground when she
has stranded. Such efforts involve an abnormal use which is likely
to cause damage to sails and spars, or to engines and boilers^ and
they are treated as acts of sacrifice. The case of " The Bona," 1895
(P. 125) shows that the rules are in accord with English law upon
the point. The court of appeal held that both the damage sustained
by the engines while worked to get the ship off, and the coal and
stores consumed, were subjects for G.A. contribution at common law.
AVERAGE
57
Rule VIII. allows as G.A. any damage sustained by cargo when
discharged and, say, lightered for the purpose of getting the ship off
a strand. And the corresponding damage in the case of cargo dis-
charged at a port of refuge to enable repairs to be done to the ship
is allowed by Rule XII. But in the latter case the allowance does
not expressly extend to damage sustained while stored on land.
Whether the law would require contribution to a loss of goods, say,
by thieves or by fire, while landed for repairs, is not clear. Where
the landing has been necessitated by a G.A. act, as cutting away
masts, it would seem that the loss ought to be made good, as being
a result of the special risks to which those goods have thereby been
exposed. The risks which they would have run if they had remained
on board throughout are taken into account, as will presently
appear, in estimating how much of the damage is to be made good.
Where cattle were taken into a port of refuge in Brazil, owing to
accidental damage to the ship, with the result that they could not
legally be landed at their destination (Deptford), and had to be
taken to another port (Antwerp), at which they were of much less
value, this loss of value was allowed in G.A. (Anglo- Argentine dfc.
Agency v. Temperley Shipping Co., 1899, 2 Q.B. 403).
The case of a stranded ship and cargo often gives rise to difficulty
as to whether the cost of operations to lighten the ship, and after-
wards to get her floated, should be treated as G.A. expenditure, or
as expenses separately incurred in saving the separate interests.
The true conclusion seems to be that either the whole operation
should be treated as one for the common safety, and the whole
expense be contributed to by all the interests saved, or else the
several parts of the operation should be kept distinct, debiting the
cost of each to the interests thereby saved. Which of these two
views should be adopted in any case seems to depend upon the
motives with which the earlier operations (usually the discharge of
the cargo) were presumably undertaken. It may, however, happen
that this test cannot be applied once for all. Take the case of a
stranded ship carrying a bulky cargo of hemp and grain, but carrying
also some bullion. Suppose this last to be rescued and taken to a
place of safety at small expense in comparison with its value. It
may well be that that operation must be regarded as done in the
interest simply of the bullion itself, but that the subsequent opera-
tions of lightening the ship and floating her can only be properly
regarded as undertaken in the common interest of ship, hemp, grain
and freight. In such a case there will be a G.A. contribution towards
those later operations by those interests. But the bullion will not con-
tribute ; it will merely bear the expense of its own rescue (Royal Mail
S. P. Co. v. English Bank of Rio de Janeiro, 1887, 19 Q.B.D. 362).
The York-Antwerp Rules have not only had the valuable result
of introducing uniformity where there had been great variety, and
corresponding certainty as to the principles which will be acted
upon m adjusting any G.A. loss, but also they have introduced
greater clearness and definiteness on points where there had been
a want of definition. Thus Rule XIII. has laid down a careful and
definite scale to regulate the deductions from the cost of repairs, in
respect of " new for old," in place of the former somewhat uncertain
customary rules which varied according to the place of adjustment;
while at the same time the opportunity has been taken of adapting
the scale of deductions to modern conditions of shipbuilding. And
Rule XVII. lays down a rule as to contributory values in place of the
widely varying rulesof different countries as tothe amounts upon which
ship and freight shall contribute (cf. Gow, Marine Insurance, 305).
It may be of interest to refer briefly to one or two main
principles which govern the adjustment (q.v.) of general average,
i.e. the calculation of the amounts to be made good and paid
by the several interests, which is a complicated matter. The
fundamental idea is that the several interests at risk shall
contribute in proportion to the benefits they have severally
received by the completion of the adventure. Contributions
are not made in proportion to the amounts at stake when the
sacrifice was made, but in proportion to the results when the
adventure has come to an end. An interest which has become
lost after the sacrifice, during the subsequent course of the
voyage, will pay nothing; an interest which has become de-
preciated will pay in proportion to the diminished value. The
liability to contribute is inchoate only when the sacrifice has been
made. It becomes complete when the adventure has come to
an end, either by arrival at the destination, or by having been
broken up at some intermediate point, while the interest in
question still survives. To this there is one exception, in the
case of G.A. expenditure. Where such expenditure has been
incurred by the owner of one interest, generally by the ship-
owner, the repayment to him by the other interests ought not
to be wholly dependent upon the subsequent safety of those
interests at the ultimate destination. If those other interests or
some of them arrive, or are realized, as by being landed at an
intermediate port, the rule (as in the case of G.A. sacrifices)
is that the contributions are to be in proportion to the arrived
or realized values. But if all are lost the burden of the expendi-
ture ought not to remain upon the interest which at first bore it;
and the proper rule seems to be that contributions must be made
by all the interests which were at stake when it was made, in
proportion to their then values.
Again, the object of the law of G.A. is to put one whose
property is sacrificed upon an equal footing with the rest, not
upon a better footing. Thus, if goods to the value of 100 have
been thrown overboard for the general safety, the owner of
those goods must not receive the full 100 in contribution. He
himself must bear a part of it, for those goods formed part of the
adventure for whose safety the jettison was made; and it is
owing to the partial safety of the adventure that any contribution
at all is received by him. He, therefore, is made to contribute
with the other saved interests towards his own loss, in respect
of the amount " made good " to him for that. The full 100
is treated as the amount to be made good, but the owner of the
goods is made to contribute towards that upon the sum of 100
thus saved to him.
The same principle has a further consequence. The amount
to be made good will not necessarily be the value of the goods
or other property in their condition at the time they were
sacrificed; so to calculate it would in effect be to withdraw
those goods from the subsequent risks of the voyage, and thus
to put them in a better position than those which were not
sacrificed. Hence, in estimating the amount to be made good,
the value of the goods or property sacrificed must be estimated
as on arrival, with reference to the condition in which they would
probably have arrived had they remained on board throughout
the voyage.
The liability to pay G.A. contributions falls primarily upon
the owner of the contributing interest, ship, goods or freight.
But in practice the contributions are paid by the insurers of the
several interests. Merchants seldom have to concern themselves
with the subject. And yet in an ordinary policy of insurance
there is no express provision requiring the underwriter to in-
demnify the assured against this liability. The policy commonly
contains clauses which recognize such an obligation, e.g. a
warranty against average " unless general," or an agreement
that G.A. shall be payable " as per foreign statement," or
" according to York-Antwerp Rules "; but it does not directly
state the obligation. It assumes that. The explanation seems
to be that the practice of the underwriter to pay the contribution
has been so uniform, and his liability has been so fully recognized,
that express provisions were needless. But one result has been
that very differing views of the ground of the obligation have
been held. One view has been that it is covered by the sue and
labour clause of an ordinary policy, by which the insurer agrees
to bear his proportion of expenses voluntarily incurred " in and
about the defence, safeguard and recovery " of the insured
subject. But that has been held to be mistaken by the House of
Lords (Ailchisonv. Lohre, 1879,4 A.C. 7SS)- Another view is that
the underwriter impliedly undertakes to repay sums which the
law may require the assured to pay towards averting losses which
would, by the contract, fall upon the underwriter. Expenses
voluntarily incurred by the assured with that object are expressly
made repayable by the sue and labour clause of the policy. It
might well be implied that payments compulsorily required
from the assured by law for contributions to G.A., or as salvage
for services by salvors, will be undertaken or repaid by the
underwriter, the service being for his benefit. But the decision
in Ailchison v. Lohre negatives this ground also. The claim was
against underwriters on a ship which had been so damaged that
the cost of repairs had exceeded her insured value. A claim for
the ship's contribution to certain salvage and G.A. expenses
which had been incurred, over and above the cost of repairs, was
disallowed. The view seems to have been that the insurer is
liable for salvage and G.A. payments as losses of the subject
insured, and therefore included in the sum insured, not as
collateral payments made on his behalf. This bases the claim
against the insurer upon a fiction, for there has been no loss of
AVERNUS AVERROES
the subject insured; in fact, the payment has been for averting
such a loss. And it suggests that the insurer is not liable for
salvage where the policy is free of particular average, which
does not accord with practice.
An important question as to an insurer's liability for G.A.
arose in the case of the Brigella (1893, P. 189), where a shipowner
had incurred expenses which would have been the subject of
G.A. contributions, but that he alone was interested in the
voyage. There were no contributories. He claimed from the
insurers of the ship what would have been the ship's G.A.
contribution had there been other persons to contribute in respect
of freight or cargo. The claim was disallowed on the ground
that there could be no G.A. in such circumstances, and therefore
no basis for a claim against the insurer. The liability of the
insurer was thus made to depend, not upon the character of the
loss, but upon the fact or possibility of contribution. But this
was not followed in Montgomery v. Indemnity Mutual M. I. Co.
(1901, i K.B. 147). There ship, freight and cargo all belonged
to the same person. He had insured the cargo but not the ship.
The cargo underwriters were held liable to pay a contribution
to damage done to the ship by cutting away masts for the
general safety. The loss was in theory spread over all the
interests at risk, and they had undertaken to bear the cargo's
share of such losses. Their liability did not depend upon the
accident of whether the interests all belonged to one person or
not. This agrees with the view taken in the United States.
As to Particular Average, see under INSURANCE: Marine.
AUTHORITIES. Lowndes on General Average (4th ed., London,
1888); Abbott's Merchant Ships and Seamen (l4th ed., London,
1901); Arnould's Marine Insurance (7th ed., London, 1901);
Carver's Carriage by Sea (4th ed., London, 1905). (T. G. C.)
AVERNUS, a lake of Campania, Italy, about i m. N. of
Baiae. It is an old volcanic crater, nearly 2 m. in circumference,
now, as in Roman times, filled with water. Its depth is 213 ft.,
and its height above sea-level 35 ft.; it has no natural outlet.
In ancient times it was surrounded by dense forests, and was the
centre of many legends. It was represented as the entrance
by which both Odysseus and Aeneas descended to the infernal
regions, and as the abode of the Cimmerii. Its Greek name,
"Aopvos, was explained to mean that no bird could fly across it.
Hannibal made a pilgrimage to it in 214 B.C. Agrippa in 37 B.C.
converted it into a naval harbour, the Portus lulius; joining
it to the Lacus Lucrinus by a canal, and connecting the latter
with the sea, he reduced the distance to Cumae by boring a tunnel
over | m. in length, now called Grotta della Pace, through the hill
on the north-west side of Lake Avernus. After Sextus Pompeius
had been subdued, the chief naval harbour was transferred to
Misenum. Nero's works for his proposed canal from Baiae to
the Tiber (A.D. 64) seem to have begun near Lake Avernus;
indeed, according to one theory, the Grotta della Pace would
be a portion of this canal. On the east side of the lake are
remains of baths, including a great octagonal hall known as the
Temple of Apollo, built of brickwork, and belonging to the
ist century. The so-called Grotto of the Cumaean Sibyl, on
the south side, is a rock-cut passage, ventilated by vertical
apertures, possibly a part of the works connected with the naval
harbour. To the south-east of the lake is the Monte Nuovo, a
volcanic hill upheaved in 1538, with a deep extinct crater in the
centre. To the south is the Lacus Lucrinus.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), pp. 168
seq. (T. As.)
AVERROES [Abul-Walld Muhammad ibn- Ahmad Ibn-
Muhammad ibn-Rushd] (1126-1198), Arabian philosopher, was
born at Cordova. His early life was occupied in mastering the
curriculum of theology, jurisprudence, mathematics, medicine
and philosophy, under the approved teachers of the time. The
years of his prime fell during the last period of Mahommedan
rule in Spain under the Almohades (q.v.). It was Ibn-Tufail
(Abubacer), the philosophic vizier of Yusef, who introduced
Averroes to that prince, and Avenzoar (Ibn-Zuhr), the greatest
of Moslem physicians, was his friend. Averroes, who was
versed in the Malekite system of law, was made cadi of Seville
(1169), and in similar appointments the next twenty-five years
of his life were passed. We find him at different periods in
Seville, Cordova and Morocco, probably as physician to Yusef
al-Mansur, who took pleasure in engaging him in discussions on
the theories of philosophy and their bearings on the faith of
Islam. But science and free thought then, as now, in Islam,
depended almost solely on the tastes of the wealthy and the
favour of the monarch. The ignorant fanaticism of the multitude
viewed speculative studies with deep dislike and distrust, and
deemed any one a Zendik (infidel) who did not rest content with
the natural science of the Koran. These smouldering hatreds
burst into open flame about the year 1195. Averroes was
accused of heretical opinions and pursuits, stripped of his
honours, and banished to a place near Cordova, where his
actions were closely watched. At the same time efforts were
made to stamp out all liberal culture in Andalusia, so far as
it went beyond the little medicine, arithmetic and astionomy
required for practical life. But the storm soon passed. Averroes
was recalled to Morocco when the transient passion of the
people had been satisfied, and for a brief period survived his
restoration to honour. He died in the year before his patron,
al-Mansur, with whom (in 1199) the political power of the
Moslems came to an end, as did the culture of liberal science
with Averroes. The philosopher left several sons, some of whom
became jurists like his own grandfather. One of them has left
an essay, expounding his father's theory of the intellect The
personal character of Averroes is known to us only in a general
way, and as we can gather it from his writings. His clear,
exhaustive and dignified style of treatment evidences the
rectitude and nobility of the man. In the histories of his own
nation he has little place; the renown which spread in his
lifetime to the East ceased with his death, and he left no school.
Yet, from a note in a manuscript, we know that he had intelligent
readers in Spain more than a century afterwards. His historic
fame came from the Christian Schoolmen, whom he almost
initiated into the system of Aristotle, and who, but vaguely
discerning the expositors who preceded, admired in his commen-
taries the accumulated results of two centuries of labours.
The literary works of Averroes include treatises on juris-
prudence, grammar, astronomy, medicine and philosophy.
In 1859 a work of Averroes was for the. first time published
in Arabic by the Bavarian Academy, and a German translation
appeared in 1875 by the editor, J. Miiller. It is a treatise en-
titled Philosophy and Theology, and, with the exception of a
German version of the essay on the conjunction of the intellect
with man, is the first translation which enables the non-Semitic
scholar to form any adequate idea of Averroes. The Latin
translations of most of his works are barbarous and obscure.
A great part of his writings, particularly on jurisprudence and
astronomy, as well as essays on special logical subjects, prolego-
mena to philosophy, criticisms on Avicenna and Alfarabius
(FarabI), remain in manuscript in the Escorial and other libraries.
The Latin editions of his medical works include the Colliget (i.e.
Kulliyyat, or summary), a resume of medical science, and a
commentary on Avicenna's poem on medicine; but Averroes,
in medical renown, always stood far below Avicenna. The
Latin editions of his philosophical works comprise the Commen-
taries on Aristotle, the Deslructio Destructionis (against Ghazali),
the De Substantia Orbis and a double treatise De Animae Beati-
tudine. The Commentaries of Averroes fall under three heads :
the larger commentaries, in which a paragraph is quoted at large,
and its clauses expounded one by one; the medium commentaries,
which cite only the first words of a section; and the paraphrases
or analyses, treatises on the subjects of the Aristotelian books.
The larger commentary was an innovation of Averroes; for
Avicenna, copied by Albertus Magnus, gave under the rubrics
furnished by Aristotle works in which, though the materials
were borrowed, the grouping was his own. The great com-
mentaries exist only for the Posterior Analytics, Physics, De
Caelo, De Anima and Metaphysics. On the History of Animals
no commentary at all exists, and Plato's Republic is substituted
for the then inaccessible Politics. The Latin editions of these
works between 1480 and 1580 number about 100. The first
AVERRUNCATOR AVIANUS
59
appeared at Padua (1472) ; about fifty were published at Venice,
the best-known being that by the Juntas (1552-1553) > n ten
volumes folio.
See E. Renan, Averroes et I'Averroisme (2nd ed., Paris, 1861);
S. Munk, Melanges, 418-458; G. Stockl, Phil. d. Mittelalters, ii. 67-
124; Averroes (Voter und Sohri), Drei Abhandl. iiber d. Conjunction
d. separaten Intellects mil d. Menschen, trans, into German from the
Arabic version of Sam. Ben-Tibbon, by Dr J. Hercz (Berlin, 1869);
T. I. de Boer, History of Philosophy in Islam (London, 1003), ch. vi. ;
A. F. M. Mehren in Museon, vii. 613-627; viii. 1-20; Carl Brockel-
mann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898), vol. i.
pp. 461 f . See also ARABIAN PHILOSOPHY. (W. W. ; G. W. T.)
AVERRUNCATOR, a form of long shears used in arboriculture
for " averruncating " or pruning off the higher branches of trees,
&c. The word " averruncate " (from Lat. averruncare, to ward
off, remove mischief) glided into meaning to " weed the ground,"
" prune vines," &c., by a supposed derivation from the Lat.
ab, off, and eruncare, to weed out, and it was spelt " aberuncate "
to suit this ; but the New English Dictionary regards such a
derivation as impossible.
AVERSA, a town and episcopal see of Campania, Italy, in the
province of Caserta, 15! m. S.S.W. by rail from Caserta, and
i2| m. N. by rail from Naples, from which there is also an electric
tramway. Pop. (1901) 23,477. Aversa was the first place in
which the Normans settled, it being granted to them in 1027
for the help which they had given to Duke Sergius of Naples
against Pandulf IV. of Capua. The Benedictine abbey of S.
Lorenzo preserves a portal of the nth century. There is also
a large lunatic asylum, founded by Joachim Murat in 1813.
AVESNES, a town of northern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Nord, on the Helpe, 28 m. S.E. of
Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 5076. The town is the seat
of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber
of commerce and a communal college. Its church of St Nicholas
(i6th century) has a tower 200 ft. high, with a fine chime of bells.
The chief industry of the town is wool-spinning, and there is trade
in wood. Avesnes was founded in the i ith century, and formed
a countship which in the isth century passed to the house of
Burgundy and afterwards to that of Habsburg. In 1477 it was
destroyed by Louis XI. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)
it came into the possession of the French, and was fortified by
Vauban. It was captured by the Prussians in 1815.
AVEYRON, a department of southern France, bounded N.
by Cantal, E. by Lozere and Card, S.W. by Tarn and W. by
Tarn-et- Garonne and Lot. Area, 3386 sq. m. Pop. (1906)
377,299. It corresponds nearly to the old district of Rouergue,
which gave its name to a countship established early in the 9th
century, and united with that of Toulouse towards the end of the
1 1 th century. The earliest known natives of this region were the
Celtic Rutheni, to whom the numerous megalithic monuments
found in the department are attributed. Aveyron lies on the
southern border of the central plateau of France. Its chief
rivers are the Lot in the north, the Aveyron in the centre and the
Tarn in the south, all tributaries of the Garonne. They flow
from east to west, following the general slope of the department,
and divide it into four zones. In the north-east, between the
Lot and its tributary the Truyere, lies the lonely pastoral plateau
of the Viadene, dominated by the volcanic mountains of Aubrac,
which form the north-eastern limit of the department and include
its highest summit (4760 ft.). Entraygues, at the confluence
of the Lot and the Truyere, is one of the many picturesque
towns of the department. Between the Lot and the Aveyron
is a belt of causses or monotonous limestone table-lands, broken
here and there by profound and beautiful gorges a type of
scenery characteristic of Aveyron. This zone is also watered
by the Dourdou du Nord, a tributary of the Lot. The salient
feature of the region between the Tarn and the Aveyron is the
plateau of the Segala, bordered on the east by the heights of
Levezou and Palanges and traversed from east to west by the
deep valley of the Viaur, a tributary of the Aveyron. The country
south of the Tarn is occupied in great part by the huge plateau of
Larzac, which lies between the Causse Noir and the Causse St
Affrique, the three forming the south-western termination of the
C6vennes. On the Causse Noir is found the fantastic chaos of
rocks and precipices known as Montpellier-le-Vieux, resembling
the ruins of a huge city. The climate of Aveyron varies from
extreme rigour in the mountains to mildness in the sheltered
valleys ; the south wind is sometimes of great violence. Wheat,
rye and oats are the chief cereals cultivated, the soil of Aveyron
being naturally poor. Other crops are potatoes, colza, hemp
and flax. The mainstay of the agriculture of the department
is the raising of live-stock, especially of cattle of the Aubrac
breed, for which Laguiole is an important market. The wines
of Entraygues, St Georges, Bouillac and Najac have some
reputation; in the S6gala chestnuts form an important element
in the food of the peasants, and the walnut, cider-appl?, mulberry
(for the silk- worm industry), and plum are among the fruit
trees grown. The production of Roquefort cheeses is prominent
among the agricultural industries. They are made from the milk
of the large flocks of the plateau of Larzac, and the choicest
are ripened in the even temperature of the caves in the cliff
which overhangs Roquefort. The minerals found in the depart-
ment include the coal of the basins of Aubin and Rodez as well
as iron, zinc and lead. Quarries of various kinds of stone are also
worked. The chief industrial centres are Decazeville, which has
metallurgical works, and Millau, where leather-dressing and the
manufacture of gloves have attained considerable importance.
Wool-weaving and the manufacture of woollen goods, machinery,
chemicals and bricks are among the other industries.
There are five arrondissements, of which the chief towns are
Rodez, capital of the department, Espalion, Millau, St Affrique
and Villefranche, with 43 cantons and 304 communes. Rodez
is the seat of a bishopric, the diocese of which comprises the de-
partment. Aveyron belongs to the i6th military region, and to
the acadimie or educational circumscription of Toulouse. Its
court of appeal is at Montpellier. The department is traversed
by the lines both of the Orleans and Southern railways. The
more important towns are Rodez, Millau, St Affrique, Ville-
franche-de-Rouergue and Decazeville. The following are also
of interest : Sauveterre, founded in 1281, a striking example of
the bastide (q.v.) of that period; Conques, which has a remark-
able abbey-church of the nth century like St Sernin of Toulouse
in plan and possessing a rich treasury of reliquaries, &c. ; Espalion,
where amongst other old buildings there are the remains of a
feudal stronghold and a church of the Romanesque period; Najac,
which has the ruins of a magnificent chateau of the I3th century;
and Sylvanes, with a church of the izth century, once attached
to a Cistercian abbey.
AVEZZANO, a town of the Abruzzi, Italy, in the province of
Aquila, 67 m. E. of Rome by rail and 38 m. S. of Aquila by road.
Pop. (1901) 9442. It has a fine and well-preserved castle, built in
1490 by Gentile Virginio Orsini; it is square, with round towers
at the angles. Avezzano is on the main line from Rome to
Castellammare Adriatico; a branch railway diverges to Rocca-
secca, on the line from Naples to Rome. The Lago Fucino lies
1 5 m. to the east.
AVIANUS, a Latin writer of fables, placed by some critics in
the age of the Antonines, by others as late as the 6th century A.D.
He appears to have lived at Rome and to have been a heathen.
The 42 fables which bear his name are dedicated to a certain
Theodosius, whose learning is spoken of in most flattering terms.
He may possibly be Macrobius Theodosius, the author of the
Saturnalia ; some think he may be the emperor of that name.
Nearly all the fables are to be found in Babrius, who was probably
Avianus's source of inspiration, but as Babrius wrote in Greek,
and Avianus speaks of having made an elegiac version from a
rough Latin copy, probably a prose paraphrase, he was not
indebted to the original. The language and metre are on the
whole correct, in spite of deviations from classical usage,
chiefly in the management of the pentameter. The fables soon
became popular as a school-book. Promythia and epimythia
(introductions and morals) and paraphrases, and imitations were
frequent, such as the Novus Avianus of Alexander Neckam
(i2th century).
EDITIONS. Cannegieter (1731), Lachmann (1845), Frohner (1862),
6o
AVIARY
Bahrens in Poetae Latini Minores, Ellis (1887). See Miiller, De
Phaedri et Aviani Fabulis (1875) ; Unrein, De Aviani Aetate (1885) ;
Hervieux, Les Fabulistes latins (1894); The Fables of Avian trans-
lated into Englyshe . . . by William Caxton at Westmynstre (1483).
AVIARY (from Lat. avis, a bird), called by older writers
" volary," a structure in which birds are kept in a state of
captivity. While the habit of keeping birds in cages dates from
a very remote period, it is probable that structures worthy of
being termed aviaries were first used by the ancient Romans,
chiefly for the process of fattening birds for the table. In
Varro's time, 116-127 B.C., aviaries or " ornithones " (from Gr.
Spva Spvidas, bird) were common. These consisted of two
kinds, those constructed for pleasure, in which were kept nightin-
gales and other song-birds, and those used entirely for keeping
and fattening birds for market or for the tables of their owners.
Varro himself had an aviary for song-birds exclusively, while
Lucullus combined the two classes, keeping birds both for
pleasure and as delicacies for his table. The keeping of birds
for pleasure, however, was very rarely indulged in, while it was
a common practice with poulterers and others to have large
ornithones either in the city or at Sabinum for the fattening of
thrushes and other birds for food.
Ornithones consisted merely of four high walls and a roof, and
were lighted with a few very small windows, as the birds were
considered to pine less if they could not see their free companions
outside. Water was introduced by means of pipes, and conducted
in narrow channels, and the birds were fed chiefly upon dried figs,
carefully peeled, and chewed into a pulp by persons hired to
perform this operation.
Turtle-doves were fattened in large numbers for the market
on wheat and millet, the latter being moistened with sweet wine;
but thrushes were chiefly in request, and Varro mentions one
ornithon from which no less than five thousand of these birds
were sold for the table in one season.
The habit of keeping birds in aviaries, as we understand the
term, for the sake of the pleasure they afford their owners and
for studying their habits is, however, of comparatively recent
date. The beginning of geographical research in the isth
century brought with it the desire to keep and study at home
some of the beautiful forms of bird-life which the explorers
came across, and hence it became the custom to erect aviaries
for the reception of these creatures. In the i6th century, in the
early part of which the canary-bird was introduced into Europe,
aviaries were not uncommon features of the gardens of the
wealthy, and Bacon refers to them in his essay on gardening
(1597). Elizabeth of Bohemia, the daughter of James I. of
England, when a child, had an outdoor aviary at Coombe Abbey
near Coventry, the back and roof of which were formed of
natural rock, in which were kept birds of many species from
many countries.
Within recent years the method of keeping birds in large
aviaries has received considerable attention, and it is fully
recognized that by so doing, not only do we derive great pleasure,
but our knowledge of avian habits and mode of living can
thereby be very considerably increased.
An aviary may be of almost any size, from the large cage
known, on account of its shape, as the " Crystal Palace aviary,"
to a structure as large as a church; and the term is sometimes
applied to the room of a house with the windows covered with
wire-netting; but as a rule it is used for outdoor structures,
composed principally of wire-netting supported on a framework
of either iron or woodwork. For quite hardy birds little more
than this is necessary, providing that protection is given in the
form of growing trees and shrubs, rock- work' or rough wooden
shelters. For many of the delicate species, however, which hail
from tropical countries, warmth must be provided during the
inclement months of the year, and thus a part at least of an
aviary designed for these birds must be in the form of a
wooden or brick house which can be shut up in cold weather
and artificially warmed.
The ideal aviary, probably, is that which is constructed in
two parts, viz. a well-built house for the winter, opening out
into a large wire enclosure for use in the summer months. The
doors between the two portions may be of wood or glazed. The
part intended as the winter home of the birds is best built in
brick or stone, as these materials are practically vermin-proof
and the temperature in such a building is less variable than that
in a thin wooden structure. The floor should be of concrete or
brick, and the house should be fitted with an efficient heating
apparatus from which the heat is distributed by means of hot-
water pipes. Any arrangement which would permit the escape
into the aviary of smoke or noxious fumes is to be strongly
condemned. Such a house must be well lighted, preferably by
means of skylights; but it is a mistake to have the whole roof
glazed, at least half of it should be of wood, covered with slates
or tiles. Perches consisting of branches of trees with the bark
adhering should be fixed up, and, if small birds are to be kept,
bundles of bushy twigs should be securely fixed up in corners
under the roofs.
The outer part, which will principally be used during the
summer, though it will do most birds good to be let out for a
few hours on mild winter days also, should be as large as possible,
and constructed entirely of wire-netting stretched on a frame-
work of wood or iron. If the latter material is selected, stout
gas-piping is both stronger and more easily fitted together than
solid iron rods.
If the framework be of wood, this should be creosoted, prefer-
ably under pressure, or painted with three coats of good lead
paint, the latter preservative also being used if iron is the
material selected.
The wire-netting used may be of almost any sized mesh,
according to the sized birds to be kept, but as a general rule the
smallest mesh, such as half or five-eighths of an inch, should be
used, as it is practically vermin-proof, and allows of birds of
any size being kept. Wire-netting for aviaries should be of the
best quality, and well galvanized. The new interlinked type
is less durable than the old mesh type, though perhaps it looks
somewhat neater when fixed.
Provision must be made for the entire exclusion of such
vermin as rats, stoats and weasels, which, if they were to
gain access, would commit great havoc
amongst the birds. The simplest and
most effectual method of doing this is
by sinking the wire-netting some 2 ft.
into the ground all round the aviary,
and then turning it outwards for a
distance of another foot as shown in the
annexed cut (fig. i).
The outer part of the aviary should
be turfed and planted with evergreen
and deciduous shrubs, and be provided
with some means of supplying an abun-
and
Surface
ground
FIG. i.
dance of pure water for the birds to drink and bathe in;
a gravel path should not be forgotten.
Perhaps the most useful type of aviary is that built as above
described, but with several compartments, and a passage at
the back by which any compartment may be visited without
the necessity of passing through and disturbing the birds in other
compartments. Fig. 2 represents a ground plan of an aviary
of this type divided into four compartments, each with an inner
house 10 ft. square, and an outer flight of double that area.
The outer flights are intended to be turfed, and planted with
shrubs, and the gravel path has a glazed roof above it by which
it is kept dry in wet weather. Shallow water-basins are shown,
which should be supplied by means of an underground pipe and
a cock which can be turned on from outside the aviary; and they
must be connected with a properly laid drain by means of a
waste plug and an overflow pipe.
An aviary should always be built with a southern or south-
eastern aspect, and, where possible, should be sheltered from the
north, north-east and north-west by a belt of fir-trees, high wall
or bank, to protect the birds from the biting winds from these
quarters.
When parrots of any kind are to be kept it is useless to try
AVIARY
61
to grow any kind of vegetation except grass, and even this will
be demolished unless the aviary is of considerable size. The
larger parrots will, in fact, bite to pieces not only living trees
but also the woodwork of their abode, and the only really suitable
materials for the construction of an aviary for these birds are
brick or stone and iron; and the wire-netting used must be of
the stoutest gauge or it will be torn to pieces by their strong
bills.
The feeding of birds in aviaries is, obviously, a matter of the
utmost importance, and, in order that they may have what
is most suitable, the aviculturist should find out as much as
possible of the wild life of the species he wishes to keep, or if little
or nothing is known about their mode of living, as is often the case
with rare forms, of nearly related species whose habits and food
are probably much the same, and he should endeavour to provide
food as nearly as possible resembling that which would be ob-
tained by the birds when wild. It is often, however, impossible to
supply precisely the same food as would be obtained by the birds
had they their liberty, but a substitute which suits them well can
FIG. 2. Plan of 4-compartment Aviary for Foreign Birds,
generally be obtained. The majority of the parrot tribe subsist
principally upon various nuts, seed and fruit, while some of the
smaller parrakeets or paroquets appear to feed almost exclusively
upon the seeds of various grasses. Almost all of these are com-
paratively easy to treat in captivity, the larger ones being fed
on maize, sunflower-seed, hemp, dari, oats, canary-seed, nuts
and various ripe fruits, while the grass-parrakeets thrive re-
markably well on little besides canary-seed and green food, the
most suitable of which is grass in flower, chickweed, groundsel
and various seed-bearing weeds. But there is another large group
of parrots, the Loriidae or brush-tongued parrots, some of the
most interesting and brightly coloured of the tribe, which, when
wild, subsist principally upon the pollen and nectar of flowers,
notably the various species of Eucalyptus, the filamented tongues
of these parrots being peculiarly adapted for obtaining this.
In captivity these birds have been found to live well upon
sweetened milk-sop, which is made by pouring boiling milk upon
crumbled bread or biscuit. They frequently learn to eat seed
like other parrots, but, if fed exclusively upon this, are apt,
especially if deprived of abundance of exercise, to suffer from
fits which are usually fatal. Fruit is also readily eaten by the
lories and lorikeets, and should always be supplied.
The foreign doves and pigeons form a numerous and beautiful
group which are mostly hardy and easily kept and bred in
captivity. They are for the most part grain-feeders and require
only small corn and seeds, though a certain group, known as
the fruit-pigeons, are fed in captivity upon soft fruits, berries,
boiled potato and soaked grain.
The various finches and finch-like birds form an exceedingly
large group and comprise perhaps the most popular of foreign
aviary birds. The weaver-birds of Africa are mostly quite
hardy and very easily kept, their food consisting, for the most
part, of canary-seed. The males of these birds are, as a rule,
gorgeously attired in brilliant colours, some having long flowing
tail-feathers during the nuptial season, while in the winter their
showy dress is replaced by one of sparrow-like sombreness.
The grass-finches of Australasia contain some of the most
brilliantly coloured birds, the beautiful grass-finch (Poiphila
mirabilis) being resplendent in crimson, green, mauve, blue and
yellow. Most of these birds build their nests, and many rear
their young, successfully in outdoor aviaries, their food consisting
of canary and millet seeds, while flowering grasses provide
them with an endless source of pleasure and wholesome food.
The same treatment suits the African waxbills, many of which
are extremely beautiful, the crimson-eared waxbill or " cordon-
bleu " being one of the most lovely and frequently imported.
These little birds are somewhat delicate, especially when first
imported, and during the winter months require artificial
warmth.
There is a very large group of insectivorous and fruit-eating
birds very suitable for aviculture, but their mode of living
necessarily involves considerable care on the part of the avicul-
turist in the preparation of their food. Many birds are partially
insectivorous, feeding upon insects when these are plentiful,
and upon various seeds at other times. Numbers of species again
which, when adult, feed almost entirely upon grain, feed their
young, especially during the early stages of their existence,
upon insects; while others are exclusively insect-eaters at all
times of their lives. All of these points must be considered by
those who would succeed in keeping and breeding birds in
aviaries.
It would be almost an impossibility to keep the purely insecti-
vorous species, were it not for the fact that they can be gradually
accustomed to feed on what is known as " insectivorous " or
" insectile " food, a composition of which the principal in-
gredients generally consist of dried ants' cocoons, dried flies,
dried powdered meat, preserved yolk of egg, 1 and crumb of
bread or biscuit. This is moistened with water or mixed with
mashed boiled potato, and forms a diet upon which most of the
insectivorous birds thrive. The various ingredients, or the
food ready made, can be obtained at almost any bird-fancier's
shop. Although it is a good staple diet for these birds, the
addition of mealworms, caterpillars, grubs, spiders and so forth
is often a necessity, especially for purely insectivorous species.
The fruit-eating species, such as the tanagers and sugar-birds
of the New World, require ripe fruit in abundance in addition
to a staple diet such as that above described, while for such
birds as feed largely upon earth-worms, shredded raw meat is
added with advantage.
Many of the waders make very interesting aviary birds, and
require a diet similar to that above recommended, with the addi-
tion of chopped raw meat, mealworms and any insects that can
be obtained.
Birds of prey naturally require a meat diet, which is best given
in the form of small, freshly killed mammals and birds, the fur
or feathers of which should not be removed, as they aid digestion.
The majority of wild birds, from whatever part of the world
they may come, will breed successfully in suitable aviaries
providing proper nesting sites are available. Large bundles
of brushwood, fixed up in sheltered spots, will afford accom-
modation for many kinds of birds, while some will readily build
in evergreen shrubs if these are grown in their enclosure. Small
boxes and baskets, securely fastened to the wall or roof of the
1 It has recently been stated by certain medical men that egg-
food in any form is an undesirable diet for birds, owing to its being
peculiarly adapted to the multiplication of the bacillus of septic-
aemia, a disease which is responsible for the death of many newly
imported birds. It is a significant fact, however, that insectivorous
species, which are those principally fed upon this substance, are not
nearly so susceptible to this disease as seed-eating birds which rarely
taste egg; and in spite of what has been written concerning its
harmfulness, the large majority of aviculturists use it, in both the
tresh and the preserved state, with no apparent ill effects, but
rather the reverse.
62
AVICENNA
sheltered part of an aviary, will be appropriated by such species
as naturally build in holes and crevices. Parrots, when wild,
lay their eggs in hollow trees, and occasionally in holes in rocks,
making no nest, 1 but merely scraping out a slight hollow in which
to deposit the eggs. For these birds hollow logs, with small
entrance holes near the top, or boxes, varying in size according
to the size of the parrots which they are intended for, should
be supplied. In providing nesting accommodation for his
birds the aviculturist must endeavour to imitate their natural
surroundings and supply sites as nearly as possible similar to
those which the birds, to whatever order they may belong,
would naturally select.
Aviculture is a delightful pastime, but it is also far more than
this; it is of considerable scientific importance, for it admits of
the living birds being studied in a way that would be quite
impossible otherwise. There are hundreds of species of birds,
from all parts of the world, the habits of which are almost un-
known, but which may be kept without difficulty in suitable
aviaries. Many of these birds cannot be studied satisfactorily
in a wild state by reason of their shy nature and retiring habits,
not to mention their rarity and the impossibility, so far as most
people are concerned, of visiting their native haunts. In suitable
large aviaries, however, their nesting habits, courtship, display,
incubation, moult and so forth can be accurately observed and
recorded. The keeping of birds in aviaries is therefore a practice
worthy of every encouragement, so long as the aviaries are of
sufficient size and suitable design to allow of the birds exhibiting
their natural habits; for in a large aviary they will reveal the
secrets of their nature as they never would do in a cage or small
aviary. CD- S. -S.)
AVICENNA [Abu 'All al-Husain ibn 'Abdallah ibn Slna]
(980-1037), Arabian philosopher, was born at Afshena in the
district of Bokhara. His mother was a native of the place; his
father, a Persian from Balkh, filled the post of tax-collector in
the neighbouring town of Harmaitin, under Nuh II. ibn Mansur,
the Samanid amir of Bokhara. On the birth of Avicenna's
younger brother the family migrated to Bokhara, then one of
the chief cities of the Moslem world, and famous for a culture
which was older than its conquest by the Saracens. Avicenna
was put in charge of a tutor, and his precocity soon made him
the marvel of his neighbours, as a boy of ten who knew by rote
the Koran and much Arabic poetry besides. From a green-
grocer he learnt arithmetic; and higher branches were begun
under one of those wandering scholars who gained a livelihood
by cures for the sick and lessons for the young. Under him
Avicenna read the Isagoge of Porphyry and the first propositions
of Euclid. But the pupil soon found his teacher to be but a
charlatan, and betook himself, aided by commentaries, to master
logic, geometry and the Almagest. Before he was sixteen he
not merely knew medical theory, but by gratuitous attendance
on the sick had, according to his own account, discovered new
methods of treatment. For the next year and a half he worked
at the higher philosophy, in which he encountered greater
obstacles. In such moments of baffled inquiry he would leave
his books, perform the requisite ablutions, then hie to the
mosque, and continue in prayer till light broke on his difficulties.
Deep into the night he would continue his studies, stimulating
his senses by occasional cups of wine, and even in his dreams
problems would pursue him and work out their solution. Forty
times, it is said, he read through the Metaphysics of Aristotle,
till the words were imprinted on his memory; but their meaning
was hopelessly obscure, until one day they found illumination
from the little commentary by FarabI (q.v.), which he bought
at a bookstall for the small sum of three dirhems. So great was
his joy at the discovery, thus made by help of a work from which
he had expected only mystery, that he hastened to return thanks
to God, and bestowed an alms upon the poor. Thus, by the
end of his seventeenth year his apprenticeship of study was
1 There is, however, one true nest-building parrot, the grey-
breasted parrakeet (Myopsittacus monachus), which constructs a
huge nest of twigs. The true love-birds (Agapornis) may also be
said to build nests, for they line their nest-hole with strips of pliant
bark.
concluded, and he went forth to find a market for his accomplish-
ments.
His first appointment was that of physician to the amir,
who owed him his recovery from a dangerous illness (997).
Avicenna's chief reward for this service was access to the royal
library of the Samanids (q.v.), well-known patrons of scholarship
and scholars. When the library was destroyed by fire not long
after, the enemies of Avicenna accused him of burning it, in
order for ever to conceal the sources of his knowledge. Mean-
while, he assisted his father in his financial labours, but still
found time to write some of his earliest works.
At the age of twenty-two Avicenna lost his father. The
Samanid dynasty came to its end in December 1004. Avicenna
seems to have declined the offers of Mahmud the Ghaznevid,
and proceeded westwards to Urjensh in the modern Khiva,
where the vizier, regarded as a friend of scholars, gave him a
small monthly stipend. But the pay was small, and Avicenna
wandered from place to place through the districts of Nishapur
and Merv to the borders of Khorasan, seeking an opening for
his talents. Shams al-Ma'ali Qabus, the generous ruler of
Dailam, himself a poet and a scholar, with whom he had
expected to find an asylum, was about that date (1012) starved
to death by his own revolted soldiery. Avicenna himself was
at this season stricken down by a severe illness. Finally, at
Jorjan, near the Caspian, he met with a friend, who bought near
his own house a dwelling in which Avicenna lectured on logic
and astronomy. ' For this patron several of his treatises were
written; and the commencement of his Canon of Medicine also
dates from his stay in Hyrcania.
He subsequently settled at Rai, in the vicinity of the modern
Teheran, where a son of the last amir, Majd Addaula, was
nominal ruler, under the regency of his mother. At Rai about
thirty of his shorter works are said to have been composed. But
the constant feuds which raged between the regent and her
second son, Shams Addaula, compelled the scholar to quit the
place, and after a brief sojourn at Kazwin, he passed southwards
to Hamadan, where that prince had established himself. At
first he entered into the service of a high-born lady; but ere
long the amir, hearing of his arrival, called him in as medical
attendant, and sent him back with presents to his dwelling.
Avicenna was even raised to the office of vizier; but the turbulent
soldiery, composed of Kurds and Turks, mutinied against their
nominal sovereign, and demanded that the new vizier should be
put to death. Shams Addaula consented that he should be
banished from the country. Avicenna, however, remained
hidden for forty days in a sheik's house, till a fresh attack of
illness induced the amir to restore him to his post. Even during
this perturbed time he prosecuted his studies and teaching.
Every evening extracts from his great works, the Canon and the
Sanatio, were dictated and explained to his pupils; among
whom, when the lesson was over, he spent the rest of the night
in festive enjoyment with a band of singers and players. On the
death of the amir Avicenna ceased to be vizier, and hid himself
in the house of an apothecary, where, with intense assiduity, he
continued the composition of his works. Meanwhile, he had
written to Abu Ya'far, the prefect of Isfahan, offering his
services; but the new amir of Hamadan getting to hear of this
correspondence, and discovering the place of Avicenna's con-
cealment, incarcerated him in a fortress. War meanwhile con-
tinued between the rulers of Isfahan and Hamadan; in 1024
the former captured Hamadan and its towns, and expelled the
Turkish mercenaries. When the storm had passed Avicenna
returned with the amir to Hamadan, and carried on his literary
labours; but at length, accompanied by his brother, a favourite
pupil, and two slaves, made his escape out of the city in the
dress of a Sufite ascetic. After a perilous journey they reached
Isfahan, and received an honourable welcome from the prince.
The remaining ten or twelve years of Avicenna's life were spent
in the service of Abu Ya'far 'Ala Addaula, whom he accompanied
as physician and general literary and scientific adviser, even in
his numerous campaigns. During these years he began to study
literary matters and philology, instigated, it is asserted, by
AVIENUS AVIGNON
criticisms on his style. But amid his restless study Avicenna
never forgot his love of enjoyment. Unusual bodily vigour
enabled him to combine severe devotion to work with facile
indulgence in sensual pleasures. His passion for wine and women
was almost as well known as his learning. Versatile, light-
hearted, boastful and pleasure-loving, he contrasts with the
nobler and more intellectual character of Averroes. His bouts
of pleasure gradually weakened his constitution; a severe colic,
which seized him on the march of the army against Hamadan,
was checked by remedies so violent that Avicenna could scarcely
stand. On a similar occasion the disease returned; with
difficulty he reached Hamadan, where, finding the disease
gaining ground, he refused to keep up the regimen imposed,
and resigned himself to his fate. On his deathbed remorse
seized him; he bestowed his goods on the poor, restored unjust
gains, freed his slaves, and every third day till his death listened
to the reading of the Koran. He died in June 1037, in his fifty-
eighth year, and was buried in Hamadan.
It was mainly accident which determined that from the I2th
to the i yth century Avicenna should be the guide of medical
study in European universities, and eclipse the names of Rhazes,
Ali ibn al-Abbas and Avenzoar. His work is not essentially
different from that of his predecessors Rhazes and Ali; all
present the doctrine of Galen, and through Galen the doctrine
of Hippocrates, modified by the system of Aristotle. But the
Cdhon of Avicenna is distinguished from the Al-Hawi (Continens)
or Summary of Rhazes by its greater method, due perhaps to
the logical studies of the former, and entitling him to his surname
of Prince of the Physicians. The work has been variously
appreciated in subsequent ages, some regarding it as a treasury
of wisdom, and others, like Avenzoar, holding it useful only as
waste paper. In modern times it has been more criticized than
read. The vice of the book is excessive classification of bodily
faculties, and over-subtlety in the discrimination of diseases.
It includes five books; of which the first and second treat of
physiology, pathology and hygiene, the third and fourth deal
with the methods of treating disease, and the fifth describes
the composition and preparation of remedies. This last part
contains some contingent of personal observation. He is, like
all his countrymen, ample in the enumeration of symptoms, and
is said to be inferior to Ali in practical medicine and surgery.
He introduced into medical theory the four causes of the Peri-
patetic system. Of natural history and botany he pretends
to no special knowledge. Up to the year 1650, or thereabouts,
the Canon was still used as a'_text-book in the universities of
Louvain and Montpellier.
About ico treatises are ascribed to Avicenna. Some of them
are tracts of a few pages, others are works extending through
several volumes. The best- known amongst them, and that to
which Avicenna owed his European reputation, is the Canon
of Medicine; an Arabic edition of it appeared at Rome in 1593,
and a Hebrew version at Naples in 1491. Of the Latin version
there were about thirty editions, founded on the original trans-
lation by Gerard of Cremona. The 1 5th century has the honour
of composing the great commentary on the text of the Canon,
grouping around it all that theory had imagined, and all that
practice had observed. Other medical works translated into
Latin are the Medicamenta Cordialia, Canticum de Medicina,
Tractatus de Syrupo Acetoso. Scarcely any member of the
Arabian circle of the sciences, including theology, philology,
mathematics, astronomy, physics and music, was left un-
touched by the treatises of Avicenna, many of which probably
varied little, except in being commissioned by a different patron
and having a different form or extent. He wrote at least one
treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attri-
buted to him. His book on animals was translated by Michael
Scot. His Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, De Caelo, are treatises
giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine. The Logic
and Metaphysics have been printed more than once, the latter,
e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495 and 1 546. Some of his shorter essays
on medicine, logic, &c., take a poetical form (the poem on logic
was published by Schmoelders in 1836). Two encyclopaedic
treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The
larger, Al-ShiJd? (Sanatio), exists nearly complete in manuscript
in the Bodleian library and elsewhere; part of it on the De
Anima appeared at Pa via (1490) as the Liber Sextus Naturalium,
and the long account of Avicenna's philosophy given by Shah-
rastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a
reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is
known as the An-najal (Liber alio). The Latin editions of part
of these works have been modified by the corrections which the
monkish editors confess that they applied. There is also a
Philosophia Orientalis, mentioned by Roger Bacon, and now
lost, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.
For Avicenna's life, see Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary,
translated by McG. de Slane (1842); F. Wustenfeld's Geschichte der
arabischen Aerzte 'und Naturforscher (Gottingen, 1840). For his
medicine, see Sprengel, Histoire de la, Medecine; and for his philo-
sophy, see Shahrastani, German trans, vol. ii. 213-332; K. Prantl,
Geschichte der Logik, ii. 318-361; A. Stockl, Phil. d. Mittelallers, ii.
2 3-58; S. Munk, Melanges, 352-366; B. Haneberg in the Abhand-
luneen der philos.-philolog. Class, der bayerischen Academie (1867);
and Carra de Vaux, Avicenne (Paris, 1900). For list of extant works
see C. Brockelmaim's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar,
1898), vol. i. pp. 452-458. (W. W.; G. W. T.)
AVIENUS, RUFIUS FESTUS, a Roman aristocrat and poet,
of Vulsinii in Etruria, who flourished during the second half of
the 4th century A.D. He was probably proconsul of Africa (366)
arid of Achaia (372). Avienus was a pagan and a staunch
supporter of the old religion. He translated the ^aivofieva of
Aratus and paraphrased the Htpiiiyriffu of Dionysius under
the title of Descriptio Orbis Terrarum, both in hexameters.
He also compiled a description, in iambic trimeters, of the coasts
of the Mediterranean, Caspian and Black Seas in several books,
of which only a fragment of the first is extant. He also epitomized
Livy and Virgil's Aeneid in the same metre, but these works are
lost. Some minor poems are found under his name in anthologies,
e.g. a humorous request to one Favianus for some pomegranates
for medicinal purposes.
AVIGLIANA, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
Turin, 14 m. W. by rail from the town of Turin. Pop. (1901)
4629. It has medieval buildings of some interest, but is mainly
remarkable for its large dynamite factory, employing over
500 workman.
AVIGNON, a city of south-eastern France, capital of the
department of Vaucluse, 143 m. S. of Lyons on the railway
between that city and Marseilles. Pop. (1906) 35,356. Avignon,
which lies on the left bank of the Rhone, a few miles above its
confluence with the Durance, occupies a large oval-shaped area
not fully populated, and covered in great part by parks and
gardens. A suspension bridge leads over the river to Villeneuve-
les-Avignon (<?..), and a little higher up, a picturesque ruined
bridge of the I2th century, the Pont Saint-Ben6zet, projects into
the stream. Only four of the eighteen piles are left; on one of
them stands the chapel of Saint-Ben6zet, a small Romanesque
building. Avignon is still encircled by the ramparts built by
the popes in the i4th century, which offer one of the finest
examples of medieval fortification in existence. The walls,
which are of great strength, are surmounted by machicolated
battlements, flanked at intervals by thirty-nine massive towers
and pierced by several gateways, three of which date from the
I4th century. The whole is surrounded by a line of pleasant
boulevards. The life of the town is almost confined to the
Place de l'H6tel de Ville and the Cours de la R6publique, which
leads out of it and extends to the ramparts. Elsewhere the streets
are narrow, quiet, and, for the most part, badly paved. At
the northern extremity of the town a precipitous rock, the Rocher
des Doms, rises from the river's edge and forms a plateau stretch-
ing southwards nearly to the Place de l'H6tel de Ville. Its
summit is occupied by a public garden and, to the south of this,
by the cathedral of Notre-Dame des Doms and the Palace of
the Popes. The cathedral is a Romanesque building, mainly
of the 1 2th century, the most prominent feature of which is the
gilded statue of the Virgin which surmounts the western tower.
Among the many works of art in the interior, the most beautiful
is the mausoleum of Pope John XXII., a masterpiece of Gothic
AVILA
carving of the -I4th century. The cathedral is almost dwarfed
by the Palace of the Popes, a sombre assemblage of buildings,
which rises at its side and covers a space of more than ij acres.
Begun in 1316 by John XXII., it was continued by succeeding
popes until 1370, and is in the Gothic style; in its construction
everything has been sacrificed to strength, and though the effect
is imposing, the place has the aspect rather of a fortress than
of a palace. It was for long used as a barracks and prison,
to the exigencies of which the fine apartments were ruthlessly
adapted, but it is now municipal property. Among the minor
churches of the town are St Pierre, which has a graceful facade
and richly carved doors, St Didier and St Agricol, all three of
Gothic architecture. The most notable of the civil buildings are
the h&tel de ville, a modern building with a belfry of the i4th
century, and the old H6tel des Monnaies, the papal mint which
was built in 1610 and is now used as a music-school. The Calvet
Museum, so named after F. Calvet, physician, who in 1810 left
his collections to the town, is rich in inscriptions, bronzes, glass
and other antiquities, and in sculptures and paintings. The
library has over 140,000 volumes. The town has a statue of
a Persian, Jean Althen, who in 1765 introduced the culture of
the madder plant, which long formed the staple and is still an
important branch of local trade. In 1873 John Stuart Mill died at
Avignon, and is buried in the cemetery. For the connexion of
Petrarch with the town see PETRARCH.
Avignon is subject to violent winds, of which the most dis-
astrous is the mistral. The popular proverb is, however, some-
what exaggerated, Avenio venlosa, sine venlo venenosa, cum vento
faslidiosa (windy Avignon, pest-ridden when there is no wind,
wind-pestered when there is).
Avignon is the seat of an archbishop and has tribunals of first
instance and of commerce, a council of trade-arbitrators, a lycee,
and training college, a chamber of commerce and a branch of
the Bank of France. It is in the midst of' a fertile district, in
the products of which it has a large trade, and has flour-mills,
distilleries, oil-works and leather-works, manufactures soap,
chemicals and liquorice, and is well known for its sarsanet and
other fabrics.
Avignon (Avenio) was an important town of the Gallic tribe
of the Cavares, and under the Romans one of the leading cities
of Gallia Narbonensis. Severely harassed during the barbarian
invasions and by the Saracens, it was, in later times, attached
successively to the kingdoms of Burgundy and of Aries and to
the domains of the counts of Provence and of Toulouse and of
Forcalquier. At the end of the 1 2 th century it became a republic,
but in 1226 was taken and dismantled by Louis VIII. as punish-
ment for its support of the Albigenses, and in 1251 was forced
to submit to the counts of Toulouse and Provence. In 1309
the city was chosen by Clement V. as his residence, and from
that time till 1377 was the papal seat. In 1348 the city was sold
by Joanna, countess of Provence, to Clement VI. After Gregory
XI. had migrated to Rome, two antipopes, Clement VII. and
Benedict XIII., resided at Avignon, from which the latter was
expelled in 1408. The town remained in the possession of the
popes, who governed it by means of legates, till its annexation
by the National Assembly in 1791, though during this interval
several kings of France made efforts to unite it with their
dominions. In 1791 conflicts between the adherents of the
Papacy and the Republicans led to much bloodshed. In 1815
Marshal Brune was assassinated in the town by the adherents
of the royalist party. The bishopric, founded in the 3rd century,
became an archbishopric in 1475.
See Fantoni Castrucci, Istoria delta citta d'Avignone e del Contado
Venesino (Venice, 1678); J. B. Jpudou, Histoire des souverains
pontifes qui ont siege a Avignon (Avignon, 1855); A. Canron, Guide
de Vetranger dans la ville d' Avignon et ses environs (Avignon, 1858) ;
J. F. Andre, Histoire de la Papaute a Avignon (Avignon, 1887).
AVILA, GIL GONZALEZ DE (c. 1577-1658), Spanish bio-
grapher and antiquary, was born and died at Avila. He was
made historiographer of Castile in 1612, and of the Indies in
1641. Of his numerous works, the most valuable are his Teatro
de las Grandezas des Madrid (Madrid, 1623, sqq.), and his Teatro
Eclesiastico, descriptive of the metropolitan churches and
cathedrals of Castile, with lives of the prelates (Madrid, 1645-
1653, 4 vols. 4to).
AVILA, a province of central Spain, one of the modern divisions
of the kingdom of Old Castile; bounded on the N. by Valladolid,
E. by Segovia and Madrid, S. by Toledo and Caceres, and W.
by Salamanca. Pop. (1900) 200,457; area, 2570 sq. m. Avila
is naturally divided into two sections, differing completely in
soil, climate, productions and social economy. The northern
portion is generally level; the soil is of indifferent quality,
strong and marly in a few places, but rocky in all the valleys of
the Sierra de Avila; and the climate alternates from severe
cold in winter to extreme heat in summer. The population
of this part is mainly agricultural. The southern division is one
mass of rugged granitic sierras, interspersed, however, with
sheltered and well-watered valleys, abounding with rich vegeta-
tion. The winter here, especially in the elevated region of the
Paramera and the waste lands of Avila, is long and severe, but
the climate is not unhealthy. In this region stock-breeding
is an important industry. The principal mountain chains are
the Guadarrama, separating this province from Madrid; the
Paramera and Sierra de Avila, west of the Guadarrama; and
the vast wall of the Sierra de Credos along the southern frontier,
where its outstanding peaks rise to 6000 or even 8000 ft. The
ridges which ramify from the Paramera are covered with valuable
forests of beeches, oaks and firs, presenting a striking contrast
to the bare peaks of the Sierra de Credos. The principal rivers
are the Alberche and Tietar, belonging to the basin of the Tagus,
and the Tormes, Trabancos and Adaja, belonging to that of the
Douro. The mountains contain silver, copper, iron, lead and
coal, but their mineral wealth has been exaggerated, and at the
beginning of the 2oth century mining had practically been
abandoned. Quarries of fine marble and jasper exist in the
district of Arenas. The province declined in wealth and popula-
tion during the i8th and I9th centuries, a result due less to the
want of activity on the part of the inhabitants than to the
oppressive manorial and feudal rights and the strict laws of
entail and mortmain, which acted as barriers to progress.
Towards the close of this period many improvements were
introduced, although the want of irrigation is still keenly felt.
Wide tracts of waste land were planted with pinewoods by the
ducal house of Medina Sidonia. The main roads are fairly good;
and Avila, the capital, is connected by rail with Salamanca.
Valladolid and Madrid; but in many parts of the province
the means of communication are defective. Except Avila there
are no important towns. The principal production is the wool
of the merino sheep, which at one time yielded an immense
revenue. Game is plentiful, and the rivers abound in fish,
specially trout. Olives, chestnuts and grapes are grown, and
silk-worms are kept. There is little trade, and the manufactures
are few, consisting chiefly of copper utensils, lime, soap, cloth,
paper and combs. The state of elementary education is com-
paratively good, rather more than two-thirds of the population
being able to read and write, and the ratio of crime is proportion-
ately low.
AVILA (anc. Abula or Avela), the capital of the province
described above; on the right bank of the river Adaja, 54 m.
W. by N. of Madrid, by the Madrid-Valladolid railway. Pop.
(IQOO) 11,885. The city is built on the flat summit of a rocky
hill, which rises abruptly in the midst of a veritable wilderness;
a brown, arid, treeless table-land, strewn with immense grey
boulders, and shut in by lofty mountains. The ancient walls
of Avila, constructed of brown granite, and surmounted by a
breastwork, with eighty-six towers and nine gateways, are still
in excellent repair; but a large part of the city lies beyond
their circuit. Avila is the seat of a bishop, and contains several
ecclesiastical buildings of high interest. The Gothic cathedral,
said by tradition to date from 1107, but probably of i3th or
I4th century workmanship, has the appearance of a fortress,
with embattled walls and two solid towers. It contains many
interesting sculptures and paintings, besides one especially fine
silver pyx, the work of Juan de Arphe, dating from 1571. The
churches of San Vicente, San Pedro, Santo Tomas and San
AVILA Y ZUNIGA AVLONA
Segundo are, in their main features, Romanesque of the isth
century, although parts of the beautiful San Vicente, and of
San Pedro, may be as old as the I2th century. Especially
noteworthy is the marble monument in Santo Tomas, carved by
the 15th-century Florentine sculptor Domenico Fancelli, over
the tomb of Prince John (d. 1497), the only son of Ferdinand
and Isabella. The convent and church of Santa Teresa mark
the supposed birthplace of the saint whose name they bear
(c. 1515-1582). Avila also possesses an old Moorish castle
(alcazar) used as barracks, a foundling hospital, infirmary,
military academy, and training schools for teachers of both
sexes. From 1482 to 1807 it was also the seat of a university.
It has a considerable trade in agricultural products, leather,
pottery, hats, linen and cotton goods.
For the local history see V. Picatoste, Tradiciones de Avila
(Madrid, 1888) ; and L. Ariz, Historia de las yandezas de . . . Avila
(Alcala de Henares, 1607).
AVILA Y ZUNIGA, LUIS DE (c.i4OO - c. 1560), Spanish
historian, was born at Placentia. He was probably of low
origin, but married a wealthy heiress of the family of Zuniga,
whose name he added to his own. He rose rapidly in the favour
of the emperor Charles V., served as ambassador to Rome, and
was made grand commander of the order of the Knights of
Alcantara. He accompanied the emperor to Africa in 1541,
and having served during the war of the league of Schmalkalden,
wrote a history of this war entitled Commentaries de la guerra
de Alemana, hecha de Carlos V enelano de 1546 y 1547. This
was first printed in 1548, and becoming very popular was
translated into French, Dutch, German, Italian and Latin.
As may be expected from the author's intimacy with Charles,
the book is very partial to the emperor, and its misrepresentations
have been severely criticized.
AVILES, PEDRO MENENDEZ DE (1519-1574), Spanish
seaman, founder of St Augustine, Florida, was born at Aviles
in Asturias on the isth of February 1519. His family were
gentry, and he was one of nineteen brothers and sisters. At
the age of fourteen he ran away to sea, and was engaged till he
was thirty in a life of adventure as a corsair. In 1549 during
peace between France and Spain he was commissioned by the
emperor Charles V. to clear the north coast of Spain and the
Canaries of French pirates. In 1554 he was appointed captain-
general of the " flota " or convoy which carried the trade between
Spain and America. The appointment was made by the emperor
over the head and against the will of the Casa de Contra tacion,
or governing board of the American trade. In this year, and
before he sailed to America, Aviles accompanied the prince of
Spain, afterwards Philip II., to England, where he had gone to
marry Queen Mary. As commander of the flota he displayed a
diligence, and achieved a degree of success in bringing back
treasure, which earned him the hearty approval of the emperor.
But his devotion to the imperial service, and his steady refusal
to receive bribes as the reward for permitting breaches of the
regulations, made him unpopular with the merchants, while
his high-handed ways offended the Casa de Contratacion. Re-
appointed commander in 1557, and knowing the hostility of the
Casa, he applied for service elsewhere. The war with France in
which Spain and England were allies was then in progress, and
until the close of 1559 ample occupation was found for Aviles in
bringing money and recruits from Spain to Flanders. When peace
was restored he commanded the fleet which brought Philip II.
back from the Low Countries to Spain. In 1560 he was again
appointed to command the flota, and he made a most successful
voyage to America and back, in that and the following year.
His relations with the Casa de Contratacion were, however,
as strained as ever. On his return from another voyage in
1563 he was arrested by order of the Casa, and was detained in
prison for twenty months. What the charges brought against
him were is not known. Aviles in a letter to the king avows
his innocence, and he was finally discharged by the judges,
but not until they had received two peremptory orders from the
king to come to a decision.
On his release he prepared to sail to the Bermudas to seek for
m. 3
his son Juan, who had been shipwrecked in the previous year.
At that time the French Huguenots were engaged in endeavour-
ing to plant a colony in Florida. As the country had been
explored by the Spaniards they claimed it as theirs, and its
position on the track of the home-coming trade of Mexico rendered
its possession by any other power highly dangerous. Philip II.
endeavoured to avert the peril by making an " asienlo" or contract
with Aviles, by which he advanced 15,000 ducats to the seaman,
and constituted him proprietor of any colony which he could
establish in Florida, on condition that the money was repaid.
The contract was signed on the 2oth of March 1565. Avil6s
sailed on the 28th of July of the same year with one vessel of 600
tons, ten sloops and 1 500 men. On the 28th of August he entered
and named the Bay of St Augustine, and began a fort there.
He took the French post of Fort Caroline on the 2oth of
September 1565, and in October exterminated a body of French-
men who, under the Huguenot Jean Ribault, had arrived on the
coast of Florida to relieve their colony. The Spanish commander,
after slaying nearly all his prisoners, hung their bodies on trees,
with the inscription, ," Not as Frenchmen but as Lutherans." A
French sea-captain named Dominique de Gourgues revenged the
massacre by capturing in 1568 Fort San Mateo (as the Spanish
had renamed Fort Caroline), and hanging the garrison, with
the inscription, " Not as Spaniards but as murderers." Till
1567 Aviles remained in Florida, busy with his colony. In
that year he returned to Spain. He made one more voyage to
Florida, and died on the 1 7th of September 1 5 74. Aviles married
Maria de Solis, when very young, and left three daughters. His
letters prove him to have been a pious and high-minded officer,
who never imagined that he could be supposed by any honest
man to have gone too far in massacring the Frenchmen, whom he
regarded as pirates and heretics.
See The Spanish Settlements within the Present Limits of the
United States, Florida, 1562-1574, by Woodbury Lowery (New
York, 1905). (D. H.)
AVILES, or SAN NICOLAS DE AVILES (the Roman Flavionavia) ,
a seaport of northern Spain, in the province of Oviedo; on the
Bay of Aviles, a winding inlet of the Bay of Biscay, 24 m. by rail
W. of Gij6n. Pop. (1900) 12,763. Aviles is a picturesque and
old-fashioned town, containing several ancient palaces and
Gothic churches. The bay, which is crossed by a fine bridge at
its narrow landward extremity, is the headquarters of a fishing
fleet, and a port of call for many coasting vessels. Coal from the
Oviedo mines is exported coastwise, and in 1904 the shipments
from Aviles for the first time exceeded those from Gij6n, reaching
a total of more than 290,000 tons. Glass and coarse linen and
woollen stuffs are manufactured; and there are valuable stone
quarries in the neighbourhood.
AVIZANDUM (from Late Lat. avizare, to consider), a Scots
law term; the judge " makes avizandum with a cause," i.e. takes
time to consider his judgment.
AVLONA (anc. Aulon; Ital. Valona; Alb. Vliona), a town
and seaport of Albania, Turkey, in the vilayet of lannina. Pop.
( 1 900) about 6000. Avlona occupies an eminence near the Gulf
of Avlona, an inlet of the Adriatic, almost surrounded by moun-
tains. The port is the best on the Albanian coast, and the nearest
to Italy. It is protected by the island of Saseno, the ancient
Saso, and by Cape Glossa, the northernmost headland of the
Acroceraunian mountains. It is regularly visited by steamers
from Trieste, Fiume, Brindisi, and other Austro-Hungarian and
Italian ports, as well as by many small Greek and Turkish
coasters. The cable and telegraph line from Otranto, in Italy,
to Constantinople, has an important station here. The town is
about ij m. from the sea, and has rather a pleasant appearance
with its minarets and its palace, surrounded with gardens and
olive-groves. Valonia, a material largely used by tanners, is
the pericarp of an acorn obtained in the neighbouring oak-
woods, and derives its name from Valona. The surrounding
district is mainly agricultural and pastoral, producing oats, maize,
cotton, olive oil, cattle, sheep, skins, hides and butter. All
these commodities are exported in considerable quantities, besides
bitumen, which is obtained from a mine worked by a French
66
AVOCA AVON
company. The imports are woollen and cotton piece-goods,
metals and petroleum.
Avlona played an important part in the wars between the
Normans and the Byzantines, during the 1 1 th and 1 2th centuries.
In 1464 it was taken by the Ottomans; and after being in
Venetian possession in 1690, was restored to them in 1691. In
1851 it suffered severely from an earthquake.
AVOCA, or OVOCA, VALE OF, a mountain glen of county
Wicklow, Ireland, in the south-eastern part of the county,
formed by the junction of the small rivers Avonmore and Avon-
beg, which, rising in the central highlands of the county, form
with their united waters the Ovoca river, flowing south and
south-east to the Irish Sea at Arklow. The vale would doubtless
rank only as one among the many beautiful glens of the district,
but that it has obtained a lasting celebrity through one of the
Irish Melodies of the poet Thomas Moore, in which its praises
are sung. It is through this song that the form " Avoca " is
most familiar, although the name is locally spelt " Ovoca."
The glen is narrow and densely wooded. Its beauty is somewhat
marred by the presence of lead and copper mines, and by the
main line of the Dublin & South Eastern railway, on which
Ovoca station, midway in the vale, is 42! m. south of Dublin.
Of the two " meetings of the waters " (the upper, of the Avon-
more and Avonbeg, and the lower, of the Aughrim with the
Ovoca) the upper, near the fine seat of Castle Howard, is
that which inspired the poet. At Avondale, above the upper
" meeting," by the Avonmore, Charles Stewart Parnell was
born.
AVOCADO PEAR, the fruit of the tree Persea gratissima,
which grows in the West Indies and elsewhere; the flesh is of a
soft and buttery consistency and highly esteemed. The name
avocado, the Spanish for " advocate," is a sound-substitute for
the Aztec ahuacatl; it is also corrupted into " alliga tor-pear."
Avocato, avigato, abbogada are variants.
AVOGADRO, AMEDEO, CONTE Di QUAREGNA (1776-1856),
Italian physicist, was born at Turin on the gth of June 1776, and
died there on the 9th of July 1856. He was for many years
professor of higher physics in Turin University. He published
many physical memoirs on electricity, the dilatation of liquids
by heat, specific heats, capillary attraction, atomic volumes &c.
as well as a treatise in 4 volumes on Fisica di corpi ponderabili
(1837-1841). But he is chiefly remembered for his " Essai d'une
maniere de determiner les masses relatives des molecules eldmen-
taires des corps, et les proportions selon lesquelles elles entrent
dans les combinaisons " (Journ. de Phys., 1811), in which he
enunciated the hypothesis known by his name (Avogadro's
rule) that under the same conditions of temperature and pressure
equal volumes of all gases contain the same number of smallest
particles or molecules, whether those particles consist of single
atoms or are composed of two or more atoms of the same or
different kinds.
AVOIDANCE (from " avoid," properly to make empty or void,
in current usage, to keep away from, to shun; the word " avoid "
is adaipted from the O. Fr. esvuidier or evider, to empty out,
wide, modern vide, empty, connected with Lat. vacuus), the
action of making empty, void or null, hence, in law, invalidation,
annulment (see CONFESSION AND AVOIDANCE) ; also the becoming
void or vacant, hence in ecclesiastical law a term signifying the
vacancy of a benefice that it is void of an incumbent. In general
use, the word means the action of keeping away from anything,
' shunning or avoiding.
AVOIRDUPOIS, or AVERDUPOIS (from the French avoir de pois,
goods of weight), the name of a system of weights used in Great
Britain and America for all commodities except the precious
metals, gems and medicines. The foundation of the system is
the grain. A cubic inch of water weighs 252-458 grains. Of this
grain 7000 now (see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES) make a pound
avoirdupois. This pound is divided into 16 oz., and these
ounces into 16 drachms.
Avoirdupois Weight.
Drachm, i6=ounce i6=pound, i4=stonc, 2 = quarter, 4=bundred, 2o=ton.
27'3 Pains 437's 7000 98,000 196,000 grs. 1128) 2240 ft.
AVON, the name of several rivers in England and elsewhere.
The word is Celtic, appearing in Welsh (very frequently) as afon,
in Manx as aon, and in Gaelic as abhuinn (pronounced avain),
and is radically identical with the Sanskrit ap, water, and the Lat.
aqua and amnis. The root appears more or less disguised in a
vast number of river names all over the Celtic area in Europe.
Thus, besides such forms as Evan, Aune, Anne, Ive, Auney, Inney,
&c., in the British Islands, A/, Awn, Avon, Aune appear in
Brittany and elsewhere in France, Avenza and Avens in Italy,
Avia in Portugal, and Avono in Spain; while the terminal
syllable of a large proportion of the Latinized names of French
rivers, such as the Sequana, the Matrona and the Garumna,
seems originally to have been the same word. The names
Punjab, Doafi, &c., show the root in a clearer shape.
In England the following are the principal rivers of this name.
1. The EAST or HAMPSHIRE AVON rises in Wiltshire south of
Marlborough, and watering the Vale of Pewsey collects feeders
from the high downs between Marlborough and Devizes. Breach-
ing the high ground of Salisbury Plain, it passes Amesbury, and
following a very sinuous course reaches Salisbury. Here it
receives on the east bank the waters of the Bourne, and on the
west those of the Wylye. With a more direct course, and in a
widening, fertile valley it continues past Downton, Fording-
bridge and Ringwood, skirting the New Forest on the west, to
Christchurch, where it receives the Stour from the west, and 2\ m.
lower enters the English Channel through the broad but narrow-
mouthed Christchurch harbour. The length, excluding lesser
sinuosities, is about 60 m., Salisbury being 35 m. above the
mouth. The total fall is rather over 500 ft., and that from
Salisbury about 140 ft. The river is of no commercial value for
navigation. It abounds in loach, and there are valuable salmon
fisheries. The drainage area is 1132 sq. m.
2. The LOWER or BRISTOL AVON rises on the eastern slope of
the Cotteswold Hills in Gloucestershire, collecting the waters of
several streams south of Tetbury and east of Malmesbury. It
flows east and south in a wide curve, through a broad upper
valley past Chippenham and Melksham, after which it turns
abruptly west to Bradford-on-Avon, receives the waters of the
Frome from the south, and enters the beautiful narrow valley in
which lie Bath and Bristol. Below Bristol the valley becomes
the Clifton Gorge, famous for its wooded cliffs and for the
Clifton (q.v.) suspension bridge which bestrides it. The cliffs
and woods have been so far disfigured by quarries that public
feeling was aroused, and in 1904 an " Avon Gorge Committee "
was appointed to report to the corporation of Bristol on the
possibility of preserving the beauties of the locality. The Avon
finally enters the estuary of the Severn at Avonmouth, though it
can hardly be reckoned as a tributary of that river. From Bristol
downward the river is one of the most important commercial
waterways in England, as giving access to that great port.
The Kennet and Avon Canal, between Reading and the Avon,
follows the river closely from Bradford down to Bath, where it
enters it by a descent of seven locks. The length of the river,
excluding minor sinuosities, is about 75 m., the distance from
Bradford to Bath being 10 m., thence to Bristol 1 2 m., and thence
to the mouth 8 m. The total fall is between 500 and 600 ft., but
it is only 235 ft. from Malmesbury. The drainage area is 891
sq. miles.
3. The UPPER AVON, also called the Warwickshire, and some-
times the " Shakespeare " Avon from its associations with the
poet's town of Stratford on its banks, is an eastern tributary
of the Severn. It rises near Naseby in Northamptonshire, and,
with a course of about 100 m. joins the Severn immediately
below Tewkesbury in Gloucestershire. Its early course is south-
westerly to Rugby, thereafter it runs west and south-west to
Warwick, receiving the Learn on the east. Its general direction
thereafter remains south-westerly, and it flows past Stratford-
on-Avon, receives the Stour on the south and the Arrow on the
north and thence past Evesham and Pershore to Tewkesbury.
The valley is always broad, and especially from Warwick down-
ward, through the Vale of Evesham, the scenery is very beautiful,
the rich valley being flanked by the bold Cotteswold Hills on
AVONIAN AXE
the south and by the wooded slopes of the Arden district of
Warwickshire on the north. The view of Warwick Castle, rising
from the wooded banks of the river, is unsurpassed, and the
positions of Stratford and Evesham are admirable. The river
is locked, and carries a small trade up to Evesham, 28 m. from
Tewkesbury; the locks from Evesham upward to Stratford
(17 m.) are decayed, but the weirs, and mill-dams still higher,
afford many navigable reaches to pleasure boats. The total
fall of the river is about 500 ft.; from Rugby about 230 ft., and
from Warwick 120 ft. The river abounds in coarse fish.
Among other occurrences of the name of Avon in Great Britain
there may be noted in England, a stream flowing south-east
from Dartmoor in Devonshire to the English Channel; in
South Wales, the stream which has its mouth at Aberavon in
Glamorganshire; in Scotland, tributaries of the Clyde, the Spey
and the Forth.
AVONIAN, in geology, the name proposed by Dr A. Vaughan
in 1905 (Q.J.G.S. vol. Ixi. p. 264) for the rocks of Lower
Carboniferous age in the Avon gorge at Bristol. The Avonian
stage appears to embrace precisely the same rocks and fossil-
zones as the earlier designation " Dinantien " (see CARBONI-
FEROUS SYSTEM) ; but its substages, being founded upon different
local conditions and a different interpretation of the zonal fossils,
do not correspond exactly with those of the French and Belgian
geologists.
Substages. ZONES. Substages.
( Kidwellian J Dibunophyllum]
[Semmula Wiseen
\Syringothyris J Dinantien
C.evedonian|Za^u j-Tournaisien
The upper Avonian (Kidwellian) is well developed about
Kidwelly in Carmarthenshire. The lower substage (Clevedonian)
is well displayed near Clevedon in Somerset.
See A. Vaughan, " The Carboniferous Limestone Series (Avonian)
of the Avon Gorge," Proc. Bristol Naturalists' Soc., 41 h series,
vol. i. pt. 2, 1906, pp. 74-168 (many plates) ; and T. F. Sibley, " On
the Carboniferous Limestone (Avonian) of the Mendip area (Somer-
set)," Q.J.G.S. vol. Ixii., 1906, pp. 324-380 (plates). (J. A. H.)
AVONMORE, BARRY YELVERTON, IST VISCOUNT (1736-
1805), Irish judge, was born in 1736. He was the eldest son of
Frank Yelverton of Blackwater, Co. Cork. Educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, he was for some years an assistant master under
Andrew Buck in the Hibernian Academy. In 1761 he married
Miss Mary Nugent, a lady of some fortune, and was then enabled
to read for the bar. He was called in 1 764, his success was rapid,
and he took silk eight years afterwards. He sat in the Irish
parliament as member successively for the boroughs of Donegal
and Carrickfergus, becoming attorney -general in 1782, but was
elevated to the bench as chief baron of the exchequer in 1783.
He was created (Irish) Baron Avonmore in 1795, and in 1800
(Irish) viscount. Among his colleagues at the Irish bar Yelver-
ton was a popular and charming companion. Of insignificant
appearance, he owed his early successes to his remarkable
eloquence, which made a great impression on his contemporaries ;
as a judge, he was inclined to take the view of the advocate
rather than that of the impartial lawyer. He gave his support
to Grattan and the Whigs during the greater part of his parlia-
mentary career, but in his latter days became identified with the
court party and voted for the union, for which his viscounty was
a reward. He had three sons and one daughter, and the title
has descended in the family.
AVRANCHES, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Manche, 87 m. S. of Cher-
bourg on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 7186. It stands on
a wooded hill, its botanical gardens commanding a fine view
westward of the bay and rock of St Michel. At the foot of the
hill flows the river S6e, which at high tide is navigable from the
sea. The town is surrounded by avenues, which occupy the site
of the ancient ramparts, remains of which are to be seen on the
north side. Avranches was from 511 to 1790 a bishop's see, held
at the end of the 1 7th century by the scholar Daniel Huet ; and its
cathedral, destroyed as insecure in the time of the first French
Revolution, was the finest in Normandy. Its site is now occupied
by an open square, one stone remaining to mark the spot where
Henry II. of England received absolution for the murder of
Thomas Becket. The churches of Notre-Dame des Champs and
St Saturnin are modern buildings in the Gothic style. The
ancient episcopal palace is now used as a court of justice; a
public library is kept in the h6tel de ville. In the public gardens
there is a statue of General Jean Marie Valhubert, killed at
Austerlitz. Avranches is seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal
of first instance and a communal college. Leather-dressing is
the chief industry; steam-sawing, brewing and dyeing are also
carried on, and horticulture flourishes in the environs. Trade
is in cider, cattle, butter, flowers and fruit, and there are salmon
and other fisheries.
Avranches, an important military station of the Romans,
was in the middle ages chief place of a county of the duchy of
Normandy. It sustained several sieges, the most noteworthy
of which, in 1591, was the result of its opposition to Henry IV.
In 1639 Avranches was the focus of the peasant revolt against
the salt-tax, known as the revolt of the Nu-pieds.
AWADIA and FADNIA, two small nomad tribes of pure Arab
blood living in the Bayuda desert, Anglo-Egyptian Sudan,
between the wells of Jakdul and Metemma. They are often
incorrectly classed as Ja'alin. They own numbers of horses and
cattle, the former of the black Dongola breed. At the battle
of Abu Klea (i7th of January 1885) they were conspicuous for
their courage in riding against the British square.
See Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
1905)-
AWAJI, an island belonging to Japan, situated at the eastern
entrance of the Inland Sea, having a length of 32 m., an extreme
breadth of 16 m., and an area of 218 sq. m., with a population
of about 190,000. It is separated on the south from the island
of Shikoku by the Naruto channel, through which, in certain
conditions of the tide, a remarkable torrential current is set up.
The island is celebrated for its exquisite scenery, and also for
the fact that it is traditionally reputed to have been the first
of the Japanese islands created by the deities Izanagi and
Izanami. The loftiest peak is Yuruuba-yama (1998 ft.), the most
picturesque Sen-zan (1519 ft.). Awaji is noted for a peculiar
manufacture of pottery.
AWARD (from O. Fr. ewart, or esguart, cf. " reward "), the
decision of an arbitrator. (See ARBITRATION.)
AWE, LOCH, the longest freshwater lake in Scotland, situated
in mid-Argyllshire, 1 16 ft. above the sea, with an area of nearly
1 6 sq. m. It has a N.E. to S.W. direction and is fully 23 m. long
from Kilchurn Castle to Ford, its breadth varying from J of a
mile to 3 m. at its upper end, where it takes the shape of a
crescent, one arm of which runs towards Glen Orchy, the other
to the point where the river Awe leaves the lake. The two ends
of the loch are wholly dissimilar in character, the scenery of the
upper extremity being majestic, while that of the lower half
is pastoral and tame. Of its numerous islands the best-known
is Inishail, containing ruins of a church and convent, which was
suppressed at the Reformation. At the extreme north-eastern
end of the lake, on an islet which, when the water is low,
becomes part of the mainland, stand the imposing ruins of Kil-
churn Castle. Its romantic surroundings have made this castle
a favourite subject of the landscape painter. Dalmally, about
2 m. from the loch, is one of the pleasantest villages in the High-
lands and has a great vogue in midsummer. The river Awe,
issuing from the north-western horn of the loch, affords excellent
trout and salmon fishing.
AWL (O. Eng. ael; at one time spelt nawl by a confusion
with the indefinite article before it) , a small hand-tool for piercing
holes.
AXE (O. Eng. aex; a word common, in different forms,
in the Teutonic languages, and akin to the Greek aiir;; the
New English Dictionary prefers the spelling " ax "), a tool or
weapon, taking various shapes, but, when not compounded with
some distinguishing word (e.g. in " pick-axe "), generally formed
68
AXHOLME AXOLOTL
by an edged head fixed upon a handle for striking. A " hatchet "
is a small sort of axe.
AXHOLME, an island in the north-west part of Lincolnshire,
England, lying between the rivers Trent, Idle and Don, and
isolated by drainage channels connected with these rivers.
It consists mainly of a plateau of slight elevation, rarely ex-
ceeding 100 ft., and comprises the parishes of Althorpe, Belton,
Ep worth, Haxey, Luddington, Owston and Crowle; the total
area being about 47,000 acres. At a very early period it would
appear to have been covered with forest; but this having been
in great measure destroyed, it became in great part a swamp.
In 1627 King Charles I., who was lord of the island, entered
into a contract with Cornelius Vermuyden, a Dutchman, for
reclaiming the meres and marshes, and rendering them fit for
tillage. This undertaking led to the introduction of a large
number of Flemish workmen, who settled in the district, and,
in spite of the violent measures adopted by the English peasantry
to expel them, retained their ground in sufficient numbers to
affect the physical appearance and the accent of the inhabitants
to this day. The principal towns in the isle are Crowle (pop.
2769) and Epworth. The Axholme joint light railway runs north
and south through the isle, connecting Goole with Haxey
junction; and the Great Northern, Great Eastern and Great
Central lines also afford communications. The land is extremely
fertile. The name, properly Axeyholm (cf. Haxey), is hybrid,
Ax being the Celtic uisg, water; ey the Anglo-Saxon for island;
and holm the Norse word with the same signification.
AXILE, or AXIAL, a term ( = related to the axis) used technic-
ally in science; in botany an embryo is called axile when it has
the same direction as the axis of the seed.
AXINITE, a mineral consisting of a complex aluminium and
calcium boro-silicate with a small amount of basic hydrogen;
the calcium is partly replaced in varying amounts by ferrous
iron and manganese, and the aluminium by ferric iron: the
formula is HCaaBA^SiO^- The mineral was named (from
j, an axe) by R. J. Haiiy in 1799, on account of the char-
acteristic thin wedge-like form of its
anorthic crystals. The colour is usually
I clove-brown, but rarely it has a violet
tinge (on this account the mineral was
named yanolite, meaning violet stone, by
J. C. Delametherie in 1792). The best
specimens are afforded by the beautifully
developed transparent glassy crystals,
found with albite, prehnite and quartz,
in a zone of amphibolite and chlorite-schists at Le Bourg
d'Oisans in Dauphine. It is found in the greenstone and horn-
blende-schists of Batallack Head near St Just in Cornwall, and
in diabase in the Harz; and small ones in Maine and in North-
ampton county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Large crystals have
also been found in Japan. In its occurrence in basic rather than
in acid eruptive rocks, axinite differs from the boro-silicate
tourmaline, which is usually found in granite. The specific
gravity is 3-28. The hardness of 65-7, combined with the colour
and transparency, renders axinite applicable for use as a gem-
stone, the Dauphine crystals being occasionally cut for this
purpose. (L. J. S.)
AXIOM (Gr. d^twpui), a general proposition or principle
accepted as self-evident, either absolutely or within a particular
sphere of thought. Each special science has its own axioms
(cf. the Aristotelian dpxai, "first principles"), which, however,
are sometimes susceptible of proof in another wider science.
The Greek word was probably confined by Plato to mathematical
axioms, but Aristotle (Anal. Post. i. 2) gave it also the wider
significance of the ultimate principles of thought which are
behind all special sciences (e.g. the principle of contradiction).
These are apprehended solely by the mind, which may, however,
be led to them by an inductive process. After Aristotle, the
term was used by the Stoics and the school of Ramus for a
proposition simply, and Bacon (Nov. Organ. i. 7) used it of any
general proposition. The word was reintroduced in modern
philosophy probably by Rene Descartes (or by his followers)
who, in the search for a definite self-evident principle as the basis
of a new philosophy, naturally turned to the familiar science of
mathematics. The axiom of Cartesianism is, therefore, the
Cogito ergo sum. Kant still further narrowed the meaning to
include only self-evident (intuitive) synthetic propositions,
i.e. of space and time. The nature of axiomatic certainty is
part of the fundamental problem of logic and metaphysics.
Those who deny the possibility of all non-empirical knowledge
naturally hold that every axiom is ultimately based on observa-
tion. For the Euclidian axioms see GEOMETRY.
AXIS (Lat. for " axle "), a word having the same meaning
as axle, and also used with many extensions of this primary
meaning. It denotes the imaginary line about which a body
or system of bodies rotates, or a line about which a body or
action is symmetrically disposed. In geometry, and in geo-
metrical crystallography, the term denotes a line which serves
to aid the orientation of a figure. In anatomy, it is, among
other uses, applied to the second cervical vertebra, and in
botany it means the stem.
AXLE (in Mid. Eng. axel-Ire, from O. Norweg. oxM-tre,
cognate with the O. Eng. axe or eaxe, and connected with Sansk.
Aksha, Gr. ai-biv, and Lat. axis), the pin or spindle on which
a wheel turns. In carriages the axle-tree is the bar on which
the wheels are mounted, the axles being strictly its thinner
rounded prolongations on which they actually turn. The pins
which pass through the ends of the axles and keep the wheels
from slipping off are known as axle-pins or " linch-pins,"
" linch " being a corruption, due to confusion with " link,"
of the Old English word for " axle," lynis, cf. Ger. Liinse.
AX - LES - THERMES, a watering place of south-western
France, in the department of Ariege, at the confluence of the
Ariege with three tributaries, 26 m. S.S.E. of Foix by rail.
Pop. (1906) 1170- Ax (Aquae), situated at a height of 2300 ft.,
is well known for its warm sulphur springs (Tj-i'j2 F.), of
which there are about sixty. The waters, which were used by
the Romans, are efficacious in the treatment of rheumatism,
skin diseases and other maladies.
AXMINSTER, a market-town in the Honiton parliamentary
division of Devonshire, England, on the river Axe, 27 m. E. by
N. of Exeter by the London & South-Western railway. Pop.
(1901) 2906. The minster, dedicated to St Mary the Virgin,
illustrates every style of architecture from Norman to Perpen-
dicular. There are in the chancel two freestone effigies, perhaps
of the I4th century, besides three sedilia, and a piscina under
arches. Axminster was long celebrated for the admirable
quality of its carpets, which were woven by hand, like tapestry.
Their manufacture was established in 1755. Their name is
preserved, but since the seat of this industry was removed to
Wilton near Salisbury, the inhabitants of Axminster have found
employment in brush factories, corn mills, timber yards and an
iron foundry. Cloth, drugget, cotton, leather, gloves and
tapes are also made. Coaxdon House, the birthplace in 1602
of Sir Symonds d'Ewes, the Puritan historian, is about 2 m.
distant, and was formerly known as St Calyst.
Axminster (Axemystre) derives its name from the river Axe and
from the old abbey church or minster said to have been built by
King /Ethelstan. The situation of Axminster at the intersection of
the two great ancient roads, Iknield Street and the Fosse Way, and
also the numerous earthworks and hill-fortresses_ in the neighbour-
hood indicate a very early settlement. There is a tradition that
the battle of Brunanburh was fought in the valley of the Axe, and
that the bodies of the Danish princes who perished in action were
buried in Axminster church. According to Domesday, Axminster
was held by the king. In 1246 Reginald de Mohun, then lord of the
manor, founded a Cistercian abbey at Newenham within the parish
of Axminster, granting it a Saturday market and a fair on Mid-
summer day, and the next year made over to the monks from
Beaulieu the manor and hundred of Axminster. The abbey was
dissolved in 1539. The midsummer fair established by Reginald de
Mohun is still held.
See Victoria County History-^Devon; James Davidson, British
and Roman Remains in the Vicinity of Axminster (London, 1833).
AXOLOTL, the Mexican name given to larvae salamanders of
the genus Amblystoma. It required the extraordinary acumen
of the great Cuvier at once to recognize, when the first specimens
AXOLOTL
69
of the Gyrinus edulis or Axolotl of Mexico were brought to him
by Humboldt in the beginning of the igth century, that these
Batrachians were not really related to the Perennibranchiates,
such as Siren and Proteus, with which he was well acquainted,
but represented the larval form of some air-breathing salamander.
Little heed was paid to his opinion by most systematists, and
when, more than half a century later, the axolotl was found to
breed in its branchiferous condition, the question seemed to be
settled once for all against him, and the genus Siredon, as it was
called by J. Wagler, was unanimously maintained and placed
among the permanent gill-breathers.
It seemed impossible to admit that an animal which lives for
years without losing its gills, and is able to propagate in that
state, could be anything but a perfect form. And yet subsequent
discoveries, which followed in rapid succession, have established
that Siredon is but the larval form of the salamander Ambly-
sloma, a genus long known from various parts of North America;
and Cuvier's conclusions now read much better than they did
half a century after they were published. Before reviewing the
history of these discoveries, it is desirable to say a few words of
the characters of the axolotl (larval form) and of the Amblystoma
(perfect or imago form).
The axolotl has been known to the Mexicans from the remotest
times, as an article of food regularly brought from neighbouring
lakes to the Mexico market, its flesh being agreeable and whole-
some. Francisco Hernandez (1514-1578) has alluded to it as
Gyrinus edulis or atolocatl, and as lusus aquarum, piscis ludicrus,
or axolotl, which latter name has remained in use, in Mexico and
elsewhere, to the present day. But for its large size it grows
to a length of eleven inches it is a nearly exact image of the
British newt larvae. It has the same moderately long, plump
body, with a low dorsal crest, the continuation of the membrane
bordering the strongly compressed tail; a large thick head with
small eyes without lids and with a large pendent upper lip; two
pairs of well-developed limbs, with free digits; and above all,
as the most characteristic feature, three large appendages on
each side of the back of the head, fringed with filaments which,
in their fullest development, remind one of black ostrich feathers.
These are the external gills, through which the animal breathes
the oxygen dissolved in the water. The jaws are provided with
small teeth in several rows, and there is an elongate patch of
further teeth on each side of the front of the palate (inserted on
the vomerine and palatine bones). The colour is blackish, or of
a dark olive-grey or brownish grey with round black spots or dots.
The genus Amblystoma was established by J. J. Tschudi in
1838 for various salamanders from North America, which had
previously been described as Lacerta or Salamandra, and which,
so far as general appearance is concerned, differ little from the
European salamanders. The body is smooth and shiny, with
vertical grooves on the sides, the tail is but feebly compressed,
the eye is moderately large and provided with movable lids,
and the upper lip is nearly straight. But the dentition of the
palate is very different; the small teeth, which are in a single row,
as in the jaws, form a long transverse, continuous or interrupted
series behind the inner nares or choanae. The animal leaves the
water after completing its metamorphosis, the last stage of which
is marked by the loss of the gills. One of the largest and most
widely distributed species of this genus, which includes about
twenty, is the Amblystoma tigrinum, an inhabitant of both the
east and west of the United States and of a considerable part
of the cooler parts of Mexico. It varies much in colour, but it
may be described as usually brown or blackish, with more or less
numerous yellow spots, sometimes arranged in transverse bands.
It rarely exceeds a length of nine inches. This is the Amblystoma
into which the axolotl has been ascertained to transform. It is
generally admitted that the axolotls which were kept alive in
Europe and were particularly abundant between 1870 and 1880
are all the descendants of a stock bred in Paris and distributed
chiefly by dealers, originally, we believe, by the late P. Car-
bonnier. Close in-breeding without the infusion of new blood
is probably the cause of the decrease in their numbers at the
present day, specimens being more difficult to procure and
fetching much higher prices than they did formerly, at least in
England and in France.
The original axolotls, from the vicinity of Mexico City, it is
believed, arrived at the Jardin d'Acclimatation, Paris, late in
1863. They were thirty-four in number, among which was an
albino, and had been sent to that institution, together with a few
other animals, by order of Marshal Forey, who was appointed
commander-in-chief of the French expeditionary force to Mexico
after the defeat of General Lorencez at Puebla (May sth, 1862),
and returned to France at the end of 1863, after having handed
over the command to Marshal (then General) Bazaine. Six
specimens (five males and one female) were given by the Soci6te
d'Acclimatation to Professor A. Dum6ril, the administrator of the
reptile collection of the Jardin des Plantes, the living specimens
of which were at that time housed in a very miserable structure,
situated at a short distance from the comparatively sumptuous
building which was erected some years later ano> opened to the
public in 1874. Soon after their arrival at the Jardin d'Acclimata-
tion, some of the axolotls spawned, but the eggs, not having been
removed from the aquarium, were devoured by its occupants.
At the same time, in the Jardin des Plantes, the single female
axolotl also spawned, twice in succession, and a large number of
young were successfully reared. This, it then seemed, solved
the often-discussed question of the perennibranchiate nature of
these Batrachians. But a year later, the second generation
having reached sexual maturity, new broods were produced,
and out of these some individuals lost their gills and dorsal
crest, developed movable eyelids, changed their dentition, and
assumed yellow spots, in fact, took on all the characters of
A mblystoma tigrinum. However, these transformed salamanders,
of which twenty-nine were obtained from 1865 to 1870, did not
breed, although their branchiate brethren continued to do so
very freely. It was not until 1876 that the axolotl in its Ambly-
stoma state, offspring of several generations of perennibran-
chiates, was first observed to spawn, and this again took place
in the reptile house of the Jardin des Plantes, as reported by
Professor E. Blanchard.
The original six specimens received in 1864 at the Jardin des
Plantes, which had been carefully kept apart from their progeny,
remained in the branchiate condition, and bred eleven times
from 1865 to 1868, and, after a period of two years' rest, again
in 1870. According to the report of Aug. Dumeril, they and
their offspring gave birth to 9000 or 10,000 larvae during that
period. So numerous were the axolotls that the Paris Museum
was able to distribute to other institutions, as well as to dealers
and private individuals, over a thousand examples, which found
their way to all parts of Europe, and numberless specimens have
been kept in England from 1866 to the present day. The first
specimens exhibited in the London Zoological Gardens, in August
1864, were probably part of the original stock received from
Mexico by the Societe d'Acclimatation, but do not appear to
have bred.
" White " axolotls, albinos of a pale'flesh colour, with beautiful
red gills, have also been kept in great numbers in England and
on the continent. They are said to be all descendants of one
albino male specimen received in the Paris Museum menagerie
in 1866, which, paired with normal specimens in 1867 and 1868,
produced numerous white offspring, which by selection have
been fixed as a permanent race, without, according to L. Vaillant,
showing any tendency to reversion. We are not aware of any
but two of these albinos having ever turned into the perfect
Amblystoma form, as happened in Paris in 1870, the albinism
being retained.
Thus we see that in our aquariums most of the axolotls remain
in the branchiate condition, transformed individuals being on
the whole very exceptional. Now it has been stated that in the
lakes near Mexico City, where it was first discovered, the axolotl
never transforms into an Amblystoma. This the present writer
is inclined to doubt, considering that he has received examples
of the normal Amblystoma tigrinum from various parts of
Mexico, and that Alfred Dugs has described an Amblysloma
from mountains near Mexico City; at the same time he feels very
7
AXUM AYACUCHO
suspicious of the various statements to that effect which have
appeared in so many works, and rather disposed to make light
of the ingenious theories launched by biological speculators who
have never set foot in Mexico, especially Weismann's picture
of the dismal condition of the salt-incrusted surroundings which
were supposed to have hemmed in the axolotl the brackish Lago
de Texcoco, the largest of the lakes near Mexico, being evidently
in the philosopher's mind.
Thanks to the enthusiasm of H. Gadow during his visit to
Mexico in the summer of 1002, we are now better informed
on the conditions under which the axolotl lives near Mexico City.
First, he ascertained that there are no axolotls at all in the Lago
de Texcoco, thus disposing at once of the Weismannian explana-
tion; secondly, he confirmed A. Duges's statement that there is
a second species of Amblystoma, which is normal in its meta-
morphosis, near Mexico but at a higher altitude, which may
explain VelasVo's observation that regularly transforming
' Amblystomas occur near that city; and thirdly, he made a care-
ful examination of the two lakes, Chalco and Xochimilco, where
the axolotls occur in abundance and are procured for the market.
The following is an abstract of Gadow's very interesting account.
" Lakes Chalco and Xochimilco are a paradise, situated about
10 ft. higher than the Texcoco Lake and separated from it
by several hills. High mountains slope down to the southern
shores, with a belt of fertile pastures, with shrubs and trees and
little streams, here and there with rocks and ravines. In fact,
there are thousands of inviting opportunities for newts to leave
the lake if they wanted to do so. Lake Xochimilco contains
powerful springs, but away from them the water appears dark
and muddy, full of suspended fresh and decomposing vegetable
matter, teeming with fish, larvae of insects, Daphniae, worms
and axolotl. These breed in the beginning of February. The
native fishermen know all about them; how the eggs are fastened
to the water plants, how soon after the little larvae swarm about
in thousands, how fast they grow, until by the month of June they
are all grown into big, fat creatures ready for the market; later
in the summer the axolotls are said to take to the rushes, in the
autumn they become scarce, but none have ever been known
to leave the water or to metamorphose, nor are any perfect
Amblystomas found in the vicinity of the two lakes."
In Gadow's opinion, the reason why there are only perenni-
branchiate axolotls in these lakes is obvious. The constant
abundance of food, stable amount of water, innumerable hiding-
places in the mud, under the banks, amongst the reeds and roots
of the floating islands which are scattered all over them, all
these points are inducements or attractions so great that the
creatures remain in their paradise and consequently retain all
those larval features which are not directly connected with
sexual maturity. There is nothing whatever to prevent them
from leaving these lakes, but there is also nothing to induce
them to do so. The same applies occasionally to European
larvae, as in the case observed in the Italian Alps by F. de
Filippi. Nevertheless, in the axolotl the latent tendency can
still be revived, as we have seen above and as is proved by the
experiments of Marie von Chauvin. When once sexually ripe
the axolotl are apparently incapable of changing, but their
ancestral course of evolution is still latent in them, and will, if
favoured by circumstances, reappear in following generations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. Cuvier, Mem. Instil. Nation. (1807), p. 149,
and in A. Humboldt and A. Bompland, Observ. zool. i. (1811), p. 93;
L. Calori, Mem. Ace. Bologna, iii. (1851), p. 269; A. Dumeril, Camples
rendus, Ix. (1865), p. 765, and N. Arch. Mus. ii. (1866), p. 265;
E. Blanchard, Comptes rendus, Ixxxii. (1876), p. 716; A. Weismann,
Z. wiss. Zool. xxv. (Suppl. 1875), p. 297; M. von.Chauvin, Z. wiss.
Zool. xxvii. (1876), p. 522; F. de Filippi, Arch. p. la zool. i. (1862),
p. 206; G. Hahn, Rev. Quest. Sci. Brussels (2), i. (1892), p. 178;
H. Gadow, Nature, Ixvii. (1903), p. 330. (G. A. B.)
AXUM, or AKSUM, an ancient city in the province of Tigr,
Abyssinia (14 7' 52" N., 38 31' 10" E.; altitude, 7226 ft), 12 m.
W. by S. of Adowa. Many European travellers have given
descriptions of its monuments, though none of them has stayed
there more than a few days. The name, written Aksm and
Aksum in the Sabaean and Ethiopic inscriptions in the place,
is found in classical and early Christian writers in the forms of
Auxome, Axumis, Axume, &c., the first mention being in the
Periplus Mans Erythraei (c. A.D. 67), where it is said to be the
seat of a kingdom, and the emporium for the ivory brought from
the west. For the history of this kingdom see ETHIOPIA. J. T.
Bent conjectured that the seat of government was transferred to
Axum from Jeha, which he identified with the ancient Ava;
and according to a document quoted by Achille Raffray the third
Christian monarch transferred it from Axum to Lalibela. This
second transference probably took place very much later; in
spite of it, the custom of crowning Abyssinian kings at Axum
continued, and King John was crowned there as late as 1871 or
1872. A. B. Wylde conjectures that it had become unsuitable
for a royal seat by having acquired the status of a sacred city,
and thus affording sanctuary to criminals and political offenders
within the chief church and a considerable area round it, where
there are various houses in which such persons can be lodged and
entertained. This same sanctity makes it serve as a depository
for goods of all sorts in times of danger, the chief church forming
a sort of bank. The present town, containing less than a thousand
houses, is supposed to occupy only a small portion of the area
covered by the ancient city; it lies in a kloof or valley, but the
old town must have been built on the western ridge rather than
in the valley, as the traces of well-dressed stones are more
numerous there than elsewhere.
Most of the antiquities of Axum still await excavation ; those
that have been described consist mainly of obelisks, of which
about fifty are still standing, while many more are fallen. They
form a consecutive series from rude unhewn stones to highly
finished obelisks, of which the tallest still erect is 60 ft. in height,
with 8 ft. 7 in. extreme front width; others that are fallen may
have been taller. The highly finished monoliths are all representa-
tions of a many-storeyed castle, with an altar at the base of each.
They appear to be connected with Semitic sun-worship, and are
assigned by Bent to the same period as the temple at Baalbek,
though some antiquarians would place them much earlier; the
representation of a castle in a single stone seems to bear some
relation to the idea worked out in the monolith churches of
Lalibela described by Raffray. The fall of many of the monuments,
according to Bent, was caused by the washing away of the
foundations by the stream called Mai Shum, and indeed the native
tradition states that " Gudert, queen of the Amhara," when she
visited Axum, destroyed the chief obelisk in this way by digging
a trench from the river to its foundation. Others attribute it
to religious fanaticism, or to the result of some barbaric invasion,
such as Axum may have repeatedly endured before it was sacked
by Mahommed Gran, sultan of Harrar, about 1535.
LITERATURE. Classical references to Axum are collected by
Pietschmann in Pauly's Realencyclopadie (2nd cd.) ; for the history
as derived from the inscriptions see D. H. Miiller, Appendix to
J. T. Bent's Sacred City of the Ethiopians (London, 1893), and
E. Glaser, Die Abessimer in Arabien (Munich, 1895). For the
antiquities, Bruce's Travels (1790); Salt, in the Travels of Viscount
Valentia (London, 1809), iii. 87-97 ant ^ 178-200; J. T. Bent, I.e. ;
and A. B. Wylde, Modern Abyssinia (London, 1901). For geology,
Schimper, in the Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fur Erdkunde (Berlin,
1869). (D. S. M.*)
AY, AYE. The word " aye," meaning always (and pronounced
as in "day"; connected with Gr. &d, always, and Lat. aevum,
an age), is often spelt " ay," and the New English Dictionary
prefers this. " Aye," meaning Yes (and pronounced almost like
the word " eye "), though sometimes identified with " yea," is
probably the same word etymologically, though differentiated
by usage; the form " ay " for this is also common, but incon-
venient; at one time it was spelt simply / (e.g. in Michael
Dray ton's Idea, 57; published in 1593).
AYACUCHO, a city and department of central Peru, formerly
known as Guamanga or Huamanga, renamed from the small
plain of Ayacucho (Quichua, " corner of death ") This lies
near the village of Quinua, in an elevated valley 11,600 ft.
above sea-level, where a decisive battle was fought between
General Sucr6 and the Spanish viceroy La Serna in 1824, which
resulted in the defeat of the latter and the independence of Peru.
The city of Ayacucho, capital of the department of that name
AYAH AYE-AYE
and of the province of Guamanga, is situated on an elevated
plateau, 8911 ft. above sea-level, between the western and central
Cordilleras, and on the main road between Lima and Cuzco, 394
m. from the former by way of Jauja. Pop. (1896) 20,000. It
has an agreeable, temperate climate, is regularly built, and has
considerable commercial importance. It is the seat of a bishopric
and of a superior court of justice. It is distinguished for the
number of its churches and conventual establishments, although
the latter have been closed. The city was founded by Pizarro
in 1539 and was known as Guamanga down to 1825. It has been
the scene of many notable events in the history of Peru.
The department of AYACUCHO extends across the great plateau
of central Peru, between the departments of Huancavelica and
Apurimac, with Cuzco on the E. and lea on the W. Area,
18,185 sq. m.; pop. (1896) 302,469. It is divided into six
provinces, and covers a broken, mountainous region, partially
barren in its higher elevations but traversed by deep, warm,
fertile valleys. It formed a part of the original home of the Incas
and once sustained a large population. It produces Indian corn
and other cereals and potatoes in the colder regions, and tropical
fruits, sweet potatoes and mandioca (Jatropha manihot, L.) in
the low tropical valleys. It is also an important mining region,
having a large number of silver mines in operation. Its name
was changed from Guamanga to Ayacucho by a decree of 1825.
AYAH, a Spanish word (aya) for children's nurse or maid,
introduced by the Portuguese into India and adopted by the
English to denote their native nurses.
AYALA, DON PEDRO LOPEZ DE (1332-1407), Spanish states-
man, historian and poet, was born at Vittoria in 1332. He first
came into prominence at the court of Peter the Cruel, whose
cause he finally deserted; he greatly distinguished himself in
subsequent campaigns, during which he was twice made prisoner,
by the Black Prince at Najera (1367) and by the Portuguese
at Aljubarrota (1385). A favourite of Henry II. and John I.
of Castile, he was made grand chancellor of the realm by Henry
III. in 1398. A brave officer and an able diplomat, Ayala was
one of the most cultivated Spaniards of his time, at once historian,
translator and poet. Of his many works the most important
are his chronicles of the four kings of Castile during whose
reigns he lived; they give a generally accurate account of scenes
and events, most of which he had witnessed; he also wrote a
long satirical and didactic poem, interesting as a picture of his
personal experiences and of contemporary morality. The first
part of his chronicle, covering only the reign of Peter the Cruel,
was printed at Seville in 1495; the first complete edition was
printed in 1770-1780 in the collection of Cronicas Espanolas,
under the auspices of the Spanish Royal Academy of History.
Ayala died at Calahorra in 1407.
See Rafael Floranes, " Vida literaria de Pedro Lopez de Ayala,"
in the Documentos ineditos para la historia de Espana, vols. xix. and
xx. ; F. W. Schirrmacher, " tlber die Glaubwiirdigkeit der Chronik
Ayalas," in Geschichte von Spanien (Berlin, 1902), vol. v. pp. 510-
532-
AYALA Y HERRERA, ADELARDO LOPEZ DE (1828-1879),
Spanish writer and politician, was born at Guadalcanal on the
ist of May 1828, and at a very early age began writing for the
theatre of his native town. The titles of these juvenile per-
formances, which were played by amateurs, were Saiga par
donde saliere, Me voy a Sevilla and La Corona y el Punal. As
travelling companies never visited Guadalcanal, and as ladies
took no part in the representations, these three plays were
written for men only. Ayala persuaded his sister to appear as
the heroine of his comedy, La primera Dama, and the innovation,
if it scandalized some of his townsmen, permitted him to develop
his talent more freely. In his twentieth year he matriculated
at the university of Seville, but his career as a student was
undistinguished. In Seville he made acquaintance with Garcia
Gutierrez, who is reported to have encouraged his dramatic
ambitions and to have given him the benefit of his own experience
as a playwright. Early in 1850 Ayala removed his name from
the university books, and settled in Madrid with the purpose
of becoming a professional dramatist. Though he had no
friends and no influence, he speedily found an opening. A four-
act play in verse, Un Hombre de Estado, was accepted by the
managers of the Teatro Espafiol, was given on the 2$th of
January 1851, and proved a remarkable success. Henceforward
Ayala's position and popularity were secure. Within a twelve-
month he became more widely known by his Castigo y Perdon,
and by a more humorous effort, Los dos Guzmancs; and
shortly afterwards he was appointed by the Moderado govern-
ment to a post in the home office, which he lost in 1854 on the
accession to power of the Liberal party. In 1854 he produced
Rioja, perhaps the most admired and the most admirable of all
his works, and from 1854 to 1856 he took an active part in the
political campaign carried on in the journal El Padre Cobos. A
zarzuela, entitled Guerta a muerte, for which Emilio Arrieta
composed the music, belongs to 1855, and to the same collabora-
tion is due El Agente de Matrimonies. At about this date Ayala
passed over from the Moderates to the Progressives, and this
political manceuvre had its effect upon the fate of his plays.
The performances of Los Comuneros were attended by members
of the different parties; the utterances of the different characters
were taken to represent the author's personal opinions, and
every speech which could be brought into connexion with
current politics was applauded by one half of the house and
derided by the other half. A zarzuela, named El Conde de
Castralla, was given amid much uproar on the 2oth of February
1856, and, as the piece seemed likely to cause serious disorder
in the theatre ;< it was suppressed by the government after the
third performance. Ayala's rupture with the Moderates was
now complete, and in 1857, through the interest of O'Donnell,
he was elected as Liberal deputy for Badajoz. His political
changes are difficult to follow, or to explain, and they have been
unsparingly censured. So far as can be judged, Ayala had no
strong political views, and drifted with the current of the moment.
He took part in the revolution of 1868, wrote the " Manifesto
of Cadiz," took office as colonial minister, favoured the candida-
ture of the due de Montpensier, resigned in 1871, returned to his
early Conservative principles, and was a member of Alfonso
XII. 's first cabinet. Meanwhile, however divided in opinion as
to his political conduct, his countrymen were practically unani-
mous in admiring his dramatic work; and his reputation, if
it gained little by El Nuevo Don Juan, was greatly increased by
EJ, Tanto for Ciento and El Tejado de Vidrio. His last play,
Consuelo, was given on the 3oth of March 1878. Ayala was
nominated to the post of president of congress shortly before
his death, which occurred unexpectedly on the 3oth of January
1879. The best of his lyrical work, excellent for finish and
intense sincerity, is his Epistola to Emilio Arrieta, and had he
chosen to dedicate himself to lyric poetry, he might possibly
have ranked with the best of Spain's modern singers; as it is,
he is a very considerable poet who affects the dramatic form.
In his later writings he deals with modern society, its vices,
ideals and perils; yet in many essentials he is a manifest
disciple of Calderon. He has the familiar Calderonian limitations;
the substitution of types for characters, of eloquence for vital
dialogue. Nor can he equal the sublime lyrism of his model;
bijt he is little inferior in poetic conception, in dignified idealiza-
tion, and in picturesque imagery. And it may be fairly claimed
for him that in El Tejado de Vidrio and El Tanto por Ciento he
displays a very exceptional combination of satiric intention with
romantic inspiration. By these plays and by Rioja and Consuelo
he is entitled to be judged. They will at least ensure for him
an honourable place in the history of the modern Spanish theatre.
A complete edition of his dramatic works, edited by his friend and
rival Tamayo y Baus, has been published in seven volumes (Madrid,
1881-1885). (J- F.-K.)
AYE-AYE, a word of uncertain signification (perhaps only an
exclamation), but universally accepted as the designation of the
most remarkable and aberrant of all the Malagasy lemurs (see
PRIMATES). The aye-aye, Chiromys (or Daubentonia) madagas-
cariensis, is an animal with a superficial resemblance to a long-
haired and dusky-coloured cat with unusually large eyes. It
has a broad rounded head, short face, large naked eyes, large
hands, and long thin fingers with pointed claws, of which the
AYLESBURY AYLESFORD
third is remarkable for its extreme slenderness. The foot
resembles that of the other lemurs in its large opposable great
toe with a flat nail; but all the other toes have pointed com-
pressed claws. Tail long and bushy. General colour dark
brown, the outer fur being long and rather loose, with a woolly
under-coat. Teats two, inguinal in position. The aye-aye
was discovered by Pierre Sonnerat in 1780, the specimen
brought to Paris by that traveller being the only one known
until 1860. Since then many others have been obtained, and
one lived for several years in the gardens of the Zoological Society
of London. Like so many lemurs, it is completely nocturnal
in its habits, living either alone or in pairs, chiefly in the bamboo
forests. Observations upon captive specimens have led to the
conclusion that it feeds principally on juices, especially of the
sugar-cane, which it obtains by tearing open the hard woody
circumference of the stalk with its strong incisor teeth; but it
is said also to devour certain species of wood-boring caterpillars,
which it obtains by first cutting down with its teeth upon their
burrows, and then picking them out of their retreat with the
claw of its attenuated middle finger. It constructs large ball-like
nests of dried leaves, lodged in a fork of the branches of a large
tree, and with the opening on one side.
Till recently the aye-aye was regarded as representing a
family by itself the Chiromyidae; but the discovery that it
resembles the other lemurs of Madagascar in the structure of
the inner ear, and thus differs from all other members of the
group, has led to the conclusion that it is best classed as a
subfamily (Chiromyinae) of the Lemuridae. (R. L.*)
AYLESBURY, a market-town in the Aylesbury parlia-
mentary division of Buckinghamshire, England, 38 m. N. W. by
W. of London; served by the Great Central, Metropolitan
and Great Western railways (which use a common station)
and by a branch of the London & North- Western railway. Pop.
of urban district (1001) 9243. It has connexion by a branch
with the Grand Junction canal. It lies on a slight eminence in
a fertile tract called the Vale of Aylesbury, which extends north-
ward from the foot of the Chiltern Hills. Its streets are mostly
narrow and irregular, but picturesque. The church of St Mary,
a large cruciform building, is primarily Early English, but has
numerous additions of later dates. The font is transitional
Norman, a good example; and a small pre-Norman crypt remains
beneath part of the church. There are some Decorated canopied
tombs, and the chancel stalls are of the isth century. The
central tower is surmounted by an ornate clock-turret dating
from the second half of the lyth century. The county-hall and
town-hall, overlooking a broad market-place, are the principal
public buildings. The grammar school was founded in 1611.
Aylesbury is the assize town for the county, though Buckingham
is the county town. There is a large agricultural trade, the
locality being especially noted for the rearing of ducks; straw-
plaiting and the manufacture of condensed milk are carried on,
and there are printing works. The Jacobean mansion of Hart-
well in the neighbourhood of Aylesbury was the residence of the
French king Louis XVIII. during his exile (1810-1814).
Aylesbury (/Eylesburge, Eilesberia, Aillesbir) was famous in Saxon
times as the supposed burial-place of St Osith. In A.D. 571 it was
one of the towns captured by Cuthwulf, brother of Ceawhn, king of
the Saxons. At the time of the Domesday survey the king owned
the manor. In 1554, by a charter from Queen Mary, bestowed as a
reward for fidelity during the rebellion of the duke of Northumber-
land, Aylesbury was constituted a free borough corporate, with
a common council consisting of a bailiff, 10 aldermen and 12
chief burgesses. The borough returned two members to parliament
from this date until the Redistribution Act of 1885, but the other
privileges appear to have lapsed in the reign of Elizabeth. Ayles-
bury evidently had a considerable market from very early times,
the tolls being assessed at the time of Edward the Confessor at 25
and at the time of the Domesday survey at 10. In 1239 Henry III.
made a grant to John, son of Geoffrey FitzPeter of an annual fair at
the feast of St Osith (June 3rd), which was confirmed by Henry VI.
in 1440. Queen Mary's charter instituted a Wednesday market
and fairs at the feasts of the Annunciation and the Invention of the
Holy Cross. In 1579 John Pakington obtained a grant of two
annual fairs to be held on the day before Palm Sunday and on the
feast of the Invention of the Holy Cross, and a Monday market for
the sale of horses and other animals, grain and merchandise.
AYLESFORD, HENEAGE FINCH, ist EARL OF (c. 1649-1719),
2nd son of Heneage Finch, ist earl of Nottingham, was educated
at Westminster school and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he
matriculated on the i8th of November 1664. In 1673 h g became
a barrister of the Inner Temple; king's counsel and bencher
in 1677; and in 1679, during the chancellorship of his father,
was appointed solicitor-general, being returned to parliament
for Oxford University, and in 1685 for Guildford. In 1682 he
represented the crown in the attack upon the corporation of
London, and next year in the prosecution of Lord Russell, when,
according to Burnet, " and in several other trials afterwards, he
showed more of a vicious eloquence in turning matters with
some subtlety against the prisoners than of strict or sincere
reasoning." * He does not, however, appear to have exceeded
the duties of prosecutor for the crown as they were then under-
stood. In 1684, in the trial of Algernon Sidney, he argued that
the unpublished treatise of the accused was an overt act, and
supported the opinion of Jeffreys that scribere est agere. 2 The
same year he was counsel for James in his successful action against
Titus Oates for libel, and in 1685 prosecuted Gates for the crown
for perjury. Finch, however, though a Tory and a crown lawyer,
was a staunch churchman, and on his refusal in 1686 to defend
the royal dispensing power he was summarily dismissed by James.
He was the leading counsel in June 1688 for the seven bishops,
when he " strangely exposed and very boldly ran down " 3 the
dispensing power, but his mistaken tactics were nearly the cause of
his clients losing their case. 4 He sat again for Oxford University
in the convention parliament, which constituency he represented
in all the following assemblies except that of 1698, till his eleva-
tion to the peerage. He was, however, no supporter of the House
of Orange, advocated a regency in James's name, and was one of
the few who in the House of Commons opposed the famous vote
that James had broken the contract between king and people
and left the throne vacant. He held no office during William's
reign, and is described by Macky as " always a great opposer "
of the administration. In 1689 he joined in voting for the
reversal of Lord Russell's attainder, and endeavoured to defend
his conduct in the trial, but was refused a hearing by the House.
He opposed the Triennial Bill of 1692, but in 1696 spoke against
the bill of association and test, which was voted for the king's
protection, on the ground that though William was to be obeyed
as sovereign he could not be acknowledged " rightful and lawful
king." In 1694 he argued against the crown in the bankers'
case. In 1703 he was created baron of Guernsey and a privy
councillor, and after the accession of George I. on the igth of
October 1714, earl of Aylesford, being reappointed a privy coun-
cillor and made chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, which office
he retained till February 1716. He died on the 22nd of July
1719. According to John Macky (Memoirs, p. 71; published by
Roxburghe Club, 1895) he was accounted " one of the greatest
orators in England and a good common lawyer; a firm asserter
of the prerogative of the crown and jurisdiction of the church;
a tall, thin, black man, splenatick." He married Elizabeth,
daughter and co-heiress of Sir John Banks of Aylesford, by whom,
besides six daughters, he had three sons, of whom the eldest,
Heneage, succeeded him as 2nd earl of Aylesford. The 2nd
earl died in 1757, and since this date the earldom has been held
by his direct descendants, six of whom in succession have borne
the Christian name of Heneage.
Many of his legal arguments are printed in State Trials (see esp.
viii. 694, 1087, ix. 625, 880, 996, x. 126, 319, 405, 1199, xii. 183, 353,
365). Wood attributes to him on the faith of common rumour the
authorship of An A ntidote against Poison . . .Remarks upon a Paper
printed by Lady (Rachel) Russel (1683), ascribed in State Trials (ix.
710) to Sir Bartholomew Shower; but see the latter's allusion to it
on p. 753.
1 Hist, of His Own Times, i. 556. Swift has appended a note, " an
arrant rascal," but Finch's great offence with the dean was probably
his advancement by George I. rather than his conduct of state trials
as here described.
2 Ibid. 572, and Speaker Onslow's note.
' N. Luttrell's Relation, i. 447.
4 State Trials, xii. 353.
AYLESFORD AYMESTRY LIMESTONE
73
AYLESFORD, a town in the Medway parliamentary division
of Kent, England, 3$ m. N.W. of Maidstone on the South-
Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 2678. It stands at
the base of a hill on the right bank of the Medway. The
ancient church of St Peter (restored in 1878) is principally
Perpendicular, but contains some Norman and Decorated
portions. It has interesting brasses of the i$th and i6th cen-
turies and an early embattled tower. At a short distance
west, a residence occupying part of the site, are remains of a
Carmelite friary, founded here in 1240. It is claimed for this
foundation (but not with certainty) that it was the first house
of Carmelites established in England, and the first general
chapter of the order was held here in 1 245. Several remains of
antiquity exist in the neighbourhood, among them a cromlech
called Kit's Coty House, about a mile north-east from the village.
(See STONE MONUMENTS, Plate, fig. 2.) In accordance with
tradition this has been thought to mark the burial-place of
Catigern, who was slain here in a battle between the Britons and
Saxons in A.D. 455; the name has also been derived from Celtic
Ked-coit, that is, the tomb in the wood. The name of the larger
group of monuments close by, called the Countless Stones, is due
to the popular belief, which occurs elsewhere, that they are not
to be counted. Large numbers of British coins have been found
in the neighbourhood. The supposed tomb of Horsa, who fell
in the same battle, is situated at Horsted, about 2 m. to the
north.
AYLLON, LUCAS VASQUEZ DE (c. 1475-1526), Spanish
adventurer and colonizer in America, was born probably in
Toledo, Spain, about 1475. He accompanied Nicolas Ovando
to Hispaniola (Santo Domingo) in 1502, and there became a
magistrate of La Concepcion and other towns, and a member
of the superior court of Hispaniola. He engaged with great
profit in various commercial enterprises, became interested in a
plan for the extension of the Spanish settlements to the North
American mainland, and in 1521 sent Francisco Gordillo on an
exploring expedition which touched on the coast of the Florida
peninsula and coasted for some distance northward. Gordillo's
report of the region was so favourable that Ay lion in 1523
obtained from Charles V. a rather indefinite charter giving
him the right to plant colonies. He sent another reconnoitring
expedition in 1525, and early in 1526 he himself set out with 500
colonists and about 100 African slaves. He touched at several
places along the coast, at one time stopping long enough to
replace a wrecked ship with a new one, this being considered
the first instance of shipbuilding on the North American con-
tinent. Sailing northward to about latitude 33 40', he began
the construction of a town which he called San Miguel. The
exact location of this town is in dispute, some writers holding
that it was on the exact spot upon which Jamestown, Va.,
was later built; more probably, however, as Lowery contends,
it was near the mouth of the Pedee river. The employment of
negro slaves here was undoubtedly the first instance of the sort
in what later became the United States. The spot was unhealthy
and fever carried off many of the colonists, including Ayllon
himself, who died on the i8th of October 1526. After the death
of their leader dissensions broke out among the colonists, some
of the slaves rebelled and escaped into the forest, and in December
the town was abandoned and the remnant of the colonists
embarked for Hispaniola, less than 150 arriving in safety.
See Woodbury Lowery, Spanish Settlements within the Present
Limits of the United States (2 vols., New York, 1903-1905).
AYLMER, JOHN (1521-1594), English divine, was born in
the year 1521 at Aylmer Hall, Tivetshall St Mary, Norfolk.
While still a boy, his precocity was noticed by Henry Grey,
marquis of Dorset, afterwards duke of Suffolk, who sent him to
Cambridge, where he seems to have become a fellow of Queens'
College. About 1541 he was made chaplain to the duke, and
tutor to his daughter, Lady Jane Grey. His first preferment
was to the archdeaconry of Stow, in the diocese of Lincoln, but
his opposition in convocation to the doctrine of transubstantia-
tion led to his deprivation and to his flight into Switzerland.
While there he wrote a reply to John Knox's famous Blast
against the Monstrous Regiment of Women, under the title of
An Harbor owe for Faithfull and Trewe Subjects, &c., and assisted
John Foxe in translating the Acts of the Martyrs into Latin.
On the accession of Elizabeth he returned to England. In 1559
he resumed the Stow archdeaconry, and in 1562 he obtained
that of Lincoln. He was a member of the famous convocation
of 1562, which reformed and settled the doctrine and discipline
of the Church of England. In 1576 he was consecrated bishop
of London, and while in that position made himself notorious
by his harsh treatment of all who differed from him on ecclesi-
astical questions, whether Puritan or Papist. Various efforts
were made to remove him to another see. He is frequently
assailed in the famous Marprelate Tracts, and is characterized as
" Morrell," the bad shepherd, in Spenser's Shepheard's Calendar
(July). His reputation as a scholar hardly balances his inade-
quacy as a bishop in the transition time in which he lived. He
died in June 1594. His Life was written by John Strype
(1701).
AYHARA (anc. Colla), a tribe of South American Indians,
formerly inhabiting the country around Lake Titicaca and the
neighbouring valleys of the Andes. They form now the chief
ethnical element in Bolivia, but are of very mixed blood. In
early days the home of the Aymaras by Lake Titicaca was a
" holy land " for the Incas themselves, whose national legends
attributed the origin of all Quichua (Inca) civilization to that
region. The Aymaras, indeed, seem to have possessed a very
considerable culture before their conquest by the Incas in the
i3th and i4th centuries, evidence of which remains in the
megalithic ruins of Tiahuanaco. When the Spaniards arrived
the Aymaras had been long under the Inca domination, and
were in a decadent state. They, however, retained certain
privileges, such as the use of their own language; and their
treatment by their conquerors generally suggested that the latter
believed themselves of Aymara blood. Physically, the pure
Aymara is short and thick-set, with a great chest development,
and with the same reddish complexion, broad face, black eyes
and rounded forehead which distinguish the Quichuas. Like
the latter, too, the Aymaras are sullen and apathetic in disposi-
tion. They number now, including half-breeds, about half a
million in Bolivia. Some few are also found in southern Peru.
See Journal Ethnol. Society (1870), " The Aymara Indians of
Bolivia and Peru."
AYMER, or .ETHEI.MAR, OF VALENCE (d. 1260), bishop of
Winchester, was a half-brother of Henry III. His mother was
Isabelle of Angouleme, the second wife of King John, his father
was Hugo of Lusignan, the count of La Marche, whom Isabelle
married in 1 2 20. The children of this marriage came to England
in 1247 in the hope of obtaining court preferment. In 1250
the king, by putting strong pressure upon the electors, succeeded
in obtaining the see of Winchester for Aymer. The appointment
was in every way unsuitable. Aymer was illiterate, ignorant of
the English language, and wholly secular in his mode of life.
Upon his head was concentrated the whole of the popular
indignation against the foreign favourites; and he seems to have
deserved this unenviable distinction. At the parliament of
Oxford (1258) he and his brothers repudiated the new constitu-
tion prepared by the barons. He was pursued to Winchester,
besieged in Wolvesey castle, and finally compelled to surrender
and leave the kingdom. He had never been consecrated;
accordingly in 1259 the chapter of Winchester proceeded to
a new election. Aymer, however, gained the support of the
pope; he was on his way back to England when he was over-
taken by a fatal illness at Paris.
See W. Stubbs' Constitutional History, vol. ii. (1896); G. W.
Prothero's Simon de Montfort (1877) ; W. H. Blaauw's Barons' War
(1871).
AYMESTRY LIMESTONE, an inconstant limestone which
occurs locally in the Ludlow series of Silurian rocks, between
the Upper and Lower Ludlow shales. It derives its name from
Aymestry in Herefordshire, where it may be seen on both sides
of the river Lugg. It is well developed in the neighbourhood
of Ludlow (it is sometimes called the Ludlow limestone) and
occupies a similar position in the Ludlow shales at Woolhope,
74
AYR AYRSHIRE
the Abberley Hills, May HU1 and the Malvern Hills. In litho-
logical character it varies greatly; in one place it is a dark grey,
somewhat crystalline limestone, elsewhere it passes into a flaggy,
earthy or shaly condition, or even into a mere layer of nodules.
When well developed it may reach 50 ft. in thickness in beds
of from i to 5 ft.; in this condition it naturally forms a con-
spicuous feature in the landscape because it stands out by its
superior hardness from the soft shales above and below.
The most common fossil is Pentamerus Knightii, which is
extremely abundant in places. Other brachiopods, corals and
trilobites are present, and are similar to those found in the
Wenlock limestone. (See SILURIAN.)
AYR, a royal, municipal and police burgh and seaport, and
county town of Ayrshire, Scotland, at the mouth of the river
Ayr, 4ijm. S.S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-
western railway. Pop. (1891) 24,944; (IQI) 29,101. It is
situated on a fine bay and its beautiful sands attract thousands
of summer visitors. Ayr proper lies on the south bank of the
river, which is crossed by three bridges, besides the railway
viaduct the Victoria Bridge (erected in 1898) and the famous
" Twa Brigs " of Burns. The Auld Brig is said to date from
the reign of Alexander III. (d. 1286). The New Brig was built
in 1788, mainly owing to the efforts of Provost Ballantyne.
The prophecy which Burns put into the mouth of the venerable
structure came true in 1877, when the newer bridge yielded
to floods and had to be rebuilt (1879); and the older structure
itself was closed for public safety in 1904. The town has extended
greatly on the southern side of the stream, where, in the direction
of the racecourse, there are now numerous fine villas. The
county buildings, designed after the temple of Isis in Rome,
accommodate the circuit and provincial courts and various local
authorities. The handsome town buildings, surmounted by
a fine spire 226 ft. high, contain assembly and reading rooms.
Of the schools the most notable is the Academy (rebuilt in 1880),
which in 1764 superseded the grammar school of the burgh,
which existed in the I3th century. The Gothic Wallace Tower
in High Street stands on the site of an old building of the
same name taken down in 1835, from which were transferred
the clock and bells of the Dungeon steeple. A niche in front
is filled by a statue of the Scottish hero by James Thorn (1802-
1850), a self-taught sculptor. There are statues of Burns, the
i3th earl of Eglinton, General Smith Neill and Sir William
Wallace. The Carnegie free library was established in 1893.
The charitable institutions include the county hospital, district
asylum, a deaf and dumb home, the Kyle combination poor-
house, St John's refuge and industrial schools for boys and
girls. The Ayr Advertiser first appeared on sth of August 1803,
and was the earliest newspaper published in Ayrshire. In the
suburbs is a racecourse where the Western Meeting is held in
September of every year. The principal manufactures include
leather, carpets, woollen goods, flannels, blankets, lace, boots and
shoes; and fisheries and shipbuilding are also carried on. There
are several foundries, engineering establishments and saw mills.
Large quantities of timber are imported from Canada and
Norway; coal, iron, manufactured goods and agricultural
produce are the chief exports. The harbour, with wet and slip
dock, occupies both sides of the river from the New Bridge to
the sea, and is protected on the south by a pier projecting some
distance into the sea, and on the north by a breakwater with
a commodious dry dock. There are esplanades to the south and
north of the harbour. The town is governed by a provost and
council, and unites with Irvine, Inveraray, Campbeltown and
Oban in returning one member to parliament.
In 1873 the municipal boundary was extended northwards
beyond the river so as to include Newton-upon-Ayr and Wallace
Town, formerly separate. Newton is a burgh or barony of very
ancient creation, the charter of which is traditionally said to
have been granted by Robert Bruce in favour of forty-eight
of the inhabitants who had distinguished themselves at Bannock-
burn. The suburb is now almost wholly occupied with manu-
factures, the chief of which are chemicals, boots and shoes,
carpets and lace. It is on the Glasgow & South-Western
railway, and has a harbour and dock from which coal and goods
are the main exports. About 3 m. north of Ayr is Prestwick,
a popular watering-place and the headquarters of one of the
most flourishing golf clubs in Scotland. The outstanding
attraction of Ayr, however, is the pleasant suburb of Alloway,
i\ m. to the south, with which there is frequent communication
by electric cars. The " auld clay biggin " in which Robert
Burns was born on the 25th of January 1759, has been com-
pletely repaired and is now the property of the Ayr Burns's
Monument trustees. In the kitchen is the box bed in which
the poet was born, and many of the articles of furniture belonged
to his family. Adjoining the cottage is a museum of Burnsiana.
The " auld haunted kirk," though roofless, is otherwise in a
fair state of preservation, despite relic-hunters who have removed
all the woodwork. In the churchyard is the grave of William
Burness, the poet's father. Not far distant, on a conspicuous
position close by the banks of the Boon, stands the Grecian
monument to Burns, in the grounds of which is the grotto con-
taining Thorn's figures of Tam o' Shanter and Souter Johnnie.
Nothing is known of the history of Ayr till the close of the 1 2th
century, when it was made a royal residence, and soon afterwards
a royal burgh, by William the Lion. During the wars of Scottish
independence the possession of Ayr and its castle was an object
of importance to both the contending parties, and the town was
the scene of many of Wallace's exploits. In 1315 the Scottish
parliament met in the church of St John to confirm the succession
of Edward Bruce to the throne. Early in the i6th century it was
a place of considerable influence and trade. The liberality of
William the Lion had bestowed upon the corporation an extensive
grant of lands; while in addition to the well-endowed church of
St John, it had two monasteries, each possessed of a fair revenue.
When Scotland was overrun by Cromwell, Ayr was selected as
the site of one of the forts which he built to command the country.
This fortification, termed the citadel, enclosed an area of ten
or twelve acres, and included within its limits the church of St
John, which was converted into a storehouse, the Protector partly
indemnifying the inhabitants by contributing 150 towards the
erection of a new place of worship, now known as the Old Church.
A portion of the tower of St John's church remains, but has
been completely modernized. The site of the fort is now nearly
covered with houses, the barracks being in Fort Green.
AYRER, JAKOB (?-i6os), German dramatist, of whose life
little is known. He seems to have come to Nuremberg as a boy
and worked his way up to the position of imperial notary. He
died at Nuremberg on the 26th of March 1605. Besides a
rhymed Chronik der Stadt Bamberg (edited by J. Heller, Bamberg,
1838), and an unpublished translation of the Psalms, Ayrer has
left a large number of dramas which were printed at Nuremberg
under the title Opus Theatricum in 1618. This collection contains
thirty tragedies and comedies and thirty-six Fastnachtsspiele
(Shrovetide plays) and Singspiele. As a dramatist, Ayrer is
virtually the successor of Hans Sachs (q.v.), but he came under
the influence of the so-called Englische Komodianten, that is,
troupes of English actors, who, at the close of the i6th century
and during the I7th, repeatedly visited the continent, bringing
with them the repertory of the Elizabethan theatre. From those
actors Ayrer learned how to enliven his dramas with sensational
incidents and spectacular effects, and from them he borrowed
the character of the clown. His plays, however, are in spite of
his foreign models, hardly more dramatic, in the true sense of the
word, than those of Hans Sachs, and they are inferior to the latter
in poetic qualities. The plots of two of his comedies, Von
der schonen Phoenicia and Von der schonen Sidea, were evidently
drawn from the same sources as those of Shakespeare's Much
Ado about Nothing and Tempest.
Ayrers Dramen, edited by A. von Keller, have been published by
the Stuttgart Lit. Verein (1864-1865). See also L. Tieck, Deutsches
Theater (1817); A. Cohn, Shakespeare in Germany (1885), which
contains a translation of the two plays mentioned above; J. Titt-
mann, Schauspiele des sechzehnten Jahrhunderts (1888).
AYRSHIRE, a south-western county of Scotland, bounded N.
by Renfrewshire, E. by Lanarkshire and Dumfriesshire, S.E. by
AYRSHIRE
75
Kirkcudbrightshire, S. by Wigtownshire and W. by the Firth of
Clyde. It includes off its coast the conspicuous rock of Ailsa
Craig, 10 m. W. of Girvan, Lady Island, 3 m. S.W. of Troon,
and Horse Island, off Ardrossan. Its area is 724,523 acres or
1 142 sq. m., its coast-line being 70 m. long. In former times the
shire was divided into the districts of Cunninghame (N. of the
Irvine), Kyle (between the Irvine and the Boon), and Carrick
(S. of the Boon), and these terms are still occasionally used.
Kyle was further divide,! by the Ayr into King's Kyle on the
north and Kyle Stewart. Robert Bruce was earl of Carrick,
a title now borne by the prince of Wales. The county is politic-
ally divided into North and South Ayrshire, the former compris-
ing Cunninghame and the latter Kyle and Carrick. The surface
is generally undulating with a small mountainous tract in the
north and a larger one in the south and south-east. The principal
hills are Black Craig (2298 ft.), 5 m. south-east of New Cumnock;
Enoch (1865 ft.), 5 m. east of Balmellington ; Polmaddie (1750
ft.) 2 m. south-east of Burr; Stake on the confines of Ayrshire
and Renfrewshire, and Corsancone (1547 ft.), 3 m. north-east
of New Cumnock. None of the rivers is navigable, but their
varied and tranquil beauty has made them better known than
many more important streams. The six most noted are the
Stinchar (c soft), Girvan, Boon, Ayr, Irvine and Garnock.
Of these the Ayr is the longest. It rises at Glenbuck, on the
border of Lanarkshire, and after a course of some 38 m. falls into
the Firth of Clyde at the county town which, with the county, is
named from it. The scenery along its banks from Sorn down-
wards passing Catrine, Ballochmyle, Barskimming, Sundrum,
Auchencruive and Craigie is remarkably picturesque. The
lesser streams are numerous, but Burns's verse has given pre-
eminence to the Afton, the Cessnock and the Lugar. There are
many lochs, the largest of which is Loch Boon, 5! m. long, the
source of the river of the same name. From Loch Finlas, about
20 m. south-east of Ayr, the town derives its water-supply.
The Nith rises in Ayrshire and a few miles of its early course
belong to the county.
Geology. The greater portion of the hilly region in the south of
the county forms part of the Silurian tableland of the south of
Scotland. Along its north margin there is a belt of elevated ground
consisting mainly of Old Red Sandstone strata, while the tract of
fertile low ground is chiefly occupied by younger Palaeozoic rocks.
The Silurian belt stretching eastwards from the mouth of Loch Ryan
to the Merrick range is composed of grits, greywackes and shales with
thin leaves of black shales, containing graptolites of Upper Llandeilo
age which are repeated by folding and cover a broad area. Near
their northern limit Radiolarian cherts, mudstones and lavas of
Arenig age rise from underneath the former along anticlines striking
north-east and south-west. In the Ballantrae region there is a
remarkable development of volcanic rocks lavas, tuffs and agglo-
merates of Arenig age, their horizon being denned by graptolites
occurring in cherty mudstones and black shales interleaved in lavas
and agglomerates. These volcanic materials are pierced by ser-
pentine, gabbro and granite. The serpentine forms two belts running
inland from near Bennane Head and from Burnfoot, being typically
developed on Balhamie Hill near Colmonell. Gabbro appears on
the shore north of Lendalfoot, while on the By ne and Grey Hills south
of Girvan there are patches of granite and quartz-diorite which seem
to pass into more basic varieties. These volcanic and plutonic
rocks and Radiolarian cherts are covered unconformably by con-
glomerates (Bennan Hill near Straiten and Kennedy's Pass) which
are associated with limestones of Upper Llandeilo age that have
been wrought in the Stinchar valley and at Craighead. South of the
river Girvan there is a sequence from Llandeilo Caradoc to Llan-
dovery Tarannon strata, excellent sections of which are seen on
the shore north of Kennedy's Pass and in Penwhapple Glen near
Girvan. Llandovery strata again appear north of the Girvan at
Daitly, where they form an inher surrounded by the Old Red Sand-
stone and Carboniferous formations. Representatives of Wenlock
rocks form a narrow belt near the village of Straiton. Some of the
Silurian sediments of the Girvan province are highly fossiliferous, but
the order of succession is determined by the graptolites. Near Muir-
kirk and in the Douglas Water there are infiers of Wenlock, Ludlow
and Downtonian rocks, coming to the surface along anticlines trun-
cated by faults and surrounded by Old Red Sandstone and Carboni-
ferous strata. In the south-east of the county there is a part of the
large granite mass that stretches from Loch Boon south to Loch
Bee, giving rise to wild scenery and bounded by the high ground near
the head of the Girvan Water, boulders of which have been dis-
tributed over a wide area during the glacial period. Along the
northern margin of the uplands the Lower Old Red Sandstone is
usually faulted against the Silurian strata, but on Hadyard Hill
south of the Girvan valley they rest on the folded and denuded
members of the latter system. The three divisions of this formation
are well represented. The lower group of conglomerates and sand-
stones are well displayed on Hadyard Hill and on the tract near May-
bole; the middle volcanic series on the shore south of the Heads of
Ayr and from the Stinchar valley along the Old Red belt towards
Balmellington and New Cumnock; while the upper group, com-
prising conglomerates and sandstones, form a well-marked syn-
clinal ford at Corsancone north-east of New Cumnock. The Upper
Old Red Sandstone appears as a fringe round the south-west margin
of the Carboniferous rocks of the county, and it rises from beneath
them on the shore of the Firth of Clyde south of Wemyss Bay.
The Carboniferous strata of the central low ground form a great
basin traversed by faults, all the subdivisions of the system being
represented save the Millstone Grit. Round the north and north-
east margin there is a great development of volcanic rocks lavas,
tuffs and agglomerates belonging to the Calciferous Sandstone
series, and passing upwards into the Carboniferous Limestone. The
lower limestones of the latter division are typically represented near
Balry and Beith, where in one instance they reach a thickness of over
top ft. They are followed by the coal-bearing group (Edge coals of
Midlothian) which have been wrought in the Balry and Patna
districts and at Bailly. The position of the Millstone Grit is occupied
by lavas and tuffs, extending almost continually as a narrow fringe
round the northern margin of the Coal Measures from Saltcoats by
Kilmaurs to the Crawfordland Water. The workable coals of the
true Coal Measures have a wide distribution from Kilwinning by
Kilmarnock to Galston and again in the districts of Coylton, Bal-
mellington, Lugar and Cumnock. These members are overlaid by a
set of upper barren red sandstones, probably the equivalents of the
red beds of Uddingston, Balkeith and Wemyss in Fife, visible in the
ravines of Lugar near Ochiltree and of Ayr at Catrine. In various
parts of the Ayrshire coalfield the coal-seams are rendered useless by
intrusive sheets of dolerite as near Kilmarnock and Balmellington.
In the central part of the field there is an oval-shaped area of red
sandstones now grouped with the Trias, extending from near Tar-
bolton to Mauchline, where they are largely worked for building stone.
They are underlaid by a volcanic series which forms a continuous belt
between the underlying red sandstones of the Coal Measures and
the overlying Trias. In the north part of the county, as near Wemyss
Bay, the strata are traversed by dykes of dolerite and basalt trending
in a north-west direction and probably of Tertiary age.
Agriculture. There has been no lack of agricultural enterprise.
With a moist climate, and, generally, a rather heavy soil, drainage
was necessary for the successful growth of green crops. Up to
about 1840, a green crop in the rotation was seldom seen, except
on porous river-side land, or on the lighter farms of the lower
districts. In the early part of the igth century lime was a
powerful auxiliary in the inland districts, but with repeated ap-
plications it gradually became of little avail. Thorough draining
gave the next great impetus. Enough had been done to test
its efficacy before the announcement of Sir Robert Peel's drainage
loan, after which it was rapidly extended throughout the county.
Green-crop husbandry, and the liberal use of guano and other
manures, made a wonderful change in the county, and immensely
increased the amount of produce. Potatoes are now extensively
grown, the coast-lands supplying the markets of Scotland and the
north of England. Of roots, turnips, carrots and mangolds are
widely cultivated, heavy crops being obtained by early sowing
and rich manuring. Oats form the bulk of the cereal crop, but
whea,t and barley are also grown. High fanning has developed
the land enormously. Bairying has received particular attention.
Bunlop cheese was once a well-known product. Part of it was
very good; but it was unequal in its general character, and
unsaleable in English markets. Bissatisfied with the inferior
commercial value of their cheese in comparison with some English
varieties, the Ayrshire Agricultural Association brought a Somer-
set farmer and his wife in 1855 to teach the Cheddar method, and
their effort was most successful. Cheddar cheese of first-rate
quality is now made in Ayrshire, and the annual cheese show
at Kilmarnock is the most important in Scotland. The Ayrshire
breed of cews are famous for the quantity and excellence of their
milk. Great numbers of cattle, sheep and pigs are raised for the
market, and the Ayrshire horse is in high repute.
Other Industries. Ayrshire is the principal mining county
in Scotland and has the second largest coalfield. There is a
heavy annual output also of iron ore, pig iron and fire-clay.
The chief coal districts are Ayr, Balmellington, Patna, Maybole,
Brongan, Irvine, Coylton, Stevenston, Beith, Kilwinning,
7 6
AYRTON AYSCOUGH
Dairy, Kilbirnie, Dreghorn, Kilmarnock, Galston, Hurlford,
Muirkirk, Cumnock and New Cumnock. Ironstone occurs
chiefly at Patna, Coylton, Dairy, Kilbirnie, Dreghorn and
Cumnock, and there are blast furnaces at most of these towns.
A valuable whetstone is quarried at Bridge of Stair on the Ayr
the Water-of-Ayr stone. The leading manufactures are im-
portant. At Catrine are cotton factories and bleachfields, and
at Ayr and Kilmarnock extensive engineering works, and
carpet, blanket and woollens, boot and shoe factories. Cotton,
woollens, and other fabrics and hosiery are also manufactured
at Dairy, Kilbirnie, Kilmaurs, Beith and Stewarton. An
extensive trade in chemicals is carried on at Irvine. Near
Stevenston works have been erected in the sandhills for the
making of dynamite and other explosives. There are large
lace curtain factories at Galston, Newmilns and Darvel, and at
Beith cabinet-making is a considerable industry. Shipbuilding
is conducted at Troon, Ayr, Irvine and Fairlie, which is famous
for its yachts. The leading ports are Ardrossan, Ayr, Girvan,
Irvine and Troon. Fishing is carried on in the harbours and
creeks, which are divided between the fishery districts of Greenock
and Ballantrae.
Communications. The Glasgow & South-Western railway
owns most of the lines within the shire, its system serving all
the industrial towns, ports and seaside resorts. Its trunk line
via Girvan to Stranraer commands the shortest sea passage to
Belfast and the north of Ireland, and its main line via Kilmarnock
communicates with Dumfries and Carlisle and so with England.
The Lanarkshire & Ayrshire branch of the Caledonian railway
company also serves a part of the county. For passenger
steamer traffic Ardrossan is the principal port, there being
services to Arran and Belfast and, during the season, to Douglas
in the Isle of Man. Millport, on Great Cumbrae, is reached by
steamer from Fairlie.
Population and Administration. The population of Ayrshire
in 1891 was 226,386, and in 1901, 254,468, or 223 to the sq. m.
In 1901 the number of persons speaking Gaelic only was 17.
The chief towns, with populations in 1901 are: Ardrossan
(6077), Auchinleck (2168), Ayr (29,101), Beith (4963), Cumnock
(3088), Dairy (5316), Darvel (307). Galston (4876), Girvan
(4024), Hurlford (4601), Irvine (9618), Kilbirnie (457 1), Kil-
marnock (35,091), Kilwinning (4440), Largs (3246), Maybole
(5892), Muirkirk (3892), Newmilns {4467), Saltcoats (8120),
Stevenston (6554), Stewarton (2858), Troon (4764). The
county returns two members to parliament, who represent
North and South Ayrshire respectively. Ayr (the county town)
and Irvine are royal burghs and belong to the Ayr group of
parliamentary burghs, and Kilmarnock is a parliamentary
burgh of the Kilmarnock group. Under the county council
special water districts, drainage districts, and lighting and
scavenging districts have been formed. The county forms a
sheriffdom, and there are resident sheriffs-substitute at Ayr
and Kilmarnock, who sit also at Irvine, Beith, Cumnock and
Girvan. The shire is under school-board jurisdiction, but there
are a considerable number of voluntary schools, besides secondary
schools at Ayr, Irvine, Kilmarnock and Beith, while Kilmarnock
Dairy School is a part of the West of Scotland Agricultural
College established in 1899. I n addition to grants earned by
the schools, the county and borough councils expend a good
deal of money upon secondary and technical education, towards
which contributions are also made by the Glasgow and West of
Scotland Technical College and the Kilmarnock Dairy School.
The technical classes, subsidized at various local centres, em-
brace instruction in agriculture, mining, engineering, plumbing,
gardening, and various science and art subjects.
History. Traces of Roman occupation are found in Ayrshire.
At the time of Agricola's campaigns the country was held by
the Damnonii, and their town of Vandogara has been identified
with a site at Loudoun Hill near Darvel,where a serious encounter
with the Scots took place. On the withdrawal of the Romans,
Ayrshire formed part of the kingdom of Strathclyde and ulti-
mately passed under the sway of the Northumbrian kings.
Save for occasional intertribal troubles, as that in which the
Scottish king Alpin was slain at Dulmellington in the 9th
century, the annals are silent until the battle of Largs in 1263,
when the pretensions of Haakon of Norway to the sovereignty
of the Isles were crushed by the Scots under Alexander III.
A generation later William Wallace conducted a vigorous
campaign in the shire. He surprised the English garrison at
Ardrossan, and burned the barns of Ayr in which the forces of
Edward I. were lodged. Robert Bruce is alleged to have been
born at Turnberry Castle, some 12 m. S.W. of Ayr. In 1307
he defeated the English at Loudoun Hill. Cromwell paid the
county a hurried visit, during which he demolished the castle
of Ardrossan and is said to have utilized the stones in rearing
a fort at Ayr. Between 1660 and 1688 the sympathies of the
county were almost wholly with the Covenanters, who suffered
one of their heaviest reverses at Airds Moss a morass between
the Ayr and Lugar, their leader, Richard Cameron, being
killed (20th of July 1680). The county was dragooned and the
Highland host ravaged wherever it went. The Hanoverian
succession excited no active hostility if it evoked no enthusiasm.
Antiquarian remains include cairns in Galston, Som and other
localities; a road supposed to be a work of the Romans, which
extended from Ayr, through Dalrymple and Dalmellington,
towards the Solway; camps attributed to the Norwegians or
Danes on the hills of Knockgeorgan and Dundonald; and the
castles of Loch Doon, Turnberry, Dundonald, Portencross,
Ardrossan and Dunure. There are ruins of celebrated abbeys
at Kilwinning and Crossraguel, and of Alloway's haunted church,
famous from their associations.
See James Paterson, " History of the County of Ayr." Trans-
actions of Ayrshire and Galloway Archaeological Associations,
Edinburgh, 1879-1900; John Smith, Prehistoric Man in Ayrshire
(London, 1895) ; William Robertson, History of Ayrshire (Edinburgh,
1894); Archibald Sturrock, "On the Agriculture of Ayrshire,"
Transactions of Highland and Agricultural Society; D. Lands-
borough, Contributions to Local History (Kilmarnock, 1878).
AYRTON, WILLIAM EDWARD (1847-1908), English physi-
cist, was born in London on the I4th of September 1847. He
was educated at University College, London, and in 1868 went
out to Bengal in the service of the Indian Government Telegraph
department. In 1873 he was appointed professor of physics
and telegraphy at the Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio.
On his return to London six years later he became professor of
applied physics at the Finsbury College of the City and Guilds
of London Technical Institute, and in 1884 he was chosen
professor of electrical engineering at the Central Technical
College, South Kensington. He published, both alone and
jointly with others, a large number of papers on physical, and
in particular electrical, subjects, and his name was especially
associated, together with that of Professor John Perry, with the
invention of a long series of electrical measuring instruments.
He died in London on the 8th of November 1908. His wife,
Mrs Hertha Ayrton, whom he married in 1885, assisted him in
his researches, and became known for her scientific work on the
electric arc and other subjects. The Royal Society awarded her
one of its Royal medals in 1906.
AYSCOUGH, SAMUEL (1745-1804), English librarian and
index-maker, was born at Nottingham in 1745. His father, a
printer and stationer, having ruined himself by speculation,
Samuel Ayscough left Nottingham for London, where he obtained
an engagement in the cataloguing department of the British
Museum. In 1782 he published a two-volume catalogue of
the then undescribed manuscripts in the museum. About 1785
he was appointed assistant librarian at the museum, and soon
afterwards took holy orders. In 1786 he published an index
to the first seventy volumes of the Monthly Review, and in 1796
indexed the remaining volumes. Both this index and his
catalogue of the undescribed manuscripts in the museum were
private ventures. His first official work was a third share in the
British Museum catalogue of 1787, and he subsequently cata-
logued the ancient rolls and charters, 16,000 in all. In 1789 he
produced the first two volumes of the index to the Gentleman's
Magazine,a,nd in 1790 the first index-concordance to Shakespeare.
He was a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries, and has been called
AYSCUE AYUB KHAN
77
" The Prince of Indexers." He died at the British Museum on
the 30th of October 1804.
AYSCUE (erroneously ASKEW or AYSCOUGH), SIR GEORGE
(d. 1671), British admiral, came of an old Lincolnshire family.
Beyond the fact that he was knighted by Charles I., nothing
is known of his career until in 1646 he received a naval command.
Through the latter years of the first civil war, Ayscue seems to
have acted as one of the senior officers of the fleet. In 1648,
when Sir William Batten went over to Holland with a portion
of his squadron, Ayscue's influence kept a large part of the fleet
loyal to the Parliament, and in reward for this service he was
appointed the following year admiral of the Irish Seas. For his
conduct at the relief of Dublin he received the thanks of Parlia-
ment, and in 1651 he was employed under Blake in the operations
for the reduction of Scilly. He was next sent to the West Indies
in charge of a squadron destined for the conquest of Barbadoes
and the other islands still under royalist control. This task
successfully accomplished, he returned to take part in the first
Dutch War. In this he played a prominent part, but the in-
decisive battle off Plymouth (August i6th, 1652) cost him his
command, though an annuity was assigned him. For some
years Sir George Ayscue lived in retirement, but the later years
of the Commonwealth he spent in Sweden, Cromwell having
despatched him thither as naval adviser. At the Restoration
he returned, and became one of the commissioners of the navy,
but on the outbreak of the second Dutch War in 1664 he once
more hoisted his flag as rear-admiral of the Blue, and took part
in the battle of Lowestoft (June 3rd, 1665). In the great Four
Days' Battle (June nth-i4th, 1666) he served with Monck as
admiral of the White. His flagship, the " Prince Royal," was
taken on the third day, and he himself remained a prisoner in
Holland till the peace. It seems doubtful whether he ever again
flew his flag at sea, and the date of his death is supposed to be
1671. Lely's portrait of Sir George Ayscue is in the Painted
Hall at Greenwich.
AYTOUN, or AYTON, SIR ROBERT (1570-1638), Scottish
poet, son of Andrew Aytoun of Kinaldie, Fifeshire, was born in
1570. He was educated at the university of St Andrews, where
he was incorporated as a student of St Leonard's College in 1584
and graduated M.A. in 1588. He lived for some years in France,
and on the accession of James VI. to the English throne he wrote
in Paris a Latin panegyric, which brought him into immediate
favour at court. He was knighted in 1612. He held various
lucrative offices, and was private secretary to the queens of
James I. and Charles I. He died in London and was buried
in Westminster Abbey on the 28th of February 1638. His
reputation with his contemporaries was high, both personally
and as a writer, though he had no ambition to be known as the
latter.
Aytoun's remains are in Latin and English. In respect of the
latter he is one of the earliest Scots to use the southern standard
as a literary medium. The Latin poems include the panegyric
already referred to, an Epicedium in obitum Thoma Rhodi; Basia,
sine Strena ad Jacobum Hayum; Lessus in fnnere Raphaelis
Thorei; Carina Caro', and minor pieces, occasional and epitaphic.
His first English poem was Diophantus and Ckaridora (to which
he refers in his Latin panegyric to James). He has left a number
of pieces on amatory subjects, including songs and sonnets.
Aytoun's Latin poems are printed in Delitiae Poetarum Scotorum
(Amsterdam, 1637), i. pp. 40-75. His English poems are preserved
in a MS. in the'British Museum (Add. MSS. 10,308), which was pre-
pared by his nephew, Sir John Aytoun. Both were collected by
Charles Rogers in The Poems of Sir Robert Aytoun (London, privately
printed, 1871). This edition is unsatisfactory, though it is better
than the first issue by the same editor in 1844. Additional poems
are included which cannot be ascribed to Aytoun, and which in some
cases have been identified as the work of others. The poem " I
do confess thou'rt smooth and fair " may be suspected, and the old
version of " Auld Lang Syne " and " Sweet Empress " are cer-
tainly not Aytoun's. Some of the English poems are printed in
Watson's Collection (1706-1711) and in the Bannatyne Miscellany,
i. p. 299 (1827). There is a memoir of Aytoun in Rogers's edition,
and another by Grosart in the Diet, of Nat. Bios. Particulars of his
public career will be found in the printed Calendars of State Papers
and Register of the Privy Council of the period.
AYTOUN, WILLIAM EDMONSTODNE (1813-1865), Scottish
poet, humorist and miscellaneous writer, was born at Edinburgh
on the 2ist of June 1813. He was the only son of Roger Aytoun,
a writer to the signet, and the family was of the same stock as
Sir Robert Aytoun noticed above. From his mother, a woman
of marked originality of character and considerable culture,
he derived his distinctive qualities, his early tastes in literature,
and his political sympathies, his love for ballad poetry, and his
admiration for the Stuarts. At the age of eleven he was sent to
the Edinburgh Academy, passing in due time to the university.
In 1833 he spent a few months in London for the purpose of
studying law; but in September of that year he went to study
German at Aschaffenburg, where he remained till April 1834.
He then resumed his legal pursuits in his father's chambers,
was admitted a writer to the signet in 1835, and five years later
was called to the Scottish bar. But, by his own confession,
though he " followed the law, he never could overtake it." His
first publication a volume entitled Poland, Homer, and other
Poems, in which he gave expression to his eager interest in the
state of Poland had appeared in 1832. While in Germany he
made a translation in blank verse of the first part of Faust;
but, forestalled by other translations, it was never published.
In 1836 he made his earliest contributions to Blackviood's
Magazine, in translations from Uhland; and from 1839 till
his death he remained on the staff of Blackwood. About 1841
he became acquainted with Mr (afterwards Sir) Theodore Martin,
and in association with him wrote a series of light humorous
papers on the tastes and follies of the day, in which were inter-
spersed the verses which afterwards became popukr as the
Bon Gaultier Ballads (1855). The work on which his reputation
as a poet chiefly rests is the Lays of the Scottish Cavaliers (1848;
29th ed. 1883). In 1845 he was appointed professor of rhetoric
and belles letlres at Edinburgh University. His lectures were
very attractive, and the number of students increased correspond-
ingly. His services in support of the Tory party, especially
during the Anti-Corn-Law struggle, received official recognition
in his appointment (1852) as sheriff of Orkney and Zetland.
In 1854 appeared Firmilian, a Spasmodic Tragedy, in which he
attacked and parodied the writings of Philip James Bailey,
Sydney Dobell and Alexander Smith; and two years later he
published his Botkwell, a Poem. Among his other literary works
are a Collection of the Ballads of Scotland (1858), a translation
of the Poems and Ballads of Goethe, executed in co-operation
with his friend Theodore Martin (1858), a small volume on the
Life and Times of Richard I. (1840), written for the Family
Library, and a novel entitled Norman Sinclair (1861), many of
the details in which are taken from incidents in his own experience.
In 1860 Aytoun was elected honorary president of the Associated
Societies of Edinburgh University. In 1859 he lost his first
wife, a daughter of John Wilson (Christopher North), to whom
he was married in 1849, and this was a great blow to him. His
mother died in November 1861, and his own health began to fail.
In December 1863 he married Miss Kinnear. He died at Black-
hills, near Elgin, on the 4th of August 1865.
See Memoir of W. E. Aytoun (1867), by Sir Theodore Martin, with
an appendix containing some of his prose essays.
AYUB KHAN (1855- ), Afghan prince, son of Shere Ali
(formerly amir of Afghanistan), and cousin of the amir Abdur
Rahman, was born about 1855. During his father's reign little is
recorded of him, but after Shere Ali's expulsion from Kabul by the
English, and his death in January 1879, Ayub took possession of
Herat, and maintained himself there until June 1881, when he
invaded Afghanistan with the view of asserting his claims to the
sovereignty, and in particular of gaining possession of Kanda-
har, still in the occupation of the British. He encountered the
British force commanded by General Burrows at Maiwand on
the 27th of July, and was able to gain one of the very few pitched
battles that have been won by Asiatic leaders over an army
under European direction. His triumph, however, was short-
lived; while he hesitated to assault Kandahar he was attacked
by Sir Frederick (afterwards Lord) Roberts, at the close of the
latter's memorable march from Kabul, and utterly discomfited,
AYUNTAMIENTO AZALEA
zoth of September 1880. He made his way back to Herat, where
he remained for some time unmolested. In the summer of
1881 he again invaded Afghanistan, and on the anniversary of
the battle of Maiwand obtained a signal victory over Abdur
Rahman's lieutenants, mainly through the defection of a Durani
regiment. Kandahar fell into his hands, but Abdur Rahman
now took the field in person, totally defeated Ayub, and expelled
him from Herat. He took refuge in Persia, and for some time
lived quietly in receipt of an allowance from the Persian govern-
ment. In 1887 internal troubles in Afghanistan tempted him to
make another endeavour to seize the throne. Defeated and
driven into exile, he wandered for some time about Persia, and
in November gave himself up to the British agent at Meshed.
He was sent to India to live as a state prisoner.
AYUNTAMIENTO, the Spanish name for the district over
which a town council has administrative authority; it is used
also for a town council, and for the town -hall. The word is de-
rived from the Latin adjungere, and originally meant " maeting."
In some parts of Spain and in Spanish America the town council
was called the cabildo or chapter, from the Latin capitulum.
The ayuntamiento consisted of the official members, and of
regidores or regulators, who were chosen in varying proportions
from the " hidalgos " or nobles (hijos de algo, sons of somebody)
and the " pecheros," or commoners, who paid the pecho, or
personal tax; pecho (Lat. pectus) is in Spanish the breast, and
then by extension the person. The regidores of the ayunta-
mientos, or lay cabildos, were checked by the royal judge or
corregidor, who was in fact the permanent chairman or president.
The distinction between hidalgo and pechero has been abolished
in modern Spain, but the powers and the constitution of ayun-
tamientos have been subject to many modifications.
AYUTHIA, a city of Siam, now known to the Siamese as Krung
Kao or " the Old Capital," situated in 100 32' E., 14 21' N.
Pop. about 10,000. The river Me Nam, broken up into a network
of creeks, here surrounds a large island upon which stand the
ruins of the famous city which was for more than four centuries
the capita] of Siam. The bulk of the inhabitants live in the
floating houses characteristic of lower Siam, using as thorough-
fares the creeks to the edges of which the houses are moored.
The ruins of the old city are of great archaeological interest, as
are the relics, of which a large coDection is housed in the local
museum. Outside the town is an ancient masonry enclosure
for the capture of elephants, which is still periodically used.
Ayuthia is on the northern main line of the state railways, 42 m.
from Bangkok. Great quantities of paddi are annually sent by
river and rail to Bangkok, in return for which cloth and other
goods are imported to supply the wants of the agriculturist
peasantry. There is no other trade. Ayuthia is the chief town
of one of the richest agricultural provincial divisions of Siam and
is the headquarters of a high commissioner. The government
offices occupy spacious buildings, once a royal summer retreat;
the government is that of an ordinary provincial division
(Monton).
Historically Ayuthia is the most interesting spot in Siam.
Among the innumerable ruins may be seen those of palaces,
pagodas, churches and fortifications, the departed glories of
which are recorded in the writings of the early European travellers
who first brought Siam within the knowledge of the West, and laid
the foundations of the present foreign intercourse and trade.
The town was twice destroyed by the Burmese, once in 1555
and again in 1767, and from the date of the second destruction
it ceased to be the capital of the country.
AZAlS, PIERRE HYACINTHE (1766-1845), French philo-
sopher, was born at Soreze and died at Paris. He spent his
early years as a teacher and a village organist. At the outbreak
of the Revolution he viewed it with favour, but was soon
disgusted at the violence of its methods. A critical pamphlet
drew upon him the hatred of the revolutionists, and it was
not until 1806 that he was able to settle in Paris. In 1809 he
published his great work, Des Compensations dans les destinies
humaines (sth ed. 1846), which pleased Napoleon so much that
he made its author professor at St Cyr. In 1811 he became
inspector of the public library at Avignon, and from 1812 to
1815 he held the same position at Nancy. The Restoration
government at first suspected him as a Bonapartist, but at
length granted him a pension. From that time he occupied
himself in lecturing and the publication of philosophical works.
In the Compensations he sought to prove that, on the whole,
happiness and misery are equally balanced, and therefore that
men should accept the government which is given them rather
than risk the horrors of revolution. " Le principe de I'in6galite
naturelle et essentielle dans les destinees humaines conduit
inevitablement au fanatisme revolutionnaire ou au fanatisme
religieux." The principles of compensation and equilibrium
are found also in the physical universe, the product of matter
and force, whose cause is God. Force, naturally expansive and
operating on the homogeneous atoms which constitute elemental
matter, is subject to the law of equilibrium, or equivalence of
action and reaction. The development of phenomena under
this law may be divided into three stages the physical, the
physiological, the intellectual and moral. The immaterial in
man is the expansive force inherent in him. Moral and political
phenomena are the result of the opposing forces of progress and
preservation, and their perfection lies in the fulfilment of the
law of equilibrium or universal harmony. This may be achieved
in seven thousand years, when man will vanish from the world.
In an additional five thousand, a similar equilibrium will obtain
in the physical sphere, which will then itself pass away. In
addition to his philosophical work, Azais studied music under
his father, Pierre Hyacinthe Azais (1743-1796), professor of
music at Soreze and Toulouse, and composer of sacred music
in the style of Gossec. He wrote for the Revue musicale a series
of articles entitled Acoustique fondamentale (1831), containing
an ingenious, but now exploded, theory of the vibration of the
air. His other works are: Systeme universel (8 vols., 1812);
Du Sort de I'homme (3 vols., 1820); Cours de philosophic (8 vols.,
1824), reproduced as Explication uniiierselle (3 vols., 1826-1828);
Jeunesse, maturite, religion, philosophic (1837); De la phrenologie,
du magnetisme, et de la folie (1843).
AZALEA, a genus of popular hardy or greenhouse plants,
belonging to the heath order (Ericaceae), and scarcely separable
botanically from Rhododendron. The beautiful varieties now
in cultivation have been bred from a few originals, natives of
the hilly regions of China and Japan, Asia Minor, and the
United States. They are perhaps unequalled as indoor decorative
plants. They are usually increased by grafting the half-ripened
shoots on the stronger-growing kinds, the shoots of the stock
and the grafts being in a similarly half-ripened condition, and
the plants being placed in a moist heat of 65. Large plants of
inferior kinds, if healthy, may be grafted all over with the
choicer sorts, so as to obtain a large specimen in a short time.
They require a rich and fibrous peat soil, with a mixture of sand
to prevent its getting water-logged. The best time to pot azaleas
is three or four weeks after the blooming is over. The soil
should be made quite solid to prevent its retaining too much
water. To produce handsome plants, they must while young
be stopped as required. Specimens that have got leggy may be
cut back just before growth commences. The lowest temperature
for them during the winter is about 35, and during their season
of growth from 55 to 65 at night, and 75 by day, the atmo-
sphere being at the same time well charged with moisture. They
are liable to the attacks of thrips and red spider, which do great
mischief if not promptly destroyed.
The following are some well-known species: A. arborescens
(Pennsylvania), a deciduous shrub 10-20 ft. high; A. calendulacea
(Carolina to Pennsylvania), a beautiful deciduous shrub 2-6 ft.
high, with yellow, red, orange and copper-coloured flowers;
A. hispida, a North American shrub, 10-15 ft- high, flowers
white edged with red; A. indica (China), the so-called Indian
azalea, a shrub 3-6 ft. or more high, the original of numerous
single and double varieties, many of the more vigorous of which
are hardy in southern England and Ireland; A. nudifiora, a
North American shrub, 3-4 ft. high, which hybridizes freely with
A. calendulacea, A. pontica and others, to produce single and
AZAMGARH AZEGLIO
79
double forms of a great variety of shades; A. pontica (Levant,
Caucasus, &c.), 4-6 ft. high, with numerous varieties differing
in the colour of the flowers and the tint of the leaves; A. sinensis
(China and Japan), a beautiful shrub, 3-4 ft. high, with orange-
red or yellow bell-shaped flowers, hardy in the southern half of
England, large numbers of varieties being in cultivation under
the name of Japanese azaleas.
AZAMGARH, or AZIMGARH, a city and district of British India,
in the Gorakhpur division of the United Provinces. The town
is situated on the river Tons, and has a railway station. It is
said to have been founded about 1665 by a powerful landholder
named Azim Khan, who owned large estates in this part of the
country. Pop. (1901) 18,835.
The area of the district is 2207 sq. m. It is bounded on the
N. by the river Gogra, separating it from Gorakhpur district;
on the E. by Ghazipur district and the river Ganges; on the S.
by the districts of Jaunpur and Ghazipur; and on the W. by
Jaunpur and Fyzabad. The portion of the district lying along
the banks of the Gogra is a low-lying tract, varying considerably
in width; south of this, however, the ground takes a slight rise.
The slope of the land is from north-west to south-east, but the
general drainage is very inadequate. Roughly speaking, the
district consists of a series of parallel ridges, whose summits are
depressed into beds or hollows, along which the rivers flow;
while between the ridges are low-lying rice lands, interspersed
with numerous natural reservoirs. The soil is fertile, and very
highly cultivated, bearing magnificent crops of rice, sugar-cane
and indigo. There are several indigo factories. A branch of
the Bengal & North-Western railway to Azamgarh town was
opened in 1898. In 1901 the population was 1,529,785, showing
a decrease of 1 1 % in the decade. The district was ceded to the
Company in 1801 by the wazirs of Lucknow. In 1857 it became
a centre of mutiny. On the 3rd of June 1857 the I7th Regiment
of Native Infantry mutinied at Azamgarh, murdered some of
their officers, and carried off the government treasure to Fyzabad.
The district became a centre of the fighting between the Gurkhas
and the rebels, and was not finally cleared until October 1858 by
Colonel Kelly.
AZAN (Arabic for " announcement "), the call or summons
to public prayers proclaimed by the Muezzin (crier) from the
mosque twice daily in all Mahommedan countries. In small
mosques the Muezzin at Azan stands at the door or at the side
of the building; in large ones he takes up his position in the
minaret. The call translated runs: "God is most great!"
(four times), "I testify there is no God but God!" (twice),
" I testify that Mahomet is the apostle of God! " (twice), " Come
to prayer!" (twice), "Come to salvation!" (twice), "God is
most great!" (twice), "There is no God but God!" To the
morning Azan are added the words, " Prayer is better than
sleep! " (twice). The devout Moslem has to make a set response
to each phrase of the Muezzin. At first these are mere repetitions
of Azan, but to the cry "Come to prayer!" the listener must
answer, " I have no power nor strength but from God the most
High and Great." To that of " Come to salvation! " the formal
response is, " What God willeth will be: what He willeth not
will not be." The recital of the Azan must be listened to with
the utmost reverence. The passers in the streets must stand
still, all those at work must cease from their labours, and those
in bed must sit up.
The Muezzin, who is a paid servant of the mosque, must stand
with his face towards Mecca and with the points of his forefingers
in his ears while reciting Azan. He is specially chosen for good
character, and Azan must not be recited by any one unclean,
by a drunkard, by the insane, or by a woman. The summons
to prayers was at first simply " Come to prayer! " Mahomet,
anxious to invest the call with the dignity of a ceremony, took
counsel of his followers. Some suggested the Jewish trumpet,
others the Christian bell, but according to legend the matter
was finally settled by a dream: " While the matter was under
discussion, Abdallah, a Khazrajite, dreamed that he met a man
clad in green raiment, carrying a bell. Abdallah sought to buy it,
saying that it would do well for bringing together the assembly
of the faithful. ' I will show thee a better way,' replied the
stranger; ' let a crier cry aloud " God is most great, &c." ' On
awaking, Abdallah went to Mahomet and told him his dream,"
and A/an was thereupon instituted.
AZARA, DON JOSE NICHOLAS DE (1731-1804), Spanish
diplomatist, was born in 1731 at Barbunales, Aragon, and was
appointed in 1765 Spanish agent and procurator-general, and in
1785 ambassador at Rome. During his long residence there he
distinguished himself as a collector of Italian antiquities and as
a patron of art. He was also an able and active diplomatist,
took a leading share in the difficult and hazardous task of the
expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain, and was instrumental in
securing the election of Pius VI. He withdrew to Florence when
the French took possession of Rome in 1798, but acted on behalf
of the pope during his exile and after his death at Valence
in 1799. He was afterwards Spanish ambassador in Paris. In
that post it was his misfortune to be forced by his government
to conduct the negotiations which led to the treaty of San Ilde-
fonso, by which Spain was wholly subjected to Napoleon. Azara
was friendly to a French alliance, but his experience showed him
that his country was being sacrificed to Napoleon. The First
Consul liked him personally, and found him easy to influence.
Azara died, worn out, in Paris in 1804. His end was undoubtedly
embittered by his discovery of the ills which the French alliance
must produce for Spain.
Several sympathetic notices of Azara will be found in Thiers,
Consulat et Empire. See also Reinado de Carlos IV, by Gen. J.
Gomez de Arteche, in the Historia General dc Espafla, published by
the R. Acad. de la Historia, Madrid, 1892, &c. There is a Notice
historique sur le Chevalier d' Azara by Bourgoing (1804).
His younger brother, DON FELIX DE AZARA (1746-1811),
spent twenty years in South America as a commissioner for
delimiting the boundary between the Spanish and Portuguese
territories. He made many observations on the natural history
of the country, which, together with an account of the discovery
and history of Paraguay and Rio de la Plata, were incorporated
in his principal work, Voyage dans I'Amtrique meridional* depuis
1781 jusqu'en 1801, published at Paris in 1809 in French from
his MS. by C. A. Walckenaer.
AZARIAH, the name of several persons mentioned in the
Old Testament, (i) One of Solomon's " princes," son of Zadok
the priest (i Kings iv. 2), was one of several Azariahs among the
descendants of Levi (i Chron. vi. 9, 10, 13, 36; 2 Chron. xxvi. 17).
(2) The son of Nathan, a high official under King Solomon
(i Kings iv. 5). (3) King of Judah, son of Amaziah by his wife
Jecholiah (2 Kings xv. i, 2), also called Uzziah (2 Chron. xxvi. i).
(4) Son of Ethan and great-grandson of Judah (i Chron. ii. 8).
(5) Son of Jehu, of the posterity of Judah (i Chron. ii. 38). (6)
A prophet in the reign of Asa, king of Judah (2 Chron. xv. i).
(7) Two sons of Jehoshaphat, king of Judah (2 Chron. xxi. a).
(8) King of Judah, also called Ahaziah and Jehoahaz, son of
Jehoram (2 Chron. xxi. 17; xxii. i, 6). (9) The son of Jeroham,
and (10) the son of Obed, were made " captains of hundreds "
by Jehoiada the priest (2 Chron. xxiii. i). (n) Son of Hilkiah
and grandfather of Ezra the Scribe (Ezra vii. i ; Neh. vii. 7, viii.
7, x. 2). (12) Son of Maaseiah, one of those who under the
commission of Artaxerxes restored the wall of Jerusalem (Neh. iii.
23). (13) Son of Hoshaiah, an opponent of the prophet Jeremiah
(Jer. xliii. 2). (14) One of the companions in captivity of the
prophet Daniel, called Abednego by Nebuchadrezzar, by whom
with two companions he was cast into a " burning fiery furnace "
for refusing to worship the golden image set up by that monarch
(Dan. i. 6, iii. 8-30).
AZAY-LE-RIDEAU, a town of western France, in the depart-
ment of Indre-et-Loire, on the Indre, 16 m. S.W. of Tours by
rail. Pop. (1006) 1453. The town has a fine Renaissance
chateau, well restored in modern times, with good collections of
furniture and pictures.
AZEGLIO, MASSIMO TAPARELLI, MARQUIS D' (1798-1866),
Italian statesman and author, was born at Turin in October 1798,
descended from an ancient and noble Piedmontese family.
His father, Cesare d'Azeglio, was an officer in the Piedmontese
army and held a high position at court; on the return of Pope
8o
AZERBAIJAN
Pius VII. to Rome after the fall of Napoleon, Cesare d'Azeglio
was sent as special envoy to the Vatican, and he took his son,
then sixteen years of age, with him as an extra attache. Young
Massimo was given a commission in a cavalry regiment, which
he soon relinquished on account of his health. During his
residence in Rome he had acquired a love for art and music,
and he now determined to become a painter, to the horror of
his family, who belonged to the stiff and narrow Piedmontese
aristocracy. His father reluctantly consented, and Massimo
settled in Rome, devoting himself to art. He led an abstemious
life, maintaining himself by his painting for several years. But
he was constantly meditating on the political state of Italy.
In 1830 he returned to Turin, and after his father's death in 1831
removed to Milan. There he remained for twelve years, moving
in the literary and artistic circles of the city. He became the
intimate of Alessandro Manzoni the novelist, whose daughter
he married; thenceforth literature became his chief occupation
instead of art, and he produced two historical novels, Niccolo
dei Lapi and Ettore Fieramosca, in imitation of Manzoni, and with
pronounced political tendencies, his object being to point out
the evils of foreign domination in Italy and to reawaken national
feeling. In 1845 he visited Romagna as an unauthorized political
envoy, to report on its conditions and the troubles which he
foresaw would break out on the death of Pope Gregory XVI.
The following year he published his famous pamphlet Degli
ultimi casi di Romagna at Florence, in consequence of which
he was expelled from Tuscany. He spent the next few months
in Rome, sharing the general enthusiasm over the supposed
liberalism of the new pope, Pius IX. ; like V. Gioberti and Balbo
he believed in an Italian confederation under papal auspices,
and was opposed to the Radical wing of the Liberal party. His
political activity increased, and he wrote various other pamphlets,
among which was / lutti di Lombardia (1848).
On the outbreak of the first war of independence, d'Azeglio
donned the papal uniform and took part under General Durando
in the defence of Vicenza, where he was severely wounded. He
retired to Florence to recover, but as he opposed the democrats
who ruled in Tuscany, he was expelled from that country for the
second time. He was now a famous man, and early in 1849
Charles Albert, king of Sardinia, invited him to form a cabinet.
But realizing how impossible it was to renew the campaign, and
" not having the heart to sign, in such wretched internal and
external conditions, a treaty of peace with Austria " (Corre-
spondance politique, by E. Rendu), he refused. After the defeat
of Novara(23rd of March 1849), Charles Albert abdicated and was
succeeded by Victor Emmanuel II. D'Azeglio was again called
on to form a cabinet, and this time, although the situation was
even more difficult, he accepted, concluded a treaty of peace,
dissolved the Chamber, and summoned a new one to ratify it.
The treaty was accepted, and d'Azeglio continued in office for
the next three years. While all the rest of Italy was a prey to
despotism, in Piedmont the king maintained the constitution
intact in the face of the general wave of reaction. D'Azeglio
conducted the affairs of the country with tact and ability,
improving its diplomatic relations, and opposing the claims of
the Roman Curia. He invited Count Cavour, then a rising young
politician, to enter the ministry in 1850. Cavour and Farini,
also a member of the cabinet, made certain declarations in the
Chamber (May 1852) which led the ministry in the direction of
an alliance with Rattazzi and the Left. Of this d'Azeglio dis-
approved, and therefore resigned office, but on the king's request
he formed a new ministry, excluding both Cavour and Farini.
In October, however, owing to ill-health and dissatisfaction with
some of his colleagues, as well as for other reasons not quite clear,
he resigned once more and retired into private life, suggesting
Cavour to the king as his successor.
For the next four years he lived modestly at Turin, devoting
himself once more to art, although he also continued to take
an active interest in politics, Cavour always consulting him on
matters of moment. In 1855 he was appointed director of the
Turin art gallery. In 1859 he was given various political missions,
including one to Paris and London to prepare the basis for a
general congress of the powers on the Italian question. When
war between Piedmont and Austria appeared inevitable he re-
turned to Italy, and was sent as royal commissioner by Cavour
to Romagna, whence the papal troops had been expelled. After
the peace of Villafrauca, d'Azeglio was recalled with orders to
withdraw the Piedmontese garrisons; but he saw the danger of
allowing the papal troops to reoccupy the province, and after
a severe inner struggle left Bologna without the troops, and
interviewed the king. The latter approved of his action, and
said that his orders had not been accurately expressed; thus
Romagna was saved. That same year he published a pamphlet
in French entitled De la Politique et du droit chretien an point
de vue de la question italienne, with the object of inducing
Napoleon III. to continue his pro-Italian policy. Early in 1860
Cavour appointed him governor of Milan, evacuated by the
Austrians after the battle of Magenta, a position which he held
with great ability. But, disapproving of the government's
policy with regard to Garibaldi's Sicilian expedition and the
occupation by Piedmont of the kingdom of Naples as inoppor-
tune, he resigned office.
The death of his two brothers in 1862 and of Cavour in 1861
caused Massimo great grief, and he subsequently led a com-
paratively retired life. But he took part in politics, both as a
deputy and a writer, his two chief subjects of interest being
the Roman question and the relations of Piedmont (now the
kingdom of Italy) witli Mazzini and the other revolutionists.
In his opinion Italy must be unified by means of the Franco-
Piedmontese army alone, all connexion with the conspirators
being eschewed, while the pope should enjoy nominal sovereignty
over Rome, with full spiritual independence, the capital of Italy
being established elsewhere, but the Romans being Italian citizens
(see his letters to E. Rendu and his pamphlet Le queslioni
ur genii). He strongly disapproved of the convention of 1864
between the Italian government and the pope. The last few years
of d'Azeglio 's life were spent chiefly at his villa of Cannero, where
he set to work to write his own memoirs. He died of fever on
the isth of January 1866.
Massimo d'Azeglio was a very attractive personality, as well
as an absolutely honest patriot, and a characteristic example
of the best type of Piedmontese aristocrat. He was cautious
and conservative; in his general ideas on the liberation of Italy
he was wrong, and to some extent he was an amateur in politics,
but of his sincerity there is no doubt. As an author his political
writings are trenchant and clear, but his novels are somewhat
heavy and old-fashioned, and are interesting only if one reads
the political allusions between the lines.
Besides a variety of newspaper articles and pamphlets, d'Azeglio's
chief works are the two novels Ettore Fieramosca(l8^)a.nd Niccolo dei
Lapi( 1841), and a volume of autobiographical memoirs entitled I Miei
Ricordi, a most charming work published after his death, in 1866, but
unfortunately incomplete. See in addition to the Ricordi, L. Carpi's
// Risorgimento Italiano,vo\. i. pp. 288 sq . and the Souvenirs historiques
of Constance d'Azeglio, Massimo's niece (Turin, 1884). (L. V.*)
AZERBAIJAN (also spelt ADERBIJAN; the Azerbadegan of
medieval writers,the A thropalakana.nd A /ro/>ateneof theancients),
the north-western and most important province of Persia. It is
separated from Russian territory on the N. by the river Aras
(Araxes), while it has the Caspian Sea, Gilan and Khamseh
(Zenjan) on the E., Kurdistan on the S., and Asiatic Turkey
on the W. Its area is estimated at 32,000 sq. m.; its population
at i | to 2 millions, comprising various races, as Persians proper,
Turks, Kurds, Syrians, Armenians, &c. The country is superior
in fertility to most provinces of Persia, and consists of a regular
succession of undulating eminences, partially cultivated and
opening into extensive plains. Near the centre of the province
the mountains of Sahand rise in an accumulated mass to the height
cf 1 2 ,000 ft. above the sea. The highest mountain of the province
is in its eastern part, Mount Savelan, with an elevation of 15,792
ft., and the Talish Mountains, which run from north to south,
parallel to and at no great distance from the Caspian, have an
altitude of 9000 ft. The principal rivers are the Aras and Kizil
Uzain, both receiving numerous tributaries and flowing into the
Caspian, and the Jaghatu, Tatava, Murdi, Aji and others, which
AZIMUTH AZO COMPOUNDS
81
drain into the Urmia lake. The country to the west of the lake,
with the districts of Selmas and Urmia, is the most prosperous
part of Azerbaijan, yet even here the intelligent traveller laments
the want of enterprise among the inhabitants. Azerbaijan is one
of the most productive provinces of Persia. The orchards and
gardens in which many villages are embosomed yield delicious
fruits of almost every description, and great quantities, dried,
are exported, principally to Russia. Provisions are cheap and
abundant, but there is a lack of forests and timber trees. Lead,
copper, sulphur, orpiment, also lignite, have been found within
the confines of the province; also a kind of beautiful, variegated,
translucent marble, which takes a high polish, is used in the
construction of palatial buildings, tanks, baths, &c., and is known
as Maragha, or Tabriz marble. The climate is healthy, not hot
in summer, and cold in winter. The cold sometimes is severely
felt by the poor classes owing to want of proper fuel, for which a
great part of the population has no substitute except dried cow-
dung. Snow lies on the mountains for about eight months in the
year, and water is everywhere abundant. The best soils when
abundantly irrigated yield from 50- to 6o-fold, and the water
for this purpose is supplied by the innumerable streams which
intersect the province. The natives of Azerbaijan make excellent
soldiers, and about a third of the Persian army is composed of
them. The province is divided into a number of administra-
tive sub-provinces or districts, each with a hakim, governor
or sub-governor, under the governor-general, who under the
Kajar dynasty has always been the heir-apparent to the throne
of Persia, assisted by a responsible minister appointed by the
shah. The administrative divisions are as follows: Tabriz
and environs; Uskuh; Deh-Kharegan; Maragha; Miandoab;
Saujbulagh; Sulduz; Urmia; Selmas; Khoi; Maku; Gerger;
Merend; Karadagh; Arvanek; Talish; Ardebil; Mishkin;
Khalkhal; Hashtrud; Garmrud; Afshar; Sain Kaleh; Ujan;
Sarab. The revenue amounts to about 200,000 per annum in
cash and kind, and nearly all of it is expended in the province
for the maintenance of the court of the heir-apparent, the salaries
and pay to government officials, troops, pensions, &c. (A.H.-S.)
AZIMUTH (from the Arabic), in astronomy, the angular
distance from the north or south point of the horizon to the foot
of the vertical circle through a heavenly body. In the case of a
horizontal line the azimuth is its deviation from the north or
south direction.
AZO (c. 1150-1230), Italian jurist. This Azo, whose name is
sometimes written Azzo and Azzolenus, and who is occasionally
described as Azo Soldanus, from the surname of his father, is to
be distinguished from two other famous Italians of the same
name, viz. Azo Lambertaccius, a canonist of the i3th century,
professor of canon law at the university of Bologna, author of
Questiones in jus canonicum, and Azo de Ramenghis, a canonist of
the 1 4th century, also a professor of canon law at Bologna, and
author of Repetitiones super libra Decretorum. Few particulars
are known as to the life of Azo, further than that he was born
at Bologna about the middle of the i2th century, and was a
pupil of Joannes Bassianus, and afterwards became professor
of civil law in the university of his native town. He also
took an active part in municipal life, Bologna, with the other
Lombard republics, having gained its municipal independence.
Azo occupied a very important position amongst the glossators,
and his Readings on the Code, which were collected by his pupil,
Alessandro de Santo Aegidio, and completed by the additions
of Hugolinus and Odofredus, form a methodical exposition of
Roman law, and were of such weight before the tribunals that it
used to be said, " Chi non ha Azzo, non vada a palazzo." Azo
gained a great reputation as a prbfessor, and numbered amongst
his pupils Accursius and Jacobus Balduinus. He died about 1 230.
AZO COMPOUNDS, organic substances of the type R-N:N-R'
(where R = an aryl radical and R' = a substituted alkyl, or
aryl radical). They may be prepared by the reduction of nitro
compounds in alkaline solution (using zinc dust and alkali, or a
solution of an alkaline stannite as a reducing agent) ; by oxida-
tion of hydrazo compounds; or by the coupling of a diazotized
amine and any compound of a phenolic or aminic type, provided
that there is a free para position in the amine or phenol. They
may also be obtained by the molecular rearrangement of the
diazoamines, when these are warmed with the parent base and
its hydrochloride. This latter method of formation has been
studied by H. Goldschmidt and R. U. Reinders (Btr., 1896, 29,
p. 1369), who found that the reaction is monomolecular, and
that the velocity constant of the reaction is proportional to the
amount of the hydrochloride of the base present and also to
the temperature, but is independent of the concentration of
the diazoamine. The azo compounds are intensely coloured,
but are not capable of being used as dycstuffs unless they
contain salt-forming, acid or basic groups (see DYEING). By
oxidizing agents they are converted into azoxy compounds, and
by reducing agents into hydrazo compounds or amines.
Azo-benzene, CjHjNiNQHs, discovered by E. Mitscherlich
in 1834, may be prepared by reducing nitrobenzene in alcoholic
solution with zinc dust and caustic soda; by the condensation
of nitrosobenzene with aniline in hot glacial acetic acid solution;
or by the oxidation of aniline with sodium hypobromite. It
crystallizes from alcohol in orange red plates which melt at
68 C. and boil at 293 C. It does not react with acids or alkalis,
but on reduction with zinc dust in acetic acid solution yields
aniline.
Amino-azo Compounds may be prepared as shown above.
They are usually yellowish brown or red in colour, the presence
of more amino groups leading to browner shades, whilst the
introduction of alkylated amino groups gives redder shades.
They usually crystallize well and are readily reduced. When
heated with aniline and aniline hydrochloride they yield indu-
lines (<?..). Amino-azo-benzene, QHs-Nz-CeHiNH^ crystallizes
in yellow plates or needles and melts at 126 C. Its constitu-
tion is determined by the facts that it may be prepared by
reducing nitro-azo-benzene by ammonium sulphide and that
by reduction with stannous chloride it yields aniline and
meta-phenylene diamine. Diamino-azo-benzene (chrysoidine),
C 6 H<i-N2-CsH3(NH z )2, first prepared by O. Witt (Ber., 1877,
10, p. 656), is obtained by coupling phenyl diazonium chloride
with meta-phenylene diamine. It crystallizes in red octa-
hedra and dyes silk and wool yellow. Triamino-azo-benzene
(meta-aminobenzene-azo-meta-phenylene diamine or Bismarck
brown, phenylene brown, vesuvine, Manchester brown),
NH 2 -C8H4-N2-C6Hj(NH2)2, is prepared by the action of nitrous
acid on meta-phenylene diamine. It forms brown crystals
which are readily soluble in hot water, and it dyes mordanted
cotton a dark brown. On the composition of the commercial
Bismarck brown see E. Tauber and F. Walder {Ber., 1897, 30,
pp.2in, 2899; 1900,33, p. 2116). Alkylated amino-azo-benzenes
are also known, and are formed by the coupling of diazonium
salts with alkylated amines, provided they contain a free para
position with respect to the amino group. In these cases it has
been shown by H. Goldschmidt and A. Merz (Ber., 1897, 30,
p. 670) that the velocity of formation of the amino-azo compound
depends only on the nature of the reagents and not on the con-
centration, and that in coupling the hydrochloride of a tertiary
amine with diazobenzene suiphonic acid the reaction takes place
between the acid and the base set free by the hydrolytic dissocia-
tion of its salt, for the formation of the amino-azo compound,
when carried out in the presence of different acids, takes place
most rapidly with the weakest acid (H. Goldschmidt and F. Buss,
Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2075).
Methyl orange (helianthin, gold orange, Mandarin orange),
(CH s )2N-C6H 4 -N2-C6H 4 S03Na, is the sodium salt of para-
dimethylaminobenzene-azo-benzene suiphonic acid. It is an
orange crystalline powder which is soluble in water, forming a
yellow solution. The free acid is intensely red in colour. Methyl
orange is used largely as an indicator. The constitution of methyl
orange follows from the fact that on reduction by stannous
chloride in hydrochloric acid solution it yields sulphanilic acid
and para-aminodimethyl aniline.
Oxyazo Compounds. The oxyazo compounds are prepared by
adding a solution of a diazonium salt to a cold slightly alkaline
solution of a phenol. The diazo group takes up the para position
82
AZOIMIDE
with regard to the hydroxyl group, and if this be prevented it
then goes into the ortho position. It never goes directly into the
meta position.
The constitution of the oxyazo compounds has attracted much
attention, some chemists holding that they are true azophenols
of the type R-N 2 -RrOH, while others look upon them as having
a quinonoid structure, i.e. as being quinone hydrazones, type
R-NH-N:Ri:O. The first to attack the purely chemical side
were Th. Zincke (Ber., 1883,16, p. 2929; 1884, 17, p. 3026; 1887,
20, p. 3171) and R. Meldola (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1889, 55, pp. 114,
603). Th. Zincke found that the products obtained by coupling
a diazonium salt with o-naphthol, and by condensing phenyl-
hydrazine with o-naphthoquinone, were identical; whilst
Meldola acetylated the azophenols, and split the acetyl pro-
ducts by reduction in acid solution, but obtained no satisfactory
results. K. Auwers (Zeit.f. phys. Chem., 1896, 21, p. 355; Ber.,
1900, 33, p. I302)examined the questionfromthe physico-chemical
standpoint by determining the freezing-point depressions, the
result being that the para-oxyazo compounds give abnormal
depressions and the ortho-oxyazo compounds give normal
depressions; Auwers then concluded that the para compounds
are phenolic and the ortho compounds are quinone hydrazones
or act as such. A. Hantzsch (Ber., 1899, 32, pp. 590, 3089) con-
siders that the oxyazo compounds are to be classed as pseudo-
acids, possessing in the free condition the configuration of quinone
hydrazones, their salts, however, being of the normal phenolic
type. J. T. Hewitt (Jour. Chem. Soc., 1900, 77, pp. 99 et seq.)
nitrated para-oxyazobenzene with dilute nitric acid and found
that it gave a benzene-azo-ortho-nitrophenol, whereas quinones
are not attacked by dilute nitric acid. Hewitt has also attacked
the problem by brominating the oxyazobenzenes, and has shown
that when the hydrobromic acid produced in the reaction is
allowed to remain in the system, a brombenzene-azo-phenol is
formed, whilst if it be removed (by the addition of sodium
acetate) bromination takes place in the phenolic nucleus; con-
sequently the presence of the mineral acid gives the azo compound
a pseudo-quinonoid character, which it does not possess if the
mineral acid be removed from the sphere of the reaction.
Para-oxyazobenzene (benzene-azo-phenol), C S H 6 N: N(i)-CeH4-
OH (4), is prepared by coupling diazotized aniline with phenol
in alkaline solution. It is an orange-red crystalline compound
which melts at 154 C. Ortho-oxyazobenzene, CeH 6 N:N(i)C 6 Iic
OH(2), was obtained in small quantity by E. Bamberger
(Ber., 1900, 33, p. 3189) simultaneously with the para com-
pound, from which it may be separated by distillation in a
current of steam, the ortho compound passing over with the
steam. It crystallizes in orange-red needles which melt at
82-3-83 C. On reduction with zinc dust in dilute sal-
ammonjac solution, it yields ortho-aminophenol and aniline.
Meta-oxyazobenzene, CjH 6 N: N(i)C 6 Hi-OH(3), was obtained in
1903 by P. Jacobson (Ber., 1903, 36, p. 4093) by condensing
ortho-anisidine with diazo benzene, the resulting compound
being then diazotized and reduced by alcohol to benzene-azo-
meta-anisole, from which meta-oxyazobenzene was obtained
by hydrolysis with aluminium chloride. It melts at 1 1 2-1 14 C.
and is easily reduced to the corresponding hy.drazo compound.
Diazo- Amines. The diazo-amines, R-N : N-NHRi, are ob-
tained by the action of primary amines on diazonium salts;
by the action of nitrous acid on a free primary amine, an iso-
diazohydroxide being formed as an intermediate product which
then condenses with the amine; and by the action of nitros-
amines on primary amines. They are crystalline solids, usually
of a yellow colour, which do not unite with acids; they are
readily converted into amino-azo compounds (see above) and are
decomposed by the concentrated halogen acids, yielding haloid
benzenes, nitrogen and an amine. Acid anhydrides replace the
imino-hydrogen atom by acidyl radicals, and boiling with water
converts them into phenols. They combine with phenyl iso-
cyanate to form urea derivatives (H. Goldschmidt, Ber., 1888,
21, p. 2578), and on reduction with zinc dust (preferably in alco-
holic acetic acid solution) they yield usually a hydrazine and an
amine. Diazoamino benzene, CH 5 -N : N-NHCeHj, was first
obtained by P. Griess(Ann., 1862, 121, p. 238). It crystallizes in
yellow laminae,which melt at 96 C. and explode at slightly higher
temperatures. It is readily soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene.
Diazoimino benzene, C 6 H 6 Nj, is also known. It may be pre-
pared by the action of ammonia on diazobenzene perbromide;
by the action of hydroxylamine on a diazonium sulphate (K.
Heumann and L. Oeconomides, Ber., 1887, 20, p. 372); and by
the action of phenylhydrazine on a diazonium sulphate. It is
a yellow oil which boils at 59 C. (12 mm.), and possesses a
stupefying odour. It explodes when heated. Hydrochloric
acid converts it into chloraniline, nitrogen being eliminated;
whilst boiling sulphuric acid converts it into aminophenol.
i i
Azoxy Compounds, R-N-0-N-R', are usually yellow or red
crystalline solids which result from the reduction of nitro or
nitroso compounds by heating them with alcoholic potash
(preferably using methyl alcohol). They may also be obtained
by the oxidation of azo compounds. When reduced (in acid
solution) they yield amines; distillation with reduced iron
gives azo compounds, and warming with ammonium sulphide
gives hydrazo compounds. Concentrated sulphuric acid converts
azoxybenzene into oxyazobenzene (O. Wallach, Ber., 1880, 13,
p. 525). Azoxybenzene, (C 6 H 6 N) 2 O, crystallizes from alcohol in
yellow needles, which melt at 36 C. On distillation, it yields
aniline and azobenzene. Azoxybenzene is also found among
the electro-reduction products of nitrobenzene, when the reduc-
tion is carried out in alcoholic-alkaline solution.
The mixed azo compounds are those in which the azo group
N: N- is united with an aromatic radical on the one hand, and
with a radical of the aliphatic series on the other. The most easily
obtained mixed azo compounds are those formed by the union
of a diazonium salt with the potassium or sodium salt of a
nitroparaffin (V. Meyer, Ber., 1876, 9, p. 384):
C 6 H S N 2 -NO,+CH 3 -CH(N0 2 )K = KN0 5 +C,H 6 N 2 -CH(N0 2 )CH,.
Benzene-azo-nitro-ethane.
Those not containing a nitro group may be prepared by the
oxidation of the corresponding mixed hydrazo compounds with
mercuric oxide. E. Bamberger (Ber., 1898, 31, p. 455) has shown
that the nitro-alkyl derivatives behave as though they possess
the constitution of hydrazones, for on heating with dilute
alkalies they split more or less readily into an alkaline nitrite
and an acid hydrazide:
C,H 6 NH-N : C(NOj)CH 3 +NaOH = NaNO 2 +C,H s NH-NH-CO-CH,.
Benzene-azo-methane, C 8 H 6 -N 2 -CHj, is a yellow oil which
boils at 150 C. and is readily volatile in steam. Benzene-azo-
ethane, C 6 H 6 -N 2 -C 2 H6, is a yellow oil which boils at about 180
C. with more or less decomposition. On standing with 60 %
sulphuric acid for some time, it is converted into the isomeric
acetaldehyde-phenylhydrazone,C 6 H 6 NH-N: CH-CHa(.Ber., 1896,
29, p. 794).
The diazo cyanides, CH 6 N 2 -CN, and carboxylic acids, CH 6 -
N 2 -COOH, may also be considered as mixed azo derivatives.
Diazobenzenecyanide, C 6 H 6 N 2 -CN, is an unstable oil, formed
when potassium cyanide is added to a solution of a diazonium
salt. Phenyl-azo-carboxylic acid, C 6 H 6 -N 2 -COOH, is obtained
in the form of its potassium salt when phenylsemicarbazide is
oxidized with potassium permanganate in alkaline solution
(J. Thiele, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 2600). It crystallizes in orange-red
needles and is decomposed by water. The corresponding amide,
phenyl-azo-carbonamide, C 6 H6N 2 -CONH 2 , also results from the
oxidation of phenylsemicarbazide (Thiele, loc. cit.), and forms
reddish-yellow needles which melt at 114 C. When heated
with benzaldehyde to 120 C. it yields diphenyloxytriazole,
(C,H 5 ) 2 CN,C(OH).
AZOIMIDE, or HYDRAZOIC ACID, N 3 H, a compound of nitrogen
and hydrogen, first isolated in 1890 by Th. Curtius (Berichte,
1890, 23, p. 3023). It is the hydrogen compound corresponding
to P. Greiss' diazoimino benzene, CjHsNs, which is prepared by
the addition of ammonia to diazobenzene perbromide.
Curtius found that benzoylglycollic acid gavebenzoyl hydrazine
with hydrazine hydrate:
NH,-NH-CH S -COOH.
AZORES
(Ethyl bcnzoate may be employed instead of benzoyl glycollic
acid for this reaction.) This compound gave a nitroso compound
with nitrous acid, which changed spontaneously into benzoyl-
azoimide by loss of water:
C.H6CO NH NH,+HONO = H 2 O+C,H,CO N(NO) NH,.
O N,.
The resulting benzoylazoimide is easily hydrolysed by boiling
with alcoholic solutions of caustic alkalis, a benzoate of the
alkali metal and an alkali salt of the new acid being obtained;
the latter is precipitated in crystalline condition on standing.
An improved method of preparation was found in the use of
hippuric acid, which reacts with hydrazine hydrate to form
hippuryl hydrazine, CeH 6 CONH-CH 2 CONH-NH 2 , and this sub-
stance is converted by nitrous acid into diazo-hippuramide,
CjEsCONH-CHj-CO-NH-Nz-OH, which is hydrolysed by the
action of caustic alkalis with the production of salts of hydrazoic
acid. To obtain the free acid it is best to dissolve the diazo-
hippuramide in dilute soda, warm the solution to ensure the
formation of the sodium salt, and distil the resulting liquid
with dilute sulphuric acid. The pure acid may be obtained
by fractional distillation as a colourless liquid of very unpleasant
smell, boiling at 30 C., and extremely explosive. It is soluble in
water, and the solution dissolves many metals (zinc, iron, &c.)
with liberation of hydrogen and formation of salts (azoimides,
azides or hydrazoates). All the salts are explosive and readily
interact with the alkyl iodides. In its properties it shows
some analogy to the halogen acids, since it forms difficultly
soluble lead, silver and. mercurous salts. The metallic salts all
crystallize in the anhydrous condition and decompose on heating,
leaving a residue of the pure metal. The acid is a " weak " acid,
being ionized only to a very slight extent in dilute aqueous
solution.
E. Noelting and E. Grandmougin (Berichle, 1891, 24, p. 2546)
obtained azoimide from dinitraniline, CeHjtNOz^-NI^, by
diazotization and conversion of the diazo compound into the
perbromide, (NOj^CeHs-^-Bra. This compound is then decom-
posed by ammonia, dinitrophenylhydrazoate being formed,
which on hydrolysis with alcoholic potash gives potassium
hj'drazoate (azide) and dinitrophenol. The solution is then
acidified and distilled, when azoimide passes over. Somewhat
later, they found that it could be prepared from diazobenzene
imide, provided a nitro group were present in the ortho or para
position to the diazo group. The para-nitro compound is dropped
slowly into a cold solution of one part of caustic potash in ten
parts of absolute alcohol; the solution becomes dark red in
colour and is then warmed for two days on the water bath. After
the greater portion of the alcohol has distilled off, the solution
is acidified with sulphuric acid and the azoimide distilled over.
The yield obtained is only about 40% of that required by
theory, on account of secondary reactions taking place. Ortho-
nitro-diazobenzene imide only yields 30%.
W. Wislicenus (Berichte, 1892, 25, p. 2084) has prepared the
sodium salt by passing nitrous oxide over sodamide at high
temperatures. The acid can also be obtained by the action of
nitrous acid on hydrazine sulphate; by the oxidation of
hydrazine by hydrogen peroxide and sulphuric acid (A. W.
Browne, J. Anter. Ghent. Soc., 1905, 25, p. 251), or by
ammonium metavanadate (A. W. Browne and F. F. Shetterly,
Abst. J.C.S., 1907, ii. p. 863).
Ammonium azoimide, Nj-NH^, may be prepared by boiling
diazohippuramide with alcoholic ammonia, until no more
ammonia escapes, the following reaction taking place:
C,H t CO NHCH 2 CONH-N Z -OH+2NH3 = N 3 NH4+H 2 0+
C 6 H S CO NH-CH 2 -CO-NH,.
The liquid is then allowed to stand for twelve hours, and the
c.ear alcoholic solution is decanted from the precipitated hip-
puramide. To the alcoholic solution, four times its volume of
ether is added, when the ammonium salt is precipitated. It is
then filtered, washed with ether, and air-dried. The salt is
readily soluble in water, and is only feebly alkaline. It is ex-
tremely explosive. Hydrazine azoimide, NjH B , is also known.
Chloroazoimide, Cl-Nj, the chloride corresponding to azoimide,
was obtained by F. Raschig (Ber., 1908, 41, p. 4194) as a
highly explosive colourless gas on acidifying a mixture of
sodium azide and hypochlorite with acetic or boric acid.
AZORES (A fores), or WESTERN ISLANDS, an archipelago in the
Atlantic Ocean, belonging to the kingdom of Portugal. Pop..
(1900) 256,291; area, 922 sq. m. The Azores extend in an
oblique line from N.W. to S.E., between 36 55' and 39* 55' N.,
and between 25 and 31 16' W. They are divided into three
widely severed groups, rising from a depth of more than 2 m. '
The south-eastern group consists of St Michael's (Sao Miguel)
and St Mary (Santa Maria), with Formigas; the central, of
Scale. 1:6.500.000
English Miles
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Terceira 1
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Fayal (Faial), Pico, St George (Sao Jorge), Terceira and Graciosa;
the north-western, of Flores and Corvo.
The nearest continental land is Cape da Roca on the Portuguese
coast, which lies 830 m. E. of St Michael's; while Cape Cantin,
the nearest point on the African mainland, is more than 900 m.
distant, and Cape Race in Newfoundland, the nearest American
headland, is more than 1000 m. Thus the Azores are the
farthest from any continent of all the island groups in the
Atlantic; but they are usually regarded as belonging to Europe,
as their climate and flora are European in character.
Physical Description. The aspect of all the islands is very
similar in general characteristics, presenting an elevated and
8 4
AZORES
undulating outline, with little or no tableland, and rising into
peaks, of which the lowest, that of Corvo, is 350 ft., and the
highest that of Pico, 7612 ft. above sea-level. The lines of sea-
coast are, with few exceptions, high and precipitous, with bases
of accumulated masses of fallen rock, in which open bays, or
scarcely more enclosed inlets, form the harbours of the trading
towns. The volcanic character of the whole archipelago is
obvious, and has been abundantly confirmed by the numerous
earthquakes and eruptions which have taken place since its
discovery. Basalt and scoria are the chief erupted materials.
Hitherto Flores, Corvo and Graciosa have been quite exempt,
and Fayal has only suffered from one eruption (1672). The
centre of activity has for the most part been St Michael's, while
the neighbouring island of St Mary has altogether escaped. In
1444-1445 there was a great eruption at St Michael's, of which,
however, the accounts that have been preserved exaggerate the
importance. In 1522 the town of Villa Franca, at that time the
capital of the island, was buried, with all its 6000 inhabitants,
during a violent convulsion. In 1572 an eruption took place in
Pico; in 1580 St George was the scene of numerous outbursts;
and in 1614 a little town in Terceira was destroyed. In 1630,
1652, 1656, 1755, 1852, &c., St Michael's was visited with
successive eruptions and earthquakes, several of them of great
violence. On various occasions, as in 1638, 1720, 1811 and 1867,
subterranean eruptions have taken place, which have sometimes
been accompanied by the appearance of temporary islands. Of
these the most remarkable was thrown up in June 1811, about
half a league from the western extremity of St Michael's. It
was called Sabrina by the commander of the British man-of-war
of that name, who witnessed the phenomenon.
Climate. The climate is particularly temperate, but the ex-
tremes of sensible heat and cold are increased by the humidity.
The range of the thermometer is from 45 Fahr., the lowest known
extreme, or 48, the ordinary lowest extreme of January, to 82,
the ordinary, or 86, the highest known extreme of July, near
the level of the sea. Between these two points (both taken in
the shade) there is from month to month a pretty regular grada-
tion of increase or decrease, amounting to somewhat less than
four degrees. In winter the prevailing winds are from the north-
west, west and south; in summer the most frequent are the
north, north-east and east. The weather is often extremely
stormy, and the winds from the west and south-west render the
navigation of the coasts very dangerous.
Fauna. The mammalia of the Azores are limited to the rabbit,
weasel, ferret, rat (brown and black), mouse and bat, in addition
to domestic animals. The game includes the woodcock, red
partridge (introduced in the i6th century), quail and snipe.
Owing to the damage inflicted on the crops by the multitude of
blackbirds, bullfinches, chaffinches and green canaries, a reward
was formerly paid for the destruction of birds in St Michael's,
and it is said that over 400,000 were destroyed in several succes-
sive years between 1875 and 1885. There are valuable fisheries
of tunny, mullet and bonito. The porpoise, dolphin and whale
are also common. Whale-fishing is a profitable industry, with
its headquarters at Fayal, whence the sperm-oil is exported.
Eels are found in the rivers. The only indigenous reptile is the
lizard. Fresh-water molluscs are unknown, and near the coast
the marine fauna is not rich; but terrestrial molluscs abound,
several species being peculiar to the Azores.
Flora. The general character of the flora is decidedly
European, no fewer than 400 out of the 478 species generally
considered as indigenous belonging likewise to that continent,
while only four are found in America, and forty are peculiar to
the archipelago. Vegetation in most of the islands is remarkably
rich, especially in grasses, mosses, and ferns, heath, juniper, and
a variety of shrubs. Of tall-growing trees there was, till the
1 9th century, an almost total lack; but the Bordeaux pine,
European poplar, African palm-tree, Australian eucalyptus,
chestnut, tulip-tree, elm, oak, and many others, were then
successfully introduced. The orange, apricot, banana, lemon,
citron, Japanese medlar, and pomegranate are the common
fruits, and various other- varieties are more or less cultivated.
At one time much attention was given to the growing of sugar-
cane, but it has now for the most part been abandoned. The
culture of indigo, introduced in the i6th century, also belongs to
the past. A kind of fern (Dicksonia culcila), called by the natives
cabellinho, furnishes a silky material for the stuffing of mat-
tresses and is exported to Brazil and Portugal.
Population. The inhabitants of the islands are mostly of
Portuguese origin, with a well-marked strain of Moorish and
Flemish blood. There is a high birth-rate and a low average
of infant mortality. A large proportion of the poorer classes,
especially among the older men and women, are totally illiterate,
but education tends to spread more rapidly than in Portugal
itself, owing to the custom of sending children to the United
States, where they are taught in the state schools. Negroes,
mulattoes, English, Scottish and Irish immigrants are present
in considerable numbers, especially in Fayal and St Michael's.
The total number of resident foreigners in 1900 was 1490.
Government. The Azores are subdivided into three adminis-
trative districts named after their chief towns, i.e. Ponta
Delgada, the capital of St Michael's; Angra, or Angra do
Heroismo, the capital of Terceira; and Horta, the capital of
Fayal. St Michael's and St Mary are included in the district
of Ponta Delgada;. Terceira, St George and Graciosa, in that
of Angra; Pico, Fayal, Flores and Corvo, in that of Horta.
Four members are returned by Ponta Delgada to the parliament
in Lisbon, while each of the other districts returns two members.
Roman Catholicism is the creed of the majority, and Angra is
an episcopal see. For purposes of military administration the
islands form two commands, with their respective headquarters
at Angra and Ponta Delgada. Besides the frequent and regular
services of mails which connect the/ Azores with Portugal and
other countries, there is a cable frojn Lisbon to Villa Franca do
Campo, in St Michael's, and thence to Pico, Fayal, St George
and Graciosa. Fayal is connected with Waterville, in Ireland,
by a cable laid in 1901. At Angra and Ponta Delgada there are
meteorological stations. The principal seaports are Angra
(pop. 1900, 10,788), Ponta Delgada (17,620), and Horta (6574).
Trade. The trade of the Azores, long a Portuguese monopoly,
is now to a great extent shared by the United Kingdom and
Germany, and is chiefly carried in British vessels. Textiles are
imported from Portugal; coal from Great Britain; sugar from
Germany, Madeira and the United States; stationery, hardware,
chemicals, paints, oils, &c., from the United Kingdom and
Germany. The exports consist chiefly of fruit, wine, natural
mineral waters and provisions. The trade in pineapples is
especially important. No fewer than 940,000 pineapples were
exported in 1902 and 1903, going in almost equal quantities to
London and Hamburg. The fruit is raised under glass. Pottery,
cotton fabrics, spirits, straw hats and tea are produced in the
district of Ponta Delgada; linen and woollen goods, cheese,
butter, soap, bricks and tiles, in that of Angra; baskets, mats,
and various ornamental articles made from straw, osier, and the
pith of dried fig- wood, in that of Horta.
The largest and most populous of the Azores is St Michael's,
which has an area of 297 sq. m., and in 1900 had 121,340 inhabit-
ants. Graciosa (pop. 8385; area, 17 sq. m.) and St George
(16,177; 4 sq. m.) form part of the central group. Graciosa
is noteworthy for the beauty of its scenery. Its chief towns are
Santa Cruzde Graciosa (2185) and Guadalupe (2717). The chief
towns of St George are Ribeira Seca (2817) and Velas (2009).
History. It does not appear that the ancient Greeks and
Romans had any knowledge of the Azores, but from the number
of Carthaginian coins discovered in Corvo it has been supposed
that the islands must have been visited by that adventurous
people. The Arabian geographers, Edrisi in the 1 2th century,
and Ibn-al-Wardi in the i4th, describe, after the Canaries, nine
other islands in the Western Ocean, which are in all probability
the Azores. This identification is supported by various con-
siderations. The number of islands is the same; the climate
under which they are placed by the Arabians makes them north
of the Canaries; and special mention is made of the hawks or
buzzards, which were sufficiently numerous at a later period to
AZOTH AZOXIMES
give rise to the present name (Port. A$or, a hawk). The Arabian
writers represent them as having been populous, and as having
contained cities of some magnitude; but they state that the
inhabitants had been greatly reduced by intestine warfare. The
Azores are first found distinctly marked in a map of 1351, the
southern group being named the Goat Islands (Cabreras); the
middle group, the Wind or Dove Islands (De Ventura sive de
Columbis); and the western, the Brazil Island (De Brazi) the
word Brazil at that time being employed for any red dye-stuff.
In a Catalan map of the year 1375 Corvo is found as Corn Marini,
and Flores as Li Conigi; while St George is already designated
San Zone. It has been conjectured that the discoverers were
Genoese, but of this there is not sufficient evidence. It is plain,
however, that the so-called Flemish discovery by van der Berg
is only worthy of the name in a very secondary sense. According
to the usual account, he was driven on the islands in 1432, and
the news excited considerable interest at the court of Lisbon.
The navigator, Gonzalo Velho Cabral not to be confounded
with his greater namesake, Pedro Alvarez Cabral was sent to
prosecute the discovery. Another version relates that Prince
Henry the Navigator of Portugal had in his possession a map in
which the islands were laid down, and that he sent out Cabral
through confidence in its accuracy. The map had been presented
to him by his brother, Dom Pedro, who had travelled as far as
Babylon. Be this as it may, Cabral reached the island, which
he named Santa Maria, in 1432, and in 1444 took possession of
St Michael's. The other islands were all discovered by 1457.
Colonization had meanwhile been going on prosperously; and
in 1466 Fayal was presented by Alphonso V. to his aunt, Isabella,
the duchess of Burgundy. An influx of Flemish settlers followed ,
and the islands became known for a time as the Flemish Islands.
From 1580 to 1640 they were subject, like the rest of the
Portuguese kingdom, to Spain. At that time the Azores were
the grand rendezvous for the fleets on their voyage home from
the Indies; and hence they became a theatre of that maritime
warfare which was carried on by the English under Queen
Elizabeth against the Peninsular powers. One such expedition,
which took place in 1591, led to the famous sea-fight off Flores,
between the English ship " Revenge," commanded by Sir Richard
Grenville, and a Spanish fleet of fifty-three vessels. Under the
active administration of the marquis de Pombal (1699-1782), con-
siderable efforts were made for the improvement of the Azores,
but the stupid and bigoted government which followed rather
tended to destroy these benefits. Towards the beginning of the
igth century, the possession of the islands, was contested by
the claimants for the crown of Portugal. The adherents of the
constitution, who supported against Miguel the rights of Maria
(II.) da Gloria, obtained possession of Terceira in 1829, where
they succeeded in maintaining themselves, and after various
struggles, Queen Maria's authority was established over all the
islands. She resided at Angra from 1830 to 1833.
For a general account of the islands, see The Azores, by W. F.
Walker (London, 1886), and Madeira and the Canary Islands, with
the Azores, by A. S. Brown (London, 1901). On the fauna and flora
of the islands, the following books by H. Drouet are useful:
Elements de la faune aforeenne (Paris, 1861); Mollusques marins
des ties Azores (1858), Lettres atoreennes (1862), and Catalogue de la
flore des ties Azores, precede de Vitineraire d'une voyage dans eel
archipel (1866). The progress of Azorian commerce is best shown
in the British and American consular reports. For history, see
La Conquista de las Azores en 1583, by C. Fernandez Duro (Madrid,
1886), and Histoire de la decouverte des ties Azores et de I'origine de
leur denomination d'Ues flamandes, by J. Mees (Ghent, 1901).
AZOTH, the name given by the alchemists to mercury, and
by Paracelsus to his universal remedy.
AZOTUS, the name given by Greek and Roman writers to
Ashdod, an ancient city of Palestine, now represented by a few
remains in the little village of 'Esdud, in the governmental
district of Acre. It was situated about 3 m. inland from the
Mediterranean, on the famous military route between Syria and
Egypt, about equidistant (18 m.) from Joppa and Gaza. As
one of the five chief cities of the Philistines and the seat of the
worship of Dagon (i Sam. v.; cf. i Mace. x. 83), it maintained,
down even to the days of the Maccabees, a vigorous though
somewhat intermittent independence against the power of the
Israelites, by whom it was nominally assigned to the territory of
Judah. In 711 B.C. it was captured by the Assyrians (Is. xx. i),
but soon regained its power, and was strong enough in the
next century to resist the assaults of Psammetichus, king of
Egypt, for twenty-nine years (Herod, ii. 157). Restored by the
Roman Gabinius from the ruins to which it had been reduced
by the Jewish wars (i Mace. v. 68, x. 77, xvi. 10), it was presented
by Augustus to Salome, the sister of Herod. The only New
Testament reference is in Acts viii. 40. Ashdod became the
seat of a bishop early in the Christian era, but seems never to
have attained any importance as a town. The Mount Azotus
of i Mace. ix. 15, where Judas Maccabeus fell, is possibly the
rising ground on which the village stands. A fine Saracenic
khan is the principal relic of antiquity at "Esdud.
AZOV, or Asov (in Turkish, Asak), a town of Russia, in the
government of the Don Cossacks, on the left bank of the southern
arm of the Don, about 20 m. from its mouth. The ancient
Tanais lay some 10 m. to the north. In the I3th century the
Genoese had a factory here which they called Tana. Azov was
long a place of great military and commercial importance.
Peter the Great obtained possession of it after a protracted
siege in 1696, but in 1711 restored it to the Turks; in 1739 it
was finally united to the Russian empire. Since then it has
greatly declined, owing to the silting up of its harbour and the
competition of Taganrog. Its population, principally engaged
in the fisheries, numbered 25,124 in 1000.
AZOV, SEA OF, an inland sea of southern Europe, communi-
cating with the Black Sea by the Strait of Yenikale, or Kerch,
the ancient Bosporus Cimmerius. To the Romans it was known
as the Palus Maeolis, from the name of the neighbouring people,
who called it in their native language Temarenda, or Mother of
Waters. It was long supposed to possess direct communication
with the Northern Ocean. In prehistoric times a connexion with
the Caspian Sea existed; but since the earliest historical times
no great change has taken place in regard to the character or
relations of the Sea of Azov. It lies between 45 20' and 47 18'
N. lat., and between 35" and 39 E. long., its length from south-
west to north-east being 230 m., and its greatest breadth no.
The area runs to 14,515 sq. m. It generally freezes from
November to the middle of April. The Don is its largest and,
indeed, its only very important affluent. Near the mouth of
that river the depth of the sea varies from 3 to 10 ft., and the
greatest depth does not exceed 45 ft. Of recent years, too, the
level has been constantly dropping, for the surface lies 4f ft.
higher than the surface of the Black Sea. Fierce and continuous
winds from the east prevail during July and August, and in the
latter part of the year those from the north-east and south-east
are not unusual; a great variety of currents is thus produced.
The water is for the most part comparatively fresh, but differs
considerably in this respect according to locality and current.
Fish are so abundant that the Turks describe it as Baluk-deniz,
or Fish Sea. To the west, separated from the main basin by the
long narrow sand-spit of Arabat, lie the remarkable lagoons and
marshes known as the Sivash, or Putrid Sea; here the water
is intensely salt. The Sea of Azov is of great importance
to Russian commerce; along its shores stand the cities of
Taganrog, Berdyansk, Mariupol and Yenikale.
AZOXIMES (furo [a.b.] diazoles), a class of organic compounds
which contain the ring system N ~ CH >O. They may be
prepared by converting nitriles into amidoximes by the action
of hydroxylamine, the amidoximes so formed being then acylated
by acid chlorides or anhydrides. From these acyl derivatives
the elements of water are removed, either by simple heating
or by boiling their aqueous solution; this elimination is accom-
panied by the formation of the azoxime ring. Thus
NH 2 OH ... _ boil with
C,H,CN >C,H,-CN-OH
propionic anhydride
86
AZTECS AZYMITES
Azoximes can also be produced from o-benzil dioxime by the
" Beckmann " change. Most of the azoximes are very volatile
substances, sublime readily, and are easily soluble in water,
alcohol and benzene.
For detailed descriptions, see F. Tiemann (Ber., 1885, 18,
p. 1059), O. Schulz (Ber., 1885, 18, pp. 1084, 2459), and G. Muller
(Ber.,i886, 19, p. 1492) ; also Annual Reports of the Chemical Society).
AZTECS (from the Nahuatl word azllan, " place of the
Heron," or " Heron " people), the native name of one of the
tribes that occupied the tableland of Mexico on the arrival of
the Spaniards in America. It has been very frequently employed
as equivalent to the collective national title of Nahuatlecas or
Mexicans. The Aztecs came, according to native tradition,
from a country to which they gave the name of Aztlan, usually
supposed to lie towards the north-west, but the satisfactory
localization of it is one of the greatest difficulties in Mexican
history. The date of the exodus from Aztlan is equally un-
determined, being fixed by various authorities in the nth and
by others in the iath century. One Mexican manuscript gives
a date equivalent to A.D. 1164. They gradually increased their
influence among other tribes, until, by union with the Toltecs,
who occupied the tableland before them, they extended their
empire to an area of from 18,000 to 20,000 square leagues.
The researches of Humboldt gave the first clear insight into the
early periods of their history. See MEXICO; NAHUATLAN STOCK.
AZUAGA, a town of western Spain, in the province of Badajoz,
on the Belmez-Fuente del Arco railway. Pop. (1900) 14,192.
Azuaga is the central market for the live-stock of the broad up-
land pastures watered by the Matachel, a left-hand tributary
of the Guadiana, and by the Bembezar, a right-hand tributary
of the Guadalquivir. Coarse woollen goods and pottery are
manufactured in the town.
AZUAY (sometimes written ASSUAY), a province of Ecuador,
bounded N. by the province of Canar, E. by Oriente, S. by Loja,
and W. by El Oro. It was formerly called Cuenca, and formed
part of the department of Azuay, which also included the province
of Loja. Azuay is an elevated mountainous district with a great
variety of climates and products; among the latter are silver,
quicksilver, wheat, Indian corn, barley, cattle, wool, cinchona
and straw hats. The capital is Cuenca.
AZUNI, DOMENICO ALBERTO (1740-1827), Italian jurist,
was born at Sassar, in Sardinia, in 1749. He studied law at
Sassari and Turin, and in 1782 was made judge of the consulate
at Nice. In 1786-1788 he published his Dizionario Universale
Ragionato detta Giurispntdenza Mercantile. In 1795 appeared
his systematic work on the maritime law of Europe, Sistema
Universale dei Principtt del Diritto Maritime dell' Europa, which
he afterwards recast and translated into French. In 1806 he
was appointed one of the French commission engaged in drawing
up a general code of commercial law, and in the following year
he proceeded to Genoa as president of the court of appeal. After
the fall of Napoleon in 1814, Azuni lived for a time in retirement
at Genoa, till he was invited to Sardinia by Victor Emmanuel I.,
and appointed judge of the consulate at Cagliari, and director
of the university library. He died at Cagliari in 1827. Azuni
also wrote numerous pamphlets and minor works, chiefly on
maritime law, an important treatise on the origin and progress
of maritime law (Paris, 1810), and an historical, geographical
and political account of Sardinia (1799, enlarged 1802).
AZURARA, GOMES EANNES DE (?-i474), the second
notable Portuguese chronicler in order of date. He adopted the
career of letters in middle life. He probably entered the royal
library as assistant to Fernao Lopes (q.v.) during the reign of
King Duarte (1433-1438), and he had sole charge of it in 1452.
His Chronicle of the Siege and Capture of Ceuta, a supplement to
the Chronicle of King John /., by Lopes, dates from 1450, and
three years later he completed the first draft of the Chronicle of
the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, our authority for the early
Portuguese voyages of discovery down the African coast and
in the ocean, more especially for those undertaken under the
auspices of Prince Henry the Navigator. It contains some
account of the life work of that prince, and has a biographical as
well as a geographical interest. On the 6th of June 1454 Azurara
became chief keeper of the archives and royal chronicler in
succession to Fernao Lopes. In 1456 King Alphonso V. com-
missioned him to write the history of Ceuta, " the land-gate of
the East," under the governorship of D. Pedro de Menezes, from
its capture in 1415 until 1437, and he had it ready in 1463. A
year afterwards the king charged him with a history of the deeds
of D. Duarte de Menezes, captain of Alcacer, and, proceeding to
Africa, he spent a twelvemonth in the town collecting materials
and studying the scenes of the events he was to describe, and in
1468 he completed the chronicle. Alphonso corresponded with
Azurara on terms of affectionate intimacy, and no less than three
commendas of the order of Christ rewarded his literary services.
He has little of the picturesque ingenuousness of Lopes, and
loved to display his erudition by quotations and philosophical
reflections, showing that he wrote under the influence of the first
Renaissance. Nearly all the leading classical, early Christian
and medieval writers figure in his pages, and he was acquainted
with the notable chronicles and romances of Europe and had
studied the best Italian and Spanish authors. In addition, he
had mastered the geographical system of the ancients and their
astrology. As an historian he is laborious, accurate and con-
scientious, though his position did not allow him to tell the
whole truth about his hero, Prince Henry.
His works include: (i) Chronica del Rei D. Joam 7. Terceira
parte em que se content a tomada de Ceuta (Lisbon, 1644) ; (2) Chronica
do Descobrimento e Conquista de Guine (Paris, 1841 ; Eng. version
in 2 vols. issued by the Hakluyt Society, London, 1896-1899);
(3) Chronica do Conde D. Pedro (de Menezes), printed in the Ineditos
de Historia Portugueza, vol. ii. (Lisbon, 1792) ; (4) Chronica do Conde
D. Duarte de Menezes, printed in the Ineditos, vol. iii. (Lisbon, 1793).
The preface to the English version of the Chronicle of Guinea contains
a full account of the life and writings of Azurara and cites all the
authorities. (E. PR.)
AZURE (derived, through the Romance languages, from the
Arabic al-lazward, for the precious stone lapis lazuli, the initial
I having dropped), the lapis lazuli; and so its colour, blue.
AZURITE, or CHESSYLITE, a mineral which is a basic copper
carbonate, 2CuCO 3 -Cu(OH) 2 . In its vivid blue colour it contrasts
strikingly with the emerald-green malachite, also a basic copper
carbonate, but containing rather more water and less carbon
dioxide. It was known to Pliny
under the name caeruleum, and
the modern name azurite (given
by F. S. Beudant in 1824) also
has reference to the azure-blue
colour; the name chessylite, also
in common use, is of later date
(1852), and is from the locality,
Chessy near Lyons, which has supplied the best crystallized
specimens of the mineral. Crystals of azurite belong to the
monoclinic system; they have a vitreous lustre and are trans-
lucent. The streak is blue, but lighter than the colour of the
mineral in mass. Hardness 35-4; sp. gr. 3-8.
Azurite occurs with malachite in the upper portions of deposits
of copper ore, and owes its origin to the alteration of the sulphide
or of native copper by water containing carbon dioxide and
oxygen. It is thus a common mineral in all copper mines, and
sometimes occurs in large masses, as in Arizona and in South
Australia, where it has been worked as an ore of copper, of
which element it contains 55%. Being less hydrated than
malachite it is itself liable to alteration into this mineral, and
pseudomorphs of malachite after azurite are not uncommon.
Occasionally the massive material is cut and polished for decora-
tive purposes, though the application in this direction is far less
extensive than that of malachite. (L. J. S.)
AZYMITES (Gr. &-, without; ffyw?, leaven), a name given
by the Orthodox Eastern to the Western or Latin Church,
because of the latter's use of unleavened bread in the Eucharist,
a practice which arose in the 9th century and is also observed
by Armenians and Maronites following the Jewish passover
custom. The Orthodox Church strenuously maintains its
point, arguing that the very name bread, the holiness of the
mystery, and the example of Jesus and the early church alike,
testify against the use of unleavened bread in this connexion.
B BAADER
BThis letter corresponds to the second symbol in the
Phoenician alphabet, and appears in the same position
in all the European alphabets, except those derived, like
the Russian, from medieval Greek, in which the pronun-
ciation of this symbol had changed from b to v. A new form had
therefore to be invented for the genuine b in Slavonic, to which
there was, at the period when the alphabet was adopted, no cor-
responding sound in Greek. The new symbol , which occupies the
second position, was made by removing the upper loop of B,
thus producing a symbol somewhat resembling an ordinary lower-
case b. The old B retained the numerical value of the Greek /3
as 2, and no numerical value was given to the new symbol. In
the Phoenician alphabet the earliest forms are ^ ^ or more
rounded 9- The rounded form appears also in the earliest
Aramaic (see ALPHABET). Like some other alphabetic symbols
it was not borrowed by Greek in its original form. In the very
early rock inscriptions of Thera (700-600 B.C.), written from
right to left, it appears in a form resembling the ordinary Greek
X; this form apparently arose from writing the Semitic symbol
upside down. Its form in inscriptions of Melos, Selinus, Syracuse
and elsewhere in the 6th and sth centuries suggests the influence
of Aramaic forms in which the head of the letter is opened, */.
The Corinthian fTJ* LTI and TJ (also at Corcyra) and the f 1 J 1
of Byzantine coins are other adaptations of the same symbol.
The form C which it takes in the alphabets of Naxos, Delos and
other Ionic islands at the same period is difficult to explain.
Otherwise its only variation is between pointed and rounded
loops (& and B)- The sound which the symbol represents is
the voiced stop made by closing the lips and vibrating the vocal
chords (see PHONETICS). It differs from p by the presence of
vibration of the vocal chords and from m because the nasal
passage as well as the lips is closed. When an audible emission
of breath attends its production the aspirate bh is formed. This
sound was frequent in the pro-ethnic period of the Indo-European
languages and survived into the Indo-Aryan languages. Accord-
ing to the system of phonetic changes generally known as
" Grimm's law," an original b appears in English as p, an original
bh as b. An original medial p preceding the chief accent of the
word also appears as b in English and the other members of the
same group. It is not certain that any English word is descended
from an original word beginning with b, though it has been
suggested that peg is of the same origin as the Latin baculum
and the Greek Panrpov. When the lips are not tightly closed
the sound produced is not a stop" but a spirant like the English
w. In Late Latin there was a tendency to this spirant pro-
nunciation which appears as early as the beginning of the 2nd
century A.D.; by the 3rd century b and consonantal u are in-
extricably confused. When this consonantal (English w as seen
in words borrowed very early from Latin like -wall and wine)
passed into the sound of English v (labio-dental) is not certain,
but Germanic words borrowed into Latin in the sth century A.D.
have in their Latin representation gu- for Germanic w-, guisa
corresponding to English wise and reborrowed indirectly as guise.
The earliest form of the name of the symbol which we can
reach is the Hebrew belh, to which the Phoenician must have
been closely akin, as is shown by the Greek PTJTCL, which is
borrowed from it with a vowel affixed. (P. Gi.)
BAADER, FRANZ XAVER VON (1765-1841), German
philosopher and theologian, born on the 27th of March 1765 at
Munich, was the third son of F. P. Baader, court physician to the
elector of Bavaria. His brothers were both distinguished the
elder, Clemens, as an author; the second, Joseph (1763-1835), as
an engineer. Franz studied medicine at Ingolstadt and Vienna,
and for a short time assisted his father in his practice. This life
he soon found uncongenial, and decided on becoming a mining
engineer. He studied under Abraham Gottlob Werner at
Freiberg, travelled through several of the mining districts in
north Germany, and for four years, 1792-1796, resided in
England. There he became acquainted with the works of Jakob
Boehme, and with the ideas of Hume, Hartley and Godwin,
which were extremely distasteful to him. The mystical specula-
tions of Meister Eckhart, Saint Martin, and above all those of
Boehme, were more in harmony with his mode of thought. In
1796 he returned from England, and in Hamburg became
acquainted with F. H. Jacobi, with whom he was for years on
terms of friendship. He now learned something of Schelling, and
the works he published during this period were manifestly
influenced by that philosopher. Yet Baader is no disciple of
Schelling, and probably gave out more than he received. Their
friendship continued till about the year 1822, when Baader's
denunciation of modern philosophy in his letter to the emperor
Alexander I. of Russia entirely alienated Schelling.
All this time Baader continued to apply himself to his pro-
fession of engineer. He gained a prize of 12,000 gulden (about
1000) for his new method of employing Glauber's salts instead
of potash in the making of glass. From 1817 to 1820 he held the
post of superintendent of mines, and was raised to the rank of
nobility for his services. He retired in 1820, and soon after
published one of the best of his works, Fermenta Cognitionis,
6 parts, 1822-1825, in which he combats modem philosophy
and recommends the study of Boehme. In 1826, when the new
university was opened at Munich, he was appointed professor
of philosophy and speculative theology. Some of the lectures
delivered there he published under the title, Spekulative Dogmatik,
4 parts, 1827-1836. In 1838 he opposed the interference in civil
matters of the Roman Catholic Church, to which he belonged,
and in consequence was, during the last three years of his life,
interdicted from lecturing on the philosophy of religion. He died
on the 23rd of May 1841.
It is difficult to summarize Baader's philosophy, for he himself
generally gave expression to his deepest thoughts in obscure
aphorisms, or mystical symbols and analogies (see Ed. Zeller's
Ges. d. deut. Phil. 732, 736). Further, he has no systematic works;
his doctrines exist for the most part in short detached essays, in
comments on the writings of Boehme and Saint Martin, or in his
extensive correspondence and journals. At the same time there
are salient points which mark the outline of his thought. Baader
starts from the position that human reason by itself can never reach
the end it aims at, and maintains that we cannot throw aside the
presuppositions of faith, church and tradition. His point of view
may be described as Scholasticism ; for, like the scholastic doctors,
he believes that theology and philosophy are not opposed sciences,
but that reason has to make clear the truths given by authority and
revelation. But in his attempt to draw still closer the realms of
faith and knowledge he approaches more nearly to the mysticism
of Eckhart, Paracelsus and Boehme. Our existence depends on the
fact that we are cognized by God (cogitor ergo cogito et sum). All
self-consciousness is at the same time God-consciousness ; our know-
ledge is never mere scientia, it js invariably con-scientia a knowing
with , consciousness of, or participation in God. Baader's philosophy
is thus essentially a theosophy. God is not to be conceived as mere
abstract Being (substantia), but as everlasting process, activity
(actus). Of this process, this self-generation of God, we may dis-
tinguish two aspects the immanent or esoteric, and the emanent
or exoteric. God has reality only in so far as He is absolute spirit,
and only in so far as the primitive will is conscious of itself can it
become spirit at all. But in this very cognition of self is involved the
distinction of knower and known, from which proceeds the power
to become spirit. This immanent process of self-consciousness,
wherein indeed a trinity of persons is not given but only rendered
possible, is mirrored in, and takes place through, the eternal and
impersonal idea or wisdom of God, which exists beside, though not
distinct from, the primitive will. Concrete reality or personality
is given to this divine Ternar, as Baader calls it, through nature, the
principle of self-hood, of individual being, which is eternally and
necessarilvproduced by God. Only in nature is the trinity of persons
attained. These processes, it must be noticed, are not to be conceived
as successive, or as taking place in time; they are to be looked at
sub specie aeternitatis, as the necessary elements or moments in the
self-evolution of the divine Being. Nor is nature to be confounded
with created substance, or with matter as it exists in space and time;
it is pure non-being, the mere otherness (oJteritas) of God his shadow,
desire, want, or desiderium sui, as it is called by mystical writers.
Creation, itself a free and non-temporal act of God's love and will,
cannot be speculatively deduced, but must be accepted as an historic
BAAL
fact. Created beings were originally of three orders the intelligent
or angels; the non-intelligent natural existences; and man, who
mediated between these two orders. Intelligent beings are endowed
with freedom; it is possible, but not necessary, that they should
fall. Hence the fact of the fall is not a speculative but an historic
truth. The angels fell through pride through desire to raise them-
selves to equality with God; man fell by lowering himself to the
level of nature. Only after the fall of man begins the creation of
space, time and matter, or of the world as we now know it ; and the
motive of this creation was the desire to afford man an opportunity
for taking advantage of the scheme of redemption, for bringing forth
in purity the image of God according to which he has been fashioned.
The physical philosophy and anthropology which Baader, in con-
nexion with this, unfolds in various works, is but little instructive,
and coincides in the main with the utterances of Boehme. In nature
and in man he finds traces of the dire effects of sin, which has
corrupted both and has destroyed their natural harmony. As
regards ethics, Baader rejects the Kantian or any autonomic system
of morals. Not obedience to a moral law, but realization in ourselves
of the divine life is the true ethical end. But man has lost the power
to effect this by himself; he has alienated himself from God, and
therefore no ethical theory which neglects the facts of sin and re-
demption is satisfactory or even possible. The history of man and
of humanity is the history of the redeeming love of God. The means
whereby we put ourselves so in relation with Christ as to receive
from Him his healing virtue are chiefly prayer and the sacraments
of the church; mere works are never sufficient. Man in his social
relations is under two great institutions. One is temporal, natural
and limited the state; the other is eternal, cosmopolitan and
universal the church. In the state two things are requisite : first,
common submission to the ruler, which can be secured or given only
when the state is Christian, for God alone is the true ruler of men ;
and, secondly, inequality of rank, without which there can be no
organization. A despotism of mere power and liberalism, which
naturally produces socialism, are equally objectionable. The ideal
state is a civil community ruled by a universal or Catholic church,
the principles of which are equally distinct from mere passive pietism,
or faith which will know nothing, and from the Protestant doctrine,
which is the very radicalism of reason.
Baader is, without doubt, among the greatest speculative theo-
logians of modern Catholicism, and his influence has extended itself
even beyond the precincts of his own church. Among those whom
he influenced were R. Rothe, Julius Muller and Hans L. Markensen.
His works were collected and published by a number of his
adherents F. Hoffman, J. Hamberger, E. v. Schaden, Lutterbeck,
von Osten-Sacken and Schluter Baader's sammuiche Werke
(l6vols., 1851-1860). Valuable introductions by the editors are pre-
fixed to the several volumes. Vol. xv. contains a full biography;
vol. xvi. an index, and an able sketch of the whole system by
Lutterbeck. See F. Hoffmann, Vorhalle zur spekulativen Lehre
Baader's (1836); Grundzuge der Societdts-Philosophie Franz Baader's
(1837); Philosophische Schriften (3 vols., 1868-1872); Die Weltalter
(1868); Biographic und Briefwechsel (Leipzig, 1887); J. Hamberger,
Cardinalpunkte der Baaderschen PhUosophie (1855) ; Fundamental-
begriffe von F. B.'s Ethik, Politik, u. Religions-Philosophie (1858) ;
J. A. B. Lutterbeck, Philosophische Standpunkte Baaders (1854);
Baaders Lehre vom Weltgebiiude (1866). The most satisfactory
surveys are those given by Erdmann, Versuch einer Gesch. d. neuern
Phil. iii. 2, pp. 583-636; J. Claassen, Franz von Baaders Leben und
theosophische Werke (Stuttgart, 1886-1887), and Franz von Baaders
Gedanken uber Stoat und Gesellschaft (Gutersloh, 1890); Otto
Pfleiderer, Philosophy of Religion (vol. ii., Eng. trans. 1887) ; R.
Falckenberg, History of Philosophy, pp. 472-475 (trans. A. C. Arm-
strong, New York, 1893); Reichel, Die Sozietdtsphttosophie Franz
v. Baaders (Tubingen, 1901); Kuno Fischer, Zur hundertjdhrigen
Geburtstagfeier Baaders (Erlangen, 1865).
BAAL, a Semitic word, which primarily signifies lord, owner
or inhabitant, 1 and then, in accordance with the Semitic way of
looking at family and religious relations, is specially appropriated
to express the relation of a husband to his wife and of the deity
to his worshipper. In the latter usage it indicated not that the
god was the lord of the worshipper, but rather the possessor of,
or ruler in, some place or district. In the Old Testament it is
regularly written with the article, i.e. " the Baal "; and the baals
of different tribes or sanctuaries were not necessarily conceived
as identical, so that we find frequent mention of Baalim, or
rather " the Baalim " in the plural. That the Israelites even
applied the title of Baal to Yahweh himself is proved by the
occurrence of such names as Jerubbaal (Gideon), Eshbaal (one
of Saul's sons) and Beeliada (a son of David, i Chron. xiv. 7).
The last name appears in 2 Sam. v. 16 as Eliada, showing that El
1 Cf. its use as a noun of relation, e.g. a ba'al of hair, " a hairy
man " (2 Kings i. 8), b. of wings, " a winged creature," and in the
plural, b. of arrows, " archers " (Gen. xlix. 23), b. of oath, " con-
spirators " (Neh. vi. 18).
(God) was regarded as equivalent to Baal; cf. also the name
Be'aliah, " Yahweh is baal or lord," which survives in i Chron.
xii. 5. However, when the name Baal was exclusively appropri-
ated to idolatrous worship (cf. Hos. ii. 16 seq.), abhorrence for
the unholy word was marked by writing bosheth (shameful
thing) for baal in compound proper names, and thus we get the
usual forms Ishbosheth, Mephibosheth.
The great difficulty which has been felt by investigators in
determining the character and attributes of the god Baal mainly
arises from the original appellative sense of the word, and
many obscure points become clear if we remember that when a
title becomes a proper name it may be appropriated by different
peoples to quite distinct deities. Baal being originally a title,
and not a proper name, the innumerable baals could be distin-
guished by the addition of the name of a place or of some special
attribute. 2 Accordingly, the baals are not to be regarded
necessarily as local variations of one and the same god, like the
many Virgins or Madonnas of Catholic lands, but as distinct
numina. Each community could speak of its own baal, although
a collection of allied communities might share the same cult,
and naturally, since the attributes ascribed to the individual
baals were very similar, subsequent syncretism was facilitated.
The Baal, as the head of each worshipping group, is the source
of all the gifts of nature (cf. Hos. ii. 8 seq., Ezek. xvi. 19); as
the god of fertility all the produce of the soil is his, and his
adherents bring to him their tribute of first-fruits. He is the
patron of all growth and fertility, and, by the " uncontrolled
use of analogy characteristic of early thought," the Baal is the
god of the productive element in its widest sense. Originating
probably, in the observation of the fertilizing effect of rains
and streams upon the receptive and reproductive soil, baalism
becomes identical with the grossest nature-worship. Joined with
the baals there are naturally found corresponding female figures
known as Ashtaroth, embodiments of Ashtoreth (see ASTARTE;
ISHTAE). In accordance with primitive notions of analogy, 3
which assume that it is possible to control or aid the powers of
nature by the practice of " sympathetic magic " (see MAGIC), the
cult of the baals and Ashtaroth was characterized by gross
sensuality and licentiousness. The fragmentary allusions to
the cult of Baal Peor (Num. xxv., Hos. ix. 10, Ps. cvi. 28 seq.)
exemplify the typical species of Dionysiac orgies that prevailed. 4
On the summits of hills and mountains flourished the cult of the
givers of increase, and " under every green tree " was practised
the licentiousness which in primitive thought was held to secure
abundance of crops (see Frazer, Golden Bough, 2nd ed. vol. ii. pp.
204 sqq.). Human sacrifice (Jer. xix. 5), the burning of incense
(Jer. vii. 9), violent and ecstatic exercises, ceremonial acts of
bowing and kissing, the preparfng of sacred mystic cakes, appear
among the offences denounced by the Israelite prophets, and
show that the cult of Baal (and Astarte) included the character-
istic features of heathen worship which recur in various parts
of the Semitic world, although attached to other names. 6
By an easy transition the local gods of the streams and springs
which fertilized the increase of the fields became identified with
2 Compounds with geographical terms (towns, mountains), e.g.
Baal of Tyre, of Lebanon, &c., are frequent; see G. B. Gray, Heb.
Proper Names, pp. 124-126. Baal-berith or El-berith of Shechem
(Judg. ix. 4, 46) is usually interpreted to be the Baal or God of the
covenant, but whether of covenants in general or of a particular
covenant concluded at Shechem is disputed. The BaXMnpuws (near
Beirut) apparently presided over dancing; another compound (in
Cyprus) seems to represent a Baal of healing. On the " Baal of
flies " see BEELZEBUB.
3 The general analogy shows itself further in the idea of the deity
as the husband (ba'al) of his worshippers or of the land in which they
dwell. The Astarte of Gabal (Byblus) was regularly known as the
ba'alath (fern, of baal), her real name not being pronounced (perhaps
out of reverence).
4 See further Clermont-Ganneau, Pal. Explor. Fund Quart. Stat.,
1901, pp. 239, 369 sqq.; Buchler, Rev. d'etudes juives, 1901,
pp. 125 seq.
6 The extent to which elements of heathen cult entered into
purer types of religion is illustrated in the worship of Yahweh.
The sacred cakes of Astarte and old holy wells associated with her
cult were later even transferred to the worship of the Virgin (Ency.
Bib. col. 3993; Rouvier, in Bull. Archeol., 1900, p. 170).
BAALBEK
89
the common source of all streams, and proceeding along this line
it was possible for the numerous baals to be regarded eventually
as mere forms of one absolute deity. Consequently, the Baal
could be identified with some supreme power of nature, e.g. the
heavens, the sun, the weather or some planet. The particular
line of development would vary in different places, but the change
from an association of the Baal with earthly objects to heavenly
is characteristic of a higher type of belief and appears to be
relatively later. The idea which has long prevailed that Baal
was properly a sky-god affords no explanation of the local
character of the many baals; on the other hand, on the theory
of a higher development where the gods become heavenly or
astral beings, the fact that ruder conceptions of nature were
still retained (often in the unofficial but more popular forms of
cult) is more intelligible.
A specific Baal of the heavens appears to have been known
among the Hittites in the time of Rameses II., and considerably
later, at the beginning of the 7th century, it was the title of one
of the gods of Phoenicia. In Babylonia, from a very early
period, Baal became a definite individual deity, and was identified
with the planet Jupiter. This development is a mark of superior
culture and may have been spread through Babylonian influence.
Both Baal and Astarte were venerated in Egypt at Thebes and
Memphis in the XlXth Dynasty, and the former, through the
influence of the Aramaeans who borrowed the Babylonian
spelling Bel, ultimately became known as the Greek Belos who
was identified with Zeus.
Of the worship of the Tyrian Baal, who is also called Melkart
(king of the city), and is often identified with the Greek Heracles,
but sometimes with the Olympian Zeus, we have many accounts
in ancient writers, from Herodotus downwards. He had a magni-
ficent temple in insular Tyre, founded by Hiram, to which gifts
streamed from all countries, especially at the great feasts. The
solar character pf this deity appears especially in the annual feast
of his awakening shortly after the winter solstice (Joseph. C. Apion.
i. 18). At Tyre, as among the Hebrews, Baal had his symbolical
pillars, one of gold and one of smaragdus, which, transported by
phantasy to the farthest west, are still familiar to us as the Pillars of
Hercules. The worship pf the Tyrian Baal was carried to all the
Phoenician colonies. 1 His name occurs as an element in Cartha-
ginian proper names (Hannifra/, Hasdrubal, &c.), and a tablet found
at_Marseilles still survives to inform us of the charges made by the
priests of the temple of Baal for offering sacrifices.
The history of Baalism among the Hebrews is obscured by the
difficulty of determining whether the false worship which the
prophets stigmatize is the heathen worship of Yahweh under a
conception, and often with rites, which treated him as a local
nature god; or whether Baalism was consciously recognized
to be distinct from Yahwism from the first. Later religious
practice was undoubtedly opposed to that of earlier times, and
attempts were made to correct narratives containing views
which had come to be regarded as contrary to the true worship
of Yahweh. The Old Testament depicts the history of the people
as a series of acts of apostasy alternating with subsequent
penitence and return to Yahweh, and the question whether this
gives effect to actual conditions depends upon the precise
character of the elements of Yahweh worship brought by the
Israelites into Palestine. This is still under dispute. There is
strong evidence at all events that many of the conceptions are
contrary to historical fact, and the points of similarity between
native Canaanite cult and Israelite worship are so striking that
only the persistent traditions of Israel's origin and of the work of
Moses compel the conclusion that the germs of specific Yahweh
worship existed from his day. The earliest certain reaction
against Baalism is ascribed to the reign of Ahab, whose marriage
with Jezebel gave the impulse to the introduction of a particular
form of the cult. In honour of his wife's god, the king, following
the example of Solomon, erected a temple to the Tyrian Baal
(see above). This, however, did not prevent him from remaining
a follower of Yahweh, whose prophets he still consulted, and
1 The sanctuary of Heracles at Daphne near Antioch was properly
that of the Semitic Baal, and at Amathus Jupiter Hospes takes the
place of Heracles or Malika, in which the Tyrian Melkart is to be
recognized (W. R. Smith, Rel. Sem. 2nd ed. pp. 178, 376). See
further PHOENICIA.
whose protection he still cherished when he named his sons
Ahaziah and Jehoram (" Yah[weh] holds," " Y. is high ").
The antagonism of Elijah was not against Baalism in general,
but against the introduction of a rival deity. But by the time
of Hosea (ii. 16 seq.) a further advance was marked, and the use
of the term " Baal " was felt to be dangerous to true religion.
Thus there gradually grew up a tendency to avoid the term,
and in accordance with the idea of Ex. xxiii. 13, it was replaced
by the contemptuous bdsheih, " shame " (see above). However,
the books of Deuteronomy and Jeremiah (cf. also Zeph. i. 4)
afford complete testimony for the prevalence of Baalism as late
as the exile, but prove that the clearest distinction was then
drawn between the pure worship of Yahweh the god of Israel
and the inveterate and debased cults of the gods of the land.
(See further HEBREW RELIGION; PROPHET.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. W. Robertson Smith, Relig. Semites, 2nd ed. pp.
93-1 13 (against his theory of the introduction of Baal among the Arabs
see M. j.Xagrange, Etudes d. relig. sem. pp. 83-98). For the reading
" Baal ' in the Amarna tablets (Palestine, about 1400 B.C.) sec
Knudtzpn, Beitr. z. Assyriol. (1901), pp. 320 seq., 415; other cunei-
form evidence in E. Schrader's Keilinsch. . Alte Test, yd ed. p. 357
(by H. Zimmern; see also his Index, sub voce). On Baal-Shamem
(B. of the heavens) M. Lidzbarski's monograph (Ephemeris, i. 243-
260, ii. 120) is invaluable, and this work, with his Handbuck d. nord-
semit. Epigraphik, contains full account of the epigraphical material.
See Baethgen, Beitr. z. semit. Religionsgesch. pp. 17-32; also the
articles on Baal by E. Meyer in Roscher's Lexikon, and G. F. Moore
in Ency. Bib. (On Beltane fires and other apparent points of con-
nexion with Baal it may suffice to refer to Aug. Pick, Vergleich.
Wotterbuch, who derives the element bel from an old Celtic root
meaning shining, &c.) (W. R. S. ; S, A. C.)
BAALBEK (anc. Heliopolis), a. townol theBuka'a (Coelesyria),
altitude 3850 ft., situated E. of the Litani and near the parting
between its waters and those of the Asi. Pop. about 5000,
including 2000 Metawali and 1000 Christians (Maronite and
Orthodox). Since 1902 Baalbek has been connected by railway
with Rayak (Rejak) on the Beirut-Damascus line, and since 1007
with Aleppo. It is famous for its temple ruins of the Roman
period, before which we have no record of it, certain though it be
that Heliopolis is a translation of an earlier native name, in which
Baal was an element. It has been suggested, but without good
reason, that this name was the Baalgad of Josh. xi. 17.
Heliopolis was made a colonia probably by Octavian (coins of
ist century A.D.), and there must have been a Baal temple there
in which Trajan consulted the oracle. The foundation of the
present buildings, however, dates from Antoninus Pius, and their
dedication from Septimius Severus, whose coins first show the
two temples. The great courts of approach were not finished
before the reigns of Caracalla and Philip. In commemoration, no
doubt, of the dedication of the new sanctuaries, Severus conferred
the jus Italicum on the city. The greater of the two temples was
sacred to Jupiter (Baal), identified with the Sun, with whom
were associated Venus and Mercury as ffvufju/jai 0oi. The
lesser temple was built in honour of Bacchus (not the Sun, as
formerly believed). Jupiter-Baal was represented locally as a
beardless god in long scaly drapery, holding a whip in his right
hand and lightning and ears of corn in his left. Two bulls
supported him. In this guise he passed into European worship
in the 3rd and 4th centuries A.D. The extreme licence of the
Heliopolitan worship is often animadverted upon by early
Christian writers, and Constantino, making an effort to curb the
Venus cult, built a basilica. Theodosius erected another, with
western apse, in the main court of the Jupiter temple.
When Abu Ubaida (or Obaida) attacked the place after the
Moslem capture of Damascus (A.D. 635), it was still an opulent
city and yielded a rich booty. It became a bone of contention
between the various Syrian dynasties and the caliphs first of
Damascus, then of Egypt, and in 748 was sacked with great
slaughter. In 1090 it passed to the Seljuks, and in 1134 to
Jenghiz Khan; but after 1145 it remained attached to Damascus
and was captured by Saladin in 1175. The Crusaders raided its
valley more than once, but never took the city. Three times
shaken by earthquake in the 1 2th century, it was dismantled by
Hulagu in 1260. But it revived, and most of its fine Moslem
mosque and fortress architecture, still extant, belongs to the
9
BAARN
reign of Sultan Kalaun (1282) and the succeeding century, during
which Abulfeda describes it as a very strong place. In 1400
Timur pillaged it, and in 1517 it passed, with the rest of Syria, to
the Ottoman dominion. But Ottoman jurisdiction was merely
nominal in the Lebanon district, and Baalbek was really in
the hands of the Metawali (see LEBANON), who retained it
against other Lebanon tribes, until " Jezzar " Pasha, the rebel
governor of the Acre province, broke their power in the last half
of the i8th century. The anarchy which succeeded his death in
1804 was only ended by the Egyptian occupation (1832). With
the treaty of London (1840) Baalbek became really Ottoman, and
since the settlement of the Lebanon (1864) has attracted great
numbers of tourists.
BAALBEK \ ^
Scale of Yard* \ *"
> o ap 30 40 50 60 70 80 f >
k Human Work
Efc tlimitita or farly Ctrtltlai Work '\
I lain Watii
After Puchslcin, with permission of Georg Reimer
Emery Walker sc.
The ruins were brought to European notice by Pierre Belon in
1555, though previously visited, in 1507, by Martin von Baum-
garten. Much damaged by the earthquake of 1759, they remained
a wilderness of fallen blocks till 1901, when their clearance was
undertaken by the German Archaeological Institute and entrusted
to the direction of Prof. O. Puchstein. They lie mainly on the
ancient Acropolis, which has been shored up with huge walls to
form a terrace raised on vaults and measuring about noo ft.
from E. to W. The Propylaea lie at the E. end, and were
approached by a flight of steps now quarried away. These
propylaea formed a covered hall, or vestibule, about 35 ft. deep,
flanked with towers richly decorated within and without (much
damaged by Arab reconstruction). Columns stood in front,
whose bases still exist and bear the names of Antoninus Pius and
Julia Domna. Hence, through a triple gateway in a richly
ornamented screen, access is gained to the first or Hexagonal
Court, which measures about 250 ft. from angle to angle. It is
now razed almost to foundation level; but it can be seen that it
was flanked with halls each having four columns in front. A
portal on the W., 50 ft. wide, flanked by lesser ones 10 ft. wide
(that on the N. is alone preserved), admitted to the Main Court,
in whose centre was the High Altar of Burnt Sacrifice. This
altar and a great tank on the N. were covered by the foundations
of Theodosius' basilica and not seen till the recent German
clearance. The Main Court measures about 440 ft. from E. to W.
and 370 ft. from N. to S., thus covering about 35 acres. It had a
continuous fringe of covered halls of various dimensions and
shapes, once richly adorned with statues and columnar screens.
Some of these halls are in fair preservation. Stairs on the W. led
up to the temple of Jupiter-Baal, now much ruined, having only
6 of the 54 columns of its peristyle erect. Three fell in the
earthquake of 1759. Those still standing are Nos. 1 1 to 16 in the
southern rank. Their bases and shafts are not finished, though
the capitals and rich entablature seem completely worked. They
have a height of 60 ft. and diameter of 75 ft., and are mostly
formed of three blocks. The architrave is threefold and bears a
frieze with lion-heads, on which rest a moulding and cornice.
The temple of Bacchus stood on a platform of its own formed
by a southern projection of the Acropolis. It was much smaller
than the Jupiter temple, but is better preserved.' The steps of
the E. approach were intact up to 1688. The temple was
peripteral with 46 columns in its peristyle. These were over
52 ft. in height and of the Corinthian order, and supported an
entablature 7 ft. high with double frieze, connected with the
cella walls by a coffered ceiling, which contained slabs with heads
of gods and emperors. Richard Burton, when consul-general at
Damascus in 1870, cleared an Arab screen out of the vestibule^
and in consequence the exquisite doorway leading into the cella
can now be well seen. On either side of it staircases constructed
within columns lead to the roof. The cracked door-lintel, which
shows an eagle on the soffit, was propped up first by Burton, and
lately, more securely, by the Germans. The cella, now ruinous,
had inner wall-reliefs and engaged columns, which supported
rich entablatures.
The vaults below the Great Court of the Jupiter Temple,
together with the supporting walls of the terrace, are noticeable.
In the W. wall of the latter occur the three famous megaliths,
which gave the name Trilithon to the Jupiter temple in Byzantine
times. These measure from 63 to 64 ft. in length and 13 ft. in
height and breadth, and have been raised 20 ft. above the ground.
They are the largest blocks known to have been used in actual
construction, but are excelled by another block still attached to
its bed in the quarries half a mile S. W. This is 68 ft. long by 14 ft.
high and weighs about 1500 tons. For long these blocks were
supposed, even by European visitors, to be relics of a primeval
race of giant builders.
In the town, below the Acropolis, on the S.E. is a small temple
of the late imperial age, consisting of a semicircular cella with a
peristyle of eight Corinthian columns, supporting a projecting
entablature. The cella is decorated without with a frieze, and
within with pillars and arcading. This temple owes its preserva-
tion to its use as a church of St Barbara, a local martyr, also
claimed by the Egyptian Heliopolis. Hence the building is
known as Barbarat al-atika. Considerable remains of the N.
gate of the city have also been exposed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. These vast ruins, more imposing from their
immensity than pleasing in detail, have been described by scores of
travellers and tourists; but it will be sufficient heie to refer to the
following works: (First discoverers) M. von Baumgarten, Pere-
grinatio in . . . Syrian (1594); P. Belon, De admirabili operum
antiquorum praestantia (1553); and Observations, &c. (1555).
(Before earthquake of 1759) R. Wood, Ruins of Baalbec (1757).
(Before excavation) H. Frauberger, Die Akropolis von Baalbek
(1892). (After excavation) O. Puchstein, Fiihrer durch die Ruinen
v. Baalbek (1905), (with Th. v. Liipke) Ansichten, &c. (1905). See
also R. Phene Spiers, Quart. Slat. Pal. Exp. Fund, 1904, pp. 58-64,
and the Builder, n Feb. 1905. (D. G. H.)
BAARN, a small town in the province of Utrecht, Holland,
5 m. by rail E. of Hilversum, at the junction of a branch line to
Utrecht. Like Hilversum it is situated in the midst of pictur-
esque and wooded surroundings, and is a favourite summer re-
sort of people from Amsterdam. The Baarnsche Bosch, or wood,
stretches southward to Soestdyk, where there is a royal country-
BABADAG BABENBERG
seat, originally acquired by the state in 1795. Louis Bonaparte,
king of Holland, who was very fond of the spot, formed a zoo-
logical collection here which was removed to Amsterdam in 1809.
In 1816 the estate was presented by the nation to the prince of
Orange (afterwards King William II.) in recognition of his
services at the battle of Quatre Bras. Since then the palace and
grounds have been considerably enlarged and beautified. Close
to Baarn in the south-west were formerly situated the ancient
castles of Drakenburg and Drakenstein, and at Vuursche there
is a remarkable dolmen.
BABADAG, or BABATAG, a town in the department of Tulcea,
Rumania; situated on a small lake formed by the river Taitza
among the densely wooded highlands of the northern Dobrudja.
Pop. (1900) about 3500. The Taitza lake is divided only by a
strip of marshland from Lake Razim, a broad landlocked sheet
of water which opens on the Black Sea. Babadag is a market
for the wool and mutton of the Dobrudja. It was founded by
Bayezid I., sultan of the Turks from 1389 to 1403. It occasion-
ally served as the winter headquarters of the Turks in their wars
with Russia, and was bombarded by the Russians in 1854.
BABBAGE, CHARLES (1792-1871), English mathematician
and mechanician, was born on the z6th of December 1792 at
Teignmouth in Devonshire. He was educated at a private school,
and afterwards entered St Peter's College, Cambridge, where he
graduated in 1814. Though he did not compete in the mathe-
matical tripos, he acquired a great reputation at the university.
In the years 1815-1817 he contributed three papers on the
" Calculus of Functions " to the Philosophical Transactions, and
in 1816 was made a fellow of the Royal Society. Along with
Sir John Herschel and George Peacock he laboured to raise the
standard of mathematical instruction in England, and especially
endeavoured to supersede the Newtonian by the Leibnitzian
notation in the infinitesimal calculus. Babbage's attention
seems to have been very early drawn to the number and im-
portance of the errors introduced into astronomical and other
calculations through inaccuracies in the computation of tables.
He contributed to the Royal Society some notices on the relation
between notation and mechanism; and in 1822, in a letter to
Sir H. Davy on the application of machinery to the calculation
and printing of mathematical tables, he discussed the principles
of a calculating engine, to the construction of which he devoted
many years of his life. Government was induced to grant its
aid, and the inventor himself spent a portion of his private fortune
in the prosecution of his undertaking. He travelled through
several of the countries of Europe, examining different systems
of machinery; and some of the results of his investigations were
published in the admirable little work, Economy of Machines
and Manufactures (1834). The great calculating engine was
never completed; the constructor apparently desired to adopt
a new principle when the first specimen was nearly complete,
to make it not a difference but an analytical engine, and the
government declined to accept the further risk (see CALCULATING
MACHINES). From 1828 to 1839 Babbage was Lucasian professor
of mathematics at Cambridge. He contributed largely to several
scientific periodicals, and was instrumental in founding the
Astronomical (1820) and Statistical (1834) Societies. He only
once endeavoured to enter public life, when, in 1832, he stood
unsuccessfully for the borough of Finsbury. During the later
years of his life he resided in London, devoting himself to the
construction of machines capable of performing arithmetical
and even algebraical calculations. He died at London on the
i8th of October 1871. He gives a few biographical details in
his Passages from the Life of a Philosopher (1864), a work which
throws considerable light upon his somewhat peculiar character.
His works, pamphlets and papers were very numerous; in the
Passages he enumerates eighty separate writings. Of these the
most important, besides the few already mentioned, are Tables of
Logarithms (1826); Comparative View of the Various Institutions
for the Assurance of Lives (1826); Decline of Science in England
(1830); Ninth Bridgewater Treatise (1837); The Exposition of
1851 (1851).
See Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society, vol. 32.
BABEL, the native name of the city called Babylon (q.v.) by the
Greeks, the modern Hillah. It means "gate of the god," not"gate
of the gods," corresponding to the Assyrian Bab-ili. According
to Gen. xi. 1-9 (J), mankind, after the deluge, travelled from the
mountain of the East, where the ark had rested, and settled in
Shinar. Here they attempted to build a city and a tower whose
top might reach unto heaven, but were miraculously prevented
by their language being confounded. In this way the diversity
of human speech and the dispersion of mankind were accounted
for; and in Gen. xi. 9 (J) an etymology was found for the name
of Babylon in the Hebrew verb bdlal, " to confuse or confound,"
Babel being regarded as a contraction of Balbel. In Gen. x. 10 it
is said to have formed part of the kingdom of Nimrod.
The origin of the story has not been found in Babylonia. The
tower was no doubt suggested by one of the temple towers of
Babylon. W. A. Bennet (Genesis, p. 169; cf. Hommel in Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible) suggests E-Saggila, the great temple
of Merodach (Marduk). The variety of languages and the dis-
persion of mankind were regarded as a curse, and it is probable
that, as Prof. Cheyne (Encyclopaedia Biblica, col. 411) says, there
was an ancient North Semitic myth to explain it. The event
was afterwards localized in Babylon. The myth, as it appears
in Genesis, is quite polytheistic and anthropomorphic. According
to Cornelius Alexander (frag. 10) and Abydenus (frags. 5 and 6)
the tower was overthrown by the winds; according to Yaqut
(i. 448 f.) and the Lisan el-' Arab (xiii. 72) mankind were swept
together by winds into the plain afterwards called " Babil,"
and were scattered again in the same way (see further D. B.
Macdonald in the Jewish Encyclopaedia). A tradition similar
to that of the tower of Babel is found in Central America. Xelhua,
one of the seven giants rescued from the deluge, built the great
pyramid of Cholula in order to storm heaven. The gods, how-
ever, destroyed it with fire and confounded the language of the
builders. Traces of a somewhat similar story have also been
met with among the Mongolian Tharus in northern India
(Report of the Census of Bengal, 1872, p. 160), and, according
to Dr Livingstone, among the Africans of Lake Ngami. The
Esthonian myth of " the Cooking of Languages " (Kohl, Reisen
in die Ostseeprovinzen, ii. 251-255) may also be compared, as
well as the Australian legend of the origin of the diversity of
speech (Gerstacker, Reisen, vol. iv. pp. 381 seq.).
BAB-EL-M ANDES (Arab, for " The Gate of Tears ") , the strait
between Arabia and Africa which connects the Red Sea (q.v.)
with the Indian Ocean. It derives its name from the dangers
attending its navigation, or, according to an Arabic legend,
from the numbers who were drowned by the earthquake which
separated Asia and Africa. The distance across is about 20 m.
from Ras Menheli on the Arabian coast to Ras Siyan on the
African. The island of Perim (q.v.), a British possession, divides
the strait into two channels, of which the eastern, known as the
Bab Iskender (Alexander's Strait), is 2 m. wide and 16 fathoms
deep, while the western, or Dact-el-Mayun, has a width of about
1 6 m. and a depth of 170 fathoms. Near the African coast lies
a group of smaller islands known as the " Seven Brothers."
There is a surface current inwards in the eastern channel, but a
strong under-current outwards in the western channel.
BABENBERG, the name of a Franconian family which held
the duchy of Austria before the rise of the house of Habsburg.
Its earliest known ancestor was one Poppo, who early in the
9th century was count in Grapfeld. One of his sons, Henry,
called margrave and duke in Franconia, fell fighting against the
Normans in 886; another, Poppo, was margrave in Thuringia
from 880 to 892, when he was deposed by the German king Arnulf.
The family had been favoured by the emperor Charles the Fat,
but Arnulf reversed this policy in favour of the rival family of
the Conradines. The leaders of the Babenbergs were the three
sons of Duke Henry, who called themselves after their castle of
Babenberg on the upper Main, round which their possessions
centred. The rivalry between the two families was intensified
by their efforts to extend their authority in the region of the
middle Main, and this quarrel, known as the " Babenberg feud,"
came to a head at the beginning of the loth century during the
BABER
troubled reign of the German king, Louis the Child. Two of
the Babenberg brothers were killed, and the survivor Adalbert
was summoned before the imperial court by the regent Hatto I.,
archbishop of Mainz, a partisan of the Conradines. He refused
to appear, held his own for a time in his castle atj Theres
against the king's forces, but surrendered in 906, and in spite of
a promise of safe-conduct was beheaded. From this time the
Babenbergs lost their influence in Franconia; but in 976 Leopold,
a member of the family who was a count in the Donnegau, is
described as margrave of the East Mark, a district not more
than 60 m. in breadth on the eastern frontier of Bavaria which
grew into the duchy of Austria. Leopold, who probably received
the mark as a reward for his fidelity to the emperor Otto II.
during the Bavarian rising in 976, extended its area at the expense
of the Hungarians, and was succeeded in 994 by his son
Henry I. Henry, who continued his father's policy, was followed
in 1018 by his brother Adalbert and in 1055 by his nephew
Ernest, whose marked loyalty to the emperors Henry III. and
Henry IV. was rewarded by many tokens of favour. The
succeeding margrave, Leopold II., quarrelled with Henry IV.,
who was unable to oust him from the mark or to prevent the
succession of his son Leopold III. in 1096. Leopold supported
Henry, son of Henry IV., in his rising against his father, but was
soon drawn over to the emperor's side, and in 1 106 married his
daughter Agnes, widow of Frederick I., duke of Swabia. He
declined the imperial crown in 1125. His zeal in founding
monasteries earned for him his surname " the Pious," and
canonization by Pope Innocent VIII. in 1485. He is regarded
as the patron saint of Austria. One of Leopold's sons was Otto,
bishop of Freising (q.v.). His eldest son, Leopold IV., became
margrave in 1136, and in 1139 received from the German king
Conrad III. the duchy of Bavaria, which had been forfeited by
Duke Henry the Proud. Leopold's brother Henry (surnamed
Jasomirgott from his favourite oath, " So help me God!") was
made count palatine of the Rhine in 1 140, and became margrave
of Austria on Leopold's death in 1 141. Having married Gertrude,
the widow of Henry the Proud, he was invested in 1 143 with the
duchy of Bavaria, and resigned his office as count palatine. In
1147 he went on crusade, and after his return renounced Bavaria
at the instance of the new king Frederick I. As compensation
for this, Austria, the capital of which had been transferred to
Vienna in 1 146, was erected into a duchy. The second duke was
Henry's son Leopold I., who succeeded him in 1177 and took
part in the crusades of 1 182 and 1 190. In Palestine he quarrelled
with Richard I., king of England, captured him on his home-
ward journey and handed him over to the emperor Henry VI.
Leopold increased the territories of the Babenbergs by acquiring
Styria in 1192 under the will of his kinsman Duke Ottakar IV.
He died in 1194, and Austria fell to one son, Frederick, and
Styria to another, Leopold; but on Frederick's death in 1198
they were again united by Duke Leopold II., surnamed " the
Glorious." The new duke fought against the infidel in Spain,
Egypt and Palestine, but is more celebrated as a lawgiver, a
patron of letters and a founder of towns. Under him Vienna
became the centre of culture in Germany and the great school
of Minnesingers (<?..). His later years were spent in strife
with his son Frederick, and he died in 1230 at San Germane,
whither he had gone to arrange the peace between the emperor
Frederick II. and Pope Gregory IX. His son Frederick II.
followed as duke, and earned the name of " Quarrelsome " by
constant struggles with the kings of Hungary and Bohemia
and with the emperor. He deprived lu's mother and sisters
of their possessions, was hated by his subjects on account of his
oppressions, and in 1 236 was placed under the imperial ban and
driven from Austria. Restored when the emperor was excom-
municated, he treated in vain with Frederick for the erection of
Austria into a kingdom. He was killed in battle in 1 246, when
the male line of the Babenbergs became extinct. The city of
Bamberg grew up around the ancestral castle of the family.
See G. Juritsch, Geschichte der Babenberger und ihrer Lander
(Innsbruck, 1894); M. Schmitz, Oesterreichs Scheyern-Wittelsbacher
eder die Dynaslie der Babenberger (Munich, 1880).
BABER, or BABAR (1483-1330), a famous conqueror of India
and founder of the so-called Mogul dynasty. His name was
Zahir ud-din-Mahomet, and he was given the surname of Baber,
meaning the tiger. Born on the I4th of February 1483, he was
a descendant of Timur, and his father, Omar Sheik, was king of
Ferghana, a district of what is now Russian Turkestan. Omar
died in 1495, and Baber, though only twelve years of age,
succeeded to the throne. An attempt made by his uncles to
dislodge him proved unsuccessful, and no sooner was the young
sovereign firmly settled than he began to meditate an extension
of his own dominions. In 1497 he attacked and gained possession
of Samarkand, to which he always seems to have thought he
had a natural and hereditary right. A rebellion among his
nobles robbed him of his native kingdom, and while marching
to recover it his troops deserted him, and he lost Samarkand
also. After some reverses he regained both these places, but in
1501 his most formidable enemy, Shaibani (Sheibani) Khan,
ruler of the Uzbegs, defeated him in a great engagement and
drove him from Samarkand. For three years he wandered about
trying in vain to recover his lost possessions; at last, in 1504,
he gathered some troops, and crossing the snowy Hindu Kush
besieged and captured the strong city of Kabul. By this
dexterous stroke he gained a new and wealthy kingdom, and
completely re-established his fortunes. In the following year
he united with Hussain Mirza of Herat against Shaibani. The
death of Hussain put a stop to this expedition, but Baber spent
a year at Herat, enjoying the pleasures of that capital. He
returned to Kabul in time to quell a formidable rebellion, but
two years later a revolt among some of the leading Moguls
drove him from his city. He was compelled to take to flight
with very few companions, but his great personal courage and
daring struck the army of his opponents with such dismay that
they again returned to their allegiance and Baber regained his
kingdom. Once again, in 1510, after the death of Shaibani, he
endeavoured to obtain possession of his native country. He
received considerable aid from Shah Ismael of Persia, and in
1511 made a triumphal entry into Samarkand. But in 1514 he
was utterly defeated by the Uzbegs and with difficulty reached
Kabul. He seems now to have resigned all hopes of recovering
Ferghana, and as he at the same time dreaded an invasion of
the Uzbegs from the west, his attention was more and more
drawn towards India. Several preliminary incursions had been
already made, when in 1521 an opportunity presented itself for
a more extended expedition. Ibrahim, emperor of Delhi, had
made himself detested, even by his Afghan nobles, several of
whom called upon Baber for assistance. He at once assembled
his forces, 12,000 strong, with some pieces of artillery and
marched into India. Ibrahim, with 100,000 soldiers and numer-
ous elephants, advanced against him. The great battle was
fought at Panipat on the 2ist of April 1526, when Ibrahim
was slain and his army routed. Baber at once took possession
of Agra. A still more formidable enemy awaited him; the
Rana Sanga of Mewar collected the enormous force of 210,000
men, with which he moved against the invaders. On all sides
there was danger and revolt, even Baber's own soldiers, worn
out with the heat of this new ch'mate, longed for Kabul. By
vigorous measures and inspiriting speeches he restored their
courage, though his own heart was nearly failing him, and in his
distress he abjured the use of wine, to which he had been addicted.
At Kanwaha, on the loth of March 1527, he won a great victory
and made himself absolute master of northern India. The
remaining years of his life he spent in arranging the affairs and
revenues of his new empire and in improving his capital, Agra.
He died on the 26th of December 1530 in his forty-eighth year.
Baber was above the middle height, of great strength and an ad-
mirable archer and swordsman. His mind was as well cultivated
as his bodily powers; he wrote well, and his observations are
generally acute and accurate; he was brave, kindly and generous.
Full materials for his life are found in his Memoirs, written by
himself (translated into English by Leyden and Erskine (London,
1826); abridged in Caldecott, Life of Baber (London, 1844). Sec
also Lane-Poole, Baber (Rulers of India Series), 1899.
BABEUF
93
BABEUF, FRANCOIS NOEL (1760-1797), known as GRACCHUS
BABEUF, French political agitator and journalist, was born at
Saint Quentin on the 23rd of November 1 760. His father, Claude
Babeuf, had deserted the French army in 1738 and taken service
under Maria Theresa, rising, it is said, to the rank of major.
Amnestied in 1755 he returned to France, but soon sank into
dire poverty, being forced to earn a pittance for his wife and
family as a day labourer. The hardships endured by Babeuf
during early years do much to explain his later opinions. He
had received from his father the smatterings of a liberal education,
but until the outbreak of the Revolution he was a domestic
servant, and from 1785 occupied the invidious office of com-
missaire a terrier, his function being to assist the nobles and
priests in the assertion of their feudal rights as against the
unfortunate peasants. On the eve of the Revolution Babeuf
was in the employ of a land surveyor at Roye. His father had
died in 1780, and he was now the sole support, not only of his
wife and two children, but of his mother, brothers and sisters.
In the circumstances it is not surprising that he was the life and
soul of the malcontents of the place. He was an indefatigable
writer, and the first germ of his future socialism is contained in
a letter of the zist of March 1787, one of a series mainly on
literature addressed to the secretary of the Academy of Arras.
In 1789 he drew up the first article of the cahier of the electors
of the battliage of Roye, demanding the abolition of feudal
rights. Then, from July to October, he was in Paris super-
intending the publication of his first work: Cadastre perpetuel,
dfdii a I'assemblee nalionale, ran 1789 el le premier de la liberte
franc_aise, which was written in 1787 and issued in 1790. The
same year he published a pamphlet against feudal aids and the
gabelle, for which he was denounced and arrested, but provision-
ally released. In October, on his return to Roye, he founded
the Correspondant picard, the violent character of which cost him
another arrest. In November he was elected a member of the
municipality of Roye, but was expelled. In March 1791 he was
appointed commissioner to report on the national property
(biens nationaux) in the town, and in September 1792 was elected
a member of the council-general of the department of the Somme.
Here, as everywhere, the violence of his attitude made his
position intolerable to himself and others, and he was soon
transferred to the post of administrator of the district of
Montdidier. Here he was accused of fraud for having sub-
stituted one name for another in a deed of transfer of national
lands. It is probable that his fault was one of negligence only;
but, distrusting the impartiality of the judges of the Somme,
he fled to Paris, and on the 23rd of August 1793 was condemned
in contumaciam to twenty years' imprisonment. Meanwhile
he had been appointed secretary to the relief committee (comite
des subsistances) of the commune of Paris. The judges of Amiens,
however, pursued him with a warrant for his arrest, which
took place in Brumaire of the year II. (1794). The court of
cassation quashed the sentence, through defect of form, but
sent Babeuf for a new trial before the Aisne tribunal, by which
he was acquitted on the i8th of July.
Babeuf now returned to Paris, and on the 3rd of September
1 794 published the first number of his Journal de la liberte de la
presse, the title of which was altered on the sth of October to
Le Tribun du peuple. The execution of Robespierre on the 28th
of July had ended the Terror, and Babeuf now self-styled
" Gracchus " Babeuf defended the men of Thermidor and
attacked the fallen terrorists with his usual violence. But he
also attacked, from the point of view of his own socialistic
theories, the economic outcome of the Revolution. This was
an attitude which had few supporters, even in the Jacobin club,
and in October Babeuf was arrested and sent to prison at Arras.
Here he came under the influence of certain terrorist prisoners,
notably of Lebois, editor of the Journal de I'egalite, afterwards
of the A mi du peuple, papers which carried on the traditions of
Marat. He emerged from prison a confirmed terrorist and con-
vinced that his Utopia, fully proclaimed to the world in No. 33 of
his Tribun, could only be realized through the restoration of the
constitution of 1793. He was now in open conflict with the
whole trend of public opinion. In February 1795 he was again
arrested, and the Tribun du peuple was solemnly burnt in
the Theatre des Berge'res by the jeunesse dorte, the young
men whose mission it was to bludgeon Jacobinism out of the
streets and caf6s. But for the appalling economic conditions
produced by the fall in the value of assignats, Babeuf might
have shared the fate of other agitators who were whipped into
obscurity.
It was the attempts of the Directory to deal with this economic
crisis that gave Babeuf his real historic importance. The new
government was pledged to abolish the vicious system by which
Paris was fed at the expense of all France, and the cessation of
the distribution of bread and meat at nominal prices was fixed
for the 2oth of February 1796. The announcement caused the
most wide-spread consternation. Not only the workmen and
the large class of idlers attracted to Paris by the system, but
rentiers and government officials, whose incomes were paid in
assignats on a scale arbitrarily fixed by the government, saw
themselves threatened with actual starvation. The government
yielded to the outcry that arose; but the expedients by which
it sought to mitigate the evil, notably the division of those
entitled to relief into classes, only increased the alarm and the
discontent. The universal misery gave point to the virulent
attacks of Babeuf on the existing order, and at last gained
him a hearing. He gathered round him a small circle of his im-
mediate followers known as the Societe des gaux, soon merged
with the rump of the Jacobins, who met at the Pantheon;
and in November 1795 he was reported by the police to be
openly preaching " insurrection, revolt and the constitution
of I793-"
For a time the government, while keeping itself informed of his
activities, left him alone; for it suited the Directory to let the
socialist agitation continue, in order to frighten the people from
joining in any royalist movement for the overthrow of the
existing regime. Moreover the mass of the ouvriers, even of
extreme views, were repelled by Babeuf 's bloodthirstiness;
and the police agents reported that his agitation was making
many converts for the government. The Jacobin club of the
Faubourg Saint- Antoine refused to admit Babeuf and Lebois, on
the ground that they were " egorgeurs." With the development
of the economic crisis, however, Babeuf's influence increased.
After the club of the Pantheon was closed by Bonaparte, on the
27th of February 1796, his aggressive activity redoubled. In
Vent6se and Germinal he published, under the nom de plume of
" Lalande, soldat de la patrie," a new paper, the .claireur du
peuple, ou le defenseur de vingt-cinq millions d'opprimts, which
was hawked clandestinely from group to group in the streets of
Paris. At the same time No. 40 of the Tribun excited an immense
sensation. In this he praised the authors of the September
massacres as " deserving well of their country," and declared
that a more complete " September 2nd " was needed to annihilate
the actual government, which consisted of " starvers, blood-
suckers, tyrants, hangmen, rogues and mountebanks." The
distress among all classes continued to be appalling; and in
March the attempt of the Directory to replace the assignats
(q.v.) by a new issue of mandats created fresh dissatisfaction
after the breakdown of the hopes first raised. A cry went up
that national bankruptcy had been declared, and thousands of the
lower class of ouvrier began to rally to Babeuf's flag. On the 4th
of April it was reported to the government that 500,000 people
in Paris were in need of relief. From the nth Paris was pla-
carded with posters headed A nalyse de la doctrine de Babteuf (sic) ,
tribun du peuple, of which the opening sentence ran: " Nature
has given to every man the right to the enjoyment of an equal
share in all property," and which ended with a call to restore
the constitution of 1 793. Babeuf's song Mourant defaim, mouranl
de froid (Dying of hunger, dying of cold), set to a popular air,
began to be sung in the cafes, with immense applause; and
reports were current that the disaffected troops in the camp of
Crenelle were ready to join an tmeute against the government.
The Directory thought it time to act; the bureau central had
accumulated through its agents, notably the ex-captain Georges
94
BABIISM
Grisel, who had been initiated into Babeuf's society, complete
evidence of a conspiracy for an armed rising fixed for Flo real 22,
year IV. (nth of May 1796), in which Jacobins and socialists
were combined. On the loth of May Babeuf was arrested
with many of his associates, among whom were A. Darthfi and
P. M. Buonarroti, the ex-members of the Convention, Robert
Lindet, J. A. B. Amar, M. G. A. Vadier and Jean Baptiste
Drouet, famous as the postmaster of Saint-Menehould who
had arrested Louis XVI., and now a member of the Council
of Five Hundred.
The coup was perfectly successful. The last number of the
Tribun appeared on the 24th of April, but Lebois in the Ami du
peuple tried to incite the soldiers to revolt, and for a while there
were rumours of a military rising. The trial of Babeuf and his
accomplices was fixed to take place before the newly constituted
high court of justice at Vendome. On Fructidor 10 and n (27th
and 28th of August), when the prisoners were removed from
Paris, there were tentative efforts at a riot with a view to rescue,
but these were easily suppressed. The attempt of five or six
hundred Jacobins (7th of September) to rouse the soldiers at
Crenelle met with no better success. The trial of Babeuf and
the others, begun at Vend6me on the 2oth of February 1797,
lasted two months. The government for reasons of their own
made the socialist Babeuf the leader of the conspiracy, though
more important people than he were implicated; and his own
vanity played admirably into their hands. On Prairial 7 (26th
of April 1797) Babeuf and Darthe were condemned to death;
some of the prisoners, including Buonarroti, were exiled; the
rest, including Vadier and his fellow-conventionals, were
acquitted. Drouet had succeeded in making his escape, according
to Barras, with the connivance of the Directory. Babeuf and
Darthe were executed at Vend6me on Prairial 8 (1797).
Babeuf's character has perhaps been sufficiently indicated
above. He was a type of the French revolutionists, excitable,
warm-hearted, half-educated, who lost their mental and moral
balance in the chaos of the revolutionary period. Historically,
his importance lies in the fact that he was the first to propound
socialism as a practical policy, and the father of the movements
which played so conspicuous a part in the revolutions of 1848
and 1871.
See V. Advielle. Hist, de Gracchus Babeuf et de Babouvisme (2 vols.,
Paris, 1884); P. M. Buonarroti, Conspiration pour I'egalitc, dite
de Babeuf (2 vols., Brussels, 1828; later editions, 1850 and 1869),
English translation by Bronterre O'Brien (London, 1836) ; Cam-
bridge Modern History, voj. viii. ; Adolf Schmidt, Pariser Zustdnde
wdhrend der Revolutionszeit von 1780-1800 (Jena, 1874). French
trans, by P. Viollet, Paris pendant la Revolution d'apres les rapports
de la police secrete, 1780-2800 (4 vols., 1880-^1894); A. Schmidt,
Tableaux de la Revolution franfaise, &c. (Leipzig, 1867-1870), a
collection of reports of the secret police on which the above work
is based. A full report of the trial at Vend6me was published in
four volumes at Paris in 1797, Debats du proces, &c. (W. A. P.)
BABIISM, the religion founded in Persia in A.D. 1844-1845
by Mirza 'All Muhammad of SMraz, a young Sayyid who was
at that time not twenty-five years of age. Before his "manifesta-
tion " (zuhur), of which he gives in the Persian Bayan a date
corresponding to 23rd May 1844, he was a disciple of Sayyid
Kazim of Rasht, the leader of the Shaykhis, a sect of extreme
Shi'ites characterized by the doctrine (called by them Rukn-i-
rdbi', " the fourth support ") that at all times there must exist
an intermediary between the twelfth Imam and his faithful
followers. This intermediary they called " the perfect Shf'ite,"
and his prototype is to be found in the four successive Babs or
" gates " through whom alone the twelfth Imam, during the
period of his " minor occultation " (Ghaybat-4-sughra, A.D. 874-
940), held communication with his partisans. 'It was in this
sense, and not, as has been often asserted, in the sense of " Gate of
God " or " Gate of Religion," that the title Bab was understood
and assumed by Mirza 1 Ah" Muhammad ; but,though still generally
thus styled by non-Babfs, he soon assumed the higher title of Nuqta
(" Point "), and the title Bab, thus left vacant, was conferred on
his ardent disciple, Mulla Husayn of Bushrawayh.
The history of the Babis, though covering a comparatively
short period, is so full of incident and the particulars now available
are so numerous, that the following account purports to be only
the briefest sketch. The Bib himself was in captivity first at
Shiraz, then at Maku, and lastly at Chihriq, during the greater
part of the six years (May 1844 until July 1850) of his brief
career, but an active propaganda was carried on by his disciples,
which resulted in several serious revolts against the government,
especially aiter the death of Muhammad Shah in September 1848.
Of these risings the first (December i848-July 1849) took place
in Mazandaran, at the ruined shrine of Shaykh Tabarsi, near
Barfurush, where the Babis, led by Mulla Muhammad 'All of
Barfurush and Mulla Husayn of Bushrawayh (" the first who
believed "), defied the shah's troops for seven months before
they were finally subdued and put to death. The revolt at
Zanjan in the north-west of Persia, headed by Mulla Muhammad
'Ali Zanjani, also lasted seven or eight months (May-December
1850), while a serious, but less protracted struggle was waged
against the government at Niriz in Fars by Aga Sayyid Yahya
of Niriz. Both revolts were in progress when the Bab, with one
of his devoted disciples, was brought from his prison at Chihriq to
Tabriz and publicly shot in front of the arg or citadel. The
body, after being exposed for some days, was recovered by the
Babis and conveyed to a shrine near Tehran, whence it was
ultimately removed to Acre in Syria, where it is now buried.
For the next two years comparatively little was heard of the
Babis, but on the I5th of August 1852 three of them, acting on
their own initiative, attempted to assassinate Nasiru'd-Din Shah
as he was returning from the chase to his palace at Niyavaran.
The attempt failed, but was the cause of a fresh persecution,
and on the 3ist of August 1852 some thirty Babis, including
the beautiful and talented poetess Qurratu'l-'Ayn, were put to
death in Tehran with atrocious cruelty. Another of the victims
of that day was Hajji Mirza Jani of Kashan, the author of the
oldest history of the movement from the Babi point of view.
Only one complete MS. of his invaluable work (obtained by
Count Gobineau in Persia) exists in any public library, the
Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. The so-called " New History "
(of which an English translation was pubh'shed at Cambridge
in 1893 by E. G. Browne) is based on Mirza Jani's work, but
many important passages which did not accord with later Babi
doctrine or policy have been suppressed or modified, while some
additions have been made. The Bab was succeeded on his
death by Mirza Yahya of Nur (at that time only about twenty
years of age), who escaped to Bagdad, and, under the title of
Subft-i-Ezel (" the Morning of Eternity "), became the pontiff of
the sect. He lived, however, in great seclusion, leaving the direc-
tion of affairs almost entirely in the hands of his elder half-
brother (born i2th November 1817), Mirza Husayn 'Ali, entitled
Bahd'u'lldh ("the Splendour of God"), who thus gradually
became the most conspicuous and most influential member of
the sect, though in the Iqdn, one of the most important polemical
works of the Babis, composed in 1858-1859, he still implicitly
recognized the supremacy of Subh-i-Ezel. In 1863, however,
Baha declared himself to be " He whom God shall manifest "
(Man Yuz-hiruhu'llah, with prophecies of whose advent the
works of the Bab are filled), and called on all the Babis to recog-
nize his claim. The majority responded, but Subh-i-Ezel and
some of his faithful adherents refused. After that date the
Babis divided into two sects, Ezelfs and Baha'fs, of which the
former steadily lost and the latter gained ground, so that in 1008
there were probably from half a million to a million of the latter,
and at most only a hundred or two of the former. In 1863 the
Babis were, at the instance of the Persian government, removed
from Bagdad to Constantinople, whence they were shortly
afterwards transferred to Adrianople. In 1868 Italia and his
followers were exiled to Acre in Syria, and Subh-i-Ezel with his
few adherents to Famagusta in Cyprus, where he was still living
in 1908. Bahi'u'llah died at Acre on the i6th of May 1892.
His son 'Abbas Efendf (also called 'Abdu'1-Baha, " the servant
of Baha ") was generally recognized as his successor, but another
of his four sons, Muhammad 'Ali, put forward a rival claim.
This caused a fresh and bitter schism, but 'Abbas Efendi steadily
gained ground, and there could be little doubt as to his eventual
BABINGTON
95
triumph. The controversial literature connected with this latest
schism is abundant, not only in Persian, but in English, for since
1900 many Americans have adopted the religion of Baha. The
original apostle of America was Ibrahim George Khayru'llah,
who began his propaganda at the Chicago Exhibition and later
supported the claims of Muhammad 'AM. Several Persian
missionaries, including the aged and learned Mfrza Abu'1-Fazl of
Gulpayagan, were thereupon despatched to America by 'Abbas
Efendi, who was generally accepted by the American Baha'is as
" the Master." The American press contained many notices of
the propaganda and its success. An interesting article on the
subject, by Stoyan Krstoff Vatralsky of Boston, Mass., entitled
" Mohammedan Gnosticism in America," appeared in the
American Journal of Theology for January 1902, pp. 57-58.
A correct understanding of the doctrines of the early Babis
(now represented by the Ezelis) is hardly possible save to one who
is conversant with the theology of Islam and its developments,
and especially the tenets of the Shi'a. The Babis are Muham-
madans only in the sense that the Muhammadans are Christians
or the Christians Jews; that is to say, they recognize Muhammad
(Mahomet) as a true prophet and the Qur'an (Koran) as a re-
velation, but deny their finality. Revelation, according to their
view, is progressive, and no revelation is final, for, as the human
race progresses, a fuller measure of truth, and ordinances more
suitable to the age, are vouchsafed. The Divine Unity is incom-
prehensible, and can be known only through its Manifestations;
to recognize the Manifestation of the cycle in which he lives is
the supreme duty of man. Owing to the enormous volume and
unsystematic character of the Babi scriptures, and the absence
of anything resembling church councils, the doctrine on many
important points (such as the future life) is undetermined and
vague. The resurrection of the body is denied, but some form
of personal immortality is generally, though not universally,
accepted. Great importance was attached to the mystical values
of letters and numbers, especially the numbers 18 and 19 (" the
number of the unity ") and 19* = 361 (" the number of all
things ") . In general, the Bib's doctrines most closely resembled
those of the Isma'ilis and Hurfifis. In the hands of Baha the
aims of the sect became much more practical and ethical, and
the wilder pantheistic tendencies and metaphysical hair-splittings
of the early Babis almost disappeared. The intelligence, integrity
and morality of the Babis are high, but their efforts to improve
the social position of woman have been much exaggerated.
They were in no way concerned (as was at the time falsely alleged)
in the assassination of Nasiru'd-Din Shah in May 1896. Of
recent persecutions of the sect the two most notable took place
at Yazd, one in May 1891, and another of greater ferocity in
June 1903. Some account of the latter is given by Napier
Malcolm in his book Five Years in a Persian Town (London, 1905),
pp. 87-89 and 186. In the constitutional movement in Persia
(1907) the Babis, though their sympathies are undoubtedly
with the reformers, wisely refrained from outwardly identifying
themselves with that party, to whom their open support, by
alienating the orthodox mttjtahids and mull&s, would have proved
fatal. Here, as in all their actions, they clearly obeyed orders
issued from headquarters.
LITERATURE. The literature of the sect is very voluminous, but
mostly in manuscript. The most valuable public collections in
Europe are at St Petersburg, London (British Museum) and Paris
(Bibhotheque Nationale), where two or three very rare MSS.
collected by Gobineau, including the precious history of the Bib's
contemporary, Hijji Mfrza Jint of Kashin, are preserved. For the
bibliography up to 1889, see vol. ii. pp. 173-211 of the Traveller's
Narrative, written to illustrate the Episode of the Bdb, a Persian
work composed by Bahi's son, 'Abbis Efendf, edited, translated
and annotated by E. G. Browne (Cambridge, 1891). More recent
works are: Browne, The New History of the Bdb (Cambridge, 1893) ;
and " Catalogue and Description of the 27 Bibi Manuscripts,"
Journal of R. Asiat. Soc. (July and October 1892); Andreas, Die
Bdbi's in Persien (1896); Baron Victor Rosen, Collections scien-
tifiques de I'Institut des Langues orientates, vol. i. (1877), pp. 179-212 ;
vof. Hi. (1886), pp. 1-51; vol. vi. (1891), pp. 141-255; Manuscrits
Babys"; and other important articles in Russian by the same
scholar; and by Captain A. G. Toumansky in the Zapiski vostochnava
otdyeleniya Imperatorskava Russkava Archeologicheskava Obshchestva
(vols. iv.-xii., St Petersburg, 1890-1900); also an excellent edition
by Toumansky, with Russian translation, notes and introduction,
of the Kitdb-i-Aqdas (the most important of Bahi's works), &c.
(St Petersburg, 1899). Mention should also be made of an Arabic
history of the Bibfs (unsympathetic but well-informed) written by
a Persian, MIrzi Muhammad Mahdi Khan, Za'imu'd-Duvila, printed
jn Cairo in A.H. 1321 ( = A.D. 1903-1904). Of the works composed
in English for the American converts the most important are:
Bahd'u'lldh (The Glory of God), by Ibrihfm Khayru'llih, assisted
by Howard MacNutt (Chicago, 1900) ; The Three Questions (n.d.)
and Facts for Bahdists (1901), by the same; Life and Teachings of
'Abbds Efendi, by Myron H. Phelps, with preface by E. G. Browne
(New York, 1903); Isabella Brittingham, The Revelations of
Bahd'u'lldh, in a Sequence of Four Lessons (1902) ; Laura Clifford
Burney, Some Answered Questions Collected [in Acre, 1904-1906] and
Translated from the Persian of 'Abdu'l-Bahd [i.e. ' Abbis Efendi]
(London, 1908). In French, A. L. M. Nicolas (first dragoman at
the French legation at Tehrin) has published several important
translations, viz. Le Livre des sept preuves de la mission du Bdb (Paris,
1902); l.i- Livre de la certitude (1904); and Le Beydn arabe (1905);
and there are other notable works by H. Dreyfus, an adherent of the
Bib! faith. Lastly, mention should be made of a remarkable but
scarce little tract by Gabriel Sacy, printed at Cairo in June 1902,
and entitled Du regne de Dieu et de fAgneau, connu sous le nom de
Babysme. (E. G. B.)
BABINGTON, ANTHONY (1561-1586), English conspirator,
son of Henry Babington of Dethick in Derbyshire, and of Mary,
daughter of George, Lord Darcy, was born in October 1561, and
was brought up secretly a Roman Catholic. As a youth he served
at Sheffield as page to Mary queen of Scots, for whom he early
felt an ardent devotion. In 1580 he came to London, attended
the court of Elizabeth, and joined the secret society formed that
year supporting the Jesuit missionaries. In 1582 after the
execution of Father Campion he withdrew to Dethick, and
attaining his majority occupied himself for a short time witi the
management of his estates. Later he went abroad and became
associated at Paris with Mary's supporters who were planning
her release with the help of Spain, and on his return he was
entrusted with letters for her. In April 1586 he became, with
the priest John Ballard, leader of a plot to murder Elizabeth and
her ministers, and organize a general Roman Catholic rising in
England and liberate Mary. The conspiracy was regarded by
Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, one of its chief instigators,
and also by Walsingham, as the most dangerous of recent years;
it included, in its general purpose of destroying the government,
a large number of Roman Catholics, and had ramifications all
over the country. Philip II. of Spain, who ardently desired the
success of an enterprise " so Christian, just and advantageous
to the holy Catholic faith," * promised to assist with an expedition
directly the assassination of the queen was effected. Babington's
conduct was marked by open folly and vanity. Desirous of some
token of appreciation from Mary for his services, he entered into
a long correspondence with her, which was intercepted by the
spies of Walsingham. On the 4th of August Ballard was seized
and betrayed his comrades, probably under torture. Babington
then applied for a passport abroad, for the ostensible purpose of
spying upon the refugees, but in reality to organize the foreign
expedition and secure his own safety. The passport being
delayed, he offered to reveal to Walsingham a dangerous con-
spiracy, but the latter sent no reply, and meanwhile the ports
were closed and none allowed to leave the kingdom for some days.
He was still allowed his liberty, but one night while supping
with Walsingham's servant he observed a memorandum of the
minister's concerning himself, fled to St John's Wood, where he
was joined by some of his companions, and after disguising
himself succeeded in reaching Harrow, where he was sheltered
by a recent convert to Romanism. Towards the end of August
he was discovered and imprisoned in the Tower. On the I3th
and i4th of September he was tried with Ballard and five others
by a special commission, when he confessed his guilt, but strove
to place all the blame upon Ballard. All were condemned to
death for high treason. On the i9th he wrote to Elizabeth
praying for mercy, and the same day offered 1000 for procuring
his pardon; and on the zoth, having disclosed the cipher used
in the correspondence between, himself and Mary, he was executed
1 Cata. of State Papers Simancas, iii. 606, Mendoza to Philip.
9 6
BABINGTON BABRIUS
with the usual barbarities in Lincoln's Inn Fields. The detection
of the plot led to Mary's own destruction. There is no positive
documentary proof in Mary's own hand that she had knowledge
of the intended assassination of Elizabeth, but her circumstances,
together with the tenour of her correspondence with Babington,
place her complicity beyond all reasonable doubt.
BABINGTON, CHURCHILL (1821-1889), English classical
scholar and archaeologist, was born at Roecliffe, in Leicestershire,
on the 1 1 th of March 1821. He was educated by his father till he
was seventeen, when he was placed under the tuition of Charles
Wycliffe Goodwin, the orientalist and archaeologist. He entered
St John's College, Cambridge, in 1839, and graduated B.A. in
1843, being seventh in the first class of the classical tripos and a
senior optime. In 1845 he obtained the Hulsean Prize for his
essay The Influence of Christianity in promoting the Abolition of
Slavery in Europe. In 1846 he was elected to a fellowship and
took orders. He proceeded to the degree of M.A. in 1846 and
D.D. in 1879. From 1848 to 1861 he was vicar of Horningsea, near
Cambridge, and from 1866 to his death on the i2th of January
1889, vicar of Cockfield in Suffolk. From 1865 to 1880 he held
the Disney professorship of archaeology at Cambridge. In his
lectures, illustrated from his own collections of coins and vases,
he dealt chiefly with Greek and Roman pottery and numismatics.
Dr Babington was a many-sided man and wrote on a variety
of subjects. His early familiarity with country life gave him a
taste for natural history, especially botany and ornithology.
He was also an authority on conchology. He was the author of
the appendices on botany (in part) and ornithology in Potter's
History and Antiquities of Charnwood Forest (1842); Mr
Macaiday's Character of the Clergy . . . considered (1849), a
defence of the clergy of the I7th century, which received the
approval of Mr Gladstone, against the strictures of Macaulay.
He also brought out the editio princeps of the speeches of
Hypereides Against Demosthenes (1850), On Behalf of Lycophron
and Euxenippus (1853), and his Funeral Oration (1858). It was
by his edition of these speeches from the papyri discovered at
Thebes (Egypt) in 1847 and 1856 that Babington's fame as a
Greek scholar was made. In 1855 he published an edition
of Bencfizio della Morte di Cristo, a remarkable book of the
Reformation period, attributed to Paleario, of which nearly all
the copies had been destroyed by the Inquisition. Babington's
edition was a facsimile of the editio princeps published at Venice
in 1543, with Introduction and French and English versions.
He also edited the first two volumes of Higden's Polychronicon
(1858) and Bishop Pecock's Represser of Overmuch Blaming of the
Clergy (1860), undertaken at the request of the Master of the
Rolls; Introductory Lecture on Archaeology (1865); Roman
Antiquities found at Rougham [1872]; Catalogue of Birds of
Suffolk (1884-1886); Flora of Sufolk (with W. M. Hind, 1889),
and (1855, 1865) some inscriptions found in Crete by T. A. B.
Spratt, the explorer of the island. In addition to contributing
to various classical and scientific journals, he catalogued the
classical MSS. in the University Library and the Greek and
English coins in the Fitzwilliam museum.
BABIRUSA (" pig-deer "), the Malay name of the wild swine
of Celebes and Buru, which has been adopted in zoology as the
scientific designation of this remarkable animal (the only repre-
sentative of its genus), in the form of Babirusa alfurus. The
skin is nearly naked, and very rough and rugged. The total
number of teeth is 34, with the formula '.?. c.\. p.\. m.\. The
molars, and more especially the last, are smaller and simpler than
in the pigs of the genus Sus, but the peculiarity of this genus is
the extraordinary development of the canines, or tusks, of the
male. These teeth are ever-growing, long, slender and curved,
and without enamel. Those of the upper jaw are directed
upwards from their bases, so that they never enter the mouth,
but pierce the skin of the face, thus resembling horns rather than
teeth; they curve backwards, downwards, and finally often
forwards again, almost or quite touching the forehead. Dr A. R.
Wallace remarks that "it is difficult to understand what can be
the use of these horn-like teeth. Some of the old writers supposed
that they served as hooks by which the creature could rest its
head on a branch. But the way in which they usually diverge
just over and in front of the eye has suggested the more probable
idea, that they serve to guard these organs from thorns and
spines while hunting for fallen fruits among the tangled thickets
of rattans and other spiny plants. Even this, however, is not
satisfactory, for the female, who must seek her food in the same
way, does not possess them. I should be inclined to believe
rather that these tusks were once useful, and were then worn
Old Male Babirusa (Babirusa alfurus).
down as fast as they grew, but that changed conditions of life
have rendered them unnecessary, and they now develop into a
monstrous form, just as the incisors of the beaver and rabbit will
go on growing if the opposite teeth do not wear them away. In
old animals they reach an enormous size, and are generally
broken off as if by fighting." On this latter view we may regard
the tusks of the male babirusa as examples of redundant develop-
ment, analogous to that of the single pair of lower teeth in some
of the beaked whales. Unlike ordinary wild pigs, the babirusa
produces uniformly coloured young. (See SWINE.) (R. L.*)
BABOON (from the Fr. babuin, which is itself derived
from Babon, the Egyptian deity to whom it was sacred), properly
the designation of the long-muzzled, medium-tailed Egyptian
monkey, scientifically known as Papio anubis; in a wider sense
applied to all the members of the genus Papio (formerly known
as Cynocephalus) now confined to Africa and Arabia, although
in past times extending into India. Baboons are for the most
part large terrestrial monkeys with short or medium-sized tails,
and long naked dog-like muzzles, in the truncated extremity of
which are pierced the nostrils. As a rule, they frequent barren
rocky districts in large droves, and are exceedingly fierce and
dangerous to approach. They have large cheek-pouches, large
naked callosities, often brightly coloured, on the buttocks, and
short thick limbs, adapted rather to walking than to climbing.
Their diet includes practically everything eatable they can
capture or kill. The typical representative of the genus is the
yellow baboon (P. cynocephalus, or babuin), distinguished by
its small size and grooved muzzle, and ranging from Abyssinia
to the Zambezi. The above-mentioned anubis baboon, P. anubis
(with the subspecies neumanni, pruinosus, heuglini and doguera) ,
ranging from Egypt all through tropical Africa, together with
P. sphinx, P. olivaceus, the Abyssinian P. lydekkeri, and the
chacma, P. porcarius of the Cape, represent the subgenus
Choeropithecus. The named Arabian baboon, P. hamadryas of
North Africa and Arabia, dedicated by the ancient Egyptians
to the god Thoth, and the South Arabian P. arabicus, typify
Hamadryas; while the drill and mandrill of the west coast,
P. leucophaeus and P. maimon, constitute the subgenus Maimon.
The anubis baboons, as shown by the frescoes, were tamed by
the ancient Egyptians and trained to pluck sycamore-figs from
the trees. (See PRIMATES; CHACMA; DRILL; GELADA and
MANDRILL). (R. L.*)
BABRIUS, author of a collection of fables written in Greek.
Practically nothing is known of him. He is supposed to have
been a Roman, whose gentile name was possibly Valerius,
living in the East, probably in Syria, where the fables seem first
BABU BABY-FARMING
97
to have gained popularity. The address to " a son of King
Alexander " has caused much speculation, with the result that
dates varying between the 3rd century B.C. and the 3rd century
A.D. have been assigned to Babrius. The Alexander referred to
may have been Alexander Severus (A.D. 222-235), w h was fond
of having literary men of all kinds about his court. " The son of
Alexander " has further been identified with a certain Branchus
mentioned in the fables, and it is suggested that Babrius may
have been his tutor; probably, however, Branchus is a purely
fictitious name. There is no mention of Babrius in ancient
writers before the beginning of the 3rd century A.D., and his
language and style seem to show that he belonged to that period.
The first critic who made Babrius more than a mere name was
Richard Bentley, in his Dissertation on the Fables of Aesop. In
a careful examination of these prose Aesopian fables, which
had been handed down in various collections from the time of
Maximus Planudes, Bentley discovered traces of versification,
and was able to extract a number of verses which he assigned to
Babrius. Tyrwhitt (De Babrio, 1776) followed up the researches
of Bentley, and for some time the efforts of scholars were directed
towards reconstructing the metrical original of the prose fables.
In 1842 M. Minas, a Greek, the discoverer of the PhUosophoumena
of Hippolytus, came upon a MS. of Babrius in the convent of St
Laura on Mount Athos, now in the British Museum. This MS.
contained 123 fables out of the supposed original number, 160.
They are arranged alphabetically, but break off at the letter O.
The fables are written in choliambic, i.e. limping or imperfect
iambic verse, having a spondee as the last foot, a metre originally
appropriated to satire. The style is extremely good, the expres-
sion being terse and pointed, the versification correct and elegant,
and the construction of the stories is fully equal to that in the
prose versions. The genuineness of this collection of the fables
was generally admitted by scholars. In 1857 Minas professed to
have discovered at Mount Athos another MS. containing 94
fables and a preface. As the monks refused to sell this MS., he
made a copy of it, which was sold to the British Museum, and
was published in 1859 by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis. This, however,
was soon proved to be a forgery. Six more fables were brought
to light by P. Knoll from a Vatican MS. (edited by A. Eberhard,
Analecta Babriana, 1879).
EDITIONS. Boissonade (1844); Lachmann (1845); Schneider
(1853); Eberhard (1876); Gitlbauer (1882); Rutherford (1883);
Knoll, Fabularum Babrianarum Paraphrasis Bodleiana (1877) ;
Feuillet (1890); Desrousseaux (1890); Passerat (1892); Croiset
(1892); Crusius (1897). See also Mantels, ttber die Fabeln des B.
(1840); Crusius, De Babrii Aetate (1879); Ficus, De Babrii Vita
(1889); J. Weiner, Quaestiones Babrianae (1891); Conington,
Miscellaneous Writings, ii. 460-491 ; Marchiano, Babrio (1899) ; Fusci,
Babrio (1901); Christoffersson, Studia de Fabulis Babrianis (1901).
There are translations in English by Davies (1860) and in French
by Leveque (1890), and in many other languages.
BABU, a native Indian clerk. The word is really a term of
respect attached to a proper name, like " master " or " Mr,"
and Babu-ji is still used in many parts of India, meaning " sir ";
but without the suffix the word itself is now generally used
contemptuously as signifying a semi-literate native, with a
mere veneer of modern education.
BABY-FARMING, 1 a term meaning generally the taking in of
infants to nurse for payment, but usually with an implication
of improper treatment. Previous to the year 1871 the abuse
of the practice of baby-farming in England had grown to an
alarming extent, while the trials of Margaret Waters and Mary
Hall called attention to the infamous relations between the
lying-in houses and the baby-farming houses of London.. The
evil was, no doubt, largely connected with the question of
illegitimacy, for there was a wide-spread existence of baby-
farms where children were received without question on payment
of a lump sum. Such children were nearly all illegitimate, and
in these cases it was to the pecuniary advantage of the baby-
farmer to hasten the death of the child. It had become also
the practice for factory operatives and mill-hands to place out
Baby is a diminutive or pet form of " babe," now chiefly used
in poetry or scriptural language. " Babe " is probably a form of
the earlier baban, a reduplicated form of the infant sound ba.
m. 4
their children by the day, and since in many cases the children
were looked upon as a burden and a drain on their parents'
resources, too particular inquiry was not always made as to the
mode in which the children were cared for. The form was gone
through too of paying a ridiculously insufficient sum for the
maintenance of the child. In 1871 the House of Commons
found it necessary to appoint a select committee " to inquire as
to the best means of preventing the destruction of the lives of
infants put out to nurse for hire by their parents." " Improper
and insufficient food," said the committee, " opiates, drugs,
crowded rooms, bad air, want of cleanliness, and wilful neglect
are sure to be followed in a few months by diarrhoea, convulsions
and wasting away." These unfortunate children were nearly
all illegitimate, and the mere fact of their being hand-nursed,
and not breast-nursed, goes some way (according to the experi-
ence of the Foundling hospital and the Magdalene home) to
explain the great mortality among them. Such children, when
nursed by their mothers in the workhouse, gePsrally live. The
practical result of the committee of 1871 was the act of 1872,
which provided for the compulsory registration of all houses
in which more than one child under the age of one yea"
were received for a longer period than twenty -four hours. No
licence was granted by the justices of the peace, unless the house
was suitable for the purpose, and its owner a person of good
character and able to maintain the children. Offences against
the act, including wilful neglect of the children even in a suitable
house, were punishable by a fine of 5 or six months' imprison-
ment with or without hard labour. In 1896 a select committee
of the House of Lords sat and reported on the working of this
act. In consequence of this report the act of 1872 was repealed
and superseded by the Infant Life Protection Act 1897, which
did away with the system of registration and substituted for it
one of notice to a supervening authority. By the act all persons
retaining or receiving for hire more than one infant under the
age of five had to give written notice of the fact to the local
authority. The local authorities were empowered to appoint
inspectors, and required to arrange for the periodical inspection
of infants so taken in, while they could also fix the number of
infants which might be retained. By a special clause any person
receiving an infant under the age of two years for a sum of
money not exceeding twenty pounds had to give notice of the
fact to the local authority. If any infants were improperly kept,
the inspector might obtain an order for their removal to a work-
houseorplace of safety until restored to their parents orguardians,
or otherwise legally disposed of. The act of 1897 was repealed
and amended by the Children Act 1908, which codified the law
relating to children, and added many new provisions. This act
is dealt with in the article CHILDREN, LAW RELATING TO.
In the United States the law is noticeably strict in most
states. In Massachusetts, a law of 1891 directs that "every
person who receives for board, or for the purpose of procuring
adoption, an infant under the age of three years shall use diligence
to ascertain whether or not such infant is illegitimate, and if he
knows or has reason to believe it to be illegitimate shall forthwith
notify the State Board of Charity of the fact of such reception;
and said board and its officers or agents may enter and inspect
any building where they may have reason to believe that any
such illegitimate infant is boarded, and remove such infant
when, in 'heir judgment, such removal is necessary by reason
of neglect, abuse or other causes, in order to preserve the
infant's life, and such infant so removed shall be in the custody
of said Board of Charity, v.hich shall make provision therefor
according to law." The penal code of the state of New York
requires a licence for baby-farming to be issued by the board of
health of the city or town where such children are boarded or
kept, and " every person so licensed must keep a register wherein
he shall enter the names and ages of all such children, and of all
children born on such premises, and the names and residences
of their parents, as far as known, the time of reception and the
discharge of such children, and the reasons therefor, and also a
correct register of every child under five years of age who is
given out, adopted, taken away, or indentured from such place
9 8
BABYLON
to or by any one, together with the name and residence of the
person so adopting " (Pen. Code, 288, subsec. 4).
Persons neglecting children may be prosecuted under 289
of the N.Y. penal code, which provides that any person who
" wilfully causes or permits the life or limb of any child, actually
or apparently under the age of sixteen years, to be endangered,
or its health to be injured, or its morals to become depraved
... is guilty of a misdemeanour."
In Australia particular care has been taken by most of the
states to prevent the evils of baby-farming. In South Australia
there is a State Children's Council, which, under the State
Children Act of 1895, has large powers with respect to the
oversight of infants under two years boarded out by their
mother. " Foster-mothers," as the women who take in infants
as boarders are called, must be licensed, while the number of
children authorized to be kept by the foster-mother is fixed by
licence; every licensed foster-mother must keep a register
containing the name, age and place of birth of every child
received by her, the names, addresses and description of the
parents, or of any person other than the parents from or to
whom the child was received or delivered over, the date of
receipt or delivery over, particulars of any accident to or illness
of the child, and the name of the medical practitioner (if any)
by whom attended. In New South Wales the Children's Protec-
tion Act of 1892, with the amendments of 1902, requires the
same state supervision over the homes in which children are
boarded out, with licensing of foster-mothers. In Victoria an
act was passed in 1890 for " making better provision for the
protection of infant life." In New Zealand, there is legislation
to the same effect by the " Adoption of Children Act 1895 "
and the "Infant Life Protection Act 1896."
BABYLON (mod. Hillah), an ancient city on the left bank of
the Euphrates, about 70 m. S. of Bagdad. " Babylon " is the
Greek form of Babel or Bab-ili, " the gate of the god " (some-
times incorrectly written "of the gods"), which again is the
Semitic translation of the original Sumerian name Ka-dimirra.
The god was probably Merodach or Marduk (q.v.), the divine
patron of the city. In an inscription of the Kassite conqueror
Gaddas the name appears as Ba-ba-lam, as if from the Assyrian
babalu, " to bring "; another foreign Volksetymologie is found in
Genesis xi. 9, from balbal, " to confound." A second name of
the city, which perhaps originally denoted a separate village or
quarter, was Su-anna, and in later inscriptions it is often repre-
sented ideographically by E-ki, the pronunciation and meaning
of which are uncertain. One of its oldest names, however, was
Din-tir, of which the poets were especially fond ; Din-tir signifies
in Sumerian " the life of the forest," though a native lexicon
translates it " seat of life." Uru-azagga, " the holy city," was
also a title sometimes applied to Babylon as to other cities in
Babylonia. Ka-dimirra, the Semitic Bab-ili, probably denoted
at first E-Saggila, " the house of the lofty head," the temple
dedicated to Bel-Merodach, along with its immediate surround-
ings. Like the other great sanctuaries of Babylonia the temple
had been founded in pre-Semitic times, and the future Babylon
grew up around it. Since Merodach was the son of Ea, the
culture god of Eridu near Ur on the Persian Gulf, it is possible
that Babylon was a colony of Eridu. Adjoining Babylon was a
town called Borsippa (q.v.).
The earliest mention of Babylon is in a dated tablet of the
reign of Sargon of Akkad (3800 B.C.), who is stated to have built
sanctuaries there to Anunit and A6 (or Ea), and H. Winckler
may be right in restoring a mutilated passage in the annals of
this king so as to make it mean that Babylon owed its name to
Sargon, who made it the capital of his empire. If so, it fell back
afterwards into the position of a mere provincial town and re-
mained so for centuries, until it became the capital of " the first
dynasty of Babylon " and then of Khammurabi's empire (2250
B.C.). From this time onward it continued to be the capital of
Babylonia and the holy city of western Asia. The claim to
supremacy in Asia, however real in fact, was not admitted
de jure until the claimant had " taken the hands " of Bel-
Merodach at Babylon, and thereby been accepted as his adopted
son and the inheritor of the old Babylonian empire. It was this
which made Tiglath-pileser III. and other Assyrian kings so
anxious to possess themselves of Babylon and so to legitimize
their power. Sennacherib alone seems to have failed in securing
the support of the Babylonian priesthood; at all events he never
underwent the ceremony, and Babylonia throughout his reign
was in a constant state of revolt which was finally suppressed
only by the complete destruction of the capital. In 689 B.C. its
walls, temples and palaces were razed to the ground and the
rubbish thrown into the Arakhtu, the canal which bordered
the earlier Babylon on the south. The act shocked the religious
conscience of western Asia; the subsequent murder of Senna-
cherib was held to be an expiation of it, and his successor Esar-
haddon hastened to rebuild the old city, to receive there his
crown, and make it his residence during part of the year. On
his death Babylonia was left to his elder son Samas-sum-yukin.
who eventually headed a revolt against his brother Assur-bani-pal
of Assyria. Once more Babylon was besieged by the Assyrians
and starved into surrender. Assur-bani-pal purified the city
and celebrated a " service of reconciliation," but did not venture
to " take the hands " of Bel. In the subsequent overthrow of
the Assyrian empire the Babylonians saw another example of
divine vengeance.
With the recovery of Babylonian independence under Nabo-
polassar a new era of architectural activity set in, and his son
Nebuchadrezzar made Babylon one of the wonders of the ancient
world. It surrendered without a struggle to Cyrus, but two
sieges in the reign of Darius Hystaspis, and one in the reign of
Xerxes, brought about the destruction of the defences, while the
monotheistic rule of Persia allowed the temples to fall into decay.
Indeed part of the temple of E-Saggila, which like other ancient
temples served as a fortress, was intentionally pulled down by
Xerxes after his capture of the city. Alexander was murdered
in the palace of Nebuchadrezzar, which must therefore have been
still standing, and cuneiform texts show that, even under the
Seleucids, E-Saggila was not wholly a ruin. The foundation of
Seleucia in its neighbourhood, however, drew away the popula-
tion of the old city and hastened its material decay. A tablet
dated 275 B.C. states that on the I2th of Nisan the inhabitants of
Babylon were transported to the new town, where a palace was
built as well as a temple to which the ancient name of E-Saggila
was given. With this event the history of Babylon comes
practically to an end, though more than a century later we find
sacrifices being still performed in its old sanctuary.
Our knowledge of its topography is derived from the classical
writers, the inscriptions of Nebuchadrezzar, and the excavations
of the Deutsche Orientgesellschaft, which were begun in 1899.
The topography is necessarily that of the Babylon of Nebuchad-
rezzar; the older Babylon which was destroyed by Sennacherib
having left few, if any, traces behind. Most of the existing
remains lie on the E> bank of the Euphrates, the principal being
three vast mounds, the Babil to the north, the Qasr or " Palace "
(also known as the Mujelliba) in the centre, and the Ishan
'Amran ibn 'Ah', with the outlying spur of the Jumjuma, to
the south. Eastward of these come the Ishan el-Aswad or
" Black Mound " and three lines of rampart, one of which en-
closes the Babil mound on the N. and E. sides, while a third
forms a triangle with the S.E. angle of the other two. W. of the
Euphrates are other ramparts and the remains of the ancient
Borsippa.
We learn from Herodotus and Ctesias that the city was built
on both sides of the river in the form of a square, and enclosed
within a double row of lofty walls to which Ctesias adds a third.
Ctesias makes the outermost wall 360 stades (42 m.) in circum-
ference, while according to Herodotus it measured 480 stades
(56 m.), which would include an area of about 200 sq. m. The
estimate of Ctesias is essentially the same as that of Q. Curtius
(v. i. 26), 368 stades, and Clitarchus (ap. Diod. Sic. ii. 7), 365
stades; Strabo (xvi. i. 5) makes it 385 stades. But even the
estimate of Ctesias, assuming the stade to be its usual length,
would imply an area of about 100 sq. m. According to Herodotus
the height of the walls was about 335 ft. and their width 85 ft.;
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
99
according to Ctesias the height was about 300 ft. The measure-
ments seem exaggerated, but we must remember that even in
Xenophon's time (Anab. iii. 4. 10) the ruined wall of Nineveh
was still 150 ft. high, and that the spaces between the 250 towers
of the wall of Babylon (Ctes. 417, ap. Diod. ii. 7) were broad
enough to let a four-horse chariot turn (Herod, i. 179). The clay
dug from the moat served to make the bricks of the wall, which
had 100 gates, all of bronze, with bronze lintels and posts. The
two inner enclosures were faced with enamelled tiles and repre-
sented hunting-scenes. Two other walls ran along the banks
of the Euphrates and the quays with which it was lined,
each containing 25 gates which answered to the number of
streets they led into. Ferry-boats plied between the landing-
places of the gates, and a movable drawbridge (30 ft. broad),
supported on stone piers, joined the two parts of the city together.
The account thus given of the walls must be grossly exaggerated
and cannot have been that of an eye-witness. Moreover, the
two-walls Imgur-Bel, the inner wall, and Nimitti-Bel, the outer
which enclosed the city proper on the site of the older Babylon
have been confused with the outer ramparts (enclosing the whole
of Nebuchadrezzar's city), the remains of which can still be
traced to the east. According to Nebuchadrezzar, Imgur-Bel
was built in the form of a square, each side of which measured
" 30 aslu by the great cubit "; this would be equivalent, if
Professor F. Hommel is right, to 2400 metres. Four thousand
cubits to the east the great rampart was built " mountain high,"
which surrounded both the old and the new town; it was pro-
vided with a moat, and a reservoir was excavated in the triangle
on the inner side of its south-east corner, the western wall of
which is still visible. The Imgur-Bel of Sargon's time has been
discovered by the German excavators running south of the Qasr
from the Euphrates to the Gate of Ishtar.
The German excavations have shown that the Qasr mound
represents both the old palace of Nabopolassar, and the new
palace adjoining it built by Nebuchadrezzar, the wall of which
he boasts of having completed in 1 5 days. They have also laid
bare the site of the " Gate of Ishtar " on the east side of the mound
and the little temple of Nin-Makh (Beltis) beyond it, as well as
the raised road for solemn processions (A-ibur-sabu) which led
from the Gate of Ishtar to E-Saggila and skirted the east side of
the palace. The road was paved with stone and its walls on
either side lined with enamelled tiles, on which a procession of
lions is represented. North of the mound was a canal, which
seems to have been the Libilkhegal of the inscriptions, while
on the south side was the Arakhtu, " the river of Babylon,"
the brick quays of which were built by Nabopolassar.
The site of E-Saggila is still uncertain. The German ex-
cavators assign it to the 'Amran mound, its tower having stood
in a depression immediately to the north of this, and so place
it south of the Qasr; but E. Lindl and F. Hommel have put
forward strong reasons for considering it to have been north of
the latter, on a part of the site which has not yet been explored.
A tablet copied by George Smith gives us interesting details as
to the plan and dimensions of this famous temple of Bel; a
plan based on these will be found in Hommel's Grundriss der
Geographic und Geschichte des alien Orients, p. 321. There were
three courts, the outer or great court, the middle court of
Ishtar and Zamama, and the inner court on the east side
.of which was the tower of seven stages (known as the House
of the Foundation of Heaven and Earth), 90 metres high
according to Hommel's calculation of the measurements in
the tablet; while on the west side was the temple proper
of Merodach and his wife Sarpanit or Zarpanit, as well as
chapels of Anu, Ea and Bel on either side of it. A winding
ascent led to the summit of the tower, where there was a chapel,
containing, according to Herodotus, a couch and golden table
(for the showbread) , but .10 image. The golden image of Merodach
40 ft. high, stood in the temple below, in the sanctuary called
E-Kua or " House of the Oracle," together with a table, a mercy-
seat and an altar all of gold. The deities whose chapels were
erected within the precincts of the temple enclosure were re-
garded as forming his court. Fifty-five of these chapels existed
altogether in Babylon, but some of them stood independently
in other parts of the city.
There are numerous gates in the walls both of E-Saggila
and of the city, the names of many of which are now known.
Nebuchadrezzar says that he covered the walls of some of
them with blue enamelled tiles " on which bulls and dragons
were pourtrayed," and that he set up large bulls and serpents
of bronze on their thresholds.
The Babil mound probably represents the site of a palace built
by Nebuchadrezzar at the northern extremity of the city walls
and attached to a defensive outwork 60 cubits in length. Since
H. Rassam found remains of irrigation works here it might well
be the site of the Hanging Gardens. These consisted, we are
told, of a garden of trees and flowers, built on the topmost of a
series of arches some 75 ft. high, and in the form of a square,
each side of which measured 400 Greek ft. Water was raised
from the Euphrates by means of a screw (Strabo xvi. i. 5;
Diod. ii. 10. 6). In the Jumjuma mound at the southern ex-
tremity of the old city the contract and other business tablets
of the Egibi firm were found.
See C. J. Rich, Memoir on the Ruins of Babylon (1816), and
Collected Memoirs (1830); A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon
(1853); C. P. Tiele, De Hoofdtempel van Babel (1886); A. H. Sayce,
Religion of the Ancient Babylonians, App. ii. (1887); C. J. Ball in
Records of the Past (new ser. iii. 1890); Mittheilungen der deutschen
Orientg^csellschaft (1899-1906); F. Delitzsch, Im Lande des einstigen
Paradteses (1903); F. H. Weissbach, Das Stadtbild von Babylon
(1904); F. Hommel, Grundriss der Geographic und Geschichte des
alien Orients (1904). (A. H. S.)
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA. I. Geography Geographic-
ally as well as ethnologically and historically, the whole district
enclosed between the two great rivers of western Asia, the Tigris
and Euphrates, forms but one country. The writers of antiquity
clearly recognized this fact, speaking of the whole under the
general name of Assyria, though Babylonia, as will be seen,
would have been a more accurate designation. It naturally falls
into two divisions, the northern being more or less mountainous,
while the southern is flat and marshy; the near approach of the
two rivers to one another, at a spot where the undulating plateau
of the north sinks suddenly into the Babylonian alluvium, tends
to separate them still more completely. In the earliest times of
which we have any record, the northern portion was included in
Mesopotamia; it was definitely marked off as Assyria only after
the rise of the Assyrian monarchy. With the exception of Assur,
the original capital, the chief cities of the country, Nineveh,
Calah and Arbela, were all on the left bank of the Tigris. The
reason of this preference for the eastern bank of the Tigris was
due to its abundant supply of water, whereas the great Meso-
potamian plain on the western side had to depend upon the
streams which flowed into the Euphrates. This vast flat, the
modern El-Jezireh, is about 250 miles in length, interrupted
only by a single limestone range, rising abruptly out of the plain,
and branching off from the Zagros mountains under the names
of Sarazur, Hamrin and Sinjar. The numerous remains of old
habitations show how thickly this level tract must once have
been peopled, though now for the most part a wilderness. North
of the plateau rises a well-watered and undulating belt of country,
into which run low ranges of limestone hills, sometimes arid,
sometimes covered with dwarf-oak, and often shutting in,
between their northern and north-eastern flank and the main
mountain-line from which they detach themselves, rich plains
and fertile valleys. Behind them tower the massive ridges of the
Niphates and Zagros ranges, where the Tigris and Euphrates take
their rise, and which cut off Assyria from Armenia and Kurdistan.
The name Assyria itself was derived from that of the city of
Assur (q.v.) or Asur, now Qal'at Sherqat (Kaleh Shergat), which
stood on the right bank of the Tigris, midway between the
Greater and the Lesser Zab. It remained the capital long after
the Assyrians had become the dominant power in western Asia,
but was finally supplanted by Calah (Nimrud), Nineveh (Nebi
Yunus and Kuyunjik) , and Dur-Sargina (Khorsabad), some 60 m.
farther north (see NINEVEH).
In contrast with the arid plateau of Mesopotamia, stretched the
IOO
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
rich alluvial plain of Chaldaea, formed by the deposits of the two
great rivers by which it was enclosed. The soil was extremely
fertile, and teemed with an industrious population. Eastward
rose the mountains of Elam, southward were the sea-marshes and
the Kalda or Chaldaeans and other Aramaic tribes, while on the
west the civilization of Babylonia encroached beyond the banks
of the Euphrates, upon the territory of the Semitic nomads (or
Suti). Here stood Ur (Mugheir, more correctly Muqayyar) the
earliest capital of the country; and Babylon, with its suburb,
Borsippa (Birs Nimrud), as well as the two Sipparas (the
Sepharvaim of Scripture, now Abu Habba), occupied both the
Arabian and Chaldaean sides of the river (see BABYLON). The
Arakhtu, or " river of Babylon," flowed past the southern side
of the city, and to the south-west of it on the Arabian bank lay
the great inland freshwater sea of Nejef, surrounded by red
sandstone cliffs of considerable height, 40 m. in length and 35 in
breadth in the widest part. Above and below this sea, from
Borsippa to Kufa, extend the famous Chaldaean marshes, where
Alexander was nearly lost (Arrian, Exp. Al. vii. 22; Strab. xvi.
i , 12); but these depend upon the state of the Hindiya canal,
disappearing altogether when it is closed.
Eastward of the Euphrates and southward of Sippara, Kutha
and Babylon were Kis (JJhaimir, 9 m. E. of Hillak), Nippur
(Niffer) where stood the great sanctuary of El-lil, the older
Bel Uruk or Erech (Warka) and Larsa (Senkera) with its temple
of the sun-god, while eastward of the Shatt el-Hai, probably the
ancient channel of the Tigris, was Lagash (Tello), which played
an important part in early Babylonian history. The primitive
seaport of the country, Eridu, the seat of the worship of Ea the
culture-god, was a little south of Ur (at Abu Shahrain or Nowdwis
on the west side of the Euphrates). It is now about 130 m.
distant from the sea; as about 46 in. of land have been formed
by the silting up of the shore since the foundation of Spasinus
Charax (Muhamrah) in the time of Alexander the Great, or some
115 ft. a year, the city would have been in existence at least 6000
years ago. The marshes in the south like the adjoining desert
were frequented by Aramaic tribes; of these the most famous
were the Kalda or Chaldaeans who under Merodach-baladan
made themselves masters of Babylon and gave their name in
later days to the whole population of the country. The combined
stream of the Euphrates and Tigris as it flowed through the
marshes was known to the Babylonians as the nar marrati, " the
salt river" (cp. Jer. 1. 21), a name originally applied to the
Persian Gulf.
The alluvial plain of Babylonia was called Edin, the Eden of
Gen. ii., though the name was properly restricted to " the plain "
on the western bank of the river where the Bedouins pastured
the flocks of their Babylonian masters. This " bank " or kisad,
together with the corresponding western bank of the Tigris
(according to Hommel the modern Shatt el-Hai), gave its name
to the land of Chesed, whence the Kasdim of the Old Testament.
In the early inscriptions of Lagash the whole district is known as
Gu-Edinna, the Sumerian equivalent of the Semitic Kisad Edini.
The coast-land was similarly known as Gu-abba (Semitic Kisad
tamtim) , the " bank of the sea." A more comprehensive name of
southern Babylonia was Kengi, " the land," or Kengi Sumer, " the
land of Sumer," for which Sumer alone came afterwards to be
used. Sumer has been supposed to be the original of the Biblical
Shinar; but Shinar represented northern rather than southern
Babylonia, and was probably the Sankhar of the Tell el-Amarna
tablets (but see SUMER). Opposed to Kengi and Sumer were
Urra (Uri) and Akkad or northern Babylonia. The original
meaning of Urra was perhaps " clayey soil," but it came to
signify " the upper country " or " highlands," kengi being " the
lowlands." In Semitic times Urra was pronounced Uri and
confounded with uru, "city"; as a geographical term, however,
it was replaced by Akkadu (Akkad), the Semitic form of Agade
written Akkattim in the Elamite inscriptions the name of the
elder Sargon's capital, which must have stood close to Sippara,
if indeed it was not a quarter of Sippara itself. The rise of
Sargon's empire was doubtless the cause of this extension of
the name of Akkad; from henceforward, in the imperial title,
" Sumer and Akkad " denoted the whole of Babylonia. After
the Kassite conquest of the country, northern Babylonia came to
be known as Kar-Duniyas, " the wall of the god Daniyas," from
a line of fortification similar to that built by Nebuchadrezzar
between Sippara and Opis, so as to defend his kingdom from
attacks from the north. As this last was " the Wall of Semiramis "
mentioned by Strabo (xi. 14. 8), Kar-Duniyas may have repre-
sented the Median Wall of Xenophon (Anab. ii. 4. 12), traces of
which were found by F. R. Chesney extending from Faluja to
Jibbar.
The country was thickly studded with towns, the sites of which
are still represented by mounds, though the identification of most
of them is still doubtful. The latest to be identified are Bismya,
between Nippur and Erech, which recent American excavations
have proved to be the site of Udab (also called Adab and Usab)
and the neighbouring Fara, the site of the ancient Kisurra. The
dense population was due to the elaborate irrigation of the
Babylonian plain which had originally reclaimed it from a
pestiferous and uninhabitable swamp and had made it the
most fertile country in the world. The science of irrigation and
engineering seems to have been first created in Babylonia, which
was covered by a network of canals, all skilfully planned and
regulated. The three chief of them carried off the waters of the
Euphrates to the Tigris above Babylon, the Zabzallat canal
(or Nahr Sarsar) running from Faluja to Ctesiphon, the Kutha
canal from Sippara to Madain, passing Tell Ibrahim or Kutha on
the way, and the King's canal or Ar-Malcha between the other
two. This last, which perhaps owed its name to Khammurabi,
was conducted from the Euphrates towards Upi or Opis, which
has been shown by H. Winckler (Altorientalische Forschungen, ii.
pp. 509 seq.) to have been close to Seleucia on the western side
of the Tigris. The Pallacopas, called Pallukkatu in the Neo-
Babylonian texts, started from Pallukkatu or Faluja, and running
parallel to the western bank of the Euphrates as far as Iddaratu
or Teredon (?) watered an immense tract of land and supplied a
large lake near Borsippa. B . Meissner may be right in identifying
it with " the Canal of the Sun-god " of the early texts. Thanks
to this system of irrigation the cultivation of the soil was highly
advanced in Babylonia. According to Herodotus (i. 193) wheat
commonly returned two hundred-fold to the sower, and occasion-
ally three hundred-fold. Pliny (H. N. xviii. 17) states that it
was cut twice, and afterwards was good keep for sheep, and
Berossus remarked that wheat, sesame, barley, ochrys, palms,
apples and many kinds of shelled fruit grew wild, as wheat still
does in the neighbourhood of Anah. A Persian poem celebrated
the 360 uses of the palm (Strabo xvi. i. 14), and Ammianus
Marcellinus (xxiv. 3) says that from the point reached by Julian's
army to the shores of the Persian Gulf was one continuous forest
of verdure.
II. Classical Authorities. Such a country was naturally fitted
to be a pioneer of civilization. Before the decipherment of the
cuneiform texts our knowledge of its history, however, was
scanty and questionable. Had the native history of Berossus
survived, this would not have been the case; all that is known
of the Chaldaean historian's work, however, is derived from
quotations in Josephus, Ptolemy, Eusebius and the Syncellus.
The authenticity of his list of 10 antediluvian kings who reigned
for 1 20 sari or 432,000 years, has been partially confirmed by the
inscriptions; but his 8 postdiluvian dynasties are difficult to
reconcile with the monuments, and the numbers attached to
them are probably corrupt. It is different with the 7th and 8th
dynasties as given by Ptolemy in the Almagest, which prove to
have been faithfully recorded:
1. Nabpnassar (747 B.C.)
2. Nadios
3. Khinziros and Poros (Pul)
4. Ilulaeos ....
5. Mardokempados (Merodach-Baladan)
6. Arkeanos (Sargon) .
7. Interregnum
8. Hagisa ....
9. Belibos (702 B.C.)
10. Assaranadios (Assur-nadin-sum)
14 years
2
5
5
12
5
2
I month
3 years
6
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
101
11. Regebelos I year
12. Mesesimordakos ... .4 years
13. Interregnum . . . . 8
14. Asaridinos (Esar-haddon) . 13
15. Saosdukhinos (Savul-sum-yukin) . 20
16. Sineladanos (Assur-bani-pal) . . 22 ,,
The account of Babylon given by Herodotus is not that of an
eye-witness, and his historical notices are meagre and untrust-
worthy. He was controverted by Ctesias, who, however, has
mistaken mythology for history, and Greek romance owed to
him its Ninus and Semiramis, its Ninyas and Sardanapalus. The
only ancient authority of value on Babylonian and Assyrian
history is the Old Testament.
III. Modern Discovery. The excavations of P. E. Botta and
A. H. Layard at Nineveh opened up a new world, coinciding
as they did with the successful decipherment of the cuneiform
system of writing. Layard's discovery of the library of Assur-
bani-pal put the materials for reconstructing the ancient life
and history of Assyria and Babylonia into the hands of scholars.
He also was the first to excavate in Babylonia, where C. J. Rich
had already done useful topographical work. Layard's excava-
tions in this latter country were continued by W. K. Loftus, who
also opened trenches at Susa, as well as by J. Oppert on behalf
of the French government. But it was only in the last quarter
of the igth century that anything like systematic exploration
was attempted. After the death of George Smith at Aleppo in
1876, an expedition was sent by the British Museum (1877-
1879), under the conduct of Hormuzd Rassam, to continue his
work at Nineveh and its neighbourhood. Excavations in the
mounds of Balawat, called Imgur-Bel by the Assyrians, 15 m.
east of Mosul, resulted in the discovery of a small temple dedi-
cated to the god of dreams by Assur-nazir-pal III. (883 B.C.),
containing a stone coffer or ark in which were two inscribed tables
of alabaster of rectangular shape, as well as of a palace which
had been destroyed by the Babylonians but restored by Shal-
maneser II. (858 B.C.). From the latter came the bronze gates
with hammered reliefs, which are now in the British Museum.
The remains of a palace of Assur-nazir-pal III. at Nimrud
(Calah) were also excavated, and hundreds of enamelled tiles
were disinterred. Two years later (1880-1881) Rassam was sent
to Babylonia, where he discovered the site of the temple of the
sun-god of Sippara at Abu-Habba, and so fixed the position of
the two Sipparas or Sepharvaim. Abu-Habba lies south-west of
Bagdad, midway between the Euphrates and Tigris, on the
south side of a canal, which may once have represented the main
stream of the Euphrates, Sippara of the goddess Anunit, now
Der, being on its opposite bank.
Meanwhile (1877-1881) the French consul, de Sarzec,had been
excavating at Tello, the ancient Lagash, and bringing to light
monuments of the pre-Semitic age, which included the diorite
statues of Gudea now in the Louvre, the stone of which, accord-
ing to the inscriptions upon them, had been brought from
Magan, the Sinaitic peninsula. The subsequent excavations of de
Sarzec in Tello and its neighbourhood carried the history of the
city back to at least 4000 B.C., and a collection of more than
30,000 tablets has been found, which were arranged on shelves in
the time of Gudea (.2700 B.C.). In 1886-1887 a German expedi-
tion under Dr Koldewey explored the cemetery of El Hibba
(immediately to the south of Tello), and for the first time made
us acquainted with the burial customs of ancient Babylonia.
Another German expedition, on a large scale, was despatched
by the Orienlgesellschaft in 1899 with the object of exploring
the ruins of Babylon; the palace of Nebuchadrezzar and the
great processional road were laid bare, and Dr W. Andrae
subsequently conducted excavations at Qal'at Sherqat, the site
of Assur. Even the Turkish government has not held aloof
from the work of exploration, and the Museum at Constantinople
is filled with the tablets discovered by Dr V. Scheil in 1897 on
the site of Sippara. J. de Morgan's exceptionally important
work at Susa lies outside the limits of Babylonia; not so,
however, the American excavations (1903-1904) under E. J. Banks
at Bismya (Udab), and those of the university of Pennsylvania
at Niffer (see NIPPUR) first begun in 1889, where Mr J.H. Haynes
has systematically and patiently uncovered the remains of the
great temple of El-lil, removing layer after layer of debris and
cutting sections in the ruins down to the virgin soil. Midway in
the mound is a platform of large bricks stamped with the names
of Sargon of Akkad and his son Naram-Sin (3800 B.C.); as the
debris above them is 34 ft. thick, the topmost stratum being not
later than the Parthian era (H. V. Hilprecht, The Babylonian
Expedition, i. 2, p. 23), it is calculated that the debris underneath
the pavement, 30 ft. thick, must represent a period of about
3000 years, more especially as older constructions had to be
levelled before the pavement was laid. In the deepest part of
the excavations, however, inscribed clay tablets and fragments
of stone vases are still found, though the cuneiform characters
upon them are of a very archaic type, and sometimes even
retain their primitive pictorial forms.
IV. Chronology. 1 The later chronology of Assyria has long
been fixed, thanks to the lists of limmi, or archons, who gave
their names in succession to their years of office. Several copies
of these lists from the library of Nineveh are in existence, the
earliest of which goes back to 911 B.C., while the latest comes
down to the middle of the reign of Assur-bani-pal. The beginning
of a king's reign is noted in the lists, and in some of them the
chief events of the year are added to the name of its archon.
Assyrian chronology is, therefore, certain from 911 B.C. to 666,
and an eclipse of the sun which is stated to have been visible
in the month Sivan, 763 B.C., is one that has been calculated to
have taken place on the i sth of June of that year. The system
of reckoning time by limmi was of Assyrian origin, and recent
discoveries have made it clear that it went back to the first
days of the monarchy. Even in the distant colony at Kara
Euyuk near Kaisariyeh (Caesarea) in Cappadocia cuneiform
tablets show that the Assyrian settlers used it in the I5th
century B.C. In Babylonia a different system was adopted.
Here the years were dated by the chief events that distinguished
them, as was also the case in Egypt in the epoch of the Old
Empire. What the event should be was determined by the
government and notified to all its officials; one of these notices,
sent to the Babylonian officials in Canaan in the reign of Samsu-
iluna, the son of Khammurabi, has been found in the Lebanon.
A careful register of the dates was kept, divided into reigns,
from which dynastic lists were afterwards compiled, giving the
duration of each king's reign as well as that of the several
dynasties. Two of these dynastic compilations have been
discovered, unfortunately in an imperfect state. 2 In addition
to the chronological tables, works of a more ambitious and
literary character were also attempted of the nature of chronicles.
One of these is the so-called " Synchronous History of Assyria
and Babylonia," consisting of brief notices, written by an
Assyrian, of the occasions on which the kings of the two countries
had entered into relation, hostile or otherwise, with one another;
a second is the Babylonian Chronicle discovered by Dr Th. G.
Pinches, which gave a synopsis of Babylonian history from a
Babylonian point of view, and was compiled in the reign of
Darius. It is interesting to note that its author says of the
battle of Khalule, which we know from the Assyrian inscriptions
to have taken place hi 691 or 690 B.C., that he does " not know
the year " when it was fought: the records of Assyria had been
already lost, even in Babylonia. The early existence of an
accurate system of dating is not surprising; it was necessitated
by the fact that Babylonia was a great trading community, in
which it was not only needful that commercial and legal docu-
ments should be dated, but also that it should be possible to refer
easily to the dates of former business transactions. The Baby-
lonian and Assyrian kings had consequently no difficulty in
1 For a survey of the chronological systems adopted by different
modern scholars, see below, section viii. " Chronological Systems."
2 The compiler of the more complete one seems to have allowed
himself liberties. At all events he gives 30 years of reign to Sin-
muballidh instead of the 20 assigned to him in a list of dates drawn
up at the time of Ammi-zadok's accession, 55 years to Khammurabi
instead of 43, and 35 years to Samsu-iluna instead of 38, while he
omits altogether the seven years' reign of the Assyrian king Tukulti-
In-aristi at Babylon.
102
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA .
determining the age of their predecessors or of past events.
Nabonidus (Nabunaid)., who was more of an antiquarian than a
politician, and spent his time in excavating the older temples
of his country and ascertaining the names of their builders,
tells us that Naram-Sin, the son of Sargon of Akkad, lived 3200
years before himself (i.e. 3750 B.C.), and Sagarakti-suryas 800
years; and we learn from Sennacherib that Shalmaneser I.
reigned 600 years earlier, and that Tiglath-pileser I. fought
with Merodach-nadin-akhi (Marduk-nadin-akhe) of Babylon
418 years before the campaign of 689 B.C.; while, according to
Tiglath-pileser I., the high-priest Samas-Hadad, son of Isme-
Dagon, built the temple of Anu and Hadad at Assur 701 years
before his own time. Shalmaneser I. in his turn states that the
high-priest Samas-Hadad, the son of Bel-kabi, governed Assur
580 years previously, and that 159 years before this the high-
priest Erisum was reigning there. The raid of the Elamite king
Kutur-Nakhkhunte is placed by Assur-bani-pal 1635 years before
his own conquest of Susa, and Khammurabi is said by Nabonidus
to have preceded Burna-buryas by 700 years.
V. History. In the earliest period of which we have any
knowledge Babylonia was divided into several independent
states, the limits of which were defined by canals and
Sumerian boundary stones. Its culture may be traced back to
period. two main centres, Eridu in the south and Nippur
in the north. But the streams of civilization which
flowed from them were in strong contrast. El-lil, around whose
sanctuary Nippur had grown up, was lord of the ghost-land, and
his gifts to mankind were the spells and incantations which the
spirits of good or evil were compelled to obey. The world which
he governed was a mountain; the creatures whom he had made
lived underground. Eridu, on the other hand, was the home of
the culture-god Ea, the god of light and beneficence, who
employed his divine wisdom in healing the sick and restoring
the dead to life. Rising each morning from his palace in the
deep, he had given man the arts and sciences, the industries
and manners of civilization. To him was due the invention of
writing, and the first law-book was his creation. Eridu had
once been a seaport, and it was doubtless its foreign trade and
intercourse with other lands which influenced the development
of its culture. Its cosmology was the result of its geographical
position: the earth, it was believed, had grown out of the
waters of the deep, like the ever-widening coast at the mouth
of the Euphrates. Long before history begins, however, the
cultures of Eridu and Nippur had coalesced. While Babylon
seems to have been a colony of Eridu, Ur, the immediate neigh-
bour of Eridu, must have been colonized from Nippur, since its
moon-god was the son of El-lil of Nippur. 'But in the admixture
of the two cultures the influence of Eridu was predominant.
We may call the early civilization of Babylonia Sumerian.
The race who first developed it spoke an agglutinative language,
and to them was due the invention of the pictorial hieroglyphs
which became the running-hand or cuneiform characters of later
days, as well as the foundation of the chief cities of the country
and the elements of its civilization. The great engineering works
by means of which the marshes were drained and the overflow
of the rivers regulated by canals went back to Sumerian times,
like a considerable part of later Babylonian religion and the
beginnings of Babylonian law. Indeed Sumerian continued to
be the language of religion and law long after the Semites had
become the ruling race.
Arrival of the Semites. When the Semites first entered the
Edin or plain of Babylonia is uncertain, but it must have been
at a remote period. The cuneiform system of writing
was st '" m P rocess f growth when it was borrowed
and adapted by the new comers, and the Semitic
Babylonian language was profoundly influenced by the older
language of the country, borrowing its words and even its
grammatical usages. Sumerian in its turn borrowed from
Semitic Babylonian, and traces of Semitic influence in some of
the earliest Sumerian texts indicate that the Semite was already
on the Babylonian border. His native home was probably
Arabia; hence Eridu (" the good city ") and Ur (" the city ")
would have been built in Semitic territory, and their population
may have included Semitic elements from the first. It was in
the north, however, that the Semites first appear on the monu-
ments. Here in Akkad the first Semitic empire was founded,
Semitic conquerors or settlers spread from Sippara to Susa,
Khana to the east of the Tigris was occupied by " West Semitic "
tribes, and " out of " Babylonia " went forth the Assyrian."
As in Assyria, so too in the states of Babylonia the patesi or
high-priest of the god preceded the king. The state had grown
up around a sanctuary, the god of which was nominally its ruler,
the human palesi being his viceregent. In course of time many
of the high-priests assumed the functions and title of king;
while retaining their priestly office they claimed at the same time
to be supreme in the state in all secular concerns. The god
remained nominally at its head; but even this position was lost
to him when Babylonia was unified under Semitic princes, and
the earthly king became an incarnate god. A recollection of his
former power survived, however, at Babylon, where Bel-Merodach
adopted the king before his right to rule was allowed.
Early Princes. The earliest monuments that can be approxi-
mately dated come from Lagash (Tello). Here we hear of a
" king of Kengi," as well as of a certain Me-silim, king .
of Kis, who had dealings with Lugal-suggur, high- dynasty.
priest of Lagash, and the high-priest of a neighbouring
town, the name of which is provisionally transcribed Gis-ukh
(formerly written Gis-ban and confounded with the name of
Opis). According to Scheil, Gis-ukh is represented by Jokha,
south of Fara and west of the Shatt el-Hai, and since two of its
rulers are called kings of Te on a seal-cylinder, this may have been
the pronunciation of the name. 1 At a later date the high-priests
of Lagash made themselves kings, and a dynasty was founded
there by Ur-Nina. In the ruins of a building, attached by him
to the temple of Nina, terra-cotta bas-reliefs of the king and
his sons have been found, as well as the heads of lions in onyx,
which remind us of Egyptian work and onyx plates. These
were "booty" dedicated to the goddess Bau. E-anna-du, the
grandson of Ur-Nina, made himself master of the whole of
southern Babylonia, including " the district of Sumer " together
with the cities of Erech, Ur and Larsa (?). He also annexed
the kingdom of Kis, which, however, recovered its independence
after his death. Gis-ukh was made tributary, a certain amount
of grain being levied upon each person in it, which had to be
paid into the treasury of the goddess Nina and the god Ingurisa.
The so-called " Stele of the Vultures," now in the Louvre, was
erected as a monument of the victory. On this various incidents
in the war are represented. In one scene the king stands in his
chariot with a curved weapon in his right hand formed of three
bars of metal bound together by rings (similar, as M. L. Heuzey
has pointed out, to one carried by the chief of an Asiatic tribe in
a tomb of the I2th dynasty at Beni-Hasan in Egypt), while his
kilted followers with helmets on their heads and lances in their
hands march behind him. In another a flock of vultures is
feeding on the bodies of the fallen enemy; in a third a tumulus
is being heaped up over those who had been slain on the side of
Lagash. Elsewhere we see the victorious prince beating down
a vanquished enemy, and superintending the execution of other
prisoners who are being sacrificed to the gods, while in one curious
scene he is striking with his mace a sort of wicker-work cage
filled with naked men. In his hand he holds the crest of Lagash
and its god a lion-headed eagle with outstretched wings, sup-
ported by two lions which are set heraldically back to back.
The sculptures belong to a primitive period of art.
E-anna-du's campaigns extended beyond the confines of Baby-
lonia. He overran a part of Elam and took the city of Az on the
Persian Gulf. Temples and palaces were repaired or erected at
Lagash and elsewhere, the town of Nina which probably gave
1 They are also called high-priests of Gunammide and a contract-
tablet speaks of " Te in Babylon," but this was probably not the
Te of the seal. It must be remembered that the reading of most of
the early Sumerian proper names is merely provisional, as we do not
know how the ideographs of which they are composed were pro-
nounced in either Sumerian or Assyrian.
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
103
its name to the later Nina, or Nineveh was rebuilt, and canals
and reservoirs were excavated. He was succeeded by his brother
En-anna-tum I., under whom Gis-ukh once more became the
dominant power. As En-anna-tum has the title only of high-
priest, it is probable that he acknowledged Ur-lumma of Gis-ukh
as his suzerain. His son and successor Entemena restored the
prestige of Lagash. Gis-ukh was subdued and a priest named
Illi was made its governor. A tripod of silver dedicated by
Entemena to his god is now in the Louvre. A frieze of lions
devouring ibexes and deer, and incised with great artistic skill,
runs round the neck, while the eagle crest of Lagash adorns the
globular part. The vase is a proof of the high degree of excellence
to which the goldsmith's art had already attained. A vase of
calcite, also dedicated by Entemena, has been found at Nippur.
The eighth successor of Ur-Nina was Uru-duggina, who was
overthrown and his city captured by Lugal-zaggisi, the high-
priest of Gis-ukh. Lugal-zaggisi was the founder of the first
empire in Asia of which we know. He made Erech his capital
and calls himself king of Kengi. In a long inscription which he
caused to be engraved on hundreds of stone vases dedicated to
El-lil of Nippur, he declares that his kingdom extended " from
the Lower Sea of the Tigris and Euphrates," or Persian Gulf, to
" the Upper Sea " or Mediterranean. It was at this time that
Erech received the name of " the City," which it continued to
bear when written ideographically.
Semitic Empire of S argon of Akkad. The next empire founded
in western Asia was Semitic. Semitic princes had already
Sargoa established themselves at Kis, and a long inscription
has been discovered at Susa by J. de Morgan, belonging
to one of them, Manistusu, who like Lugal-zaggisi was a con-
temporary of Uru-duggina. Another Semitic ruler of Kis of the
same period was Alusarsid (or Urumus) who " subdued Elam and
Barahse." But the fame of these early establishers of Semitic
supremacy was far eclipsed by that of Sargon of Akkad and his
son, Naram-Sin. The date of Sargon is placed by Nabonidus at
3800 B.C. He was the son of Itti-Bel, and a legend related how
he had been born in concealment and sent adrift in an ark of
bulrushes on the waters of the Euphrates. Here he had been
rescued and brought up by " Akki the husbandman'" ; but the day
arrived at length when his true origin became known, the crown
of Babylonia was set upon his head and he entered upon a career
of foreign conquest. Four times he invaded Syria and Palestine,
and spent three years in thoroughly subduing the countries of
" the west," and in uniting them with Babylonia " into a single
empire." Images of himself were erected on the shores of the
Mediterranean in token of his victories, and cities and palaces
were built at home out of the spoils of the conquered lands.
Elam and the northern part of Mesopotamia were also subjugated,
and rebellions were put down both in Kazalla and in Babylonia
itself. Contract tablets have been found dated in the years of
the campaigns against Palestine and Sarlak, king of Gutium or
Kurdistan, and copper is mentioned as being brought from Magan
or the Sinaitic peninsula.
Sargon's son and successor, Naram-Sin, followed up the
successes of his father by marching into Magan, whose king he
took captive. He assumed the imperial title of " king
of the four zones," and, like his father, was addressed
as a god. He is even called " the god of Agade "
(Akkad), reminding us of the divine honours claimed by the
Pharaohs of Egypt, whose territory now adjoined that of Baby-
lonia. A finely executed bas-relief, representing Naram-Sin,
and bearing a striking resemblance to early Egyptian art in many
of its features, has been found at Diarbekr. Babylonian art,
however, had already attained a high degree of excellence; two
seal cylinders of the time of Sargon are among the most beautiful
specimens of the gem-cutter's art ever discovered. The empire
was bound together by roads, along which there was a regular
postal service ; and clay seals, which took the place of stamps, are
now in the Louvre bearing the names of Sargon and his son. A
cadastral survey seems also to have been instituted, and one of
the documents relating to it states that a certain Uru-Malik,
whose name appears to indicate his Canaanitish origin, was
governor of the land of the Amorites, as Syria and Palestine were
called by the Babylonians. It is probable that the first collection
of astronomical observations and terrestrial omens was made for
a library established by Sargon.
Bingani-sar-ali was the son of Naram-Si, but we do not yet
know whether he followed his father on the throne. Another son
was high-priest of the city of Tutu, and in the name of
his daughter, Lipus-Eaum, a priestess of Sin, some
scholars have seen that of the Hebrew deity Yahweh.
The Babylonian god Ea, however, is more likely to be meant.
The fall of Sargon's empire seems to have been as sudden as its
rise. The seat of supreme power in Babylonia was shifted
southwards to Isin and Ur. It is generally assumed that two
dynasties reigned at Ur and claimed suzerainty over the other
Babylonian states, though there is as yet no clear proof that
there was more than one. It was probably Gungunu who
succeeded in transferring the capital of Babylonia from Isin to
Ur, but his place in the dynasty (or dynasties) is still uncertain.
One of his successors was Ur-Gur, a great builder, who built or
restored the temples of the Moon-god at Ur, of the Sun-god at
Larsa, of Ishtar at Erech and of Bel at Nippur. His son and
successor was Dungi, whose reign lasted more than 51 years, and
among whose vassals was Gudea, the patesi or high-priest of
Lagash. Gudea was also a great builder, and the materials for
his buildings and statues were brought from all parts of western
Asia, cedar wood from the Amanus mountains, quarried stones
from Lebanon, copper from northern Arabia, gold and precious
stones from the desert between Palestine and Egypt, dolerite from
Magan (the Sinaitic peninsula) and timber from Dilmun in the
Persian Gulf. Some of his statues, now in the Louvre, are carved
out of Sinaitic dolerite, and on the lap of one of them (statue E)
is the plan of his palace, with the scale of measurement attached.
Six of the statues bore special names, and offerings were made to
them as to the statues of the gods. Gudea claims to have con-
queredAnshan in Elam, and was succeeded byhis sonUr-Ningirsu.
His date may be provisionally fixed at 2700 B.C.
This dynasty of Ur was Semitic, not Sumerian, notwithstanding
the name of Dungi. Dungi was followed by Bur-Sin, Gimil-Sin,
and Ibi-Sin. Their power extended to the Mediterranean, and
we possess a large number of contemporaneous monuments in
the shape of contracts and similar business documents, as well as
chronological tables, which belong to their reigns.
After the fall of the dynasty, Babylonia passed under foreign
influence. Sumuabi ("Shem is my father"), from southern
Arabia (or perhaps Canaan), made himself master of northern
Babylonia, while Elamite invaders occupied the south. After a
reign of 14 years Sumuabi was succeeded by his son Sumu-la-ilu, in
the fifth year of whose reign the fortress of Babylon was built, and
the city became for the first time a capital. Rival kings, Pungun-
ilaand Immerum.are mentioned in the contract tablets as reigning
at the same time as Sumu-la-ilu (or Samu-la-ilu) ; and under
Sin-muballidh, the great-grandson of Sumu-la-ilu, the Elamites
laid the whole of the country under tribute, and made Eri-Aku
or Arioch, called Rim-Sin by his Semitic subjects, king of Larsa.
Eri-Aku was the son of Kudur-Mabug, who was prince of
Yamutbal, on the eastern border of Babylonia, and also " governor
of Syria." The Elamite supremacy was at last shaken off by
the son and successor of Sin-muballidh, Khammurabi,
whose name is also written Ammurapi and Kham- mu "nbi.
muram, and who was the Amraphel of Gen. xiv. I.
The Elamites, under their king Kudur-Lagamar or Chedor-
laomer, seem to have taken Babylon and destroyed the temple of
Bel-Merodach; but Khammurabi retrieved his fortunes, and in
the thirtieth year of his reign (in 2340 B.C.) he overthrew the
Elamite forces in a decisive battle and drove them out of Baby-
lonia. The next two years were occupied in adding Larsa and
Yamutbal to his dominion, and in forming Babylonia into a
single monarchy, the head of which was Babylon. A great
literary revival followed the recovery of Babylonian independ-
ence, and the rule of Babylon was obeyed as far as the shores of
the Mediterranean. Vast numbers of contract tablets, dated in
the reigns of Khammurabi and other kings of the dynasty, have
IO4
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
been discovered, as well as autograph letters of the kings them-
selves, more especially of Khammurabi. Among the latter is one
ordering the despatch of 240 soldiers from Assyria and Situllum,
a proof that Assyria was at the time a Babylonian dependency.
Constant intercourse was kept up between Babylonia and the
west, Babylonian officials and troops passing to Syria and
Canaan, while " Amorite " colonists were established in Baby-
lonia for the purposes of trade. One of these Amorites, Abi-ramu
or Abram by name, is the father of a witness to a deed dated
in the reign of Khammurabi's grandfather. Ammi-ditana, the
great-grandson of Khammurabi, still entitles himself " king of
the land of the Amorites," and both his, father and son bear the
Canaanitish (and south Arabian) names_of Abesukh or Abishua
and Ammi-zadok.
One of the most important works of this " First Dynasty of
Babylon," as it was called by the native historians, was the
compilation of a code of laws (see BABYLONIAN LAW). This was
made by order of Khammurabi after the expulsion of the Elamites
and the settlement of his kingdom. A copy of the Code has been
found at Susa by J. de Morgan and is now in the Louvre. The
last king of the dynasty was Samsu-ditana the son of Ammi-
zadok. He was followed by a dynasty of n Sumerian kings,
who are said to have reigned for 368 years, a number which must
be much exaggerated. As yet the name of only one of them has
been found in a contemporaneous document. They were over-
thrown and Babylonia was conquered by Kassites or Kossaeans
from the mountains of Elam, with whom Samsu-iluna had already
come into conflict in his 9th year. The Kassite dynasty was
founded by Kandis, Gandis or Gaddas (about 1780 B.C.), and
lasted for 576$ years. Under this foreign dominion, which offers
a striking analogy to the contemporary rule of the Hyksos in
Egypt, Babylonia lost its empire over western Asia, Syria and
Palestine became independent, and the high-priests of Assur
made themselves kings of Assyria. The divine attributes with
which the Semitic kings of Babylonia had been invested dis-
appeared at the same time; the title of "god " is never given to
a Kassite sovereign. Babylon, however, remained the capital
of the kingdom and the holy city of western Asia, where the
priests were all-powerful, and the right to the inheritance of the
old Babylonian empire could alone be conferred.
Rise of Assyria. Under Khammurabi a Samsi-Hadad (or
Samsi-Raman) seems to have been vassal-prince at Assur, and
the names of several of the high-priests of Assur who succeeded
him have been made known to us by the recent German excava-
tions. The foundation of the monarchy was ascribed to Zulilu,
who is described as living after Bel-kapkapi or Belkabi ( 1 900 B.C.),
the ancestor of Shalmaneser I. Assyria grew in power at the
expense of Babylonia, and a time came when the Kassite king of
Babylonia was glad to marry the daughter of Assur-yuballidh of
Assyria, whose letters to Amenophis (Amon-hotep) IV. of Egypt
have been found at Tell el-Amama. The marriage, however, led
to disastrous results, as the Kassite faction at court murdered
the king and placed a pretender on the throne. Assur-yuballidh
promptly marched into Babylonia and avenged his son-in-law,
making Burna-buryas of the royal line king in his stead. Burna-
buryas, who reigned 22 years, carried on a correspondence with
Amenophis IV. of Egypt. After his death, the Assyrians, who
were still nominally the vassals of Babylonia, threw off
aeserl." a ^ disguise, and Shalmaneser I. (1300 B.C.), the great-
great-grandson of Assur-yuballidh, openly claimed the
supremacy in western Asia. Shalmaneser was the founder of
Calah, and his annals, which have recently been discovered at
Assur, show how widely extended the Assyrian empire already
was. Campaign after campaign was carried on against the
Hittites and the wild tribes of the north-west, and Assyrian
colonists were settled in Cappadocia. His son Tukulti-In-aristi
conquered Babylon, putting its king Bitilyasu to death, and
thereby made Assyria the mistress of the oriental world. Assyria
had taken the place of Babylonia.
For 7 years Tukulti-In-aristi ruled at Babylon with the
old imperial title of " king of Sumer and Akkad." Then the
Babylonians revolted. The Assyrian king was murdered by his
son, Assur-nazir-pal I., and Hadad-nadin-akhi made king of
Babylonia. But it was not until several years later, in the reign
of the Assyrian king Tukulti-Assur, that a reconciliation was
effected between the two rival kingdoms. The next Assyrian
monarch, Bel-kudur-uzur, was the last of the old royal line. He
seems to have been slain fighting against the Babylonians, who
were still under the rule of Hadad-nadin-akhi, and a new dynasty
was established at Assur by In-aristi-pileser, who claimed to be
a descendant of the ancient prince Erba-Raman. His
fourth successor was Tiglath-pileser I., one of the great p if e t er 'i.
conquerors of Assyria, who carried his arms towards
Armenia on the north and Cappadocia on the west; he hunted
wild bulls in the Lebanon and was presented with a crocodile
by the Egyptian king. In 1107 B.C., however, he sustained a
temporary defeat at the hands of Merodach-nadin-akhi (Marduk-
nadin-akhe) of Babylonia, where the Kassite dynasty had finally
succumbed to Elamite attacks and a new line of kings was on the
throne.
Of the immediate successors of Tiglath-pileser I. we know
little, and it is with Assur-nazir-pal III. (883-858 B.C.) that our
knowledge of Assyrian history begins once more to
be fairly full. The empire of Assyria was again ex-
tended in all directions, and the palaces, temples and pa i ///.
other buildings raised by him bear witness to a con-
siderable development of wealth and art. Calah became the
favourite residence of a monarch who was distinguished even
among Assyrian conquerors for his revolting cruelties. His
son Shalmaneser II. had a long reign of 35 years, SAa/ni
during which the Assyrian capital was converted into aes er *i.
a sort of armed camp. Each year the Assyrian armies
marched out of it to plunder and destroy. Babylon was occupied
and the country reduced to vassalage. In the west the con-
federacy of Syrian princes headed by Benhadad of Damascus and
including Ahab of Israel (see JEWS, 10) was shattered in 853 B.C.,
and twelve years later the forces of Hazael were annihilated and
the ambassadors of Jehu of Samaria brought tribute to " the
great king." The last few years of his life, however, were dis-
turbed by the rebellion of his eldest son, which well-nigh proved
fatal. Assur, Arbela and other places joined the pretender, and
the revolt was with difficulty put down by Samsi-Raman (or
Samsi-Hadad), Shalmaneser's second son, who soon afterwards
succeeded him (824 B.C.). In 804 B.C. Damascus was captured
by his successor Hadad-nirari IV., to whom tribute was paid by
Samaria.
With Nabu-nazir, the Nabonassar of classical writers, the so-
called Canon of Ptolemy begins. When he ascended the throne
of Babylon in 747 B.C. Assyria was in the throes of a
revolution. Civil war and pestilence were devastat-
ing the country, and its northern provinces had been
wrested from it by Ararat. In 746 B.C. Calah joined the rebels,
and on the I3th of lyyar in the following year, Pulu or Pul, who
took the name of Tiglath-pileser III., seized the crown and
inaugurated a new and vigorous policy.
Second Assyrian Empire. Under Tiglath-pileser III. arose the
second Assyrian empire, which differed from the first in its greater
consolidation. For the first time in history the idea Mh
of centralization was introduced into politics; the p u e e r'iii.
conquered provinces were organized under an elaborate
bureaucracy at the head of which was the king, each district
paying a fixed tribute and providing a military contingent. The
Assyrian forces became a standing army, which, by successive
improvements and careful discipline, was moulded into an
irresistible fighting machine, and Assyrian policy was directed
towards the definite object of reducing the whole civilized world
into a single empire and thereby throwing its trade and wealth
into Assyrian hands. With this object, after terrorizing Armenia
and the Medes and breaking the power of the Hittites, Tiglath-
pileser III. secured the high-roads of commerce to the Medi-
terranean together with the Phoenician seaports and then made
himself master of Babylonia. In 729 B.C. the summit of his
ambition was attained, and he was invested with the sovereignty
of Asia in the holy city of Babylon. Two years later, in Tebet
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
PLATE I.
STELE OF VICTORY OF NARAM-SIN,
KING OF AGADE. Louvre.
COWER VOTIVE FIGURE OF ARAD-
SIN, KING OF LARSA.
FIGURE OF GUDEA, PATESI OF
LAGASH. Louvre.
BOUNDARY-STONE SCULPTURED
WITH EMBLEMS OF THE GODS;
REIGN OF NEBUCHADREZZAR I.
RELIEF REPRESENTING ASSUR-
BANI-PAL SPEARING A LION.
ST.VITK OK ASSl K-NA/.I R-1'AL,
KING OF ASSYRIA.
III. 104.
SCI T.PTl'RK FROM TIIF STKLE E!
GRAVED WITH KHAMMURABl'S
CODE OF LAWS. Louvre.
COLOSSAL WINGED AND HUMAN-
HEADED LION FROM THE
PALACE OF ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL
AT NIMRUD.
FIGURE OF A DYING LION, FROM
THE LION-HUNT RELIEFS OF
ASSUR-BANI-PAL.
STATUE OF
REIGN OF
THE GOD NEBO;
ADAD-NIRARI III.
Pkotos.UansMlfCo.
PLATE II.
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENTS OF
PAINTED TERRA-COTTA; FROM
NIMRUD.
SCULPTURED RELIEF OF THE REIGN
OF ASSUR-NAZIR-PAL; FOR-
EIGNERS BRINGING TRIBUTE.
SECTION OF BRONZE SHEATHING
FROM GATES OF SHALMANESER II.
IVORY PANELS WITH LINE EN-
GRAVING; FROM NIMRUD.
BRONZE. LION-WEIGHT.
-<V, '^p5*[
_ ^
S'< ' fj*- ! .\-
-
r ,~;r c-vit ;-,.
"i:^ &
-^'"iSifc.*- rf*rM
^feS|^
SCULPTURED RELIEF OF THE REIGN
OF ASSUR-BANI-PAL; MYTHO-
LOGICAL BEINGS IN CONFLICT.
PORTION OF SCULPTURED PAVING
SLAB FROM A DOORWAY IN
ASSUR-BANI-PAL'S PALACE AT
KUYUNJIK (NINEVEH).
\
STAMPED BRICK-INSCRIP- LETTER FROM TUSHRATTA, KING PRISM OF SENNACHERIB, TABLET FROM ASSUR-
TION OF BUR-SIN, KING OF MITANI, TO AMENOPHIS III. INSCRIBED WITH HIS- BANI-PAL'S LIBRARY,
OF UR. TORICAL ANNALS OF INSCRIBED WITH
HIS ' REIGN. MYTHOLOGICAL TEXT.
SPECIMENS OF BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN WRITING.
The objects, with the exception of those represented in the first three figures, are in the British Museum. Photos, MansM & Co.
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
105
Merodach-
baladao.
Senna'
cherib.
Esar-
haddon.
727 B.C., he died, but his successor Ulula, who took the name of
Shalmaneser IV., continued the policy he had begun. Shalma-
neser died suddenly in Tebet 722 B.C., while pressing the siege
of Samaria, and the seizure of the throne by another general,
Sargon, on the I2th of the month, gave the Babylonians an
opportunity to revolt. In Nisan the Kalda prince,
Merodach (Marduk)-baladan, entered Babylon and
was there crowned legitimate king. For twelve years
he successfully resisted the Assyrians; but the failure of his
allies in the west to act in concert with him, and the overthrow of
the Elamites, eventually compelled him to fly to his ancestral
domains in the marshes of southern Babylonia. Sargon, who
meanwhile had crushed the confederacy of the northern nations,
had taken (717 B.C.) the Hittite stronghold of Carchemish and
had annexed the future kingdom of Ecbatana, was now accepted
as king by the Babylonian priests and his claim to be the suc-
cessor of Sargon of Akkad acknowledged up to the time of his
murderin70SB.c. His son Sennacherib, who succeeded
n ' m on tne I2tn ^ ^b, did not possess the military or
administrative abilities of his father, and the success
of his reign was not commensurate with the vanity of the ruler.
He was never crowned at Babylon, which was in a perpetual
state of revolt until, in 691 B.C., he shocked the religious and
political conscience of Asia by razing the holy city of Babylon to
the ground. His campaign against Hezekiah of Judah was as
much a failure as his policy in Babylonia, and in his murder by
his sons on the 2oth of Tebet 68 1 B.C. both Babylonians and Jews
saw the judgment of heaven.
Esar-haddon, who succeeded him, was of different calibre from
his father. He was commanding the army in a campaign against
Ararat at the time of the murder; forty-two days
later the murderers fled from Nineveh and took refuge
at the court of Ararat. But the Armenian army was
utterly defeated near Malatia on the 1 2th of lyyar, and at the end
of the day Esar-haddon was saluted by his soldiers as king. He
thereupon returned to Nineveh and on the 8th of Sivan formally
ascended the throne.
One of his first acts was to restore Babylon, to send back the
image of Bel-Merodach (Bel-Marduk) to its old home, and to
re-people the city with such of the priests and the former popula-
tion as had survived massacre. Then he was solemnly declared
king in the temple of Bel-Merodach, which had again risen from
its ruins, and Babylon became the second capital of the empire.
Esar-haddon's policy was successful and Babylonia remained
contentedly quiet throughout his reign. In February (674 B.C.)
the Assyrians entered upon their invasion of Egypt (see also
EGYPT: History), and in Nisan (or March) 670 B.C. an expedition
on an unusually large scale set out from Nineveh. The Egyptian
frontier was crossed on the 3rd of Tammuz (June), and Tirhaka,
at the head of the Egyptian forces, was driven to Memphis after
fifteen days of continuous fighting, during which the Egyptians
were thrice defeated with heavy loss and Tirhaka himself was
wounded. On the 22nd of the month Memphis was entered by
the victorious army and Tirhaka fled to the south. A stele,
commemorating the victory and representing Tirhaka with the
features of a negro, was set up at Sinjirli (north of the Gulf of
Antioch) and is now in the Berlin Museum. Two years later
(668 B.C.) Egypt revolted, and while on the march to reduce it,
Esar-haddon fell ill and died (on the loth of Marchesvan or
October). Assur-bani-pal succeeded him as king of
Assyria and its empire, while his brother, Samas-sum-
yukin, was made viceroy of Babylonia. The arrange-
ment was evidently intended to flatter the Babylonians by giving
them once more the semblance of independence. But it failed to
work. Samas-sum-yukin became more Babylonian than his
subjects; the viceroy claimed to be the successor of the monarchs
whose empire had once stretched to the Mediterranean; even
the Sumerian language was revived as the official tongue, and a
revolt broke out which shook the Assyrian empire to its founda-
tions. After several years of struggle, during which Egypt re-
covered its independence, Babylon was starved into surrender,
and the rebel viceroy and his supporters were put to death.
Egypt had already recovered its independence (660 B.C.) with
the help of mercenaries sent by Gyges of Lydia, who had vainly
solicited aid from Assyria against his Cimmerian enemies. Next
followed the contest with Elam, in spite of the efforts of Assur-
bani-pal to ward it off. Assyria, however, was aided by civil
war in Elam itself; the country was wasted with fire and sword,
and its capital Susa or Shushan levelled with the ground. But
the long struggle left Assyria maimed and exhausted. It had
been drained of both wealth and fighting population; the
devastated provinces of Elam and Babylonia could yield nothing
with which to supply the needs of the imperial exchequer, and
it was difficult to find sufficient troops even to garrison the
conquered populations. Assyria, therefore, was ill prepared to
face the hordes of Scythians or Manda, as they were called by
the Babylonians who now began to harass the frontiers. A
Scythian power had grown up in the old kingdom of Ellip, to
the east of Assyria, where Ecbatana was built by a " Manda "
prince; Asia Minor was infested by the Scythian tribe of Cim-
merians, and the death of the Scythian leader Dugdamme (the
Lygdamis of Strabo i. 3. 16) was regarded by Assur-bani-pal as
a special mark of divine favour.
When Assur-bani-pal died, his empire was fast breaking up.
Under his successor, Assur-etil-ilani, the Scythians penetrated
into Assyria and made their way as far as the borders
of Egypt. Calah was burned, though the strong walls
of Nineveh protected the relics of the Assyrian army
which had taken refuge behind them; and when the raiders
had passed on to other fields of booty, a new palace was erected
among the ruins of the neighbouring city. But its architectural
poverty and small size show that the resources of Assyria were
at a low ebb. A contract has been found at Sippara, dated in
the fourth year of Assur-etil-ilani, though it is possible that his
rule in Babylonia was disputed by his Rab-shakeh (vizier),
Assur-sum-lisir, whose accession year as king of Assyria occurs
on a contract from Nippur (Niffer). The last king of Assyria
was probably the brother of Assur-etil-ilani, Sin - sar - iskun
(Sin-sarra-uzur), who seems to have been the Sarakos (Saracus)
of Berossus. He was still reigning in Babylonia in his seventh
year, as a contract dated in that year has been discovered
at Erech, and an inscription of his, in which he speaks of restor-
ing the ruined temples and their priests, couples Merodach
of Babylon with Assur of Nineveh. Babylonia, however, was
again restless. After the over throw of Samas-sum-yukin,
Kandalanu, the Chineladanos of Ptolemy's canon, had
been appointed viceroy. His successor was Nabopo-
lassar, between whom and the last king of Assyria war
broke out. The Scythian king of Ecbatana, the Cyaxares of the
Greeks, came to the help of the Babylonians. Nineveh was
captured and destroyed by the Scythian army, along with those
cities of northern Babylonia which had sided with Babylonia,
and the Assyrian empire was at an end.
The seat of empire was now transferred to Babylonia. Nabopo-
lassar was followed by his son Nebuchadrezzar II., whose reign
of 43 years made Babylon once more the mistress of
the civilized world. Only a small fragment of his
annals has been discovered relating to his invasion of
Egypt in 567 B.C., and referring to " Phut of the lonians." Of
the reign of the last Babylonian king, Nabonidus, however, and
the conquest of Babylonia by Cyrus, we now have a fair amount
of information. 1 This is chiefly derived from a chronological
tablet containing the annals of Nabonidus, which is supplemented
by an inscription of Nabonidus, in which he recounts his restora-
tion of the temple of the Moon-god at Harran, as well as by a
proclamation of Cyrus issued shortly after his formal recognition
as king of Babylonia. It was in the sixth year of Nabonidus
(549 B.C.) or perhaps in 553 that Cyrus, " king of Anshan "
in Elam, revolted against his suzerain Astyages, king of "the
Manda" or Scythians, at Ecbatana. The army of Astyages
betrayed him to his enemy, and Cyrus (q.v.) established himself
at. Ecbatana, thus putting an end to the empire of the Scythians,
nidus.
1 For the events leading up to the conquests of Cyrus, see PERSIA:
v. The chronology is not absolutely certain.
Ancient History, v.
io6
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
which the Greek writers called that of the Medes, through a
confusion of Mada or " Medes " with Manda. Three years later
we find that Cyrus has become king of Persia and is engaged in
a campaign in the north of Mesopotamia. Meanwhile Nabonidus
has established a camp at Sippara, near the northern frontier
of his kingdom, his son probably the Belshazzar of
by Cyras, other inscriptions being in command of the army.
In 538 B.C. Cyrus invaded Babylonia. A battle was
fought at Opis in the month of June, in which the Babylonians
were defeated, and immediately afterwards Sippara surrendered
to the invader. Nabonidus fled to Babylon, whither he was
pursued by Gobryas, the governor of Kurdistan, and on the
i6th of Tammuz, two days after the capture of Sippara, " the
soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without fighting." Nabonidus
was dragged out of his hiding-place, and Kurdish guards were
placed at the gates of the great temple of Bel, where the services
continued without intermission. Cyrus did not arrive till the
3rd of Marchesvan (October), Gobryas having acted for him in
his absence. Gobryas was now made governor of the province
of Babylon, and a few days afterwards the son of Nabonidus,
according to the most probable reading, died. A public mourning
followed, which lasted six days, and Cambyses accompanied the
corpse to the tomb. Cyrus now claimed to be the legitimate
successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of
Bel-Merodach, who was wrathful at the impiety of Nabonidus in
removing the images of the local gods from their ancestral shrines
to his capital Babylon. Nabonidus, in fact, had excited a strong
feeling against himself by attempting to centralize the religion
of Babylonia in the temple of Merodach (Marduk) at Babylon,
and while he had thus alienated the local priesthoods the military
party despised him on account of his antiquarian tastes. He
seems to have left the defence of his kingdom to others, occupying
himself with the more congenial work of excavating the founda-
tion records of the temples and determining the dates of their
builders. The invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus was doubtless
facilitated by the existence of a disaffected party in the state,
as well as by the presence of foreign exiles like the Jews, who had
1 The following is a list of the later dynasties and kings of Baby-
lonia and Assyria so far as they are known at present. For the
views of other writers on the chronology, see viii., Chronological
Systems.
The Babylonian Dynasties from dr. 2500 B.C.
Dynasty of Ur.
Gungunu, dr. 2500 B.C.
Ur-Gur.
Dungi, more than 51 years.
Bur-Sin, more than 12 years.
Gimil-Sin, more than o years.
Ibi-Sin.
Idin-Dagan.
Sumu-ilu.
First Dynasty of Babylon. 2350 B.C.
Sumu-abi, 14 years.
Sumu-la-ilu, 36 years.
Zabium, 14 years.
Abil-Sin, 18 years.
Sin-muballidh, 20 years.
Khammurabi, 43 years.
Samsu-iluna, 38 years.
Abesukh, 25 years.
Ammi-ditana, 25 years.
Ammi-zadoq, 21 years.
Samsu-ditana, 31 years.
Dynasty of Sisku (?)/or 368 years.
2160 B.C.
Anman, 60 years.
Ki-Nigas, 56 years.
Damki-ilisu, 26 years.
Iskipal, 15 years.
Sussi, 27 years.
Gul-ki[sar], 55 years.
Kirgal-daramas, 50 years.
A-dara-kalama, 28 years.
Akur-duana, 26 years.
Melamma-kurkura, 8 years.
Ea-ga(mil), 9 years.
Kassite Dynasty of 36 kings for
576 years') months. 1780 B.C.
Gandis, 16 years.
Agum-sipak, 22 years.
Bitilyasu I., 22 years.
Ussi (?), 9 years.
Adu-metas.
Tazzi-gurumas.
Agum-kakrime.
Kara-indas.
Kadasman-Bel, his son, corre-
sponded with Amon-hotep
(Amenophis) III. of Egypt,
1400 B.C.
Kuri-galzu II.
Burna-buryas, his son, 22 years.
Kuri-galzu III., his son, 26 years.
Nazi-Maruttas, his son, 17 years.
Kadasman-Turgu, his son, 13
years.
Kudur-bel, 6 years.
Sagarakti-suryas, his son, 13
years.
Bitilyasu II., 8 years.
Tukulti-In-aristi of Assyria (1272
B.C.) for 7 years, native vassal
kings being
Bel-sum-iddin, ij years.
Kadasman-Bel II., ij years.
Hadad-sum-iddin, 6 years.
Hadad-sum-uzur, 30 years.
Meli-sipak, 15 years.
Merodach-baladan I., his son, 13
years.
Zamama-sum-iddin, I year.
Bel-sum-iddin, 3 years.
been planted in the midst of the country. One of the first acts
of Cyrus accordingly was to allow these exiles to return to their
own homes, carrying with them the images of their gods and their
sacred vessels. The permission to do so was embodied in a
proclamation, in which the conqueror endeavoured to justify
his claim to the Babylonian throne. The feeling was still strong
that none had a right to rule over western Asia until he had
been consecrated to the office by Bel and his priests; and from
henceforth, accordingly, Cyrus assumed the imperial title of
" king of Babylon." A year before his death, in 529 B.C., he
associated his son Cambyses (q.v.) in the government, making
him king of Babylon, while he reserved for himself the fuller
title of " king of the (other) provinces " of the empire. It was
only when Darius Hystaspis, the representative of the Aryan
race and the Zoroastrian religion, had re-conquered the empire
of Cyrus, that the old tradition was broken and the claim of
Babylon to confer legitimacy on the rulers of western Asia
ceased to be acknowledged (see DARIUS). Darius, in fact,
entered Babylon as a conqueror; after the murder of the
Magian it had recovered its independence under Nidinta-Bel,
who took the name of Nebuchadrezzar III., and reigned from
October 521 B.C. to August 520 B.C., when the Persians took it
by storm. A few years later, probably 514 B.C., Babylon again
revolted under the Armenian Arakha; on this occasion, after
its capture by the Persians, the walls were partly destroyed.
E-Saggila, the great temple of Bel, however, still continued to
be kept in repair and to be a centre of Babylonian patriotism,
until at last the foundation of Seleucia diverted the population
to the new capital of Babylonia and the ruins of the old city
became a quarry for the builders of the new seat of government. 1
VI. Assyria and Babylonia contrasted. The sister-states
of Babylonia and Assyria differed essentially in character.
Babylonia was a land of merchants and agriculturists; Assyria
was an organized camp. The Assyrian dynasties were founded
Dynasty of I sin of 1 1 kings for
132^ years. 1203 B.C.
Merodach- . . . . 18 years.
Nebuchadrezzar I.
Bel-nadin-pal.
Merodach-nadin-akhi, 22 years.
Merodach- ij years.
Hadad-baladan, an usurper.
Merodach -sapik-zer-mati, 12
years.
Nabu-nadin, 8 years.
Dynasty of the Sea-coast. 1070 B.C.
Simbar-sipak, 1 8 years.
Ea-mukin-zeri, 5 months.
Kassu-nadin-akhi, 3 years.
Dynasty of Bit-Bazi. 1050 B.C.
E-Ulmas-sakin-sumi, 17 years.
Ninip-kudur-uzur I., 3 years.
Silanim-Suqamuna, 3 months.
Dynasty of Elam. 1030 B.C.
An Elamite, 6 years.
Second Dynasty of Babylon.
1025 B.C.
Nebo-kin-abli, 36 years.
Ninip-kudur-uzur II. (?) 8
months 12 days.
Probably 5 names missing. B.C.
Samas-mudammiq . dr. 920
Nebo-sum-iskun . dr. 900
Nebo-baladan . . dr. 880
Merodach-nadin-sumi dr. 860
Merodach-baladhsu-iqbi dr. 830
Bau-akhi-iddin . . dr. 810
Probably two names missing.
Nebo-sum-iskun, son of
Dakuri . . . dr. 760
Nabonassar, 14 years . 747
Nebo-nadin-suma, his son,
2 years . -733
Nebo-sum-yukin, his son,
i month 12 days . . 731
End of " the 22nd dynasty.
Dynasty of Sape.
Yukin-zera or Chinziros, 3 B.C.
years . . . . 730
Pulu (Pul or Poros), called
Tiglath-pileser III. in
Assyria, 2 years . . 727
Ulula, called Shalmaneser
IV. in Assyria . . 725
Merodach-baladan II. the
Chaldaean . . .721
Sargon of Assyria . . 709
Sennacherib, his son . 705
Merodach-zakir-sumi, I
month . . . 702
Merodach-baladan III., 6
months . . . 702
Bel-ebus of Babylon . 702
Assur-nadin-sumi, son of
Sennacherib . . 700
Nergal-yusezib . . 694
Musezib-Merodach . . 693
Sennacherib destroys
Babylon . . . 689
Esar-haddon, his son . 681
Samas-sum-yukin, his son 668
Kandalanu (Kineladanos) . 648
Nabopolassar . . . 626
Nabu-kudur-uzur (Nebu-
chadrezzar II.) . . 605
Amil-Marduk (Evil-Mero-
dach), his son . . 562
Nergal - sarra - uzur (Ner-
gal-sharezer) . . 560
Labasi-Marduk, his son, 3
months . . . 556
Nabu-nahid (Nabonidus) . 556
Cyrus conquers Babylon . 538
Cambyses, his son . . 529
Gomates, the Magian, 7
months . . . 521
Nebuchadrezzar III., na-
tive king . . .521
Darius, son of Hystaspes . 520
Nebuchadrezzar IV., rebel
king . . . 514
Darius restored . . 513
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
107
by successful generals; in Babylonia it was the priests whom
a revolution raised to the throne. The Babylonian king remained
a priest to the last, under the control of a powerful hierarchy;
the Assyrian king was the autocratic general of an army, at
whose side stood in early days a feudal nobility, and from the
reign of Tiglath-pileser III. onwards an elaborate bureaucracy.
His palace was more sumptuous than the temples of the gods,
from which it was quite separate. The people were soldiers
and little else; even the sailor belonged to Babylonia. Hence
the sudden collapse of Assyria when drained of its fighting
population in the age of Assur-bani-pal.
VII. A ssyro- Babylonian Culture. Assyrian culture came from
Babylonia, but even here there was a difference between the
two countries. There was little in Assyrian literature that was
.original, and education, which was general in Babylonia, was in
the northern kingdom confined for the most par^ to a single class.
In Babylonia it was of very old standing. There were libraries
in most of the towns and temples; an old Sumerian proverb
averred that " he who would excel in the school of the scribes
must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to
read and write, and in Semitic times this involved a knowledge
of the extinct Sumerian as well as of a most complicated and
extensive syllabary. A considerable amount of Semitic Baby-
lonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and
the language of religion and law long continued to be the old
agglutinative language of Chaldaea. Vocabularies, grammars
and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students
as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of
obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary
were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were
drawn up. The literature was for the most part inscribed with
a metal stylus on tablets of clay, called laterculae coctiles by
Pliny; the papyrus which seems to have been also employed
has perished. Under the second Assyrian empire, when Nineveh
had become a great centre of trade, Aramaic the language of
commerce and diplomacy was added to the number of subjects
which the educated class was required to learn. Under the
Seleucids Greek was introduced into Babylon, and fragments
of tablets have been found with Sumerian and Assyrian (i.e.
Semitic Babylonian) words transcribed in Greek letters.
Babylonian Literature and Science. There were many literary
works the titles of which have come down to us. One of the
Kings of Assyria.
Zulilu " founder of the mon-
archy."
Assur-rabi.
Assur-nirari, his son.
Assur-rim-nisesu, his son.
Erba-Hadad,
Assur-nadin-akhi I., his son.
Assur-yuballidh I., his son.
B.C.
Assur-bil-nisi-su . dr. 1450
Buzur-Assur . . 144
Assur-nadin-akhi II. 1410
Assur-yuballidh, his son 1390
Bel-nirari, his son . 1370
Arik-den-ilu, his son 1350
Hadad-nirari I., his son 1330
Shalmaneser I., his son
(built Calah) . . 1310
Tiglath-In-aristi I., his son, 1280
conquers Babylon dr. 1270
Assur-nazir-pal I., his son 1260
Assur-narara and his son
Nebo-dan . . . 1250
Assur-sum-lisir . . 1235
In-aristi-tukulti-Assur . 1225
Bel-kudur-uzur . . 1215
In-aristi-pileser, descend-
ant of Erba-Hadad . 1 200
Assur-dan I., his son . 1185
Mutaggil-Nebo, his son . 1160
Assur-ris-isi, his son . 1140
Tiglath-pileser I., his son. II2O
Assur-bil-kala, his son . 1090
Samsi-Hadad I., his
brother . . . 1070
Assur-nazir-pal II., his son 1060
Assur-irbi . .
Hadad-nirari II. . dr. 960
Tiglath-pileser II., his son 950
Assur-dan II., his son . 930
Hadad-nirari III., his son 911
Tukulti-In-aristi, his son 889
Assur-nazir-pal III., his
son .... 883
Shalmaneser II., his son . 858
Assur-danin-pal (Sardana-
pallos), rebel king . 825
Samsi-Hadad II., his
brother . . . 823
Hadad-nirari IV., his son . 810
Shalmaneser III. . . 781
Assur-dan III. . . 771
Assur-nirari . . . 753
Pulu, usurper, takes the
name of Tiglath-pileser
III. . 745
Ulula, usurper, takes the
name of Shalmaneser IV. 727
Sargon, usurper . . 722
Sennacherib, his son . 705
Esar-haddpn, his son . 681
Assur-bani-pal, his son . 668
Assur-etil-ilani-yukin, his
son ....
Assur-sum-lisir
Sin-sarra-uzur (Sarakos) . ?
Destruction of Nineveh . 606
most famous of these was the Epic of GUgamesh, in twelve books,
composed by a certain Sin-liqi-unninni, and arranged upon an
astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a
single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is
a composite product, and it is possible that some of the stories
are artificially attached to the central figure. (See GILGAMESH,
EPIC OF.)
Another epic was that of the Creation, the object of which was
to glorify Bel-Merodach by describing his contest with Tiamat,
the dragon of chaos. In the first book an account is given of
the creation of the world out of the primeval deep and the birth
of the gods of light. Then comes the story of the struggle
between the gods of light and the powers of darkness, and the
final victory of Merodach, who clove Tiamat asunder, forming the
heaven out of one half of her body and the earth out of the other.
Merodach next arranged the stars in order, along with the sun
and moon, and gave them laws which they were never to trans-
gress. After this the plants and animals were created, and
finally man. Merodach here takes the place of Ea, who appears
as the creator in the older legends, and is said to have fashioned
man out of the clay.
The legend of Adapa, the first man, a portion of which was
found in the record-office of the Egyptian king Amenophis IV.
(Akhenaton) at Tell-el-Amarna, explains the origin of death.
Adapa while fishing had broken the wings of the south wind,
and was accordingly summoned before the tribunal of Anu in
heaven. Ea counselled him not to eat or drink there. He
followed the advice, and thus refused the food which would have
made him and his descendants immortal.
Among the other legends of Babylonia may be mentioned
those of Namtar, the plague-demon, of Urra, the pestilence,
of Etanna and of Zu. Hades, the abode of Nin-erisgal or Allat,
had been entered by Nergal, who, angered by a message sent to
her by the gods of the upper world, ordered Namtar to strike
off her head. She, however, declared that she would submit
to any conditions imposed on her and would give Nergal the
sovereignty of the earth. Nergal accordingly relented, and Allatu
became the queen of the infernal world. Etanna conspired with
the eagle to fly to the highest heaven. The first gate, that of
Anu, was successfully reached; but in ascending still farther
to the gate of Ishtar the strength of the eagle gave way, and
Etanna was dashed to the ground. As for the storm-god Zu,
we are told that he stole the tablets of destiny, and therewith
the prerogatives of Bel. God after god was ordered to pursue
him and recover them, but it would seem that it was only by a
stratagem that they were finally regained.
Besides the purely literary works there were others of the
most varied nature, including collections of letters, partly official,
partly private. Among them the most interesting are the letters
of Khammurabi, which have been edited by L. W. King.
Astronomy and astrology, moreover, occupy a conspicuous place.
Astronomy was of old standing in Babylonia, and the standard
work on the subject, written from an astrological point of view,
which was translated into Greek by Berossus, was believed to
go back to the age of Sargon of Akkad. The zodiac was a
Babylonian invention of great antiquity; and eclipses of the
sun as well as of the moon could be foretold. Observatories
were attached to the temples, and reports were regularly sent
by the astronomers to the king. The stars had been numbered
and named at an early date, and we possess tables of lunar
longitudes and observations of the phases of Venus. In Seleucid
and Parthian times the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly
scientific character; how far the advanced knowledge and method
they display may reach back we do not yet know. Great atten-
tion was naturally paid to the calendar, and we find a week of
seven and another of five days in use. The development of
astronomy implies considerable progress in mathematics; it
is not surprising, therefore, that the Babylonians should have
invented an extremely simple method of ciphering or have
discovered the convenience of the duodecimal system. The
ner of 600 and the sar of 3600 were formed from the soss or unit
of 60, which corresponded with a degree of the equator. Tablets
io8
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
of squares and cubes, calculated from i to 60, have been found
at Senkera, and a people who were acquainted with the sun-dial,
the clepsydra, the lever and the pulley, must have had no mean
knowledge of mechanics. A crystal lens, turned on the lathe,
was discovered by Layard at Nimrud along with glass vases
bearing the name of Sargon; this will explain the excessive
minuteness of some of the writing on the Assyrian tablets, and
a lens may also have been used in the observation of the heavens.
Art and Architecture. The culture of Assyria, and still more
of Babylonia, was essentially literary; we miss in it the artistic
spirit of Egypt or Greece. In Babylonia the abundance of
clay and want of stone led to the employment of brick; the
Babylonian temples are massive but shapeless structures of
crude brick, supported by buttresses, the rain being carried off
by drains, one of which at Ur was of lead. The use of brick
led to the early development of the pilaster and column, as well
as of frescoes and enamelled tiles. The walls were brilliantly
coloured, and sometimes plated with bronze or gold as well as
with tiles. Painted terra-cotta cones were also embedded in
the plaster. Assyria in this, as in other matters, the servile
pupil of Babylonia, built its palaces and temples of brick, though
stone was the natural building material of the country, even
preserving the brick platform, so necessary in the marshy soil
of Babylonia, but little needed in the north. As time went on,
however, the later Assyrian architect began to shake himself
free from Babylonian influences and to employ stone as well as
brick. The walls of the Assyrian palaces were lined with
sculptured and coloured slabs of stone, instead of being painted
as in Chaldaea. We can trace three periods in the art of these
bas-reliefs; it is vigorous but simple under Assur-nazir-pal III.,
careful and realistic under Sargon, refined but wanting in bold-
ness under Assur-bani-pal. In Babylonia, in place of the bas-
relief we have the figure in the round, the earliest examples
being the statues from Tello which are realistic but somewhat
clumsy. The want of stone in Babylonia made every pebble
precious and led to a high perfection in the art of gem-cutting.
Nothing can be better than two seal-cylinders that have come
down to us from the age of Sargon of Akkad. No remarkable
specimens of the metallurgic art of an early period have been
found, apart perhaps from the silver vase of Entemena, but at
a Jater epoch great excellence was attained in the manufacture
of such jewellery as ear-rings and bracelets of gold. Copper, too,
was worked with skill; indeed, it is possible that Babylonia
was the original home of copper-working, which spread westward
with the civilization to which it belonged. At any rate the
people were famous from an early date for their embroideries
and rugs. The ceramic history of Babylonia and Assyria has
unfortunately not yet been traced; at Susa alone has the care
demanded by the modern methods of archaeology been as yet
expended on examining and separating the pottery found in the
excavations, and Susa is not Babylonia. We do not even know
the date of the spirited terra-cotta reliefs discovered by Loftus
and Rawlinson. The forms of Assyrian pottery, however, are
graceful; the porcelain, like the glass discovered in the palaces
of Nineveh, was derived from Egyptian originals. Transparent
glass seems to have been first introduced in the reign of Sargon.
Stone as well as clay and glass were employed in the manufacture
of vases, and vases of hard stone have been disinterred at Tello
similar to those of the early dynastic period of Egypt.
Social Life. Castes were unknown in both Babylonia and
Assyria, but the priesthood of Babylonia found its counterpart in
the military aristocracy of Assyria. The priesthood was divided
into a great number of classes, among which that of the doctors
may be reckoned. The army was raised, at all events in part,
by conscription; a standing army seems to have been first
organized in Assyria. Successive improvements were introduced
into it by the kings of the second Assyrian empire; chariots
were superseded by cavalry; Tiglath-pileser III. gave the
riders saddles and high boots, and Sennacherib created a corps
of slingers. Tents, baggage-carts and battering-rams were
carried on the march, and the tartan or Commander-in-chief
ranked next to the king. In both countries there was a large
body of slaves; above them came the agriculturists and com-
mercial classes, who were, however, comparatively little numerous
in Assyria. The scribes, on the other hand, formed a more
important class in Assyria than in Babylonia. Both countries
had their artisans, money-lenders, poets and musicians.
The houses of the people contained but little furniture; chairs,
tables and couches, however, were used, and Assur-bani-pal is
represented as reclining on his couch at a meal while his wife
sits on a chair beside him. After death the body was usually
partially cremated along with the objects that had been buried
with it. The cemetery adjoined the city of the living and was
laid out in streets through which ran rivulets of " pure " water.
Many of the tombs, which were built of crude brick, were pro-
vided with gardens, and there were shelves or altars on which
were placed the offerings to the dead. As the older tombs
decayed a fresh city of tombs arose on their ruins. It is
remarkable that thus far no cemetery older than the Seleucid
or Parthian period has been found in Assyria.
AUTHORITIES. See A. H. Layard, Nineveh and Babylon (1853);
E. de Sarzec and L. Heuzey, Decouvertes en Chaldee (1884 foil.);
H. V. Hilprecht, The Babylonian Expedition of the University of
Pennsylvania (1893 foil.); J. P. Peters, Nippur (1897); E. Schrader,
Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek (1889-1900); Records of the Past (new
series, 1888-1892); Th. G. Pinches, "The Babylonian Chronicle,"
in Journ. R. A. S. (1887); H. Winckler, Altorientalische Forschungen
(1893 foil.), and The Tell-el-Amarna Letters (1896); G. Maspero,
Dawn of Civilization (1896), Struggle of the Nations (1897), and
Passing of the Empires (1900) ; L. W. King, Letters of Khammurabi
(1898-1900); H. Radau, Early Babylonian History (1900); R. W.
Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria (1900); F. Hommel,
Grundriss der Geographic und Geschichte des alien Orients (1904);
Mitteilungen der deutschen Orientgesellschaft (1899). (A. H. S.)
VIII. Chronological Systems. The extreme divergence in the
chronological schemes employed by different writers on the
history of Babylonia and Assyria has frequently caused no
small perplexity to readers who have no special knowledge of
the subject. In this section an attempt is made to indicate
briefly the causes which have led to so great a diversity of
opinion, and to describe in outline the principles underlying
the chief schemes of chronology that have been suggested; a
short account will then be given of the latest discoveries in this
branch of research, and of the manner in which they affect the
problems at issue. It will be convenient to begin with the later
historical periods, and then to push our inquiry back into the
earlier periods of Babylonian and Sumerian history.
Up to certain points no difference of opinion exists upon the
dates to be assigned to the later kings who ruled in Babylon and
in Assyria. The Ptolemaic Canon (see sect. II.) gives a list of
the Babylonian, Assyrian and Persian kings who ruled in
Babylon, together with the number of years each of them
reigned, from the accession of Nabonassar in 747 B.C. to the
conquest of Babylon by Alexander the Great in 331 B.C. The
accuracy of this list is confirmed by the larger List of Kings
and by the principal Babylonian Chronicle; the latter, like the
Canon, begins with the reign of Nabonassar, who, it has been
suggested, may have revised the calendar and have inaugurated
a new epoch for the later chronology. The Ptolemaic Canon is
further controlled and its accuracy confirmed by the Assyrian
Eponym Lists, or lists of limmi (see sect. II.), by means of
which Assyrian chronology is fixed from 911 B.C. to 666 B.C.,
the solar eclipse of June isth, 763 B.C., which is recorded in the
eponymy of Pur-Sagale, placing the dead reckoning for these
later periods upon an absolutely certain basis.
Thus all historians are agreed with regard to the Babylonian
chronology back to the year 747 B.C., and with regard to that of
Assyria back to the year 911 B.C. It is in respect of the periods
anterior to these two dates that different writers have propounded
differing systems of chronology, and, as might be imagined, the
earlier the period we examine the greater becomes the discrepancy
between the systems proposed. This variety of opinion is due to
the fact that the data available for settling the chronology often
conflict with one another, or are capable of more than one
interpretation.
Since its publication in 1884 the Babylonian List of Kings has
furnished the framework for every chronological system that has
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
109
been proposed. In its original form this document gave a list,
arranged in dynasties, of the Babylonian kings, from the First
Dynasty of Babylon down to the Neo-Babylonian period. If
the text were complete we should probably be in possession
of the system of Babylonian chronology current in the Neo-
Babylonian period from which our principal classical authorities
(see sect. II.) derived their information. The principal points
of uncertainty, due to gaps in the text, concern the length of
Dynasties IV. and VIII.; for the reading of the figure giving
the length of the former is disputed, and the summary at the
close of the latter omits to state its length. This omission is
much to be regretted, since Nabonassar was the last king but
two of this dynasty, and, had we known its duration, we could
have combined the information on the earlier periods furnished
by the Kings' List with the evidence of the Ptolemaic Canon.
In addition to the Kings' List, other important chronological
data consist of references in the classical authorities to the
chronological system of Berossus (q.v.) ; chronological references
to earlier kings occurring in the later native inscriptions, such as
Nabonidus's estimate of the period of Khammurabi (or Ham-
muribi); synchronisms, also furnished by the inscriptions,
between kings of Babylon and of Assyria; and the early
Babylonian date-lists.
Dyn. I.
Dyn. II.
Dyn. III.
B.C.
B.C.
B.C.
Oppert (1888) ....
2506-2202
2202-1834
1834-1257
Sayce (1899)
2478-(2i74)
2l74-(i8o6)
I8o6-(i229)
(1902) ....
246o-(2i74)
2i74-(i8o6)
I8o6-(i229)
Rogers (1900)
2454-2151
2150-1783
1782-1207
Winckler (1894) . . .
(2425-2120)
2120-1752
1752-1177
(1892) . . .
2403-2098
2098-1730
1720-1150
(1905)
c. 2400-2100
c. 2100-1700
c. 1700-1150
Delitzsch (1907) .
c. 2420-2120
C. 2I20-(I752)
(1752-1176)
(1891)
2399-2094
2094-1726
1726-1150
Maspero (1897) .
2416-2082
2082-1714
I7i4-(ii37)
Lehmann-Haupt (1898) .
2360-2057 .
2056-1689
1688-1113
.. (1903)
2296-2009/8
2008/7-1691
1690-1115
Marquart (1899) .
2335-2051
2051/0-1694/3
1693/2-1118/7
Peiser (1891) ....
2251-1947
1947-1579
1579-1180
Rost (1897) ....
2232-1928
1928-1560
1560-1224
(1900) ....
2231-1941
1940-1573
1572-1179
Hommel (1901) . . .
J 2223-1923
(1923-1752) )
I752-U75
( or 2050-1752
>
., (1895) .
2058-1754
i753-"78
(1886) . . .
2035-1731
2403-2035
1731-1154
(1898) . . .
1884-1580
1580-1180
Niebuhr (1896) . . .
2193-1889
2114-1746
1746-1169
In view of the uncertainty regarding the length of Dynasties
IV. and VIII. of the Rings' List, attempts have been made to
ascertain the dates of the earlier dynasties by independent
means. The majority of writers, after fixing the date at which
Dynasty III. closed by means of the synchronisms and certain
of the later chronological references, have accepted the figures
of the Kings' List for the earlier dynasties, ignoring their apparent
inconsistencies with the system of Berossus and with the chrono-
logy of Nabonidus. Others have attempted to reconcile the
conflicting data by emendations of the figures and other ingenious
devices. This will explain the fact that while the difference
between the earliest and latest dates suggested for the close of
Dynasty III. is only 144 years, the difference between the
earliest and latest dates suggested for the beginning of Dynasty
I. is no less than 622 years. A comparison of the principal
schemes of chronology that have been propounded may be
made by means of the preceding table. The first column gives
the names of the writers and the dates at which their schemes
were published, while the remaining columns give the dates
they have suggested for Dynasties I., II. and III of the Kings'
List. 1 The systems with the highest dates are placed first in the
list; where a writer has produced more than one system, these
are grouped together, the highest dates proposed by him deter-
mining his place in the series.
' These three dynasties are usually known as the First Dynasty
of Babylon, the Dynasty of Sisku or Uruku, and the Kassite Dynasty ;
see sect. v.
Omitting that of Oppert, which to some extent stands in a
category by itself, the systems fall into three groups. The first
group, comprising the second to the sixth names, obtains its
results by selecting the data on which it relies and ignoring
others. The second group, comprising the next four names,
attempts to reconcile the conflicting data by emending the
figures. The third group, consisting of the last two names, is
differentiated by its proposals with regard to Dynasty II. It
will be noted that the first group has obtained higher dates than
the second, and the second group higher dates on the whole
than the third.
Oppert's system 1 represents the earliest dates that have been
suggested. He accepted the figures of the Kings' List and
claimed that he reconciled them with the figures of Berossus,
though he ignored the later chronological notices. But there
is no evidence for his "cyclic date" of 2517 B.C., on which his
system depended, and there is little doubt that the beginning
of the historical period of Berossus is to be set, not in 2506 B.C.,
but in 2232 B.C. The two systems of Sayce,' that of Rogers,'
the three systems of Winckler,* both those of Delitzsch, 8 and
that of Maspero, 7 may be grouped together, for they are based
on the same principle. Having first fixed the date of the close
of Dynasty III., they employed the figures of the Kings' List
unemended for defining the earlier periods, and
did not attempt to reconcile their results with
other conflicting data. The difference of eighteen
years in Sayce's two dates for the rise of Dynasty
I. was due to his employing in 1902 the figures
assigned to the first seven kings of the dynasty
upon the larger of the two contemporary date-lists,
which had meanwhile been published, in place
of those given by the List of Kings. It should be
noted that Winckler (1905) and Delitzsch (1907)
gives the dates only in round numbers.
A second group of systems may be said to con-
sist of those proposed by Lehmann-Haupt,
Marquart, Peiser, and Rost, for these writers
attempted to get over the discrepancies in the data
by emending some of the figures furnished by the
inscriptions. In 1891, with the object of getting
the total duration of the dynasties to agree with
the chronological system of Berossus and with
the statement of Nabonidus concerning Kham-
murabi's date, Peiser proposed to emend the
figure given by the Kings' List for the length of
Dynasty III. The reading of " 9 soss and 36 years," which
gives the total 576 years, he suggested was a scribal error
for "6 soss and 39 years"; he thus reduced the length of
Dynasty III. by 177 years and effected a corresponding
reduction in the dates assigned to Dynasties I. and II. 8 In 1897
Rost followed up Peiser's suggestion by reducing the figure still
further, but he counteracted to some extent the effects of this
additional reduction by emending Sennacherib's date for Marduk-
nadin-akhe's defeat of Tiglath-pileser I. as engraved on the rock
at Bavian, holding that the figure " 418," as engraved upon the.
rock, was a mistake for " 478." ' Lehmann-Haupt's first system
(1898) resembled those of Oppert, Sayce, Rogers, Winckler,
Delitzsch and Maspero in that he accepted the figures of the
Kings' List, and did not attempt to emend them. But he
obtained his low date for the close of Dynasty III. by emending
* See Oppert, Comptes rendus de I' A cad. des Inscr. el Belles-Lettres
(1888), xvi. pp. 218 ff., and Bab. and Or. Rec. it. pp. 107 ff.
See Sayce, Early Israel, pp. 281 ff., and Encyc. Brit., loth ed.,
vol. xxvi. p. 45 (also his account above).
* See Rogers, History of Babylonia and Assyria (1900).
'See Winckler, Geschichle Babyloniens und Assyrians (1892),
Altorientalische Forschuneen, i. Hft. 2 (1894), an d Auszug aus der
Vorderasiatischen Geschichte (1905).
* See Delitzsch and Miirdter, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyriens
(1891), and Delitzsch, Mehr Licht (1907).
7 See Maspero, Histoire ancienne des peuples de I 'Orient classiqve,
tome ii.
* See Peiser, Zeits. fur Assyr. vi. pp. 264 ff.
' See Rost, Mitteil. der vorderas. Gesellschaft (1897), ii.
no
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
Sennacherib's figure in the Bavian inscription; this he reduced
by a hundred years, 1 instead of increasing it by sixty as Rost had
suggested. Lehmann-Haupt's influence is visible in Marquart's
system, published in the following year; 2 it may be noted that
his slightly reduced figure for the beginning of Dynasty I. was
arrived at by incorporating the new information supplied by
the first date-list to be published. When revising his scheme
of chronology in 1900, Rost abandoned his suggested emenda-
tion of Sennacherib's figure, but by decreasing his reduction of
the length of Dynasty III., he only altered his date for the be-
ginning of Dynasty I. by one year. 3 In his revised scheme of
chronology, published in 1903,* Lehmann-Haupt retained his
emendation of Sennacherib's figure, and was in his turn influenced
by Marquart's method of reconciling the dynasties of Berossus
with the Kings' List. He continued to accept the figure of the
Kings' List for Dynasty III., but he reduced the length of
Dynasty II. by fifty years, arguing that the figures assigned
to some of the reigns were improbably high. His slight reduction
in the length of Dynasty I. was obtained from the recently
published date-lists, though his proposed reduction of Ammi-
zaduga's reign to ten years has since been disproved.
A third group of systems comprises those proposed by
Hommel and Niebuhr, for their reductions in the date assigned
to Dynasty I. were effected chiefly by their treatment of Dynasty
II. In his first system, published in 1886, 6 Hommel, mainly with
the object of reducing Khammurabi's date, reversed the order
of the first two dynasties of the Kings' List, placing Dynasty II.
before Dynasty I. In his second and third systems (1895 and
1898),' and in his second alternative scheme of 1901 (see below),
he abandoned this proposal and adopted a suggestion of Halevy
that Dynasty III. followed immediately after Dynasty I.;
Dynasty II., he suggested, had either synchronized with Dynasty
I., or was mainly apocryphal (eine spttlere Geschichtskonstruclion) .
Niebuhr's system was a modification of Hommel's second theory,
for, instead of entirely ignoring Dynasty II., he reduced its
independent existence to 143 years, making it overlap Dynasty I.
by 225 years. 7 The extremely low dates proposed by Hommel
in 1898 were due to his adoption of Peiser's emendation for the
length of Dynasty III., hi addition to his own elimination of
Dynasty II. In 1901 Hommel abandoned Peiser's emendation
and suggested two alternative schemes. 8 According to one of
these he attempted to reconcile Berossus with the Kings' List
by assigning to Dynasty II. an independent existence of some
171 years, while as a possible alternative he put forward what was
practically his theory of 1895.
Such are the principles underlying the various chronological
schemes which had, until recently, been propounded. The
balance of opinion was in favour of those of the first group of
writers, who avoided emendations of the figures and were content
to follow the Kings' List and to ignore its apparent discrepancies
with other chronological data; but it is now admitted that the
general principle underlying the third group of theories was
actually nearer the truth. The publication of fresh chronological
material in 1906 and 1907 placed a new complexion on the prob-
lems at issue, and enabled us to correct several preconceptions,
and to reconcile or explain the apparently conflicting data.
From a Babylonian chronicle in the British Museum we now
know that Dynasty II. of the Kings' List never occupied the
throne of Babylon, but ruled only in the extreme south of
1 See Lehmann-Haupt, Zwei Hauptprobleme (1898).
1 See Marquart, Philologus, Supplbd. vii. (1899), pp. 637 ff.
3 See Rost, Orient. Lit.-Zeit., iii. (1900), No. 6.
4 See Lehmann-Haupt, Beitrdge zur alien Geschichle (Klio), Bd. iii.
Heft i (1903).
' See Hommel, Geschichte Babyloniens und Assyrians.
See Ancient Hebrew Tradition, p. 125, and Hastings' Dictionary
of the Bible, i. pp. 226 f.
7 See Niebuhr, Chronologie (1896).
8 See Hommel, " Sitzungsberichte der konigl. bohmischen Gesell-
schaft der Wissenschaften," Phil.-hist. Classe (1901), v.
Published and discussed by L. W. King, " Chronicles concerning
early Babylonian Kings " (Studies in Eastern History, vols. ii. and iii.,
!97)t and History of Egypt, vol. xiii. (published by the Grolier
Society, New York, in the spring of 1906), pp. 244 ff.
Babylonia on the shores of the Persian Gulf; that its kings were
contemporaneous with the later kings of Dynasty I. and with
the earlier kings of Dynasty III. of the Kings' List; that in the
reign of Samsu-ditana, the last king of Dynasty L, Hittites from
Cappadocia raided and captured Babylon, which in her weakened
state soon fell a prey to the Kassites (Dynasty III.) ; and that later
on southern Babylonia, till then held by Dynasty II. of the Kings'
List, was in its turn captured by the Kassites, who from that time
onward occupied the whole of the Babylonian plain. The same
chronicle informs us that Ilu-shuma, an early Assyrian patesi,
was the contemporary of Su-abu, the founder of Dynasty I. of
the Kings' List,' thus enabling us to trace the history of Assyria
back beyond the rise of Babylon.
Without going into details, the more important results of
this new information may be summarized: the elimination of
Dynasty II. from the throne of Babylon points to a date not
much earlier than 2000 or 2050 B.C. for the rise of Dynasty I.,
a date which harmonizes with the chronological notices of
Shalmaneser L; Nabonidus's estimate of the period of Kham-
murabi, so far from being centuries too low, is now seen to have
been exaggerated, as the context of the passage in his inscription
suggests; and finally the beginning of the historical period of
Berossus is not to be synchronized with Dynasty I. of the Kings'
List, but, assuming that his figures had an historical basis and
that they have come down to us in their original form, with some
earlier dynasty which may possibly have had its capital in one of
the other great cities of Babylonia (such as the Dynasty of Isin).
New data have also been discovered bearing upon the period
before the rise of Babylon. A fragment of an early dynastic
chronicle from Nippur I0 gives a list of the kings of the dynasties
of Ur and Isin. From this text we learn that the Dynasty of
Ur consisted of five kings and lasted for 117 years, and was
succeeded by the Dynasty of Isin, which consisted of sixteen
kings and lasted for 2255 years. Now the capture of the city
of Isin by Rim-Sin, which took place in the seventeenth year
of Sin-muballit, the father of Khammurabi, formed an epoch
for dating tablets in certain parts of Babylonia, 11 and it is probable
that we may identify the fall of the Dynasty of Isin with this
capture of the city. In that case the later rulers of the Dynasty
of Isin would have been contemporaneous with the earlier rulers
of Dynasty I. of the Kings' List, and we obtain for the rise of the
Dynasty of Ur a date not much earlier than 2300 B.C.
These considerable reductions in the dates of the earlier
dynasties of Babylonia necessarily react upon our estimate of the
age of Babylonian civilization. The very high dates of 5000 or
6000 B.C., formerly assigned by many writers to the earliest
remains of the Sumerians and the Babylonian Semites, 12 depended
to a great extent on the statement of Nabonidus that 3200 years
separated his own age from that of Naram-Sin, the son of Sargon
of Agade; for to Sargon, on this statement alone, a date of
3800 B.C. has usually been assigned. But even by postulating
the highest possible dates for the Dynasties of Babylon and Ur,
enormous gaps occurred in the scheme of chronology, which
were unrepresented by any royal name or record. In his valiant
attempt to fill these gaps Radau was obliged to invent kings and
even dynasties, 13 the existenceof which is now definitely disproved.
The statement of Nabonidus has not, however, been universally
accepted. Lehmann-Haupt suggested an emendation of the
text, reducing the number by a thousand years; 11 while Winckler
has regarded the statement of Nabonidus as an uncritical
exaggeration. 16 Obviously the scribes of Nabonidus were not
anxious to diminish the antiquity of the foundation-inscription
of Naram-Sin, which their royal master had unearthed;
10 Published and discussed by Hilprecht, " Mathematical, Metro-
logical and Chronological Texts " (Bab. Exped., Ser. A, xx. i, dated
1906, published 1907), pp. 46 ff.
11 See L. W. King, Letters and Inscriptions of Khammurabi, vol. iii.
pp. 228 ff.
12 Cf., e.g., Hilprecht, Old Babylonian Inscriptions, pt. ii. p. 24.
11 See Radau, Early Babylonian History (1900).
14 See Lehmann-Haupt, Zwei Hauptprobleme, pp. 172 ff.
16 See Winckler in Schrader's Keilinschriften und das Alte-Testa-
ment (3rd ed.), i. pp. 17 f., and cf. Mitteil. der vorderas. Gesellschaft
(1906), i. p. 12, n.l.
BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA
in
and another reason for their calculations resulting in so high a
figure is suggested by the recent discoveries: they may in all
good faith have reckoned as consecutive a number of early
dynasties which were as a matter of fact contemporaneous. But,
though we may refuse to accept the accuracy of this figure of
Nabonidus, it is not possible at present to fix a definite date for
the early kings of Agade. All that can be said is that both
archaeological and epigraphic evidence indicates that no very
long interval separated the empire of the Semitic kings of Agade
from that of the kings of Sumer and Akkad, whose rule was
inaugurated by the founding of the Dynasty of Ur. 1
To use caution in accepting the chronological notices of the
later kings is very far removed from suggesting emendations of
their figures. The emenders postulate mechanical errors in the
writing of the figures, but, equally with those who accept them,
regard the calculations of the native scribes as above reproach.
But that scribes could make mistakes in their reckoning is
definitely proved by the discovery at Shergat of two totally
conflicting accounts of the age and history of the great temple of
Assur. 2 This discovery in itself suggests that all chronological
data are not to be treated as of equal value and arranged
mechanically like the pieces of a Chinese puzzle; and further,
that no more than a provisional acceptance should be accorded
any statement of the later native chronologists, until confirmed
by contemporary records. On the other hand, the death-blow
has been given to the principle of emendation of the figures,
which for so long has found favour among a considerable body of
German writers. (L. W. K.)
IX. Proper Names. In the early days of the decipherment of
the cuneiform inscriptions, the reading of the proper names borne
by Babylonians and Assyrians occasioned great difficulties; and
though most of these difficulties have been overcome and there
is general agreement among scholars as to the principles under-
lying both the formation and the pronunciation of the thousands
of names that we encounter in historical records, business
documents, votive inscriptions and literary productions, differ-
ences, though mostly of a minor character, still remain. Some
time must elapse before absolute uniformity in the transliteration
of these proper names is to be expected; and since different
scholars still adopt varying spellings of Babylonian and Assyrian
proper names, it has been considered undesirable in this work to
ignore the fact in individual articles contributed by them. The
better course seems to be to explain here the nature of these
variations.
The main difficulty in the reading of Babylonian and Assyrian
proper names arises from the preference given to the " ideo-
graphic " method of writing them. According to the developed
cuneiform system of writing, words may be written by means of
a sign (or combination of signs) expressive of the entire word,
or they may be spelled out phonetically in syllables. So, for
example, the word for " name " may be written by a sign MU, or
it may be written out by two signs shu-mu, the one sign MU
representing the " Sumerian " word for " name," which, however,
in the case of a Babylonian or Assyrian text must be read as
shumu the Semitic equivalent of the Sumerian MU. Similarly
the word for " clothing " may be written SIG-BA, which repre-
sents again the " Sumerian " word, whereas, the Babylonian-
Assyrian equivalent being lubushtu it is so to be read in Semitic
texts, and may therefore be also phonetically written lu-bu-ush-tu.
This double method of writing words arises from the circumstance
that the cuneiform syllabary is of non-Semitic origin, the system
being derived from the non-Semitic settlers of the Euphrates
valley, commonly termed Sumerians (or Sumero- Akkadians), to
whom, as the earlier settlers, the origin of the cuneiform script is
due. This script, together with the general Sumerian culture,
was taken over by the Babylonians upon their settlement in the
Euphrates valley and adapted to their language, which belonged
to the Semitic group. In this transfer the Sumerian words
largely monosyllabic were reproduced, but read as Semitic, and
1 Cf. L. W. King, Chronicles, i. pp. 15 ff., 61 f.
2 See Mittcilungen der deutschen Orientgesellschaft, Nos. 2 1 and
32, and cf. L. W. King, Chronicles, i. pp. 114 ff.
at the same time the advance step was taken of utilizing the
Sumerian words as means of writing the Babylonian words
phonetically. In this case the signs representing Sumerian words
were treated merely as syllables, and, without reference to their
meaning, utilized for spelling Babylonian words. The Baby-
lonian syllabary which thus arose, and which, as the culture
passed on to the north known as Assyria became the Baby-
lonian Assyrian syllabary, 5 was enlarged and modified in the
course of time, the Semitic equivalents for many of the signs
being distorted orabbreviated to form the basis of new "phonetic"
values that were thus of " Semitic " origin ; but, on the whole,
the " non-Semitic " character of the signs used as syllables in the
phonetic method of writing Semitic words was preserved; and,
furthermore, down to the latest days of the Babylonian and
Assyrian empires the mixed method of writing continued, though
there were periods when " purism " was the fashion, and there
was a more marked tendency to spell out the words laboriously
in preference to using signs with a phonetic complement as an aid
in suggesting the reading desired in any given instance. Yet,
even in those days, the Babylonian syllabary continued to be
a mixture of ideographic and phonetic writing. Besides the
conventional use of certain signs as the indications of names of
gods, countries, cities, vessels, birds, trees, &c., which, known as
" determinants," are the Sumerian signs of the terms in question
and were added as a guide for the reader, proper names more
particularly continued to be written to a large extent in purely
" ideographic " fashion. The conservatism which is a feature of
proper names everywhere, in consequence of which the archaic
traits of a language are frequently preserved in them, just as they
are preserved in terms used in the ritual and in poetic diction, is
sufficient to account for the interesting fact that the Semitic
settlers of the Euphrates valley in handing down their names
from one generation to another retained the custom of writing
them in " Sumerian " fashion, or, as we might also put it, in
" ideographic" form. Thus the name of the deity, which enters
as an element in a large proportion of the proper names, 4 was
almost invariably written with the sign or signs representing this
deity, and it is only exceptionally that the name is spelled
phonetically. Thus the name of the chief god of the Babylonian
pantheon, Marduk, is written by two signs to be pronounced
AMAR-UD, which describe the god as the " young bullock of the
day " an allusion to the solar character of the god in question.
The moon-god Sin is written by a sign which has the force of
" thirty," and is a distinct reference to the monthly course of
the planet; or the name is written by two signs to be pronounced
EN-ZU, which describe the god as the " lord of wisdom." The
god Nebo appears as PA the sign of the stylus, which is
associated with this deity as the originator and patron of writing
and of knowledge in general, or it is written with a sign AK,
which describes the god as a " creator."
Until, therefore, through parallel passages or through explana-
tory lists prepared by the Babylonian and Assyrian scribes in
large numbers as an aid for the study of the language, 6 the exact
phonetic reading of these divine names was determined, scholars
remained in doubt or had recourse to conjectural or provisional
readings. Even at the present time there are many names of
deities, as, e.g. Ninib, the phonetic reading of which is still
unknown or uncertain. In most cases, however, these belong to
the category of minor deities or represent old local gods assimi-
lated to some more powerful god, who absorbed, as it were, the
attributes and prerogatives of these minor ones. In many cases
they will probably turn out to be descriptive epithets of gods
3 The Assyrian language is practically identical with the Baby-
lonian, just as the Assyrians are the same people as the Babylonians
with some foreign admixtures.
4 In many names the divine element is lopped off, but was origin-
ally present.
* Aramaic endorsements on business documents repeating in
Aramaic transliteration the names of parties mentioned in the texts
have also been of service in fixing the phonetic readings of names.
See e.g. Clay's valuable article, " Aramaic Endorsements on the
Documents of Murashu Sons " (Persian period) in Old Testament
and Semitic Studies in Memory of William Rainey Harper (Chicago,
1908, vol. i.), pp. 285-322.
112
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION
already known rather than genuine proper names. A peculiar
difficulty arises in the case of the god of storms, who, written
IM, was generally known in Babylonia as Ramman, " the
thunderer," whereas in Assyria he also had the designation
Adad. In many cases, therefore, we may be in doubt how the
sign IM is to be read, more particularly since this same god
appears to have had other designations besides Ramman and
Adad.
w Besides the divine element, proper names as a rule in the
Babylonian-Assyrian periods had a verbal form attached and a
third element representing an object. Even when the sign
indicative of the verb is clearly recognised there still remains to
be determined the form of the verb intended. Thus in the case
of the sign KUR, which is the equivalent of na$aru, " protect,"
there is the possibility of reading it as the active participle najir,
or as an imperative u$$ur, or even the third person perfect * $fur.
Similarly in the case of the sign MU, which, besides signifying
" name " as above pointed out, is also the Sumerian word for
" give," and therefore may be read iddin, " he gave," from
nadanu, or may be read nadin, " giver "; and when, as actually
happens, a name occurs in which the first element is the name of
a deity followed by MU-MU, a new element of doubt is introduced
through the uncertainty whether the first MU is to be taken as
a form of the verb nadanu and the second as the noun shumu,
" name," or vice versa.
Fortunately, in the case of a large number of names occurring
on business documents as the interested parties or as scribes or
as witnesses and it is through these documents that we obtain
the majority of the Babylonian-Assyrian proper names we
have variant readings, the same name being written phonetically
in whole or part in one instance and ideographically in another.
Certain classes of names being explained in this way, legitimate
and fairly reliable conclusions can be drawn for many others
belonging to the same class or group. The proper names of the
numerous business documents of the Khammurabi period, when
phonetic writing was the fashion, have been of special value in
resolving doubts as to the correct reading of names written
ideographically. Thus names like Sin-na-di-in-shu-mi and
Bel^na-di-in-shu-mi, i.e. " Sin is the giver of a name " (i.e.
offspring), and " Bel is the giver of a name," form the model for
names with deities as the first element followed by MU-MU,
even though the model may not be consistently followed in all
cases. In historical texts also variant readings occur in consider-
able number. Thus, to take a classic example, the name of the
famous king Nebuchadrezzar occurs written in the following
different manners: (a) Na-bi-um-ku-du-ur-ri-u-ju-ur^fyAK-DU
u-ju-ur, (c) AK-ku-dur-ri-SHES, and (d) PA-GAR-DU-SHES,
from which we are permitted to conclude that PA or AK (with
the determinative for deity AN) = Na-bi-um or Nebo, that
GAR-DU or DU alone = kudurri, and that SHES=Mwr. The
second element signifies " boundary " or " territory "; the third
element is the imperative of nasdru, "protect"; so that the
whole name signifies, " O, Nebo! protect my boundary " (or
" my territory ").
It is not the purpose of this note to set forth the principles
underlying the formation of proper names among the Babylonians
and Assyrians, but it may not be out of place to indicate that by
the side of such full names, containing three elements (or even
more), we have already at an early period the reduction of these
elements to two through the combination of the name of a deity
with a verbal form merely, or through the omission of the name
of the deity. From such names it is only a step to names of one
element, a characteristic feature of which is the frequent addition
of an ending -turn (feminine), an, d, urn, alum, atija, ska, &c.,
most of these being " hypocoristic affixes," corresponding in a
measure to modern pet-names.
Lastly, a word about genuine or pseudo-Sumerian names. In
the case of texts from the oldest historical periods we encounter
hundreds of names that are genuinely Sumerian, and here in view
of the multiplicity of the phonetic values attaching to the signs
used it is frequently difficult definitely to determine the reading
of the names. Our knowledge of the ancient Sumerian language
is still quite imperfect, despite the considerable progress made,
more particularly during recent years. It is therefore not sur-
prising that scholars should differ considerably in the reading
of Sumerian names, where we have not helps at our command
as for Babylonian and Assyrian names. Changes in the' manner
of reading the Sumerian names are frequent. Thus the name
of a king of Ur, generally read Ur-Bau until quite recently, is
now read Ur-Engur; for Lugal-zaggisi, a king of Erech, some
scholars still prefer to read Ungal-zaggisi; the name of a famous
political and religious centre generally read Shir-pur-la is more
probably to be read Shir-gul-la; and so forth. There is reason,
however, to believe that the uncertainty in regard to many of
these names will eventually be resolved into reasonable certainty.
A doubt also still exists in regard to a number of names of the
older period because of the uncertainty whether their bearers
were Sumerians or Semites. If the former, then their names
are surely to be read as Sumerian, while, if they were Semites,
the signs with which the names are written are probably to be
read according to their Semitic equivalents, though we may also
expect to encounter Semites bearing genuine Sumerian names.
At times too a doubt may exist in regard to a name whose bearer
was a Semite, whether the signs composing his name represent
a phonetic reading or an ideographic compound. Thus, e.g.
when inscriptions of a Semitic ruler of Kish, whose name was
written Uru-mu-ush, were first deciphered, there was a disposition
to regard this as an ideographic form and to read phonetically
Alu-usharshid (" he founded a city," with the omission of the
name of the deity), but scholarly opinion finally accepted Uru-
mu-ush (Urumush) as the correct designation.
For further details regarding the formation of Sumerian and
Babylonian-Assyrian proper names, as well as for an indication of
the problems involved and the difficulties still existing, especially in
the case of Sumerian names, 1 see the three excellent works now at
our disposal for the Sumerian, the old Babylonian, and the neo-
Baby Ionian period respectively, by Huber, Die Personennamen in
den Keilschnfturkunden aus der Zeit der Konige von Ur und Nisin
(Leipzig, 1907); Ranke, Early Babylonian Proper Names (Phil-
adelphia, 1905); and Tallqvist, Neu-Babylomsches Namenbuch
(Helsingfors, 1905). (M. JA.)
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION. The develop-
ment of the religion of Babylonia, so far as it can be traced
with the material at hand, follows closely along the lines of the
periods to be distinguished in the history of the Euphrates valley.
Leaving aside the primitive phases of the religion as lying beyond
the ken of historical investigation, we may note the sharp dis-
tinction to be made between the pre-Khammurabic age and the
post-Khammurabic age. While the political movement repre-
sented by Khammurabi may have been proceeding for some
time prior to the appearance of the great conqueror, the period
of c. 2250 B.C., when the union of the Euphratean states was
effected by Khammurabi, marks the beginning of a new epoch
in the religion as well as in the political history of the Euphrates
valley. Corresponding to the states into which we find the
country divided before 2250 B.C., we have a various number of
religious centres such as Nippur, Erech, Kutha (Cuthah), Ur,
Sippara (Sippar), Shirgulla (Lagash), Eridu and Agade, in each
of which some god was looked upon as the chief deity around
whom there were gathered a number of minor deities and with
whom there was invariably associated a female consort. The
jurisdiction of this chief god was, however, limited to the political
extent or control of the district in which the main seat of the
cult of the deity in question lay. Mild attempts, to be sure, to
group the chief deities associated with the most important
religious and political centres into a regular pantheon were made
notably in Nippur and later in Ur but such attempts lacked
the enduring quality which attaches to Khammurabi's avowed
policy to raise Marduk the patron deity of the future capital,
Babylon to the head of the entire Babylonian pantheon, as
1 Even in the case of the " Semitic " name of the famous Sargon I.
(q.v.), whose full name is generally read Sharru-kenu-sha-ali, and
interpreted as " the legitimate king of the city," the question has
recently been raised whether we ought not to read " Sharru-kenu-
shar-ri " and interpret as " the legitimate king rules " an illus-
tration of the vacillation still prevailing in this difficult domain of
research, t
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION
Babylon itself came to be recognized as the real centre of the
entire Euphrates valley.
Associated with Marduk was his consort Sarpanit, and grouped
around the pair as princes around a throne were the chief deities
of the older centres, like Ea and Damkina of Eridu, Nebo and
Tashmit of Borsippa, Nergal and Allatu of Kutha, Shamash
and A of Sippar, Sin and Ningal of Ur, as well as pairs like
Ramman (or Adad) and Shala whose central seat is unknown
to us. In this process of accommodating ancient prerogatives
to new conditions, it was inevitable that attributes belonging
specifically to the one or the other of these gods should have
been transferred to Marduk, who thus from being, originally,
a solar deity becomes an eclectic power, taking on the traits of
Bel, Ea, Shamash, Nergal, Adad and even Sin (the moon-god)
a kind of composite residuum of all the chief gods.
In the religious literature this process can be traced with
perfect definiteness. The older incantations, associated with
Ea, were re-edited so as to give to Marduk the supreme power
over demons, witches and sorcerers; the hymns and lamenta-
tions composed for the cult of Bel, Shamash and of Adad were
transformed into paeans and appeals to Marduk, while the
ancient myths arising in the various religious and political
centres underwent a similar process of adaptation to changed
conditions, and as a consequence their original meaning was
obscured by the endeavour to assign all mighty deeds and acts,
originally symbolical of the change of seasons or of occurrences
in nature, to the patron deity of Babylon the supreme head
of the entire Babylonian pantheon. Besides the chief deities
and their consorts, various minor ones, representing likewise
patron gods of less important localities and in_most cases of a
solar character were added at one time or the other to the court
of Marduk, though there is also to be noted a tendency on the
part of the chief solar deity, Shamash of Sippara, and for the
chief moon-god to absorb the solar and lunar deities of less
important sites, leading in the case of the solar gods to the
differentiation of the functions of Shamash during the various
seasons of the year and the various times of the day among
these minor deities. In this way Ninib, whose chief seat appears
to have been at Shirgulla (Lagash), became the sun-god of the
springtime and of the morning, bringing joy and new life to the
earth, while Nergal of Kutha was regarded as the sun of the
summer solstice and of the noonday heat the harbinger of
suffering and death.
There were, however, two deities who appear to have retained
an independent existence Anu (?..), the god of heaven, and
Ishtar (?..), the great mother-goddess, who symbolized fertility
and vitality in general. There are some reasons for believing
that the oldest seat, and possibly the original seat, of the Anu
cult was in Erech, as it is there where the Ishtar cult that subse-
quently spread throughout Babylonia and Assyria took its rise.
While Anu, with whom there was associated as a pale reflection
a consort Antum, assigned to him under the influence of the
widely prevalent view among the early Semites which conceived
of gods always in pairs, remained more or less of an abstraction
during the various periods of the Babylonian-Assyrian religion
and taking little part in the active cult of the temples, his unique
position as the chief god of the highest heavens was always
recognized in the theological system developed by the priests,
which found an expression in making him the first figure of a
triad, consisting of Anu, Bel and Ea, among whom the priests
divided the three divisions of the universe, the heavens, the
earth with the atmosphere above it, and the watery expanse
respectively.
Postponing the discussion of this triad, it is to be noted that
the systematization of the pantheon after the days of Kham-
murabi did not seriously interfere with the independence of the
goddess Ishtar. While frequently associated with Marduk, and
still more closely with the chief god of Assyria, the god Assur
(who occupies in the north the position accorded to Marduk in
the south'), so much so as to be sometimes spoken of as Assur's
consort the lady or Belit par excellence the belief that as the
source of all life she stands apart never lost its hold upon the
people and found an expression also in the system devised by
the priests. By the side of the first triad, consisting of Anu,
Bel and Ea disconnected in this form entirely from all local
associations we encounter a second triad composed of Shamash,
Sin and Ishtar. As the first triad symbolized the three divisions
of the universe the heavens, earth and the watery element so
the second represented the three great forces of nature the sun,
the moon and the life-giving power. According as the one or
the other aspect of such a power is brought into the foreground,
Ishtar becomes the mother of mankind, the fertile earth, the
goddess of sexual love, and the creative force among animals,
while at times she appears in hymns and myths as the general
personification of nature.
We thus find in the post-Khammurabic period the pantheon
assuming distinct shapes. The strong tendency towards con-
centrating in one deity Marduk the attributes of all others
was offset by the natural desire to make the position of Marduk
accord with the rank acquired by the secular rulers. As these
emphasized their supremacy by grouping around them a court of
loyal attendants dependent in rank and ready to do their mauler's
bidding, so the gods of the chief centres and those of the minor
local cults formed a group around Marduk; and the larger the
group the greater was the reflected glory of the chief figure.
Hfcnce throughout the subsequent periods of Babylonian history,
and despite a decided progress towards a monotheistic conception
of divine government of the universe, the recognition of a large
number of gods and their consorts by the side of Marduk remained
a firmly embedded doctrine in the Babylonian religion as it did
in the Assyrian religion, with the important variation, however,
of transferring the r61e of the head of the pantheon from Marduk
to Assur. Originally the patron god of the city of Assur (q.v.),
when this city became the centre of a growing and independent
district, Assur was naturally advanced to the same position in
the north that Marduk occupied in the south. The religious
predominance of the city of Babylon served to maintain for
Marduk recognition even on the part of the Assyrian rulers, who,
on the political side likewise, conceded to Babylonia the form
at least of an independent district even when, as kings of Assyria,
they exercised absolute control over it. They appointed their
sons or brothers governors of Babylonia, and in the long array
of titles that the kings gave themselves, a special phrase was
always set aside to indicate their mastery over Babylonia. " To
take the hand of Bel-Marduk " was the ceremony of installation
which Assyrian rulers recognized equally with Babylonians as an
essential preliminary to exercising authority in the Euphrates
valley. Marduk and Assur became rivals only when Babylonia
gave the Assyrians trouble; and when in 689 B.C. Sennacherib,
whose patience had been .exhausted by the difficulties en-
countered in maintaining peace in the south, actually besieged
and destroyed the city of Babylon, he removed the statue of
Marduk to Nineveh as a symbol that the god's rule had come
to an end. His grandson Assur-bani-pal, with a view of re-
establishing amicable relations, restored the statue to the temple
E-Saggila in Babylon and performed the time-honoured ceremony
of " taking the hand of Bel " as a symbol of his homage to the
ancient head of the Babylonian pantheon. j
But' for the substitution of Assur for Marduk, the Assyrian
pantheon was the same as that set up in the south, though some
of the gods were endowed with attributes which differ slightly
from those which mark the same gods in the south. The warlike
nature of the Assyrians was reflected in their conceptions of the
gods, who thus became little Assurs by the side of the great
protector of arms, the big Assur. The cult and ritual in the north
likewise followed the models set up in the south. The hymns
composed for the temples of Babylonia were transferred to Assur,
Calah, Harran, Arbela and Nineveh in the north; and the
myths and legends also wandered to Assyria, where, to be sure,
they underwent certain modifications. To all practical purposes,
however, the religion of Assyria was identical with that practised
in the south.
We thus obtain four periods in the development of the
Babylonian- Assyrian religion: (i) the oldest period from
BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION
c. 3500 B.C. to the time of Khammurabi (c. 2250 B.C.); (2) the
post-Khammurabic period in Babylonia; (3) the Assyrian
period (c. 2000 B.C.) to the destruction of Nineveh in 606 B.C.;
(4) the neo-Babylonian period beginning with Nabopolassar
(625-604 B.C.), the first independent ruler under whom Babylonia
inaugurates a new though short-lived era of power and prosperity,
which ends with Cyrus's conquest of Babylon and Babylonia in
539 B.C., though since the religion proceeds on its undisturbed
course for several centuries after the end of the political inde-
pendence, we might legitimately carry this period to the Greek
conquest of the Euphrates valley (331 B.C.), when new influences
began to make themselves felt which gradually led to the
extinction of the old cults.
In this long period of c. 3500 to c. 300 B.C., the changes intro-
duced after the adjustment to the new conditions produced by
Khammurabi's union of the Euphratean states are of a minor
character. As already indicated, the local cults in the im-
portant centres of the south and north maintained themselves
despite the tendency towards centralization, and while the cults
themselves varied according to the character of the gods
worshipped in each centre, the general principles were the same
and the rites differed in minor details rather than in essential
variations. An important factor which thus served to maintain
the rites in a more or less stable condition was the predominartce
of what may be called the astral theology as the theoretical
substratum of the Babylonian religion, and which is equally
pronounced in the religious system of Assyria. The essential
feature of this astral theology is the assumption of a close link
between the movements going on in the heavens and occurrences
on earth, which led to identifying the gods and goddesses with
heavenly bodies planets and stars, besides sun and moon
and to assigning the seats of all the deities in the heavens. The
personification of the two great luminaries the sun and the
moon was the first step in the unfolding of this system, and this
was followed by placing the other deities where Shamash and
Sin had their seats. This process, which reached its culmination
in the post-Khammurabic period, led to identifying the planet
Jupiter with Marduk, Venus with Ishtar, Mars with Nergal,
Mercury with Nebo, and Saturn with Ninib. The system repre-
sents a harmonious combination of two factors, one of popular
origin, the other the outcome of speculation in the schools attached
to the temples of Babylonia. The popular factor is the belief
in the influence exerted by the movements of the heavenly
bodies on occurrences on earth a belief naturally suggested
by the dependence of life, vegetation and guidance upon the two
great luminaries. Starting with this belief the priests built up
the theory of the close correspondence between occurrences on
earth and phenomena in the heavens. The heavens presenting
a constant change even to the superficial observer, the conclusion
was drawn of a connexion between the changes and the ever-
changing movement in the fate of individuals and of nature
as well as in the appearance of nature.
To read the signs of the heavens was therefore to understand
the meaning of occurrences on earth, and with this accomplished
it was also possible to foretell what events were portended by
the position and relationship to one another of sun, moon, planets
and certain stars. Myths that symbolized changes in season
or occurrences in nature were projected on the heavens, which
were mapped out to correspond to the divisions of the earth.
All the gods, great and small, had their places assigned to them
in the heavens, and facts, including such as fell within the domain
of political history, were interpreted in terms of astral theology.
So completely did this system in the course of time sway men's
minds that the cult, from being an expression of. animistic beliefs,
took on the colour derived from the "astral" interpretation of
occurrences and doctrines. It left its trace in incantations,
omens and hymns, and it gave birth to astronomy, which was
assiduously cultivated because a knowledge of the heavens
was the very foundation of the system of belief unfolded by
the priests of Babylonia and Assyria. " Chaldaean wisdom "
became in the classical world the synonym of this science, which
in its character was so essentially religious. The persistent
prominence which astrology (?..) continued to enjoy down to
the border-line of the scientific movement of our own days,
and which is directly traceable to the divination methods per-
fected in the Euphrates valley, is a tribute to the scope and
influence attained by the astral theology of the Babylonian and
Assyrian priests.
As an illustration of the manner in which the doctrines of the
religion were made to conform to the all-pervading astral theory,
it will be sufficient to refer to the modification undergone in this
process of the view developed in a very early period which appor-
tioned the control of the universe among the three gods Ami,
Bel and Ea. Disassociating these gods from all local connexions,
Anu became the power presiding over the heavens, to Bel was
assigned the earth and the atmosphere immediately above it,
while Ea ruled over the deep. With the transfer of all the gods
to the heavens, and under the influence of the doctrine of the
correspondence between the heavens and the earth, Anu, Bel
and Ea became the three " ways " (as they are called) on the
heavens. The " ways " appear in this instance to have been
the designation of the ecliptic circle, which was divided into three
sections or zones a northern, a middle and a southern zone,
Anu being assigned to the first, Bel to the second, and Ea to the
third zone. The astral theology of the Babylonian-Assyrian
religion, while thus bearing the ear-marks of a system devised
by the priests, succeeded in assimilating the beliefs which repre-
sented the earlier attempts to systematize the more popular
aspects of the religion, and in this way a unification of diverse
elements was secured that led to interpreting the contents and
the form of the religion in terms of the astral-theological system.
The most noteworthy outcome of this system in the realm of
religious practice was, as already intimated, the growth of an
elaborate and complicated method of divining the future by the
observation of the phenomena in the heavens. It is significant
that in the royal collection of cuneiform literature made by
King Assur-bani-pal of Assyria (668-626 B.C.) and deposited
in his palace at Nineveh, the omen collections connected with
the astral theology of Babylonia and Assyria form the largest
class. There are also indications that the extensive texts dealing
with divination through the liver of sacrificial animals, which
represents a more popular origin than divination through the
observations of the heavens, based as it is on the primitive view
which regarded the liver as the seat of life and of the soul, were
brought into connexion with astral divination. Less influenced
by the astral-theological system are the old incantation texts
which were gathered together into series. In these series we
can trace the attempt to gather the incantation formulae and
prayers produced in different centres, and to make them con-
form to the tendency to centralize the cult in the worship of
Marduk and his consort in the south, and of Assur and Ishtar
in the north. Incantations originally addressed to Ea of Eridu,
as the god of the watery element, and to Nusku, as the god of
fire, were transferred to Marduk. This was done by making
Ea confer on Marduk as his son the powers of the father, and
by making Nusku a messenger between Ea and Marduk. At
the same time, since the invoking of the divine powers was the
essential element in the incantations, in order to make the magic
formulae as effective as possible, a large number of the old local
deities are introduced to add their power to the chief ones; and
it is here that the astral system comes into play through the
introduction of names of stars, as well as through assigning attri-
butes to the gods which clearly reflect the conception that they
have their seats in the heavens. The incantations pass over
naturally into hymns and prayers. The connexion between the
two is illustrated by the application of the term shiplu, " in-
cantation," to the direct appeals to the gods, as well as by the
introduction, on the one hand, of genuine prayers into the
incantations and by the addition, on the other hand, of incanta-
tions to prayers and hymns, pure and simple. In another division
of the religious literature of Babylonia which is largely represented
in Assur-bani-pal's collection the myths and legends tales
which originally symbolized the change of seasons, or in which
historical occurrences are overcast with more or less copious
BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY BABYLONIAN LAW
admixture of legend and myth, were transferred to the heavens
and so it happens that creation myths, and the accounts ol
wanderings and adventures of heroes of the past, are referred
to movements among the planets and stars as well as to occur-
rences or supposed occurrences on earth.
The ritual alone which accompanied divination practices and
incantation formulae and was a chief factor in the celebration
of festival days and of days set aside for one reason or the other
to the worship of some god or goddess or group of deities, is
free from traces of the astral theology. The more or less elaborate
ceremonies prescribed for the occasions when the gods were
approached are directly connected with the popular elements
of the religion. Animal sacrifice, libations, ritualistic purifica-
tion, sprinkling of water, and symbolical rites of all kinds
accompanied by short prayers, represent a religious practice
which in the Baby Ionian -Assyrian religion, as in all religions,
is older than any theology and survives the changes which the
theoretical substratum of the religion undergoes.
On the ethical side, the religion of Babylonia more particularly,
and to a less extent that of Assyria, advances to noticeable con-
ceptions of the qualities associated with the gods and goddesses
and of the duties imposed on man. Shamash the sun-god was
invested with justice as his chief trait, Marduk is portrayed as
full of mercy and kindness, Ea is the protector of mankind who
is grieved when, through a deception practised upon Adapa,
humanity is deprived of immortality. The gods, to be sure,
are easily aroused to anger, and in some of them the dire aspects
predominated, but the view becomes more and more pronounced
that there is some cause always for the divine wrath. Though,
in accounting for the anger of the gods, no sharp distinction is
made between moral offences and a ritualistic oversight or
neglect, yet the stress laid in the hymns and prayers, as well as in
the elaborate atonement ritual prescribed in order to appease
the anger of the gods, on the need of being clean and pure in the
sight of the higher powers, the inculcation of a proper aspect
of humility, and above all the need of confessing one's guilt
and sins without any reserve all this bears testimony to the
strength which the ethical factor acquired in the domain of the
religion.
This factor appears to less advantage in the unfolding of the
views concerning life after death. Throughout all periods of
Babylonian-Assyrian history, the conception prevailed of a
large dark cavern below the earth, not far from the Apsu the
ocean encircling and flowing underneath the earth in which
all the dead were gathered and where they led a miserable exist-
ence of inactivity amid gloom and dust. Occasionally a
favoured individual was permitted to escape from this general
fate and placed in a pleasant island. It would appear also that
the rulers were always singled out for divine grace, and in the
earlier periods of the history, owing to the prevailing view that
the rulers stood nearer to the gods than other mortals, the kings
were deified after death, and in some instances divine honours
were paid to them even during their lifetime.
The influence exerted by the Babylonian-Assyrian religion was
particularly profound on the Semites, while the astral theology
affected the ancient world in general, including the Greeks and
Romans. The impetus to the purification of the old Semite
religion to which the Hebrews for a long time clung in common
with their fellows the various branches of nomadic Arabs was
largely furnished by the remarkable civilization unfolded in the
Euphrates valley and in many of the traditions, myths and
legends embodied in the Old Testament; traces of direct borrow-
ing from Babylonia may be discerned, while the indirect influences
in the domain of the prophetical books, as also in the Psalms and
in the so-called " Wisdom Literature," are even more note-
worthy. Even when we reach the New Testament period, we
have not passed entirely beyond the sphere of Babylonian-
Assyrian influences. In such a movement as early Christian
gnosticism, Babylonian elements modified, to be sure, and
transformed are largely present, while the growth of an
apocalyptic literature is ascribed with apparent justice by many
scholars to the recrudescence of views the ultimate source of
which is to be found in the astral-theology of the Babylonian and
Assyrian priests.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Morris Jastrow, jun., Religion Babyloniens und
Assyriens (Giessen, 1304), enlarged and re-written form of the
author's smaller Religion of Babylonia and Assyria (Boston, 1898);
A. H. Sayce, The Religion of the Ancient Babylonians (Hibbcrt
Lectures, London, 1887), now superseded by the same author's
Religions of Ancient Egypt and Babylonia (Gifford Lectures. Edin-
burgh, 1902); Friedrich Jeremias, Die Babylonier und Assyrer, in de
. . . _ - , Assyria
(London, 1906). Of special texts and monographs bearing on the
religion may be mentioned various volumes in the new series of
cuneiform texts from Babylonian tablets, &c., in the British Museum
(London, 1901- ), especially parts v., xii., xv., xvii., xviii., xx. and
xxi. and vol. iv. of the earlier series of Selections from the Miscellane-
ous Inscriptions of Western Asia, ed. by H. C. Rawlinson (and ed.,
London, 1891); H. Zimmern, Beitrdge sur Kenntniss der babylon-
ischen Religion (Leipzig, 1901); J. A. Craig, Assyrian and Baby-
lonian Religious Texts (Leipzig, 1895-1897); L. W. King, The Seven
Tablets of Creation (London, 1902); R. C. Thompson, The Reports
of the Magicians and Astrologers of Nineveh and Babylon (London,
1900) ; A. Boissier, Documents assyriens relatifs aux presages (Paris,
1894-1897); and his Choix de textes relatifs a la divination assyro-
babylonienne (Geneva, 1905-1906); Ch. Fossey, La Magie assyrienne
(Paris, 1902) ; G. A. Reisner, Sumerisch-babylonische Hymnen
(Berlin, 1896) ; L. W. King, Babylonian Magic and Sorcery (London,
1896); R. C. Thompson, Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia
(London, 1903-1904) ; K. L. Tallqvist, Die assyrische Beschworungs-
serie Maqlu (Leipzig, 1895); J. A. Knudtzon, Assyrische Gebete an
den Sonnengott (Leipzig, 1893); Virolleaud, L'Astrologie chaldeenne
(Paris, 19067 ); Craig, Astrological-Astronomical Texts (Leipzig,
1892); Martin, Textes religieux assyriens el babyloniens (Paris, 1900
Epen," in Schrader s KeilinschrifUifhe Bibliothek, vol. vi. part I
(Berlin, 1900) ; also his Das Nationalepos der Babylonier, Sfc.
(Strassburg, 1906) ; H. Zimmern in vol. ii. of 3rd ed. of Schrader's
KeUinschnften und das Alte Testament (Berlin, 1903); Alfred
Jeremias, Die babylonisch-assyrischen Vorstellungen von Leben nach
dem Tode (Leipzig, 1887); and his Das Alte Testament im Lichte
des Alien Orients (2nd ed., Leipzig, 1906-1907); and Babylonisches
im Neuen Testament (Leipzig, 1905). On the religious litera-
ture of Babylonia and Assyria, see also chapters xv. to xxiv. in
Jastrow's work (German and English edition), Carl Bezold's
Ninive and Babylon (Bielefeld, 1905), chapters vi. to xii., and the
same author's monumental catalogue of the cuneiform tablets
in the Kuyunjik collection of the British Museum (5 vols., London,
1889-1899). (M. JA.)
BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY, the name generally given to the
deportation of the Jews to Babylon by Nebuchadrezzar. Three
separate occasions are mentioned (Jer. lii. 28-30). The first was
in the time of Jehoiachin in 597 B.C. , when the temple of Jerusalem
was partially despoiled and a number of the leading citizens
removed. After eleven years (in the reign of Zedekiah) a fresh
rising of the Judaeans occurred; the city was razed to the
ground, and a further deportation ensued. Finally, five years
later, Jeremiah (loc. cit.) records a third captivity. After the
overthrow of Babylonia by the Persians, Cyrus gave the Jews
permission to return to their native land (537 B.C.), and more
then forty thousand are said to have availed themselves of the
privilege. (See JEHOIAKIM; JEHOIACHIN; ZEDEKIAH; EZRA-
NEHEMIAH and JEWS: History.)
BABYLONIAN LAW. The material for the study of Baby-
lonian law is singularly extensive without being exhaustive.
The so-called " contracts," including a great variety of deeds,
conveyances, bonds, receipts, accounts and, most important of
all, the actual legal decisions given by the judges in the law
courts, exist in thousands. Historical inscriptions, royal charters
and rescripts, despatches, private letters and the general literature
afford welcome supplementary information. Even grammatical
and lexicographical works, intended solely to facilitate the study
of ancient literature, contain many extracts or short sentences
rearing on law and custom. The so-called " Sumerian Family
L,aws " are thus preserved. The discovery of the now celebrated
Code of Khammurabi (Hammurabi) 1 (hereinafter simply termed
1 For the transliteration of Babylonian and Assyrian names
R-enerally, see BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, section ix.. Proper
Vames.
n6
BABYLONIAN LAW
" the Code ") has, however, made a more systematic study
possible than could have resulted from the classification and
interpretation of the other material. Some fragments of a later
code exist and have been published; but there still remain many
points upon which we have no evidence.
This material dates from the earliest times down to the
commencement of our era. The evidence upon a particular
point may be very full at one period and almost entirely lacking
at another. The Code forms the backbone of the skeleton sketch
which is here reconstructed. The fragments of it which have
been recovered from Assur-bani-paFs library at Nineveh and later
Babylonian copies show that it was studied, divided into chapters
entitled Ninu tiu firum from its opening words, and recopied for
fifteen hundred years or more. The greater part of it remained
in force, even through the Persian, Greek and Parthian conquests,
which affected private life in Babylonia very little, and it survived
to influence Syro-Roman and later Mahommedan law in Meso-
potamia. The law and custom which preceded the Code we shall
call " early," that of the New Babylonian empire (as well as the
Persian, Greek, &c.) " late. " The law in Assyria was derived
from Babylonia but conserved early features long after they had
disappeared elsewhere.
When the Semitic tribes settled in the cities of Babylonia,
their tribal custom passed over into city law. The early history
of the country is the story of a struggle for supremacy between
the cities. A metropolis demanded tribute and military support
from its subject cities but left their local cults and customs
unaffected. The city rights and usages were respected by kings
and conquerors alike.
As late as the accession of Assur-bani-pal and Samas-sum-yukin
we find the Babylonians appealing to their city laws that groups
of aliens to the number of twenty at a time were free to enter the
city, that foreign women once married to Babylonian husbands
could not be enslaved and that not even a dog that entered the
city could be put to death untried.
The population of Babylonia was of many races from early
times and intercommunication between the cities was incessant.
Every city had a large number of resident aliens. This freedom
of intercourse must have tended to assimilate custom. It was,
however, reserved for the genius of Khammurabi to make
Babylon his metropolis and weld together his vast empire by a
uniform system of law.
Almost all trace of tribal custom has already disappeared
from the law of the Code. It is state-law ; alike self-help,
blood-feud, marriage by capture, are absent ; though
Code of family solidarity, district responsibility, ordeal, the lex
murabi. talionis, are primitive features that remain. The king
is a benevolent autocrat, easily accessible to all his
subjects, both able and willing to protect the weak against the
highest-placed oppressor. The royal power, however, can only
pardon when private resentment is appeased. The judges are
strictly supervised and appeal is allowed. The whole land is
covered with feudal holdings, masters of the levy, police, &c.
There is a regular postal system. The pax Babylonica is so
assured that private individuals do not hesitate to ride in their
carriage from Babylon to the coast of the Mediterranean. The
position of women is free and dignified.
The Code did not merely embody contemporary custom or
conserve ancient law. It is true that centuries of law-abiding
and litigious habitude had accumulated in the temple archives of
each city vast stores of precedent in ancient deeds and the records
of judicial decisions, and that intercourse had assimilated city
custom. The universal habit of writing and perpetual recourse
to written contract even more modified primitive custom and
ancient precedent. Provided the parties could agree, the Code
left them free to contract as a rule. Their deed of agreement was
drawn up in the temple by a notary public, and confirmed by an
oath " by god and the king." It was publicly sealed and
witnessed by professional witnesses, as well as by collaterally
interested parties. The manner in which it was thus executed
may have been sufficient security that its stipulations were not
impious or illegal. Custom or public opinion doubtless secured
that the parties would not agree to wrong. In case of dispute
the judges dealt first with the contract. They might not sustain
it, but if the parties did not dispute it, they were free to observe
it. The judges' decision might, however, be appealed against.
Many contracts contain the proviso that in case of future dispute
the parties would abide by " the decision of the king." The
Code made known, in a vast number of cases, what that decision
would be, and many cases of appeal to the king were sent back
to the judges with orders to decide in accordance with it. The
Code itself was carefully and logically arranged and the order of
its sections was conditioned by their subject-matter. Neverthe-
less the order is not that of modern scientific treatises, and a
somewhat different order from both is most convenient for our
purpose.
The Code contemplates the whole population as falling into
three classes, the amelu, the muskinu and the ardu. The amelu
was a patrician, the man of family, whose birth, marriage and
death were registered, of ancestral estates and full civil rights.
He had aristocratic privileges and responsibilities, the right to
exact retaliation for corporal injuries, and liability to heavier
punishment for crimes and misdemeanours, higher fees and
fines to pay. To this class belonged the king and court, the
higher officials, the professions and craftsmen. The term became
in time a mere courtesy title but originally carried with it stand-
ing. Already in the Code, when status is not concerned, it is
used to denote " any one." There was no property qualification
nor does the term appear to be racial. It is most difficult to
characterize the muskinu exactly. The term came in time to
mean " a beggar " and with that meaning has passed through
Aramaic and Hebrew into many modern languages ; but though
the Code does not regard him as necessarily poor, he may have
been landless. He was free, but had to accept monetary com-
pensation for corporal injuries, paid smaller fees and fines, even
paid less offerings to the gods. He inhabited a separate quarter
of the city. There is no reason to regard him as specially con-
nected with the court, as a royal pensioner, nor as forming the
bulk of the population. The rarity of any reference to him in
pontemporary documents makes further specification conjectural.
^The ardu was a slave, his master's chattel, and formed a very
numerous class. He could acquire property and even hold other
slaves. His master clothed and fed him, paid his doctor's fees,
but took all compensation paid for injury done to him. His
master usually found him a slave-girl as wife (the children were
then born slaves), often set him up in a house (with farm or
business) and simply took an annual rent of him. Otherwise he
might marry a freewoman (the children were then free), who
might bring him a dower which his master could not touch, and
at his death one-half of his property passed to his master as
his heir. He could acquire his freedom by purchase from his
master, or might be freed and dedicated to a temple, or even
adopted, when he became an amelu and not a muskinu. Slaves
were recruited by purchase abroad, from captives taken in war
and by freemen degraded for debt or crime. A slave often ran
away ; if caught, the captor was bound to restore him to his
master, and the Code fixes a reward of two shekels which the
owner must pay the captor. It was about one-tenth of the
average value. To detain, harbour, &c., a slave was punished
by death. So was an attempt to get him to leave the city. A
slave bore an identification mark, which could only be removed
by a surgical operation and which later consisted of his owner's
name tattoed or branded on the arm. On the great estates in
Assyria and its subject provinces were many serfs, mostly
of subject race, settled captives, cr quondam slaves, tied to
the soil they cultivated and sold with the estate but capable
of possessing land and property of their own. There is little
trace of serfs in Babylonia, unless the muskinu be really
a serf.
The god of a city was originally owner of its land, which
encircled it with an inner ring of irrigable arable land and an
outer fringe of pasture, and the citizens were his tenants. The
god and his viceregent, the king, had long ceased to disturb
tenancy, and were content with fixed dues in naturalia, stock,
BABYLONIAN LAW
117.
money or service. One of the earliest monuments records
the purchase by a king of a large estate for his son, paying a
fair market price and adding a handsome honorarium to the
many owners in costly garments, plate, and precious articles of
furniture. The Code recognizes complete private ownership in
land, but apparently extends the right to hold land to votaries,
merchants (and resident aliens?). But all land was sold subject
to its fixed charges. The king, however, could free land from
these charges by charter, which was a frequent way of rewarding
those who deserved well of the state. It is from these charters
that we learn nearly all we know of the obligations that lay
upon land. The state demanded men for the army and the
corvee as well as dues in kind. A definite area was bound to
find a bowman together with his linked pikeman (who bore the
shield for both) and to furnish them with supplies for the cam-
paign. This area was termed " a bow " as early as the 8th
century B.C., but the usage was much earlier. Later, a horseman
was due from certain areas. A man was only bound to serve
so many (six ?) times, but the land had to find a man annually.
The service was usually discharged by slaves and serfs, but the
amelu (and perhaps the muskinu) went to war. The " bows "
were grouped in tens and hundreds. The corvee was less regular.
The letters of Khammurabi often deal with claims to exemption.
Religious officials and shepherds in charge of flocks were exempt.
Special liabilities lay upon riparian owners to repair canals,
bridges, quays, &c. The state claimed certain proportions of
all crops, stock, &c. The king's messengers could commandeer
any subject's property, giving a receipt. Further, every city
had its own octroi duties, customs, ferry dues, highway and
water rates. The king had long ceased to be, if he ever was,
owner of the land. He had his own royal estates, his private
property and dues from all his subjects. The higher officials
had endowments and official residences. The Code regulates
the feudal position of certain classes. They held an estate from
the king consisting of house, garden, field, stock and a salary,
on condition of personal service on the king's errand. They
could not delegate the service on pain of death. When ordered
abroad they could nominate a son, if capable, to hold the benefice
and carry on the duty. If there was no son capable, the state
put in a locum tenens, but granted one-third to the wife to main-
tain herself and children. The benefice was inalienable, could
not be sold, pledged, exchanged, sublet, devised or diminished.
Other land was held of the state for rent. Ancestral estate was
strictly tied to the family. If a holder would sell, the family
had the right of redemption and there seems to have been no
time-limit to its exercise.
The temple occupied a most important position. It received
from its estates, from tithes and other fixed dues, as well as from
the sacrifices (a customary share) and other offerings of the
faithful, vast amounts of all sorts of naturalia; besides money
and permanent gifts. The larger temples had many officials
and servants. Originally, perhaps, each town clustered round
one temple, and each head of a family had a right to minister
there and share its receipts. As the city grew, the right to so
many days a year at one or other shrine (or its " gate ") descended
in certain families and became a species of property which could
be pledged, rented or shared within the family, but not alienated.
In spite of all these demands, however, the temples became great
granaries and store-houses; as they also were the city archives.
The temple had its responsibilities. If a citizen was captured by
the enemy and could not ransom himself the temple of his city
must do so. To the temple came the poor farmer to borrow
seed corn or supplies for harvesters, &c. advances which he
repaid without interest. The king's power over the temple was
not proprietary but administrative. He might borrow from it
but repaid like other borrowers. The tithe seems to have been
the composition for the rent due to the god for his land. It is
not clear that all lands paid tithe, perhaps only such as once
had a special connexion with the temple.
The Code deals with a class of persons devoted to the service
of a god, as vestals or hierodules. The vestals were vowed to
chastity, lived together in a great nunnery, were forbidden to
open or enter a tavern, and together with other votaries had
many privileges.
The Code recognizes many ways of disposing of property sale,
lease, barter, gift, dedication, deposit, loan, pledge, all of which
were matters of contract. Sale was the delivery of the purchase
(in the case of real estate symbolized by a staff, a key, or deed
of conveyance) in return for the purchase money, receipts being
given for both. Credit, if given, was treated as a debt, and
secured as a loan by the seller to_be repaid by the buyer, for which
he gave a bond. The Code admits no claim unsubstantiated
by documents or the oath of witnesses. A buyer had to convince
himself of the seller's title. If he bought (or received on deposit)
from a minor or a slave without power of attorney, he would be
executed as a thief. If the goods were stolen and the rightful
owner reclaimed them, he had to prove his purchase by producing
the seller and the deed of sale or witnesses to it. Otherwise he
would be adjudged a thief and die. If he proved his purchase,
he had to give up the property but had his remedy against the
seller or, if he had died, could reclaim five-fold from his estate.
A man who bought a slave abroad, might find that he had been
stolen or captured from Babylonia, and he had to restore him
to his former owner without profit. If he bought property
belonging to a feudal holding, or to a ward in chancery, he had
to return it and forfeit what he gave for it as well. He could
repudiate the purchase of a slave attacked by the bennu sickness
within the month (later, a hundred days) , and had a female slave
three days on approval. A defect of title or undisclosed liability
would invalidate the sale at any time.
Landowners frequently cultivated their land themselves but
might employ a husbandman or let it. The husbandman was
bound to carry out the proper cultivation, raise an average
crop and leave the field in good tilth. In case the crop failed
the Code fixed a statutory return. Land might be let at a fixed
rent when the Code enacted that accidental loss fell on the tenant.
If let on share-profit, the landlord and tenant shared the Joss
proportionately to their stipulated share of profit. If the tenant
paid his rent and left the land in good tilth, the landlord could not
interfere nor forbid subletting. Waste land was let to reclaim,
the tenant being rent-free for three years and paying a stipulated
rent in the fourth year. If the tenant neglected to reclaim the
land the Code enacted that he must hand it over in good tilth
and fixed a statutory rent. Gardens or plantations were let in
the same ways and under the same conditions; but for date-
groves four years' free tenure was allowed. The metayer system
was in vogue, especially on temple lands. The landlord found
land, labour, oxen for ploughing and working the watering-
machines, carting, threshing or other implements, seed corn,
rations for the workmen and fodder for the cattle. The tenant,
or steward, usually had other land of his own. If he stole the
seed, rations or fodder, the Code enacted that his fingers should
be cut off. If he appropriated or sold the implements, im-
poverished or sublet the cattle, he was heavily fined and in
default of payment might be condemned to be torn to pieces
by the cattle on the field. Rent was as contracted.
Irrigation was indispensable. If the irrigator neglected to
repair his dyke, or left his runnel open and caused a flood, he
had to make good the damage done to his neighbours' crops, or
be sold with his family to pay the cost. The theft of a watering-
machine, water-bucket or other agricultural implement was
heavily fined.
Houses were let usually for the year, but also for longer terms,
rent being paid in advance, half-yearly. The contract generally
specified that the house was in good repair, and the tenant was
bound to keep it so. The woodwork, including doors and door
frames, was removable, and the tenant might bring and take away
his own. The Code enacted that if the landlord would re-enter
before the term was up, he must remit a fair proportion of the rent.
Land was leased for nouses or other buildings to be built upon it,
the tenant being rent-free for eight or ten years; after which the
building came into the landlord's possession.
Despite the multitude of slaves, hired labour was often needed,
especially at harvest. This was matter of contract, and the hirer,
n8
BABYLONIAN LAW
who usually paid in advance, might demand a guarantee to fulfil
the engagement. Cattle were hired for ploughing, working the
watering-machines, carting, threshing, etc. The Code fixed a
statutory wage for sowers, ox-drivers, field-labourers, and hire for
oxen, asses, &c.
There were many herds and flocks. The flocks were com-
mitted to a shepherd who gave receipt for them and took them
out to pasture. The Code fixed him a wage. He was responsible
for all care, must restore ox for ox, sheep for sheep, must breed
hem satisfactorily. Any dishonest use of the flock had to be re-
paid ten-fold, but loss by disease or wild beasts fell on the owner.
Fhe shepherd made good all loss due to his neglect. If he let the
flock feed on a field of corn he had to pay damages four-fold ; if
he turned them into standing corn when they ought to have been
folded he paid twelve-fold.
In commercial matters, payment in kind was still common,
though the contracts usually stipulate for cash, naming the
standard expected, that of Babylon, Larsa, Assyria, Carchemish,
&c. The Code enacted, however, that a debtor must be allowed
to pay in produce according to statutory scale. If a debtor had
neither money nor crop, the creditor, must not refuse goods.
Debt was secured on the person of the debtor. Distraint on a
debtor's corn was forbidden by the Code; not only must the
creditor give it back, but his illegal action forfeited his claim
altogether. An unwarranted seizure for debt was fined, as was
the distraint of a working ox. The debtor being seized for debt
could nominate as mancipium or hostage to work off the debt,
his wife, a child, or slave. The creditor could only hold a wife
or child three years as mancipium. If the mancipium died a
natural death while in the creditor's possession no claim could
lie against the latter; but if he was the cause of death by
cruelty, he had to give son for son, or pay for a slave. He
could sell a slave-hostage, unless she were a slave-girl who
had borne her master children. She had to be redeemed by
her owner.
The debtor could also pledge his property, and in contracts
often pledged a field, house or crop. The Code enacted, however,
that the debtor should always take the crop himself and pay the
creditor from it. If the crop failed, payment was deferred and
no interest could be charged for that year. If the debtor did not
cultivate the field himself he had to pay for the cultivation, but
if the cultivation was already finished he must harvest it himself
and pay his debt from the crop. If the cultivator did not get a
crop this would not cancel his con tract. Pledges were often made
where the intrinsic value of the article was equivalent to the
amount of the debt; but antichretic pledge was more common,
where the profit of the pledge was a set-off against the interest of
the debt. \ The whole property of the debtor might be pledged as
security for the payment of the debt, without any of it coming
into the enjoyment of the creditor. Personal guarantees were
often given that the debtor would repay or the guarantor become
liable himself.
Trade was very extensive. A common way of doing business
was for a merchant to entrust goods or money to a travelling
agent, who sought a market for his goods. The caravans
travelled far beyond the limits of the empire. The Code insisted
that the agent should inventory and give a receipt for all that he
received. No claim could be made for anything not so entered.
Even if the agent made no profit he was bound to return double
what he had received, if he made poor profit he had to make up
the deficiency; but he was not responsible for loss by robbery or
extortion on his travels. On his return, the principal must give
a receipt for what was handed over to him. Any false entry
or claim on the agent's part was penalised three-fold, on the
principal's part six-fold. In normal cases profits were divided
according to contract, usually equally.
A considerable amount of forwarding was done by the .caravans.
The carrier gave a receipt for the consignment, took all responsi-
bility and exacted a receipt on delivery. If he defaulted he paid
five-fold. He was usually paid in advance. Deposit, especially
warehousing of grain, was charged for at one-sixtieth. The
warehouseman took all risks, paid double for all shortage, but no
claim could be made unless he had given a properly witnessed
receipt. Water traffic on the Euphrates and canals was early
very considerable. Ships, whose tonnage was estimated at the
amount of grain they could carry, were continually hired for the
transport of all kinds of goods. The Code fixes the price for
building and insists on the builder's giving a year's guarantee of
seaworthiness. It fixes the hire of ship and of crew. The captain
was responsible for the freight and the ship; he had to replace
all loss. Even if he refloated the ship he had to pay a fine of half
its value for sinking it. In the case of collision the boat under
way was responsible for damages to the boat at anchor. The
Code also regulated the liquor traffic, fixing a fair price for beer
and forbidding the connivance of the tavern-keeper (a female!)
at disorderly conduct or treasonable assembly, under pain of
death. She was to hale the offenders to the palace, which implied
an efficient and accessible police system.
Payment through a banker or by written draft against deposit
was frequent. Bonds to pay were treated as negotiable. Interest
was rarely charged on advances by the temple or wealthy land-
owners for pressing needs, but this may have been part of the
metayer system. The borrowers may have been tenants.
Interest was charged at very high rates for overdue loans of this
kind. Merchants (and even temples in some cases) made ordinary
business loans, charging from 20 to 30 %.
Marriage retained the form of purchase, but was essentially
a contract to be man and wife together. The marriage of young
people was usually arranged between the relatives, the bride-
groom's father providing the bride-price, which with other
presents the suitor ceremonially presented to the bride's father.
This bride-price was usually handed over by her father to the
bride on her marriage, and so came back into the bridegroom's
possession, along with her dowry, which was her portion as a
daughter. The bride-price varied much, according to the position
of the parties, but was in excess of that paid for a slave. The
Code enacted that if the father does not, after accepting a man's
presents, give him his daughter, he must return the presents
doubled. Even if his decision was brought about by libel on the
part of the suitor's friend this was done, and the Code enacted
that the faithless friend should not marry the girl. If a suitor
changed his mind, he forfeited the presents. The dowry might
include real estate, but generally consisted of personal effects
and household furniture. It remained the wife's for life, descend-
ing to her children, if any; otherwise returning to her family,
when the husband could deduct the bride-price if it had not been
given to her, or return it, if it had. The marriage ceremony in-
cluded joining of hands and the utterance of some formula of
acceptance on the part of the bridegroom, as " I am the son of
nobles, silver and gold shall fill thy lap, thou shall be my wife, I
will be thy husband. Like the fruit of a garden I will give thee
offspring." It must be performed by a freeman.
The marriage contract, without which the Code ruled that the
woman was no wife, usually stated the consequences to which
each party was liable for repudiating the other. These by no
means necessarily agree with the Code. Many conditions might
be inserted: as that the wife should act as maidservant to her
mother-in-law, or to a first wife. The married couple formed a
unit as to external responsibility, especially for debt. The man
was responsible for debts contracted by his wife, even before her
marriage, as well as for his own ; but he could use her as a man-
cipium. Hence the Code allowed a proviso to be inserted in the
marriage contract, that the wife should not be seized for her
husband's pre-nuptial debts; but enacted that then he was not
responsible for her pre-nuptial debts, and, in any case, that both
together were responsible for all debts contracted after marriage.
A man might make his wife a settlement by deed of gift, which
gave her a life interest in part of his property, and he might
reserve to her the right to bequeath it to a favourite child, but
she could in no case leave it to her family. Although married
she always remained a member of her father's house she is
rarely named wife of A, usually daughter of B, or mother of C.
Divorce was optional with the man, but he had to restore the
dowry and, if the wife had borne him children, she had the
BABYLONIAN LAW
119
custody of them. He had then to assign her the income of field,
or garden, as well as goods, to maintain herself and children until
they grew up. She then shared equally with them in the allow-
ance (and apparently in his estate at his death) and was free to
marry again. If she had no children, he returned her the dowry
and paid her a sum equivalent to the bride-price, or a mina of
silver, if there had been none. The latter is the forfeit usually
named in the contract for his repudiation of her.
If she had been a bad wife, the Code allowed him to send her
away, while he kept the children and her dowry; or he could
degrade her to the position of a slave in his own house, where
she would have food and clothing. She might bring an action
against him for cruelty and neglect and, if she proved her case,
obtain a judicial separation, taking with her her dowry. No
other punishment fell on the man. If she did not prove her case,
but was proved to be a bad wife, she was drowned. If she
were left without maintenance during her husband's involuntary
absence, she could cohabit with another man, but must return
to her husband if he came back, the children of the second union
remaining with their own father. If she had maintenance, a
breach of the marriage tie was adultery. Wilful desertion by,
or exile of, the husband dissolved the marriage, and if he came
back he had no claim on her property; possibly not on his
own.
As a widow, the wife took her husband's place in the family,
living on in his house and bringing up the children. She could
only remarry with judicial consent, when the judge was bound
to inventory the deceased's estate and hand it over to her and
her new husband in trust for the children. They could not
alienate a single utensil. If she did not remarry, she lived on in
her husband's house and took a child's share on the division of
his estate, when the children had grown up. She still retained
her dowry and any settlement deeded to her by her husband.
This property came to her children. If she had remarried, all
her children shared equally in her dowry, but the first husband's
gift fell to his children or to her selection among them, if so
empowered.
Monogamy was the rule, and a childless wife might give her
husband a maid (who was no wife) to bear him children, who
were reckoned hers. She remained mistress of her maid and
might degrade her to slavery again for insolence, but could not
sell her if she had borne her husband children. If the wife did
this, the Code did not allow the husband to take a concubine.
If she would not, he could do so. The concubine was a wife,
though not of the same rank; the first wife had no power over her.
A concubine was a free woman, was often dowered for marriage
and her children were legitimate. She could only be divorced on
the same conditions as a wife. If a wife became a chronic invalid,
the husband was bound to maintain her in the home they had
made together, unless she preferred to take her dowry and go
back to her father's house; but he was free to remarry. In all
these cases the children were legitimate and legal heirs.
There was, of course, no hindrance to a man having children by
a slave girl. These children were free, in any case, and their
mother could not be sold, though she might be pledged, and she
was free on her master's death. These children could be legiti-
mized by their father's acknowledgment before witnesses, and
were often adopted. They then ranked equally in sharing their
father's estate, but if not adopted, the wife's children divided
and took first choice.
Vestal virgins were not supposed to have children, yet they
could and often did marry. The Code contemplated that such a
wife would give a husband a maid as above. Free women might
marry slaves and be dowered for the marriage. The children
were free, and at the slave's death the wife took her dowry and
half what she and her husband had acquired in wedlock for self
and children ; the master taking the other half as his slave's heir.
A father had control over his children till their marrjage. He
had a right to their labour in return for their keep. He might
hire them out and receive their wages, pledge them for debt, even
sell them outright. Mothers had the same rights in the absence
of the father; even elder brothers when both parents were dead.
A father had no claim on his married children for support, but
they retained a right to inherit on his death.
The daughter was not only in her father's power to be given in
marriage, but he might dedicate her to the service of some god as
a vestal or a hierodule; or give her as a concubine. She had no
choice in these matters, which were often decided in her childhood.
A grown-up daughter might wish to become a votary, perhaps in
preference to an uncongenial marriage, and it seems that her
father could not refuse her wish. In all these cases the father
might dower her. If he did not, on his death the brothers were
bound to do so, giving her a full child's share if a wife, a con-
cubine or a vestal, but one-third of a child's share if she were a
hierodule or a Marduk priestess. The latter had the privilege of
exemption from state dues and absolute disposal of her property.
All other daughters had only a life interest in their dowry, which
reverted to their family, if childless, or went to their children if
they had any. A father might, however, execute a deed granting
a daughter power to leave her property to a favourite brother or
sister. A daughter's estate was usually managed for her by her
brothers, but if they did not satisfy her, she could appoint a
steward. If she married, her husband managed it.
The son also appears to have received his share on marriage,
but did not always then leave his father's house; he might bring
his wife there. This was usual in child marriages.
Adoption was very common, especially where the father (or
mother) was childless or had seen all his children grow up and
marry away. The child was then adopted to care for the parents'
old age. This was done by contract, which usually specified
what the parent had to leave and what maintenance was expected.
The real children, if any, were usually consenting parties to an
arrangement which cut off their expectations. They even, in
some cases, found the estate for the adopted child who was to
relieve them of a care. If the adopted child failed to carry out
the filial duty the contract was annulled in the law courts.
Slaves were often adopted and if they proved unfilial were
reduced to slavery again.
A craftsman often adopted a son to learn the craft. He
profited by the son's labour. If he failed to teach his son the
craft, that son could prosecute him and get the contract annulled.
This was a form of apprenticeship, and it is not clear that the
apprentice had any filial relation.
A man who adopted a son, and afterwards married and had a
family of his own, could dissolve the contract but must give the
adopted child one-third of a child's share in goods, but no real
estate. That could only descend in the family to which he had
ceased to belong. Vestals frequently adopted daughters, usually
other vestals, to care for their old age.
Adoption had to be with consent of the real parents, who
usually executed a deed making over the child, who thus ceased to
have any claim upon them. But vestals, hierodules, certain palace
officials and slaves had no rights over their children and could raise
no obstacle. Foundlings and illegitimate children had no parents
to object. If the adopted child discovered his true parents and
wanted to return to them, his eye or tongue was torn out. An
adopted child was a full heir, the contract might even assign him
the position of eldest son. Usually he was residuary legatee.
All legitimate children shared equally in the father's estate at
his death, reservation being made of a bride-price for an un-
married son, dower for a daughter or property deeded to favourite
children by the father. There was no birthright attaching to the
position of eldest son, but he usually acted as executor and after
considering what each had already received equalized the shares.
He even made grants in excess to the others from his own share.
When there were two mothers, the two families shared equally in
the father's estate until later times when the first family took two-
thirds. Daughters, in the absence of sons, had sons' rights.
Children also shared their own mother's property, but had no
share in that of a stepmother.
A father could disinherit a son in early times without restric-
tion, but the Code insisted upon judicial consent and that only for
repeated unfilial conduct. In early times the son who denied his
father had his front hair shorn, a slave-mark put on him, and
I2O
BABYLONIAN LAW
could be sold as a slave; while if he denied his mother he had his
front hair shorn, was driven round the city as an example and
expelled his home, but not degraded to slavery.
Adultery was punished with the death of both parties by
drowning, but if the husband was willing to pardon his wife,
the king might intervene to pardon the paramour. For incest
with his own mother, both were burned to death; with a
stepmother, the man was disinherited; with a daughter, the
man was exiled; with a daughter-in-law, he was drowned; with
a son's betrothed, he was fined. A wife who for her lover's
sake procured her husband's death was gibbeted. A betrothed
girl, seduced by her prospective father-in-law, took her dowry and
returned to her family, and was free to marry as she chose.
In the criminal law the ruling principle was the lex talionis.
Eye for eye, tooth for tooth, limb for limb was the penalty for
assault upon an amelu. A sort of symbolic retaliation was the
punishment of the offending member, seen in the cutting off the
hand that struck a father or stole a trust; in cutting off the
breast of a wet-nurse who substituted a changeling for the child
entrusted to her; in the loss of the tongue that denied father or
mother (in the Elamite contracts the same penalty was inflicted
for perjury) ; in the loss of the eye that pried into forbidden secrets.
The loss of the surgeon's hand that caused loss of life or limb; or
the brander's hand that obliterated a slave's identification mark,
are very similar. The slave, who struck a freeman or denied his
master, lost an ear, the organ of hearing and symbol of obedience.
To bring another into danger of death by false accusation was
punished by death. To cause loss of liberty or property by false
witness was punished by the penalty the perjurer sought to bring
upon another.
The death penalty was freely awarded for theft and other
crimes regarded as coming under that head; for theft involving
entrance of palace or temple treasury, for illegal purchase
from minor or slave, for selling stolen goods or receiving the
same, for common theft in the open (in default' of multiple
restoration) or receiving the same, for false claim to goods,
for kidnapping, for assisting or harbouring fugitive slaves,
for detaining or appropriating same, for brigandage, for
fraudulent sale of drink, for disorderly conduct of tavern, for
delegation of personal service, for misappropriating the levy,
for oppression of feudal holders, for causing death of a house-
holder by bad building. The manner of death is not specified in
these cases. This death penalty was also fixed for such conduct
as placed another in danger of death. A specified form of death
penalty occurs in the following cases: gibbeting (on the spot
where crime was committed) for burglary, later also for encroach-
ing on the king's highway, for getting a slave-brand obliterated,
for procuring husband's death; burning for incest with own
mother, for vestal entering or opening tavern, for theft at fire (on
the spot); drowning for adultery, rape of betrothed maiden,
bigamy, bad conduct as wife, seduction of daughter -in-law.
A curious extension of the talio is the death of creditor's son
for his father's having caused the death of debtor's son as
mancipium; of builder's son for his father's causing the death
of house-owner's son by building the house badly; the death of
a man's daughter because her father caused the death of another
man's daughter.
The contracts naturally do not concern such criminal cases as
the above, as a rule, but marriage contracts do specify death by
strangling, drowning, precipitation from a tower or pinnacle of
the temple or by the iron sword for a wife's repudiation of her
husband. We are quite without evidence as to the executive in
all these cases.
Exile was inflicted for incest with a daughters-disinheritance
for incest with a stepmother or for repeated unfilial conduct.
Sixty strokes of an ox-hide scourge were awarded for a brutal
assault on a superior, both being amelu. Branding (perhaps the
equivalent of degradation to slavery) was the penalty for slander
of a married woman or vestal. Deprivation of office in per-
petuity fell upon the corrupt judge. Enslavement befell the
extravagant wife and unfilial children. Imprisonment was
common, but is not recognized by the Code.
The commonest of all penalties was a fine. This is awarded by
the Code for corporal injuries to a muskinu or slave (paid to his
master) ; for damages done to property, for breach of contract.
The restoration of goods appropriated, illegally bought or
damaged by neglect, was usually accompanied by a fine, giving
it the form of multiple restoration. This might be double, treble,
fourfold, fivefold, sixfold, tenfold, twelvefold, even thirtyfold,
according to the enormity of the offence.
The Code recognized the importance of intention. A man
who killed another in a quarrel must swear he did not do so
intentionally, and was then only fined according to the rank
of the deceased. The Code does not say what would be the
penalty of murder, but death is so often awarded where death
is caused that we can hardly doubt that the murderer was put
to death. If the assault only led to injury and was unintentional,
the assailant in a quarrel had to pay the doctor's fees. A
brander, induced to remove a slave's identification mark, could
swear to his ignorance and was free. The owner of an ox which
gored a man on the street was only responsible for damages if
the ox was known by him to be vicious, even if it caused death.
If the mancipium died a natural death under the creditor's
hand, the creditor was scot free. In ordinary cases responsibility
was not demanded for accident or for more than proper care.
Poverty excused bigamy on the part of a deserted wife.
On the other hand carelessness and neglect were severely
punished, as in the case of the unskilful physician, if it led to
loss of life or limb his hands were cut off, a slave had to be re-
placed, the loss of his eye paid for to half his value; a veterinary
surgeon who caused the death of^in ox or ass paid quarter value ;
a builder, whose careless workmanship caused death, lost his life
or paid for it by the death of his child, replaced slave or goods,
and in any case had to rebuild the house or make good any
damages due to defective building and repair the defect as well.
The boat-builder had to' make good any defect of construction
or damage due to it for a year's warranty.
Throughout the Code respect is paid to status.
Suspicion was not enough. The criminal must be taken in
the act, e.g. the adulterer, ravisher, &c. A man could not be
convicted of theft unless the goods were found in his possession.
In the case of a lawsuit the plaintiff preferred his own plea.
There is no trace of professional advocates, but the plea had to
be in writing and the notary doubtless assisted in the drafting
of it. The judge saw the plea, called the other parties before
him and sent for the witnesses. If these were not at hand he
might adjourn the case for their production, specifying a time
up to six months. Guarantees might be entered into to produce
the witnesses on a fixed day. The more important cases, es-
pecially those involving life and death, were tried by a bench of
judges. With the judges were associated a body of elders, who
shared in the decision, but whose exact function is not yet clear.
Agreements, declarations and non-contentious cases are usually
witnessed by one judge and twelve elders.
Parties and witnesses were put on oath. The penalty for
false witness was usually that which would have been awarded
the convicted criminal. In matters beyond the knowledge of
men, as the guilt or innocence of an alleged wizard or a suspected
wife, the ordeal by water was used. The accused jumped into
the sacred river, and the innocent swam while the guilty drowned.
The accused could clear himself by oath where his own know-
ledge was alone available. The plaintiff could swear to his loss
by brigands, as to goods claimed, the price paid for a slave
purchased abroad or the sum due to him. But great stress
was laid on the production of written evidence. It was a serious
thing to lose a document. The judges might be satisfied of its
existence and terms by the evidence of the witnesses to it, and
then issue an order that whenever found it should be given up.
Contracts annulled were ordered to be broken. The court might
go a journey to view the property and even take with them the
sacred symbols on which oath was made.
The decision given was embodied in writing, sealed and
witnessed by the judges, the elders, witnesses and a scribe.
Women might act in all these capacities. The parties swore an
BACAU BACCHYLIDES
121
oath, embodied in the document, to observe its stipulations.
Each took a copy and one was held by the scribe to be stored in
the archives.
Appeal to the king was allowed and is well attested. The
judges at Babylon seem to have formed a superior court tp
those of provincial towns, but a defendant might elect to answer
the charge before the local court and refuse to plead at Babylon.
Finally, it may be noted that many immoral acts, such as the
use of false weights, lying, &c., which could not be brought into
court, are severely denounced in the Omen Tablets as likely to
bring the offender into " the hand of God " as opposed to " the
hand of the king."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Contracts in general: Oppert and Menant,
Documents juridiques de I'Assyrie et de la Chaldee (Paris, 1877) ;
J. Kohler and F. E. Peiser, Atts dem babylonischen Rechtsleben
(Leipzig, 1890 ff.) ; F. E. Peiser, Babylonische Vertrdge (Berlin, 1890),
Keiiinschriftliche Actenstiicke (Berlin, 1889); Br. Meissner, Beitrdge
zur altbabylonischen Privatrecht (Leipzig, 1893) ; F. E. Peiser, " Texte
juristischen und geschaftlichen Inhahs," vol. iv. of Schrader's
Keiiinschriftliche Btbliothek (Berlin, 1896) ; C. H. W. Johns, Assyrian
Deeds and Documents relating to the Transfer of Property (3 vols., Cam-
bridge, 1898); H. Radau, Early Babylonian History (New York,
1900); C. H. W. Johns, Babylonian and Assyrian Laws, Contracts
and Letters (Edinburgh, 1904). For editions of texts and the in-
numerable articles in scientific journals see the bibliographies and
references in the above works. " The Code of Hammurabi," Edilio
princeps, by V. Scheil in tome iv. of the Textes Elamites-Semitiques
of the Memoires de la delegation en Perse (Paris, 1902) ; H. Winckler,
" Die Gesetze Hammurabis Konigs von Babylon um 2250 v. Chr."
Der alte Orient, iv. Jahrgang, Heft 4; D. H. Miiller, Die Gesetze
Hammurabis (Vienna, 1903) ;J. Kohler and F. E. Peiser, Hammurabis
Gesetz (Leipzig, 1904); R. F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi, King
of Babylon about 2250 B.C. (Chicago, 1904) ; S. A. Cook, The Laws of
Moses and the Code of Hammurabi (London, 1903). (C. H. W. J.)
BACAU, the capital of the department of Bacau, Rumania;
situated among the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains, and
on the river Bistritza, which enters the river Sereth 5 m. S.
Pop. (1900) 16,187, including 7850 Jews. Although of modern
growth, Bacau is one of the chief commercial centres in Moldavia,
possessing many large timber yards. It is on the main railway
from Czemovitz, in Bukovina, to Galatz; and on two branch
lines, one of which enters Transylvania through the Ghimesh
Pass, while both give access to the salt mines, petroleum wells
and forests of the Carpathians.
BACCARAT, a gambling card-game (origin of name unknown),
supposed to have been introduced into France from Italy during
the reign of Charles VIII. There are two accepted varieties of
the game baccarat chemin de fer (railway) and baccarat
banque (or a deux tableaux). In baccarat chemin de fer six
full packs of cards are used. These are shuffled by a croupier
and then by any of the players who wish to do so. From three
to eleven persons may play. Counters are generally used and
are sold by the banker who afterwards redeems them. The
croupier takes a number of cards from the top of the pack and
passes them .to the player on his right (sometimes left) who
becomes banker, a position which he holds until he loses, when
the deal passes to the player next in order. The other players
are called punters. The banker places before him the sum he
wishes to stake and the punters do likewise, unless a punter
desires to go bank, signifying his intention by saying, Banco!
In this case he plays against the entire stake of the banker.
After the stakes have been made the dealer deals a card to his
right for the punters, then one to himself, then a third to his
left for the punters and, finally, another to himself, all face
downwards. Court cards and tens count nothing; all others
the number of their pips. Each punter looks at his cards, and
any one having 8 or 9 turns his card up and announces it, the
hand then being at an end. The player having the highest stake
plays for both punters, and if the card turned is better than
that of the banker, the latter pays each punter the amount of
his stake. If not, the banker wins all stakes and the game
proceeds as before. If no announcement is made, meaning that
neither player holds 8 or 9, the banker deals another card to
the player on his right, who, if his first card is 6 or 7, will refuse
it, fearing to overrun. The second card is turned face upwards
on the table. If his card is 5 he may, or may not, accept the
second card, according to his judgment. In case of his refusal
the card is offered to the second punter. If the first card is
baccarat (i.e. amounts to o) or i , 2, 3 or 4, a punter always accepts
the second card. The banker then decides whether he will draw
another card himself or expose his original ones, and when he
has made his play pays or receives according as he wins or loses.
Ties neither win nor lose but go over to the next deal. A player
who has lost on going bank may go bank again, but no player
may go bank more than twice in succession. In the variation
baccarat banque (or a deux tableaux), three packs of cards are
used and the banker is permanent ; the player who offers to risk
the largest amount occupying the position. A line is drawn
across the table and any one wishing to do so may place his stake
a cheval, i.e. on the line. Stakes so placed neither win nor lose
if one side wins and the other loses, but win if both sides win
and are lost if both sides lose. The laws of baccarat are com-
plicated and no one code is accepted as authoritative, the
different clubs making their own rules.
See Badoureau, Etude mathematique sur le jeu de baccarat (Paris,
1881); L. Billard, Breviaire du baccara experimental (Paris, 1883).
BACCHANALIA, the Lat. name for the wild and mystic
festivals of Bacchus (Dionysus). They were introduced into
Rome from lower Italy by way of Etruria, and held in secret,
attended by women only, on three days in the year in the grove
of Simila (Stimula, Semele; Ovid, Fasti, vi. 503), near the
Aventine hill. Subsequently, admission to the rites were extended
to men and celebrations took place five times a month. The
evil reputation of these festivals, at which the grossest de-
baucheries took place, and all kinds of crimes and political
conspiracies were supposed to be planned, led in 186 B.C. to
a decree of the senate the so-called Senatus consultum de
Bacchanalibus, inscribed on a bronze tablet discovered in
Calabria (1640), now at Vienna by which the Bacchanalia
were prohibited throughout the whole of Italy, except in certain
special cases, in which the senate reserved the right of allowing
them, subject to certain restrictions. But, in spite of the severe
punishment inflicted upon those who were found to be implicated
in the criminal practices disclosed by state investigation, the
Bacchanalia were not stamped out, at any rate in the south of
Italy, for a very long time (Livy xxxix. 8-19, 41; xl. 19).
BACCHYLIDES, Greek lyric poet, was born at lulis, in the
island of Ceos. His father's name was probably Meidon; his
mother was a sister of Simonides, himself a native of lulis.
Eusebius says that Bacchylides " flourished " (VKfiaftv) in
Ol. 78. 2 (467 B.C.). As the term TK^a^ev refers to the physical
prime, and was commonly placed at about the fortieth year,
we may suppose that Bacchylides was born circa 507 B.C. Among
his Odes the earliest that can be approximately dated Is xii., 1
which may belong to 481 or 479 B.C.; the latest is vi., of which
the date is fixed by the recently found fragment of the Olympic
register to Ol. 82. i (452 B.C.). He would thus have been some
forty-nine years younger than his uncle Simonides, and some
fifteen years younger than Pindar. Elsewhere Eusebius states
that Bacchylides " was of repute " (eyvcoptf era) in 01. 87. 2
(431 B.C.); and Georgius Syncellus, using the same word, gives
Ol. 88 (428-425 B.C.). The phrase would mean that he was then
in the fulness of years and of fame. There is nothing improbable
in the supposition that he survived the beginning of the Pelopon-
nesian war.
Bacchylides, like Simonides and Pindar, visited the court of
Hiero I. of Syracuse (478-467). In his fifth Ode (476 B.C.), the
word epos (v. n) has been taken to mean that he had already
been the guest of the prince; and, as Simonides went to Sicily
in or about 477 B.C., that is not unlikely. Ode iii. (468 B.C.)
was possibly written at Syracuse, as verses 15 and 16 suggest.
He there pays a high compliment to Hiero's taste in poetry
(ver. 3 ff.). A scholium on Pyth. ii. 90 (166) avers that Hiero
preferred the Odes of Bacchylides to those of Pindar. The
Alexandrian scholars interpreted a number of passages in Pindar
as hostile allusions to Bacchylides or Simonides. If the scholiasts
| The references are given according to the numbering in Jebb's
edition.
122
BACCHYLIDES
are right, it would appear that Pindar regarded the younger of
the two Cean poets as a jealous rival, who disparaged him to
their common patron (schol. Pyth. ii. 52 f.), and as one whose
poetical skill was due to study rather than to genius (01. ii. 91-
110). In Olymp. ii. 96 the dual yapterov, if it does not refer
to the uncle and nephew, remains mysterious; nor does it admit
of probable emendation. 1 One would gladly reject this tradition,
to which the scholia so frequently refer; yet it would be rash
to assume that it rested merely on surmise. The Alexandrians
may have possessed evidence on the subject which is now lost.
It is tolerably certain that the three poets were visitors at Hiero's
court at about the same time: Pindar and Bacchylides wrote
odes of the same kind in his honour; and there was a tradition
that he preferred the younger poet. There is thus no intrinsic
improbability in the hypothesis that Pindar's haughty spirit
had suffered, or imagined, some mortification. It is noteworthy
that, whereas in 476 and 470 both he and Bacchylides celebrated
Hiero's victories, in 468 (the most important occasion of all)
Bacchylides alone was commissioned to do so; although in that
year Pindar composed an ode (Olymp. vi.) for another Syracusan
victor at the same festival. Nor is it difficult to conceive that a
despot such as Hiero, whose constitutional position was ill-
defined, and who was perhaps all the more exigent of deference
on that account, may have found the genial Ionian a more
agreeable courtier than Pindar, an aristocrat of the Boeoto-
Aeolic type, not unmindful of " his fathers the Aegidae," and
rather prone to link the praises of his patron with a lofty intima-
tion of his own claims (see, e.g., Olymp. i. ad fin.). But, what-
ever may have been the true bearing of Pindar's occasional
innuendoes, it is at any rate pleasant to find that in the extant
work of Bacchylides there is not the faintest semblance of hostile
allusion to any rival. Nay, one might almost imagine a compli-
ment to Pindar, when, in mentioning Hesiod, he calls him Botcorta
&VT1P-
Plutarch (de Exilio, p. 605 c) names Bacchylides in a list of
writers, who after they had been banished from their native
cities, were active and successful in literature. It was Pelopon-
nesus that afforded a new home to the exiled poet. The passage
gives no clue to 'date or circumstance; but it implies that
Peloponnesus was the region where the poet's genius ripened
and where he did the work which established his fame. This
points to a residence of considerable length; and it may be noted
that some of the poems illustrate their author's intimate know-
ledge of Peloponnesus. Thus in Ode viii., for Automedes of Phlius,
he draws on the legends connected with the Phliasian river
Asopus. In Ode x., starting from the Argive legend of Proetus
and Acrisius, he tells how the Arcadian cult of Artemis 'H/itpa was
founded. In one of his dithyrambs (xix.) he treated the legend
of Idas (a Messenian hero) and Marpessa in the form of a
hymenaeus sung by maidens of Sparta.
The Alexandrian scholars, who drew up select lists of the
best writers in each kind, included Bacchylides in their " canon "
of the nine lyric poets, along with Alcman, Sappho, Alcaeus,
Stesichorus, Ibycus, Anacreon, Simonides and Pindar. The
Alexandrian grammarian Didymus (circ. 30 B.C.) wrote a com-
mentary on the epinikian odes of Bacchylides. Horace, a poet
in some respects of kindred genius, was a student of his works,
and imitated him (according to Porphyrion) in Odes, i. 15, where
Nereus predicts the destruction of Troy. Quotations from
Bacchylides, or references to him, occur in Dionysius of Hali-
carnassus, Strabo, Plutarch, Stobaeus, Athenaeus, Aulus Gellius,
Zenobius, Hephaestion, Clement of Alexandria, and various
grammarians or scholiasts. Ammianus Marcellinus (xxv. 4) says
that the emperor Julian enjoyed reading Bacchylides. It is clear,
then, that this poet continued to be popular during at least the
first four centuries of our era. No inference adverse to his repute
can fairly be drawn from the fact that no mention of him occurs
in the extant work of any Attic writer. The only definite esti-
mate of him by an ancient critic occurs in the treatise Hepl'T^ws
commonly translated " On the Sublime," but meaning rather,
1 For other explanations suggested, see Jebb's edition, Ihtrod.
p. 1 8.
" On the Sources of Elevation in Style "; a work ambiguously
ascribed to Cassius Longinus (circ. A.D. 260), but more probably
due to some writer of the first century of our era. In chapter
xxxiii. of that treatise, the author asks whether we ought to
prefer " greatness " in literature, with some attendant faults,
to flawless merit on a lower level, and of course replies in the
affirmative. In tragedy, he asks, who would be Ion of Chios
rather than Sophocles; or in lyric poetry, Bacchylides rather than
Pindar? Yet Bacchylides and Ion are "faultless, with a style
of perfect elegance and finish." In short, the essayist regards
Bacchylides as a thoroughly finished poet of the second class, who
never commits glaring faults, but never reaches the loftier heights.
The first and most general quality of style in Bacchylides is
his perfect simplicity and clearness. Where the text is not
corrupt, there are few sentences which are not lucid in meaning
and simple in structure. This lucidity is partly due, no doubt,
to the fact that he seldom attempts imagery of the bolder kind,
and never has thoughts of a subtle or complex order. Yet it
would be very unjust to regard such clearness as merely a com-
pensatory merit of lyric mediocrity, or to ignore its intimate
connexion with the man's native grace of mind, with the artist's
feeling for expression, with the poet's delicate skill. How many
readers, who could enjoy and appreciate Pindar if he were less
difficult, are stopped on the threshold by the aspect of his style,
and are fain to save their self-esteem by concluding that he is
at once turgid and shallow! A pellucid style must always have
been a source of wide, though modest, popularity for Bacchylides.
If it be true that Hiero preferred him to Pindar, and that he was
a favourite with Julian, those instances suggest the charm which
he must always have had for cultivated readers to whom affairs
did not leave much leisure for study, and who rejoiced in a poet
with whom they could live on such easy terms.
Another prominent trait in the style of Bacchylides is his love
of picturesque detail. This characteristic marks the fragment by
which, before the discovery of the 1896 MS., he was best known
a passage, from one of his paeans, on the blessings of peace
(fr. 13, Bergk, 3, Jebb) ; and it frequently appears in the Odes,
especially in the mythical narratives. Greater poets can make
an image flash upon the mind, as Pindar sometimes does, by
a magic phrase, or by throwing one or two salient points into
strong relief. The method of Bacchylides is usually quieter;
he paints cabinet pictures. Observation and elegance do more
for him than grasp or piercing insight; but his work is often of
very high excellence in its own kind. His treatment of simile
is only a special phase of this general tendency. It is exemplified
by the touches with which he elaborates the simile of the eagle
in Ode v., and that of the storm-tossed mariners in Ode xii.
This full development of simile is Home'ric in manner, but not
Homeric in motive: Homer's aim is vividness; Bacchylides
is rather intent on the decorative value of the details themselves.
There are occasional flashes of brilliancy in his imagery, when it
is lit up by his keen sense of beauty or splendour in external
nature. A radiance, " as of fire," streams from the forms of the
Nereids (xvi. 103 ff.). An athlete shines out among h'is fellows
like " the bright moon of the mid-month night " among the stars
(viii. 27 ff.). The sudden gleam of hope which comes to the
Trojans by the withdrawal of Achilles is like a ray of sunshine
" from beneath the edge of a storm-cloud " (xii. 105 ff.). The
shades of the departed, as seen by Heracles on the banks of the
Cocytus, are compared to the countless leaves fluttering in the
wind on " the gleaming headlands of Ida " (v. 65 ff.) an image
not unworthy of Dante or of Milton.
Among the minor features of this poet's style the most
remarkable is his use of epithets. A god or goddess nearly
always receives seme ornamental epithet; sometimes, indeed,
two or even three (e.g. Ko.\vKorrTt<t>o.vov cre/uvas . . . "Apre/uSos
\evKia\fvov, v. 98 f.). Such a trait is in unison with the epic
manner, the straightforward narrative, which we find in some
of the larger poems (as in v., x., and xvi.). On the other hand,
the copious use of such ornament has the disadvantage that it
sometimes gives a tinge of conventionality to his work. This
impression is somewhat strengthened by the fact that many
BACCHYLIDES
123
of the epithets are long compound words, not found elsewhere
and (in some cases at least) probably invented by the poet;
words which suggest a deliberate effort to vary the stock
repertory.
The poems contained in the MS. of Bacchylides found
(see below) in 1896 are of two classes: I. Odes of Victory;
II. Dithyrambs. The Ode of Victory, Imvliuov (/Aos) or
(TrlviKos (vnvos), is a form derived from the dfivos, which was
properly a song in praise of a deity. Stesichorus (c. 610
B.C.) seems to have been the first who composed hymns in
honour, not of gods, but of heroes; the next step was to write
hymns in celebration of victories by living men. This custom
arose in the second half of the 6th century B.C., the age in which
the games at the four great Greek festivals reached the fulness
of their popularity. Simonides (b. c. 556 B.C.) was the earliest
recorded writer of epinikia. His odes of this class are now repre-
sented only by a few very small fragments, some twenty lines
in all. Two of these fragments, belonging to the description
of a chariot-race, warrant the belief that Simonides, in his
epinikia, differed from Pindar in dwelling more on the incidents
of the particular victory. The same characteristic is found in
the epinikia of Bacchylides. His fifth ode, and Pindar's first
Olympian, alike celebrate the victory of the horse Pherenicus;
but, while Pindar's reference to the race itself is slight and
general (w. 20-22), Bacchylides describes the running of the
winner much more vividly and fully (w. 37-49).
The MS. contains fourteen epinikia, or thirteen if Blass be right
in supposing that Odes vi. and vii., as numbered by Kenyon in the
editio princeps, are parts of a single ode (for Lachon of Ceos). Four
(or on the view just stated, three) of the odes relate to the Olympian
festival; two to the Pythian; three to the Isthmian; three to the
Nemean; and one to a Thessalian festival called thelleTpaio. This
comes last. The order in which the MS. arranges the other epinikia
seems to be casual; at least it does not follow (i) the alphabetical
sequence of the victors' names, or of the names of their cit'ies; nor
(2) chronological sequence; nor (3) classification by contests; nor
(4) classification by festivals except that the four great festivals
precede the Petraea. The first ode, celebrating a victory of the Cean
Argeios at the Isthmus, may possibly have been placed there for a
biographical reason, viz., because the poet treated in it the early
legends of his native island.
A mythical narrative, connected in some way with the victor
or his city, usually occupies the central part of the Pindaric ode.
It serves to lift the poem into an ideal region, and to invest it
with more than a local or temporary significance. The method
of Bacchylides in this department of the epinikion is best illus-
trated by the myth of Croesus in Ode iii., that of Heracles and
Meleager in Ode v., and that of the Proetides in Ode x. Pindar's
habit is to select certain moments or scenes of a legend, which
he depicts with great force and vividness. Bacchylides, on the
other hand, has a gentle flow of simple epic narrative; he relies
on the interest of the story as a whole, rather than on his power
of presenting situations. Another element, always present in
the longer odes of victory, is that which may be called the
" gnomic." Here, again, there is a contrast between the two
poets. Pindar packs his jvCifj.ou., his maxims or moral senti-
ments, into terse and sometimes obscure epigrams; he utters
them in a didactic tone, as of one who can speak with the com-
manding voice of Delphic wisdom. The moralizing of Bacchylides
is rather an utterance of quiet meditation, sometimes recalling
the strain of Ionian gnomic elegy.
The epinikia of Bacchylides are followed in the MS. by six
compositions which the Alexandrians classed under the general
name of 5i0vpaju/3oi, and which we, too, must be content
to describe collectively as Dithyrambs. The derivation of
di-0vpant}<x is uncertain: 5t may be the root seen in 5Tos
(cp. dnro\ia), and #i';payu/3os another form of dpianpos, a
word by which Cratinus (c. 448 B.C.) denotes some kind of hymn
to the wine-god. The " dithyramb," first mentioned by Archi-
lochus (c. 670 B.C.), received a finished and choral form from
Arion of Lesbos (c. 600 B.C.). His dithyrambs, produced at
Corinth, belonged to the cult of Dionysus, and the members of
his chorus (rpayiKto xopfo) personated satyrs. Originally
concerned with the birth of the god, the dithyramb came to deal
with all his fortunes: then its scope became still larger; it might
celebrate, not Dionysus alone, but any god or hero. This last
development had taken place before the close of the 6th century
B.C. Simonides wrote a dithyramb on Memnon and Tithonus;
Pindar, on Orion and on Heracles. Hence the Alexandrian
scholars used 5i6vpa.fi/3oi in a wide sense, as denoting simply
a lyric poem occupied with a mythical narrative. Thus Ode xvii.
of Bacchylides (relating the voyage of Theseus to Crete), though
it was clearly a iraiAv for the Delian Apollo, was classed by the
Alexandrians among his " dithyrambs " as appears not only
from its place in our MS., but also from the allusion of Servius
(on Aen. vi. 21). The six dithyrambs of Bacchylides are arranged
in (approximately) alphabetical order: 'Airnivopidai, 'HpwcMfr,
'HWfoi $ 07/<reiis, 07)<re{u, 'Ito, "I5as. The principal feature, best
exemplified by the first and third, is necessarily epic narrative,
often adorned with touches of picturesque detail, and animated
by short speeches in the epic manner.
Several other classes of composition are represented by those
fragments of Bacchylides, preserved in ancient literature, which
were known before the discovery of the new MS. (i) {/jucot.
Among these we hear of the diroTre/iTrrocoi, hymns of pious fare-
well, speeding some god on his way at the season when he passed
from one haunt to another. (2) iraiava, represented by the
well-known fragment on the blessings of peace. (3) vpoaobia,
choral odes sung during processions to temples. (4) foropx wara,
lively dance-songs for religious festivals. (5) epwrucd, represented
by five fragments of a class akin to crxoXto, drinking-songs.
Under this head come some lively and humorous verses on the
power of wine, imitated by Horace (Odes, iii. 21. 13-20). It may
be conjectured that the facile grace and bright fancy of Bacchy-
lides were seen to especial advantage in light compositions of this
kind. (6) The elegiacs of Bacchylides are represented by two
knypa.nnara dva^juoTOcd, each of four lines, in the Palatine
Anthology. The first (Anlh. vi. 313) is an inscription for an
offering commemorative of a victory gained by a chorus with a
poem written by Bacchylides. The second (A nth. vi. 53) is an
inscription for a shrine dedicated to Zephyrus. Its authenticity
has been questioned, but not disproved.
The papyrus containing the odes of Bacchylides was found in
Egypt by natives, and reached the British Museum in the autumn
of 1896. It was then in about 200 pieces. By the skill and industry
of Mr F. G. Kenyon, the editor of the editio princeps (1897), the MS.
was reconstructed from these lacerated members. As now arranged,
the MS. consists of three sections, (i) The first section contains
22 columns of writing. It breaks off after the 8 opening verses of
Ode xii. (2) The second section contains columns 23-29. Of these,
column 23 is represented only by the last letters of two words. This
section comprises what remains of Odes xiii. and xiy. It breaks off
before the end of xiv., which is the last of the epinikia. (3) The
third section comprises columns 30-39. It begins with the mutilated
opening verses of Ode xv. (' A.vTiivopl&cu, the first of the dithyrambs),
and breaks off after verse 1 1 of the last dithyramb,"Iios. The number
of lines in a column varies from 32 to 36, the usual number being 35,
or (though less often) 34.
It is impossible to say how much has been lost between the end
of column 29 and the beginning of column 30. Probably, however.
Ode xiv., if not the last, was nearly the last of the epinikia. It
concerns a festival of a merely local character, the Thessalian
nTpoia, and was therefore placed after the thirteen other epinikia,
which are connected with the four great festivals. The same lacuna
leaves it doubtful whether any collective title was prefixed to the
SMpanpot. After the last column (39) of the MS., a good deal has
probably been lost. Bacchylides seems to have written at least
three other poems of this class (on Cassandra, Laocoon and Philoc-
tetes) ; and these would have come, in alphabetical order, after the
last of the extant six (Idas).
The writing of the MS. is a fine uncial. It presents so'me traits
of a distinctly Ptolemaic type, though it lacks some features found
in the earlier Ptolemaic MSS. (those of the 3rd or 2nd century B.C.).
Among the characteristic forms of letters is the T, with a shallow
curve on the top of the upright ; a form found in MSS. ascribed to
the 1st century B.C., and different from the more fully formed upsilon
of the Roman period. Another very significant letter is theE,
written as ,j_, a form which begins to go out after c. 50 B.C., giving
place to one in which the middle stroke is connected with the other
two. From these and other indications it is probable that the MS.
is not later than the middle of the 1st century B.C.
The scribe, though he sometimes corrected his own mistakes,
was, on the whole, careless of the sense, as of the metre; he seems
to have been a mechanical copyist, excellent in penmanship, but
124
intent only on the letters. The MS. has received corrections or
small supplements from at least two different persons. One of
them (Kenyon's A 2 ) was contemporary, or nearly so, with the scribe.
The other (A 8 ) was considerably later; he wrote a Roman cursive
which might belong to the end of the 1st century A.D., or to the early
part of the 2nd. The correctors seem to be generally trustworthy ;
though, like the scribe, they were inattentive to metre, passing over
many metrical faults which could easily have been removed. They
appear to have compared their MS. with another, or others; but
they sometimes made a bad use of such aid, intruding a false reading
where their text had the true one.
Breathings are generally added, especially rough breathings; the
form is usually square, but sometimes partially rounded. Accents
are added, not to all words, but only, as a rule, to those which
might cause doubt or difficulty to the reader. This was the Alex-
andrian practice, accents being regarded as aids to correct reading,
and more liberally used when the dialect was not Attic. In accord-
ance with the older system, the accent is not written on the last
syllable of a word; when the accent falls there, a grave accent is
written on the preceding syllable, or on two such syllables (e.g.
BACCIO D' AGNOLO BACH, J. S.
ixpos, iraioijs.
As Kenyon observes, no MS. of equal antiquity is so well supplied
with accents. The MS. which comes nearest to it in this respect is
the Alcman fragment in the Louvre, which is of similar or slightly
higher age, belonging perhaps to the early part of the 1st century
A.D. ; and in that MS. the comparatively frequent accents were
doubtless designed to aid readers unfamiliar with Alcman's Laconian
Doric. With regard to other grammatical or metrical signs (irpoatfKai)
used in the Bacchylides MS., there is not much that calls for special
remark. The punctuation, whether by the scribe or by correctors,
is very sparse, and certainly cannot always be regarded as authori-
tative. The signs denoting the end of a strophe or antistrophe
(paragraphus), of an epode (coronis), or of an ode (asterisk), are often
omitted by the scribe, and, when employed, are sometimes placed
incorrectly, or employed in an irregular manner.
EDITIONS. F. G. Kenyon, Ed. princeps (1897); F. Blass, 3rd ed.
(1904); H. Jurenka (1898); N. Festa, text, translation and notes
(1898). [The latest edition is by Sir Richard Jebb (1905), with
introduction, notes, translation, and bibliography; text only
(1906). See also T. Zanghieri, Studi su Bacchilide, Bibliografia
BacchUidea, 1897-1905 (1905)]- ( R - C. J.)
BACCIO D' AGNOLO (c. 1460-1543), Florentine wood-carver,
sculptor and architect, had the family name of Baglioni, but was
always known by the abbreviation of Bartolommeo into Baccio
and the use of d'Agnolo as meaning the son of Angelo, his father's
name. He started as a wood-carver, and between 1491 and 1502
did much of the decorative carving in the church of Santa Maria
Novella and the Palazzo Vecchio in Florence. Having made his
reputation as a sculptor he appears to have turned his attention
to architecture, and to have studied at Rome, though at what
precise date is uncertain; but quite at the beginning of the i6th
century he was engaged with Simon Pollajuolo in restoring the
Palazzo Vecchio, and in 1506 he was commissioned to complete
the drum of the cupola of the metropolitan church of Santa
Maria del Fiore. The latter work, however, was interrupted on
account of adverse criticisms from Michelangelo, and it remained
unexecuted. Baccio d' Agnolo also planned the Villa Borghese
and the Bartolini palace, with other fine palaces and villas. The
Bartolini palace was the first house to be given frontispieces
of columns to the door and windows, previously confined to
churches; and he was ridiculed by the Florentines for his
innovation. Another much-admired work by him was the
campanile of the church of Santo Spirito. His studio was the
resort of the most celebrated artists of the day, Michelangelo,
Sansovino, the brothers Sangallo and the young Raphael. He
died in 1543, leaving three sons, all architects, the best-known
being Giuliano.
BACH, JOHANN SEBASTIAN (1685-1750), German musical
composer. The Bach family was of importance in the history of
music for nearly two hundred years. Four branches of it were
known at the beginning of the i6th century, and in 1561 we
hear of Hans Bach of Wechmar who is believed' to be the father
of Veil Bach (born about 1555). The family genealogy, drawn
Family up ^ y / Sebastian Bach himself and completed by his
son Philipp Emanuel, describes Veit Bach as the founder
of the family, a baker and a miller, " whose zither must have
sounded very pretty among the clattering of the mill-wheels."
His son, Hans Bach, " der Spielmann," is the first professional
musician of the family. Of Hans's large family the second son,
Christoph, was the grandfather of Sebastian Bach. Another son,
Heinrich, of Arnstadt, had two sons, Johann Michael and Johann
Christoph, who are among the greatest of J. S. Bach's fore-
runners, Johann Christoph being now supposed (although this is
still disputed) to be the author of the splendid motet, Ich lasse
dich nickt (" I wrestle and pray "), formerly ascribed to Sebastian
Bach. Another descendant of Veit Bach, Johann Ludwig, was
admired more than any other ancestor by Sebastian, who copied
twelve of his church cantatas and sometimes added work of his
own to them.
The Bach family never left Thuringia until the sons of Sebastian
went into a more modern world. Through all the misery of the
peasantry at the period of the Thirty Years' War this clan
maintained its position and produced musicians who, however
local their fame, were among the greatest in Europe. So
numerous and so eminent were they that in Erfurt musicians
were known as " Bachs," even when there were no longer any
members of the family in the town. Sebastian Bach thus
inherited the artistic tradition of a united family whose circum-
stances had deprived them of the distractions of the century of
musical fermentation which in the rest of Europe had destroyed
polyphonic music.
Johann Sebastian Bach was baptized at Eisenach on the 23rd
of March 1685. His parents died in his tenth year, and his elder
brother, Johann Christoph, organist at Ohrdruf, took
charge of him and taught him music. The elder brother gr a'phy.
is said to have been jealous of Sebastian's talent, and to
have forbidden him access to a manuscript volume of works by
Froberger, Buxtehude and other great organists. Every night
for six months Sebastian got up, put his hand through the lattice
of the bookcase, and copied the volume out by moonlight, to the
permanent ruin of his eyesight (as is shown by all the extant
portraits of him at a later age and by the blindness of his last
years). When he had finished, his brother discovered the copy
and took it away from him. In 1700 Sebastian, now fifteen and
thrown on his own resources by the death of his brother, went to
Luneburg, where his beautiful soprano voice obtained him an
appointment at the school of St Michael as chorister. He seems,
however, to have worked more at instrumental than at vocal
music. Apart from the choristers' routine, his position provided
only for his general education, and we know little about his
definite musical instructors. In any case he owed his musical
development mainly to his own incessant study of classical and
contemporary composers, such as Frescobaldi (c. 1587), Caspar
Kerl (1628-1603), Buxtehude, Froberger, Muffat the elder,
Pachelbel and probably Johann Joseph Fux (1660-1741), the
author of the Gradus ad Parnassum on which all later classical
composers were trained. A prettier and no less authentic story
than that of his brother's forbidden organ-volume tells how, on
his return from one of the many holiday expeditions which Bach
made to Hamburg on foot to hear the great Dutch organist
Reinken, he sat outside an inn longing for the dinner he could not
afford, when two herring-heads were flung out of the window, and
he found in each of them a ducat with which he promptly paid
his way, not home, but back to Hamburg. At Hamburg, also,
Keiser was laying the foundations of German opera on a splendid
scale which must have fired Bach's imagination though it never
directly influenced his style. On the other hand Keiser's church
music was of immense importance in his development. In Celle
the famous Hofkapelle brought the influence of French music to
bear upon Bach's art, an influence which inspired nearly all his
works in suite-form and to which his many autograph copies of
Couperin's music bear testimony. Indeed, there is no branch
of music, from Palestrina onwards, conceivably accessible in
Bach's time, of which we do not find specimens carefully copied
in his own handwriting. On the other hand, when Bach, at the
age of nineteen, became organist at Arnstadt, he found Liibeck
within easy distance, and there, in October 1705, he went to hear
Buxtehude, whose organ works show so close an affinity to Bach's
style that only their lack of coherence as wholes reveals to the
attentive listener that with all their nobility they are not by
Bach himself. Bach's enthusiasm for Buxtehude caused him
to outstay his leave by three months, and this, together with his
BACH, J. S.
habit of astonishing the congregation by the way he harmonized
the chorales got him into trouble. But he was already too great
an ornament to be lightly dismissed; and though his answers to
the complaints of the authorities (every word of which makes
amusing reading in the archives of the church) were spirited
rather than satisfactory, and the consistorium had to add to their
complaints the grave scandal of his allowing a " strange maiden "
to sing in the church, 1 Bach was able to maintain his position at
Arnstadt until he obtained the organistship of St Blasius in
Miihlhausen in 1 707 . Here he married his cousin, easily identified
with the " strange maiden " of Arnstadt; and here he wrote his
first great church cantatas, Aus der Tiefe, Gott ist mein Konig
and Gotles Zeii.
Bach's mastery of the keyboard attracted universal attention,
and prevented his ever being unemployed. In 1 708 he went to
Weimar where his successes were crowned by his appointment,
in 1714, at the age of twenty-nine, as Hofkonzerlmeister to the
duke of Weimar. Here the composition of sacred music was one
of his most congenial duties, and the great cantata, Ich hatle viel
Bekiimmerniss, was probably the first work of his new office. In
1717 Bach visited Dresden in the course of a concert tour, and
was induced to challenge the arrogant French organist, J. Louis
Marchand, who was making himself thoroughly disliked by the
German musicians who could not deny his powers. Bach was
first given an opportunity of listening secretly to Marchand's
playing, then a competition on the organ was proposed, and a
day was fixed for the tournament at which all the court and all
the musical celebrities of the town were to be present, to see
nothing less than the issue between French and German music.
Marchand took up the challenge contemptuously ;> but it would
appear that he also was allowed to listen secretly to Bach's
playing, for on the day of the tournament the only news of him
was that he had left Dresden by the earliest coach.
This triumph was followed by Bach's appointment as Kapell-
meister to the duke of Cothen, a post which he held from 1717 to
1723. The Cothen period is that of Bach's central instrumental
works, such as the first book of the Wohltemperirtes Klavier,
the solo violin and violoncello sonatas, the Brandenburg con-
certos, and the French and English suites.
In 1723, finding his position at Cothen uninspiring for choral
music, he removed to Leipzig, where he became cantor of the
Thomasschule, being still able to retain his post as visiting Kapell-
meister at Cothen, besides a similar position at Weissenfels. His
wife had died in 1720, leaving seven children, of whom Frieder-
mann and Philipp Emanuel had a great future before them. (For
his sons see BACH, K. P. E., below.) In December 1721 Bach
married again, and for the beautiful soprano voice of his second
wife he wrote many of his most inspired arias. She was a great
help to him with all his work, and her musical handwriting soon
became so like his own that her copies are difficult to distinguish
from his autographs. In 1729 Bach heard that Handel was for
a second time visiting Halle on his way back to London from
Italy. A former attempt of Bach's to meet Handel had failed,
and now he was too ill to travel, so he sent his son to Halle to
invite Handel to Leipzig; but the errand was not successful,
and much to Bach's disappointment he never met his only com-
peer. Bach so admired Handel that he made a manuscript copy
of his Passion nach Brockes. This work, though almost unknown
in England then as now, was, next to the oratorios of Reiser, in-
comparably the finest Passion then accessible, as Graun's beauti-
ful masterpiece, Der Tod Jesu, was not composed until four years
after Bach's death. The disgusting poem of Brockes (which was
set by every German composer of the time) was transformed by
Bach with real literary skill as the groundwork of the non-
scriptural numbers in his Passion according to St John.
All Bach's most colossal achievements, such as the Passion
according to St Matthew and the B Minor Mass (for discussion of
which see ORATORIO and MASS), date from his cantorship at
Leipzig. But, important and congenial as was his position there,
and smooth as the course of his lite seems to have been until
1 Spitta points out that this cannot mean singing in the choir at
a service, but making music in church privately.
his death in 1750, he must have had quite as much experience as
can have been good for him. He was often ruffled by the town
councillors of Leipzig, who (like his earlier employers at Arnstadt)
were shocked by the " unecclesiastical style " of his composi-
tions and by his independent bearing. But he had more serious
troubles. Of his seven children by his first wife only three
survived him. By his second wife he had thirteen children, of
whom he lost four of the six sons. For the head of so large a
family his post was dignified rather than lucrative, and few
documents tell a prouder tale of uncomplaining thrift than the
inventory of his possessions made after his death. One can only
be thankful that he did not live to see anything but the wonder-
ful promise of his son Friedermann, who, in the words of the
brilliantly successful K. Philipp Emanuel Bach, was more nearly
capable of replacing his father than all the rest of the family
together. The prospect of complete loss of the tradition of his
own polyphonic art he faced with equanimity, saying of the new
style, which in the hands of his own son, Philipp Emanuel, was
soon to eclipse it for the next hundred years, " The art has
advanced to great heights : the old style of music no longer
pleases our modern ears." But it would have broken his heart
if he had forseen that Friedermann Bach was to attain a dis-
reputable old age after a dissolute and unproductive life.
The brilliant successes of Philipp Emanuel led to his appoint-
ment as court-composer to the king of Prussia and hence, in 1747,
to Sebastian's being summoned to visit Frederick the Great at
Potsdam, an incident which Bach always regarded as the cul-
mination of his career, much as Dr Johnson regarded his inter-
view with George III. Bach had to play on the numerous newly
invented pianofortes of Silbermann which the king had bought,
and also to try the organs of the churches of Potsdam. Frederick,
whose musical reputation rested on a genuine if narrow basis,
gave him a splendid theme on which to extemporize; and on that
theme Bach afterwards wrote Das musikalische Opfer. Two years
after this event his sight began to fail, and before long he shared
the fate of Handel in becoming perfectly blind. 2
Bach died of apoplexy on the 28th of July 1 750. His loss was
deplored as that of one of the greatest organists and clavier
players of his time. Of his compositions comparatively little was
known. At his death his MS. works were divided amongst his
sons, and many of them have been lost; only a small fraction of
his greater works was recovered when, after the lapse of nearly
a century, the verdict of his neglectful posterity was reversed
by the modern upholders of polyphonic art. Even now some
important works are still apparently irrecoverable.
The rediscovery of Bach is closely connected with the name
of Mendelssohn, who was amongst the first to proclaim by
word and deed the powers of a genius too gigantic to
be grasped by three generations. By the enthusiastic
endeavours of Mendelssohn, Schumann and others,
and in England still earlier by the performances and publica-
tions of Wesley and Crotch, the circle of Bach's worshippers
rapidly increased. In 1850, a century after his death, a
society was started for the correct publication of all Bach's
remaining works. Robert Franz, the great song-writer, did good
service in arranging some of Bach's finest works for modern
performance, until the experience of a purer scholarship could
prove not only the possibility but the incomparably greater
beauty of a strict adherence to Bach's own scoring. The Person
of Bach-scholarship, however, is Wilhelm Rust (grandson of the
interesting composer of that name who wrote polyphonic suites
and fantasias early in the iQth century). During the fourteen
years of his editorship of the Bach-Gesellschaft he displayed a
steadily increasing insight into Bach's style which has never since
been rivalled. In more than one case he has restored harmonies
of priceless value from incomplete texts, by means of research
and reasoning which he sums up in a modest footnote that reads
as something self-evident. His prefaces to the Bach-Gesellschaft
volumes are perhaps the most valuable contributions to the
criticism of 18th-century music ever written, Spitta's great
biography not excepted.
* The same surgeon operated unsuccessfully on both composers.
126
BACH, J. S.
Bach's importance in the history of music cannot be exag-
gerated. His art, neglected as old-fashioned and crabbed by his
younger contemporaries, survived only in certain limited aspects
as the subject of a desultory and unintelligent academic study,
until its re-discovery by Mendelssohn. And yet, whatever dis-
guise may have been foisted on it by corrupt traditions and
ignorance of its idioms, whenever any fragment of it gained the
inner ear of a true composer the effect on the history of music
was immediate and profound. Indeed his influence is by no means
chiefly manifested in the time when his work became known in
its larger aspects, though the Bach-revival is very obviously
connected with certain tendencies in the " Romantic " movement
in music. But, however clear we may consider Bach's claim to
the title of " the first of Romanticists," the full influence of his
whole work has hardly yet begun to show itself. Schumann died
before even such enthusiasts as the editors of the Bach-Gesell-
schaft began to find more beauty than extravagance in Bach's
ordinary musical language (see, for example, Hauptmann's
letters passim, The Letters of a Leipzig Cantor, trans, by A. D.
Coleridge, London, Novello, Ewer, 1892), or, indeed, to grasp
the main features of his designs. 1 The labours of the Bach-
Gesellschaft have occupied more than fifty years, during which
about four-fifths of Bach's choral works have been published for
the first time; and it would be surprising if another fifty years
sufficed to make these adequately known to the world at large.
It is difficult to make an anthology of such bulky works as church-
cantatas, nor does an anthology meet the purpose where the
whole work so constantly attains that excellence for which the
anthologist seeks. Except for practical difficulties (as when
Bach writes for obsolete instruments) the only reason why some
cantatas are better known than others is that a beginning must
be made somewhere. Indeed, a cantata was recently selected,
on the ground of its popularity, for a choral competition in a
small English country town the year before it was performed
as a novelty in Berlin !
It is clear, then, that the influence of Bach's art as an under-
stood whole is still undeveloped. In the past history of music
his part was hardly suspected except by the great composers
themselves; and, to any one contemplating the art of the genera-
tion after him, it might have seemed that both he and Handel had
worked in vain. Yet his was the most subtle and universal force
in the development of music, even when his musical language
seemed hopelessly forgotten. Mozart, when rapidly advancing
to the height of his mastery, had but to read the Baron von
Swieten's manuscript copies of the motets and of the Wohl-
temperirtes Klavier, and his style, quite apart from his immediate
essays in the old art-forms, and apart also from the influence of
his study of Handel, developed a new polyphonic richness and
depth of harmony which steadily increased until his untimely
death. Beethoven studied all the accessible works of Bach pro-
foundly, and frequently quoted them in his sketch-books, often
with a direct bearing on his own works. His rendering of the
W ohltemperirles Klavier is said to be recorded in the marks of
expression and tempo given in Czerny's edition; and if that
record is true, Beethoven must have been completely in the dark
as to Bach's meaning in many important respects; but art is
full of such illustrations of the-wav in which great minds influence
each other in spite of every barrier^'wh^ch diversity of language
and time can set. Beethoven's great *H\irty-three Variations
on a Waltz by Diabelli were actually described in the publisher's
puff as worthy of their kinship with the " Goldberg Variations "
of Bach; and that kinship is revealed in its truest light by a
comparison between Beethoven's 3ist variation and Bach's 25th;
for here, just where the resemblance is most obvious, each com-
poser utters his most intimate expression of feeling.
In the same way, Chopin is nowhere more characteristic than
where he shows his love of the W ohllemperirtes Klavier in his
Etudes and Preludes; and so subtle is the influence of poly-
1 See the wild conjectures of the editor of the Four Short Masses
as to the " displacing " of structure in the kyrie of the G minor Mass
(B.-G., Jahr. viii. preface, with Rust's answer in the preface to Jahr .
xxiii.).
phonic style even over a writer so little apt to make direct use
of it as Chopin, that one of Schumann's few plagiarisms occurs
in his use of a phrase from Chopin's F minor Etude (written for
the Methode des methodes) as the subject of a fugue (Op. 72,
No. 3). And, apart from fugues, which Schumann cultivated
assiduously at a late stage in his career, the influence of Bach
pervades the texture and rhythm of his work in more ways than
can easily be followed.
In a more external, but not less significant way, the Passion
according to St Matthew made its mark on Mendelssohn from
the time when he discovered it at the age of twelve, and suggested
to him many features in the general design of oratorios, by means
of which he rescued that branch of art from the operatic influences
that ruined Beethoven's Mount of Olives. Without the example
of Bach, Wagner's schemes of Leitmotif would never in his
lifetime have become woven into that close polyphonic texture
which secures for his music a flow as continuous as that of drama
itself: and intimately connected with this is the whole subject
of Wagner's harmonization, which in many of its boldest char-
acteristics was foreshadowed by Bach. A close study of the
texture of Brahms's work shows that he develops Bach's and
Beethoven's artistic devices pari passu, and that the result is a
complete unification of that opposition between polyphony and
form which in the infancy of the sonata (as in every transitional
stage in musical history) threatened to wreck the art as a false
antithesis wrecks a philosophy. Perhaps the only great com-
posers who escaped the direct influence of Bach are Gluck and
Berlioz. Even Gluck reproduced in every detail of harmony
and figure the first twelve bars of the Gigue of Bach's B flat
Clavier-Partita in the aria " Je t'implore et je tremble " in
Iphigenie en Tauride. But plagiarism, however unconscious,
is a very different thing from that profound indebtedness which
makes a great man attain his truest originality; and Gluck 's
training practically deprived him of Bach's direct influence,
useful as that would have been to the attainment of his aims in
harmonic and choral expression. The indirect influence no one
could escape, for whatever in modern music is not traceable to
Sebastian Bach is traceable to his sons, who were encouraged by
their father in the cultivation of those infant art-forms which
were so soon to dazzle the world into the belief that his own work
was obsolete.
Bach's place in music is thus far higher than that of a reformer,
or even of an inventor of new forms. He is a spectator of all
musical time and existence, to whom it is not of the smallest
importance whether a thing be new or old, so long as it is true.
It is doubtful whether even the forms most peculiar to him (such
as the arpeggio-prelude) are of his invention. Yet he left no
form as he found it, not even that most conventional of all,
the Da Capo Aria, which he did not outwardly alter in the least.
On the other hand, with every form he touched he said the last
word. All the material that could be assimilated into a mature
art he vitalized in his own way, and he had no imitators. The
language of music changed at his death, and his influence
became all-pervading just because he was not the prophet of
the new art, but an unbiassed seeker of truth. Whether so great
a man becomes " progressive " or " reactionary " depends on
the artistic resources of his time. He will always work at the
kind of art that is most complete and consistent in all its aspects.
The same spirit of truthfulness that makes Sebastian Bach hold
himself aloof from the progressive art which he encourages in
his sons, drives Beethoven to invent new forms and new means
of expression with every work he writes. Gluck abolished the
Da Capo Aria, because it was unfit for dramatic music. Bach
did not abolish it, because he did not intend to write dramatic
music in the strict sense of the term. Mature musical art in
Bach's time could not be dramatic, except in the loose sense in
which the term may be applied to an epic poem. Dramatic
expression, properly so called, can only be attained in music
by the full development of resources that do not blend with
those of Bach's art at all. Meanwhile there are many things
unsuitable for the stage which are nevertheless valuable on
purely musical grounds; and the Da Capo Aria was one. Bach
BACH, J. S.
developed it in a great variety of ways, while retaining even the
minor details of what in other hands had long before become its
conventional form ; but the one thing he did not do was to abuse
it according to time-honoured custom as the staple form for
opera. For that he had too much dramatic insight. His treat-
ment of other important art-forms is illustrated in the articles
on CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS; CONCERTO and INSTRUMENTATION.
Here we may attempt to illustrate his methods by such
forms and characteristics as cannot be classified under those
headings.
1. The toccatas of Buxtehude and his predecessors show how
an effective musical scheme may be suggested by running over
iiiustra- tne keyboard of an organ as if to try (loccare) the
tions ot touch, then bursting out into sustained and full
Bach's harmony, and at last settling down to a fugue. But
10 ' before Bach no one seemed able to keep the fugue in
motion long enough to make a convincing climax. Very soon it
collapsed and the process of quasi-extemporization began again,
to culminate in a new fugue which often gave the whole work
a happy but deceptive suggestion of organic unity by being
founded on an ingenious variation of the subject of the first
fugue. But in Bach's hands the toccata becomes one of the
noblest and most plastic of forms. The introductory runs may
be disjointed and exaggerated to grotesqueness, until the gaps
between them gradually fill out, and they build themselves up
into grand piles of musical architecture, as in the organ toccata
in C; or they may be worked out on an enormous scale in long
and smooth canonic passages with a definite theme, as in the
greatest of all toccatas, that in F for organ, which is most
artistically followed by a fugue unusually quiet for its size. In
one instance, the toccata at the beginning of the E minor clavier-
partita, the introductory runs, though retaining much of the
extempore character from which the form derives its name,
take shape in a highly organized and rounded-off group of
contrasted themes. The fugue follows without change of time,
and is developed in so leisurely a manner that it is fully as
long as a normal fugue on a large scale by the time it reaches
what sounds like its central episode. At this point some of the
introductory matter quietly enters, and leads to a recapitulation
of the whole introduction in the key now reached. The obvious
sequel would be a counter-development of the fugue, at least
as long as what has gone before, as in the clavier-toccata in
C minor; but Bach does not choose to weary the hearer and
weaken the impression of breadth he has already made here.
Instead, he expands this restatement of the introduction, and
makes its harmonies deliberately return to the fundamental
key, and thus in an astonishingly short time the toccata is
brought to a close with the utmost effect of climax and finality.
The same grasp of all the possible meanings of an artistic device
shows itself in his treatment of the other features of toccata
form. With his variety of proportion and flow he has no need
to break off the fugue like earlier composers: but all the old
devices by which the division into sections was managed are
turned to account by him, and almost every toccata has its own
scheme of contrasted movements, always based on the old
natural idea of the growth of an organized music from a chaos
of extemporization.
If this is Bach's treatment of a comparatively small and
specialized art-form, it is obviously impossible to reduce the
scantiest account of the rest of his work into practical limits
here, nor is there as yet a sufficient body of accepted criticism
of Bach for such an account to carry further conviction than an
expression of individual opinion. Fortunately, however, Bach
was constantly re-arranging his own compositions; indeed he
evidently regards adaptability to fresh environment as the test
of his finest work: and we cannot do better than review the
evidence thus given to us, evidence which only Beethoven's
sketch-books surpass in significance.
2. The successful transplanting of a work of art to a fresh
environment is obviously a convincing test of our definitions
of the art-forms concerned, if only we take care to distinguish
between the alterations produced by the change of environment
127
and those that imply the composer's dissatisfaction with the
original version. In Bach's case this seldom causes much
difficulty; his methods of adaptation are so logical and so
varied as to form a scheme of musical morphology with all the
interest and none of the imperfections of the geological record;
and the few cases in which a work owes its changes to the need
for improvement as well as adaptation cause no confusion, but
rather form a link between the pure adaptations and the numerous
revisions of his favourite works without change of medium.
There is, for example, no difficulty in separating the element of
corrective criticism from that of the impulse to give an already
successful composition a larger or more permanent form, in such
cases as the transformations undergone by the movements of
the birthday cantata, Was mir behagt ist nur die muntre Jagd,
during their distribution among the church cantatas, Also hat
Gott die Welt geliebt and Man singet mil Freuden vom Sieg. The
fine bass aria, " Ein Fiirst ist seines Landes Pan," was obviously
ill -proportioned, with its breakneck return to the tonic and its
perfunctory close; and Bach's chief concern- in adapting it for
its place as the aria, " Du bist geboren mir zu Gute," in Also hat
Gott, was to remedy this defect. On the other hand, the use
of the delightful ritornello for violoncello from the little aria,
" Weil die wollenreichen Heerden," in the birthday cantata,
and the restoration of the rejected long instrumental fugalo
that was to follow, were obviously brought about by the concep-
tion of the entirely new material for the voice in the famous aria,
" Mein glaubiges Herze." And when the last chorus of Was
mir behagt became the first chorus of Man singet mil Freuden,
it was expanded to the proportions necessary for a triumphant
opening (as distinguished from a cheerful finale) by the adroit
insertion of new material between every joint in the design.
This material, being new, could not produce the effect of diffuse-
ness that would result from the expansion of the old material
already complete in its simplest form, and thus this instance does
not imply criticism.
A highly interesting example of pure self-criticism is the Passion
according toStJohn,v/hich wastwice revised, and each timereduced
to a smaller scale by the omission of some of its finest numbers.
The final result was a work of perfect proportions, and of the
rejected numbers one (a magnificent aria with chorale) remained
unused, two were replaced by finer substitutes, others took shape
as one of the most complete and remarkable of the church
cantatas, Du tvahrer Gott, while the greatest of the figured chorales
was transferred to the Passion according to St Matthew, of which
it now crowns the first part.
3. Such instances of self-criticism might be paralleled in the
works of other composers; but there is no parallel in music to
Bach's power of reproducing already perfect works in different
media. " Here Bach reveals to us identities in difference which
we should otherwise never have suspected. Of course it is
possible to arrange works in different ways without illustrating
any profound identities at all. Handel, for instance, collected
several of his favourite choruses in an enormous instrumental
concerto (see vol. 46 of the Hdndel-Gesellschaft), and the result
in the case of a chorus like " Lift up your Heads " was ridiculous.
Bach, however, does not arrange old work merely to please a
court where it was already admired. He never leaves it in a
state of mere make-shift, though he cannot always attain his
evident aim of a new originality. His methods of orchestration
and the profoundly significant identity of certain forms of chorus
with certain concerto forms may better be described under their
proper headings (see articles INSTRUMENTATION and CONCERTO).
Here we will attempt first to show, by illustrations of Bach's
power of adding parts to already complete harmonic and con-
trapuntal schemes, what was his conception of the nature of
an art-form, and secondly, by means of a short analysis of cases
in which he adapts the same music to different words, to define
his range of expression.
Bach arranged all his violin concertos for clavier, including
two that are lost in the original version. Here his power of
providing new and apparently necessary material for the left
hand of the cembalist (or, in the double concertos, two left
128
BACH, J. S.
hands) without disturbing the already complete score, is astonish-
ing; and it fails only in the slow movements, which he prefers to
leave obviously in the condition of an arrangement rather than
to spoil their broad cantabile style by a too polyphonic bass.
But these cases are insignificant compared with such trans-
formations as that of the prelude of the E major partita for
unaccompanied violin into the sinfonia for organ obligate
accompanied by full orchestra (including three trumpets and
a pair of drums) at the beginning of the church cantata, Wir
danken dir, Gott. The original version is perhaps the most
complete and natural of the violin solos, for its arpeggios produce
full harmony without recourse to that constant attempt to play
on all four strings at once, which makes the performance of the
polyphonic movements a tour de force in which steady rhythm
is nearly impossible. Yet in the sinfonia its proportions seem to
reveal themselves for the first time. Not a bar is displaced and
not a note of the new accompaniment is unnecessary. The whole
is almost entirely without themes; for even this, the largest of
all arpeggio-preludes, consists essentially of the gradual un-
folding of a scheme of harmony in which rhythmic and melodic
organization is reduced to a minimum. Only in the first line
does the incisive initial figure persist a little longer in the new
accompaniment than in the original solo, but on the last page
it reappears and pervades the whole orchestra, even the drums
thundering out its rhythm at the climax where the holding-notes
of the trumpet span the torrent of harmony like a rainbow.
Deeper still is the thought that underlies the transformation
of two movements of the great violin-concerto in D minor
(unfortunately lost except in its splendid arrangement for clavier)
into parts of the church cantata, Wir miissen durch viel Trubsal
in das Reich Gottes eingehen. In both movements the violin
is replaced by the organ an octave lower, the orchestral accom-
paniment remaining where it was. This treatment, with the
addition of new and plaintive parts for wind instruments, turns
the already very long and sombre first movement into an im-
pressive idealization of the " much tribulation " that lies between
us and the kingdom of heaven. The slow movement is still
more solemn, and is arranged in the same way as regards the
instruments ; but from the first note to the last a four-part
chorus sings, to the words of the title, a mass of quite new
material (except for the bass and for numerous imitations of
the solo-part), treated with every variety of vocal colouring and
a grandeur of conception which is not dwarfed even by the
Passion according to Si Matthew.
4. The four short masses, the Christmas oratorio and the
B minor mass, contain every variety of adaptation from earlier
work. The four short masses are indeed obviously compiled
for use in a church where the orchestra was small. Only four
movements in the whole collection are not traceable to other
extant works; all the rest comes from church cantatas. The
adaptations are not always significant; no attempt, for example,
is made in the G minor mass to conceal how unfit for a Kyrie
eleison is the tremendous denunciatory chorus, Herr, deine Augen
sehen nock dent Glauben. But the F major and G major masses
are very instructive; and the A major mass, except for the
damage done to the instrumentation, is a work that no one
would conceive to be not original. The Kyrie is one of Bach's
most individual utterances and could surely never have fitted
any other text, but we should say the same of the Gloria if we
did not possess the church cantata, Halt im Gedachtniss. The
Gloria begins with a triumphant polyphonic chorus accompanied
by a spirited symphony for strings. At the words " et in terra
pax " the time changes, and two flutes softly accompany a single
solemn melody in the altos. At the " laudamus te " the material
of the beginning returns, and is interrupted again by the calm
slow movement, this time in another key and for another voice,
at the words " adoramus te." Twice the " laudamus " and
" adoramus " alternate in a finely proportioned design; at last
the words " gratias agimus tibi propter magnam gloriam tuam "
are set for the full chorus to the music of the slow movement,
the strings join with the flutes, and this most appropriate setting
of those words is finished. And yet it is quite impossible to
regard this as superseding the last chorus of Halt im Gedachtniss.
Not one bar or harmony of the framework differs; yet the two
versions are two independent works of art. In the cantata the
beginning is for instruments only; when the slow movement
(here adequately scored for a flute and two oboe d' amore) begins,
the basses, permanently separated from the rest of the chorus,
sing " Peace be unto you." The other voices then sing the
triumph of the faithful helped by the Saviour in their battle
against the world. The slow movement is, of course, set for
bass alone throughout, and at the last recurrence of the allegro
the bass continues to sing "Friede sei mit euch" through the
rest of the chorus, as if leading the chorus of humanity through
strife to the kingdom of heaven, and then the single voice of
peace remains to the end. Hardly a bar of the chorus-material
is on the same themes in the two versions.
The study of the sources of the Christmas oratorio will complete
the evidence on which we support our estimate of Bach's methods
and range of expression. It is certain that the occasional
cantatas, from which all except the chorale-tune numbers and
those set to words from the Bible were taken, date from shortly
before the oratorio; and that Bach, being incapable of putting
inferior work even into birthday odes, rescued it from oblivion
by having the verses for the oratorio numbers built on the same
rhythms as those of the odes in order that he might use those
occasional works as a sketch (see B.-G., Jahr. xxxiv. preface).
Be this as it may, the alterations are confined to details even
where an aria is transposed a fourth or fifth; but the effect of
them is startling. Pleasure (Wollust) sings a lovely soprano
aria to allure Hercules from the paths of Virtue, to which Hercules
replies indignantly with an aria in a spirited staccato style. It
is no doubt a shock to our feelings to find that Wollust's aria
became the Virgin's cradle-song, while Hercules's reply became
the alto aria in which Zion is bidden to " prepare for the Bride-
groom." But it does not warrant the inference that Bach's
music lacks definite characterization : on the contrary, these
two arias are the best demonstration of his profound insight
into the possibilities of musical expression within his range.
It is no part of his conception of art that Wollust should be
represented by a Wagnerian Venusberg-music; the obvious way
to represent Pleasure was by writing pleasant music, and with
Bach's ideas of pleasance the step from this to the solemn beauty
of the sacred cradle-song was a mere matter of change of colour
and tempo. The key is lowered from B flat to G, the strings
are veiled with the tender reed tone of a group of oboe d' amore,
the soprano becomes an alto whose notes are, as it were, sur-
rounded with a nimbus by being doubled in the upper octave
by a flute; and the aria becomes worthy of its new purpose,
not by losing a grossness which it never possessed, but by gaining
the richness which distinguishes the perfect work from the
boldly executed draft.
As to the aria of Hercules the change is in manner, while the
character, in the human sense of the term, is quite rightly the
same. Both Hercules and the faithful Christian of the oratorio
are renouncing pomps and vanities for the claims of a higher life;
in the one case indignantly, in the other case inspired " mit zart-
lichem Triebe." A change to a legato style, the substitution of a
single oboe d' amore for lutti violins, the addition of delicate
ornaments indicative of a slower pace, and the noble stream of
melody preserve its identity while changing its aspect. Bach's
larger designs react on their changing contents as a cathedral
reacts on the impressiveness of the rites performed within it, or
as nature reacts on a poet's thoughts; and in the same way
Bach's melody is greater than any possible mood of the moment,
not because of that vague and negative pseudo-classical quality
misnamed " reserve," but because of its vital individuality. In
their proper directions its changes are limitless; elsewhere change
in inconceivable. No amount of " Umarbeitung " could, for
instance, turn the aria of Hercules into the Virgin's cradle-song,
or Wollust's aria into the exhortation of Zion to prepare for the
Bridegroom. In short, Bach's melodies are characteristic, not
like a mask with a set expression, but like a living face that is the
more individual for the mobility of its features.
BACH, J. S.
Within these limits, that is, short of dramatic expression in
just so far as " the end of drama is not character but action,"
there is nothing good that Bach's art does not express. He has
plenty of humour, if the term may be applied to art which is, so
to speak, always literal, art in which a jest is a jest and serious
things are treated with familiar directness, and all, whether in
jest or earnest, is primarily beautiful. In Der Slreit zwischen
Phoebus tind Pan Bach answers the critics who censured him for
his pedantry and provincial ignorance of the grand Italian
operatic style, by making effective use of that style in Pan's
prize-aria (" Zum Tanze, zum Sprunge, so wack-ack-ack-ackelt
das Herz "), nobly representing his own style in Phoebus's aria,
and promptly caricaturing it in the second part of Pan's (" Wenn
der Ton zu miihsam klingt "). Midas votes for Pan " denn
nach meinen beiden Ohreh singt er unvergleichlich schon." At
the word " Ohren " the violins give a pianissimo " hee-haw "
which is fully as witty in its musical aptness as Mendelssohn's
clown-theme in the Overture to the Midsummer Night's Dream;
and in the ensuing dialogue their prophecy is verified. As with
many other great artists, Bach's playfulness occasionally showed
itself inconveniently where little things shock little minds. The
hilarious aria, " Ermuntre dich," in the church cantata, Schmiicke
dich, o Hebe Seele, is one instance, and the quaint representation
of the words " dimisit inanes" in the Magnificat is another. This
great work, one of the most terse and profound things Bach ever
wrote, contains, among many other subtle inspirations, one
conception with which we may fitly end our survey, for it strongly
suggests Bach himself and the destiny of all that work which he
finished so lovingly, with no prospect of its becoming more than
a family heirloom and a salutary tradition in his Leipzig choir-
school. In the Magnificat he sets the words " quia respexit
humilitatem ancillae suae " to a touchingly appropriate soprano
solo accompanied by his favourite oboe d'amore. With the next
sentence " ecce enim beatam me dicent " the tone brightens to a
quiet joy, but Bach takes advantage of the syntax of the Latin
in a way that defies translation, and the sentence is finished by
the chorus. " Omnes generationes " seem indeed to pass before
us in the crowded fugue which rises in perpetual stretto, the
incessant entries of its subject now mounting the whole scale,
each part a step higher than the last, and now collecting in
unison with a climax of closeness and volume overwhelming in
its impression of time and multitude.
SUMMARY OF BACH'S WORKS
No attempt is here made at chronological sequence. The changes
in Bach's style, though clear and important, are almost impossible
to describe in untechnical language; nor are they of such general
interest as to make it worth while to expand this summary by an
attempt to apportion its contents among the Arnstadt-Miihlhausen
period, the Weimar period, the Cothen period (chiefly remarkable
for instrumental music and comparatively uninteresting in its
easy-going choral music), and the last period (1733-1750) in which,
while the choral works became at once more numerous and more
terse (e.g. Jesu, der du meine Seele) the instrumental music, though
never diffuse, shows an increasing preference for designs on a large
scale. (Compare, for example, the second book of theWohltemperirtes
Klavier, 1744, with the first, 1722.)
I. CHURCH Music
A. With Orchestra
190 church cantatas: besides several which are only known
from fragmentary sets of parts. Of the 190, 40 are for solo voices,
about 60 (including some solo cantatas) are more or less founded
on chorales, and the rest, though almost invariably containing a
chorale (for congregational singing), are practically short oratorios
and frequently so entitled by Bach himself.
3 wedding cantatas: the taster oratorio (exactly like the above-
mentioned oratorio-cantatas; and the Christmas oratorio (six
similar cantatas forming a connected design for performance on six
separate days).
The Passions according to St Matthew and St John.
Funeral ode for the Duchess Eberhardine (now known to be
arranged from portions of the lost Passion according to St Mark).
4 short masses (i.e. Kyrie and Gloria only) mainly compiled from
church cantatas.
Mass in B minor. Magnificat in D. A few other ecclesiastical
Latin choruses.
m. S
I2 9
B. Without Orchestra
5 motets a capetta (but there is reason to believe that these, except
Komm Jesu komm, were intended to be partly supported by the
organ). A sixth motet has an obligato figured-bass accompaniment.
A few early choruses, mostly turned to account in later works.
A large collection of plain chorales, including several original
melodies.
II. SECULAR VOCAL Music
Der Streit zwischen Phoebus und Pan and Der zufrieden gestclltt
Aeolus; both entitled Dramma per Musica, but showing no. more
essential connexion with the stage than Handel's Acis and Galatea.
7 solo and 7 choral cantatas, of which latter three were almost
entirely absorbed into the Christmas oratorio and the B minor mass.
Of the solo cantatas two are Italian (one of these being Bach's only
developed work for voice and clavier) and two are burlesque.
Several tunes with clavier bass, almost foreshadowing the modern
song.
III. INSTRUMENTAL Music
A. Orchestral
7 clavier concertos arranged from violin concertos and other
sources.
3 concertos for two claviers (two being arranged from concertos
for two violins).
2 concertos for three claviers.
The 6 Brandenburg concertos, for various combinations.
2 violin concertos, and a colossal torso of a concerted violin-
movement forming the prelude to a lost church cantata.
I concerto for two violins.
4 orchestral suites. (The symphony in F in the same volume of
the B. G. is only an earlier version of the first Brandenburg concerto.)
B. Chamber Music
3 sonatas for clavier and flute ; a suite and 6 sonatas for clavier
and violin, 3 for clavier and viola da gamba; 2 trios with figured
bass; 2 flute-sonatas and a violin suite with figured bass; 6 sonatas
(i.e. 3 sonatas and 3 partitas) for violin alone ; 6 suites for violoncello
alone.
C. Clavier and Organ Music
Bach's own collections are:
1. Das wohltemperirte Klavier for clavichord: two books each
containing 24 preludes and fugues, one in each major and minor
key; with the object of stimulating tuning by "equal tempera-
ment " instead of sacrificing the euphony of remoter keys to that of
the more usual ones.
2. Klavier-Vbung (chiefly for harpsichord) in four books com-
prising: (i) 15 two-part inventions and 15 three-part symphonies,
(ii.) 6 partitas, (iii.) The " Goldberg " variations. 4 duets, and an
important collection of organ choral-preludes, with the " St Anne "
prelude and fugue in E flat, (iv.) The Italian concerto and French
overture.
3. The 6 " French " and 6 " English " suites.
The other clavier works fill two Jahrgdnge of the B.-G.
Bach's collections of organ music are (besides that included in
the third part of the Klavier- Obung) : (i ) 6 sonatas. (2) 4 groups of
6 organ preludes and fugues. (3) Das Orgelbuchlein, a collection of
short choral-preludes carefully planned all the blank pages of the
autograph being headed with the titles of the chorales intended for
them but not half executed. (The projected whole would have
been a larger volume than the Wohltemperirtes Klavier). (4) 18
larger chorale-preludes, including Bach's last composition. (5) The
6 Schiibler " chorales, all arranged from movements of cantatas.
Besides these there are the three great independent toccatas and
the Passacaglia. The remaining choral-preludes fill one Jahrgang,
and the other organ works two more.
D. Unclassified
Two important instrumental works cannot be classified, viz.
Das musikalische Opfer, the volume of compositions (two great
fugues, various puzzle-canons, and a splendid trio for flute, violin
and figured bass) on the theme given to Bach by Frederick the
Great; and Die Kunst der Fuge, a progressive series of fugues on
one and the same subject, written in open score as if entirely abstract
studies, but all (except the extreme contrapuntal tours de force) in
admirable clavier style and of great musical value.
IV. LOST WORKS
A. Choral
J. N. Forkel's statement that Bach wrote 5 Jahrgdnge of church
cantatas (i.e. enough to provide one for each Sunday and holy day
for five years) would indicate that some 80 are lost, but there is
reason to believe that this is a great exaggeration. Not more than
six or seven cantatas are known to be lost, by the evidence of
fragments, text-books, &c.
Forkel also says that Bach wrote five Passions. Besides the great
Matthew and John Passions there is in an indisputable Bach auto-
graph one according to St Luke; but it is so worthless that the best
plea for its authenticity offered by responsible critics is that only
a personal interest could have induced Bach to make a copy of it.
130
BACH, K. P. E.
The lost Passion according to St Mark must, judging by the
movements preserved in the Trauer-Ode, have been larger than that
according to St John.
Was there a genuine Lucas-Passion ? If so, Forkel's report of
five Passions would be explained. Several lost secular works are
partly preserved in those portions of the Christmas oratorio of
which the sources are not definitely known, but which, like the other
duplicated numbers, are fair copies in the autograph.
B. Instrumental
Three violin concertos and one for two violins; known only
from the wonderful clavier versions.
Most of the first movement of the A major sonata for clavier and
flute which was written in the spare staves at the bottom of a larger
score. Some of these have been cut off.
V. ARRANGEMENTS OF WORKS BY OTHER COMPOSERS
Arrangements for harpsichord alone of 16 concertos, generally
described as by Vivaldi, but including several by other composers.
4 Vivaldi concertos arranged for organ.
Many of these arrangements contain much original matter, such
as entirely new slow movements, large cadenzas, &c.
Concerto in A minor for 4 claviers and orchestra, from Vivaldi's
B minor concerto for 4 violins. This, though the most faithful to
its original, is the richest and most Bach-like of all these arrange-
ments, and is well worth performing in public.
2 sonatas from the Hortus Musicus of Reinken, arranged for
clavier. (The ends of the slow movements are Bach.)
Finishing touches to cantatas by his uncle Johann Ludwig Bach.
Also a very characteristic complete " Christe eleison " inserted in
Kyrie of Johann Ludwig's.
VI. DOUBTFUL AND SPURIOUS WORKS
Bach's autographs give the name of the composer on the outside
sheet only. He was constantly making copies of all that interested
him; and where the outside sheet is lost, only the music itself can
tell us whether it is his or not. The above-mentioned Passion
according to St Luke is the chief case in point. The little music-books
he and his second wife wrote for their children are full of pieces in
the most various styles; and the editors of the Bach-Gesellschaft
have not completely identified them, even Couperin's well-known
" Les Bergeries " escaping their scrutiny. A sonata for two claviers
by Bach 8 eldest son, Wilhelm Friedermann, was detected by the
editors after its inclusion in Jahrgang xliv. The second of the 3
sonatas for clavier and flute is extremely suggestive of Bach's sons,
but Philipp Emanuel ascribes it to his father. However, he might
easily have docketed it wrongly while arranging copies of his father's
works. It has a twin brother (B.-G. ix. Anhang ii.) for which he has
not vouched.
Four absurd church cantatas are printed for conscience' sake in
Jahrgang xliii. More important than these, because by no means
too obviously ridiculous to deceive a careless listener, is the well-
known 8-part motet, Lob, Ehr' und Weisheit (blessing and glory and
wisdom). A closer acquaintance shows that it is really very poor
stuff; and it was finally crowned with absurdity by the discovery
that its composer was a contemporary of Bach, and that his name
was Wagner.
The beautiful motet, Ich lasse dich nicht, has long been known to be
by one of Bach's uncles (Johann Christoph).
EDITIONS
Almost the only works of Bach published during his lifetime were
the instrumental collections, most of which he engraved himself.
Of the church cantatas only one, Cott ist mein Konig (written when
he was nineteen, but a very great work), was published in his lifetime.
Of modern editions that of the Bach-Gesellschaft is, of course,
the only complete one. It is, inevitably, of very unequal merit.
Its first editors could not realize their own ignorance of Bach's
language; their immediate admiration of his larger choruses seemed
to them proof of their competence to retain or dismiss details of
ornamentation, figured bass, variants between score and parts, &c.,
without always stopping to see what light these might shed on
questions of tempo and style especially in the arias and recitatives,
which they regarded as archaic almost in direct proportion to the
depth of thought really displayed in them. In the gth Jahrgang
Wilhelm Rust introduced scholarly methods, with the happiest
results. The Wohltemperirtes Klavier (Jahrgang xiv.) was edited
by Kroll, who also made his text accessible in the Edition Peters
(which till then had only Czerny's an amazing result of corrupt
tradition, still widely accepted). Kroll's and Rust's volumes are
far the best in the B. G. On Rust's death the standard deteriorated ;
his immediate successor seems more interested in reprinting in full
an early version of a work of which Rust had given only the variants,
than in digesting his own materials (Jahrgang xxix.); and in his
next volume (Jahrgang xxx. p. 109) the bass and violin are a bar
apart for a whole fine. The last ten volumes, however, are again
satisfactory, and in Jahrgang xliv. the French and English suites
are re-edited. Part of the' B minor mass was also worked over
again; and Kroll's text of the Wohltemperirtes Klavier was supple-
mented by the evidence of the British Museum autograph. The
Steingraber edition of the clavier works, edited by Dr Hans Bischoff ,
is incomparably the best, giving all the variants in footnotes and
clearly distinguishing the extremely intelligent nuances and phrasing
signs of the editor from the rare but significant indications of Bach
himself. Nor does this wealth of scholarship interfere with the pre-
sentation of a straightforward, single text ; though in addition there
is every necessary explanation of the ornaments and kindred matters.
We have seen no other editions that distinguish Bach's text from
the editor's taste the disappointing publications of the Neue
Bachgesellschaft l by no means excepted. We may remark that
the older vocal scores of cantatas in the Edition Peters are, though
unfortunately but a selection, far better than the complete series
issued by Breitkopf and Hartel in conformity with the Bach Gesell-
schaft, and therefore accepted as authoritative (see INSTRUMENTA-
TION). The English vocal scores published by Novello are gener-
ally very good though covering but small ground. The Novello
score of the Christmas oratorio contains a fine analytic preface by
Sir George Macfarren.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. J. N. Forkel, Vber Bach's Leben, Kunst und
Kunstwerke, translated (London, 1820) ; C. H. Bitter, John Sebastian
Bach (Berlin, 1865); Ernest David, La Vie et les auvres de Bach
(Paris, 1882); P. Spitta, Johann Sebastian Bach (Leipzig, 1873 and
1880); E. Heinrich, Sebastian Bach's Leben (Berlin, 1885); A. Pirro,
L' Esthetique de Jean Sebastian Bach (Paris, 1907) ; and L' Orguede
Jean Sebastian Bach (Paris, 1907) ; A. Schweitzer, /. 5. Bach: Le
Mustcien poete. Spitta's biography superseded everything written
before it and has not since been approached. With corrections in the
light of Rust's B. G. prefaces it contains everything worth knowing
about Bach, except the music itself. (D. F. T.)
BACH, KARL PHILIPP EMANUEL (1714-1788), German
musician and composer, the third son of Johann Sebastian Bach,
was born at Weimar on the i4th of March 1714. When he was
ten years old he entered the Thomasschule at Leipzig, of which
in 1 7 23 his father had become cantor, and continued his education
as a student of jurisprudence at the universities of Leipzig (1731)
and of Frankfort on the Oder (1735). In 1738 he took his degree,
but at once abandoned all prospects of a legal career and deter-
mined to devote himself to music. A few months later he
obtained an appointment in the service of the crown prince of
Prussia, on whose accession in 1 740 he became a member of the
royal household. He was by this time one of the first clavier-
players in Europe, and his compositions, which date from 1731,
included about thirty sonatas and concerted pieces for his
favourite instrument. His reputation was established by the
two sets of sonatas which he dedicated respectively to Frederick
the Great (1742) and to the grand duke of Wurttemberg (1744):
in 1746 he was promoted to the post of Kammermusikus, and for
twenty-two years shared with Karl Heinrich, Graun, Johann
Joachim, Quantz and Johann Gottlieb Naumann the continued
favour of the king. During his residence at Berlin he wrote a fine
setting of the Magnificat (1749), in which he shows more traces
than usual of his father's influence, an Easter cantata (1756),
several symphonies and concerted works, at least three volumes
of songs, Geistliche Oden und Lieder, to words by Gellert (1758),
Oden mil Melodien (1762) and Sing-Oden (1766) and a few
secular cantatas and other pieces d 'occasion. But his main work
was concentrated on the clavier, for which he composed, at this
time, nearly two hundred sonatas and other solos, including the
set mil veranderten Reprisal (1760-1768) and a few of those fiir
Kenner und Liebhaber. Meanwhile he placed himself in the fore-
front of European critics by his Versuch iiber die wahre Art das
Clavier zu spielen (first part 1753, second, with the first reprinted,
1762), a systematic and masterly treatise which by 1780 had
reached its third edition, and which laid the foundation for the
methods of Clementi and Cramer. In 1768 Bach succeeded
Georg Philipp Telemann as Kapellmeister at Hamburg, and in
consequence of his new office began to turn his attention more
towards church music. Next year he produced his oratorio Die
Israeliten in der Wilste, a composition remarkable not only for its
great beauty but for the resemblance of its plan to that of
Mendelssohn's Elijah, and between 1769 and 1788 added over
twenty settings of the Passion, a second oratorio Der Auferstehung
1 The object of the Neue Bachgesellschaft is to render the com-
pleted results of the first Bachgesellschaft generally accessible by
holding frequent Bach festivals and issuing cheap and practical
editions. The activities of this society, together with the new
movement to restore Bach's vocal music to its place in the Lutheran
Church, cannot fail to have a salutary effect on the future of music.
BACHARACH BACHE
und Himmelfahrt Jesu (1777), and some seventy cantatas,
litanies, motets and other liturgical pieces. At the same time his
genius for instrumental composition was further stimulated by
the career of Haydn, to whom he sent a letter of high appreciation,
and the climax of his art was reached in the six volumes of
sonatas fur Kennerund Liebhaber, to which he devoted the best
work of his last ten years. He died at Hamburg on the I4th of
December 1788.
Through the latter half of the i8th century the reputation of
K. P. E. Bach stood very high. Mozart said of him, " He is the
father, we are the children "; the best part of Haydn's training
was derived from a study of his work; Beethoven expressed for
his genius the most cordial admiration and regard. This position
he owes mainly to his clavier sonatas, which mark an important
epoch in the history of musical form. Lucid in style, delicate
and tender in expression, they are even more notable for the
freedom and variety of their structural design; they break away
altogether from the exact formal antithesis which, with the
composers of the Italian school, had hardened into a convention,
and substitute the wider and more flexible outline which the
great Viennese masters showed to be capable of almost infinite
development. The content of his work, though full of invention,
lies within a somewhat narrow emotional range, but it is not less
sincere in thought than polished and felicitous in phrase. Again
he was probably the first composer of eminence who made free use
of harmonic colour for its own sake, apart from the movement of
contrapuntal parts, and in this way also he takes rank among the
most important pioneers of the school of Vienna. His name has
now fallen into undue neglect, but no student of music can afford
to disregard his Sonaten fur Kenner und Liebhaber, his oratorio
Die Israeliien in der Wiisle, and the two concertos (in G major
and D major) which have been republished by Dr Hugo Riemann.
A list of his voluminous compositions may be found in Eitner's
Quellen Lexikon, and a critical account of them is given in Bitter's
C. P. E. und W. F. Bach und deren Briider (2 vols., Berlin, 1868), a
mine of valuable though ill-arranged information.
Four more of Johann Sebastian Bach's sons grew to manhood
and became musicians. The eldest of them, WILHELM FRIEDER-
MANN BACH (1710-1784) was by common repute the most gifted;
a famous organist, a famous improvisor and a complete master
of counterpoint. But, unlike the rest of the family, he was a man
of idle and dissolute habits, whose career was little more than a
series of wasted opportunities. Educated at Leipzig, he was
appointed in 1733 organist of the Sophienkirche at Dresden, and
in 1747 became musical director of the Liebfrauenkirche at Halle.
The latter office he was compelled to resign in 1764, and thence-
forward he led a wandering life until, on the ist of July 1784,
he died in great poverty at Berlin. His compositions, very few
of which were printed, include many church cantatas and
instrumental works, of which the most notable are the fugues,
polonaises and fantasias for clavier, and an interesting sestet for
strings, clarinet and horns. 'Several of his manuscripts are
preserved in the Royal library at Berlin; and a complete list of
his works, so far as they are known, may be found in Eitner's
Quellen Lexikon.
The fourth son, JOHANN GOTTFRIED BERNHARD BACH (1715-
1739) was, like his elder brothers, born at Weimar and educated
at Leipzig. From 1 735 to 1 738 he held successively the organist-
ships at Muhlhausen and Sangerhausen ; in 1738 he threw up his
appointment and went to study law at Jena; in 1739 he died,
aged 24.
JOHANN CHRISTOPH FRIEDRICH BACH (1732-1795), the ninth
son, was born at Leipzig, studied at the Thomasschule and
the university, and in 1750 was appointed Kapellmeister at
Biickeburg. He was an industrious composer, especially of
church-music and opera, whose work reflects no discredit on the
family name.
JOHANN CHRISTIAN BACH (1735-1782), the eleventh son, was
born at Leipzig, and on the death of his father in 1750 became
the pupil of his brother Emanuel at Berlin. In 1754 he went to
Italy where he studied under Padre Martini, and from 1760 to
1762 held the post of organist at Milan cathedral, for which he
wrote two Masses, a Requiem, a Te Deum and other works.
Having also gained some reputation as a composer of opera, he-
was in 1762 invited to London and there spent the rest of his
life. For twenty years he was the most popular musician in
England, his dramatic works, produced at the King's theatre,
were received with great cordiality, he was appointed music-
master to the queen, and his concerts, given in partnership with
Abel at the Hanover Square rooms, soon became the most
fashionable of public entertainments. He is of some historical
interest as the first composer who preferred the pianoforte to the
older keyed-instruments; but his works, though elegant and
pleasing, were ephemeral in character and have been deservedly
forgotten.
A full account of J. C. Bach's career is given in the fourth volume
of Burney's History of Music, and a catalogue of his compositions
in an article by Max Schwarz, published in the Sammelbdnde of the
Internationale Musik-GesettschaJt, Jhrg. ii. p. 401. (W. H. HA.)
BACHARACH, YAIR (1630-1702), German rabbi, was the
author of Ifawwoth Yair (a collection of Responsa) and other
works. Bacharach was a man of wide culture, and holds an
honourable place among the pioneers of the Jewish Re-
naissance which was inaugurated towards the end of the i8th
century.
BACHARACH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
Province, romantically situated on the left bank of the Rhine,
30 m. above Coblenz on the railway to Mainz. Pop. 2000.
There is an interesting church, a basilica, dating from the
beginning of the I3th century. There are also ruins of a
Gothic church of the I3th and isth centuries. The ruined
castle of Stahleck, crowning the heights above the town,
is celebrated in history as the scene of the marriage between
Henry, eldest son of Henry the Lion (shortly before the latter's
death in 1195) and Agnes of Hohenstaufen, which effected a
temporary reconciliation between the houses of Welf and Hohen-
staufen. Other ruined castles are those of Flirstenberg and
Stahlberg. All three belonged to the counts palatine. The wines
of Bacharach were once held in the greatest esteem, and it is
still one of the chief markets of the Rhenish wine trade.
BACHAUMONT, LOUIS PETIT DE (1690-1771), French
litterateur, was of noble family and was brought up at the court
of Versailles. He passed his whole life in Paris as the centre of
the salon of Madame Doublet de Persan (1677-1771), where
criticism of art and literature took the form of malicious gossip.
A sort of register of news was kept in a journal of the salon,
which dealt largely in scandals and contained accounts of books
suppressed by the censor. Bachaumont's name is commonly
connected with the first volumes of this register, which was
published anonymously under the title Memoires secrets pour
servir a Vhistoire de la Republique des Lettres, but his exact share
in the authorship is a matter of controversy. It was continued by
Pidansat de Mairobert (1707-1779) and others, until it reached
36 volumes (1774-1779). It is of some value as a historical
source, especially for prohibited literature. Extracts were
published by P. Lacroix in one volume, 1859. An incomplete
edition (4 vols.) was undertaken in 1830 by Ravenal.
See, in addition to the memoirs of the time, especially the Corre-
spondance litteraire of Grimm, Diderot, d'Alembert and others (new
ed., Paris, 1878, 17 vols.); Ch. Aubertin, L'Esprit public au XVIII'
siecle (Paris, 1872).
BACHE, ALEXANDER DALLAS (1806-1867), American,
physicist, great-grandson of Benjamin Franklin, was born at
Philadelphia on the igth of July 1806. After graduating at the
United States Military Academy at West Point in 1825, he acted
as assistant professor there for some time, and as a lieutenant
in the corps of engineers he was engaged for a year or two in the
erection of coast fortifications. He occupied the post of professor
of natural philosophy and chemistry in the University of Penn-
sylvania in 1828-1841 and in 1842-1843. For the trustees
of what in 1848 was to become Girard College, but had not
yet been opened, he spent the years 1836-1838 in Europe,
examining European systems of education, and on his return
published a very valuable report. In 1843, on the death
of Professor F. R. Hassler (1770-1843), he was appointed
132
BACHE BACHIAN
superintendent of the United States coast survey. He succeeded
in impressing Congress with a sense of the great value of this
work, and by means of the liberal aid it granted, he carried out
a singularly comprehensive plan with great ability and most
satisfactory results. By a skilful division of labour, and by the
erection of numerous observing stations, the mapping out of the
whole coast proceeded simultaneously under the eye of the
general director, and in addition a vast mass of magnetic and
meteorological observations was collected. He died at Newport,
Rhode Island, on the I7th of February 1867.
BACHE, FRANCIS EDWARD (1833-1858), English musical
composer, was born in Birmingham on the i4th of September
1833. The pupil of Alfred Mellon for violin and Sterndale
Bennett for composition, he afterwards went to Leipzig in 1853
and studied with Hauptmann and Plaidy. Considering the early
age at which he died, his compositions are fairly numerous,
and the best, a trio for piano and strings, is still held in high
esteem. Two operettas, a piano concerto and a number of
published pianoforte pieces and songs do little more than show
how great was his promise. He died at Birmingham of con-
sumption on the 24th of August 1858. His younger brother,
WALTER BACHE (1842-1888), was born in Birmingham on the
ipth of June i842,andfollowed him to the Leipzig Conservatorium,
where he became an excellent pianist. From 1862 to 1865 he
studied with Liszt in Rome, and for many years devoted himself
to the task of winning popularity for his master's works in England.
At his annual concerts in London nearly all Liszt's larger works
were heard for the first time in England, and on the occasion
of Liszt's last visit to England in 1886, he was entertained by
Bache at a memorable reception at the Grosvenor Gallery.
Walter Bache was professor of the pianoforte at the Royal
Academy of Music for some years before his death, and the
foundation of the Liszt scholarship at that institution was mainly
due to his efforts. He died in London on the 26th of March 1888.
An interesting memoir of the two brothers, by Miss Constance
Bache, appeared in 1901 under the title Brother Musicians.
BACHELOR (from Med. Lat. baccalarius, with its late and
rare variant baccalaris cf. Ital. baccalare through 0. Fr.
bacheler), in the most general sense of the word, a young man..
The word, however, as it possesses several widely distinct applica-
tions, has passed through many meanings, and its ultimate origin
is still involved in a certain amount of obscurity. The derivation
from Welsh bach, little, is mentioned as " possible " by Skeat
(Etymological Dictionary), but is "definitely discarded" by the New
English Dictionary, and that given here is suggested as probable.
The word baccalarius was applied to the tenant of a baccalaria
(from baccalia, a herd of cows, bacca being a Low Latin variant
of vacca), which was presumably at first a grazing farm and was
practically the same as a vaselleria, i.e. the fief of a sub-vassal.
Just, however, as the character and the size of the baccalaria
varied in different ages, so the word baccalarius changed its
significance; thus in the 8th century it was applied to the
rustici, whether men or women (baccalariae) , who worked for the
tenant of a mansus. Throughout all its meanings the word has
retained the idea of subordination suggested in this origin. Thus
it came to be applied to various categories of persons as follows.
(i) Ecclesiastics of an inferior grade, e.g. young monks or even
recently appointed canons (Severtius, de episcopis Lugdunen-
sibus, p. 377, in du Cange). (2) Those belonging to the lowest
stage of knighthood. Knights bachelors were either poor vassals
who could not afford to take the field under their own banner,
or knights too young to support the responsibility and dignity
of knights bannerets (see KNIGHTHOOD AND CHIVALRY). (3)
Those holding the preliminary degree of a university, enabling
them to proceed to that of master (magister) which alone entitled
them to teach. In this sense the word baccalarius or baccalaureus
first appears at the university of Paris in the I3th century, in
the system of degrees established under the auspices of Pope
Gregory IX., as applied to scholars stiil in statu pupillari. Thus
there were two classes of baccalarii: the baccalarii cursores,i.e.
theological candidates passed for admission to the divinity
course, and the baccalarii dispositi, who, having completed this
course, were entitled to proceed to the higher degrees. In modern
universities the significance of the degree of bachelor, in relation
to the others, varies; e.g. at Oxford and Cambridge the bachelor
can proceed to his mastership by simply retaining his name on
the books and paying certain fees; at other universities a further
examination is still necessary. But in no case is the bachelor
a full member of the university. The degree of bachelor (of arts,
&c.) is borne by women also. (4) The younger or inferior members
of a trade gild or city company, otherwise known as " yeomen "
(now obsolete). (5) Unmarried men, since these presumably
have their fortunes yet to make and are not full citizens. The
word bachelor, now confined to men in this connotation, was
formerly sometimes used of women also.
Bachelors, in the sense of unmarried men, have in many
countries been subjected to penal laws. At Sparta, citizens who
remained unmarried after a certain age suffered various penalties.
They were not allowed to witness the gymnastic exercises of the
maidens; and during winter they were compelled to march naked
round the market-place, singing a song composed against them-
selves and expressing the justice of their punishment. The
usual respect of the young to the old was not paid to bachelors
(Plut. Lye. 15). At Athens there was no definite legislation on
this matter; but certain minor laws are evidently dictated by a
spirit akin to the Spartan doctrine (see Schomann, Gr. Alterth.
i. 548). At Rome, though there appear traces of some earlier
legislation in the matter, the first clearly known law is that called
the Lex Julia, passed about 18 B.C. It does not appear to have
ever come into full operation; and in A.D. 9 it was incorporated
with the Lex Papia et Poppaea, the two laws being frequently
cited as one, Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea. This law, while re-
stricting marriages between the several classes of the people, laid
heavy penalties on unmarried persons, gave certain privileges to
those citizens who had several children, and finally imposed
lighter penalties on married persons who were childless.
Isolated instances of such penalties occur during the middle
ages, e.g. by a charter of liberties granted by Matilda I.,
countess of Nevers, to Auxerre in 1223, an annual tax of five
solidi is imposed on any man qui non habet uxorem et est bache-
larius. In Britain there has been no direct legislation bearing
on bachelors; but, occasionally, taxes have been made to bear
more heavily on them than on others. Instances of this are the
act (6 and 7 Will. III.) passed in 1695; the tax on servants,
1785; and the income tax, 1798.
BACHIAN (Dutch Batjan), one of the Molucca Islands, in the
residency of Ternate, Dutch East Indies, in the Molucca Sea, in
oi3'-oss' S. and i2722'-i28E. With its subordinate islands,
Mandioli, Tawali and others, it lies west of the southern penin-
sula of the island of Halmahera or Jilolo, and has an area of 914
sq. m. It is of irregular form, consisting of two distinct moun-
tainous parts, united by a low isthmus, which a slight subsidence
would submerge. The island is in part of volcanic formation,
and the existence of hot springs points to volcanic activity.
There are, however, especially in the southern portion, ancient
and non-volcanic rocks. The highest elevation occurs at the
south of the island, the mountain of Labua reaching 6950 ft.
Coal and other minerals have been discovered. A large portion
of the island is richly wooded, and sago, cocoa-nuts and cloves
(which are indigenous) are abundantly produced. Bachian is
remarkable as the most eastern point on the globe inhabited by
any of the Quadrumana, a black ape occurring here as in Celebes.
The island is very rich in birds and insects. The interior of the
island is uninhabited and none of the dwellers on the coast are
indigenous. They consist of the Sirani or Christian descendants
of the Portuguese, of Malays, with a Papuan element, Galela
men from the north of Halmahera, immigrants from Celebes,
with some Chinese and Arabs. The total number of inhabitants
is about 13,000. The chief village, called Amasing by the in-
habitants, but also called Bachian, is situated on the west side
of the isthmus. Bachian is the most important island of a group
formerly governed by a sultan, but since 1889 by a committee
of chiefs under the control of a Dutch controleur. From 1882
onwards a Batjan company attempted to exploit the island, but
BACK-BONDBACKGAMMON
133
unsuccessfully, owing to a deficient knowledge of the soil and its
capabilities and a lack of labourers.
BACK-BOND, or BACK-LETTER, in Scots law, a deed qualify-
ing the terms of another deed, or declaratory of the purposes
for which another deed has been granted. Thus an ex facie
absolute disposition, qualified by a back-bond expressing the
limited nature of the right actually held by the person to whom
the disposition is made, would constitute what in England is
termed a deed of trust.
BACK-CHOIR, RETRO-CHOIR, a space behind the high altar
in the choir of a church, in which there is, or was, a small altar
standing back to back with the other.
BACKERGUNJE, or BAKARGAN.I, a district of British India
in the Dacca division of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It forms
part of the joint delta of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, and
its area is 4542 sq. m. The general aspect of the district is that
of a flat even country, dotted with clusters of bamboos and betel-
nut trees, and intersected by a perfect network of dark-coloured
and sluggish streams. There is not a hill or hillock in the whole
district, but it derives a certain picturesque beauty from its wide
expanses of cultivation, and the greenness and freshness of the
vegetation. This is especially conspicuous in the rains, but at
no time of the year does the district present a dried or burnt-up
appearance. The villages, which are always walled round by
groves of bamboos and betel-nut palms, have often a very
striking appearance; and Backergunje has many beauties of
detail which strike a traveller in passing through the country.
The level of the country is low, forming as it does a part of the
great Gangetic delta; and the rivers, streams and water-courses
are so numerous that it is very difficult to travel except by boat
at any season of the year. Every natural hollow is full of water,
around the margin of which long grasses, reeds and other aquatic
plants grow in the greatest profusion, often making it difficult
to say where the land ends and the water begins. Towards the
north-west the country is very marshy and nothing is to be seen
for miles but tracts of unreclaimed swamps and rice lands, with
a few huts scattered here and there and raised on mounds of
earth. In the south of the district, along the coast of the Bay
of Bengal, lie the forest tracts of the Sundarbans, the habitation
of tigers, leopards and other wild beasts.
The principal rivers of the district are the Meghna, the Arial
Khan and the Haringhata or Baleswar, with their numerous off-
shoots. The Meghna represents the accumulated waters of the
Brahmaputra and Ganges. It flows along the eastern boundary
of the district in a southerly direction for about 100 m. till it
debouches into the Bay of Bengal. During the latter part of its
course this noble river expands into a large estuary containing
many islands, the principal of which is that of Dakshin Shahbaz-
pur. The islands on the sea-front are expose'd to devastation
by cyclonic storm-waves. The Arial Khan, a branch of the
Ganges, enters the district from the north, and flows generally
in a south-easterly direction till it falls into the estuary of the
Meghna. The main channel of the Arial Khan is about 1700 yds.
in width in the dry season, and from 2000 to 3000 yds. in the rains.
It receives a number of tributaries, sends off several offshoots,
and is navigable throughout the year by native cargo boats of the
largest size. The Haringhata, Baleswar, Madhumati and Garai
are various local names for the same river in different parts of its
course and represent another great offshoot of the Ganges. It
enters Backergunje near the north-west corner of the district,
whence it forms its western boundary, and runs south, but with
great windings in its upper reaches, till it crosses the Sundarbans,
and finally falls into the Bay of Bengal by a large and deep
estuary, capable of receiving ships of considerable burden. In
the whole of its course through the district the river is navigable
by native boats of large tonnage, and by large sea-going ships as
high up as Morrellganj, in the neighbouring district of Jessore.
Among its many tributaries in Backergunje the most important
is the Kacha, itself a considerable stream and navigable by large
boats all the year round, which flows in a southerly direction for
20 m., when it falls into the Baleswar. Other rivers of minor
importance are the Barisal, Bishkhali, Nihalganj, Khairabad,
Ghagar, Kumar, &c. All the rivers in the district are subject
to tidal action from the Meghna on the north, and from the Bay
of Bengal on the south, and nearly all of them are navigable at
high tide by country boats of all sizes. The rise of the tide is
very considerable in the estuary of the Meghna, and many of the
creeks and water-courses in the island of Dakshin Shahbazpur,
which are almost dry at ebb tide, contain 18 or 19 ft. of water at
the flood. A very strong " bore " or tidal wave runs up the
estuary of the Meghna at spring tides, and a singular sound
like thunder, known as the " Barisal guns," is often heard far
out at sea about the time it is coming in. There are numerous
marshes in the district, of great size and depth, and abounding in
fish.
The Mussulmans of Backergunje are among the worst of their
creed, steeped in ignorance and prejudice, easily excited to
violence and murder, very litigious and grossly immoral. On
account of an epidemic of murders disarmament had to be enforced
in the district. The Faraizis or Puritan sect of Mahommedans
are exceedingly numerous in the district. The Buddhist popula-
tion consists of Maghs or the people of Arakan, who first settled
in Backergunje about 1800, and have made themselves very
useful in the clearing of the Sundarbans. A gipsy-like tribe
called the Bebajias are rather numerous in this district. They
live principally in boats, travelling from place to place, profess
Mahommedanism, and gain their subsistence by wood-cutting
in the Sundarbans, fishing, fortune-telling and trading in trinkets.
In 1901 the population was 2,291,752, showing an increase of
6 % in the decade.
A number of small trading villages exist throughout the
district, and each locality has its periodical fairs for purposes
of traffic. The material condition of the people is good. Every
inhabitant is a small landholder and cultivates sufficient rice
and other necessaries for the support of his family. Owing to this
reason, hired labour is very scarce. Rice is the great crop of the
district, and three harvests are obtained annually the aman,
or winter rice; aus, or autumn crop; and boro, or spring rice.
The climate of Backergunje is one of the healthiest in Eastern
Bengal, owing to the strong south-west monsoon, which comes
up directly from the Bay of Bengal, and keeps the atmosphere
cool; but the heavy rainfall and consequent humidity of the
atmosphere, combined with the use of bad water, are fruitful
sources of disease. The average annual temperature varies from
78 to 85 F. The thermometer ranges from 62 to 98.
Barisal, the headquarters station, situated on the west bank
of the Barisal river, had a population in 1901 of 18,978. The
next largest town is Pirojpur (14,119).
BACKGAMMON, a game played with draughtsmen and a special
board, depending on the throw of dice. It is said to have been
invented about the zoth century (Strutt). A similar game (Ludus
duodecim scriptorum, the " twelve-line game ") was known to the
Romans, and Plato (Republic, bk. x.) alludes to a game in which
dice were thrown and men were placed after due consideration.
The etymology of the word " backgammon " is disputed; it is
probably Saxon baec, back, gamen, game; i.e. a game in which
the players are liable to be sent back. Other derivations are,
Dan. bakke, tray, gammen, game (Wedgwood) ; and Welsh bach,
little, cammaun, battle (Henry). Chaucer alludes to a game of
" tables," played with three dice, in which " men " were moved
from the opponent's " tables," the game (Indus Anglicorum)
being described in the Harleian MSS. (1527). The French name
for backgammon is trictrac, imitative of the rattle of the dice.
Backgammon is played by two persons. The " board " (see
diagram) is divided into four " tables," each table being marked
with six " points " coloured differently. The inner and outer
tables are separated from each other by a projecting bar. The
board (in the ordinary form of the game) is furnished with fifteen
white and fifteen black men, " set " or arranged as in the diagram.
It is usual to make the inner table the one nearest to the light.
Two dice-boxes are required, one for each player, and a pair of
dice, which are used by both players. The dice are marked with
numbers on their six sides, from one to six, number one being
called, " ace "; two, " deuce "; three, " trey." Formerly the
134
BACKGAMMON
BLACK
Blact's Home or Inner Table.
Black's Outer Table.
four was called " quatre " (pronounced "cater"); the five,
" cinque " (pronounced either " sank " or " sink "); and the
six, " six " (size).
For the right to start each player throws one or two dice;
the one who throws the higher number has the right of playing
first; and he may either adopt the numbers thrown or he may
throw again, using both dice.
The men are moved on from point to point, according to the
throws of the dice made by the players alternately. White
moves from black's inner table to black's outer, and from this
to white's outer table, and so on to white's inner table; and all
black's moves must be in the contrary direction. A player may
move any of his men a number of points corresponding to the
numbers thrown by him, provided the point to which the move
would bring him is
not blocked by two
or more of his
adversary's men
being on it. The
whole throw may
be taken with one
man, or two men
maybe moved, one
the exact number
of points on one
die, the other the
number on the
other die. If doub-
lets are thrown
(e.g. two sixes) ,
four moves of that
number (e.g. four
movesofsixpoints)
may be made,
either all by one
man or separately
by more. Thus,
suppose white
throws five, six, he
White's Home or Inner Table. White's Outer Table.
WHITE
Backgammon Board.
1. Black's ace-point. 3. Black's bar-point.
2. White's ace-point. 4. White's bar-point.
may move one of his men from the left-hand corner of the black's
inner table to the left-hand corner of black's outer table for six;
he may, again, move the same man five points farther on, when
his move is completed; or he may move any other man five
points. But white cannot move a man for five from the black's
ace-point, because the six-point in that table is blocked. Any
part of the throw which cannot be moved is of no effect, but it is
compulsory for a player to move the whole throw unless blocked.
Thus if the men were differently placed, and white could move a
six, and having done so could not move a five, his move is com-
pleted. If, however, by moving the five first, he can afterwards
move a six, he must make the move in that manner.
When a player so moves as to place two men on the same point,
he is said to " make a point."
When there is only a single man on a point, it is called a " blot."
When a blot is left, the man there may be taken up (technically
the blot may be " hit ") by the adversary if he throws a number
which will enable him to place a man on that point. The man
hit is placed on the bar, and has to begin again by entering the
adversary's home table again at the next throw should it result
in a number that corresponds to an unblocked point. The points
in the home tables count for this purpose as i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
beginning from the ace-point. A player is not allowed to move
any other man while he ha? one to enter. It is, therefore, an
advantage to have made all the points in your own board, so that
your adversary, if you take a man up, cannot enter; and you can
then continue throwing until a point is opened.
The game proceeds until one of the players gets all his men into
his inner table or home. Then he begins to take his men off the
board, or to bear them, i.e. to remove a man from any point that
corresponds in number with his throw. If such a point is un-
occupied, a move must be made, if there is room for it, and a
move may be taken, instead of bearing a man, at any time; but
3
4
7
8
9
10
when six is empty, if six is thrown a man may be borne from five
and so on. If, after a player has commenced throwing off his men ,
he should be hit on a blot, he must enter on his adversary's inner
table and must bring the man taken up into his own inner table
before he can bear further.
Whoever first takes off all his men wins the game: a single
game (a " hit ") if his adversary has begun bearing; a double
game (a " gammon ") if the adversary has not borne a man; and
a triple game (a " backgammon ") if, at the time the winner bears
his last man, his adversary, not having borne a man, has one in
the winner's inner table, or has a man up. When a series of
games is played, the winner of a hit has the first throw in the
succeeding game; but if a gammon is won, the players each
throw a single die to determine the first move of the next game.
In order to play backgammon well, it is necessary to know all
the chances on two dice and to apply them in various ways. The
number of different throws that can be made is thirty-six. By
taking all the combinations of these throws which include given
numbers, it is easily discovered where blots may be left with the
least probability of being hit. For example, to find the chance of
being hit where a blot can only be taken up by an ace, the adversary
may throw two aces, or ace in combination with any other number
up to six, and he may throw each of these in two different ways, so
that there are in all eleven ways in which an ace may be thrown.
This, deducted from thirty-six (the total number of throws), leaves
twenty-five ; so that it is 25 to 1 1 against being hit on an ace. It
is very important to bear in mind the chance of being hit on any
number. The following table gives the odds against being hit on
any number within the reach of one or two dice :
It is 25 to ii, or about 9 to 4, against being hit on I
,, 24 12, or 2 i, 2
22 14, or about 32,
21 15, or 7 5,
,- 21 15, ,,75,
19 17- ,- 9i
,- 30 6, 5
3 6, 5
,, 31 5, or about 6
.. 33 3, or II
34 2, -. 17
33 3, ,. ii
The table shows that if a blot must be left within the reach of
one die, the nearer it is left to the adversary's man the less proba-
bility there is of its being hit. Also, that it is long odds against
being hit on a blot which is only to be reached with double dice,
and that, in that case (on any number from 7 to Ii), the farther off
the blot is, the less chance there is of its being hit.
The table assumes that the board is open for every possible throw.
If part of the throw is blocked by an intervening point being held by
adverse men, the chance of being hit is less.
Two principles, then, have to be considered in moving the men :
(i) To make points where there is the best chance of obstructing
the opponent. (2) When obliged to leave blots, to choose the posi-
tion in which they are least likely to be hit.
The best points to secure are the five-point in your own inner
table and the five-point in your adversary s inner table. The next
best is your own bar-point ; and the next best the four in your own
inner table.
The best move for some throws at the commencement of a game
is as follows: Aces (the best of all throws), move two on your bar-
point and two on your five-point. This throw is often given to
inferior players by way of odds.
Ace, trey : make the five-point in your inner table.
Ace, six: make your bar-point.
Deuces: move two on the four-point in your inner table, and two
on the trey-point in your opponent's inner table.
Deuce, four: make the four-point in your own table.
Threes: play two on the five-point in your inner table, and two
on the four-point of your adversary's inner table, or make your bar-
point.
Trey, five: make the trey-point in your own table.
Trey, six : bring a man from your adversary's ace-point as far as
he will go.
Fours: move on two on the five-point in your adversary's inner
table, and two from the five in his outer table.
Four, five and four, six: carry a man from your adversary's ace-
point as far as he will go.
Fives: move two men from the five in your adversary's outer
table to the trey-point in your inner table.
Five, six: move a man from your adversary's ace-point as far as
he will go.
Sixes (the second-best throw): move two on your adversary's
bar-point and two on your own bar-point.
In carrying the men home carry the most distant man to your
adversary s bar-point, to the six-point in your outer table, and then
to the six-point in your inner table. By following this rule as nearly
BACKHUYSEN BACON
as the throws admit, you will carry the men to your inner table in
the fewest number of throws.
Avoid carrying many men upon the trey or deuce-point in your
own tables, as these men are out of play.
Whenever you have taken up two of your adversary's men, and
two or more points made in your inner table, spread your other men
in the hope of making another point in your tables, and of hitting
the man your adversary enters.
Always take up a man if the blot you leave in making the move
can only be hit with double dice, but if you already have two of your
opponent's men in your tables it is unwise to take up a third.
In entering a man which it is to your adversary's advantage to
hit, leave the blot upon the lowest point you can, e.g. ace-point in
preference to deuce-point.
When your adversary is bearing his men, and you have two men
in his table, say, on his ace-point, and several men in the outer table,
it is to your advantage to leave one man on the ace-point, because it
prevents his bearing his men to the greatest advantage, and gives
you the chance of his leaving a blot. But if you find that you can
probably save the gammon by bringing both your men out of his
table, do not wait for a blot. Eight points is the average throw.
The laws of backgammon (as given by Hoyle) are as follows:
I. When a man is touched by the caster it must be played if
possible; if impossible no penalty. 2. A man is not played till it
is placed upon a point and quitted. 3. If a player omits a man
from the board there is no penalty. 4. If he bears any number of
men before he has entered a man taken up, men so borne must be
entered again. 5. If he has mistaken his throw and played it, and
his adversary has thrown, it is not in the choice of either of the
players to after it, unless they both agree to do so. 6. If one or
both dice are " cocked," i.e. do not lie fairly and squarely on the
table, a fresh throw is imperative.
Russian Backgammon varies from the above game in that the
men, instead of being set as in the diagram, are entered in the
same table by throws of the dice, and both players move in the
same direction round to the opposite table. There are various
rules for this game. By some a. player is not obliged to enter all
his men before he moves any ; he can take up blots at any time
on entering, but while he has a man up, he must enter it before
entering any more or moving any of those already entered. If he
cannot enter the man that is up, he loses the benefit of the throw.
A player who throws doublets must play or enter not only the
number thrown, but also doublets of the number corresponding
to the opposite side of the dice; thus, if he throws sixes, he must
first enter or move the sixes, as the case may be, and then aces,
and he also has another throw. Some rules allow him to play
either doublets first, but he must always complete one set before
playing the other. If a player cannot play the whole of his throw,
his adversary is sometimes allowed to pla'y the unplayed portion,
in which cases the caster is sometimes allowed to come in and
complete his moves, if he can, and in the event of his having
thrown deuce-ace or doublets to throw again. If he throws
doublets a second time, he moves and throws again, and so
on. The privilege is sometimes restricted by not allowing this
advantage to the first doublets thrown by each player. It is
sometimes extended by allowing the thrower of the deuce-ace to
choose any doublets he likes on the opposite side of the dice,
and to throw again. The restriction with regard to the first
doublets thrown does not apply to deuce-ace, nor does throwing
it remove the restriction with regard to first doublets. A player
must first be able to complete the doublets thrown. If the
player cannot move the whole throw he cannot take the corre-
sponding doublets, and he is not allowed another throw if he
cannot move all the points to which he is entitled.
BACKHUYSEN, or BAKHUISEN, LUDOLF (1631-1708), Dutch
painter, was born at Emden, in Hanover. He was brought up as
a merchant at Amsterdam, but early discovered so strong a
genius for painting that he relinquished business and devoted
himself to art. He studied first under Allart van Everdingen and
then under Hendrik Dubbels, two eminent masters of the time,
and soon became celebrated for his sea-pieces. He was an ardent
student of nature, and frequently exposed himself on the sea in
an open boat in order to study the effects of tempests. His
compositions, which are very numerous, are nearly all variations
of one subject, and in a style peculiarly his own, marked by
intense realism or faithful imitation of nature. In his lateryears
Backhuysen employed his time in etching and calligraphy. He
died in Amsterdam on the iyth of November 1708.
BACKNANG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wurttem-
berg, 19 m. by rail N.E. from Stuttgart. Pop. (1900) 7650. It
has an interesting church, dating from the I2th century, and
notable tanneries and leather factories, woollen and cloth mills.
In 1325 Backnang was ceded to WUrttemberg by Baden. In the
vicinity is the Wilhelmsheim sanatorium for consumptives.
BACKSCRATCHER, a long slender rod of wood, whalebone,
tortoise-shell, horn or cane, with a carved human hand, usually
of ivory, mounted at the extremity. Its name suggests the
primary use of the implement, but little is known of its history,
and it was unquestionably also employed as a kind of rake to
keep in order the huge " heads " of powdered hair worn by ladies
during a considerable portion of the i8th and the early part of the
igth centuries. The backscratcher varies in length from 1 2 to 20
in., and the more elaborate examples,which were occasionally hung
from the waist, are silver-mounted, and in rare instances the ivory
fingers bear carved rings. The hand is sometimes outstretched,
and sometimes the fingers are flexed; the modelling is frequently
good, the fingers delicately formed and the nails well defined.
As a rule the rod is finished off with a knob. The hand was now
and again replaced by a rake or a bird's claw. The hand was
indifferently dexter or sinister, but the Chinese variety usually
bears a right hand. Like most of the obsolete appliances of daily
life, the backscratcher, or scratch-back, as it is sometimes called,
has become scarce, and it is one of the innumerable objects which
attract the attention of the modern collector.
BACK'S RIVER (Thlewechodyeth,or "Great Fish"), a river in
Mackenzie and Keewatin districts, Canada, rising in Sussex lake,
a small body of water in 108 20' W. and 64 25' N., and flowing
with a very tortuous course N.E. to an inlet of the Arctic Ocean,
passing through several large lake-expansions Pelly, Garry,
MacDougall and Franklin. Like the Coppermine, the only other
large river of this part of Canada, it is rendered unnavigable by a
succession of rapids and rocks. It was discovered and explored
by Sir George Back in 1834. Its total length is 560 m.
BACKWARDATION, or, as it is more often called for brevity,
BACK, a technical term employed on the London Stock Exchange
to express the amount charged for the loan of stock from one
account to the other, and paid to the purchaser by the seller on a
bear account (see ACCOUNT) in order to allow the seller to defer
the delivery of the stock. The seller, having sold for delivery
on a certain date, stocks or shares which probably he does not
possess, in the hope that he may be able, before the day fixed
for delivery, to buy them at a cheaper price and so earn a profit,
finds on settling-day that the prices have not gone down accord-
ing to his expectation, and therefore pays the purchaser an agreed
amount of interest (backwardation) for the privilege of deferring
the delivery, either in order to procure the stock, or else in the
hope that there will be a shrinkage in the price which will enable
him to gain a profit. (See also STOCK EXCHANGE).
BACON, FRANCIS (BARON VERULAM, VISCOUNT ST ALBANS)
(1561-1626), English philosopher, statesman and essayist, was
born at York House in the Strand, London, on the 22nd of January
1560/1. He was the youngest son of Sir Nicholas Bacon (q.v.).
His mother, the second wife of Sir Nicholas, was a daughter of
Sir Anthony Cooke, formerly tutor to Edward VI. She was a
woman of considerable culture, well skilled in the classical
studies of the period, and a warm adherent of the Reformed or
Puritan Church. Very little is known of Bacon's early life and
education. His health being then, as always, extremely delicate,
he probably received much of his instruction at home. In April
1573 he was entered at Trinity College, Cambridge, where for
three years he resided with his brother Anthony. At Cam-
bridge he applied himself diligently to the several sciences as
then taught, and came to the conclusion that the methods em-
ployed and the results attained were alike erroneous. Although
he preserved a reverence for Aristotle (of whom, however,
he seems to have known but little), he learned to despise
the current Aristotelian philosophy. It yielded no fruit, was
serviceable only for disputation, and the end it proposed to itself
was a mistaken one. Philosophy must be taught its true purpose,
and for this purpose a new method must be devised. With the
136
BACON, FRANCIS
first germs of this great conception in his mind, Bacon left the
university.
On the zyth of June 1576 he and his brother Anthony were
entered de societale magistrorum at Gray's Inn, and a few months
later he was sent abroad with Sir Amyas Paulet, the English
ambassador at Paris. The disturbed state of government and
society in France at that time afforded him valuable political
instruction. It was formerly supposed that certain Noles on the
State of Christendom, usually printed in his works, contain the
results of his observations, but Spedding has shown that there is
no reason for ascribing these Notes to him, and that they may be
attributed with more probability to one of his brother Anthony's
correspondents.
The sudden death of his father in February 1578/9 necessitated
Bacon's return to England, and exercised a very serious influence
on his fortunes. A considerable sum of money had been laid up
by Sir Nicholas for the purchase of an estate for his youngest son,
the only one otherwise unprovided for. Owing to his sudden
death, this intention was not carried out, and a fifth only of the
money descended to Francis. This was one of the gravest mis-
fortunes of his life; he started with insufficient means, acquired
a habit of borrowing and was never afterwards out of debt. As
it had become necessary that he should adopt some profession, he
selected that of law, and took up his residence at Gray's Inn in
1579-
In the fragment De Interpretatione Naturae Prooemium
(written probably about 1603) Bacon analyses his own mental
character and lays before us the objects he had in view when he
entered on public life. If his opening sentence, " Ego cum me ad
utilitates humanas natum existimarem " (" since I thought my-
self born to be of advantage to mankind "), seems at first sight a
[/ little arrogant, it must be remembered that it is the arrogance of
Aristotle's /^aXo^uxos, 1 who thinks himself worthy of great
things, and is worthy. The ideal of production of good to the
human race through the discovery of truth, was combined in him
with the practical desire to be of service to his country. He
purposed, therefore, to obtain, if possible, some honourable post
in the state which would give him the means of realizing these
projects, and would enable him to do somewhat for the church,
the third of the objects whose good he had at heart. The constant
striving after these three ends is the key to Bacon's life. His
qualifications for accomplishing the task were not small. His
intellect was far-seeing and acute, quick and yet cautious, medi-
tative, methodical and free from prejudice. If we add to this
account that he seems to have been of an unusually amiable dis-
position we have a fairly complete picture of his mental character
at this critical period of his life.
In 1580 he appears to have taken the first step in his career by
applying, through his uncle, Burghley, the lord treasurer, for some
post at court. His suit, though well received by the queen, was
unsuccessful; the particulars are totally unknown. For two
years after this disappointment he worked quietly at Gray's Inn,
and in 1582 was admitted an outer barrister. In 1584 he took
his seat in parliament for Melcombe in Dorsetshire, but the
notes for the session do not disclose what reputation he gained.
About the same time he made another application to Burghley,
apparently with a view to expediting his progress at the bar.
His uncle, who appears to have " taken his zeal for ambition,"
wrote him a severe letter, taking him to task for arrogance
and pride, qualities which Bacon vehemently disclaimed. As
his advancement at the bar was unusually rapid, his uncle's
influence may have been exerted in his behalf. In 1589 he
received the first substantial piece of patronage from his power-
ful kinsman, the reversion of the clerkship of "the Star Chamber.
The office was worth about 1600 a year; but it did not become
vacant for nearly twenty years. A considerable period of his life
thus slipped away, and his affairs had not prospered. He had
written on the condition of parties in the church; he had set
down his thoughts on philosophical reform in the lost tract,
Tcmporis Partus Maximus; but he had failed in obtaining the
position which he looked upon as an indispensable condition
1 See Nic. Eth. iv. 3. 3.
of success. A long and eloquent letter to Burghley 2 throws
additional light upon his character, and gives a hint as to the
cause of his uncle's slackness in promoting him.
Some time before this, perhaps as early as 1588, Bacon appears
to have become acquainted with the earl of Essex, Elizabeth's
favourite. At the close of 1591 he was acting as the earl's
confidential adviser, and exerted himself, together with his
brother Anthony, diligently in the earl's service. In February
1593 parliament was called, and Bacon took his seat for Middle-
sex. The special occasion for which the House had been sum-
moned was the discovery of one of the numerous popish plots
that distracted Elizabeth's reign.
As Bacon's conduct in this emergency seriously affected his
fortunes and has been much misunderstood, it is necessary to
state, as briefly as possible, the whole facts of the case. The
House having been duly informed of the state necessities, assented
to a double subsidy and appointed a committee to draw up the
requisite articles. Before this was completed, a message arrived
from the House of Lords requesting a conference, which was
granted. The committee of the Commons were then informed
that the crisis demanded a triple subsidy to be collected in a
shorter time than usual, that the Lords could not assent to less
than this, and that they desired to confer on the matter. This
proposal of the Lords to discuss supply infringed upon the
privileges of the Commons; accordingly, when the report of
committee was read to the Lower House, Bacon spoke against
the proposed conference, pointing out at the same time that a
communication from the Lords might be received, but that the
actual deliberation on it must be taken by themselves alone.
His motion, after some delay, was carried and the conference
was rejected. The Lords upon this lowered their demands, and
desired merely to make a communication, which, being legitimate,
was at once assented to. The House had then before them the
proposal for a triple subsidy, to be collected in three, or, as the
motion ultimately was shaped, in four years, instead of in six,
as the ordinary custom would have been. Bacon, who approved
of the increased subsidy, was opposed to the short period in
which it was proposed to raise it. He suggested that it would
be difficult or impossible for the people to meet such heavy
demands, that discontent and trouble would arise, and that the
better method of procedure was to raise money by levy or
imposition. His motion appears to have received no support,
and the four years' subsidy was passed unanimously. Bacon,
as it turned out, had been mistaken in thinking that the country
would be unable to meet the increased taxation, and his conduct,
though prompted by a pure desire to be of service to the queen,
gave deep and well-nigh ineradicable offence. He was accused
" I wax now somewhat ancient; one-and-thirty years is a great
deal of sand in the hour-glass. ... I ever bare a mind (in some
middle place that I could discharge) to serve her majesty ; not as a
man born under Sol, that loveth honour; nor under Jupiter, that
loveth business (for the contemplative planet carrieth me away
wholly) ; but as a man born under an excellent sovereign, that de-
serveth the dedication of all men's abilities. . . .Again, the meanness
of my estate doth somewhat move me ; for though I cannot accuse
myself that I am either prodigal or slothful, yet my health is not to
spend, nor my course to get. Lastly, I confess that I have as vast
contemplative ends as 1 have moderate civil ends ; for I have taken
all knowledge to be my province ; and if I could purge it of two sorts
of rovers, whereof the one with frivolous disputations, confutations
and verbosities, the other with blind experiments and auricular
traditions and impostures, hath committed so many spoils, I hope I
should bring in industrious observations, grounded conclusions and
profitable inventions and discoveries the best state of that province.
This, whether it be curiosity, or vain-glory, or nature, or (if one take
it favourably) philanthropia, is so fixed in my mind as it cannot be
removed. And I do easily see, that place of any reasonable command-
ment doth bring commandment of more wits than of a man's own.
. . .And if your lordship shall find now, or at any time, that I do
seek or affect any place whereunto any that is nearer to your lord-
ship shall be convenient, say then that I am a most dishonest man.
And if your lordship will not carry me on, . . . this I will do, I will
sell the inheritance that I have, and purchase some lease of quick
revenue, or some office of gain that shall be executed by deputy, and
so give over all care of service, and become some sorry bookmaker,
or a true pioneer in that mine of truth." Spedding, Letters and
Life, i. 108-109.
BACON, FRANCIS
'37
of seeking popularity, and was for a time excluded from the court.
His letter to Burghley, 1 who had told him of the queen's
displeasure with his speech, offers no apology for what he had
said, but expresses regret that his motives should have been
misunderstood. He soon felt that the queen's anger was not to
be appeased by such a justification. The attorney-generalship
had fallen vacant and Bacon became a candidate for the office,
his most formidable rival being his life-long antagonist, Edward
Coke, who was then solicitor. Essex warmly espoused Bacon's
cause and earnestly pressed his claims upon the queen; but
his impetuous, pettish pleading tended to retard the cause.
Burghley, on the other hand, in no way promoted his nephew's
interest; he would recommend him for the solicitorship, but
not for the attorney-generalship; and it is not improbable that
Sir Robert Cecil secretly used his influence against his cousin.
The queen delayed the appointment, and Bacon's fortunes,
as they then stood, could ill brook delay. He was harassed with
debt and at times so disheartened that he contemplated retire-
ment from public life. In March 1594 it was at last understood
that Coke was to be attorney-general. Essex, though bitterly
mortified, at once threw all his energies into the endeavour to
procure for Bacon the solicitorship; but in this case also, his
method of dealing, which was wholly opposed to Bacon's advice, 2
seemed to irritate the queen. The old offence was not yet for-
given, and after a tedious delay, the office was given, in October
I S95i to Serjeant Thomas Fleming. Burghley and Sir John
Puckering seem to have assisted Bacon honestly, if not over-
warmly, in this second application; but the conduct of Cecil
had roused suspicions which were not perhaps without foundation.
Essex, to compensate in some degree for Bacon's disappointment,
insisted on presenting him with a piece of land, worth about
1800, and situated probably near Twickenham P ark. Nor did
his kindness cease there; before sailing on the expedition to
Cadiz, in the beginning of 1596, he addressed letters to Buck-
hurst, Fortescue and Egerton, earnestly requesting them to use
their influence towards procuring for Bacon the vacant office of
master of the rolls. Before anything came of this application,
the Cadiz expedition had resulted in a brilliant success, and
foe Essex became the idol of the army and the people. Bacon
saw clearly that such a reputation would assuredly alienate the
affections of the queen, who loved not to have a subject too
powerful or too popular. He therefore addressed an eloquent
and imploring letter to the earl, pointing out the dangers of his
position and urging upon him what he judged to be the only
safe course of action, to seek and secure the favour of the queen
alone; above all things dissuading him from the appearance
of military popularity. His advice, however, was unpalatable
and proved ineffectual. The earl still continued his usual course
of dealing with the queen, depending solely upon her supposed
affection for him, and insanely jealous of any other whom she
might seem to favour. His unskilful and unlucky management
of the sea expedition to Ferrol and the Azores in no way lowered
his popularity with the people, but undoubtedly weakened his
influence with the queen.
Bacon's affairs in the meantime had not been prospering. He
had increased his reputation by the publication in 1597 of his
Essays, along with which were the Colours of Good and Evil
and the Meditationes Sacrae; but his private fortunes were
in a bad condition. No public office apparently could be
found for him; a scheme for retrieving his position by a marriage
with the wealthy widow, Lady Elizabeth Hatton, failed, and in
1598 he was arrested for debt. He seems, however, to have
been growing in favour with the queen. Some years previously
(perhaps about 1594), he had begun to be employed by her in
crown affairs, and he gradually acquired the standing of one of
the learned counsel, though he had no commission or warrant,
and received no salary. At the same time he was no longer on
the former friendly terms with Essex, a certain estrangement
1 Spedding, Letter sand Life, 1.234-235, cf. 1.362. This letter, with
those to Puckering or Essex and the queen,!. 24^0-241, should be com-
pared with what is said of them by Macaulay in his Essay on Bacon,
and by Campbell, Lives, ii. 287.
* See Letters and Life, i. 289, ii. 34.
having sprung up between them, caused no doubt by the earl's
dislike of his friend's advice. The earl's affairs were then at a
somewhat critical stage, and as our judgment upon a most
important episode in Bacon's life depends upon our knowledge
of the events of the ensuing year, it will be requisite to enter
somewhat minutely into proceedings with which Bacon himself
had nothing to do.
Ireland was then in a rebellious and discontented condition,
and it was difficult for the English government to decide either
on a definite course of policy with regard to it, or on a leader by
whom that policy might be carried out. _ A violent quarrel took
place between the queen and Essex, who for some months retired
from court and refused to be reconciled. At last he came forth
from his seclusion, and it was soon understood that he was in
person to undertake the subjugation of the rebels in Ireland,
with a larger force than had ever before been sent into that
country. Into the obscure details of this unhappy campaign it is
unnecessary to enter; one fact stands out clearly, that Essex
endeavoured to carry out a treasonable design. His jealousy and
ill-temper had been so roused that the only course open to him
seemed to be the obtaining a powerful military force, the posses-
sion of which would compel the queen to reinstate him in her
favour. Whether or not this plan was in contemplation before
he undertook the Irish expedition is not evident, though even
outsiders at that time entertained some suspicions, but there can
be no doubt of the treasonable character of the negotiations
carried on in Ireland. His plans, probably not very definite,
were disturbed by an imperative message from the queen,
ordering him not to return to England without her permission.
He at once set off, and, trusting apparently to her affection for
him, presented himself suddenly before her. He was, for the
moment, received kindly, but was soon afterwards ordered to
keep his chamber, and was then given into the custody of the
lord keeper at York House, where he remained till March 1600.
His great popularity, and the general ignorance of the reasons for
his imprisonment, stirred up a strong feeling against the queen,
who was reported to be influenced by Bacon, and such indignation
was raised against the latter that his friends feared his life would
be in danger. It was at last felt necessary that the queen should
in some way vindicate her proceedings, and this she at first did,
contrary to Bacon's advice, by a declaration from the Star
Chamber. This, however, gave little or no satisfaction, and it
was found expedient to do what Bacon had always recommended,
to have a fair trial, yet not one in which the sentence must needs
be damaging to the earl. The trial accordingly took place before
a body of her majesty's councillors, and Bacon had a subordinate
and unimportant part in the accusation. Essex does not seem
to have been at all hurt by his action in this matter, and shortly
after his release they were again on friendly terms, Bacon
drawing up letters as if to or from the earl with the design of
having them brought before the queen. But Bacon did not know
the true character of the transactions in which Essex had been
engaged. The latter had been released from all custody in
August, but in the meantime he had been busily engaged in
treasonable correspondence with James of Scotland, and was
counting on the Irish army under his ally, Charles Blount, Baron
Mountjoy (afterwards earl of Devonshire) , the new deputy. But
Mountjoy had apparently come to see how useless the attempt
would be to force upon the queen a settlement of the succession
and declined to go farther in the matter. Essex was thus thrown
upon his own resources, and his anger against the queen being
roused afresh by the refusal to renew his monopoly of sweet
wines, he formed the desperate project of seizing her person and
compelling her to dismiss from her council his enemies Raleigh,
Cobham, and Cecil. As some pretext, he intended to affirm that
his life was in danger from these men, who were in league with the
Spaniards. The plot was forced on prematurely by the suspicions
excited at court, and the rash attempt to rouse the city of London
(8th of February 1601) proved a complete fiasco. The leaders
were arrested that night and thrown into prison. Although
the actual rising might have appeared a mere outburst of
frantic passion, the private examinations of the most prominent
138
BACON, FRANCIS
conspirators disclosed to the government a plot so widely spread,
and involving so many of the highest in the land, that it would
have been perilous to have pressed home accusations against all
who might be implicated. Essex was tried along with the young
earl of Southampton, and Bacon, as one of her majesty's counsel,
. was present on the occasion. Coke, who was principal spokesman,
managed the case with great want of skill, incessantly allowing
the thread of the evidence to escape, and giving the prisoners
opportunity to indulge in irrelevant justifications and protesta-
tions which were not ineffectual in distracting attention from the
real question at issue. On the first opportunity Bacon rose and
briefly pointed out that the earl's plea of having done nothing
save what was absolutely necessary to defend his life from the
machinations of his enemies was weak and worthless, inasmuch
as these enemies were purely imaginary ; and he compared his
case to that of Peisistratus, who had made use of a somewhat
similar stratagem to cloak his real designs upon the city of Athens.
He was thereupon interrupted by the earl, who proceeded to
defend himself, by declaring that in one of the letters drawn up
by Bacon, and purporting to be from the earl to Anthony Bacon,
the existence of these rumours, and the dangers to be appre-
hended from them, had been admitted ; and he continued, " If
these reasons were then just and true, not counterfeit, how can
it be that now my pretences are false and injurious?" To this
Bacon replied, that " the letters, if they were there, would not
blush to be seen for anything contained in them, and that he had
spent more time in vain in studying how to make the earl a good
servant to the queen than he had done in anything else." It
seems to be forgotten in the general accounts of this matter, not
only that Bacon's letters bear out what he said, but that the
earl's excuses were false. A second time Bacon was compelled
to interfere in the course of the trial, and to recall to the minds
of those present the real question at issue. He animadverted
strongly upon the puerile nature of the defence, and in answer
to a remark by Essex, that if he had wished to stir up a rebellion
he would have had a larger company with him, pointed out that
his dependence was upon the people of London, and compared
his attempt to that of the duke of Guise at Paris. To this the
earl made little or no reply. Bacon's use of this illustration and
of the former one of Peisistratus, has been much commented on,
and in general it seems to have been thought that had it not been
for his speeches Essex might have escaped, or, at all events, have
been afterwards pardoned. But this view of the matter depends
on the supposition that Essex was guilty only of a rash
outbreak. 1 That this was not the case was well known to the
queen and her council. Unfortunately, prudential motives
hindered the publication of the whole evidence; the people,
consequently, were still ignorant of the magnitude of the crime,
and, till recently, biographers of Bacon have been in a like
ignorance. 2 The earl himself, before execution, confessed his
guilt and the thorough justice of his sentence, while, with singular
lack of magnanimity, he incriminated several against whom
accusations had not been brought, among others his sister Lady
Rich. After his execution it was thought necessary that some
account of the facts should be drawn up and circulated, in order
to remove the prejudice against the queen's action in the matter.
This was entrusted to Bacon, who drew up a Declaration of the
Practices and Treasons attempted and committed by Robert, late
Earl of Essex, his first draft being extensively altered and
corrected by the queen and council. Nothing is known with
certainty of the reception given to this official explanation, but
the ill-feeling against Bacon was not wholly removed, and some
years later, in 1604, he published, in the form of a letter to
Mount joy, an Apology for his action in the case. This Apology
gives a most fair and temperate history of the relations between
Bacon and Essex, shows how the prudent counsel of the one had
been rejected by the other, and brings out very clearly what we
conceive to be the true explanation of the matter. Everything
1 See Macaulay's Essay on Bacon.
1 The whole story of Essex is given in Spedding's Letters and Life.
It is vigorously told by J. Bruce in the introduction to his Corre-
spondence of James VI. with Sir Robert Cecil (Camden Society, 1861).
that Bacon could do was done by him, until the real nature of
Essex's design was made apparent, and then, as he had repeatedly
told the earl, his devotion and respect were for the queen and
state, not for any subject; friendship could never take rank
above loyalty. Those who blame Bacon must acquit Essex of
all wrong-doing.
Bacon's private fortunes, during the period after the death of
Essex, were not in a flourishing condition. He had obtained a
grant of 1200 from the fines imposed on Catesby, one of the
conspirators, but his debts were sufficient to swallow up this and
much more. And, though he was trusted by Elizabeth, and on
good terms with her, he seems to have seen that he had no chance
of advancement. But her death in 1603, followed by the un-
disputed succession of James, gave him new hopes. He used
every means in his power to bring himself under James's notice,
writing to all his friends at the Scottish court and to the king
himself. He managed to obtain a personal interview with the
king, but does not seem to have been much satisfied with it. In
fact, while the king confirmed in their situations those who had
held crown offices under Elizabeth, Bacon, not holding his post
by warrant, was practically omitted. He was, however, con-
tinued, by special order of the king, as learned counsel extra-
ordinary, but little or no law business appears to have been
entrusted to him. He procured, through his cousin Cecil, the
dignity of knighthood, which, contrary to his inclination, he
received along with about 300 others, on the 23rd of July 1603.
Between this time and the opening of James's first parliament he
was engaged in literary work, and sent to the king two pamphlets
one on the Union, the other on measures for the pacification
of the church. Shortly after he published his Apology. In
March 1604 parliament met, and during their short session
Bacon's hands seem to have been full of work. It was a busy
and stirring time, and events occurred during it which carried
within them the seeds of much future dissension. Prerogative
and privilege came more than once into collision, the abuses
of purveyance and wardship were made matters of conference,
though the thorough discussion of them was deferred to a suc-
ceeding session ; while James's temper was irritated by the
objections brought against his favourite scheme of the Union,
and by the attitude taken up by the House with regard to
religious affairs. The records are barely full enough to enable us
to judge of the share taken by Bacon in these discussions; -his
name generally appears as the reporter of the committees on
special subjects. We can occasionally, however, discern traces
of his tact and remarkable prudence; and, on the whole, his
attitude, particularly with regard to the Union question, recom-
mended him to James. He was shortly afterwards formally
installed as learned counsel, receiving the salary of 40, and at
the same time a pension of 60 yearly. He was also appointed
one of the commission to treat of the conditions necessary for the
Union; and the admirable manner in which the duties of that
body were discharged must be attributed mainly to his influence
and his complete mastery of the subject. During the recess he
published his Advancement of Learning, dedicated to the king.
He was now brought into relations with James, and his
prospects began to improve. It is important for us to know
what were his ideas upon government, upon parliaments, pre-
rogative, and so forth, since a knowledge of this will clear up
much that would seem inexplicable in his life. It seems quite
evident 3 that Bacon, from position, early training and, one
might almost think, natural inclination, held as his ideal of
government the Elizabethan system. The king was the supreme
power, the centre of law and justice, and his prerogative must not
be infringed. Parliament was merely a body called to consult
with the king on emergencies (circa ardua regni) and to grant
supplies. King and parliament together make up the state,
but the former is first in nature and importance. The duty
of a statesman was, therefore, to carry out the royal will in as
prudent a manner as possible ; he was the servant of the king,
and stood or fell according to his pleasure. He was not singular
in his opinions and he was undoubtedly sincere; and it is only
8 See Letters and Life, iv. 177, vi. 38, vii. 116, 117.
BACON, FRANCIS
139
by keeping them constantly in mind that we can understand his
after relations with the king.
In the second parliament there was not so much scope for the
exercise of his powers. The Gunpowder Plot had aroused in the
Commons warmer feelings towards the king; they passed severe
laws against recusants, and granted a triple subsidy. At the same
time they continued the collection of the grievances concerning
which they were to move. In the course of this session Bacon
married Alice Barnham " the alderman's daughter, an handsome
maiden, to roy liking," of whom he had written some years before
to his cousin Cecil. Little or nothing is known of their married life.
The third parliament was chiefly occupied with the commercial
and legal questions rising out of the proposed Union, in particular,
with the dispute as to the naturalization of the Post Nati. Bacon
argued ably in favour of this measure, but the general feeling
was against it. The House would only pass a bill abolishing
hostile laws between the kingdoms; but the case of the Post
Nati, being brought before the law courts, was settled as the
king wished. Bacon's services were rewarded in June 1607 by
the office of solicitor. 1 Several years passed before he gained
another step. Meantime, though circumstances had thrown him
too much into active life, he had not forgotten his cherished
project of reorganizing natural science. A survey of the ground
had been made in the Advancement, and some short pieces not
published at the time were probably written in the subsequent
two or three years. Towards the close of 1607 he sent to his
friends a small tract, entitled Cogitata et Visa, probably the first
draft of what we have under that title. In 1609 he wrote the
noble panegyric, In felicem memoriam Elizabethae, and the
curiously learned and ingenious work, De Sapientia Veterum; and
completed what seems to have been the Redargutio Philosophi-
arum, or treatise on the " idols of the theatre."
In 1 6 10 the famous fourth parliament of James met. Pre-
rogative, despite Bacon's advice and efforts, clashed more than
once with liberty; Salisbury's bold schemes for relieving the
embarrassment caused by the reckless extravagance of the king
proved abortive, and the House was dissolved in February 1611.
Bacon took a considerable share in the debates, consistently
upheld the prerogative, and seemed yet to possess the confidence
of the Commons. The death of Salisbury, occurring soon after,
opened a position in which Bacon thought his great political
skill and sagacity might be made more immediately available
for the king's service. How far he directly offered himself for
the post of secretary is uncertain, but we know that his hopes
were disappointed, the king himself undertaking the duties of the
office. About the same time he made two ineffectual applica-
tions for the mastership of the wards; the first, on Salisbury's
death, when it was given to Sir George Carey; the second, on
the death of Carey. It is somewhat hard to understand why so
little favour was shown by the king to one who had proved
himself able and willing to do good service, and who, in spite of
his disappointments, still continued zealously to offer advice and
assistance. At last in 1613, a fair opportunity for promotion
occurred. The death of Sir Thomas Fleming made a vacancy in
the chief justiceship of the king's bench, and Bacon, after some
deliberation, proposed to the king that Coke should be removed
from his place in the court of common pleas and transferred to
the king's bench. He gives several reasons for this in his letter
to the king, but in all probability his chief motive was that
pointed out by Spedding, that in the court of king's bench
there would be less danger of Coke coming into collision with the
king on questions of prerogative, in handling which Bacon was
always very circumspect and tender. The vacancy caused by
Coke's promotion was then filled up by Hobart, and Bacon,
finally, stepped into the place of attorney-general. The fact of
this advice being offered and followed in all essentials, illustrates
very clearly the close relations between the king and Bacon,
who had become a confidential adviser on most occasions of
difficulty. That his adherence to the royal party was already
noticed and commented on appears from the significant remark
1 In October 1608 he became treasurer of Gray's Inn. The ter-
centenary was celebrated in 1908.
of Chamberlain, who, after mentioning the recent changes among
the law officials, says, " There is a strong apprehension that . . .
Bacon may prove a dangerous instrument."
Further light is thrown upon Bacon's relations with James, and
upon his political sympathies, by the letter to the king advocating
the calling of a parliament, 2 and by the two papers of notes on
which his letter was founded. 1 These documents, even after
due weight is given to all considerations urged in their favour, 4
seem to confirm the view already taken of Bacon's theory of
government, and at the same time show that his sympathies
with the royal party tended to blind him to the true character
of certain courses of action, which can only be justified by a
straining of political ethics. The advice he offered, in all sin-
cerity, was most prudent and sagacious, and might have been
successfully carried out by a man of Bacon's tact and skill; but
it was intensely one-sided, and exhibited a curious want of
appreciation of what was even then beginning to be looked on
as the true relation of king, parliament and people. Unfortu-
nately for James, he could neither adopt nor carry out Bacon's
policy. The parliament which met in April 1614, in which Bacon
sat for Cambridge University, and was dissolved in June, after a
stormy session, was by no means in a frame of mind suitable for
the king's purposes. The House was enraged at the supposed
project (then much misunderstood) of the " Undertakers ";
objection was taken to Bacon being elected or serving as a member
while holding office as attorney-general; and, though an excep-
tion was made in his favour, it was resolved that no attorney-
general should in future be eligible for a seat in parliament.
No supply was granted, and the king's necessities were increased
instead of diminished. The emergency suggested to some of the
bishops the idea of a voluntary contribution, which was eagerly
taken up by the noblemen and crown officials. The scheme was
afterwards extended so as to take in the whole kingdom, but lost
something of its voluntary character, and the means taken to
raise the money, which were not what Bacon would have recom-
mended, 6 were calculated to stir up discontent. The general
dissatisfaction received a somewhat unguarded and intemperate
expression in a letter sent to the justices of Marlborough by a
gentleman of the neighbourhood, named Oliver St John,' in
which he denounced the attempt to raise funds in this way as
contrary to law, reason and religion, as constituting in the king
personally an act of perjury, involving in the same'crime those
who contributed, and thereby subjecting all parties to the curses
levelled by the church at such offences. St John was summoned
before the Star Chamber for slander and treasonable language;
and Bacon, ex officio, acted as public prosecutor. The sentence
pronounced (a fine of 5000 and imprisonment for life) was
severe, but it was not actually inflicted, and probably was not
intended to be carried out, the success of the prosecution being
all that was desired. St John remained a short time in prison,
and was then released, after making a full apology and submission.
The fine was remitted. It seems incredible that Bacon's conduct
on this occasion should have been censured by his biographers.
The offence was clear; the law was undoubted; no particular
sympathy was excited for the culprit; the sentence was not
carried out; and Bacon did only what any one in his place
would naturally and necessarily have done. The nature of his
office involved him in several trials for treason occurring about the
same time, and one of these is of interest sufficient to require
a somewhat longer examination. Edmund Peacham * had been
f * Letters and Life, iv. 380. * Ibid, iv. 365-373.
4 Ibid. iv. 375-378. Ibid. v. 81-83.
* Not to be confounded with any of those of the same name who
held the title of Baron St John of Bletsho (see Diet, of Nat. Biog.
vol. 1. p. 150 ad fin.).
7 Circa 1554-1616; educated at Cambridge; ordained priest 1581 ;
vicar of Ridge, Herts, 1581 ; rector of Hinton St George, Somerset,
1587; eventually condemned to death at the Taunton Assizes (7th
August 1615). The sentence was not carried out, and Peacham is
said to have died in gaol (March 1616). See Gardiner's Hist, of
England, ii. 272-283 ; State Trials, ii. 869 ; Calendar of State Papers
(1603-1606); Hallam's Constitutional Hist. i. 343; T. P. Taswell-
Langmead, English Constitutional History ($th ed., 1896), p. 425.
Nearly all works on constitutional law and history discuss the case.
140
BACON, FRANCIS
committed to custody for a libel on his superior, James Montagu
(iS68?-i6i8), bishop of Bath and Wells. In searching his
house for certain papers, the officers came upon some loose sheets
stitched together in the form of a sermon, the contents of which
were of such a nature that it was judged right to lay them before
the council. As it was at first suspected that the writing of
this book had been prompted by some disaffected persons,
Peacham was interrogated, and after he had declined to give
any information, was subjected to torture. Bacon, as one of the
learned counsel, was ordered by the council to take part in this
examination, which was undoubtedly warranted by precedent,
whatever may now be thought of it. Nothing, however, was
extracted from Peacham in this way, and it was resolved to
proceed against him for treason. Now, in the excited state of
popular feeling at that period, the failure of government to
substantiate an accusation of treason would have been a serious
matter. The king, with whom the council agreed, seems there-
fore to have thought it desirable to obtain beforehand the
opinions of the four chief judges as to whether the alleged offence
amounted to treason. In this there was nothing unusual or
illegal, and no objection would at that time have been made to
it, but James introduced a certain innovation; he proposed that
the opinions of the four judges should be given separately and in
private. It may be reasonably, inferred that his motive for this
was the suspicion, or it may be the knowledge, that Coke did not
consider the matter treasonable, ^tall events when Coke, who
as a councillor already knew the facts'W the case, was consulted
regarding the new proposal of the king, he at once objected to it,
saying that " this particular and auricular taking of opinions "
was " new and dangerous," and " not according to the custom
of the realm." He at last reluctantly assented, and proposed
that Bacon should consult with him, while the other law officers
addressed themselves to the three puisne judges. By Bacon's
directions the proposal to the three judges to give their opinions
separately was made suddenly and confidently, and any scruples
they might have felt were easily overcome. The first step was
thus gained, and it was hoped that if " infusion " could be
avoided, if the papers bearing on the case were presented to
the judges quickly, and before their minds could be swayed by
extraneous influence, their decision on the case would be the
same as that of the king. It is clear that the extraneous influence
to be feared was Coke, who, on being addressed by Bacon,
again objected to giving his opinion separately, and even seemed
to hope that his brother judges after they had seen the papers
would withdraw their assent to giving their decisions privately.
Even after the discussion of the case with Bacon, he would not
give his opinion until the others had handed in theirs. What
the other judges thought is not definitely known, but Bacon
appears to have been unable to put in operation the plan he had
devised for swaying Coke's judgment, 1 or if he did attempt it,
he was unsuccessful, for Coke finally gave an opinion consistent
with what he seems to have held at first, that the book was not
treasonable, as it did not disable the king's title. Although the
opinions of the judges were not made public, yet as we learn,
not only from Bacon, but from a sentence in one of Carleton's
letters,* a rumour had got about that there was doubt as to
the book being treasonable. Under these circumstances, Bacon,
who feared that such a report might incite other people to
attempt a similar offence, proposed to the king that a second
rumour should be circulated in order to destroy the impression
caused by the first. " I do think it necessary," he says, " that
because we live in an age in which no counsel is kept, and that it
is true there is some bruit abroad that the judges of the king's
bench do doubt of the case that it should not be treason, that it
be given out constantly, and yet as it were in secret, and so a
fame to slide, that the doubt was only upon the publication, in
that it was never published. For that (if your majesty marketh
it) taketh away or at least qualifieth the danger of the example;
for that will be no man's case." 3 Bacon's conduct in this matter
has been curiously misrepresented. He has been accused of
1 Letters and Life, v. 101. J Ibid. v. 121, n.
* Ibid. v. 124.
torturing the prisoner, and of tampering with the judges 4 by
consulting them before the trial; nay, he is even represented
as selecting this poor clergyman to serve for an example to
terrify the disaffected, as breaking into his study and finding there
a sermon never intended to be preached, which merely en-
couraged the people to resist tyranny. 6 All this lavish con-
demnation rests on a complete misconception of the case. If any
blame attaches to him, it must arise either from his endeavour
to force Coke to a favourable decision, in which he was in all
probability prompted by a feeling, not uncommon with him,
that a matter of state policy was in danger of being sacrificed to
some senseless legal quibble or precedent, or from his advice to the
king that a rumour should be set afloat which was not strictly
true.
Bacon's share in another great trial which came on shortly
afterwards, the Overbury and Somerset case, is not of such a
nature as to render it necessary to enter upon it in detail. 6 It
may be noted, however, that his letters about this time show
that he had become acquainted with the king's new favourite,
the brilliant Sir George Villiers, and that he stood high in the
king's good graces. In the early part of 1616, when Thomas
Egerton, Baron Ellesmere (c. 1540-1617), the lord chancellor,
was dangerously ill, Bacon wrote a long and careful letter to the
king, proposing himself for the office, should it fall vacant, and
stating as frankly as possible of what value he considered his
services would be. In answer, he appears to have received a
distinct promise of the reversion of the office; but, as Ellesmere
recovered, the matter stood over for a time. He proposed,
however, that he should be made a privy councillor, in order to
give him more weight in his almost recognized position of adviser
to the king, and on the gth of June 1616 he took the oaths and
his seat at the council board.
Meanwhile, his great rival Coke, whose constant tendency to
limit the prerogative by law and precedent had made him an
object of particular dislike to James, had on two points come
into open collision with the king's rights. The first case was an
action of praemunire against the court of chancery, evidently
instigated by him, but brought at the instance of certain parties
whose adversaries had obtained redress in the chancellor's court
after the cause had been tried in the court of king's bench.
With all his learning and ingenuity Coke failed in inducing or
even forcing the jury to bring in a bill against the court of
chancery, and it seems fairly certain that on the technical point
of law involved he was wrong. Although his motive was, in
great measure, a feeling of personal dislike towards Ellesmere,
yet it is not improbable that he was influenced by the desire
to restrict in every possible way the jurisdiction of a court which
was the direct exponent of the king's wishes. The other case,
that of the commendams, was more important in itself and in the
circumstances connected with it. The general question involved
in a special instance was whether or not the king's prerogative
included the right of granting at pleasure livings in commendam,
i.e. to be enjoyed by one who was not the incumbent. Bacon,
as attorney-general, delivered a speech, which has not been
reported; but the king was informed that the arguments on the
other side had not been limited to the special case, but had
directly impugned the general prerogative right of granting
livings. It was necessary for James, as a party interested, at
once to take measures to see that the decision of the judges
should not be given on the general question without due con-
sultation. He accordingly wrote to Bacon, directing him to
intimate to the judges his pleasure that they should delay
judgment until after discussion of the matter with himself.
Bacon communicated first with Coke, who in reply desired that
similar notice should be given to the other judges. This was
done by Bacon, though he seems to hint that in so doing he was
4 Macaulay's Essay. ' Campbell, Lives, ii. 344.
* The mysterious crimes supposed to be concealed under the
obscure details of this case have cast a shadow of vague suspicion
on all who were concerned in it. The minute examination of the
facts by Spedding (Letters and Life, v. 208-347) seems to show that
these secret crimes exist nowhere but in the heated imaginations of
romantic biographers and historians.
BACON, FRANCIS
141
going a little beyond his instructions. The judges took no notice
of the intimation, proceeded at once to give judgment, and sent
a letter in their united names to the king announcing what they
had done, and declaring that it was contrary to law and to their
oath for them to pay any attention to a request that their decision
should be delayed. The king was indignant at this encroach-
ment, and acting partly on the advice of Bacon, held a council
on the 6th of June 1616, at which the judges attended. James
then entered at great length into the case, censuring the judges
for the offensive form of their letter, and for not having delayed
judgment upon his demand, which had been made solely because
he was himself a party concerned. The judges, at the conclusion
of his speech, fell on their knees, and implored pardon for the
manner of their letter; but Coke attempted to justify the matter
contained in it, saying that the delay required by his majesty
was contrary to law. The point of law was argued by Bacon,
and decided by the chancellor in favour of the king, who put the
question to the judges individually, " Whether, if at any time,
in a case depending before the judges, which his majesty con-
ceived to concern him either in power or profit, and thereupon
required to consult with them, and that they should stay pro-
ceedings in the meantime, they ought not to stay accordingly?"
To this all gave assent except Coke, who said that " when the
case should be, he would do that should be fit for a judge to do."
No notice was taken by the king of this famous, though somewhat
evasive, reply, but the judges were again asked what course they
would take in the special case now before them. They all declared
that they would not decide the matter upon general grounds
affecting the prerogative, but upon special circumstances incident
to the case; and with this answer they were dismissed. Bacon's
conduct throughout the affair has been blamed, but apparently
on wrong grounds. As attorney he was merely fulfilling his duty
in obeying the command of the king; and in laying down the law
on the disputed point, he was, we may be sure, speaking his own
convictions. Censure might more reasonably be bestowed on
him because he deliberately advised a course of action than
which nothing can be conceived better calculated to strengthen
the hands of an absolute monarch. 1 This appeared to Bacon
justifiable and right, because the prerogative would be defended
and preserved intact. Coke certainly stands out in a better
light, not so much for his answer, which was rather indefinite,
and the force of which is much weakened by his assent to the
second question of the king, but for the general spirit of resistance
to encroachment exhibited by him. He was undeniably trouble-
some to the king, and it is no matter for wonder that James
resolved to remove him from a position where he could do so
much harm. On the 26th June he was called before the council
to answer certain charges, one of which was his conduct in the
praemunire question. He acknowledged his error on that head,
and made little defence. On the 3oth he was suspended from
council and bench, and ordered to employ his leisure in revising
certain obnoxious opinions in his reports. He did not perform
the task to the king's satisfaction, and a few months later he
was dismissed from office.
Bacon's services to the king's cause had been most important;
and as he had, at the same time, acquired great favour with
Villiers, his prospects looked brighter than before. According
to his custom, he strove earnestly to guide by his advice the
conduct of the young favourite. His letters, in which he analyses
the various relations in which such a man must stand, and pre-
scribes the course of action suitable for each, are valuable and
deserving of attention. 2 Very striking, in view of future events,
are the words' in which he gives him counsel as to his dealing
with judges: " By no means be you persuaded to interpose
yourself by word or letter in any cause depending, or like to be
depending, in any court of justice, nor suffer any man to do it
where you can hinder it; and by all means dissuade the king
himself from it, upon the importunity of any, either for their
friends or themselves. If it should prevail, it perverts justice;
1 A somewhat similar case is that of the writ De Rege inconsidto
brought forward by Bacon. See Letters and Life, v. 233-236.
1 Ibid. vi. 6, 7, 13-26, 27-56. ' Ibid. vi. 33.
but if the judge be so just, and of so undaunted a courage (as he
ought to be) as not to be inclined thereby, yet it alwaysleavesatain)
of suspicions and prejudice behind it." It is probable that Villier*
at this time had really a sense of the duties attaching tohisposition 4
and was willing to be guided by a man of approved wisdom. It
was not long before an opportunity occurred for showing his
gratitude and favour. EUesmere resigned the chancellorship on
the 5th of March 1616/7, and on the 7th the great seal was
bestowed upon Bacon, with the title of lord keeper. Two months
later he took his seat with great pomp in the chancery court, and
delivered a weighty and impressive opening discourse. He
entered with great vigour on his new labours, and in less than a
month he was able to report to Buckingham that he had cleared
off all outstanding chancery cases. He seemed now to have
reached the height of his ambition; he was the first law officer
in the kingdom, the accredited minister of his sovereign, and on
the best terms with the king and his favourite. His course
seemed perfectly prosperous and secure, when a slight storm
arising opened his eyes to the frailty of the tenure by which he
held his position.
Coke was in disgrace but not in despair; there seemed to be a
way whereby he could reconcile himself to Buckingham, through
the marriage of his daughter, who had an ample fortune, to Sir
John Villiers, brother of the marquess, who was penniless or
nearly so. The match was distasteful to Lady Hatton and to her
daughter; a violent quarrel was the consequence, and Bacon,
who thought the proposed marriage most unsuitable, took Lady
Hatton's part. His reasons for disapproval he explained to the
king and Buckingham, but found to his surprise that their indig-
nation was strongly roused against him. He received from both
bitter letters of reproof; it was rumoured that he would be dis-
graced, and Buckingham was said to have compared his present
conduct to his previous unfaithfulness to Essex. Bacon, who
seems to have acted from a simple desire to do the best for
Buckingham's own interests, at once changed his course, advanced
the match by every means in his power, and by a humble apology
appeased the indignation that had been excited against him. It
had been a sharp lesson, but things seemed to go on smoothly
after it, and Bacon's affairs prospered.
On the 4th of January 1617/8 he received the higher title of lord
chancellor; in July of the same year he was made Baron Verulam
and in January 1620/1 he was created Viscount St Albans. His
fame, too, had been increased by the publication in 1620 of his
most celebrated work, the Novum Organum. He seemed at length
to have made satisfactory progress towards the realization of his
cherished aims; the method essential for his Instauration was
partially completed; and he had attained as high a rank in the
state as he had ever contemplated. But his actions in that
position were not calculated to promote the good of his country.
Connected with the years during which he held office is one
of the weightiest charges against his character. Buckingham,
notwithstanding the advice he had received from Bacon himself,
was in the habit of addressing letters to him recommending the
causes of suitors. In many cases these seem nothing more than
letters of courtesy, and, from the general tone, it might fairly be
concluded that there was no intention to sway the opinion of the
judge illegally, and that Bacon did not understand the letters in
that sense. This view is supported by consideration of the few
answers to them which are extant. 5 One outstanding case, how-
ever, that of Dr Steward, 8 casts some suspicion on all the others.
The terms of Buckingham's note 7 concerning it might easily have
aroused doubts; and we find that the further course of the action
was to all appearances exactly accommodated to Dr Steward, who
4 A position which Bacon in some respects approved. See Essays,
" Of Ambition." " It is counted by some a weakness in princes to
have favourites; but it is of all others the best remedy against
ambitious great ones; for when the way of pleasuring and displeasur-
ing lieth by the favourite, it is impossible any other should be over
great."
6 Letters and Life, vi. 278, 294-296, 313.
Ibid. vii. 579-588, analysis of the case by D. D. Heath, who ex-
presses a strong opinion against Bacon's action in the matter.
7 Ibid. vi. m
142
BACON, FRANCIS
had been so strongly recommended. It is, of course, dangerous to
form an extreme judgment on an isolated and partially understood
case, of which also we have no explanation from Bacon himself,
but if the interpretation advanced by Heath be the true one,
Bacon certainly suffered his first, and, so far as we can see, just
judgment on the case to be set aside, and the whole matter to be
reopened in obedience to a request from Buckingham.
It is somewhat hard to understand Bacon's position with
regard to the king during these years. He was the first officer of
the crown, the most able man in the kingdom, prudent, sagacious
and devoted to the royal party. Yet his advice was followed
only when it chimed in with James's own will; his influence was
of a merely secondary kind; and his great practical skill was
employed simply in carrying out the measures of the king in
the best mode possible. We know indeed that he sympathized
cordially with the home policy of the government; he had no
objection to such monopolies or patents as seemed advantageous
to the country, and for this he is certainly not to be blamed. 1
The opinion was common at the time, and the error was merely
ignorance of the true principles of political economy. But we
know also that the patents were so numerous as to be oppressive,
and we can scarcely avoid inferring that Bacon more readily saw
the advantages to the government than the disadvantages to the
people. In November 1620, when a new parliament was surrf-
moned to meet on January following, he earnestly pressed that
the most obnoxious patents, those of alehouses and inns, and the
monopoly of gold and silver thread, should be given up, and
wrote to Buckingham, whose brothers were interested, advising
him to withdraw them from the impending storm. This prudent
advice was unfortunately rejected. But while he went cordially
with the king in domestic affairs, he was not quite in harmony
with him on questions of foreign policy. Not only was he
personally in favour of a war with Spain for the recovery of the
Palatinate, but he foresaw in such a course of action the means
of drawing together more closely the king and his parliament.
He believed that the royal difficulties would be removed if
a policy were adopted with which the people could heartily
sympathize, and if the king placed himself at the head of his
parliament and led them on. But his advice was neglected by
the vacillating and peace-loving monarch, his proffered pro-
clamation was put aside, and a weak, featureless production
substituted in its place. Nevertheless the new parliament
seemed at first more responsive than might have been looked for.
A double subsidy was granted, which was expressly stated to be
" not on any consideration or condition for or concerning the
Palatinate." The session, however, was not far advanced when
the question of patents was brought up; a determined attack
was made upon the very ones of which Bacon had been in dread,
and it was even proposed to proceed against the referees (Bacon
and Montagu) who had certified that there was no objection to
them in point of law. This proposal, though pressed by Coke,
was allowed to drop; while the king and Buckingham, acting
under the advice of Williams, afterwards lord keeper, agreed
to give up the monopolies. It was evident, however, that a
determined attack was about to be made upon Bacon, and
that the proceeding against the referees was really directed
against him. It is probable that this charge was dropped because
a more powerful weapon had in the meantime been placed in his
enemies' hands. This was the accusation of bribery and corrupt
dealings in chancery suits, an accusation apparently wholly
unexpected by Bacon, and the possibility of which he seems never
to have contemplated until it was actually brought against him.
At the beginning of the session a committee had been appointed
for inquiring into abuses in the courts of justice. Some illegal
practices of certain chancery officials had been detected and
punished by the court itself, and generally there was a disposi-
tion to overhaul its affairs, while Coke and Lionel Cranfield,
earl of Middlesex (1575-1645) directly attacked some parts of
the chancellor's administration. But on the I4th of March one
1 For a full discussion of Bacon's connexion with the monopolies,
see Gardiner, Prince Charles, &c. ii. 355-373. For his opinion of
monopolies in general, see Letters and Life, vi. 49.
Christopher Aubrey appeared at the bar of the House, and charged
Bacon with having received from him a sum of money while his
suit was going on, and with having afterwards decided against him.
Bacon's letter 2 on this occasion is worthy of serious attention;
he evidently thought the charge was but part of the deliberate
scheme to ruin him which had already been in progress. A
second accusation (Edward Egerton's case) followed immediately
after, and was investigated by the House, who, satisfied that
they had just matter for reprehension, appointed the igth for a
conference with the Lords. On that day Bacon, as he had feared,
was too ill to attend. He wrote 3 to the Lords excusing his
absence, requesting them to appoint a convenient time for his
defence and cross-examination of witnesses, and imploring them
not to allow their minds to be prejudiced against him, at the
same time declaring that he would not " trick up an innocency
with cavillations, but plainly and ingenuously declare what he
knew or remembered." The charges rapidly accumulated, but
Bacon still looked upon them as party moves, and was in hopes
of defending himself. 4 Nor did he seem to have lost his courage,
if we are to believe the common reports of the day, 6 though
certainly they do not appear worthy of very much credit.
The notes' bearing upon the interview which he obtained
with the king show that he had begun to see more clearly the
nature and extent of the offences with which he was charged,
that he now felt it impossible altogether to exculpate himself, and
that his hopes were directed towards obtaining some mitigation
of his sentence. The long roll of charges made upon the igth of
April finally decided him; he gave up all idea of defence, and
wrote to the king begging him to show him favour in this
emergency. 7 The next day he sent in a general confession to the
Lords, 8 trusting that this would be considered satisfactory. The
Lords, however, decided that it was not sufficient as a ground for
their censure, and demanded a detailed and particular confession.
A list of twenty-eight charges was then sent him, to which an
answer by letter was required. On the 3oth of April his " con-
fession and humble submission " * was handed in. In it, after
going over the several instances, he says, " I do again confess,
that on the points charged upon me, although they should be
taken as myself have declared them, there is a great deal of
corruption and neglect; for which I am heartily and penitently
sorry, and submit myself to the judgment, grace, and mercy of
the court." 10 On the 3rd of May, after considerable discussion,
the Lords decided upon the sentence, which was," That he should
undergo fine and ransom of 40,000; that he should be imprisoned
in the Tower during the king's pleasure; that he should be for
ever incapable of any office, place or employment in the state
or commonwealth; that he should never sit in parliament, or
come within the verge of the court. This heavy sentence was
2 Letters and Life, vii. 213: ''I know I have clean hands and a
clean heart, and I hope a clean house for friends or servants. But
Job himself, or whosoever was the justest judge, by such hunting
for matters against him as hath been used against me, may for a time
seem foul, specially in a time when greatness is the mark and accusa-
tion is the game." 3 Ibid. vii. 215-216.
4 Ibid. vii. 225-226. From the letter to the king (March 25, 1621)
" When I enter into myself, I find not the materials of such a tem-
pest as is comen upon me. I have been (as your majesty knoweth
best) never author of any immoderate counsel, but always desired to
have things carried suavibus modis. I have been no avaricious op-
pressor of the people. I have been no haughty or intolerable or hateful
man in my conversation or carriage. I have inherited no hatred
from my father, but am a good patriot born. Whence should this
be? For these are the things that use to raise dislikes abroad.
. . . And for the briberies and gifts wherewith I am charged, when
the book of hearts shall be opened, I hope I shall not be found to
have the troubled fountain of a corrupt heart in a depraved habit of
taking rewards to pervert justice, howsoever I may be frail, and
partake of the abuse of the times."
' Ibid. vii. 227, and Gardiner, Prince Charles, &c. i. 450.
' Letters and Life, vii. 236, 238. ' Ibid. vii. 241.
8 Ibid. vii. 242-244; " It resteth therefore that, without fig-leaves,
I do ingenuously confess and acknowledge, that having understood
the particulars of the charge, not formally from the House but enough
to inform my conscience and memory, I find matter sufficient
and full, both to move me to desert the defence, and to move your
lordships to condemn and censure me."
' Ibid. vii. 252-262. w lbid. vii. ?6l. ll lbid. vii. 270.
BACON, FRANCIS
only partially executed. The fine was in effect remitted by the
king; imprisonment in the Tower lasted for about four days; a
general pardon (not of course covering the parliamentary censure)
was made out, and though delayed at the seal for a time by Lord
Keeper Williams, was passed probably in November 1621. The
cause of the delay seems to have lain with Buckingham, whose
friendship had cooled, and who had taken offence at the fallen
chancellor's unwillingness to part with York House. This differ-
ence was finally smoothed over.and it was probably through his in-
fluence that Bacon received the much-desired permission to come
within the verge of the court. He never again sat in parliament.
So ends this painful episode, which has given rise to the most
severe condemnation of Bacon, and which still presents great
and perhaps insuperable difficulties, j On the whole, the tendency
of the most recent and thorougtTfesearches has been towards
the opinion that Bacon's own account of the matter (from which,
indeed, our knowledge of it is chiefly drawn) is substantially
correct. He distinguishes three ways in which bribes may be
given, 1 and ingenuously confesses that his own acts amounted
to corruption and were worthy of condemnation. Now, corrup-
tion strictly interpreted would imply the deliberate sale of
justice, and this Bacon explicitly denies, affirming that he never
" had bribe or reward in his eye or thought when he pronounced
any sentence or order." When we analyse the specific charges
against him, with his answers to them, we find many that are
really of little weight. The twenty-eighth and last, that of
negligence in looking after his servants, though it did him much
harm, may fairly be said to imply no moral blame. The majority
of the others are instances of gratuities given after the decision,
and it is to be regretted that the judgment of the peers gives us
no means of determining how such gifts were looked upon,
whether or not the acceptance of them was regarded as a
" corrupt " practice. In four cases specifically, and in some
others by implication, Bacon confesses that he had received
bribes from suitors pendente lite. Yet he affirms, as we said
before, that his intention was never swayed by a bribe; and
so far as any of these cases can be traced, his decisions, often
given in conjunction with some other official, a re to all appearance
thoroughly just. In several cases his judgment appears to have
been given against the party bestowing the bribe, and in at least
one instance, that of Lady Wharton, it seems impossible to doubt
that he must have known when accepting the present that his
opinion would be adverse to her cause. Although, then, he felt
that these practices were really corrupt, and even rejoiced that
his own fall would tend to purify the courts from them, 2 he did
not feel that he was guilty of perverting justice for the sake of
reward. How far, then, is such defence or explanation admissible
and satisfactory? It is clear that two things are to be considered :
the one the guilt of taking bribes or presents ontany consideration,
the other the moral guilt depending upon the wilful perversion
of justice. The attempt has sometimes been made to defend
the whole of Bacon's conduct on the ground that he did nothing
that was not done by many of his contemporaries. Bacon
himself disclaims a defence of this nature, and we really have no
direct evidence which shows to what extent the offering and
receiving of such bribes then prevailed. That the practice was
common is indeed implied by the terms in which Bacon speaks
of it, and it is not improbable that the fact of these gifts being
taken by officials was a thing fairly well known, although all
were aware of their illegal character, and it was plain that any
public exposure of such dealings would be fatal to the individual
against whom the charge was made out. 3 Bacon knew all this;
1 Letters and Life, vii. 235-236 : "The first, of bargain and contract
for reward to pervert justice, pendente lite. The second, where the
judge conceives the cause to be at an end, by the information of the
party or otherwise, and useth not such diligence as he ought to inquire
of it. And the third, where the cause is really ended, and it is sine
fraude without relation to any precedent promise. . . . For the first of
them I take myself to be as innocent as any born upon St Innocent's
Day, in my heart. For the second, I doubt on some particulars I may
be faulty. And for the last, I conceived it to be no fault, but therein
I desire to be better informed, that I may be twice penitent, once for
the fact and again for the error." a Ibid. vii. 242.
'Ibid. vii. 244: " Neither will your lordships forget that there
he was well aware that the practice was in itself indefensible, 4
and that his conduct was therefore corrupt and deserving of
censure. So far, then, as the mere taking of bribes is concerned,
he would permit no defence, and his own confession and judgment
on his action contain as severe a condemnation as has ever been
passed upon him. Yet in the face of this he does not hesitate
to call himself " the justest chancellor that hath been in the
five changes since Sir Nicholas Bacon's time";' and this on
the plea that his intentions had always been pure, and had never
been affected by the presents he received. His justification has
been set aside by modern critics, not on the ground that the
evidence demonstrates its falsity,' but because it is inconceivable
or unnatural that any man should receive a present from another,
and not suffer his judgment to be swayed thereby. It need hardly
be said that such an a priori conviction is not a sufficient basis
on which to found a sweeping condemnation of Bacon's integrity
as an administrator of justice. On the other hand, even if it be
admitted to be possible and conceivable that a present should
be given by a suitor simply as seeking favourable consideration
of his cause, and not as desirous of obtaining an unjust decree,
and should be accepted by the judge on the same understanding,
this would not entitle one absolutely to accept Bacon's state-
ment. Further evidence is necessary in order to give foundation
to a definite judgment either way; and it is extremely improb-
able, nay, almost impossible, that such can ever be produced.
In these circumstances, due weight should be given to Bacon's
own assertions of his perfect innocence and purity of intention;
they ought not to be put out of court unless found in actual
contradiction to the facts, and the reverse of this is the case,
so far as has yet appeared. 7
The remaining five years of his life, though he was still harassed
by want of means, for James was not liberal, were spent in work
far more valuable to the world than anything he had accomplished
in his high office. In March 1622 he presented to Prince Charles
his History of Henry VII.; and immediately, with unwearied
industry, set to work to complete some portions of his great work.
In November 1622 appeared the HistoriaVeniorum; in January
1622/3, the Historia Vitae et Mortis; and in October of
the same year, the De Augmentis Scientiarum, a Latin trans-
lation, with many additions, of the Advancement. Finally, in
December 1624, he published his Apophthegms, and Translations
of some of the Psalms, dedicated to George Herbert; and, in 1625,
a third and enlarged edition of the Essays.
Busily occupied with these labours, his life now drew rapidly
to a close. In March 1626 he came to London, and when driving
one day near Highgate, was taken with a desire to discover
whether snow would act as an antiseptic. He stopped his
carriage, got out at a cottage, purchased a fowl, and with his own
hands assisted to stuff it with snow. He was seized with a sudden
chill, and became so seriously unwell that he had to be conveyed
to Lord Arundel's house, which was near at hand. Here his
illness' increased, the cold and chill brought on bronchitis and he
died, after a few days' suffering, on the gth of April 1626.
are vitia temporis as well as vitia hominis, and that the beginning of
reformations hath the contrary power to the pool of Bethesda, for
that had strength to cure only him that was first cast in, and this
hath commonly strength to hurt him only that is first cast in."
4 See, among many other passages, Essays, "Of Great Place": "For
corruptions do not only bind thine own hands or thy servant's
hands from taking, but bind the hands of suitors also from offering ;
for integrity used doth the one; but integrity professed, and with a
manifest detestation of bribery, doth the other; and avoid not only
the fault but the suspicion."
6 Cf. Letters and Life, vii. 560: " I was the justest judge that was
in England these fifty years; but it was the justest censure in
Parliament that was these two hundred years."
' Or on the ground that there was a distinct rule forbidding
chancellors and the like officials to take presents. This does not
seem to have been the case, if we may judge from what Bacon says
Letters and Life, vii. 233.
7 Not only do the cases, so far as they are known, support Bacon's
plea of innocence, but it is remarkable that no attempt at a reversal
of any of his numerous decrees appears to have been successful. Had
his decrees been wilful perversions of justice, it is scarcely conceivable
that some of them should not have been overturned. See Letters and
Life, vii. 555-562.
144
BACON, FRANCIS
Bacon's Works and Philosophy.
A complete survey of Bacon's works and an estimate of his
place in literature and philosophy are matters for a volume. It
is here proposed merely to classify the works, to indicate their
general character and to enter somewhat more in detail upon
what he himself regarded as his great achievement, the re-
organization of the sciences and the exposition of a new method
by which the human mind might proceed with security and
certainty towards the true end of all human thought and action.
Putting aside the letters and occasional writings, we may con-
veniently distribute the other works into three classes, Profes-
sional, Literary, Philosophical. The Professional works include
the Reading on the Statute of Uses, the Maxims of Law and the
treatise (possibly spurious) on the Use of the Law. " I am in good
hope," said Bacon himself, "that when Sir Edward Coke's reports
and my rules and decisions shall come to posterity, there will
be (whatsoever is now thought) question who was the greater
lawyer." If Coke's reports show completer mastery of technical
details, greater knowledge of precedent, and more of the dogged
grasp of the letter than do Bacon's legal writings, there can be no
dispute that the latter exhibit an infinitely more comprehensive
intelligence of the abstract principles of jurisprudence, with a
richness and ethical fulness that more than compensate for their
lack of dry legal detail. Bacon seems indeed to have been a
lawyer of the first order, with a keen scientific insight into the
bearings of isolated facts and a power of generalization which
admirably fitted him for the self-imposed task, unfortunately
never completed, of digesting or codifying the chaotic mass of
the English law.
Among the literary works are included all that he himself
designated moral and historical pieces, and to these may be added
some theological and minor writings, such as the Apophthegms.
Of the moral works the most valuable are the Essays, which have
been so widely read and universally admired. The matter is
of the familiar, practical kind, that " comes home to men's
bosoms." The thoughts are weighty, and even when not
original have acquired a peculiar and unique tone or cast by
passing through the crucible of Bacon's mind. A sentence from
the Essays can rarely be mistaken for the production of any other
writer. _-The short, pithy sayings have become popular mottoes
and household words. The style is quaint, original, abounding
in allusions and witticisms, and rich, even to gorgeousness, with
piled-up analogies and metaphors. 1 The first edition contained
only ten essays, but the number was increased in 1612 to thirty-
eight, and in 1625 to fifty-eight. The short tract, Colours of
Good and Evil, which with the Meditationes Sacrae originally
accompanied the Essays, was afterwards incorporated with the
De Augmentis. Along with these works may be classed the
curiously learned piece, De Sapientia Veterum, in which he works
out a favourite idea, that the mythological fables of the Greeks
were allegorical and concealed the deepest truths of their philo-
sophy. As a scientific explanation of the myths the theory is of
no value, but it affords fine scope for the exercise of Bacon's
unrivalled power of detecting analogies in things apparently most
dissimilar. The Apophthegms, though hardly deserving Mac-
aulay's praise of being the best collection of jests in the world,
contain a number of those significant anecdotes which Bacor
used with such effect in his other writings. Of the historical
works, besides a few fragments of the projected history of Britain
there remains the History of Henry VII., a valuable work, giving
a clear and animated narrative of the reign, and characterizing
Henry with great skill. The style is in harmony with the matter
vigorous and flowing, but naturally with less of the quaintness
and richness suitable to more thoughtful and original writings
1 The peculiarities of Bacon's style were noticed very early by hii.
contemporaries. (See Letters and Life, i. 268.) Raleigh and Jonsoi
have both recorded their opinions of it, but no one has charactenzec
it more happily than his friend, Sir Tobie Matthews, " A man so rare
in knowledge, of so many several kinds, endued with the facility
and felicity of expressing it all in so elegant, significant, so abundant
and yet so choice and ravishing a way of words, of metaphors^ o
allusions, as perhaps the world hath not seen since it was a world."
"Address to the Reader" prefixed to Collection of English Letters (1660)
The series of the literary works is completed by the minor
realises on theological or ecclesiastical questions. Some of the
atter, included among the occasional works, are sagacious and
>rudent and deserve careful study. Of the former, the principal
specimens are the Meditationes Sacrae and the Confession of Faith.
The Paradoxes (Characters of a believing Christian in paradoxes,
and] seeming contradictions), which was often- and justly sus-
>ected, has been conclusively proved by Grosart to be the work
of another author.
Philosophical Works. The great mass of Bacon's writings
consists of treatises or fragments, which either formed integral
Darts of his grand comprehensive scheme, or were closely con-
iccted with it. More exactly they may be classified under three
leads: (A) Writings originally intended to form parts of the
Instauratio, but which were afterwards superseded or thrown
aside; (B) Works connected with the Instauratio, but not directly
ncluded in its plan; (C) Writings which actually formed part of
the Instauratio Magna.
(A) This class contains some important tracts, which certainly
contain little, if anything, that is not afterwards taken up and
expanded in the more elaborate works, but are not undeserving
of attention, from the difference in the point of view and method
of treatment. The most valuable of them are: (i) The Advance-
ment of Learning, of which no detailed account need be given, as
it is completely worked up into the De Augmenlis, and takes its
place as the first part of the Instauratio. (2) Valerius Terminus,
a very remarkable piece, composed probably about 1603, though
perhaps retouched at a later period. It contains a brief and
somewhat obscure outline of the first two parts in the Instauratio,
and is of importance as affording us some insight into the gradual
development of the system in Bacon's own mind. (3) Temporis
Parlus Masculus, another curious fragment, remarkable not only
from its contents, but from its style, which is arrogant and offen-
sive, in this respect unlike any other writing of Bacon's. The
adjective masculus points to the power of bringing forth fruit
possessed by the new philosophy, and perhaps indicates that all
previous births of time were to be looked upon as feminine or
imperfect; it is used in a somewhat similar sense in Letters and
Life, vi. 183, " In verbis masculis, no flourishing or painted words,
but such words as are fit to go before deeds." (4) Redargutio
Philosophiarum, a highly finished piece in the form of an oration,
composed probably about 1608 or 1609, and containing in pretty
full detail much of what afterwards appears in connexion with
the Idola Theatri in book i. of the Novum Organum. (5) Cogilata
et Visa, perhaps the most important of the minor philosophical
writings, dating from 1607 (though possibly the tract in its present
form may have been to some extent altered), and containing in
weighty and sonorous Latin the substance of the first book of
the Organum. (6.) The Descriptio Globi Inlellectualis, which is to
some extent intermediate between the Advancement and the De
Augmentis, goes over in detail the general classification of the
sciences, and enters particularly on some points of minor interest.
(7) The brief tract De Interprelatione Naturae Sententiae Duodecim
is evidently a first sketch of part of the Novum Organum, and in
phraseology is almost identical with it. (8) A few smaller pieces,
such as the Inquisitio de Motu, the Color et Frigus, the Historia
Soni et Auditus and the Phaenomena Universi, are early
specimens of his Natural History, and exhibit the first tentative
applications of the new method.
(B) The second group consists of treatises on subjects connected
with the Instauratio, but not forming part of it. The most
interesting, and in many respects the most remarkable, is the
philosophic romance, the New Atlantis, a description of an ideal
state in which the principles of the new philosophy are carried
out by political machinery and under state guidance, and where
many of the results contemplated by Bacon are in imagination
attained. The work was to have been completed by the addition
of a second part, treating of the laws of a model commonwealth,
which was never written. Another important tract is the De
Principiis atque Originibus secundum Fabulas Cupidinis et Caeli,
where, under the disguise of two old mythological stories, he (in
the manner of the Sapientia Veterum) finds the deepest truths
BACON, FRANCIS
145
concealed. The tract is unusually interesting, for in it he
discusses at some length the limits of science, the origin of things
and the nature of primitive matter, giving at the same time full
notices of Democritus among the ancient philosophers and of
Telesio among the modern. Deserving of attention are also the
Cogitationes de Nat lira Rerum, probably written early, perhaps in
1605, and the treatise on the theory of the tides, De Fluxu el
Refluxu Maris, written probably about 1616.
(C) The philosophical works which form part of the Inslauratio
must of course be classed according to the positions which they
respectively hold in that scheme of the sciences.
The great work, the reorganization of the sciences, and the
restoration of man to that command over nature which he had
lost by the fall, consisted in its final form of six divisions.
I. Partitiones Scienliarum, a survey of the sciences, either such
as then existed or such as required to be constructed afresh in
fact, an inventory of all the possessions of the human mind. The
famous classification 1 on which this survey proceeds is based
upon an analysis of the faculties and objects of human knowledge.
This division is represented by the De Augmentis Scientiarum.
II. Interpretalio Naturae. After the survey of all that has yet
been done in the way of discovery or invention, comes the new
method, by which the mind of man is to be trained and directed
in its progress towards the renovation of science. This division
is represented, though only imperfectly, by the Novum Organum,
particularly book ii.
III. Historia Naturalis et Experimental. The new method
is valueless, because inapplicable, unless it be supplied with
materials duly collected and presented in fact, unless there be
formed a competent natural history of the Phaenomena Universi.
A short introductory sketch of the requisites of such a natural
history, which, according to Bacon, is essential, necessary, the
basis totius negotii, is given in the tract Parasceve, appended to
the Novum Organum. The principal works intended to form
portions of the history, and either published by himself or left
in manuscript, are Historia Ventorum, Historia Vitae et Mortis,
Historia Densi et Rari, and the extensive collection of facts and
observations entitled Sylva Sylvarum.
IV. Scala Intellectus. It might have been supposed that the
new philosophy could now be inaugurated. Materials had been
supplied, along with a new method by which they were to be
treated, and naturally the next step would be the finished result.
But for practical purposes Bacon interposed two divisions
between the preliminaries and the philosophy itself. The first
was intended to consist of types or examples of investigations
conducted by the new method, serviceable for keeping the whole
process vividly before the mind, or, as the title indicates, such
that the mind could run rapidly up and down the several steps
or grades in the process. Of this division there seems to be only
one small fragment, the Filum Labyrinthi, consisting of but two
or three pages.
V. Prodromi, forerunners of the new philosophy. This part,
strictly speaking, is quite extraneous to the general design.
.According to the Distributio Operis* it was to contain certain
speculations of Bacon's own, not formed by the new method, but
by the unassisted use of his understanding. These, therefore,
form temporary or uncertain anticipations of the new philosophy.
There is extant a short preface to this division of the work, and
according toSpedding.some of the miscellaneous treatises, such as
De Principiis, De Fluxu et Refluxu, Cogitationes de Natura Rerum,
may probably have been intended to be included under this head.
This supposition receives some support from the manner in which
the fifth part is spoken of in the Novum Organum, i. 116.
VI. The new philosophy, which is the work of future ages,
and the result of the new method.
Bacon's grand motive in his attempt to found the sciences
anew was the intense conviction that the knowledge man
1 The division of the sciences adopted in the great French Encyclo-
pedic was founded upon this classification of Bacon's. See Diderot's
Prospectus ((Evvres, iii.) and d'Alembert's Discours (CEuvres,i.) The
scheme should be compared with later attempts of the same nature
by Ampere, Cournot, Comte and Herbert Spencer.
* See also " Letter to Fulgentio," Letters and Life, vii. 533.
possessed was of little service to him. " The knowledge whereof
the world is now possessed, especially that of nature, extendeth
not to magnitude and certainty of works." * Man's sovereignty
over nature, which is founded on knowledge alone, had been lost,
and instead of the free relation between things and the human
mind, there was nothing but vain notions and blind experiments.
To restore the original commerce between man and nature,
and to recover the imperium hominis, is the grand object of all
science. The want of success which had hitherto attended
efforts in the same direction had been due to many causes, but
chiefly to the want of appreciation of the nature of philosophy
and its real aim. Philosophy is not the science of things divine
and human; it is not the search after truth. " I find that even
those that have sought knowledge for itself, and not for benefit
or ostentation, or any practical enablement in the course of
their life, have nevertheless propounded to themselves a wrong
mark, namely, satisfaction (which men call Truth) and not
operation." 4 " Is there any such happiness as for a man's
mind to be raised above the confusion of things, where he may
have the prospect of the order of nature and error of man ? But
is this a view of delight only and not of discovery ? of content-
ment and not of benefit ? Shall he not as well discern the riches
of nature's warehouse as the beauty of her shop ? Is truth ever
barren ? Shall he not be able thereby to produce worthy
effects, and to endow the life of man with infinite commodities ? " 5
Philosophy is altogether practical; it is of little matter to the
fortunes of humanity what abstract notions one may entertain
concerning the nature and the principles of things.* This truth,
however, has never yet been recognized; 7 it has not yet been
seen that the true aim of all science is " to endow the condition
and life of man with new powers or works," 8 or " to extend
more widely the limits of the power and greatness of man."'
Nevertheless, it is not to be imagined that by this being proposed
as the great object of search there is thereby excluded all that
has hitherto been looked upon as the higher aims of human life,
such as the contemplation of truth. Not so, but by following
the new aim we shall also arrive at a true knowledge of the
universe in which we are, for without knowledge there is no
power; truth and utility are in ultimate aspect the same;
" works themselves are of greater value as pledges of truth than
as contributing to the comforts of life." 10 Such was the concep-
tion of philosophy with which Bacon started, and in which he felt
himself to be thoroughly original. As his object was new and
hitherto unproposed, so the method he intended to employ was
different from all modes of investigation hitherto attempted.
" It would be," as he says, " an unsound fancy and self-con-
tradictory, to expect that things which have never yet been done
can be done except by means which have never yet been tried." ll
There were many obstacles in his way, and he seems always to
have felt that the first part of the new scheme must be a pars
destruens, a destructive criticism of all other methods. Opposi-
tion was to be expected, not only from previous philosophies,
but especially from the human mind itself. In the first place,
natural antagonism might be looked for from the two opposed
sects, the one of whom, in despair of knowledge, maintained
that all science was impossible; while the other, resting on
authority and on the learning that had been handed down from
the Greeks, declared that science was already completely known,
and consequently devoted their energies to methodizing and
elaborating it. Secondly, within the domain of science itself,
properly so called, there were two " kind of rovers " who must
be dismissed. The first were the speculative or logical philo-
sophers, who construe the universe ex analogia hominis, and not
ex analogia mundi, who fashion nature according to preconceived
ideas, and who employ in their investigations syllogism and
abstract reasoning. The second class, who were equally offensive,
consisted of those who practised blind experience, which is mere
* Fil. Lab.; Cog. et Visa, i. ; cf. Pref. to Ins. Mag.
4 Vol. Ter. 232 ; cf. AT. O. i. 124. Letters, i. 1 23. N. 0. i. 1 16.
7 Fil. Lab. 5; cf. N. O. i. 81 ; Vol. Ter. (Works, iii. 235); Ad-
vancement, bk. i. (Works, iii. 294).
Fil. Lab. 5; cl.'N. 0. i. 81 ; Vol. Ter. (Works, iii. 222,233); New
Atlantis (Works, iii. 156). *N. O. i. 1 16. M Ibid. i. 124. Ibid.i. 6.
146
BACON, FRANCIS
groping in the dark (vaga experientia mera palpatio est), who
occasionally hit upon good works or inventions, which, like
Atalanta's apples, distracted them from further steady and
gradual progress towards universal truth. In place of these
straggling efforts of the unassisted human mind, a graduated
system of helps was to be supplied, by the use of which the mind,
when placed on the right road, would proceed with unerring
and mechanical certainty to the invention of new arts and
sciences.
Such were to be the peculiar functions of the new method,
though it has not definitely appeared what that method was,
or to what objects it could be applied. But, before proceeding
to unfold his method, Bacon found it necessary to enter hi con-
siderable detail upon the general subject of the obstacles to
progress, and devoted nearly the whole of the first book of the
Organum to the examination of them. This discussion, though
strictly speaking extraneous to the scheme, has always been
looked upon as a most important part of his philosophy, and
his name is perhaps as much associated with the doctrine of
Idols (Idola) as with the theory of induction or the classification
of the sciences.
The doctrine of the kinds of fallacies or general classes of
errors into which the human mind is prone to fall, appears in
many of the works written before the Novum Organum, and the
treatment of them varies hi some respects. The classification
in the Organum, however, not only has the author's sanction,
but has received the stamp of historical acceptation; and com-
parison of the earlier notices, though a point of literary interest,
has no important philosophic bearing. The Idola (Nov. Org. i. 39) 1
false notions of things.or erroneouswaysof lookingat nature, areof
four kinds: the first two innate, pertaining to the very nature of
the mind and not to be eradicated; the third creeping insensibly
into men's minds, and hence in a sense innate and inseparable;
the fourth imposed from without. The first kind are the Idola
Tribus, idols of the tribe, fallacies incident to humanity or the
race in general. Of these, the most prominent are the prone-
ness to suppose in nature greater order and regularity than there
actually is; the tendency to support a preconceived opinion by
affirmative instances, neglecting all negative or opposed cases;
and the tendency to generalize from few observations, or to give
reality to mere abstractions, figments of the mind. Manifold
errors also result from the weakness of the senses, which affords
scope for mere conjecture; from the influence exercised over the
understanding by the will and passions; from the restless desire
of the mind to penetrate to the ultimate principles of things;
and from the belief that " man is the measure of the universe,"
whereas, in truth, the world is received by us in a distorted and
erroneous manner. The second kind are the Idola Specus, idols
of the cave, or errors incident to the peculiar mental or bodily
constitution of each individual, for according to the state of the
individual's mind is his view of things. Errors of this class
are innumerable, because there are numberless varieties of dis-
position; but some very prominent specimens can be indicated.
Such are the tendency to make all things subservient to, or take
the colour of some favourite subject, the extreme fondness and
reverence either for what is ancient or for what is modern, and
excess in noting either differences or resemblances amongst
things. A practical rule for avoiding thtse is also given: " In
general let every student of nature take this as a rule, that what-
ever his mind seizes and dwells upon with particular satisfaction
is to be held in suspicion." 7 The third class are the Idola Fori,
idols of the market-place, errors arising from the influence
exercised over the mind by mere words. This, according to
'The word Idola is manifestly borrowed from Plato. It is used
twice in connexion with the Platonic Ideas (N. O. i. 23, 124) and is
contrasted with them as the false appearance. The (tdalwv with
Plato is the fleeting, transient image of the real thing, and the passage
evidently referred to by Bacon is that in the Rep. vii. 516 A, icoi
TptaTov ply T&S (TKIO.S &v fr^ara. KcuSopt^ij, Kal /zcrd TOVTO Iv rots vSatri rii
Tt rS>y ivBp^neuiv xoi rA. rav iXXuf etSuiXn, tarfpov Sk ainii. It is
explained well in the Advancement, bk. i. (Works, iii. 287). (For
valuable notes on the Idola, see T. Fowler's Nov. Ore. i. 38 notes;
especially for a comparison of the Idola with Roger Bacon's Ofcn-
dicula.) N. O. i. 58.
Bacon, is the most troublesome kind of error, and has been
especially fatal in philosophy. For words introduce a fallacious
mode of looking at things in two ways: first, there are some
words that are really merely names for non-existent things,
which are yet supposed to exist simply because they have re-
ceived a name; secondly, there are names hastily and unskilfully
abstracted from a few objects and applied recklessly to all that
has the faintest analogy with these objects, thus causing the
grossest confusion. The fourth and last class are the Idola
Theatri, idols of the theatre, i.e. fallacious modes of thinking
resulting from received systems of philosophy and from erroneous
methods of demonstration. The criticism of the demonstrations
is introduced later in close connexion with Bacon's new method;
they are the rival modes of procedure, to which his own is
definitely opposed. The philosophies which are " redargued "
are divided into three classes, the sophistical, of which the best
example is Aristotle, who, according to Bacon, forces nature
into his abstract schemata and thinks to explain by definitions;
the empirical, which from few and limited experiments leaps
at once to general conclusions; and the superstitious, which
corrupts philosophy by the introduction of poetical and
theological notions.
Such are the general causes of the errors that infest the human
mind; by their exposure the way is cleared for the introduction
of the new method. The nature of this method cannot be
understood until it is exactly seen to what it is to be apptied.
What idea had Bacon of science, and how is his method connected
with it? Now, the science 3 which was specially and invariably
contemplated by him was natural philosophy, the great mother
of all the sciences; it was to him the type of scientific knowledge,
and its method was the method of all true science. To discover
exactly the characteristics and the object of natural philosophy
it is necessary to examine the place it holds in the general
scheme furnished in the Advancement or De Augmentis. All
human knowledge, it is there laid down, may be referred to man's
memory or imagination or reason. In the first, the bare facts
presented to sense are collected and stored up; the exposition
of them is history, which is either natural or civil. In the second,
the materials of sense are separated or divided in ways not
corresponding to nature but after the mind's own pleasure, and
the result is poesy or feigned history. In the third, the materials
are worked up after the model or pattern of nature, though we
are prone to err in the progress from sense to reason; the result
is philosophy, which is concerned either with God, with nature
or with man, the second being the most important. Natural
philosophy is again divided into speculative or theoretical and
operative or practical, according as the end is contemplation
or works. Speculative or theoretical natural philosophy has to
deal with natural substances and qualities and is subdivided
into physics and metaphysics. Physics inquires into the efficient
and material causes of things; metaphysics, into the formal and
final causes. The principal objects of physics are concrete
substances, or abstract though physical qualities. The research
into abstract qualities, the fundamental problem of physics,,
comes near to the metaphysical study of forms, which indeed
differs from the first only in being more general, and in having
as its results a form strictly so called, i.e. a nature or quality
which is a limitation or specific manifestation of some higher
and better-known genus. 4 Natural philosophy is, therefore,
in ultimate resort the study of forms, and, consequently, the
fundamental problem of philosophy in general is the discovery
of these forms.
" On a given body to generate or superinduce a new nature or
natures, is the work and aim of human power. ... Of a given
nature to discover the form or true specific difference, or nature-
engendering nature (natura naturans) or source of emanation (for
these are the terms which are nearest to a description of the thing),
is the work and aim of human knowledge." 6
The questions, then, whose answers give the key to the whole
Baconian philosophy, may be put briefly thus What are
' N. 0. i. 79, 80, 98, 108.
* On the meaning of the word form in Bacon's theory see also
Fowler's N. O. introd. 8. N. 0. ii. i.
BACON, FRANCIS
forms? and how is it that knowledge of them solves both
the theoretical and the practical problem of science ? Bacon
himself, as may be seen from the passage quoted above, finds
great difficulty in giving an adequate and exact definition of
what he means by a form. As a general description, the following
passage from the Novum Organum, ii. 4, may be cited:
" The form of a nature is such that given the form the nature
infallibly follows. . . . Again, the form is such that if it be taken
away the nature infallibly vanishes. . . . Lastly, the true form is
such that it deduces the given nature from some source of being
which is inherent in more natures, and which is better known in
the natural order of things than the form itself." 1
From this it would appear that, since by a nature is meant
some sensible quality, superinduced upon, or possessed by, a
body, so by a form we are to understand the cause of that nature,
which cause is itself a determinate case or manifestation of some
general or abstract quality inherent in a greater number of objects.
But all these are mostly marks by which a form may be recognized,
and do not explain what the form really is. A further definition
is accordingly attempted in Aph. 13:
" The form of a thing is the very thing itself, and the thing differs
from the form no otherwise than as the apparent differs from the
real, or the external from the internal, or the thing in reference to
the man from the thing in reference to the universe."
This throws a new light on the question, and from it the
inference at once follows, that the forms are the permanent
causes or substances underlying all visible phenomena, which are
merely manifestations of their activity. Are the forms, then,
forces ? At times it seems as if Bacon had approximated to
this view of the nature of things, for in several passages he
identifies forms with laws of activity. Thus, he says
" When I speak of forms I mean nothing more than those laws
and determinations of absolute actuality which govern and con-
stitute any simple nature, as heat, light, weight, in every kind of
matter and subject that is susceptible of them. Thus the form of
heat or the form of light is the same thing as the law of heat or the
law of light."* "Matter rather than forms should be the object
of our attention, its configurations and changes of configuration,
and simple action, and law of action or motion; for forms are fig-
ments of the human mind, unless you will call those laws of action
forms." * " Forms or true differences of things, which are in fact
laws of pure act." 4 " For though in nature nothing really exists
besides individual bodies, performing pure individual acts accord-
ing to a fixed law, yet in philosophy this very law, and the investi-
gation, discovery and explanation of it, is the foundation as well
of knowledge as of operation. And it is this law, with its clauses,
that I mean when I speak of forms." *
Several important conclusions may be drawn from these
passages. In the first place, it is evident that Bacon, like the
Atomical school, of whom he highly approved, had a clear
perception and a firm grasp of the physical character of natural
principles; his forms are no ideas or abstractions, but highly
general physical properties. Further, it is hinted that these
general qualities may be looked upon as the modes of action of
simple bodies. This fruitful conception, however, Bacon does
not work out; and though he uses the word cause, and identifies
form with formal cause, yet it is perfectly apparent that the
modern notions of cause as dynamical, and of nature as in a
process of flow or development, are foreign to him, and that in his
view of the ultimate problem of science, cause meant causa
immanens, or underlying substance, effects were not consequents
but manifestations, and nature was regarded in a purely statical
aspect. That this is so appears even more clearly when we
examine his general conception of the unity, gradation and
function of the sciences. That the sciences are organically
connected is a thought common to him and to his distinguished
predecessor Roger Bacon. " I that hold it for a great impedi-
ment towards the advancement and further invention of
knowledge, that particular arts and sciences have been dis-
incorporated from general knowledge, do not understand one
1 This better known in the order of nature is nowhere satisfactorily
explained by Bacon. Like his classification of causes, and in some
degree his notion of form itself, it comes from Aristotle. See An.
Post. 71 b 33; Topic, 141 b 5; Eth. Nic. 1095 a 30. It should
be observed that many writers maintain that the phrase should be
notiora natura; others, notiora naturae. See Fowler's N. O. p. 199
note.
1 N. 0. ii. 17. Ibid. i. 51. Ibid. i. 75. Ibid. ii. 2.
and the same thing which Cicero's discourse and the note and
conceit of the Grecians in their word circle learning do intend.
For I mean not that use which one science hath of another for
ornament or help in practice; but I mean- it directly of that use
by way of supply of light and information, which the particulars
and instances of one science do yield and present for the framing
or correcting of the axioms of another science in their very truth
and notion." In accordance with this, Bacon placed at the
basis of the particular sciences which treat of God, nature and
man, one fundamental doctrine, the Prima Philosophia, or first
philosophy, the function of which was to display the unity of
nature by connecting into one body of truth such of the highest
axioms of the subordinate sciences as were not special to one
science, but common to several. 7 This first philosophy had
also to investigate what are called the adventitious or tran-
scendental conditions of essences, such as Much, Little, Like,
Unlike, Possible, Impossible, Being, Nothing, the logical dis-
cussion of which certainly belonged rather to the laws, of
reasoning than to the existence of things, but the physical or
real treatment of which might be expected to yield answers
to such questions as, why certain substances are numerous,
others scarce; or why, if like attracts like, iron does not
attract iron. Following this summary philosophy come the
sciences proper, rising like a pyramid in successive stages, the
lowest floor being occupied by natural history or experience, the
second by physics, the third, which is next the peak of unity, by
metaphysics. 8 The knowledge of the peak, or of the one law
which binds nature together, is perhaps denied to man. Of the
sciences, physics, as has been already seen, deals with the efficient
and material, i.e. with the variable and transient, causes of things.
But its inquiries may be directed either towards concrete bodies
or towards abstract qualities. The first kind of investigation
rises little above mere natural history; but the other is more
important and paves the way for metaphysics. It handles the
configurations and the appetites or motions of matter. The
configurations, or inner structure of bodies, include dense, rare,
heavy, light, hot, cold, &c., in fact, what are elsewhere called
simple natures. Motions 9 are either simple or compound, the
latter being the sum of a number of the former. In physics,
however, these matters are treated only as regards their material
or efficient causes, and the result of inquiry into any one case
gives no general rule, but only facilitates invention in some
similar instance. Metaphysics, on the other hand, treats of the
formal or final cause 10 of these same substances and qualities,
and results in a general rule. With regard to forms, the investiga-
tion may be directed either towards concrete bodies or towards
qualities. But the forms of substances " are so perplexed and
complicated, that it is either vain to inquire into them at all, or
such inquiry as is possible should be put off for a time, and not
entered upon till forms of a more simple nature have been rightly
investigated and discussed." 11 "To inquire into the form of a
lion, of an oak, or gold, nay, even of water or air, is a vain pursuit;
but to inquire the form of dense, rare, hot, cold, &c., as well
configurations as motions, which in treating of physic I have in
* Valerius Terminus, iii. 228-229.
7 Cf. N. O. ii. 27. Bacon nowhere enters upon the Questions of
how such a science is to be constructed, and how it can be expected
to possess an independent method while it remains the mere recep-
tacle for the generalizations of the several sciences, and consequently
has a content which varies with their progress. His whole conception
of Prima Philosophia should be compared with such a modern work
as the First Principles of Herbert Spencer.
* It is to be noticed that this scale of nature corresponds with the
scale of ascending axioms.
* Cf. also for motions, N. O. ii. 48.
10 The knowledge of final causes does not lead to works, and the con-
sideration of them must be rigidly excluded from physics. Yet there
is no opposition between the physical and final causes; in ultimate
resort the mind is compelled to think the universe as the work of
reason, to refer facts to God and Providence. The idea of final cause
is also fruitful in sciences which have to do with human action.
(Cf. De Aug. iii. cc. 4, 5; Nov. Org. i. 48, ii. 2.)
11 De Aug. iii. 4. In the Advancement (Works, iii. 355) it is dis-
tinctly saia that they are not to be inquired into. One can hardly
see how the Baconian method could have applied to concrete
substances.
BACON, FRANCIS
great part enumerated (I call them forms of the first class), and
which (like the letters of the alphabet) are not many, and yet
make up and sustain the essences and forms of all substances
this, I say, it is which I am attempting, and which constitutes
and defines that part of metaphysic of which we are now inquir-
ing." Physics inquires into the same qualities, but does not push
its investigations into ultimate reality or reach the more general
causes. We thus at last attain a definite conclusion with regard
to forms, and it appears clear that in Bacon's belief the true
function of science was the search for a few fundamental physical
qualities, highly abstract and general, the combinations of which
give rise to the simple natures and complex phenomena around
us. His general conception of the universe may therefore be called
mechanical or statical; the cause of each phenomenon is sup-
posed to be actually contained in the phenomenon itself^ and by
a sufficiently accurate process could be sifted out and brought to
light. As soon as the causes are known man regains his power over
nature, for " whosoever knows any form, knows also the utmost
possibility of superinducing that nature upon every variety of
matter, and so is less restrained and tied in operation either to
the basis of the matter or to the condition of the efficients." 1
Nature thus presented itself to Bacon's mind as a huge
congeries of phenomena, the manifestations of some simple and
primitive qualities, which were hid from us by the complexity
of the things themselves. The world was a vast labyrinth, amid
the windings of which we require some clue or thread whereby
we may track our way to knowledge and thence to power. This
thread, thefilum labyrinthi, is the new method of induction. But,
as has been frequently pointed out, the new method could not
be applied until facts had been observed and collected. This is
an indispensable preliminary. " Man, the servant and inter-
preter of nature, can do and understand so much, and so much
only, as he has observed in fact or in thought of the course of
nature; beyond this he neither knows anything nor can do
anything." The proposition that our knowledge of nature
necessarily begins with observation and experience, is common
to Bacon and many contemporary reformers of science, but he
laid peculiar stress upon it, and gave it a new meaning. What
he really meant by observation was a competent natural history
or collection of facts. " The firm foundations of a purer natural
philosophy are laid in natural history." 2 " First of all we must
prepare a natural and experimental history, sufficient and good;
and this is the foundation of all." * The senses and the memory,
which collect and store up facts, must be assisted; there must
be a ministration of the senses and another of the memory. For
not only are instances required, but these must be arranged in
such a manner as not to distract or confuse the mind, i.e. tables
and arrangements of instances must be constructed. In the
preliminary collection the greatest care must be taken that the
mind be absolutely free from preconceived ideas; nature is only
to be conquered by obedience; man must be merely receptive.
" All depends on keeping the eye steadily fixed upon the facts of
nature, and so receiving their images simply as they are; for
God forbid that we should give out a dream of our own imagina-
tion for a pattern of the world; rather may He graciously grant
to us to write an apocalypse or true vision of the footsteps of
the Creator imprinted on his creatures." * Concealed among the
facts presented to sense are the causes or forms, and the problem
therefore is so to analyse experience,' so to break it up into
pieces, that we shall with certainty and mechanical ease arrive
at a true conclusion. This process, which forms the essence of
the new method, may in its entirety, as a ministration to the
reason, be called a logic; but it differs widely from the ordinary
or school logic in end, method and form. Its aim is to acquire
command over nature by knowledge, and to invent new arts,
whereas the old logic strove only after dialectic victories and the
1 Thus the last step in the theoretical analysis rives the first means
for the practical operation. Cf. Aristotle, Eth. Nic. iii. 3. 12, ri>
\O\O.TQV kv TTJ paX6<rei Trpurov flvcu. it> TV ytvtati. Cf. also Nov.
Org. i. 103.
* Cogitationes (Works, iii. 187). ' N. O. ii. 10.
4 Pref. to Instaur. Cf. Valerius Term. (Works, iii. 224), and N. 0.
i. 68, 124. ' Pref. to Inst.
discovery of new arguments. In method the difference is even
more fundamental. Hitherto the mode of demonstration had
been by the syllogism; but the syllogism is, in many respects,
an incompetent weapon. It is compelled to accept its first
principles on trust from the science in which it is employed; it
cannot cope with the subtlety of nature; and it is radically
vitiated by being founded on hastily and inaccurately abstracted
notions of things. For a syllogism consists of propositions,
propositions of words, and words are the symbols of notions.
Now the first step in accurate progress from sense to reason, or
true philosophy, is to frame a bona notio or accurate conception
of the thing; but the received logic never does this. It flies off
at once from experience and particulars to the highest and most
general propositions, and from these descends, by the use of
middle terms, to axioms of lower generality. Such a mode of
procedure may be called anticipatio naturae (for in it reason is
allowed to prescribe to things), and is opposed to the true
method, the interpretalio naturae, in which reason follows and
obeys nature, discovering her secrets by obedience and sub-
mission to rule. Lastly, the very form of induction that has been
used by logicians in the collection of their instances is a weak and
useless thing. It is a mere enumeration of a few known facts,
makes no use of exclusions or rejections, concludes precariously,
and is always liable to be overthrown by a negative instance.*
In radical opposition to this method the Baconian induction
begins by supplying helps and guides to the senses, whose un-
assisted information could not be relied on. Notions were
formed carefully, and not till after a certain process of induction
was completed. 7 The formation of axioms was to be carried on
by a gradually ascending scale. " Then and only then may we
hope well of the sciences, when in a just scale of ascent and by
successive steps, not interrupted or broken, we rise from par-
ticulars to lesser axioms; and then to middle axioms, one above
the other; and last of all to the most general." 8 Finally the
very form of induction itself must be new. " The induction
which is to be available for the discovery and demonstration of
sciences and arts must analyse nature by proper rejections and
exclusions; and then, after a sufficient number of negatives,
come to a conclusion on the affirmative instances, which has not
yet been done, or even attempted, save only by Plato. 9 . . .
And this induction must be used not only to discover axioms,
but also in the formation of notions." 10 This view of the function
of exclusion is closely connected with Bacon's doctrine of forms,
6 Bacon's summary is valuable. " In the whole of the process
which leads from the senses and objects to axioms and conclusions,
the demonstrations which we use are deceptive and incompetent.
The process consists of four parts, and has as many faults. In the
first place, the impressions of the sense itself are faulty, for the sense
both fails us and deceives us. But its shortcomings are to be supplied
and its deceptions to be corrected. Secondly, notions are all drawn
from the impressions of the sense, and are indefinite and con-
fused, whereas they should be definite and distinctly bounded.
Thirdly, the induction is amiss which infers the principles of sciences
by simple enumeration, and does not, as it ought, employ exclusions
and solutions (or separations) of nature. Lastly, that method of
discovery and proof according to which the most general principles
are first established, and then intermediate axioms are tried and
proved by them, is the parent of error and the curse of all science."
N. 0. i. 69.
7 N. O. i. IO5. "Ibid, i. 104; cf. i. 19-26.
' This extract gives an answer to the objection sometimes raised
that Bacon is not original in his theory of induction.^ He certainly
admits that Plato has used a method somewhat akin to his own;
but it has frequently been contended that his induction is nothing
more than the tir&ywjii of Aristotle (see Remusat's Bacon, &c., pp.
310-315, and for a criticism, Waddington, Essais de Logique, p. 261.
sqq.) This seems a mistake. Bacon did not understand by in-
duction the argument from particulars to a general proposition ; he
looked upon the exclusion and rejection, or upon elimination, as the
essence of induction. To this process he was led by his doctrine of
forms, of which it is the necessary consequence; it is the infallible
result of his view of science and its problem, and is as original as that
is. Whoever accepts Bacon's doctrine of cause must accept at the
same time his theory of the way in which the cause may be sifted out
from among the phenomena. It is evident that the Socratic search
for the essence by an analysis of instances an induction ending in
a definition has a strong resemblance to the Baconian inductive
method. M N. O. i. 105.
BACON, FRANCIS
149
and is in fact dependent upon that theory. But induction is
neither the whole of the new method, nor is it applicable to forms
only. There are two other grand objects of inquiry: the one,
the transformation of concrete bodies; the other, the investiga-
tion of the latent powers and the latent schematism or configura-
tion. With regard to the first, in ultimate result it depends upon
the theory of forms; for whenever the compound body can be
regarded as the sum of certain simple natures, then our know-
ledge of the forms of these natures gives us the power of super-
inducing a new nature on the concrete body. As regards the
latent process (latens processus) which goes on in all cases of
generation and continuous development or motion, we examine
carefully, and by quantitative measurements, the gradual
growth and change from the first elements to the completed
thing. The same kind of investigation may be extended to many
cases of natural motion, such as voluntary action or nutrition;
and though inquiry is here directed towards concrete bodies, and
does not therefore penetrate so deeply into reality as in research
for forms, yet great results may be looked for with more con-
fidence. It is to be regretted that Bacon did not complete this
portion of his work, in which for the first time he approaches
modern conceptions of change. The latent configuration (latens
schematismus) or inward structure of the parts of a body must be
known before we can hope to superinduce a new nature upon it.
This can only be discovered by analysis, which will disclose the
ultimate constituents (natural particles, not atoms) of bodies,
and lead back the discussion to forms or simple natures, whereby
alone can true light be thrown on these obscure questions. Thus,
in all cases, scientific explanation depends upon knowledge of
forms; all phenomena or secondary qualities are accounted for
by being referred to the primary qualities of matter.
The several steps in the inductive investigation of the form of
any nature flow readily from the definition of the form itself.
For that is always and necessarily present when the nature is
present, absent when it is absent, decreases and increases accord-
ing as the nature decreases and increases. It is therefore requisi te
for the inquiry to have before us instances in which the nature
is present. The list of these is called the table of Essence and
Presence. Secondly, we must have instances in which the nature
is absent; only as such cases might be infinite, attention should
be limited to such of them as are most akin to the instances of
presence. 1 The list in this case is called table of Absence in
Proximity. Thirdly, we must have a number of instances in
which the nature is present in different degrees, either increasing
or decreasing in the same subject, or variously present in different
subjects. This is the table of Degrees, or Comparison. After
the formation of these tables, we proceed to apply what is perhaps
the most valuable part of the Baconian method, and that in which
the author took most pride, the process of exclusion or rejection.
This elimination of the non-essential, grounded on the funda-
mental propositions with regard to forms, is the most important
of Bacon's contributions to the logic of induction, and that in
which, as he repeatedly says, his method differs from all previous
philosophies. It is evident that if the tables were complete,
and our notions of the respective phenomena clear, the process of
exclusion would be a merely mechanical counting out, and would
infallibly lead to the detection of the cause or form. But it is
just as evident that these conditions can never be adequately
fulfilled. Bacon saw that his method was impracticable (though
he seems to have thought the difficulties not insuperable), and
therefore set to work to devise new helps, adminicula. These he
enumerates in ii., Aph. 21: Prerogative Instances, Supports
of Induction, Rectification of Induction, Varying the Investiga-
tion according to the Nature of the Subject, Prerogative Natures,
Limits of Investigation, Application to Practice, Preparations for
Investigation, the Ascending and Descending Scale of Axioms.
The remainder of the Organum is devoted to a consideration of
the twenty-seven classes of Prerogative Instances, and though
it contains much that is both luminous and helpful, it adds little
to our knowledge of what constitutes the Baconian method.
1 That is to say, differing in nothing save the absence of the nature
under investigation.
On the other heads we have but a few scattered hints. But
although the rigorous requirements of science could only be
fulfilled by the employment of all these means, yet in their
absence it was permissible to draw from the tables and the
exclusion a hypothetical conclusion, the truth of which might
be verified by the use of the other processes; such an
hypothesis is called fantastically the First Vintage ( Vindemiatio).
The inductive method, so far as exhibited in the Organum, is
exemplified by an investigation into the nature of heat.
Such was the method devised by Bacon, and to which he
ascribed the qualities of absolute certainty and mechanical
simplicity. But even supposing that this method were accurate
and completely unfolded, it is evident that it could only be made
applicable and produce fruit when the phenomena of the universe
have been very completely tabulated and arranged. In this
demand for a complete natural history, Bacon also felt that he
was original, and he was deeply impressed with the necessity for
it; 2 in fact, he seems occasionally to place an even higher
value upon it than upon his Organum. Thus, in the preface to
his series of works forming the third part of the Instauratio, he
says: " It comes, therefore, to this, that my Organum, even if it
were completed, would not without the Natural History much
advance the Instauration of the Sciences, whereas the Natural
History without the Organum would advance it not a little."'
But a complete natural history is evidently a thing impossible,
and in fact a history can only be collected by attending to the
requirements of the Organum. This was seen by Bacon, and
what may be regarded as his final opinion on the question is
given in the important letter to Jean Antoine Baranzano 4
(" Redemptus ": 1590-1622): " With regard to the multitude
of instances by which men may be deterred from the attempt,
here is my answer. First, what need to dissemble ? Either
store of instances must be procured, or the business must be
given up. All other ways, however enticing, are impassable.
Secondly, the prerogatives of instances, and the mode of experi-
menting upon experiments of light (which I shall hereafter
explain), will diminish the multitude of them very much.
Thirdly, what matter, I ask, if the description of the instances
should fill six times as many volumes as Pliny's History ? . . .
For the true natural history is to take nothing except instances,
connections, observations and canons."* The Organum and
the History are thus correlative, and form the two equally
necessary sides of a true philosophy; by their union the new
philosophy is produced.
Summary. Two questions may be put to any doctrine which
professes to effect a radical change in philosophy or science. Is
it original ? Is it valuable ? With regard to the first, it has
been already pointed out that Bacon's induction or inductive
method is distinctly his own, though it cannot and need not be
maintained that the general spirit of his philosophy was entirely
new.*
The value of the method is the separate and more difficult
question. It has been assailed on the most opposite grounds.
Macaulay, while admitting the accuracy of the process, denied its
efficiency, on the ground that an operation performed naturally
was not rendered more easy or efficacious by being subjected
to analysis. 7 This objection is curious when confronted with
Bacon's reiterated assertion that the natural method pursued
by the unassisted human reason is distinctly opposed to his;
and it is besides an argument that tells so strongly against many
sciences, as to be comparatively worthless when applied to any
one. There are, however, more formidable objections against
the method. It has been pointed out, 8 and with perfect justice,
* Distrib. Op. (Works, iv. 28) ; Parasceve (ibid. 251, 252, 255-256) ;
Descrip. Glob. Intel, ch. 3.
Works, ii. 16; cf. N. O. i. 130.
4 A Barnabite monk, professor of mathematics and philosophy at
Annecy.
' Letters and Life, vii. 377.
' For a full discussion of Bacon's relation to his predecessors and
contemporaries, see Fowler's N. 0. introd. 13.
7 Cf. what Bacon says, ^V. O. i. 130.
Brewster, Life of Newton (1855) (see particularly vol. ii. 403,
405) ; Lasson, Ober Bacon von Veridam's wissenschaftitcke Principien
BACON, FRANCIS
that science in its progress has not followed the Baconian method,
that no one discovery can be pointed to which can be definitely
ascribed to the use of his rules, and that men the most celebrated
for their scientific acquirements, while paying homage to the
name of Bacon, practically set at naught his most cherished
precepts. The reason of this is not far to seek, and has been
pointed out by logicians of the most diametrically opposed
schools. The mechanical character both of the natural history
and of the logical method applied to it, resulted necessarily from
Bacon's radically false conception of the nature of cause and of
the causal relation. The whole logical .or scientific problem is
treated as if it were one of co-existence, to which in truth the
method of exclusion is scarcely applicable, and the assumption
is constantly made that each phenomenon has one and only one
cause. 1 The inductive formation of axioms by a gradually
ascending scale is a route which no science has ever followed,
and by which no science could ever make progress. The true
scientific procedure is by hypothesis followed up and tested
by verification; the most powerful instrument is the deductive
method, which Bacon can hardly be said to have recognized.
The power of framing hypothesis points to another want in the
Baconian doctrine. If that power form part of the true method,
then the mind is not wholly passive or recipient; it anticipates
nature, and moulds the experience received by it in accordance
with its own constructive ideas or conceptions; and yet further,
the minds of various investigators can never be reduced to the
same dead mechanical level. 2 There will still be room for the
scientific use of the imagination and for the creative flashes of
genius. 3
If, then, Bacon himself made no contributions to science,
if no discovery can be shown to be due to the use of his rules,
if his method be logically defective, and the problem to which
it was applied one from its nature incapable of adequate solution,
it may not unreasonably be asked, How has he come to be looked
upon as the great leader in the reformation of modern science?^
How is it that he shares with Descartes the honour of inaugurat-
ing modern philosophy? To this the true answer seems to be
that Bacon owes his position not only to the general spirit of his
philosophy, but to the manner in which he worked into a con-
(1860) ; Liebig, ffber Francis Bacon von Verulam, &c. (1863).
Although Liebig points out how jittle science proceeds according
to Bacon's rules, yet his other criticisms seem of extremely little
value. In a very offensive and quite unjustifiable tone, which is
severely commented on by Sigwart and Fischer, he attacks the
Baconian methods and its results. These results he claims to find in
the Sylva Sylvarum, entirely ignoring what Bacon himself has said
of the nature of that work (N. O. i. 117; cf. Rawley's Pref. to the
5. 5.), and thus putting a false interpretation on the experiments
there noted. It is not surprising that he should detect many flaws,
but he never fails to exaggerate an error, and seems sometimes com-
pletely to miss the point of what Bacon says. (See particularly his
remarks on 5. S. 33, 336.) The method he explains in such a way
as to show he has not a glimpse of its true nature. He brings against
Bacon, of all men, the accusations of making induction start from
the undetermined perceptions of the senses, of using imagination,
and of putting a quite arbitrary interpretation on phenomena. He
crowns his criticism by expounding what he considers to be the true
scientific method, which, as has been pointed put by Fischer, is
simply that_Baconian doctrine against which his attack ought to
have been directed. (See his account of the method, Vber Bacon,
47-40; K. Fischer, Bacon, pp. 499-502.)
1 Mill, Logic, ii. pp. 115, 116, 329, 330.
3 Whewell, Phil, of Ind. Sc. ii. 399, 402-403 ; Ellis, Int. to Bacon's
Works, i. 39, 61 ; Brewster, Newton, ii. 404; Jevons, Princ. of Science
ii. 220. A severe judgment on Bacon's method is given in Diihring's
able but one-sided Kritische Gesch. d. Phil., in which the merits of
Roger Bacon are brought prominently forward.
* Although it must be admitted that the Baconian method is fairly
open to the above-mentioned objections, it is curious and significant
that Bacon was not thoroughly ignorant of them, but with deliberate
consciousness preferred his own method. We do not think, indeed,
that the notiones of which he speaks in any way correspond to what
Whewell and Ellis would call " conceptions or ideas furnished by the
mind' of the thinker "; nor do we imagine that Bacon would have
admitted these as necessary elements in the inductive process. But
he was certainly not ignorant of what may be called a deductive
method, and of a kind of hypothesis. This is clear from the use he
makes of the Vindemiatio, from certain hints as to the testing of
axioms, from his admission of the syllogism intophysical reasoning,
and from what hs calls Experientia Ltterata. The function of the
nected system the new htode of thinking, and to the incomparable
power and eloquence with which he expounded and enforced it.
Like all epoch-making works, the Novum Organum gave ex-
pression to ideas which were already beginning to be in the air.
The time was ripe for a great change; scholasticism, long
decaying, had begun to fall; the authority not only of school
doctrines but of the church had been discarded; while here and
there a few devoted experimenters were turning with fresh zeal
to the unwithered face of nature. The fruitful thoughts which
lay under and gave rise to these scattered efforts of the human
mind, were gathered up into unity, and reduced to system in
the new philosophy of Bacon. 4 It is assuredly little matter for
wonder that this philosophy should contain much that is now
inapplicable, and that in many respects it should be vitiated
by radical errors. The details of the logical method on which
its author laid the greatest stress have not been found of practical
service; 6 yet the fundamental ideas on which the theory rested,
the need for rejecting rash generalization, and the necessity for
a critical analysis of experience, are as true and valuable now as
they were then. Progress in scientific discovery is made mainly,
if not solely, by the employment of hypothesis, and for that no
code of rules can be laid down such as Bacon had devised. Yet
the framing of hypothesis is no mere random guesswork; it is
left not to the imagination alone, but to the scientific imagination.
There is required in the process not merely a preliminary critical
induction, but a subsequent experimental comparison, verifica-
tion or proof, the canons of which can be laid down with
precision. To formulate and show grounds for these laws is
to construct a philosophy of induction, and it must not be
forgotten that the first step towards the accomplishment of
the task was made by Bacon when he introduced and gave
prominence to the powerful logical instrument of exclusion or
elimination.
It is curious and significant that in the domain of the moral
and metaphysical sciences his influence has been perhaps more
powerful, and his authority has been more frequently appealed
to, than in that of the physical. This is due, not so much to his
expressed opinion that the inductive method was applicable to
all the sciences, 6 as to the generally practical, or, one may say,
Vindemiatio has been already pointed out ; with regard to axioms,
he says (N. O. i. 106), " In establishing axioms by this kind of in-
duction, we must also examine and try whether the axiom so estab-
lished be framed to the measure of these particulars, from which it
is derived, or whether it be larger or wider. And if it be larger and
wider, we must observe whether, by indicating to us new particulars,
it confirm that wideness and largeness as by a collateral security,
that we may not either stick fast in things already known, or loosely
grasp at shadows and abstract forms, not at things solid and realized
in matter." (Cf. also the passage from Valerius Terminus, quoted
in Ellis's note on the above aphorism.) Of the syllogism he
says, " I do not propose to give up the syllogism altogether. S. is
incompetent for the principal things rather than useless for the
generality. In the mathematics there is no reason why it should not
be employed. It is the flux of matter and the inconstancy of the
physical body which requires induction, that thereby it may be fixed
as it_ were, and allow the formation of notions well denned. In
physics you wisely note, and therein I agree with you, that after the
notions of the first class and the axioms concerning them have been
by induction well made out and defined, syllogism may be applied
safely; only 'it must be restrained from leaping at once to the most
general notions, and progress must be made through a fit succession
of steps." (" Letter to Baranzano," Letters and Life, vii. 377).
And with this may be compared what he says of mathematics (Nov.
Org. ii. 8; Parasceve, vii.). In his account of Experientia Literata
(De Aug. v. 2) he comes very near to the modern mode of experi-
mental research. It is, he says, the procedure from one experiment
to another, and it is not a science but an art or learned sagacity
(resembling in this Aristotle's dvx'^" 1 ), which may, however, be
enlightened by the precepts of the Interpretatio. Eight varisties
of such experiments are enumerated, and a comparison is drawn
between this and the inductive method; " though the rational
method of inquiry by the Organon promises far greater things in the
end, yet this sagacity, proceeding by learned experience, will in the
meantime present mankind with a number of inventions which lie
near at hand." (Cf. N. O. i. 103.)
4 See the vigorous passage in Hersche!, Discourse on the Study of
Natural Philosophy, 105 ; cf. 96 of the same work.
6 Bacon himself seems to anticipate that the progress of science
would of itself render his method antiquated (Nov. Org. i. 130).
' Nov. Org. i. 127.
BACON, FRANCIS
positive spirit of his system. Theological questions, which had
tortured the minds of generations, are by him relegated from
the province of reason to that of faith. Even reason must be
restrained from striving after ultimate truth; it is one of the
errors of the human intellect that it will not rest in general
principles, but must push its investigations deeper. Experi-
ence and observation are the only remedies against prejudice
and error. Into questions of metaphysics, as commonly under-
stood, Bacon can hardly be said to have entered, but a long
line of thinkers have drawn inspiration from him, and it is not
without justice that he has been looked upon as the originator
and guiding spirit of what is known as the empirical school.
Bacon's Influence. It is impossible within our limits to do
more than indicate the influence which Bacon's views have had on
subsequent thinkers. The most valuable and complete discussion
of the subject is contained in T. Fowler's edition of the Novum
Organum (in trod. 14). It is there argued that, both in philo-
sophy and in natural science, Bacon's influence was immediate
and lasting. Under the former head it is pointed out (i.) that
the fundamental principle of Locke's Essay, that all our ideas
are product of sensation and reflection, is briefly stated in the
first aphorism of the Novum Organum, and (ii.) that the whole
atmosphere of that treatise is characteristic of the Essay. BacofT^
is, therefore, regarded by many as the father of what is most
characteristic in English psychological speculation. As he
himself said, he " rang the belTwnich caTleH the wits together."
In the sphere of ethics he is similarly regarded as a forerunner of
the empirical method. The spirit of the De Augmentis (bk. vii.)
and the inductive method which is discussed in the Novum
Organum are at the root of all theories which have constructed
a moral code by an inductive examination of human conscious-
ness and the results of actions. Among such theories utilitarian-
ism especially is the natural result of the application to the
phenomenon of conduct of the Baconian experimental method.
In this connexion, however, it is important to notice that Hobbes,
who had been Bacon's secretary, makes no mention of Baconian
induction, nor does he in any of his works make any critical
reference to Bacon himself. It would, therefore, appear that
Bacon's influence was not immediate.
In the sphere of natural science, Bacon's importance is attested
by references to his work in the writings of the principal scientists,
not only English, but French, German and Italian. Fowler
(op. cit.) has collected from Descartes, Gassendi, S. Sorbiere, Jean
Baptiste du Hamel, quotations which show how highly Bacon
was regarded by the leaders of the new scientific movement.
Sorbiere, who was by no means partial to things English, definitely
speaks of him as " celuy qui a le plus puissamment solicit6 les
interests de la physique, et excit6 le monde a faire des ex-
p6riences " (Relation d'un voyage en Angleterre, Cologne, 1666,
pp. 63-64). It was, however, Voltaire and the encyclopaedists
who raised Bacon to the pinnacle of his fame in France, and
hailed him as " le pere de la philosophic experimentale " (Lettres
sur les Anglois). Condillac, in the same spirit, says of him,
" personne n'a mieux connu que lui la cause de nos erreurs." So
the Encyclopedie, besides giving a eulogistic article " Baconisme,"
speaks of him (in d'Alembert's preliminary discourse) as " le
plus grand, le plus universel, et le plus eloquent des philosophes."
Among other writers, Leibnitz and Huygens give testimony
which is the more valuable as being critical. Leibnitz speaks of
Bacon as " divini ingenii vir," and, like several other German
authors, classes him with Campanella; Huygens refers to his
" bonnes methodes." If, however, we are to attach weight to
English writers of the latter half of the I7th century, we shall find
that one of Bacon's greatest achievements was the impetus given
by his New Atlantis to the foundation of the Royal Society (q.v.).
Dr Thomas Sprat (1635-1713), bishop of Rochester and first
historian of the society, says that Bacon of all others " had the
true imagination of the whole extent " of the enterprise, and that
in his works are to be found the best arguments for the experi-
mental method of natural philosophy (Hist, of the Royal Society,
PP- 3S-36, and Thomas Tenison's Baconiana, pp. 264-266).
In this connexion reference should be made also to Cowley's
Ode to the Royal Society, and to Dr John Wallis's remarks in
Hearne's Preface to P. Langtoft's Chronicle (appendix, num. xi.).
Joseph Glanvill, in his Scepsis Scientifica (dedication) says,
" Solomon's house in the New Atlantis was a prophetic scheme
of the Royal Society "; and Henry Oldenburg (c. 1615-1677),
one of the first secretaries of the society, speaks of the new
eagerness to obtain scientific data as " a work begun by the single
care and conduct of the excellent Lord Verulam." Boyle, in
whose works there are frequent eulogistic references to Bacon,
regarded himself as a disciple and was indeed known as a second
Bacon. The predominating influence of Bacon's philosophy is
thus clearly established in the generation which succeeded his
own. There is abundant evidence to show that in the uni-
versities of Oxford and Cambridge (especially the latter) the new
spirit had already modified the old curricula. Bacon has fre-
quently been disparaged on the ground that his name is not
mentioned by Sir Isaac Newton. It can be shown, however, that
Newton was not ignorant of Bacon's works, and Dr Fowler
explains his silence with regard to them on three grounds: (i)
that Bacon's reputation was so well established that any definite
mention was unnecessary, (2) that it was not customary at the
time to acknowledge indebtedness to contemporary and recent
writers, and (3) that Newton's genius was so strongly mathe-
matical (whereas Bacon's great weakness was in mathematics)
that he had no special reason to refer to Bacon's experimental
principles.
If the foregoing examples are held sufficient to establish the
influence of Bacon on the intellectual development of his im-
mediate successors, it follows that the whole trend of typically
English thought, not only in natural science, but also in mental,
moral and political philosophy, is the logical fulfilment of
Baconian principles. He argued against the tyranny of auth-
ority, the vagaries of unfettered imagination and the academic
aims of unpractical dialectic; the vital energy and the reasoned
optimism of his language entirely outweigh the fact that his
contributions to the stock of actual scientific knowledge were
practically inconsiderable. It may be freely admitted that in
the domain of logic there is nothing in the Organum that has not
been more instructively analysed either by Aristotle himself or
in modern works; at the same time, there is probably no work
which is a better and more stimulating introduction to logical
study. Its terse, epigrammatic phrases sink into the fibre of
the mind, and are a healthy warning against crude, immature
generalization.
While, therefore, it is a profound mistake to regard Bacon as a
great constructive philosopher, or even as a lonely pioneer of
modern thought, it is quite unfair to speak of him as a trifler.
His great work consists in the fact that he summed up the faults
which the widening of knowledge had disclosed in medieval
thought, and in this sense he stands high among those who were
in many parts of 16th-century Europe striving towards a new
intellectual activity.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editions. The classical edition is that of
R. L. Ellis, J. Spedding and D. D. Heath, ist ed., 1857; 2nd ed.,
1870 (vols. i.-iii., philosophical writings; iv.-v., translations; vi.-vii.,
literary and professional works). B. Montagu's edition (17 vols.,
18251834) is full but unscholarly. An extremely useful reprint
(in one volume) of the philosophical works (with a few not strictly
philosophical), based on the first Ellis-Spedding edition, was pub-
lished by J. M. Robertson (London, 1905) ; besides the original
introductions, it contains a useful summary by the editor of the
various problems of Bacon's life and thought. Numerous cheap
editions have lately been published, e.g. in the " World's Classics '
(1901), and " New Universal Library series (1905); Sidney Lee,
English Works of Francis Bacon (London, 1905).
Of particular works there are numerous editions in all the chief
languages. The following are the most important: T. Fowler,
Novum Organum (Oxford, 1878; ed. 1889), with notes, full intro-
duction on Bacon's philosophy in all its relations, and a most valuable
bibliography. This superseded the edition of G. W. Kitchin (Oxford,
'855). The Essays have been edited more than twenty times since
1870; the following editions may be mentioned: Archbishop
Whately (6th ed., 1864); W. Aldis Wright (Lend., 1862); F. Storr
and Gibson (Lond., 1886); E. A. Abbott (Lond., 1879); John
Buchan (Lond., 1879); A. S. West (Cambridge, 1897); W. Evans
(Edinburgh, 1897). A facsimile reprint of the 1st edition was pub-
lished in New York (1904). Advancement of Learning: W. Aldis
152
Wright (Camb., 1866; 5th ed., 1900); F. G. Selby (1892-1895);
H. Morley (1905); and, with the New Atlantis, in the " World's
Classics" series (introduction by Prof. T. Case, Lond., 1906).
Wisdom of the Ancients and New Atlantis, in " Cassell's National
Library " (1886 and 1903). G. C. M. Smith, New Atlantis (1900).
J. Fiirstenhagen, Kleinere Schriftcn (Leipzig, 1884).
Biography. J. Spedding, The Life and. Letters of Lord Bacon
(1861), Life and Times of Francis Bacon (1878); also Dr Rawley's
Life in the Ellis-Spedding editions, and J. M. Robertson's reprint
(above); W. Hepworth Dixon, Personal History of Lord Bacon
(Lond., 1861), and Story of Lord Bacon's Life (ib. 1862); John
Campbell, Lives of the Chancellors (Lond., 1845), ii. 51; P. Wood-
ward, Early Life of Lord Bacon (1902) ; T. Fowler, Francis Bacon
in " English Philos." series (Lond., 1881); R. W. Church's Bacon,
in " Men of Letters " series (1884).
Philosophy. Beside the introductions in the Ellis-Spedding
and T. Fowler editions, and general histories of philosophy, see :
Kuno Fischer, Fr. Bacon (1856, 2nd ed., 1875, Eng. trans, by John
Oxenford, Lond., 1857); Ch. de Remusat, Bacon, sa vie . . . et son
influence (1857, ed. 1858 and 1877); G. L. Craik, Lord Bacon, his
Writings and his Philosophy (3 vols., 1846-1847, ed. 1860) ; A. Dorner,
De Baconis Philosophia (Berlin, 1867; London, 1886); J. y. Liebig,
Uber F. B. v. Veridam (Mannheim, 1863); Ad. Lasson, Uber B. v.
Verulam's wissenschaftliche Principien (Berl., 1860) ; E. H. Bohmer,
Uber F. B. v. Veridam (Erlangen, 1864); Ch. Adam, Philos. de
Francis Bacon (Paris, 1890); Barthelemy St Hilaire, Etude sur
Francis Bacon (Paris, 1890); R. W. Church, op. cit.; H. Heussler,
F. Bacon und seine geschichtliche Stellung (Breslau, 1889) ; H. Hoff-
ding, History of Modern Philosophy (Eng. trans., 1900); J. M.
Robertson, Short History of Freethought (Lond., 1906); Sidney Lee,
Great Englishmen of the idth century (Lond., 1904). For the relations
between Bacon and Ben Jonson see The Tale of the Shakespeare
Epitaphs by Francis Bacon (New York, 1888) ; for Bacon's poetical
gifts see an article in the Fortnightly Review (March 1905).
For the Bacon-Shakespeare controversy see SHAKESPEARE.
(R. AD.; J. M. M.)
BACON, JOHN (1740-1799), British sculptor, was born in
Southwark on the 24th of November 1740, the son of Thomas
Bacon, a cloth-worker, whose forefathers possessed a considerable
estate in Somersetshire. At the age of fourteen he was bound
apprentice in Mr Crispe's manufactory of porcelain at Lambeth,
where he was at first employed in painting the small ornamental
pieces of china, but by his great skill in moulding he soon attained
the distinction of being modeller to the work. While engaged
in the porcelain works his observation of the models executed
by different sculptors of eminence, which were sent to be burned
at an adjoining pottery, determined the direction of his genius;
he devoted himself to the imitation of them with so much success
that in 1758 a small figure of Peace sent by him to the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts received a prize, and the highest
premiums given by that society were adjudged to him nine
times between the years 1763 and 1776. During his apprentice-
ship he also improved the method of working statues in artificial
stone, an art which he afterwards carried to perfection. Bacon
first attempted working in marble about the year 1763, and
during the course of his early efforts in this art was led to improve
the method of transferring the form of the model to the marble
(technically " getting out the points") by the invention of a
more perfect instrument for the purpose. This instrument pos-
sessed many advantages above those formerly employed; it was
more exact, took a correct measurement in every direction, was
contained in a small compass, and could be used upon either
the model or the marble. In the year 1769 he was adjudged
the first gold medal for sculpture given by the Royal Academy,
his work being a bas-relief representing the escape of Aeneas
from Troy. In 1770 he exhibited a figure of Mars, which gained
him the gold medal of the Society of Arts and his election as
A.R.A. As a consequence of this success he was engaged to
execute a bust of George III., intended for Christ Church, Oxford.
He secured the king's favour and retained it throughout life.
Considerable jealousy was entertained against him by other
sculptors, and he was commonly charged with ignorance of classic
style. This charge he repelled by the execution of a noble head
of Jupiter Tonans, and many of his emblematical figures are in
perfect classical taste. He died on the 4th of August 1799 and
was buried in Whitfiel-d's Tabernacle. His various productions
which may be studied in St Paul's cathedral, London, Christ
Church and Pembroke College, Oxford, the Abbey church, Bath,
BACON, J. BACON, L.
and Bristol cathedral, give ample testimony to his powers.
Perhaps his best works are to be found among the monuments
in Westminster Abbey.
See Richard Cecil, Memoirs of John Bacon, R.A. (London, 1801) ;
and also vol. i. of R. Cecil's works, ed. J. Pratt (1811).
BACON, LEONARD (1802-1881), American Congregational
preacher and writer, was born in Detroit, Michigan, on the igth
of February 1802, the son of David Bacon (177 1-1817), missionary
among the Indians in Michigan and founder of the town of
Tallmadge, Ohio. The son prepared for college at the Hartford
(Conn.) grammar school, graduated at Yale in 1820 and at the
Andover Theological Seminary in 1823, and from 1825 until his
death on the 24th of December 1881 was pastor of the First
Church (Congregational) in New Haven, Connecticut, occupying
a pulpit which was one of the most, conspicuous in New England,
and which had been rendered famous by his predecessors, Moses
Stuart and Nathaniel W. Taylor. In 1866, however, though
he was never dismissed by a council from his connexion with
that church, he gave up the active pastorate. He was, from
1826 to 1838, an editor of the Christian Spectator (New Haven);
was one of the founders (1843) of the New Englander (later the
Yale Review); founded in 1848 with Dr R. S. Storrs, Joshua
Leavitt, Dr Joseph P. Thompson and Henry C. Bowen, primarily
to combat slavery extension, the Independent, of which he was
an editor until 1863; and was acting professor of didactic
theology in the theological department of Yale University from
1866 to 1871, and lecturer on church polity and American church
history from 1871 until his death. Gradually, after taking up
his pastorate, he gained greater and greater influence in his
denomination, until he came to be regarded as perhaps the most
prominent Congregationalist of his time, and was sometimes
popularly referred to as " The Congregational Pope of New
England." In all the heated theological controversies of the day,
particularly the long and bitter one concerning the views put
forward by Dr Horace Bushnell, he was conspicuous, using his
influence to bring about harmony, and in the councils of the
Congregational churches, over two of which, the Brooklyn
councils of 1874 and 1876, he presided as moderator, he manifested
great ability both as a debater and as a parliamentarian. In
his own theological views he was broad-minded and an advocate
of liberal orthodoxy. In all matters concerning the welfare of
his community or the nation, moreover, he took a deep and
constant interest, and was particularly identified with the
temperance and anti-slavery movements, his services to the
latter constituting probably the most important work of his
life. In this, as in most other controversies, he took a moderate
course, condemning the apologists and defenders of slavery on
the one hand and the Garrisonian extremists on the other.
His Slavery Discussed in Occasional Essays from 1833 to 1846
(1846) exercised considerable influence upon Abraham Lincoln,
and in this book appears the sentence, which, as rephrased by
Lincoln, was widely quoted: " If that form of government,
that system of social order is not wrong if those laws of the
Southern States, by virtue of which slavery exists there, and is
what it is, are not wrong nothing is wrong." He was early
attracted to the study of the ecclesiastical history of New England
and was frequently called upon to deliver commemorative
addresses, some of which were published in book and pamphlet
form. Of these, his Thirteen Historical Discourses ( 1 839) , dealing
with the history of New Haven, and his Four Commemorative
Discourses (1866) may be especially mentioned. The most im-
portant of his historical works, however, is his Genesis of the New
England Churches (1874). He published A Manual for Young
Church Members (1833) ; edited, with a biography, the Select Prac-
tical Writings of Richard Baxter (1831); and was the author of a
number of hymns, the best-known of which is the one beginning,
" O God, beneath Thy guiding hand
Our exiled fathers crossed the sea."
There is no good biography, but there is much biographical
material in the commemorative volume issued by his congregation,
Leonard Bacon, Pastor of the First Church in New Haven (New
Haven, 1882), and there is a good sketch in Williston Walker's
Ten New England Leaders (New York, 1901).
BACON, SIR N. BACON, ROGER
Leonard Bacon's sister DELIA BACON (1811-1859), born in
Tallmadge, Ohio, on the and of February 1811, was a teacher
in schools in Connecticut, New Jersey and New York, and then,
until about 1852, conducted in various eastern cities, by methods
devised by herself, classes for women in history and literature.
She wrote Tales of the Puritans (1831), The Bride of Fort Edward
(1839), based on the story of Jane M'Crea, partly in blank
verse, and The Philosophy of the Plays of Shakespeare Unfolded
(1857), for which alone she is remembered. This book, in the
preparation of which she spent several years in study in England,
where she was befriended by Thomas Carlyle and especially
by Nathaniel Hawthorne, was intended to prove that the plays
attributed to Shakespeare were written by a coterie of men,
including Francis Bacon, Sir Walter Raleigh and Edmund
Spenser, for the purpose of inculcating a philosophic system,
for which they felt that they themselves could not afford to
assume the responsibility. This system she professed to dis-
cover beneath the superficial text of the plays. Her devotion
to this one idea, as Hawthorne says, " had thrown her off
her balance," and while she was in England she lost her mind
entirely. She died in Hartford, Connecticut, on the 2nd of
September 1859.
There is a biography by her nephew, Theodore Bacon, Delia
Baton: A Sketch (Boston, 1888), and an appreciative chapter,
" Recollections of a Gifted Woman," in Nathaniel Hawthorne's
Our Old Home (Boston, 1863).
Leonard Bacon's son LEONARD WOOLSEY BACON (1830-1907),
graduated at Yale in 1850, was pastor of various Congregational
and Presbyterian churches, and published Church Papers (1876);
A Life Worth Living: Life of Emily Bliss Gould (1878); Irenics
and Polemics and Sundry Essays in Church History (1895);
History of American Christianity (1898); and The Congrega-
tionalists ( [i 904) . ( W . W R. )
BACON, SIR NICHOLAS (1509-1579), lord keeper of the great
seal of England during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was the
second son of Robert Bacon of Drinkstone, Suffolk, and was
born at Chislehurst. He was educated at Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, graduating B. A. in 1527, and afterwards spent some
time in Paris. Having returned to England and entered Gray's
Inn, he was called to the bar in 1533, and four years later began
his public life as solicitor of the court of augmentations. Quickly
becoming a person of importance he obtained a number of estates,
principally in the eastern counties, after the dissolution of the
monasteries, and in 1545 became member of parliament for
Dartmouth. In 1 546 he was made attorney of the court of wards
and liveries, an office of both honour and profit; in 1550 became
a bencher and in 1552 treasurer of Gray's Inn. Although his
sympathies were with the Protestants, he retained his office in
the court of wards during Mary's reign, but an order was issued
to prevent him from leaving England. The important period in
Bacon's life began with the accession of Elizabeth in 1558.
Owing largely to his long and close friendship with Sir William
Cecil, afterwards Lord Burghley, his brother-in-law, he was
appointed lord keeper of the great seal in December of this year,
and was soon afterwards made a privy councillor and a knight.
He was instrumental in securing the archbishopric of Canterbury
for his friend Matthew Parker, and in his official capacity pre-
sided over the House of Lords when Elizabeth opened her first
parliament. In opposition to Cecil, he objected to the policy of
making war on France in the interests of the enemies of Mary
queen of Scots, on the ground of the poverty of England; but
afterwards favoured a closer union with foreign Protestants, and
seemed quite alive to the danger to his country from the allied
and aggressive religious policy of France and Scotland. In 1559
he was authorized to exercise the full jurisdiction of lord chan-
cellor. In 1564 he fell temporarily into the royal disfavour and
was dismissed from court, because Elizabeth suspected he was
concerned in the publication of a pamphlet, " A Declaration of the
Succession of the Crowne Imperial! of Ingland," written by John
Hales (q.v.), and favouring the claim of Lady Catherine Grey to
the English throne. Bacon's innocence having been admitted he
was restored to favour, and replied to a writing by Sir Anthony
153
Browne, who had again asserted the rights of the house of Suffolk
to which Lady Catherine belonged. He thoroughly distrusted
Mary queen of Scots; objected to the proposal to marry her to '
the duke of Norfolk; and warned Elizabeth that serious con-
sequences for England would follow her restoration. He seems
to have disliked the proposed marriage between the English queen
and Francis, duke of Anjou, and his distrust of the Roman
Catholics and the French was increased by the massacre of St
Bartholomew. As a loyal English churchman he was ceaselessly
interested in ecclesiastical matters, and made suggestions for
the better observation of doctrine and discipline in the church.
He died in London on the 2oth of February 1579 and was buried
in St Paul's cathedral, his death calling forth many tributes to
his memory. He was an eloquent speaker, a learned lawyer, a
generous friend; and his interest in education led him to make
several gifts and bequests for educational purposes, including the
foundation of a free grammar school at Redgrave. His figure
was very corpulent and ungainly. Elizabeth visited him several
times at Gorhambury,and had previously visited him at Redgrave.
He was twice married and by his first wife, Jane, had three sons
and three daughters. His second wife was Anne (d. 1610),
daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, by whom he had two sons.
Bacon's eldest son, Nicholas (c. 1540-1624), was member of
parliament for the county of Suffolk and in 1611 was created
premier baronet of England. This baronetcy is still held by his
descendants. His second and third sons, Nathaniel (c. 1550-1622
and Edward (c. 1550-1618), also took some part in public life,
and through his daughter, Anne, Nathaniel was an ancestor of
the marquesses Townshend. His sons by his second wife were
Anthony (1558-1601), a diplomatist of some repute, and the
illustrious Francis Bacon (</..).
See G. Whetstone, "R'emembraunce of the life of Sir N. Bacon,"
in the Frondes Caducae (London, 1816); J. A. Froude, History of
England, passim (London, 1881 f.).
BACON, ROGER (c. 1214-*:. 1294), English philosopher and
man of science, was born near Ilchester in Somerset. His family
appears to have been in good circumstances, but in the stormy
reign of Henry III. their property was despoiled and several
members of the family were driven into exile. Roger completed
his studies at Oxford, though not, as current traditions assert, at
Merton or at Brasenose, neither of which had then been founded.
His abilities were speedily recognized by his contemporaries, and
he enjoyed the friendship of such eminent men as Adam de
Marisco and Robert Grosseteste, bishop of Lincoln.
Very little is known of Bacon's life at Oxford; it is said he took
orders in 1 233 , and this is not improbable. In the following year,
or perhaps later, he crossed over to France and studied at the
university of Paris, then the centre of intellectual life in Europe.
The two great orders, Franciscans and Dominicans, were in the
vigour of youth, and had already begun to take the lead in
theological discussion. Alexander of Hales was the oracle of the
Franciscans, while the rival order rejoiced in Albertus Magnus
and Thomas Aquinas.
The scientific training which Bacon had received, mainly from
the study of the Arab writers, showed him the manifold defects
in the systems reared by these doctors. Aristotle was known but
in part, and that part was rendered well-nigh unintelligible
through the vileness of the translations; yet not one of those
professors would learn Greek. The Scriptures read, if at all, in
the erroneous versions were being deserted for the Sentences of
Peter Lombard. Physical science, if there was anything deserv-
ing that name, was cultivated, not by experiment in the Aristo-
telian way, but by arguments deduced from premises resting on
authority or custom. Everywhere there was a show of know-
ledge concealing fundamental ignorance. Bacon, accordingly,
withdrew from the scholastic routine and devoted himself to
languages and experimental research. The only teacher whom
he respected was a certain Petrus de Maharncuria Picardus, or
of Picardy, probably identical with a certain mathematician,
Petrus Peregrinus of Picardy, who is perhaps the author of a MS.
treatise, De Magnele, contained in the BibliothSque Imp6riale
at Paris. The contrast between the obscurity of such a man and
154
BACON, ROGER
the fame enjoyed by the fluent young doctors roused Bacon's
indignation. In the Opus Minus and Opus Tertium he pours
forth a violent tirade against Alexander of Hales, and another
professor, not mentioned by name, but spoken of as alive, and
blamed even more severely than Alexander. This anonymous
writer, 1 he says, acquired his learning by teaching others, and
adopted a dogmatic tone, which has caused him to be received
at Paris with applause as the equal of Aristotle, Avicenna, or
Averroes.
Bacon, during his stay in Paris, acquired considerable renown.
He took the degree of doctor of theology, and seems to have
received the complimentary title of doctor mirabilis. In 1250 he
was again at Oxford, and probably about this time entered the
Franciscan order. His fame spread at Oxford, though it was
mingled with suspicions of his dealings in the black arts and
with some doubts of his orthodoxy. About 1257, Bonaventura,
general of the order, interdicted his lectures at Oxford, and
commanded him to place himself under the superintendence
of the body at Paris. Here for ten years he remained under
supervision, suffering great privations and strictly prohibited
from writing anything for publication. But his fame had
reached the ears of the papal legate in England, Guy de Foulques,
who in 1265 became pope as Clement IV. In the following year
he wrote to Bacon, ordering him notwithstanding any injunctions
from his superiors, to write out and send to him a treatise on the
sciences which he had already asked of him when papal legate.
Bacon, whose previous writings had been mostly scattered
tracts, capitula quaedam, took fresh courage from this command
of the pope. He set at naught the jealousy of his superiors
and brother friars, and despite the want of funds, instruments,
materials for copying and skilled copyists, completed in about
eighteen months three large treatises, the Opus Majus, Opus
Minus and Opus Tertium, which, with some other tracts, were
despatched to the pope. We do not know what opinion Clement
formed of thepi, but before his death he seems to have bestirred
himself on Bacon's behalf, for in 1268 the latter was permitted
to return to Oxford. Here he continued his labours in experi-
mental science and also in the composition of complete treatises.
The works sent to Clement he regarded as preliminaries, laying
down principles which were afterwards to be applied to the
sciences. The first part of an encyclopaedic work probably remains
to us in the Compendium Studii Philosophiae (1271). In this work
Bacon makes a vehement attack upon the ignorance and vices
of the clergy and monks, and generally upon the insufficiency of
the existing studies. In 1278 his books were condemned by
Jerome de Ascoli, general of the Franciscans, afterwards Pope
Nicholas IV., and he himself was thrown into prison for fourteen
years. During this time, it is said, he wrote the small tract
De Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus, but this is merely a
tradition. In 1292, as appears from what is probably his latest
composition, the Compendium Studii Theologiae, he was again
at liberty. The exact time of his death cannot be determined ;
1294 is probably as accurate a date as can be fixed upon.
Works and Editions. Leland said that it is easier to collect
the leaves of the Sibyl than the titles of the works written by
Roger Bacon; and though the labour has been somewhat
lightened by the publications of Brewer and Charles, referred
to below, it is no easy matter even now to form an accurate
idea of bis actual productions. An enormous number of MSS.
are known to exist in British and French libraries, and probably
1 Brewer thinks this unknown professor is Richard of Cornwall,
but the little we know of Richard is not in harmony with the terms
in which he is elsewhere spoken of by Bacon. Erdmann conjectures
Thomas Aquinas, which is extremejy improbable, as Thomas was
unquestionably not the first of his order to study philosophy.
Cousin and Charles think that Albertus Magnus is aimed at, and
certainly much of what is said applies with peculiar force to him.
But some things do not at all cohere with what is otherwise known
of Albert. It is worth pointing out that Brewer, in transcribing the
passage bearing on this (Op. Ined. p. 327), has the words fratrum
pi'-erulus, which in his marginal note he interprets as applying to
the Franciscan order. In this case, of course, Albert could not be
the person referred to, as he was a Dominican. But Charles, in his
transcription, entirely omits the important word fratrum.
\ not all have yet been discovered. Many are transcripts of works
or portions of works already published and, therefore, require
no notice. 2
The works hitherto printed (neglecting reprints) are the
following: (i) Speculum Alchimiae (1541) translated into
English (1597); French, A Poisson (1890); (2) De Mirabili
Potestate Artis et Naturae (1542) English translation (1659);
(3) Libellus de Retardandis Senectutis Accidentibus (1590)
translated as the " Cure of Old Age," by Richard Brown (London,
1683); (4) Sanioris Medicinae Magistri D. Rogeri Baconis
Anglici de Arte Chymiae Scripta (Frankfort, 1603) a collection
of small tracts containing Excerpta de Libra Avicennae de Anima,
Brew Breviarium, Verbum Abbreviatum, 3 Secretum Secretorum,
Tractatus Trium Verborum, and Speculum Secretorum; (5)
Perspectiva (1614), which is the fifth part of the Opus Majus;
(6) Specula Mathematica, which is the fourth part of the same;
(7) Opus Majus ad Clementem IV., edited by S. Jebb (1733) and
J. H. Bridges (London, 1897); (8) Opera hactenus Inedita, by
J. S. Brewer (1859), containing the Opus Tertium, Opus Minus,
Compendium Studii Philosophiae and the De Secretis Operibus
Naturae; (9) De Morali PhUosophia (Dublin, 1860, see below);
(10) The Greek Grammar of R. Bacon and a Fragment of his
Hebrew Grammar, edited with introduction and notes by E. S.
Nolan and S. A. Hirsch (1902); (n) Metaphysica Fratris
Rogeri, edited by R. Steele, with a preface (1905); (12) Opera
hactenus inedita, by Robert Steele (1905).
How these works stand related to one another can only be
determined by internal evidence. The smaller works, chiefly on
alchemy, are unimportant, and the dates of their composition
cannot be ascertained. It is known that before the Opus Majus
Bacon had already written some tracts, among which an
unpublished work, Computus Naturalium, on chronology, belongs
probably to the year 1 263 ; while, if the dedication of the De
Secretis Operibus be authentic, that short treatise must have
been composed before 1 249.
It is, however, with the Opus Majus that Bacon's real activity
begins. It has been called by Whewell at once the Encyclopaedia
and the Organum of the i3th century.
Part I. (pp. 1-22), which is sometimes designated De Utililate
Scientiarum, treats of the four ojfendicula, or causes of error.
These are, authority, custom, the opinion of the unskilled many,
and the concealment of real ignorance with pretence of knowledge.
The last error is the most dangerous, and is, in a sense, the cause
of all the others. The offendicula have sometimes been looked
upon as an anticipation of Francis Bacon's Idola, but the two
classifications have little in common. In the summary of this
part, contained in the Opus Tertium, Bacon shows very clearly his
perception of the unity of science and the necessity of encyclo-
paedic treatment.
Part II. (pp. 23-43) treats of the relation between philosophy
and theology. All true wisdom is contained in the Scriptures,
at least implicitly; and the true end of philosophy is to rise
from the imperfect knowledge of created things to a knowledge
of the Creator. Ancient philosophers, who had not the Scriptures,
received direct illumination from God, and only thus can the
brilliant results attained by them be accounted for.
Part III. (pp. 44-57) treats of the utility of grammar, and the
necessity of a true linguistic science for the adequate com-
prehension either of the Scriptures or of books on philosophy.
s The more important MSS. are: (i) The extensive work on
the fundamental notions of physics, called Communia Naturalium,
which is found in the Mazarin library at Paris, in the British
Museum, and in the Bodleian and University College libraries at
Oxford; (2) on the fundamental notions of mathematics, De Com-
munibus Mathematical, part of which is in the Sloane collection,
part in the Bodleian; (3) Baconis Physica, contained among the
additional MSS. in the British Museum; (4) the fragment called
Quinta Pars Compendia Theologiae, in the British Museum; (5) the
Compendium Studii Theologiae, in the British Museum; (6) the
logical fragments, such as the Summulae Dialectices, in the Bodleian,
and the glosses upon Aristotle's physics and metaphysics in the
library at Amiens. See Little, The Grey Friars in Oxford (1802).
9 At the close of the Verb. Abbrev. is a curious note, concluding
with the words, " ipse Rogerus fuit discipulus fratris Albertil"
BACON, ROGER
'55
The necessity of accurate acquaintance with any foreign language
and of obtaining good texts, is a subject Bacon is never weary
of descanting upon. A translator should know thoroughly the
language he is translating from, the language into which he is
translating, and the subject of which the book treats.
Part IV. (pp. 57-255) contains an elaborate treatise on mathe-
matics, " the alphabet of philosophy," maintaining that all the
sciences rest ultimately on mathematics, and progress only when
their facts can be subsumed under mathematical principles.
This fruitful thought he illustrates by showing how geometry is
applied to the action of natural bodies, and demonstrating by
geometrical figures certain laws of physical forces. He also
shows how his method may be used to determine some curious
and long-discussed problems, such as the light of the stars, the
ebb and flow of the tide, the motion of the balance. He then
proceeds to adduce elaborate and sometimes slightly grotesque
reasons tending to prove that mathematical knowledge is
essential in theology, and closes this section of his work with two
comprehensive sketches of geography and astronomy. That on
geography is particularly good, and is interesting as having been
read by Columbus, who lighted on it in Petrus de Alliaco's Imago
Mundi, and was strongly influenced by its reasoning.
Part V. (pp. 256-357) treats of perspective. This was the part
of his work on which Bacon most prided himself, and in it, we
may "add, he seems to owe most to the Arab writers Kindi and
Alhazen. The treatise opens with an able sketch of psychology,
founded upon, but in some important respects varying from,
Aristotle's De Anima. The anatomy of the eye is next described ;
this is done well and evidently at first hand, though the functions
of the parts are not given with complete accuracy. Many other
points of physiological optics are touched on, in general errone-
ously. Bacon then discusses vision in a right line, the laws of
reflection and refraction, and the construction of mirrors and
lenses. In this part of the work, as in the preceding, his reasoning
depends essentially upon his peculiar view of natural agents and
their activities. His fundamental physical maxims are matter
and force ; the latter he calls virtus, species, imago agentis, and
by numberless other names. Change, or any natural phenomenon,
is produced by the impression of a virtus or species on matter
the result being the thing known. Physical action is, therefore,
impression, or transmission of force in lines, and must accordingly
be explained geometrically. This view of nature Bacon con-
sidered fundamental, and it lies, indeed, at the root of his whole
philosophy. To the short notices of it given in the 4th and sth
parts of the Opus Majus, he subjoined two, or perhaps three,
extended accounts of it. We possess at least one of these in the
tract De Multiplicatione Specierum, printed as part of the Opus
Majus by Jebb (pp. 358-444). We cannot do more than refer
to Charles for discussions as to how this theory of nature is
connected with the metaphysical problems of force and matter,
with the logical doctrine of universals, and in general with Bacon's
theory of knowledge.
Part VI. (pp. 445-477) treats of experimental science, domina
omnium scientiarum. There are two methods of knowledge:
the one by argument, the other by experience. Mere argument
is never sufficient ; it may decide a question, but gives no
satisfaction or certainty to the mind, which can only be convinced
by immediate inspection or intuition. Now this is what ex-
perience gives. But experience is of two sorts, external and
internal ; the first is that usually called experiment, but it can
give no complete knowledge even of corporeal things, much less
of spiritual. On the other hand, in inner experience the mind
is illuminated by the divine truth, and of this supernatural
enlightenment there are seven grades.
Experimental science, which in the Opus Tertium (p. 46) is
distinguished from the speculative sciences and the operative
arts in a way that forcibly reminds us of Francis Bacon, is said
to have three great prerogatives over all other sciences: (i) It
verifies their conclusions by direct experiment; (2) It discovers
truths which they could never reach; (3) It investigates the
secrets of nature, and opens to us a knowledge of past and future.
As an instance of his method, Bacon gives an investigation into
the nature and cause of the rainbow, which is really a very fine
specimen of inductive research.
The seventh part of the Opus Majus (De Morali Philosophia),
not given in Jebb's edition, is noticed at considerable length in
the Opus Tertium (cap. xlv.). Extracts from it are given by
Charles (pp. 339-348).
As lias been seen, Bacon had no sooner finished this elaborate
work than he began to prepare a summary to be sent along with
it. Of this summary, or Opus Minus, part has come down and
is published in Brewer's Op. Jned. (313-389), from what appears
to be the only MS. The work was intended to'contain an abstract
of the Opus Majus, an account of the principal vices of theology,
and treatises on speculative and practical alchemy. At the same
time, or immediately after, Bacon began a third work as a pre-
amble to the other two, giving their general scope and aim, but
supplementing them in many points. The part of this work,
generally called Opus Tertium, is printed by Brewer (pp. 1-310),
who considers it to be a complete treatise. Charles, however,
has given good grounds for supposing that it is merely a preface,
and that the work went on to discuss grammar, logic (which
Bacon thought of little service, as reasoning was innate), mathe-
matics, general physics, metaphysics and moral philosophy.
He founds his argument mainly on passages in the Communia
Naturalium, which indeed prove distinctly that it was sent to
Clement, and cannot, therefore, form part of the Compendium,
as Brewer seems to think. It must be confessed, however, that
nothing can well be more confusing than the references in* Bacon's
works, and it seems well-nigh hopeless to attempt a complete
arrangement of them until the texts have been collated and
carefully printed.
All these large works Bacon appears to have looked on as
preliminaries, introductions, leading to a great work which
should embrace the principles of all the sciences. This great
work, which is perhaps the frequently-referred-to Liber Sex
Scientiarum, he began, and a few fragments still indicate its
outline. First appears to have come the treatise now called
Compendium Studii Philosophiae (Brewer pp. 393-519), con-
taining an account of the causes of error, and then entering
at length upon grammar. After that, apparently, logic was to
be treated; then, possibly, mathematics and physics; then
speculative alchemy and experimental science. It is, however,
very difficult, in the present state of our knowledge of the MSS.,
to hazard even conjectures as to the contents and nature of this
last and most comprehensive work.
Bacon's fame in popular estimation has always rested on his
mechanical discoveries. Careful research has show^i that very
little can with accuracy be ascribed to him. He certainly
describes a method of constructing a telescope, but not so as to
lead one to conclude that he was in possession of that instru-
ment. Burning-glasses were in common use, and spectacles it
does not appear he made, although he was probably acquainted
with the principle of their construction. His wonderful pre-
dictions (in the De Secretis) must be taken cum grano satis; he
believed in astrology, in the doctrine of signatures, and in the
philosopher's stone, and knew that the circle had been squared.
For his work hi connexion with gunpowder, the invention of
which has been claimed for him on the ground of a passage in
his De mirabili potestate artis et naturae, see GUNPOWDER.
Summary. The i3th century, an age peculiarly rich in great
men, produced few, if any, who can take higher rank than Roger
Bacon. He is in every way worthy to be placed beside Albertus
Magnus, Bonaventura, and Thomas Aquinas. These had an
infinitely wider renown in their day, but modern criticism has
restored the balance in his favour, and is even in danger of
erring in the opposite direction. Bacon, it is now said, was
not appreciated by his age because he was in advance of it; he
is no schoolman, but a modern thinker, whose conceptions of
science are more just and dear than are even those of his more
celebrated namesake. 1 In this view there is certainly some truth,
but it is much exaggerated. As a general rule, no man can
be completely dissevered from his national antecedents and
1 See Diihring, Kritische Ges. d. Phil. 192, 249-251.
i S 6
BACON BACTERIOLOGY
surroundings, and Bacon is not an exception. Those who take
up such an extreme position regarding his merits have known too
little of the state of contemporary science, and have limited
their comparison to the works of the scholastic theologians.
We never find in Bacon himself any consciousness of originality;
he is rather a keen and systematic thinker, working in a well-
beaten track, from which his contemporaries were being drawn
by theology and metaphysics.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The best work on Roger Bacon is perhaps that
of E. Charles, Roger Bacon, so. vie, ses ouvrages, ses doctrines d'apres
des textes inedits (1861). Against the somewhat enthusiastic estimate
and modern interpretation given in this work, are Schneider in his
Roger Bacon, Eine Monographic (Augsburg, 1873) ; K. Werner,
DiePsychol. . . . des Roger Bacon and Die Kosmologie . . . des Roger
Bacon (Vienna, 1879) ; S. A. Hirsch, Early English Hebraists (1899) ;
Book of Essays (London, 1905), deals with Bacon as a Hebraist.
The new matter contained in the publications of Charles and Brewer
was summarized by H. Siebert, Roger Bacon: Inaugural Disserta-
tion (Marburg, 1861). Cf. also J. K. Ingram, On tlte Opus Majus
of Bacon (Dublin, 1858); Cousin, " Fragments phil. du moyen
age " (reprinted from Journal des savans, 1848) ; E. Saisset, " Pre-
curseurs et disciples de Descartes," pp. 1-58 (reprinted from Revue
de deux mondes, 1861); K. Prantl, Gesch. der Logik, iii. 120-129 (a
severe criticism of Bacon's logical doctrines) ; Held, Roger Bacon's
praktische Philosophic (Jena, 1881); Karl Pohl, Das Verhaltniss d.
Philos. zur Theol. bei Roger Bacon (Neustrelitz, 1893) ; articles in
Westminster Review, Ixxxi. I and 512; A. Parrot, Roger Bacon et
ses contemporains (1894); E. Fluegel, Roger Bacons Stellung in d.
Gesch. d. Philos. (1902); S. Vogl, Die Physik Roger Bacos (1906).
For the popular legend see Famous Historic of Fryer Bacon (London,
1615; reproduced in Thorns, Early Prose Romances, iii.); R.
Greene's Friar Bacon and Friar Bungay (1587 or 1588), and in
publication of the Percy Society, vol. xv. 1844, A Piece of Friar
Bacon's Brazen Heade's Propheste (1604). For Bacon as a classical
scholar see J. E. Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. (2nd ed., 1906),
cxxxi. (R. AD.; X.)
BACON (through the O. Fr. bacon, Low Lat. baco, from a
Teutonic word cognate with " back," e.g. O. H. Ger. pacho, M. H.
Ger. backe, buttock, flitch of bacon), the flesh of the sides and
back of the pig, cured by salting, drying, pickling and smoking.
BACONTHORPE [BACON, BACO, BACCONIUS], JOHN (d. 1346),
known as " the Resolute Doctor," a learned Carmelite monk,
was born at Baconthorpe in Norfolk. He seems to have been
the grandnephew of Roger Bacon (Brit. Mus. Add. MS. 19. 116).
Brought up in the Carmelite monastery of Blakeney, near
Walsingham, he studied at Oxford and Paris, where he was known
as " Princeps " of the Averroists. Renan, however, says that
he merely tried to justify Averroism against the charge of hetero-
doxy. In 1329 he was chosen twelfth provincial of the English
Carmelites. He appears to have anticipated Wycliffe in advocat-
ing the subordination of the clergy to the king. In 1333 he was
sent for to Rome, where, we are told, he first maintained the
pope's authority in cases of divorce; but this opinion he retracted.
He died in London in 1346. His chief work, Doctoris resoluti
Joannis Bacconis Anglici Carmelilae radianlissimi opus super
quattuor senlentiarum libris (published 1510), has passed through
several editions. Nearly three centuries later, it was still studied
at Padua, the last home of Averroism, and Lucilio Vanini speaks
of him with great veneration.
See Brucker, Hist. Crit. iii. 865; Stockl, Phil. d. Mitlel. ii. 1044-
1045; Haur&iu, Phil. Seal. ii. 476; K. Prantl, Ges. d. Logik, iii. 318.
For information as to his life, not found otherwise and of doubtful
accuracy, see J. B. de Lezana's Annales Sacri, iv.
BACSANYI, JANOS (1763-1845), Hungarian poet, was born
at Tapolcza on the nth of May 1763. In 1785 he published his
first work, a patriotic poem, The Valour of the Magyars. In the
same year he obtained a situation as clerk in the treasury at
Kaschau, and there, in conjunction with other two Hungarian
patriots, edited the Magyar Museum, which was suppressed by
the government in 1792. In the following year he was deprived
of his clerkship; and in 1794, having taken part in the conspiracy
of Bishop Martinovich, he was thrown into the state prison of
the Spielberg, near Briinn, where he remained for two years.
After his release he took a considerable share in the Magyar
Minerva, a literary review, and then proceeded to Vienna, where
he obtained a post in the bank, and married. In 1809 he trans-
lated Napoleon's proclamation to' the Magyars, and, in con-
sequence of this anti-Austrian act, had to take refuge in Paris.
After the fall of Napoleon he was given up to the Austrians,
who allowed him to reside at Linz, on condition of never leaving
that town. He published a collection of poems at Pest, 1827
(2nd ed. Buda, 1835), and also edited the poetical works of Anyos
and Faludi. He died at Linz on the i2th of May 1845.
BACTERIOLOGY. The minute organisms which are com-
monly called " bacteria " * are also known popularly under other
designations, e.g. " microbes," " micro-organisms," " micro-
phytes," " bacilli," " micrococci." All these terms, including
the usual one of bacteria, are unsatisfactory; for " bacterium,"
" bacillus " and " micrococcus " have narrow technical mean-
ings, and the other terms are too vague to be scientific. The
most satisfactory designation is that proposed by Nageli in 1857,
namely " schizomycetes," and it is by this term that they are
usually known among botanists; the less exact term, however, is
also used and is retained in this article since the science is com-
monly known as " bacteriology." The first part of this article
deals with the general scientific aspects of the subject, while a
second part is concerned with the medical aspects.
I. THE STUDY OF BACTERIA
The general advances which have been made of late years
in the study of bacteria are clearly brought to mind when we
reflect that in the middle of the igth century these organisms
were only known to a few experts and in a few forms as curiosities
of the microscope, chiefly interesting for their minuteness and
motility. They were then known under the name of " animal-
culae," and were confounded with all kinds of other small
organisms. At that time nothing was known of their life-history,
and no one dreamed of their being of importance to man and
other living beings, or of their capacity to produce the profound
chemical changes with which we are now so familiar. At the
present day, however, not only have hundreds of forms or species
been described, but our knowledge of their biology has so ex-
tended that we have entire laboratories equipped for their study,
and large libraries devoted solely to this subject. Furthermore,
this branch of science has become so complex that the bacterio-
logical departments of medicine, of agriculture, of sewage, &c.,
have become more or less separate studies.
The schizomycetes or bacteria are minute vegetable organisms
devoid of chlorophyll and multiplying by repeated bipartitions.
They consist of single cells, which may be spherical,
oblong or cylindrical in shape, or of filamentous or
other aggregates of cells. They are characterized by the
absence of ordinary sexual reproduction and by the absence
of an ordinary nucleus. In the two last-mentioned characters
and in their manner of division the bacteria resemble Schizo-
phyceae (Cyanophyceae or blue-green algae), and the two groups
of Schizophyceae and Schizomycetes are usually united in the
class Schizophyta, to indicate the generally received view that
most of the typical bacteria have been derived from the Cyano-
phyceae. Some forms, however, such as " Sarcina," have their
algal analogues in Palmellaceae among the green algae, while
Thaxter's group of Myxobacteriaceae suggests a relationship
with the Myxomycetes. The existence of ciliated micrococci
together with the formation of endospores structures not known
in the Cyanophyceae reminds us of the flagellate Protozoa, e.g.
Monas, Chromulina. Resemblances also exist between the endo-
spores and the spore-formations in the Saccharomycetes, and if
Bacillus inflatus, B. venlriculus, &c., really form more than one
spore in the cell, these analogies are strengthened. Schizomycetes
such as Closlridium, Pleclridium, &c., where the sporiferous cells
enlarge, bear out the same argument, and we must not forget that
there are extremely minute " yeasts," easily mistaken for Micro-
cocci, and that yeasts occasionally form only one spore in the cell.
Nor must we overlook the possibility that the endospore-
formation in non-motile bacteria more than merely resembles
the development of azygospores in the Conjugatae, and some
Ulothricaceae, if reduced in size, would resemble them. Meyer
regards them as chlamydospores, and Klebs as " carpospores "
or possibly chlamydospores similar to the endospores of yeast.
1 Gr. l3a.KTijpi.ov, Lat. bacillus, little rod or stick.
Definition.
BACTERIOLOGY
'57
The former also looks on the ordinary disjointing bacterial cell
as an oidium, and it must be admitted that since Brefeld's dis-
covery of the frequency of minute oidia and chlamydospores
among the fungi, the probability that some so-called bacteria
and this applies especially to the branching forms accepted by
some bacteriologists are merely reduced fungi is increased.
Even the curious one-sided growth of certain species which form
sheaths and stalks e.g. Bacterium vermiforme, B. pediculalum
can be matched by Algae such as Oocardium, Hydrurus, and
some Diatoms. It is clear then that the bacteria are very possibly
a heterogeneous group, and in the present state of our knowledge
their phylogeny must be considered as very doubtful.
Nearly all bacteria, owing to the absence of chlorophyll, are
saprophytic or parasitic forms. Most of them are colourless, but
*x.
&MJ <*&
FlG. I. Preparations showing
various types of cilia
A. Bacillus sublilis, Cohn, and
Spirillum undula, Ehrenb.
B. Planococcus citreus (Menge),
Migula. [sard), Migula.
C. Pseudomonas pyocyanea (Ges-
D. P. macroselmis, Migula.
E. P. syncyanea (Ehrenb.),
Migula.
various forms of bacteria and the
and their arrangement.
F. Bacillus typhi, Gaffky.
G. B. vulgaris (Hauser), Migula.
H. Microspira Comma (Koch),
Schroeter.
J, K. Spirillum rubrum, Es-
marsch.
L,M.5. ttn<2tt/a(Miiller), Ehrenb.
(All after Migula.)
a. few secrete colouring matters other than chlorophyll. In size
their cells are commonly about o-ooi mm. (i micromillimetre or
i n) in diameter, and from two to five times that length, but
smaller ones and a few larger ones are known. Some of the shapes
assumed by the cells are shown in fig. i.
That bacteria have existed from very early periods is clear from
their presence in fossils; and although we cannot accept all the
conclusions drawn from the imperfect records of the
roc ks, and may dismiss as absurd the statements that
time. geologically immured forms have been found still living,
the researches of Renault and van Tieghem have shown
pretty clearly that large numbers of bacteria existed in Carbon-
iferous and Devonian times, and probably earlier.
Schizomycetes are ubiquitous as saprophytes in still ponds and
ditches, in running streams and rivers, and in the sea, and especi-
ally in drains, bogs, refuse heaps, and in the soil, and wherever
organic infusions are allowed to stand for a short time. Any
History.
liquid (blood, urine, milk, beer, &c.) containing organic matter,
or any solid food-stuff (meat preserves, vegetables, &c.), allowed
to stand exposed to the air soon swarms with bacteria,
if moisture is present and the temperature not ab-
normal. Though they occur all the world over in the
air and on the surface of exposed bodies, it is not to be
supposed that they are by any means equally distributed, and
it is questionable whether the bacteria suspended in the air
ever exist in such enormous quantities as was once believed.
The evidence to hand shows that on heights and in open
country, especially in the north, there may be few or even no
Schizomycetes detected in the air, and even in towns their
distribution varies greatly; sometimes they appear to exist in
minute clouds, as it were, with interspaces devoid of any, but
in laboratories and closed spaces where their cultivation has
been promoted the air may be considerably laden with them
Of course the distribution of bodies so light and small is easily
influenced by movements, rain, wind, changes of temperature,
&c. As parasites, certain Schizomycetes inhabit and prey
upon the organs of man and animals in varying degrees, and the
conditions for their growth and distribution are then very com-
plex. Plants appear to be less subject to their attacks possibly,
as has been suggested, because the acid fluids of the higher vege-
table organisms are less suited for the development of Schizomy-
cetes; nevertheless some are known to be parasitic on plants.
Schizomycetes exist in every part of the alimentary canal of
animals, except, perhaps, where acid secretions prevail; these
are by no means necessarily harmful, though, by destroying
the teeth for instance, certain forms may incidentally be the
forerunners of damage which they do not directly cause.
Little was known about these extremely minute organisms
before 1860. A. van Leeuwenhoek figured bacteria as far back
as the 1 7th century, and O. F. Miiller knew several
important forms in 1773, while Ehrenberg in 1830 had
advanced to the commencement of a scientific separation and
grouping of them, and in 1838 had proposed at least sixteen
species, distributing them into four genera. Our modern more
accurate though still fragmentary knowledge of the forms of
Schizomycetes, however, dates from F. J. Cohn's brilliant
researches, the chief results of which were published at various
periods between 1853 and 1872; Cohn's classification of the
bacteria, published in 1872 and extended in 1875, has in fact
dominated the study of these organisms almost ever since. He
proceeded in the main on the assumption that the forms of
bacteria as met with and described by him are practically
constant, at any rate within limits which are not wide: observ-
ing that a minute spherical micrococcus or a rod-like bacillus
regularly produced similar micrococci and bacilli respectively,
he based his classification on what may be considered the
constancy of forms which he called species and genera. As to
the constancy of form, however, Cohn maintained certain
reservations which have been ignored by some of his followers.
The fact that Schizomycetes produce spores appears to have
been discovered by Cohn in 1857, though it was expressed
dubiously in 1872; these spores had no doubt been observed
previously. In 1876, however, Cohn had seen the spores germi-
nate, and Koch, Brefeld, Pratzmowski, van Tieghem, de Bary
and others confirmed the discovery in various species.
The supposed constancy of forms in Cohn's species and genera
received a shock when Lankester in 1873 pointed out that his
Bacterium rubescens (since named Beggiatoa roseo-persicina, Zopf)
passes through conditions which would have been described by
most observers influenced by the current doctrine as so many
separate " species " or even " genera," that in fact forms
known as Bacterium, Micrococcus, Bacillus, Leptothrix, &c.,
occur as phases in one life-history. Lister put forth similar
ideas about the same time; and Billroth came forward in 1874
with the extravagant view that the various bacteria are only
different states of one and the same organism which he called
Cocco-bacteria septica. From that time the question of the
pleomorphism (mutability of shape) of the bacteria has been
hotly discussed; but it is now generally agreed that, while a
i 5 8
BACTERIOLOGY
certain number of forms may show different types of cell during
the various phases of the life-history, 1 yet the majority of forms
are uniform, showing one type of cell throughout their life-
history. The question of species in the bacteria is essentially
the same as in other groups of plants; before a form can be
placed in a satisfactory classificatory position its whole life-
history must be studied, so that all the phases may be known.
In the meantime, while various observers were building up our
knowledge of the morphology of bacteria, others were laying the
foundation of what is known of the relations of these organisms
to fermentation and disease that ancient will-o'-the-wisp
" spontaneous generation " being revived by the way. When
Pasteur in 1857 showed that the lactic fermentation depends
on the presence of an organism, it was already known from
the researches of Schwann (1837) and Helmholtz (1843) that
fermentation and putrefaction are intimately connected with
the presence of organisms derived from the air, and that the
preservation of putrescible substances depends on this principle.
In 1862 Pasteur placed it beyond reasonable doubt that the
ammoniacal fermentation of urea is due to the action of a minute
Schizomycete; in 1864 this was confirmed by van Tieghem,
and in 1874 by Cohn, who named the organism Micrococcus
ureae. Pastlur and Cohn also pointed out that putrefaction is
but a special case of fermentation, and before 1872 the doctrines
of Pasteur were established with respect to Schizomycetes.
Meanwhile two branches of inquiry had arisen, so to speak,
from the above. In the first place, the ancient question of
" spontaneous generation " received fresh impetus from the
difficulty of keeping such minute organisms as bacteria from
reaching and developing in organic infusions; and, secondly,
the long-suspected analogies between the phenomena of fer-
mentation and those of certain diseases again made themselves
felt, as both became better understood. Needham in 1745 had
declared that heated infusions of organic matter were not
deprived of living beings; Spallanzani (1777) had replied that
more careful heating and other precautions prevent the appear-
ance of organisms in the fluid. Various experiments by Schwann,
Helmholtz, Schultz, Schroeder, Dusch and others led to the
refutation, step by step, of the belief that the more minute
organisms, and particularly bacteria, arose de novo in the special
cases quoted. Nevertheless, instances were adduced where the
most careful heating of yolk of egg, milk, hay-infusions, &c.,
had failed, the boiled infusions, &c., turning putrid and
swarming with bacteria after a few hours.
In 1862 Pasteur repeated and extended such experiments,
and paved the way for a complete explanation of the anomalies;
Cohn in 1872 published confirmatory results; and it became
clear that no putrefaction can take place without bacteria or
some other living organism. In the hands of Brefeld, Burdon-
Sanderson, de Bary, Tyndall, Roberts, Lister and others, the
various links in the chain of evidence grew stronger and stronger,
and every case adduced as one of "spontaneous generation"
fell to the ground when examined. No case of so-called " spon-
taneous generation" has withstood rigid investigation; but the
discussion contributed to more exact ideas as to the ubiquity,
minuteness, and high powers of resistance to physical agents
of the spores of Schizomycetes, and led to more exact ideas
of antiseptic treatments. Methods were also improved, and
the application of some of them to surgery at the hands of
Lister, Koch and others has yielded results of the highest
value.
Long before any clear ideas as to the relations of Schizomycetes
to fermentation and disease were possible, various thinkers at
different times had suggested that resemblances existed between
the phenomena of certain diseases and those of fermentation,
and the idea that a virus or contagium might be something of
the nature of a minute organism capable of spreading and
1 Cladothrix tlichotoma, for example, which is ordinarily a branched,
filamentous, sheathed form, at certain seasons breaks up into a
number of separate cells whiqh develop a tuft of cilia and escape from
the sheath. Such a behaviour is very similar to the production of
zooapores which is so common in many filamentous algae.
reproducing itself had been entertained. Such vague notions
began to take more definite shape as the ferment theory of
Cagniard de la Tour (1828), Schwann (1837) and Pasteur made
way, especially in the hands of the last-named savant. From
about 1870 onwards the " germ theory of disease " has passed
into acceptance. P. F. O. Rayer in 1850 and Davaine had
observed the bacilli in the blood of animals dead of anthrax
(splenic fever), and Pollender discovered them anew in 1855.
In 1863, imbued with ideas derived from Pasteur's researches
on fermentation, Davaine reinvestigated the matter, and put
forth the opinion that the anthrax bacilli caused the splenic
fever; this was proved to result from inoculation. Koch in
1876 published his observations on Davaine's bacilli, placed
beyond doubt their causal relation to splenic fever, discovered
the spores and the saprophytic phase in the life-history of the
organism, and cleared up important points in the whole question
(figs. 7 and 9). In 1870 Pasteur had proved that a disease of
silkworms was due to an organism of the nature of a bacterium;
and in 1871 Oertel showed that a Micrococcus already known to
exist in diphtheria is intimately concerned in producing that
disease. In 1872, therefore, Cohn was already justified in
grouping together a number of "pathogenous" Schizomycetes.
Thus arose the foundations of the modern " germ theory of
disease;" and, in the midst of the wildest conjectures and the
worst of logic, a nucleus of facts was won, which has since
grown, and is growing daily. Septicaemia, tuberculosis, glanders,
fowl-cholera, relapsing fever, and other diseases are now brought
definitely within the range of biology, and it is clear that
all contagious and infectious diseases are due to the action
of bacteria or, in a few cases, to fungi, or to protozoa or other
animals.
Other questions of the highest importance have arisen from
the foregoing. About 1880 Pasteur first showed that Bacillus
anthracis cultivated in chicken broth, with plenty of oxygen
and at a temperature of 42-43 C., lost its virulence after a few
"generations," and ceased to kill even the mouse; Toussaint
and Chauveau confirmed, and others have extended the observa-
tions. More remarkable still, animals inoculated with such
" attenuated " bacilli proved to be curiously resistant to the
deadly effects of subsequent inoculations of the non-attenuated
form. In other words, animals vaccinated with the cultivated
bacillus showed immunity from disease when reinoculated with
the deadly wild form. The questions as to the causes and
nature of the changes in the bacillus and in the host, as to the
extent of immunity enjoyed by the latter, &c., are of the greatest
interest and importance. These matters, however, and others
such as -phagocytosis (first described by Metchnikoff in 1884),
and the epoch-making discovery of the opsonins of the blood by
Wright, do not here concern us (see II. below).
MORPHOLOGY. Sizes, Forms, Structure, &c. The Schizomy-
cetes consist of single cells, or of filamentous or other groups of
cells, according as the divisions are completed at once
or not. While some unicellular forms are less than
IP (-001 mm.) in diameter, others have cells measur-
ing 4n or s/t or even 7^1 or 8/1 in thickness, while the length may
vary from that of the diameter to many times that measurement.
In the filamentous forms the individual cells are often difficult
to observe until reagents are applied (e.g. fig. 14), and the length
of the rows of cylindrical cells may be many hundred times
greater than the breadth. Similarly, the diameters of flat or
spheroidal colonies may vary from a few times to many hundred
times that of the individual cells, the divisions of which have
produced the colony. The shape of the individual cttl-watt
cell (fig. i) varies from that of a minute sphere to
that of a straight, curved, or twisted filament or cylinder,
which is not necessarily of the same diameter throughout, and
may have flattened, rounded, or even pointed ends. The rule is
that the cells divide in one direction only i.e. transverse to the
long axis and therefore produce aggregates of long cylindrical
shape; but in rarer cases iso-diametric cells divide in two or
three directions, producing flat, or spheroidal, or irregular
colonies, the size of which is practically unlimited. The bacterial
BACTERIOLOGY
'59
cell is always clothed by a definite cell-membrane, as was shown
by the plasmolysing experiments of Fischer and others. Unlike
the cell-wall of the higher plants, it gives usually no
reactions of cellulose, nor is chitin present as in the
fungi, but it consists of a proteid substance and is apparently
a modification of the general protoplasm. In some cases, how-
.ever, as in B. tuberculosis, analysis of the cell shows a large
amount of cellulose. The cell-walls in some fortns swell up into
a gelatinous mass so that the cell appears to be surrounded in
the unstained condition by a clear, transparent space. When
the swollen wall is dense and regular in appearance the term
" capsule " is applied to the sheath as in Leuconostoc. Secreted
pigments (red, yellow, green and blue) are sometimes deposited
in the wall, and some of the iron-bacteria have deposits of oxide
of iron in the membranes.
e f
830 T> ,
ft $
a " 2pm,
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9a.m
FIG. 2. The various phases of germination of spores of Bacillus
ramosus (Fraenkel), as actually observed in hanging drops under
very high powers.
A. The spore sown at n A.M., as shown at a, had swollen (b) per-
ceptibly by noon, and had germinated by 3.30 P.M., as shown at c: in d
at 6 P.M., and e at 8.30 P.M.; the resulting filament is segmenting
into bacilli as it elongates, and at midnight (/) consisted of twelve
such segments.
B, C. Similar series of phases in the order of the small letters
in each case, and with the times of observation attached. At / and
g occurs the breaking up of the filament into rodlets.
D. Germinating spores in various stages, more highly magnified,
and showing the different ways of escape of the filament from the
spore-membrane. (H. M. W.)
The substance of the bacterial cell when suitably prepared
and stained shows in the larger forms a mass of homogeneous
Cell- protoplasm containing irregular spaces, the vacuoles,
coateat*. which enclose a watery fluid. Scattered in the proto-
plasm are usually one or more deeply-staining granules.
The protoplasm itself may be tinged with colouring matter,
bright red, yellow, &c., and may occasionally contain substances
other than the deeply-staining granules. The occurrence of a
starch-like substance which stains deep blue with iodine has
been clearly shown in some forms even where the bacterium
is growing on a medium containing no starch, as shown by
Ward and others. In other forms a substance (probably
glycogen or amylo-dextrin) which .turns brown with iodine
has been observed. Oil and fat drops have also been shown
to occur, and in the sulphur-bacteria numerous fine granules
of sulphur.
The question of the existence of a nucleus in the bacteria is
one that has led to much discussion and is a problem of some
Nuclea*. difficulty. In the majority of forms it has not hitherto
been possible to demonstrate a nucleus of the type
which is so characteristic of the higher plants. Attention has
accordingly been directed to the deeply-staining granules
mentioned above, and the term chromatin-granules has been
applied to them, and they have been considered to represent
a rudimentary nucleus. That these granules consist of a material
similar to the chromatin of the nucleus of higher forms is very
doubtful, and the comparison with the nucleus of more highly
organized cells rests on a very slender basis. The most recent
works (Vejdovsky, Mend), however, appear to show that nuclei
of a structure and mode of division almost typical are to be found
in some of the largest bacteria. It is possible that a similar
structure has been
overlooked or is in-
visible in other
forms owing to
their small size, and
that there may be
another type of nuc-
leus the diffuse
nucleus such as
Schaudinn believed
to be the case in
B. bulschlii. Many
bacteria when sus-
pended in a fluid
exhibit a power of
independent move-
ment which is, of
course, quite dis-
t i n c t from the
Brownian move-
ment a non-vital
phenomenon com-
mon to all finely-
divided particles
suspended in a fluid.
Independent move-
ment is effected by
special motile or-
gans, the cilia or
flagella. These
structures are in-
visible, with ordin-
ary illumination in
living cells or un-
stained prepara-
tions, and can only A
be made clearly
visible by special
methods of prepar-
FIG. 3. Types of Zoogloea. (After Zopf.)
Mixed zoogloea found as a pellicle on the
surface of vegetable infusions, &c. ; it
consists of various forms, and contains
cocci (a) and rodlets, in series (iandc),
&c. ( X st-
and staining B. Egg-shaped mass of zoogloea of Beggiatoa
first used by Loffler.
By these methods
the cilia are seen to
roseo-persicina (Bacterium rubescens of
Lankester); the gelatinous swollen walls
of the large crowded cocci are fused into
a common gelatinous envelope.
be fine protoplasmic C. Reticulate zoogloea of the same ( X 250).
outgrowths of the D, E, H. Colonies of Myconostoc enveloped
'\ nf t in diffluent matrix (x 540).
the F. Branched fruticose zoogloea of Cladothrix
same nature asthose (slightly magnified).
of the zoospores and G. Zoogloea of Bacterium merismopedioides,
antherozoids of Zopf, containing cocci arranged in tablets.
algae, mosses, &c.
These cilia appear to be attached to the cell-wall, being unaffected
by plasmolysis, but Fischer states that they really are derived from
the central protoplasm and pass through minute pores in
the wall. The cilia may be present during a short period
only in the life of a Schizomycete, and their number may vary
according to the medium on which the organism is growing.
Nevertheless, there is more or less constancy in the type of distri-
bution, &c., of the cilia for each species when growing at its best.
The chief results may be summed up as follows: some species,
e.g. B. anthracis, have no cilia; others have only one flagellum
at one pole (Monolrichous), e.g. Bacillus Pyocyaneus (fig. i, C, D),
or one at each pole; others again have a tuft of several cilia
dttm.
i6o
BACTERIOLOGY
Vegetative
state.
at one pole (Lophotrichous) , e.g. B. syncyaneus (fig. i, E), or at
each pole (Amphitrichous) (fig. i, J, K, L); and, finally, many
actively motile forms have the cilia springing all round (Peri-
trichous), e.g. B. vulgaris (fig. i, G). It is found, however, that
strict reliance cannot be placed on the distinction between
the Monotrichous, Lophotrichous and Amphitrichous conditions
since one and the same species may have one, two or more cilia
at one or both poles; nevertheless some stress may usually be
laid on the existence of one or two as opposed to several e.g.
five or six or more at one or each pole.
In Beggiatoa, a filamentous form, peculiar, slow, oscillatory
movements are to be observed, reminding us of the movements
of Oscillatoria among the Cyanophyceae. In these
cases no cilia have been observed, and there is a
firm cell-wall, so the movement remains quite un-
explained.
FlG-4. Typesof Spore-
formation in Schizomy-
cetes. (After Zopf.)
A. Various stages in the
development of the
endogenous spores in
a Clostridium the
small letters indicate
the order.
B. Endogenous spores of
the hay bacillus.
C. A chair of cocci of
Leuconostoc mesenter-
ioides, with two
" resting spores," i.e.
arthrospores. (After
van Tieghem.)
D. A motile rodlet with
one cilium and with a
spore formed inside.
E. Spore - formation in
Vibrio - like (c) and
Spirillum-like (a, b, d)
Schizomycetes.
F. Long rod-likeform con-
taining a spore (these
are the so - called
" Kopfchenbacterien "
of German authors).
G. Vibrio form with spore. (After Prazmowski.)
H. Clostridium one cell contains two spores. (After Prazmowski.)
I. Spirillum containing many spores (a), which are liberated at b
by the breaking up of the parent cells.
K. Germination of the spore of the hay bacillus (B. subtilis) the
axis of growth of the germinal rodlet is at right angles to the
long axis of the spore.
L. Germination of spore of. Clostridium butyricum the axis of
growth coincides with the long axis of the spore.
While many forms are fixed to the substratum, others are
free, being in this condition either motile or immotile. The
chief of these forms are described below.
Cocci: spherical or spheroidal cells, which, according to their
relative (not very well defined) sizes are spoken ofas Micro-
cocci, Macrococci, and perhaps Monas forms.
Rods or rodlets: slightly or more considerably elongated cells
which are cylindrical, biscuit-shaped or somewhat fusiform.
The cylindrical forms are short, i.e. only three or four times
as long as broad (Bacterium), or longer (Bacillus) ; the biscuit-
shaped ones are Bacteria in the early stages of division.
Clostridia, &c., are spindle-shaped.
Filaments really consist of elongated cylindrical cells which remain
united end to end after division, and they may break up
later into elements such as those described above. Such fila-
ments are not always of the same diameter throughout, and
their segmentation varies considerably. They may be free or
attached at one (the " basal ") end. A distinction is made
between simple filaments (e.g. Leptothrix) and such as exhibit
a false branching (e.g. Cladothrix).
Curved and spiral forms. Any of the elongated forms described
above may be curved or sinuous or twisted into a corkscrew-
like spiral instead of straight. If the sinuosity is slight we
have the Vibrio form; if pronounced, and the spiral wind-
ing well marked, the forms are known as Spirillum, Spiro-
chaete,&c. These and similar terms have been applied partly
to individual cells, but more often to filaments consisting of
several cells; and much confusion has arisen from the diffi-
culty of defining the terms themselves.
In addition to the above, however, certain Schizomycetes present
aggregates in the form of plates, or solid or hollow and irregular
branched colonies. This may be due to the successive divisions
occurring in two or three planes instead of only across the long axis
(Sarcina), or to displacements of the cells after division.
Growth and Division. Whatever the shape and size of the
individual cell, cell-filament or cell-colony, the immediate
visible results of active nutrition are elongation of
the cell and its division into two equal halves, ^ e '" vdacm
across the long axis, by the formation of a septum,
which either splits at once or remains intact for a shorter or
longer time. This process is then repeated and so on. In the
first case the separated
cells assume the char-
acter of the parent-.'
cell whose division f
gave rise to them; in
the second case they
form filaments, or, if
the further elongation
and divisions of the
cells proceed in differ- FIG. 5. Characteristic groups of Micro-
ent directions, plates cocci. (After Cohn.) A. Micrococcus pro-
or spheroidal or other digwsus. B. M. vaccinae. C. Zoogloea
shaped colonies. It stage . of a M ^rococcus, forming a close
. ., i_ membrane on infusion Pasteur s Myco-
not unfrequently hap- derma. (Very highly magnified.)
pens, however, that
groups of cells break away from their former connexion as longer
or shorter straight or curved filaments, or as solid masses. In
some filamentous forms this " fragmentation " into multicellular
pieces of equal length or nearly so is a normal phenomenon,
each partial filament repeat-
ing the growth, division and
fragmentation as before (cf.
figs. 2 and 6). By rapid divi-
sion hundreds of thousands
of cells may be produced in
a few hours, 1 and, according
to the species and the con-
ditions (the medium, temper- .
ature, &c.), enormous col-
lections of isolated cells may
cloud the fluid in which they
are cultivated, or form de-
posits below or films on its
surface; valuable characters
are sometimes obtained from
these appearances. When
chese dense " swarms " of
vegetative cells become fixed
n a matrix of their own
swollen contiguous cell-walls,
they pass over into a sort of
resting state as a so-called
zoogloea (fig. 3).
One of the most remarkable
)henomena in the life-history
of the Schizomy-
cetes is the forma- Zoo *' oe ' e -
tion of this zoogloea stage,
which corresponds to the
' palmella " condition of the hi,
ower Algae. This occurs as a
membrane on the surface of
he medium, or as irregular
clumps or branched masses (sometimes several inches across)
submerged in it, and consists of more or less gelatinous
matrix enclosing innumerable " cocci," " bacteria," or other
lements of the Schizomycete concerned. Formerly regarded
as a distinct genus the natural fate of all the various
1 Brefeld has observed that a bacterium may divide once every
lalf-hour, and its progeny repeat the process in the same time. One
jacterium might thus produce in twenty-four hours a number of
segments amounting to many millions of millions.
FIG. 6. Bacillus megaterium.
(After de Bary.)
a, a chain of motile rodlets still
growing and dividing (bacilli).
b, a pair of bacilli actively growing
and dividing.
p, a rodlet in this condition (but
divided into four segments)
after treatment with alcoholic
iodine solution.
c, d, e, f, successive stages in the
development of the spores.
r, a rodlet segmented in four, each
segment containing one ripe
spore.
g'i 2 ' S*< early stages in the ger-
mination of the spores (after
being dried several days) ;
hi, t, k, I and m, successive
stages in the germination of
the spore. (0X250; all the
rest X 600).
BACTERIOLOGY
161
forms the zoogloea is now known to be a sort of resting con-
dition of the Schizomycetes, the various elements being glued
together, as it were, by their enormously swollen and diffluent
cell-walls becoming contiguous. The zoogloea is formed by active
division of single or of several mother-cells, and the progeny
appear to go on secreting the cell-wall substance, which then
absorbs many times its volume of water, and remains as a
consistent matrix, in which the cells come to rest. The matrix
i.e. the swollen cell-walls in some cases consists mainly of
cellulose, in others chiefly of a proteid substance; the matrix
in some cases is horny and resistant, in others more like a thick
solution of gum. It is intelligible from the mode of formation
that foreign bodies may become entangled in the gelatinous
matrix, and compound zoogloeae may arise by the apposition
of several distinct forms, a common event in macerating troughs
(fig. 3, A). Characteristic forms may be assumed by the young
zoogloea of different species, spherical, ovoid, reticular, fila-
mentous, fruiticose, lamellar, &c., but these vary considerably
as the mass increases or comes in contact with others. Older
FIG. 7. Bacillus anthracis. (After Koch.)
A. Bacilli mingled with blood-corpuscles from the blood of a
guinea-pig ; some of the bacilli dividing.
B. The rodlets after, three hours' culture in a drop of aqueous
humour. They grow out into long leptothrix-\ike filaments, which
become septate later, and spores are developed in the segments.
<X6 5 o).
zoogloeae may precipitate oxide of iron in the matrix, if that
metal exists in small quantities in the medium. Under favour-
able conditions the elements in the zoogloea again become
active, and move out of the matrix, distribute themselves in the
surrounding medium, to grow and multiply as before. If
the zoogloea is formed on a solid substratum it may become
firm and horny; immersion in water softens it as described
above.
The growth of an ordinary bacterium consists in uniform
elongation of the rodlet until its length is doubled, followed
^X division by a median septum, then by the simul-
taneous doubling in length of each daughter cell, again
growth. followed by the median division, and so on (figs. 13, 14).
If the cells remain connected the resulting filament
repeats these processes of elongation and subsequent division
uniformly so long as the conditions are maintained, and very
accurate measurements have been obtained on such a form,
e.g. B. ramosus. If a rodlet in a hanging drop of nutrient gelatine
is fixed under the microscope and kept at constant temperature,
a curve of growth can be obtained recording the behaviour
during many hours or days. The measured lengths are marked
off on ordinates erected on an abscissa, along which the times
are noted. The curve obtained on joining the former points
then brings out a number of facts, foremost among which are
(i) that as long as the conditions remain constant the doubling
periods i.e. the times taken by any portion of the filament to
double its length are constant, because each cell is equally
HI. 6
active along the whole length; (2) there are optimum, minimum
and maximum temperatures, other conditions remaining constant,
at which growth begins, runs at its best and is soon exhausted,
respectively; (3) that the most rapid cell-division and maximum
growth do not necessarily accord with the best conditions for
the life of the organism; and (4) that any sudden alteration of
temperature brings about a check, though a slow rise may
accelerate growth (fig. 8). It was also shown that exposure to
light, dilution or exhaustion of the food-media, the presence of
traces of poisons or metabolic products check growth or even
bring it to a standstill; and the death or injury of any single
cell in the filamentous series shows its effect on the curve by
lengthening the doubling period, because its potential progeny
have been put out of play. Hardy has shown that such a
destruction of part of the filament may be effected by the attacks
of another organism.
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
2pm. 2.33 S35
3uS 3.30
i(tir, suns
fli
lam/o
f>20.
I/'
.?. 6.20 7.7
so
897
ess a
Spores.
FIG. 8. Curve of growth of a filament of Bacillus ramosus
(Fraenkel), constructed from data such as in fig. 4. The abscissae
represent intervals of time, the ordinates the measured lengths of
the growing filament. Thus, at 2.33 P.M. the length of the filament
was 6 MI at 5.45, 20 it; at 8 P.M., 70 n and so on. Such curves show
differences of steepness according to the temperature (see temp,
curve), and to alterations of light (lamp) and darkness. (H. M. W.)
A very characteristic method of reproduction is that of spore-
formation, and these minute reproductive bodies, which represent
a resting stage of the organism, are now known in many
forms. Formerly two kinds of spores were described,
arthrospores and endospores. An arthrospore, however, is not a
true spore but merely an ordinary vegetative cell which separates
and passes into a condition of rest, and such may occur in forms
which form endospores, e.g. B. subtUis, as well as in species not
known to form endospores. The true spore or endospore begins
with the appearance of a minute granule in the protoplasm of a
vegetative cell; this granule enlarges and in a few hours has
taken to itself all the protoplasm, secreted a thin but very
resistive envelope, and is a ripe ovoid spore, smaller than the
mother-cell and lying loosely in it (cf. figs. 6, 9, 10, and n).
In the case of the simplest and most minute Schizomycetes
162
BACTERIOLOGY
B
FIG. 9.
(Micrococcus, &c.) no definite spores have been discovered; any
one of the vegetative micrococci may commence a new series
of cell by growth and division. We may call these forms
" asporous," at any rate provisionally.
The spore may be formed in short or long segments, the cell-
wall of which may undergo change of form to accommodate
itself to the contents. As a rule only one spore is formed in a
cell, and the process usually takes place in a bacillar segment.
In some cases the spore-forming protoplasm gives a blue reaction
with iodine solutions. The spores may be developed in cells
which are actively swarming, the move-
ments not being interfered with by the
process (fig. 4, D). The so-called
" Kopfchenbacterien " of older writers are
simply bacterioid segments with a spore
at one end, the mother cell-wall having
adapted itself to the outline of the spore
(fig. 4, F). The ripe spores of Schizomy-
cetes are spherical, ovoid or long-ovoid in
shape and extremely minute (e.g. those of
Bacillus subtilis measure 0-0012 mm. long
by 0.0006 mm. broad according to Zopf),
highly refractive and colourless (or very
dark, probably owing to the high index of
refraction and minute size). The membrane
may be relatively thick, and even exhibit
shells or strata.
The germination of the spores has now
been observed in several forms with care.
The spores are capable of germination at
once, or they may be kept for months and
even years, and are very resistant against
desiccation, heat and cold, &c. In a suit-
able medium and at a proper temperature
the germination is completed in a few hours.
A, Bacillus anthra- The spore swells and elongates and the
cis. (After de Bary.) contents grow forth to a cell like that which
Two of the long fila produced it, in some cases clearly breaking
ments (B, fig. 10), in f, . ,.
which spores are through the membrane, the remains of
being developed. The which may be seen attached to the young
specimen was culti- germinal rodlet (figs. 5, 9 and n); in other
vated in broth, and cases t jj e surrounding membrane of the
spores are drawn a , ,. , ,,,, . ,
little too small spore swells and dissolves. The germinal
they should be of the cell then grows forth into the forms typical
same diameter trans- for the particular Schizomycete concerned,
versely as the seg- - [he conditions for spore-formation differ,
ments. (Xooo.) At- n i- it i
B. Bacillus sub- Anaerobic species usually require little
tilis. (After de oxygen, but aerobic species a free supply.
Bary.) fi, fragments Each species has an optimum temperature
' "P 6 and many are known to require very special
s!ve reS stages fn^the food-media. The systematic interference
germination of the with these conditions has enabled bacterio-
spores, the remains legists to induce the development of so-
of the spore at- ca ii ec j asporogenous races, in which the
tacned to the ger- , ^. , j *. i j
minal rodlets. (X formationof spores is indefinitely postponed,
600.) changes in vigour, virulence and other pro-
perties being also involved, in some cases
at any rate. The addition of minute traces of acids, poisons, &c.,
leads to this change in some forms; high temperature has also
been used successfully.
The difficult subject of the classification ' of bacteria dates
1 The difficulties presented by such minute and simple organisms
as the Schizomycetes are due partly to the few " characters which
they possess and partly to the dangers of error in manipulating
them; it is anything but an easy matter either to trace the whole
development ot a single form or to recognize with certainty any
one stage in the development unless the others are known. This
being the case, and having regard to the minuteness and ubiquity
of these organisms, we should be very careful in accepting evidence
as to the continuity or otherwise of any two forms which falls short
of direct and uninterrupted observation. The outcome of all these
considerations is that, while recognizing that the " genera " and
" species " as denned by Cohn must be recast, we are not warranted
in uniting any forms the continuity of which has not been directly
from the year 1872, when Cohn published his system, which was
extended in 1875; this scheme has in fact dominated
the study of bacteria ever since. Zopf in 1885 proposed a ** s /fca "
a scheme based on the acceptance of extreme views
of pleomorphism; his system, however, was extraordinarily
C
FIG. 10. Bacillus subtilis. (After Strasburger.) A. Zoogloea
pellicle (Xsoo). B. Motile rodlets (Xiooo). C. Development of.
spores (X8oo).
impracticable and was recognized by him as provisional only.
Systems have also been brought forward based on the formation
of arthrospores and endospores, but as explained above this is
eminently unsatisfactory, as arthrospores are not true spores
and both kinds of reproductive bodies are found in one and the
same form. Numerous attempts have been made to construct
schemes of classification based on the power of growing colonies
g A.M.
B 10. 4-0
J2 .SO
P.M.
P.M.
FIG. 1 1 . Stages in the development of spores of Bacillus ramosus
(Fraenkel), in the order and at the times given, in a hanging drop
culture, under a very high power. The process begins with the for-
mation of brilliant granules (A, B) ; these increase, and the brilliant
substance gradually balls together (C) and forms the spores (D), one
in each segment, which soon acquire a membrane and ripen (E).
(H. M. W.)
to liquefy gelatine, to secrete coloured pigments, to ferment
certain media with evolution of carbon dioxide or other gases,
or to induce pathological conditions in animals. None of these
systems, which are chiefly due to the medical bacteriologists,
has maintained its position, owing to the difficulty of applying
the characters and to the fact that such properties are physio-
logical and liable to great fluctuations in culture, because a
given organism may vary greatly in such respects according to
its degree of vitality at the time, its age, the mode of nutrition
observed; or, at any rate, the strictest rules should be followed in
accepting the evidence adduced to render the union of any forms
probable.
BACTERIOLOGY
163
Fischer's
scheme.
and the influence of external factors on its growth. Even when
used in conjunction with purely morphological characters, these
physiological properties are too variable to aid us in the dis-
crimination of species and genera, and are apt to break down at
critical periods. Among the more characteristic of these schemes
adopted at various times may be mentioned those of Miquel
(1891), Eisenberg (1891), and Lehmann and Neumann (1897).
Although much progress has been made in determining the value
and constancy of morphological characters, we are still in need
of a sufficiently comprehensive and easily applied scheme of
classification, partly owing to the existence in the literature of
imperfectly described forms the life-history of which is not yet
known, or the microscopic characters of which have not been
examined with sufficient accuracy and thoroughness. The
principal attempts at morphological classifications recently
brought forward are those of de Toni and Trevisan (1889),
Fischer (1897) and Migula (1897). Of these systems, which
alone are available in any practical scheme of classifi-
cation, the two most important and most modern are
those of Fischer and Migula. The extended investiga-
tions of the former on the number and distribution of cilia (see
fig. i) led him to propose a scheme of classification based on these
and other morphological characters, and differing essentially
from any preceding one. This scheme may be tabulated as
follows:
I. ORDER Haplobacterinae. Vegetative body unicellular;
spheroidal, cylindrical or spirally twisted; isolated or con-
nected in filamentous or other growth series.
1. Family COCCACEAE. Vegetative cells spheroidal.
(a) Sub-family ALLOCOCCACEAE. Division in all or any
planes, colonies indefinite in shape and size, of cells
in short chains, irregular clumps, pairs or isolated:
Micrococcus (Cohn), cells non-motile; Planococcus
(Migula), cells motile.
(b) Sub-family HOMOCOCCACEAE. Division planes regular
and definite: Sarcina (Goods.), cells non-motile;
growth and division in three successive planes at
right angles, resulting in packet-like groups; Plano-
sarcina (Migula), as before, but motile; Pediococcus
(Lindner), division planes at right angles in two
successive planes, and cells in tablets of four or more;
Streptococcus (Billr.), divisions in one plane only,
resulting in chains of cells.
2. Family BACILLACEAE. Vegetative cells cylindric (rodlets),
ellipsoid or ovoid, and straight. Division planes always
perpendicular to the long axis.
(o) Sub-family B ACII.LEAE. Sporogenous rodlets cylindric,
not altered in shape: Bacillus (Cohn), non-motile;
Bactrinium (Fischer), motile, with one polar flagellurh
(monotrichous) ; Bactrillum (Fischer), motile, with a
terminal tuft of cilia (Ipphotrichous) ; Bactridium
(Fischer), motile, with cilia all over the surface
(peritrichous).
(b) Sub-family CLOSTRIDIEAE. Sporogenous rodlets,
spindle-shaped: Clostridium (Prazm.), motile (peri-
trichous).
(c) Sub-family PLECTRIDIEAE. Sporogenous rodlets, drum-
stick-shaped : Plectridium (Fischer), motile (peri-
trichous).
3. Family SPIRILLACEAE. Vegetative cells, cylindric but
curved more or less spirally. Divisions perpendicular
to the long axis: Vibrio (Miiller-Loffler), comma-
shaped, motile, monotrichous; Spirillum (Ehrenb.),
more strongly curved in open spirals, motile, lopho-
trichous ; Spirochaete (Ehrenb.), spirally coiled in
numerous close turns, motile, but apparently owing to
flexile movements, as no cilia are found.
ORDER Trichobacterinae. Vegetative body of branched
or unbranched cell-filaments, the segments of which separate
as swarm-cells (Gonidia).
. Family TRICHOBACTERIACEAE. Characters those of the
Order.
(a) Filaments rigid, non-motile, sheathed: Crenothrix
(Cohn), filaments unbranched and devoid of
sulphur particles; Thiothrix (Winogr.), as before,
but with sulphur particles; Cladothrix (Cohn), fila-
ments branched in a pseudo-dichotomous manner.
II
(b) Filaments showing slow pendulous and creeping
movements, and with no distinct sheath:
Beggiatoa (Trev.), with sulphur particles.
The principal objections to this system are the following: (i)
The extraordinary difficulty in obtaining satisfactory preparations
showing the cilia, and the discovery that these motile organs are
not formed on all substrata, or are only developed during short
periods of activity while the organism is young ana vigorous, render
this character almost nugatory. For instance, B. megatherium
and B. subtilis pass in a few hours after commencement of growth
from a motile stage with peritrichous cilia, into one of filamentous
growth preceded by casting of the cilia. (2) By far the majority of
the described species (over 1000) fall into the three genera Mtcro-
coccus (about 400), Bacillus (about 200) and Bactridium (about
150), so that only a quarter or so of the forms are selected out by
the other genera. (3) The monotrichous and lophotrichous condi-
tions are by no means constant even in the motile stage; thus
Pseudomonas rosea (Mig.) may have i, 2 or 3 cilia at either end,
and would be distributed by Fischer's classification between Bac-
trinium and Bactrillum, according to which state was observed.
In Migula's scheme the attempt is made to avoid some of these
difficulties, but others are introduced by his otherwise clever devices
for dealing with these puzzling little organisms.
The question, What is an individual ? has given rise to much
difficulty, and around it many of the speculations regarding pleo-
morphism have centred without useful result. If a tree fall apart
into its constituent cells periodically we should have the same
difficulty on a larger and more complex scale. The fact that every
bacterial cell in a species in most cases appears equally capable of
performing all the physiological functions of the species has led
most authorities, however, to regard it as the individual a view
which cannot be consistent in those cases where a simple or branched
filamentous series exhibits differences between free apex and fixed
base and so forth. It may be doubted whether the discussion is
profitable, though it appears necessary in some cases e.g. con-
cerning pleomorphy to adopt some definition of individual.
Myxobacteriaceae. To the two divisions of bacteria, Haplo-
bacterinae and Trichobacterinae, must now be added a third
division, Myxobacterinae. One
of the first members of this
group, Chondromyces crocatus,
was described as long ago as
1857 by Berkeley, but its nature
was not understood and it was
ascribed to the Hyphomycetes.
In 1892, however, Thaxter re-
discovered it and showed its
bacterial nature, founding for it
and some allied forms the group
Myxobacteriaceae. Another form,
which he described as Myxobacter,
was shown later to be the same
as Polyangium vitellinum de-
scribed by Link in 1795, the
exact nature of which had
hitherto been in doubt. Thaxter's
observations and conclusions were
called in question by some
botanists, but his later observa-
tions and those of Baur have
established firmly the position
of the group. The peculiarity
of the group lies in the fact that
the bacteria form plasmodium-
like aggregations and build
themselves up into Sporogenous
structures of definite form super-
ficially similar to the cysts of the
Mycetozoa (fig. 12). Most of
the forms in question are found
growing on the dung of herbi-
vorous animals, but the bacteria
occur not only in the alimentary
canal of the animal but also
free in the air. The Myxobacteria are most easily obtained by
keeping at a temperature of 30-35 C. in the dark dung which
has lain exposed to the air for at least eight days. The high
temperature is favourable to the growth of the bacteria but
B
C
FIG. 12.
A. Myxococcusdigelatus, bright
red fructification occurring
on dung (XI2O).
Polyangium primigenum,
red fructification on dog's
dung (X4o).
Chondromyces apiculalus,
orange fructification on
antelope's dung.
D. Young fructification(X45).
E. Single cyst germinating
(X200).
(A, B. after Quehl ; C-E,after Thx-
tcr.) From StrasburRcr'sLf/wfrwcA dtr
Balaitik, by permission of Gusuv
Fischer.
164
BACTERIOLOGY
inimical to that of the fungi which are so common on this sub-
stratum.
The discoveries that some species of nitrifying bacteria and
perhaps pigmented forms are capable of carbon-assimilation,
that others can fix free nitrogen and that a number
Function f decompositions hitherto unsuspected are accom-
andlifeof ^
bacteria, pushed by Schizomycetes, have put the questions of
nutrition and fermentation in quite new lights. Apart
from numerous fermentation processes such as rotting, the
soaking of skins for tanning, the preparation of indigo and of
tobacco, hay, ensilage, &c., in all of which bacterial fermenta-
tions are concerned, attention may be especially directed to the
following evidence of the supreme importance of Schizomycetes
in agriculture and daily life. Indeed, nothing marks the attitude
of modern bacteriology more clearly than the increasing attention
which is being paid to useful fermentations. The vast majority
of these organisms are not pathogenic, most are harmless and
5.20
5.20
FIG. 13. A series of phases of germination of the spore o. B.
ramosus sown at 8.30 (to the extreme left), showing how the growth
can be measured. If we place the base of the filament in each case
on a base line in the order of the successive times of observation
recorded, and at distances apart proportional to the intervals of time
(8.30, 10.0, 10.30, 11.40, and so on) and erect the straightened-out
filaments, the proportional length of each of which is here given for
each period, a line joining the tips of the filaments gives the curve of
growth. (H. M. W.)
many are indispensable aids in natural operations important
to man.
Fischer has proposed that the old division into saprophytes
and parasites should be replaced by one which takes into account
other peculiarities in the mode of nutrition of bacteria. The
nitrifying, nitrogen-fixing, sulphur- and iron-bacteria he regards
as monotrophic, i.e. as able to carry on one particular series of
fermentations or decompositions only, and since they require
no organic food materials, or at least are able to work up nitrogen
or carbon from inorganic sources, he regards them as primitive
forms in this respect and terms them Prototrophic. They may
be looked upon as the nearest existing representatives of the
primary forms of life which first obtained the power of working
up non-living into living materials, and as playing a correspond-
ingly important rQle in the evolution of life on our globe. The
vast majority of bacteria, on the other hand, which are ordinarily
termed saprophytes, are saprogenic, i.e. bring organic material
to the putrefactive state or saprophilous, i.e. live best in such
putrefying materials or become zymogenic, i.e. their metabolic
products may induce blood-poisoning or other toxic effects
(facultative parasites) though they are not true parasites. These
forms are termed by Fischer Metatrophic, because they require
various kinds of organic materials obtained from the dead
remains of other organisms or from the surfaces of their bodies,
and can utilize and decompose them in various ways (Polytrophic)
or, if monotrophic, are at least unable to work them up. 'The
true parasites obligate parasites of de Bary are placed by
Fischer in a third biological group, Paratrophic bacteria, to mark
the importance of their mode of life in the interior of living
organisms where they live and multiply in the blood, juices
or tissues.
When we reflect that some hundreds of thousands of tons of
urea are daily deposited, which ordinary plants are unable to
assimilate until considerable changes have been under-
gone, the question is of importance, What happens in
the meantime? In effect the urea first becomes
carbonate of ammonia by a simple hydrolysis brought about by
bacteria, more and more definitely known since Pasteur, van
Tieghem and Cohn first described them. Lea and Miquel
further proved that the hydrolysis is due to an enzyme urase
separable with difficulty from the bacteria concerned. Many
forms in rivers, soil, manure heaps, &c., are capable of bringing
about this change to ammonium carbonate, and much of the
loss of volatile ammonia on farms is preventible if the facts are
apprehended. The excreta of urea alone thus afford to the soil
enormous stores of nitrogen combined in a form which can be
rendered available by bacteria, and there are in addition the
supplies brought down in rain from the atmosphere, and those
due to other living debris. The researches of later years have
demonstrated that a still more inexhaustible supply of nitrogen
is made available by the nitrogen-fixing bacteria of the soil.
There are in all cultivated soils forms of bacteria which are
capable of forcing the inert free nitrogen to combine with other
elements into compounds assimilable by plants. This was long
asserted as probable before Winogradsky showed that the con-
clusions of M. P. E. Berthelot, A. Laurent and others were
right, and that Clostridium pasteurianum, for instance, if pro-
tected from access of free oxygen by an envelope of aerobic
bacteria or fungi, and provided with the carbohydrates and
minerals necessary for its growth, fixes nitrogen in proportion
to the amount of sugar consumed. This interesting case of
symbiosis is equalled by yet another case. The work of numerous
observers has shown that the free nitrogen of the atmosphere
is brought into combination in the soil in the nodules filled with
bacteria on the roots of Leguminosae, and since these nodules
are the morphological expression of a symbiosis between the
higher plant and the bacteria, there is evidently here a case
similar to the last.
As regards the ammonium carbonate accumulating in the
soil from the conversion of urea and other sources, we know
from Winogradsky's researches that it undergoes oxidation in
two stages owing to the activity of the so-called " nitrifying "
bacteria (an unfortunate term inasmuch as " nitrification "
refers merely to a particular phase of the cycle of changes
undergone by nitrogen). It had long been known that under
certain conditions large quantities of nitrate (saltpetre) are
formed on exposed heaps of manure, &c., and it was supposed
that direct oxidation of the ammonia, facilitated by the presence
of porous bodies, brought this to pass. But research showed
that this process of nitrification is dependent on temperature,
aeration and moisture, as is life, and that while nitre-beds can
infect one another, the process is stopped by sterilization.
R. Warington, J. T. Schloessing, C. A. Miintz and others had
proved that nitrification was promoted by some organism, when
Winogradsky hit on the happy idea of isolating the organism
by using gelatinous silica, and so avoiding the difficulties which
Warington had shown to exist with the organism in presence of
organic nitrogen, owing to its refusal to nitrify on gelatine or
other nitrogenous media. Winogradsky's investigations resulted
in the discovery that two kinds of bacteria are concerned in
nitrification; one of these, which he terms the Nitroso-bacteria,
is only capable of bringing about the oxidation of the ammonia
to nitrous acid, and the astonishing result was obtained that
BACTERIOLOGY
165
this can be done, in the dark, by bacteria to which only pure
mineral salts e.g. carbonates, sulphates and chlorides of
ammonium, sodium and magnesium were added. In other
words these bacteria can build up organic matter from purely
mineral sources by assimilating carbon from carbon dioxide in
the dark and by obtaining their nitrogen from ammonia. The
energy liberated during the oxidation of the nitrogen is regarded
as splitting the carbon dioxide molecule, in green plants it is
the energy of the solar rays which does this. Since the supply
f free oxygen is dependent on the activity of green plants the
process is indirectly dependent on energy derived from the sun,
but it is none the less an astounding one and outside the limits
of our previous generalizations. It has been suggested that urea
is formed by polymerization of ammonium carbonate, and formic
aldehyde is synthesized from CO 2 and OH 2 . The N tiro-bacteria.
are smaller, finer and quite different from the nitroso-bacteria,
and are incapable of attacking and utilizing ammonium carbonate.
When the latter have oxidized ammonia to nitrite, however,
the former step in and oxidize it still further to nitric acid.
It is probable that important consequences of these actions
result from the presence of nitrifying bacteria in rotten stone,
FIG. 14. Stages in the formation of a colony of a variety of
Bacillus (Proteus) vulgaris (Hauser), observed in a hanging drop.
At 1 1 A.M. a rodlet appeared (A) ; at 4 P.M. it had grown and divided
and broken up into eight rodlets (B) ; C shows further develop-
ment at 8 P.M., D at 9.30 P.M. all under a high power. At E, F,
and G further stages are drawn, as seen under much lower power.
(H. M. W.)
decaying bricks, &c., where all the conditions are realized for
preparing primitive soil, the breaking up of the mineral con-
stituents being a secondary matter. That " soil " is thus pre-
pared on barren rocks and mountain peaks may be concluded
with some certainty.
In addition to the bacterial actions which result in the oxidiza-
tion of ammonia to nitrous acid, and of the latter to nitric acid,
the reversal of such processes is also brought about by numerous
bacteria in the soil, rivers, &c. Warington showed some time
ago that many species are able to reduce nitrates to nitrites,
and such reduction is now known to occur very widely in nature.
The researches of Gayon and Dupetit, Giltay and Aberson and
others have shown, moreover, that bacteria exist which carry
such reduction still further, so that ammonia or even free nitrogen
may escape. The importance of these results is evident in ex-
plaining an old puzzle in agriculture, viz. that it is a wasteful
process to put nitrates and manure together on the land. Fresh
manure abounds in de-nitrifying bacteria, and these organisms
not only reduce the nitrates to nitrites, even setting free nitrogen
and ammonia, but their effect extends to the undoing of the
work of what nitrifying bacteria may be present also, with great
loss. The combined nitrogen of dead organisms, broken down
to ammonia by putrefactive bacteria, the ammonia of urea and
the results of the fixation of free nitrogen, together with traces
of nitrogen salts due to meteoric activity, are thus seen to
undergo various vicissitudes in the soil, rivers and surface of
the globe generally. The ammonia may be oxidized to nitrites
and nitrates, and then pass into the higher plants and be worked
up into proteids, and so be handed on to animals, eventually to
be broken down by bacterial action again to ammonia; or the
nitrates may be degraded to nitrites and even to free nitrogen or
ammonia, which escapes.
That the Leguminosae (a group of plants including peas, beans,
vetches, lupins, &c.) play a special part in agriculture was known
even to the ancients and was mentioned by Pliny Bacteria
(Historia Naturalis, viii.). These plants will not only and
grow on poor sandy soil without any addition of nitro- Legamio-
genous manure, but they actually enrich the soil on ***'
which they are grown. Hence leguminous plants are essential in
all rotation of crops. By analysis it was shown by Schulz-Lupitz
in 1 88 1 that the way in which these plants enrich the soil is by
increasing the nitrogen-content. Soil which had been cultivated
for many years as pasture was sown with lupins for fifteen years
in succession; an analysis then showed that the soil contained
more than three times as much nitrogen as at the beginning of
the experiment. The only possible source for this increase was
the atmospheric nitrogen. It had been, however, an axiom with
botanists that the green plants were unable to use the nitrogen
of the air. The apparent contradiction was explained by the
experiments of H. Hellriegel and Wilfarth in 1888. They showed
that, when grown on sterilized sand with the addition of mineral
salts, the Leguminosae were no more able to use the atmospheric
nitrogen than other plants such as oats and barley. Both kinds
of plants required the addition of nitrates to the soil. But if a
little water in which arable soil had been shaken up was added to
the sand, then the leguminous plants flourished in the absence of
nitrates and showed an increase in nitrogenous material. They
had clearly made use of the nitrogen of the air. When these
plants were examined they had small swellings or nodules on
their roots, while those grown in sterile sand without soil-extract
had no nodules. Now these peculiar nodules are a normal
characteristic of the roots of leguminous plants grown in ordinary
soil. The experiments above mentioned made clear for the first
time the nature and activity of these nodules. They are clearly
the result of infection (if the soil extract was boiled before addi-
tion to the sand no nodules were produced), and their presence
enabled the plant to absorb the free nitrogen of the air.
The work of recent investigators has made clear the whole
process. In ordinary arable soil there exist motile rod-like
bacteria, Bacterium ~. io . v \
radicicola. These enter p''\ / )
the root-hairs of legu- reo-as. (
minous plants, and pass-
ing down the hair in the
form of a long, slimy
(zoogloea) thread, pene-
trate the tissues of the
root. As a result the
tissues become hyper-
trophied, producing the
well-known nodule. In
the cells of the nodule
the bacteria multiply
and develop, drawing
material from their host.
Many of the bacteria ex-
hibit curious involution
forms (" bacteroids "),
which are finally broken
down and their products
absorbed by the plant.
The nitrogen of the air is
absorbed by the nodules,
being built up into the
bacterial cell and later
handed on to the host-
plant. It appears from
FIG. 15. Invasion of leguminous
roots by bacteria.
a, cell from the epidermis of root of Pea
with " infection thread " (zoogloea)
pushing its way through the cell-
walls. (After Prazrnowski.t
b, free end of a root-hair of Pea ; at the
right are particles of earth and on
the left a mass of bacteria. Inside
the hair the bacteria are pushing
their way up in a thin stream.
(From Fischer's Vorltsmgcn iibcr BaklcrUn.)
the observations of Maz6 that the
bacterium can even absorb free nitrogen when grown in cultures
i66
BACTERIOLOGY
outside the plant. We have here a very interesting case of sym-
biosis as mentioned above. The green plant, however, always
keeps the upper hand, restricting the development of the bacteria
to the nodules and later absorbing them for its own use. It should
be mentioned that different genera require different races of the
bacterium for the production of nodules.
The important part that these bacteria play in agriculture led
to the introduction in Germany of a commercial product (the so-
called " nitragin ") consisting of a pure culture of the bacteria,
which is to be sprayed over the soil or applied to the seeds before
sowing. This material was found at first to have a very uncertain
effect, but later experiments in America, and the use of a modified
preparation in Eng-
land, under the direc-
tion of Professor
Bottomley, have had
successful results; it
is possible that in the
future a preparation of
this sort will be widely
used.
The apparent special-
ization of these bacteria
B X)"^ to the leguminous
fl}' t>\l#s plants has always been
. >. d&k & fiW/A j. I very striking f ; ct) for
similar bacterial nod-
ules are known only in
two or three cases out-
side this particular
group. However, Pro-
fessor Bottomley an-
nounced at the
meeting of the British
Association for the
Advancement of
Science in 1907 that
he had succeeded in
breaking down this
specialization and by a
suitable treatment had
caused bacteria from
leguminous nodules to
infect other plants
such as cereals, tomato,
rose, with a marked
effect on their growth.
If these results are con-
firmed and the treat-
ment can be worked
commercially, the importance to agriculture of the discovery
cannot be overestimated; each plant will provide, like the
bean and vetch, its own nitrogenous manure, and larger crops
will be produced at a decreased cost.
Another important advance is in our knowledge of the part
played by bacteria in the circulation of carbon in nature. The
enormous masses of cellulose deposited annually on
the earth's surface are, as we know, principally the
result of chlorophyll action on the carbon dioxide of
the atmosphere decomposed by energy derived from the sun;
and although we know little as yet concerning the magnitude of
other processes of carbon-assimilation e.g. by nitrifying bacteria
it is probably comparatively small. Such cellulose is gradually
reconverted into water and carbon dioxide, but for some time
nothing positive was known as to the agents which thus break
up the paper, rags, straw, leaves and wood, &c., accumulating
in cesspools, forests, marshes and elsewhere in such abundance.
The work of van Tieghem, van Senus, Fribes, Omeliansky and
others has now shown that while certain anaerobic bacteria
decompose the substance of the middle lamella chiefly pectin
compounds and thus bring about the isolation of the cellulose
fibres when, for instance, flax is steeped or " retted," they are
FIG. 16.
a, root nodule of the lupin, nat. size.
(From Woromv.)
b, longitudinal section through root and
nodule.
g, fibro-vascular bundle.
w, bacterial tissue. (After Woromv.)
c, cell from bacterial tissues showing
nucleus and protoplasm filled with
bacteria.
d, bacteria from nodule of lupin, normal
undegenerate form.
e and /, bacteroids from Vicia villosa
and Lupinus albus. (After Morck.)
(cX6oo; 0-/XI500, above.)
(From Fischer's Vorlesungen iiber Batterien.)
Ccllulose-
bacterta.
unable to attack the cellulose itself. There exist in the mud of
marshes, rivers and cloacae, &c., however, other anaerobic
bacteria which decompose cellulose, probably hydrolysing it
first and then splitting the products into carbon dioxide and
marsh gas. When calcium sulphate is present, the nascent
methane induces the formation of calcium carbonate, sulphuretted
hydrogen and water. We have thus an explanation of the
occurrence of marsh gas and sulphuretted hydrogen in bogs,
and it is highly probable that the existence of these gases in the
intestines of herbivorous animals is due to similar putrefactive
changes in the undigested cellulose remains.
Cohn long ago showed that certain glistening particles observed
in the cells of Beggiatoa consist of sulphur, and Winogradsky
and Beyerinck have shown that a whole series of
sulphur bacteria of the genera Thiothrix, Chromatium,
Spirillum, Monas, &c., exist, and play important
parts in the circulation of this element in nature, e.g. in marshes,
estuaries, sulphur springs, &c. When cellulose bacteria set free
Sulphur
bacteria.
FIG. 17. A plate-culture of a bacillus which had been exposed
for a period of four hours behind a zinc stencil-plate, in which
the letters C and B were cut. The light had to traverse a screen
of water before passing through the C, and one of aesculin (which
filters out the blue and violet rays) before passing the B. The plate
was then incubated, and, as the figure shows, the bacteria on the
C-shaped area were all killed, whereas they developed elsewhere
on the plate (traces of the B are just visible to the right) and covered
it with an opaque growth. (H. M. W.)
marsh gas, the nascent gas reduces sulphates e.g. gypsum
with liberation of SH 2 , and it is found that the sulphur bacteria
thrive under such conditions by oxidizing the SH 2 and storing
the sulphur in their own protoplasm. If the SH 2 runs short
they oxidize the sulphur again to sulphuric acid, which combines
with any calcium carbonate present and forms sulphate again.
Similarly nascent methane may reduce iron salts, and the black
mud in which these bacteria often occur owes its colour to the
FeS formed. Beyerinck and Jegunow have shown that some
partially anaerobic sulphur bacteria can only exist in strata
at a certain depth below the level of quiet waters where SH2 is
being set free below by the bacterial decompositions of vegetable
mud and rises to meet the atmospheric oxygen coming down
from above, and that this zone of physiological activity rises
and falls with the variations of partial pressure of the gases due
to the rate of evolution of the SH 2 . In the deeper parts of this
zone the bacteria absorb the SH 2 , and, as they rise, oxidize it
and store up the sulphur; then ascending into planes more
highly oxygenated, oxidize the sulphur to SO 3 . These bacteria
therefore employ SH 2 as their respiratory substance, much as
higher plants employ carbohydrates instead of liberating
energy as heat by the respiratory combustion of sugars, they
do it by oxidizing hydrogen sulphide. Beyerinck has shown
that Spirillum desulphuricuns, a definite anaerobic form, attacks
and reduces sulphates, thus undoing the work of the sulphur
bacteria as certain de-nitrifying bacteria reverse the operations
of nitro-bacteria. Here again, therefore, we have sulphur, taken
BACTERIOLOGY
167
Iran
bacteria.
into the higher plants as sulphates, built up into proteids, decom-
posed by putrefactive bacteria and yielding SH 2 which the
sulphur bacteria oxidize; the resulting sulphur is then again
oxidized to SO 8 and again combined with calcium to gypsum,
the cycle being thus complete.
Chalybeate waters, pools in marshes near ironstone, &c.,
abound in bacteria, some of which belong to the remarkable
genera Crenothrix, Cladothrix and Leplothrix, and
contain ferric oxide, i.e. rust, hi their cell-walls.
This iron deposit is not merely mechanical but is due
to the physiological activity of the organism which, according
to Winogradsky, liberates energy by oxidizing ferrous and ferric
oxide in its protoplasm a view not accepted by H. Molisch.
The iron must be in certain soluble conditions, however, and the
soluble bicarbonate of the protoxide of chalybeate springs seems
most favourable; the hydrocarbonate absorbed by the cells is
oxidized, probably thus
2FeCO,+3OH,+O = Fea (OH),+2COj.
The ferric hydroxide accumulates in the sheath, and gradually
passes into the more insoluble ferric oxide. These actions are of
extreme importance in nature, as then- continuation results in
the enormous deposits of bog-iron ore, ochre, and since
Molisch has shown that the iron can be replaced by manganese
in some bacteria of manganese ores.
Considerable advances in our knowledge of the various chromo-
genic bacteria have been made by the studies of Beyerinck,
Lankester, Engelmann, Ewart and others, and have
ba^uHa. assumed exceptional importance owing to the discovery
that Bacteriopurpurin the red colouring matter con-
tained in certain sulphur bacteria absorbs certain rays of solar
energy, and enables the organism to utilize the energy for its
own life-purposes. Engelmann showed, for instance, that these
red-purple bacteria collect in the ultra-red, and to a less extent
in the orange and green, in bands which agree with the absorption
spectrum of the extracted colouring matter. Not only so, but
the evident parallelism between this absorption of light and
that by the chlorophyll of green plants, is completed by the
demonstration that oxygen is set free by these bacteria i.e.
by means of radiant energy trapped by their colour-screens the
living cells are in both cases enabled to do work, such as the
reduction of highly oxidized compounds.
The most recent observations of Molisch seem to show that
bacteria possessing bacteriopurpurin exhibit a new type of
assimilation the assimilation of organic material under the
influence of light. In the case of these red-purple bacteria the
colouring matter is contained in the protoplasm of the cell, but
in most chromogenic bacteria it occurs as excreted pigment on
and between the cells, or is formed by their action in the medium.
Ewart has confirmed- the principal conclusions concerning these
purple, and also the so-called chlorophyll bacteria (B. wide,
B. chlorinum, &c.), the results going to show that these are, as
many authorities have held, merely minute algae. The pigment
itself may be soluble in water, as is the case with the blue-green
fluorescent body formed by B. pyocyaneus, B. fluorescens and
a whole group of fluorescent bacteria. Neelson found that the
pigment of B. cyanogenus gives a band in the yellow and strong
lines at E and F in the solar spectrum an absorption spectrum
almost identical with that of triphenyl-rosaniline. In the case
of the scarlet and crimson red pigments of B. prodigiosus, B.
ruber, &c., the violet of B. violacens, B. janthinus, &c., the red-
purple of the sulphur bacteria, and indeed most bacterial pig-
ments, solution in water does not occur, though alcohol extracts
the colour readily. Finally, there are a few forms which yield
their colour to neither alcohol nor water, e.g. the yellow Micro -
coccus cereus-flavus and the B. berolinensis. Much work is still
necessary before we can estimate the importance of these pig-
ments. Their spectra are only imperfectly known in a few
cases, and the bearing of the absorption on the life-history is
still a mystery. In many cases the colour-production is de-
pendent on certain definite conditions temperature, presence
of oxygen, nature of the food-medium, &c. Ewart's important
discovery that some of these lipochrome pigments occlude
oxygen, while others do not, may have bearings on the facultative
anacrobism of these organisms.
A branch of bacteriology which offers numerous problems of
importance is that which deals with the organisms so common
in milk, butter and cheese. Milk is a medium not
only admirably suited to the growth of bacteria, but, bmctcru.
as a matter of fact, always contaminated with these
organisms in the ordinary course of supply. F. Lafar has stated
that 20% of the cows in Germany suffer from tuberculosis,
which also affected 17-7% of the cattle slaughtered in Copen-
hagen between 1891 and 1893, and that one in every thirteen
samples of milk examined in Paris, and one in every nineteen in
Washington, contained tubercle bacilli. Hence the desirability
of sterilizing milk used for domestic purposes becomes imperative.
FIG. 18. A similar preparation to fig. 17, except that two slit-like
openings of equal length allowed the light to pass, and that the light
was that of the electric arc passed through a quartz prism and casting
a powerful spectrum on the plate. The upper slit was covered with
glass, the lower with quartz. The bacteria were killed over the
clear areas shown. The left-hand boundary of the clear area corre-
sponds to the line F (green end of the blue), and the beginning of the
ultra-violet was at the extreme right of the upper (short) area. The
lower area of bactericidal action extends much farther to the right,
because the quartz allows more ultra-violet rays to pass than
does glass. The red-yellow-green to the left of F were without effect.
(H. M. W.)
No milk is free from bacteria, because the external orifices of the
milk-ducts always contain them, but the forms present in the
normal fluid are principally those which induce such changes
as the souring or " turning " so frequently observed in standing
milk (these were examined by Lord Lister as long ago as 1873-
1877, though several other species are now known), and those
which bring about the various changes and fermentations in
butter and cheese made from it. The presence of foreign germs,
which may gain the upper hand and totally destroy the flavours
of butter and cheese, has led to the search for those particular
forms to which the approved properties are due. A definite
bacillus to which the peculiarly fine flavour of certain butters is
due, is said to be largely employed in pure cultures in American
dairies, and in Denmark certain butters are said to keep fresh
much longer owing to the use of pure cultures and the treatment
employed to suppress the forms which cause rancidity. Quite
distinct is the search for the germs which cause undesirable
changes, or " diseases "; and great strides have been made in
discovering the bacteria concerned in rendering milk " ropy,"
butter " oily " and " rancid," &c. Cheese in its numerous
forms contains myriads of bacteria, and some of these are now
known to be concerned in the various processes of ripening
and other changes affecting the product, and although little is
known as to the exact part played by any species, practical
applications of the discoveries of the decade 1890-1900 have
been made, e.g. Edam cheese. The Japanese have cheeses
resulting from the bacterial fermentation of boiled Soja beans.
i68
BACTERIOLOGY
bacteria,
That bacterial fermentations are accompanied by the evolution
of heat is an old experience; but the discovery that the "spon-
taneous " combustion of sterilized cotton-waste does
no ^ occur simply if moist and freely exposed to oxygen,
but results when the washings of fresh waste are added,
has led to clearer proof that the heating of hay-stacks,
hops, tobacco and other vegetable products is due to the vital
activity of bacteria and fungi, and is physiologically a conse-
quence of respiratory processes like those in malting. It seems
fairly established that when the preliminary heating process of
fermentation is drawing to a close, the cotton, hay, &c., having
been converted into a highly porous friable and combustible
mass, may then ignite in certain circumstances by the occlusion
of oxygen, just as ignition is induced by finely divided metals.
A remarkable point in this connexion has always been the
necessary conclusion that the living bacteria concerned must be
exposed to temperatures of at least 70 C. in the hot heaps.
Apart from the resolution of doubts as to the power of spores
to withstand such temperatures for long periods, the discoveries
of Miquel, Globig and others have shown that there are numerous
bacteria which will grow and divide at such temperatures, e.g.
B. thermophilus, from sewage, which is quite active at 70 C.,
and B. Ludwigi and B. ilidzensis, &c., from hot springs, &c.
The bodies of sea fish, e.g. mackerel and other animals, have
long been known to exhibit phosphorescence. This phenomenon
is due to the activity of a whole series of marine
Dac t eria of various genera, the examination and
bacteria, cultivation of which have been successfully carried
out by Cohn, Beyerinck, Fischer and others. The
cause of the phosphorescence is still a mystery. The suggestion
that it is due to the oxidation of a body excreted by the bacteria
seems answered by the failure to filter off or extract any such
body. Beyerinck's view that it occurs at the moment peptones
are worked up into the protoplasm cannot be regarded as proved,
and the same must be said of the suggestion that the phosphores-
cence is due to the oxidation of phosphoretted hydrogen. The
conditions of phosphorescence are, the presence of free oxygen,
and, generally, a relatively low temperature, together with a
medium containing sodium chloride, and peptones, but little
or no carbohydrates. Considerable differences occur in these
latter respects, however, and interesting results were obtained
by Beyerinck with mixtures of species possessing different
powers of enzyme action as regards carbohydrates. Thus,
a form termed Pholobacterium phosphorescens by Beyerinck
will absorb maltose, and will become luminous if that sugar is
present, whereas P. Pflugeri is indifferent to maltose. If then
we prepare densely inseminated plates of these two bacteria
in gelatine food-medium to which starch is added as the only
carbohydrate, the bacteria grow but do not phosphoresce. If
we now streak these plates with an organism, e.g. a yeast, which
saccharifies starch, it is possible to tell whether maltose or
levulose and fructose are formed; if the former, only those
plates containing P. phosphorescens will become luminous;
if the latter, only those containing P. Pflugsri. The more recent
researches of Molisch have shown that the luminosity of ordinary
butcher's meat under appropriate conditions is quite a common
occurrence. Thus of samples of meat bought in Prague and kept
in a cool room for about two days, luminosity was present in
52 % of the samples in the case of beef, 50% for veal, and 39%
for liver. If the meat was treated previously with a 3% salt
solution, 89% of the samples of beef and 65% of the samples
of horseflesh were found to exhibit this phenomenon. The cause
of this luminosity is Micrococcus phosphorens, an immotile round,
or almost round organism. This organism is quite distinct from
that causing the luminosity of marine fish.
It has long been known that the production of vinegar depends
on the oxidization of the alcohol in wine or beer to acetic acid,
Oxidizio tne c ^ etn ' ca l process being probably carried out in two
bacteria, stages, viz. the oxidation of the alcohol leading to
the formation of aldehyde and water, and the further
oxidation of the aldehyde to acetic acid. The process may even
go farther, and the acetic acid be oxidized to CO 2 and OH 2 ;
the art of the vinegar-maker is directed to preventing the
accomplishment of the last stage. These oxidations are brought
about by the vital activity of several bacteria, of which four
Bacterium aceli, B. pasteurianum, B. kiitzingianum, and B.
xylinum have been thoroughly studied by Hansen and A.
Brown. It is these bacteria which form the zoogloea of the
" mother of vinegar," though this film may contain other
organisms as well. The idea that this film of bacteria oxidizes
the alcohol beneath by merely condensing atmospheric oxygen
in its interstices, after the manner of spongy platinum, has long
been given up; but the explanation of the action as an incom-
plete combustion, depending on the peculiar respiration of these
organisms much as in the case of nitrifying and sulphur bacteria
is not clear, though the discovery that the acetic bacteria will not
only oxidize alcohol to acetic acid, but further oxidize the latter
to CO 2 and OH 2 supports the view that the alcohol is absorbed
by the organism and employed as its respirable substance.
Promise of more light on these oxidation fermentations is afforded
by the recent discovery that not only bacteria and fungi, but even
the living cells of higher plants, contain peculiar enzymes which
possess the remarkable property of " carrying " oxygen much as
it is carried in the sulphuric acid chamber and which have there-
fore been termed oxydases. It is apparently the presence of these
oxydases which causes certain wines to change colour and alter
in taste when poured from bottle to glass, and so exposed to air.
Much as the decade from 1880 to 1890 abounded with investiga-
tions on the reactions of bacteria to heat, so the following decade
was remarkable for discoveries regarding the effects
of other forms of radiant energy. The observations
of Downes and Blunt in 1877 left it uncertain whether
the bactericidal effects in broth cultures exposed to solar rays
were due to thermal action or not. Further investigations, in
FIG. 19. Ginger-beer plant, showing yeast (Saccharomyces pyri-
formis) entangled in the meshes of the bacterium (B. vermiforme).
(H. M. W.)
which Arloing, Buchner, Chmelewski, and others took part, have
led to the proof that rays of light alone are quite capable oi kill-
ing these organisms. The principal questions were satisfactorily
settled by Marshall Ward's experiments in 1892-1893, when he
showed that even the spores of B. anthracis, which withstand
temperatures of 100 C. and upwards, can be killed by exposure
to rays of reflected light at temperatures far below anything
injurious, or even favourable to growth. He also showed that
the bactericidal action takes place in the absence of food materials,
thus proving that it is not merely a poisoning effect of the altered
medium. The principal experiments also indicate that it is the
rays of highest refrangibility the blue-violet and ultra-violet
rays of the spectrum which bring about the destruction of the
organisms (figs. 17, 18). The practical effect of the bactericidal
action of solar light is the destruction of enormous quantities
of germs in rivers, the atmosphere and other exposed situations,
and experiments have shown that it is especially the pathogenic
bacteria anthrax, typhoid, &c. which thus succumb to light-
action; the discovery that the electric arc is very rich in bacteri-
cidal rays led to the hope that it could be used for disinfecting
purposes in hospitals, but mechanical difficulties intervene. The
recent application of the action of bactericidal rays to the cure of
lupus is, however, an extension of the same discovery. Even when
the light is not sufficiently intense, or the exposure is too short to
kill the spores, the experiments show that attenuation of virulence,
BACTERIOLOGY
169
may result, a point of extreme importance in connexion with the
lighting and ventilation of dwellings, the purification of rivers
and streams, and the general diminution of epidemics in nature.
As we have seen, thermophilous bacteria can grow at high
temperatures, and it has long been known that some forms
develop on ice. The somewhat different question of
*ke resistance of ripe spores or cells to extremes of
heat and cold has received attention. Ravenel,
Macfadyen and Rowland have shown that several bacilli will
bear exposure for seven days to the temperature of liquid air
(- 192 C. to - 183 C.) and again grow when put into normal
conditions. More recent experiments have shown that even ten
hours' exposure to the temperature of liquid hydrogen - 252 C.
(21 on the absolute scale) failed to kill them. It is probable
that all these cases of resistance of seeds, spores, &c., are to be
connected with the fact that completely dry albumin does not
lose its coagulability on heating to 110 C. for some hours, since
it is well known that completely ripe spores and dry heat are
the conditions of extreme experiments.
No sharp line can be drawn between pathogenic and non-
pathogenic Schizomycetes, and some of the most marked steps
in the progress of our modern knowledge of these
organisms depend on the discovery that their patho-
genicity or virulence can be modified diminished or
increased by definite treatment, and, in the natural course of
epidemics, by alterations in the environment. Similarly we are
unable to divide Schizomycetes sharply into parasites and sapro-
phytes, since it is well proved that a number of species facul-
tative parasites can become one or the other according to
circumstances. These facts, and the further knowledge that
many bacteria never observed as parasites, or as pathogenic
forms, produce toxins or poisons as the result of their decom-
positions and fermentations of organic substances, have led to
important results in the applications of bacteriology to medicine.
Bacterial diseases in the higher plants have been described,
but the subject requires careful treatment, since several points
suggest doubts as to the organism described being the
cause f the disease referred to their agency. Until
recently it was urged that the acid contents of plants
explained their immunity from bacterial diseases, but it is now
known that many bacteria can flourish in acid media. Another
objection was that even if bacteria obtained access through the
stomata, they could not penetrate the cell-walls bounding the
intercellular spaces, but certain anaerobic forms are known to
ferment cellulose, and others possess the power of penetrating
the cell-walls of living cells, as the bacteria of Leguminosae
first described by Marshall Ward in 1887, and confirmed by Miss
Dawson in 1898. On the other hand a long list of plant-diseases
has been of late years attributed to bacterial action. Some , e.g.
the Sereh disease of the sugar-cane, the slime fluxes of oaks and
other trees, are not only very doubtful cases, in which other
organisms such as yeasts and fungi play their parts, but it may
be regarded as extremely improbable that the bacteria are the
primary agents at all; they are doubtless saprophytic forms
which have gained access to rotting tissues injured by other
agents. Saprophytic bacteria can readily make their way down
the dead hypha of an invading fungus, or into the punctures
made by insects, and Aphides have been credited with the
bacterial infection of carnations, though more recent researches
by Woods go to show the correctness of his conclusion that
Aphides alone are responsible for the carnation disease. On the
other hand, recent investigation has brought to light cases in
which bacteria are certainly the primary agents in diseases of
plants. The principal features are the stoppage of the vessels
and consequent wilting of the shoots; as a rule the cut
vessels on transverse sections of the shoots appear brown and
choked with a dark yellowish slime in which bacteria may
be detected, e.g. cabbages, cucumbers, potatoes, &c. In the
carnation disease and in certain diseases of tobacco and other
plants the seat of bacterial action appears to be the parenchyma,
and it may be that Aphides or other piercing insects infect
the plants, much as insects convey pollen from plant to plant, or
(though in a different way) as mosquitoes infect man with
malaria. If the recent work on the cabbage disease may be
accepted, the bacteria make their entry at the water pores at
the margins of the leaf, and thence via the glandular cells to the
tracheids. Little is known of the mode of action of bacteria on
these plants, but it may be assumed with great confidence that
they excrete enzymes and poisons (toxins), which diffuse into
the cells and kill them, and that the effects are in principle the
same as those of parasitic fungi. Support is found for this
opinion in Beyerinck's discovery that the juices of tobacco
plants affected with the disease known as " leaf mosaic," will
induce this disease after filtration through porcelain.
In addition to such cases as the kephir and ginger-beer plants
(figs. 19, 20), where anaerobic bacteria are associated with
yeasts, several interesting examples of symbiosis
among bacteria are now known. Bacillus chauvaei
ferments cane-sugar solutions in such a way that
normal butyric acid, inactive lactic acid, carbon dioxide, and
FIG. 20. The ginger-beer plant.
A. One of the brain-like gelatinous masses into which the mature
" plant " condenses.
B. The bacterium with and without its gelatinous sheaths (cf.
fig. 19).
C. Typical filaments and rodlets in the slimy sheaths.
D. Stages of growth of a sheathed filament a at 9 A.M., b at 3 P.M.,
cat 9 P.M., d at n A.M. next day, eat 3 P.M., /at 9 P.M., gat 10.30 A.M.
next day, h at 24 hours later. (H. M. W.)
hydrogen result; Micrococcus acidi-paralaclici, on the other hand,
ferments such solutions to optically active paralactic acid.
Nencki showed, however, that if both these organisms occur
together, the resulting products contain large quantities of normal
butyl alcohol, a substance neither bacterium can produce alone.
Other observers have brought forward other cases. Thus
neither B. coli nor the B. denitrificans of Burn and Stutzer can
reduce nitrates, but if acting together they so completely undo
the structure of sodium nitrate that the nitrogen passes off
in the free state. Van Senus showed that the concurrence of
two bacteria is necessary before his B. amylobacter can ferment
cellulose, and the case of mud bacteria which evolve sulphuretted
hydrogen below which is utilized by sulphur bacteria above has
already been quoted, as also that of Winogradsky's Clostridium
IJO
BACTERIOLOGY
pasleurianum, which is anaerobic, and can fix nitrogen only if
protected from oxygen by aerobic species. It is very probable
that numerous symbiotic fermentations in the soil are due to
this co-operation of oxygen-protecting species with anaerobic
ones, e.g. Tetanus.
Astonishment has been frequently expressed at the powerful
activities of bacteria their rapid growth and dissemination,
the extensive and profound decompositions and
fermentations induced by them, the resistance of
their spores to dessication, heat, &c. but it is
worth while to ask how far these properties are really
remarkable when all the data for comparison with other organ-
isms are considered. In the first place, the extremely small size
and isolation of the vegetative cells place the protoplasmic
contents in peculiarly favourable circumstances for action, and
we may safely conclude that, weight for weight and molecule
for molecule, the protoplasm of bacteria is brought into contact
with the environment at far more points and over a far larger
surface than is that of higher organisms, whether as in plants
it is distributed in thin layers round the sap-vacuoles, or as
in animals is bathed in fluids brought by special mechanisms
to irrigate it. Not only
so, the isolation of the
cells facilitates the ex-
change of liquids and
x gases, the passage in of
food materials and out
of enzymes and products
of metabolism, and thus
each unit of protoplasm
obtains opportunities of
, immediate action, the
results of which are re-
moved with equal
rapidity, not attainable
in more complex multi-
FIG. 21. A plate-culture colony of a ,, . rp_
species of Bacillus-Proteus (Mauser) ceUular organisms. To
on the fifth day. The flame-like put the matter in another
processes and outliers are composed of way, if we could imagine
writhing filaments, and the contours a rj jjje living cells of a
are continually changing while the , , f ),-,.-
colony moves as a whole. Slightly lar S e oak . or of a nors u e >
magnified. (H. M. W.) having given up the
specializations of func-
tion impressed on them during evolution and simply carry-
ing out the fundamental functions of nutrition, growth,
and multiplication which mark the generalized activities of
the bacterial cell, and at the same time rendered as accessible
to the environment by isolation and consequent extension of
surface, we should doubtless find them exerting changes in the
fermentable fluids necessary to their life similar to those exerted
by an equal mass of bacteria, and that in proportion to their
approximation in size to the latter. Ciliary movements, which
undoubtedly contribute in bringing the surface into contact
with larger supplies of oxygen and other fluids in unity of time,
are not so rapid or so extensive when compared with other
standards than the apparent dimensions of the microscopic field.
The microscope magnifies the distance traversed as well as the
organism, and although a bacterium which covers 9-10 cm. or
more in 15 minutes say o-i mm. or 100 n per second appears
to be darting across the field with great velocity, because its
own small size say 5X1 n comes into comparison, it should
be borne in mind that if a mouse 2 in. long only, travelled twenty
times its own length, i.e. 40 in., in a second, the distance traversed
in 15 minutes at that rate, viz. 1000 yards, would not appear
excessive. In a similar way we must be careful, in our wonder
at the marvellous rapidity of cell-division and growth of bacteria,
that we do not exaggerate the significance of the phenomenon.
It takes any ordinary rodlet 30-40 minutes to double its length
and divide into two equal daughter cells when growth is at its
best; nearer the minimum it may require 3-4 hours or even
much longer. It is by no means certain that even the higher
rate is greater than that exhibited by a tropical bamboo which
will grow over a foot a day, or even common grasses, or asparagus,
during the active period of cell-division, though the phenomenon
is here complicated by the phase of extension due to intercalation
of water. The enormous extension of surface also facilitates
the absorption of energy from the environment, and, to take one
case only, it is impossible to doubt that some source of radiant
eneigy must be at the disposal of those prototrophic forms
which decompose carbonates and assimilate carbonic acid in the
dark and oxidize nitrogen in dry rocky regions where no organic
materials are at their disposal, even could they utilize them.
It is usually stated that the carbon dioxide molecule is here.
FIG. 22. Portions of a colony such as that in fig. 2 1 , highly magni-
fied, showing the kinds of changes brought about in a few minutes,
from A to B, and B to C, by the growth and ciliary movements of
the filaments. The arrows show the direction of motion. (H. M. W.)
split by means of energy derived from the oxidation of nitrogen,
but apart from the fact that none of these processes can proceed
until the temperature rises to the minimum cardinal point,
Engelmann's experiment shows that in the purple bacteria rays
are used other than those employed by green plants, and especi-
ally ultra-red rays not seen in the spectrum, and we may probably
conclude that " dark rays " i.e. rays not appearing in the
visible spectrum are absorbed and employed by these and
other colourless bacteria. The purple bacteria have thus two
sources of energy, one by the oxidation of sulphur and another
by the absorption of " dark rays." Stoney (Scient. Proc. R.
Dub. Soc., 1893, p. 154) has suggested yet another source of
energy, in the bombardment of these minute masses by the
molecules of the environment, the velocity of which is sufficient
to drive them well into the organism, and carry energy in of
which they can avail themselves.
AUTHORITIES. General: Fischer, The Structure and Functions
of Bacteria (Oxford, 1900, 2nd ed.), German (Jena, 1903) ; Migula,
System der Bakterien (Jena, 1897); and in Engler and Prantl, Die
natiirlichen Pflanzenfamilien, I. Th. I Abt. a; Lafar, Technical
Mycology (vol. i. London, 1898); Mace, Traite pratique de bakterio-
logie (sth ed. 1904). Fossil bacteria: Renault, ' Recherches sur les
Bacte>iacees fossiles," Ann. des Sc. Nat., 1896, p. 275. Bacteria
in Water: Frankland and Marshall Ward. " Reports on the Bac-
teriology of Water," Proc. R. Soc. vol. li. p. 183, vol. liii. p. 245,
vol. Ivi. p. i ; Marshall Ward, " On the Biology of B. ramosus,"
Proc. R. Soc., vol. Iviii. p. i ; and papers on Bacteria of the river
Thames in Ann. of Bot. vol. xii. pp. 59 and 287, and vol. xiii. p. 197.
Cell-membrane, &c. : Biitschli, Weitere Ausfiihrungen iiber den Bau
der Cyanophyceen und Bakterien (Leipzig, 1896); Fischer, Unters.
iiber den Bau der Cyanophyceen und Bakterien (Jena, 1897) ; Rowland,
" Observations upon the Structure of Bacteria," Trans. Jenner
Institute, 2nd ser. 1899, p. 143, with literature. Cijia: Fischer,
"Unters. iiber Bakterien," Pnngsh. Jahrb. vol. xxvii. ; also the
works of Migula and Fischer already cited. Nucleus: Wager in
Ann. Bot. vol. ix. p. 659; also Migula and Fischer, I.e. ; Vejdovsky,
" Uber den Kern der Bakterien und seine Teilung," Cent. f.
Bakt. Abt. II. Bd. xi. (1904) p. 481; ibid. " Cytologisches fiber
die Bakterien der Prager Wasserleitung," Cent. f. Bakt. Abt. II.
Bd. xv. (1905) ; Mencl, " Nachtrage zu den Strukturverhaltnissen
von Bakterium gammari" in Archie f. Protistenkunde, Bd. viii.
(1907), p. 257. Spores, &c. : Marshall VVard, " On the Biology of
B. ramosus, Proc. R. Soc., 1895, vol. Iviii. p. i; Sturgis, " A Soil
Bacillus of the type of de Bary's B. megatherium," Phil. Trans.
BACTERIOLOGY
vol. cxci. p. 147; Klein, L., Ber. d. deutschen hot. GcseUsck. (1889),
Bd. vii.; and Cent. f. Bakt. und Par. (1889), Bd. vi. Classification:
Marshall Ward, " On the Characters or Marks employed for classify-
ing the Schizomycetes," Ann. of Bot., 1892, vol. vi. ; Lehmann
and Neumann, Atlas and Essentials of Bacteriology; also the works
of Migula and Fischer already cited. Myxobacteriaceae: Berkeley,
Introd. to Cryptogamic Botany (1857), p. 313; Thaxter, "A New
Order of Schizomycetes," Bot. Cat. vol. xvii. (1892), p. 389; and
" Further Observations on the Myxobacteriaceae, ibid. vol. xxiii.
(1897), p. 395,and " Notes on the Myxobacteriaceae," ibid.vol. xxxvii.
" " -
Marshall Ward, " On the Biology of B. ramosus," Proc. R. Soc. vol.
Iviii. p. i (1895). Fermentation, &c. : Warington, The Chemical
Action of some Micro-organisms (London, 1888); Winogradsky,
" Recherches sur les organismes de la nitrification," Ann. ae I'Inst.
Past., 1890, pp. 213, 257, 760, 1891, pp. 92 and 577; "Sur
1'assimilation de 1'azote gazeux, &c.," Compt. Rend., 12 Feb. 1894;
" Zur Microbiologie des Nitrifikationsprozesses," Cent. f. Bakt.
Abt. II. Bd. ii. (1896), p. 415; " Ueber Schwefel-Bakterien," Bot.
Zeitg., 1887, Nos. 31-37; Beitr. zur Morph. u. Phys. der Bakterien,
H. i (1888); "Ueber Eisenbakterien," Bot. Zeitg., 1888, p. 261;
and Omeliansky, " Ueber den Einfluss der organischen Substanzen
auf die Arbeit der nitrifizierenden Organismen," Cent. f. Bakt. Abt.
II. Bd. v. (1896); Schorler, " Beitr. zur Kenntniss der Eisenbak-
terien," Cent. f. Bakt. Abt. II. Bd. xii. (1904), p. 681 ; Marshall
Ward, " On the Tubercular Swellings on the Roots of Vicia Faba,"
Phil. Trans., 1877, p. 539; Hellriegel and Wilfarth, " Unters. uber
die Stickstoffnahrung der Gramineen u. Leguminosen," Beit. Zeit. d.
Vereins fur die Rubenzuckerindustrie (Berlin, 1888); Nobbe and
Hiltner, Landw. Versuchsstationen (1899), Bd. 51, p. 241, and Bd. 52,
p. 455; Maze, Annales de I'Institut Pasteur, t. n, p. 44, and t. 12,
p. i (1897); Prazmowski, Land. Versuchsstationen, Bd. 37 (1890),
p. 161, Bd. 38 (1891), p. 5; Frank, Landw. Jahrb. Bd. 17 (1888),
p. 441; Omelianski, " Sur la fermentation de la cellulose, ' Compt.
Rend., 4 Nov. 1895; van Senus, Beitr. zur Kenntn. der Cellulose-
gahrung (Leiden, 1890) ; van Tieghem, " Sur la fermentation de la
Cellulose," Bull, de la soc. hot. de Fr. t.xxvi. (1879), p. 28; Beyerinck
" Ueber Spirillum desulphuricans, &c.," Cent.f. Bakt. Abt. II. Bd. i.
(1895), p. i; Molisch, Die Pflanze in ihren Beziehungen zum Eisen
(Jena, 1892). Pigment Bacteria: Ewart, "On the Evolution of
Oxygen from Coloured Bacteria," Linn. Journ., 1897, vo '- xxxiii.
p. 123; Molisch, Die Purpurbakterien (Jena, 1907). Oxydases and
Enzymes: Green, The Soluble Ferments and Fermentation (Cam-
bridge, 1899). Action of Light, &c. : Marshall Ward, " The Action
of Light on Bacteria," Phil. Trans., 1893, p. 961, and literature.
Resistance to Cold, &c. : Ravenel, Med. News, 1899, vol. Ixxiv. ;
Macfadyen and Rowland, Proc. R. Soc. vol. Ixvi. pp. 180, 339, and
488 ; Farmer, " Observations on the Effect of Desiccation of Albumin
upon its Coagulability," ibid. p. 329. Pathogenic Bacteria:
Baumgarten, Pathologische Mykologie (1890); Kolle and Wasser-
iii. inn, Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen (1002-1904);
and numerous special works in medical literature. Immunity:
Ehrlich, " On Immunity with Special Reference to Cell-life," Proc.
R. Soc. vol. Ixvi. p. 424; Calcar, " Die Fortschritte der Immunitats-
und Spezifizetatslehre seit 1870," Progressus Rei Botanicae, Bd.
I. Heft 3(1907). Bacteriosis: Migula, I.e. p. 322, has collected the
literature; see also Sorauer, Handbuch der Pflanzenkrankheiten, I.
(1905), pp. 18-93, f r later literature. Symbiosis: Marshall Ward,
" Symbiosis," Ann. of Bot. vol. xiii. p. 549, and literature.
(H. M. W.; V. H. B.)
II. PATHOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE
The action of bacteria as pathogenic agents is in great part
merely an instance of their general action as producers of chemical
change, yet bacteriology as a whole has become so extensive,
and has so important a bearing on subjects widely different
from one another, that division of it has become essential. The
science will accordingly be treated in this section from the patho-
logical standpoint only. It will be considered under the three
following heads, viz. (i) the methods employed in the study;
(2) the modes of action of bacteria and the effects produced by
them; and (3) the facts and theories with regard to immunity
against bacterial disease.
The demonstration by Pasteur that definite diseases could
be produced by bacteria, proved a great stimulus to research
in the etiology of infective conditions, and the result
tummaiy. was a ra pid advance in human knowledge. An all-
important factor in this remarkable progress was the
introduction by Koch of solid culture media, of the " plate-
method," &c., an account of which he published in 1881. By
means of these the modes of cultivation, and especially of separa-
tion, of bacteria were greatly simplified. Various modifications
have since been made, but the routine methods in bacteriological
procedure still employed are in great part those given by Koch.
By 1876 the anthrax bacillus had been obtained in pure culture
by Koch, and some other pathogenic bacteria had been observed
in the tissues, but it was in the decade 1880-1890 that the
most important discoveries were made in this field. Thus the
organisms of suppuration, tubercle, glanders, diphtheria, typhoid
fever, cholera, tetanus, and others were identified, and their
relationship to the individual diseases established. In the last
decade of the igth century the chief discoveries were of the
bacillus of influenza (1892), of the bacillus of plague (1894) and
of the bacillus of dysentery (1898). Immunity against diseases
caused by bacteria has been the subject of systematic research
from 1880 onwards. In producing active immunity by the
attenuated virus, Duguid and J. S. Burdon-Sanderson and
W. S. Greenfield in Great Britain, and Pasteur, Toussaint and
Chauveau in France, were pioneers. The work of Metchnikoff,
dating from about 1884, has proved of high importance, his
theory of phagocytosis (vide infra) having given a great stimulus
to research, and having also contributed to important advances.
The modes by which bacteria produce their effects also became
a subject of study, and attention was naturally turned to their
toxic products. The earlier work, notably that of L. Brieger,
chiefly concerned ptomaines (vide infra), but no great advance
resulted. A new field of inquiry was, however, opened up when,
by filtration a bacterium-free toxic fluid was obtained which
produced the important symptoms of the disease in the case
of diphtheria by P. P. E. Roux and A. Yersin (1888), and in the
case of tetanus a little later by various observers. Research
was thus directed towards ascertaining the nature of the toxic
bodies in such a fluid, and Brieger and Fraenkel (1890) found that
they were proteids, to which they gave the name " toxalbumins."
Though subsequent researches have on the whole confirmed
these results, it is still a matter of dispute whether these proteids
are the true toxins or merely contain the toxic bodies precipitated
along with them. In the United Kingdom the work of Sidney
Martin, in the separation of toxic substances from the bodies of
those who have died from certain diseases, is also worthy of
mention. Immunity against toxins also became a subject of
investigation, and the result was the discovery of the antitoxic
action of the serum of animals immunized against tetanus toxin
by E. Behring and Kitazato (1890), and by Tizzoni and Cattani.
A similar result was also obtained in the case of diphtheria.
The facts with regard to passive immunity were thus established
and were put to practical application by the introduction of
diphtheria antitoxin as a therapeutic agent in 1894. The
technique of serum preparation has become since that time
greatly elaborated and improved, the work of P. Ehrlich in this
respect being specially noteworthy. The laws of passive im-
munity were shown to hold also in the case of immunity against
living organisms by R. Pfeiffer (1894), and various anti-bacterial
sera have been introduced. Of these the anti-streptococcic
serum of A. Marmorek (1895) is one of the best known. The
principles of protective inoculation have been developed and
practically applied on a large scale, notably by W. M. W. Haff kine
in the case of cholera (1893) and plague (1896), and more recently
by Wright and Semple in the case of typhoid fever. One other
discovery of great importance may be mentioned, viz. the
agglutinative action of the serum of a patient suffering from
a bacterial disease, first described in the case of typhoid fever
independently by Widal and by Griinbaum in 1896, though led
up to by the work of Pfeiffer, Gruber and Durham and others.
Thus a new aid was added to medical science, viz. serum diagnosis
of disease. The last decade of the iqth century will stand out
in the history of medical science as the period in which serum
therapeutics and serum diagnosis had their birth.
In recent years the relations of toxin and antitoxin, still
obscure, have been the subject of much study and controversy.
It was formerly supposed that the injection of attenuated
cultures or dead organisms vaccines in the widest sense
was only of service in producing immunity as a preventive
measure against the corresponding organism, but the work of
172
BACTERIOLOGY
Sir Almroth Wright has shown that the use of such vaccines
may be of service even after infection has occurred, especially
when the resulting disease is localized. In this case a general
reaction is stimulated by the vaccine which may aid in the
destruction of the invading organisms. In regulating the
administration of such vaccines he has introduced the method
of observing the opsonic index, to which reference is made
below. Of the discoveries of new organisms the most important
is that of the Spirochaete pattida in syphilis by Schaudinn and
Hoffmann in 1905; and although proof that it is the cause of
the disease is not absolute, the facts that have been established
constitute very strong presumptive evidence in favour of this
being the case. It may be noted, however, that it is still
doubtful whether this organism is to be placed amongst the
bacteria or amongst the protozoa.
The methods employed in studying the relation of bacteria
to disease are in principle comparatively simple, but considerable
experience and great care are necessary Jn applying
oi study, them and in interpreting results. In any given disease
there are three chief steps, viz. (i) the discovery of a
bacterium in the affected tissues by means of the microscope;
(2) the obtaining of the bacterium in pure culture; and (3) the
production of the disease by inoculation with a pure culture.
By means of microscopic examination more than one organism
may sometimes be observed in the tissues,but one single organism
by its constant presence and special relations to the tissue
changes can usually be selected as the probable cause of the
disease, and attempts towards its cultivation can then be made.
Such microscopic examination requires the use of the finest
lenses and the application of various staining methods. In these
latter the basic aniline dyes in solution are almost exclusively
used, on account of their special affinity for the bacterial proto-
plasm. The methods vary much in detail, though in each case
the endeavour is to colour the bacteria as deeply, and the tissues
as faintly, as possible. Sometimes a simple watery solution of
the dye is sufficient, but very often the best result is obtained by
increasing the staining power, e.g. by addition of weak alkali,
application of heat, &c., and by using some substance which
acts as a mordant and tends to fix the stain to the bacteria.
Excess of stain is afterwards removed from the tissues by the
use of decolorizing' agents, such as acids of varying strength
and concentration, alcohol, &c. Different bacteria behave very
differently to stains; some take them up rapidly, others slowly,
some resist decolorization, others are easily decolorized. In
some instances the stain can be entirely removed from the
tissues, leaving the bacteria alone coloured, and the tissues can
then be stained by another colour. This is the case in the
methods for staining the tubercle bacillus and also in Gram's
method, the essential point in which latter is the treatment with
a solution of iodine before decolorizing. In Gram's method,
however, only some bacteria retain the stain, while others lose it.
The tissues and fluids are treated by various histological methods,
but, to speak generally, examination is made either in films
smeared on thin cover-glasses and allowed to dry, or in thin
sections cut by the microtome after suitable fixation and harden-
ing of the tissue. In the case of any bacterium discovered,
observation must be made in a long series of instances in order
to determine its invariable presence.
In cultivating bacteria outside the body various media to
serve as food material must be prepared and sterilized by heat.
The general principle in their preparation is to supply
the nutriment for bacterial growth in a form as nearly
similar as possible to that of the natural habitat of the
organisms in the case of pathogenic bacteria, the natural fluids
of the body. The media are used either in a fluid or solid condi-
tion, the latter being obtained by a process of coagulation, or
by the addition of a gelatinizing agent, and are placed in glass
tubes or flasks plugged with cotton-wool. To mention examples,
blood serum solidified at a suitable temperature is a highly
suitable medium, and various media are made with extract of
meat as a basis, with the addition of gelatine or agar as solidify-
ing agents and of non-coagulable proteids (commercial " pep-
Cultlva-
tone ") to make up for proteids lost by coagulation in the
preparation. The reaction of the media must in every case be
carefully attended to, a neutral or slightly alkaline reaction
being, as a rule, most suitable; for delicate work it may be
necessary to standardize the reaction by titration methods.
The media from the store-flasks are placed in glass test-tubes
or small flasks, protected from contamination by cotton-wool
plugs, and are sterilized by heat. For most purposes the solid
media are to be preferred, since bacterial growth appears as a
discrete mass and accidental contamination can be readily
recognized. Cultures are made by transferring by means of a
sterile platinum wire a little of the material containing the
bacteria to the medium. The tubes, after being thus inoculated,
are kept at suitable temperatures, usually either at 37 C., the
temperature of the body, or at about 20 C., a warm summer
temperature, until growth appears. For maintaining a constant
temperature incubators with regulating apparatus are used.
Subsequent cultures or, as they are called, " subcultures,"
may be made by inoculating fresh tubes, and in this way growth
may be maintained often for an indefinite period. The simplest
case is that in which only one variety of bacterium is present,
and a " pure culture " may then be obtained at once. When,
however, several species are present together, means must be
adopted for separating them. For this purpose various methods
have been devised, the most important being the plate-method
of Koch. In this method the bacteria are distributed in a
gelatine or agar medium liquefied by heat, and the medium is
then poured out on sterile glass plates or in shallow glass dishes,
and allowed to solidify. Each bacterium capable of growth
gives rise to a colony visible to the naked eye, and if the colonies
are sufficiently apart, an inoculation can be made from any one
to a tube of culture-medium and a pure culture obtained. Of
course, in applying the method means must be adopted for
suitably diluting the bacterial mixture. Another important
method consists in inoculating an animal with some fluid con-
taining the various bacteria. A pathogenic bacterium present
may invade the body, and may be obtained in pure culture
from the internal organs. This method applies especially to
pathogenic bacteria whose growth on culture media is slow, e.g.
the tubercle bacillus.
The full description of a particular bacterium implies an
account not only of its microscopical characters, but also of
its growth characters in various culture media, its biological
properties, and the effects produced in animals by inoculation.
To demonstrate readily its action on various substances, cer-
tain media have been devised. For example, various sugars
lactose, glucose, saccharose, &c. are added to test the fermen-
tative action of the bacterium on these substances; litmus is
added to show changes in reaction, specially standardized media
being used for estimating such changes; peptone solution is
commonly employed for testing whether or not the bacterium
forms indol; sterilized milk is used as a culture medium to
determine whether or not it is curdled by the growth. Some-
times a bacterium can be readily recognized from one or two
characters, but not infrequently a whole series of tests must be
made before the species is determined. As our knowledge has
advanced it has become abundantly evident that the so-called
pathogenic bacteria are not organisms with special features,
but that each is a member of a group of organisms possessing
closely allied characters. From the point of view of evolution
we may suppose that certain races of a group of bacteria have
gradually acquired the power of invading the tissues of the
body and producing disease. In the acquisition of pathogenic
properties some of their original characters have become changed,
but in many instances this has taken place only to a slight
degree, and, furthermore, some of these changes are not of a
permanent character. It is to be noted that in the case of
bacteria we can only judge of organisms being of different
species by the stability of the characters which distinguish
them, and numerous examples might be given where their
characters become modified by comparatively slight change in
their environment. The cultural as well as the microscopical
BACTERIOLOGY
173
characters of a pathogenic organism may be closely similar to
other non-pathogenic members of the same group, and it thus
comes to be a matter of extreme difficulty in certain cases to
state what criterion should be used in differentiating varieties.
The tests which are applied for this purpose at present are chiefly
of two kinds. In the first place, such organisms may be differ-
entiated by the chemical change produced by them in various
culture media, e.g. by their fermentative action on various
sugars, &c., though in this case such properties may become
modified in the course of time. And in the second place, the
various serum reactions to be described below have been called
into requisition. It may be stated that the introduction of a
particular bacterium into the tissues of the body leads to certain
properties appearing in the serum, which are chiefly exerted
towards this particular bacterium. Such a serum may accord-
ingly within certain limits be used for differentiating this organism
from others closely allied to it (vide infra).
The modes of cultivation described apply only to organisms
which grow in presence of oxygen. Some, however : the strictly
anaerobic bacteria grow only in the absence of oxygen; hence
means must be adopted for excluding this gas. It is found that
if the inoculation be made deep down in a solid medium, growth
of an anaerobic organism will take place, especially if the medium
contains some reducing agent such as glucose. Such cultures
are called " deep cultures." To obtain growth of an anaerobic
organism on the surface of a medium, in using the plate method,
and also for cultures in fluids, the air is displaced by an indifferent
gas, usually hydrogen.
In testing the effects of bacteria by inoculation the smaller
rodents, rabbits, guinea-pigs, and mice, are usually employed.
One great drawback in certain cases is that such
animals are not susceptible to a given bacterium, or
that the disease is different in character from that in the
human subject. In some cases, e.g. Maltafeverandrelapsingfever,
monkeys have been used with success, but in others, e.g. leprosy,
none of the lower animals has been found to be susceptible.
Discretion must therefore be exercised in interpreting negative
results in the lower animals. For purposes of inoculation young
vigorous cultures must be used. The bacteria are mixed with
some indifferent fluid, or a fluid culture is employed. The
injections are made by means of a hypodermic syringe into the
subcutaneous tissue, into a vein, into one of the serous sacs, or
more rarely into some special part of the body. The animal,
after injection, must be kept in favourable surroundings, and
any resulting symptoms noted. It may die, or may be killed
at any time desired, and then a post-mortem examination is
made, the conditions of the organs, &c., being observed and
noted. The various tissues affected are examined microscopically
and cultures made from them; in this way the structural changes
and the relation of bacteria to them can be determined.
Though the causal relationship of a bacterium to a disease
may be completely established by the methods given, another
very important part of bacteriology is concerned with the poisons
or toxins formed by bacteria. These toxins may become free
in the culture fluid, and the living bacteria may then be got rid
of by filtering the fluid through a filter of unglazed porcelain,
whose pores are sufficiently small to retain them. The passage
of the fluid is readily effected by negative pressure
produced by an ordinary water exhaust-pump. The
effects of the filtrate are then tested by the methods
used in pharmacology. In other instances the toxins are re-
tained to a large extent within the bacteria, and in this case
the dead bacteria are injected as a suspension in fluid. Methods
have been introduced for the purpose of breaking up the bodies
of bacteria and setting free the intracellular toxins. For this
purpose Koch ground up tubercle bacilli in an agate mortar and
treated them with distilled water until practically no deposit
remained. Rowland and Macfadyen for the same purpose intro-
duced the method of grinding the bacilli in liquid air. At this
temperature the bacterial bodies- are extremely brittle, and are
thus readily broken up. The study of the nature of toxins requires,
of course, the various methods of organic chemistry. Attempts
to obtain them in an absolutely pure condition have, however,
failed in important cases. So that when a " toxin " is spoken
of, a mixture with other organic substances is usually implied.
Or the toxin may be precipitated with other organic substances,
purified to a certain extent by re-solution, re-precipitation , &c. , and
desiccated. A " dry toxin " is thus obtained, though still in an
impure condition. Toxic substances have also been separated by
corresponding methods from the bodies of those who have died
of certain diseases, and the action of such substances on animals
is in some cases an important point in the pathology of the
disease. Another auxiliary method has been applied in this
department, viz. the separation of organic substances by
filtration under high pressure through a colloid membrane,
gelatine supported in the pores of a porcelain filter being usually
employed. It has been found, for example, that a toxin may
pass through such a filter while an antitoxin may not. The
methods of producing immunity are dealt with below.
The fact that in anthrax, one of the first diseases to be fully
studied, numerous bacilli are present in the blood of infected
animals, gave origin to the idea that the organisms Bacttrla
might produce their effect by using up the oxygen MUgtatt
of the blood. Such action is now known to be quite a of disease.
subsidiary matter. And although effects may some-
times be produced in a mechanical manner by bacteria plug-
ging capillaries of important organs, e.g. brain and kidneys, it
may now be stated as an accepted fact that all the important
results of bacteria in the tissues are due to poisonous bodies or
toxins formed by them. Here, just as in the general subject of
fermentation, we must inquire whether the bacteria form the
substances in question directly or by means of non-living
ferments or enzymes. With regard to toxin formation the
following general statements may be made. In certain instances,
e.g. in the case of the tetanus and diphtheria bacilli, the pro-
duction of soluble toxins can be readily demonstrated by
filtering a culture in bouillon germ-free by means of a porcelain
filter, and then injecting some of the filtrate into an animal.
In this way the characteristic features of the disease can be
reproduced. Such toxins being set free in the culture medium
are often known as extracellular. In many cases, however, the
filtrate, when injected, produces comparatively little effect,
whilst toxic action is observed when the bacteria in a dead
condition are used; this is the case with the organisms of
tubercle, cholera, typhoid and many others. The toxins are
here manifestly contained within the bodies of the bacteria, i.e.
are intracellular, though they may become free on disintegration
of the bacteria. The action of these intracellular toxins has in
many instances nothing characteristic, but is merely in the
direction of producing fever and interfering with the vital
processes of the body generally, these disturbances often going
on to a fatal result. In other words, the toxins of different
bacteria are closely similar in their results on the body and the
features of the corresponding diseases are largely regulated by
the vital properties of the bacteria, their distribution in the
tissues, &c. The distinction between the two varieties of toxins,
though convenient, must not be pushed too far, as we know
little regarding their mode of formation. Although the formation
of toxins with characteristic action can be shown by the above
methods, yet in some cases little or no toxic action can be demon-
strated. This, for example, is the case with the anthrax
bacillus; although the effect of this organism in the living body
indicates the production of toxins which diffuse for a distance
around the bacteria. This and similar facts have suggested
that some toxins are only produced in the living body.
A considerable amount of work has been done in connexion
with this subject, and many observers have found that fluids
taken from the living body in which the organisms have been
growing, contain toxic substances, to which the name of
aggressins has been applied. Fluid containing these aggressins
greatly increases the toxic effect of the corresponding bacteria,
and may produce death at an earlier stage than ever occurs with
the bacteria alone. They also appear to have in certain cases
a paralysing action on the cells which act as phagocytes. The
174
BACTERIOLOGY
work on this subject is highly suggestive, and opens up new
possibilities with regard to the investigation of bacterial action
within the body. Not only are the general symptoms of poisoning
in bacterial disease due to toxic substances, but also the tissue
changes, many of them of inflammatory nature, in the neighbour-
hood of the bacteria. Thus, to mention examples, diphtheria
toxin produces inflammatory oedema which may be followed
by necrosis; dead tubercle bacilli give rise to a tubercle-like
nodule, &c. Furthermore, a bacillus may give rise to more than
one toxic body, either as stages in one process of change or as
distinct products. Thus paralysis following diphtheria is in all
probability due to a different toxin from that which causes the
acute symptoms of poisoning or possibly to a modification of it
sometimes formed in specially large amount. It is interesting
to note that in the case of the closely analogous example of snake
venoms, there may be separated from a single venom a number
of toxic bodies which have a selective action on different animal
tissues.
Regarding the chemical nature of toxins less is known than
regarding their physiological action. Though an enormous
N tu amount of work has been done on the subject, no
toxial. important bacterial toxin has as yet been obtained
in a pure condition, and, though many of them are
probably of proteid nature, even this cannot be asserted with
absolute certainty. Brieger, in his earlier work, found that
alkaloids were formed by bacteria in a variety of conditions, and
that some of them were poisonous. These alkaloids he called
ptomaines. The methods used in the investigations were, however,
open to objection, and it is now recognized that although organic
bases may sometimes be formed, and may be toxic, the important
toxins are not of that nature. A later research by Brieger along
with Fraenkel pointed to the extracellular toxins of diphtheria,
tetanus and other diseases being of proteid nature, and various
other observers have arrived at a like conclusion. The general
result of such research has been to show that the toxic bodies are,
like proteids, precipi table by alcohol and various salts; they are
soluble in water, are somewhat easily dialysable, and are rela-
tively unstable both to light and heat. Attempts to get a pure
toxin by repeated precipitation and solution have resulted in the
production of a whitish amorphous powder with highly toxic
properties. Such a powder gives a proteid reaction, and is no
doubt largely composed of albumoses, hence the name tox-
albumoses has been applied. The question has, however, been
raised whether the toxin is really itself a proteid, or whether it is
not merely carried down with the precipitate. Brieger and Boer,
by precipitation with certain salts, notably of zinc, obtained a
body which was toxic but gave no reaction of any form of proteid.
There is of course the possibility in this case that the toxin was a
proteid, but was in so small amount that it escaped detection.
These facts show the great difficulty of the problem, which is
probably insoluble by present methods of analysis; the only
test, in fact, for the existence of a toxin is its physiological effect.
It may also be mentioned that many toxins have now been
obtained by growing the particular organism in a proteid-free
medium, a fact which shows that if the toxin is a proteid it may
be formed synthetically by the bacterium as well as by modifica-
tion of proteid already present. With regard to the nature of
intracellular toxins, there is even greater difficulty in the investi-
gation and still less is known. Many of them, probably also of
proteid nature, are much more resistant to heat; thus the intra-
cellular toxins of the tubercle bacillus retain certain of their
effects even after exposure to 100 C. Like the extracellular
toxins they may be of remarkable potency; for example, fever
is produced in the human subject by the injection into the
blood of an extremely minute quantity of dead typhoid bacilli.
We cannot as yet speak definitely with regard to the part
played by enzymes in these toxic processes. Certain toxins
Enzymes, resemble enzymes as regards their conditions of pre-
cipitation and relative instability, and the fact that in
most cases a considerable period intervenes between the time of
injection and the occurrence of symptoms has been adduced in
support of the view that enzymes are present. In the case of
diphtheria Sidney Martin obtained toxic albumoses in the spleen,
which he considered were due to the digestive action of an enzyme
formed by the bacillus in the membrane and absorbed into the
circulation. According to this view, then, a part at least of the
directly toxic substance is, produced in the living body by enzymes
present in the so-called toxin obtained from the bacterial culture.
Recent researches go to show that enzymes play a greater part
in fermentation by living ferments than was formerly supposed,
and by analogy it is likely that they are also concerned in the
processes of disease. But this has not been proved, and hitherto
no enzyme has been separated from a pathogenic bacterium cap-
able of forming, by digestive or other action, the toxic bodies from
proteids outside the body. It is also to be noted that, as in the
case of poisons of known constitution, each toxin has a minimum
lethal dose which is proportionate to the weight of the animal
and which can be ascertained with a fair degree of accuracy.
The action of toxins is little understood. It consists in all
probability of disturbance, by means of the chemical affinities
of the toxin, of the highly complicated molecules of living cells.
This disturbance results in disintegration to a varying degree,
and may produce changes visible on microscopic examination.
In other cases such changes cannot be detected, and the only
evidence of their occurrence may be the associated symptoms.
The very important work of Ehrlich on diphtheria toxin shows
that in the molecule of toxin there are at least two chief atom
groups one, the " haptophorous," by which the toxin molecule
is attached to the cell protoplasm; and the other the " toxo-
phorous," which has a ferment-like action on the living molecule,
producing a disturbance which results in the toxic symptoms.
On this theory, susceptibility to a toxin will imply both a chemical
affinity of certain tissues for the toxin molecule and also sensitive-
ness to its actions, and, furthermore, non-susceptibility may
result from the absence of either of these two properties.
A bacterial infection when analysed is seen to be of the nature
of an intoxication. There is, however, another all-important
factor concerned, viz. the multiplication of the living
.1 .. ,.. .. i . Bacterial
organisms in the tissues; this is essential to, and infection
regulates, the supply of toxins. It is important that
these two essential factors should be kept clearly in view, since
the means of defence against any disease may depend upon the
power either of neutralizing toxins or of killing the organisms
producing them. It is to be noted that there is no fixed relation
between toxin production and bacterial multiplication in the
body, some of the organisms most active as toxin producers
having comparatively little power of invading the tissues.
We shall now consider how bacteria may behave when they
have gained entrance to the body, what effects may be produced,
and what circumstances may modify the disease in any
particular case. The extreme instance of bacterial ductfonoi
invasion is found in some of the septicaemias in the disease.
lower animals, e.g. anthrax septicaemia in guinea-pigs,
pneumococcus septicaemia in rabbits. In such diseases the
bacteria, when introduced into the subcutaneous tissue, rapidly
gain entrance to the blood stream and multiply freely in it, and
by means of their toxins cause symptoms of general poisoning.
A widespread toxic action is indicated by the lesions found
cloudy swelling, which may be followed by fatty degeneration,
in internal organs, capillary haemorrhages, &c. In septicaemia
in the human subject, often due to streptococci, the process is
similar, but the organisms are found especially in the capillaries
of the internal organs and may not be detectable in the peripheral
circulation during life. In another class of diseases, the organisms
first produce some well-marked local lesion, from which secondary
extension takes place by the lymph or blood stream to other parts
of the body, where corresponding lesions are formed. In this way
secondary abscesses, secondary tubercle glanders and nodules,
&c., result; in typhoid fever there is secondary invasion of the
mesenteric glands, and clumps of bacilli are also found in internal
organs, especially the spleen, though there may be little tissue
change around them. In all such cases there is seen a selective
character in the distribution of the lesions, some organs being in
any disease much more liable to infection than others. In still
BACTERIOLOGY
another class of diseases the bacteria are restricted to some par-
ticular part of the body, and the symptoms are due to toxins
which are absorbed from it. Thus in cholera the bacteria are
practically confined to the intestine, in diphtheria to the region
of the false membrane, in tetanus to some wound. In the last-
mentioned disease even the local multiplication depends upon the
presence of other bacteria, as the tetanus bacillus has practically
no power of multiplying in the healthy tissues when introduced
alone.
The effects produced by bacteria may be considered under
the following heads: (i) tissue changes produced in the vicinity
Tissue * the Bacteria, either at the primary or secondary
change*, foci; (2) tissue changes produced at a distance by
absorption of their toxins ; (3) symptoms. The
changes in the vicinity of bacteria are to be regarded partly
as the direct result of the action of toxins on living cells, and
partly as indicating a reaction on the part of the tissues. (Many
such changes are usually grouped together under the heading
of " inflammation " of varying degree acute, subacute and
chronic.) Degeneration and death of cells, haemorrhages, serous
and fibrinous exudations, leucocyte emigration, proliferation of
connective tissue and other cells, may be mentioned as some of
the fundamental changes. Acute inflammation of various types,
suppuration, granulation-tissue formation, &c., represent some
of the complex resulting processes. The changes produced
at a distance by distribution of toxins may be very manifold
cloudy swelling and fatty degeneration, serous effusions, capillary
haemorrhages, various degenerations of muscle, hyaline degenera-
tion of small blood-vessels, and, in certain chronic diseases, waxy
degeneration, all of which may be widespread, are examples
of the effects of toxins, rapid or slow in action. Again, in certain
cases the toxin has a special affinity for certain tissues. Thus
in diphtheria changes in both nerve cells and nerve fibres have
been found, and in tetanus minute alterations in the nucleus
and protoplasm of nerve cells.
The lesions mentioned are in many instances necessarily
accompanied by functional disturbances or clinical symptoms,
S m toms varying according to site, and to the nature and degree
of the affection. In addition, however, there occur
in bacterial diseases symptoms to which the correlated structural
changes have not yet been demonstrated. Amongst these the
most important is fever with increased protein metabolism,
attended with disturbances of the circulatory and respiratory
systems. Nervous symptoms, somnolence, coma, spasms, con-
vulsions and paralysis are of common occurrence. All such
phenomena, however, are likewise due to the disturbance of the
molecular constitution of living cells. Alterations in metabolism
are found to be associated with some of these, but with others
no corresponding physical change can be demonstrated. The
action of toxins on various glands, producing diminished or
increased functional activity, has a close analogy to that of
certain drugs. In short, if we place aside the outstanding
exception of tumour growth, we may say that practically
all the important phenomena met with in disease may be
experimentally produced by the injection of bacteria or of
their toxins.
The result of the entrance of a virulent bacterium into the
tissues of an animal is not a disease with hard and fast characters,
but varies greatly with circumstances. With regard
b"ift C y Ptl ' to th e subject of infection the chief factor is suscepti-
bility; with regard to the bacterium virulence is all-
'important. Susceptibility, as is well recognized, varies much
under natural conditions in different species, in different races
of the same species, and amongst individuals of the same race.
It also varies with the period of life, young subjects being more
susceptible to certain diseases, e.g. diphtheria, than adults.
Further, there is the very important factor of acquired suscepti-
bility. It has been experimentally shown that conditions such
as fatigue, starvation, exposure to cold, &c., lower the general
resisting powers and increase the susceptibility to bacterial
infection. So also the local powers of resistance may be lowered
by injury or depressed vitality. In this way conditions formerly
believed to be the causes of disease are now recognized as playing
their part in predisposing to the action of the true causal agent,
viz. the bacterium. In health the blood and internal tissues
are bacterium-free; after death they offer a most suitable
pabulum for various bacteria; but between these two extremes
lie states of varying liability to infection. It is also probable
that in a state of health organisms do gain entrance to the blood
from time to time and are rapidly killed off. The circumstances
which alter the virulence of bacteria will be referred to again in
connexion with immunity, but it may be stated here that, as
a general rule, the virulence of an organism towards an animal
is increased by sojourn in the tissues of that animal. The increase
of virulence becomes especially marked when the organism is
inoculated from animal to animal in series, the method of
passage. This is chiefly to be regarded as an adaptation to
surroundings, though the fact that the less virulent members
of the bacterial species will be liable to be killed off also plays
a part. Conversely, the virulence tends to diminish on cultivation
on artificial media outside the body, especially in circumstances
little favourable to growth.
By immunity is meant non-susceptibility to a given disease,
or to experimental inoculation with a given bacterium or toxin.
The term must be used in a relative sense, and account
must always be taken of the conditions present. An
animal may be readily susceptible to a disease on experimental
inoculation, and yet rarely or never suffer from it naturally,
because the necessary conditions of infection are not supplied
in nature. That an animal possesses natural immunity can only
be shown on exposing it to such conditions, this being usually
most satisfactorily done in direct experiment. Further, there
are various degrees of immunity, and in this connexion conditions
of local or general diminished vitality play an important part
in increasing the susceptibility. Animals naturally susceptible
may acquire immunity, on the one hand by successfully passing
through an attack of the disease, or, on the other hand, by
various methods of inoculation. Two chief varieties of artificial
immunity are now generally recognized, differing chiefly accord-
ing to the mode of production. In the first active immunity
a reaction or series of reactions is produced in the body of the
animal, usually by injections of bacteria or their products.
The second passive immunity is produced by the transference
of a quantity of the serum of an animal actively immunized to
a fresh animal; the term is applied because there is brought into
play no active change in the tissues of the second animal. The
methods of active immunity have been practically applied in
preventive inoculation against disease; those of passive immunity
have given us serum therapeutics. The chief facts with regard
to each may now be stated.
i. Active Immunity. The key to the artificial establishment
of active immunity is given by the fact long established that
recovery from an attack of certain infective diseases is accom-
panied by protection for varying periods of time against a
subsequent attack. Hence follows the idea of producing a
modified attack of the disease as a means of prevention
a principle which had been previously applied in inoculation
against smallpox. Immunity, however, probably results from
certain substances introduced into the system during the disease
rather than from the disease itself; for by properly adjusted
doses of the poison (in the widest sense), immunity may result
without any symptoms of the disease occurring. Of the chief
methods used in producing active immunity the first is by in-
oculation with bacteria whose virulence has been diminished,
i.e. with an " attenuated virus." Many of the earlier methods
of attenuation were devised in the case of the anthrax bacillus,
an organism which is, however, somewhat exceptional as regards
the relative stability of its virulence. Many such methods
consist, to speak generally, in growing the organism outside
the body under somewhat unsuitable conditions, e.g. at higher
temperatures than the optimum, in the presence of weak anti-
septics, &c. The virulence of many organisms, however, becomes
diminished when they are grown on the ordinary artificial media,
and the diminution is sometimes accelerated by passing a current
BACTERIOLOGY
of air over the surface of the growth. Sometimes also the
virulence of a bacterium for a particular kind of animal becomes
lessened on passing it through the body of one of another species.
Cultures of varying degree of virulence may be obtained by such
methods, and immunity can be gradually increased by inoculation
with vaccines of increasing virulence. The immunity may be
made to reach a very high degree by ultimately using cultures
of intensified virulence, this " supervirulent " character being
usually attained by the method of passage already explained.
A second method is by injection of the bacterium in the dead
condition, whereby immunity against the living organism may
be produced. Here manifestly the dose may be easily controlled,
and may be gradually increased in successive inoculations. This
method has a wide application. A third method is by injections
of the separated toxins of a bacterium, the resulting immunity
being not only against the toxin, but, so far as present knowledge
shows, also against the living organism. In the development
of toxin-immunity the doses, small at first, are gradually in-
creased in successive inoculations; or, as in the case of very
active toxins, the initial injections are made with toxin modified
by heat or by the addition of various chemical substances.
Immunity of the same nature can be acquired in the same way
against snake and scorpion poisons, and against certain vegetable
toxins, e.g. ricin, abrin, &c.
In order that the immunity may reach a high degree, either
the bacterium in a very virulent state or a large dose of toxin
must ultimately be used in the injections. In such cases the
immunity is, to speak generally, specific, i.e. applies only to the
bacterium or toxin used in its production. A certain degree of
non-specific immunity or increased tissue resistance may be
produced locally, e.g. in the peritoneum, by injections of non-
pathogenic organisms, peptone, nucleic acid and various other
substances. In these cases the immunity is without specific
character, and cannot be transferred to another animal. Lastly,
in a few instances one organism has an antagonistic action to
another; for example, the products of B. pyocyaneus have a
certain protective action against B. anthracis. This method has,
however, not yielded any important practical application.
2. Passive Immunity: Anti-sera. The development of active
immunity by the above methods is essentially the result of a
reactive process on the part of the cells of the body, though
as yet we know little of its real nature. It is, however, also
accompanied by the appearance of certain bodies in the blood
serum of the animal treated, to which the name of anti-substances
is given, and these have been the subject of extensive study.
It is by means of them that immunity (passive) can be trans-
ferred to a fresh animal. The development of anti-substances
is, however, not peculiar to bacteria, but occurs also when alien
cells of various kinds, proteins, ferments, &c., are injected. In
fact, organic molecules can be divided into two classes according
as they give rise to anti-substances or fail to do so. Amongst
the latter, the vegetable poisons of known constitution, alkaloids,
glucosides, &c., are to be placed. The molecules which lead to
the production of anti-substances are usually known as antigens,
and each antigen has a specific combining affinity for its corre-
sponding anti-substance, fitting it as a lock does a key. The
antigens, as already indicated, may occur in bacteria, cells, &c.,
or they may occur free in a fluid. Anti-substances may be
arranged, as has been done by Ehrlich, into three main groups.
In the first group, the anti-substance simply combines with the
antigen, without, so far as we know, producing any change in it.
The antitoxins are examples of this variety. In the second
group, the anti-substance, in addition to combining with the
antigen, produces some recognizable physical change in it;
the precipitins and agglutinins may be mentioned as examples.
In the third group, the anti-substance, after it has combined
with the antigen, leads to the union of a third body called
complement (alexine or cylase of French writers), which is
present in normal serum. As a result of the union of the three
substances, a dissolving or digestive action is often to be observed.
This is the mode of action of the anti-substances in the case of a
haemolytic or bacteriolytic serum. So far as bacterial immunity
is concerned, the anti-serum exerts its action either on the toxin
or on the bacterium itself; that is, its action is either antitoxic
or anti-bacterial. The properties of these two kinds of serum
may now be considered.
The term " antitoxic " signifies that serum has the power of
neutralizing the action of the toxin, as is shown by mixing them
together outside the body and then injecting them
into an animal. The antitoxic serum when injected
previously to the toxin also confers immunity (passive)
against it; when injected after the toxin it has within certain
limits a curative action, though in this case its dose requires
to be large. The antitoxic property is developed in a susceptible
animal by successive and gradually increasing doses of the toxin.
In the earlier experiments on smaller animals the potency of
the toxin was modified for the first injections, but in preparing
antitoxin for therapeutical purposes the toxin is used in its
unaltered condition, the horse being the animal usually employed.
The injections are made subcutaneously and afterwards intraven-
ously; and, while the dose must be gradually increased, care
must be taken that this is not done too quickly, otherwise the
antitoxic power of the serum may fall and the health of the animal
suffer. The serum of the animal is tested from time to time
against a known amount of toxin, i.e. is standardized. The unit
of antitoxin in Ehrlich's new standard is the amount requisite
to antagonize 100 times the minimum lethal dose of a particular
toxin to a guinea-pig of 250 grm. weight, the indication that
the toxin has been antagonized being that a fatal result does
not follow within five days after the injection. In the case of
diphtheria the antitoxic power of the serum may reach 800
units per cubic centimetre, or even more. The laws of antitoxin
production and action are not confined to bacterial toxins, but
apply also to other vegetable and animal toxins, resembling
them in constitution, viz. the vegetable toxalbumoses and the
snake-venom group referred to above.
The production of antitoxin is one of the most striking facts of
biological science, and two important questions with regard to it
must next be considered, viz. how does the antitoxin
act? and how is it formed within the body? Theo- aa tit xia
retically there are two possible modes of action:
antitoxin may act by means of the cells of the body, i.e. in-
directly or physiologically; or it may act directly on the toxin,
i.e. chemically or physically. The second view may now be
said to be established, and, though the question cannot be fully
discussed here, the chief grounds in support of a direct action
may be given, (a) The action of antitoxin on toxin, as tested
by neutralization effects, takes place more quickly in concen-
trated than in weak solutions, and more quickly at a warm
(within certain limits) than at a cold temperature, (b) Antitoxin
acts more powerfully when injected along with the toxin than
when injected at the same time in another part of the body;
if its action were on the tissue-cells one would expect that the
site of injection would be immaterial. For example, the amount
necessary to neutralize five times the lethal dose being deter-
mined, twenty times that amount will neutralize a hundred
times the lethal dose. In the case of physiological antagonism
of drugs this relationship does not hold, (c) It has been shown
by C. J. Martin and Cherry, and by A. A. Kanthack and Cobbett,
that in certain instances the toxin can be made to pass through
a gelatine membrane, whereas the antitoxin cannot, its molecules
being of larger size. If, however, toxin be mixed with antitoxin
for some time, it can no longer be passed through, presumably,
because it has become combined with the antitoxin.
Lastly it may be mentioned that when a toxin has some
action which can be demonstrated in a test-tube experiment,
for example, a dissolving action on red corpuscles, this action
may be annulled by previously adding the antitoxin to toxin;
in such a case the intervention of the living tissues is excluded.
In view of the fact that antitoxin has a direct action on toxin,
we may say that theoretically this may take place in one of two
ways. It may produce a disintegration of the toxin molecule,
or it may combine with it to produce a body whose combining
affinities are satisfied. The latter view, first advocated by
BACTERIOLOGY
177
Ehrlich, harmonizes with the facts established with regard to
toxic action and the behaviour of antitoxins, and may now be
regarded as established. His view as to the dual composition of
the toxin molecule has already been mentioned, and it is evident
that if the haptophorous or combining group has its affinity
satisfied by union with antitoxin, the toxin will no longer
combine with living cells, and will thus be rendered harmless.
One other important fact in support of what has been stated is
that a toxin may have its toxic action diminished, and may still
require the same amount of antitoxin as previously for neutral-
ization. This is readily intelligible on the supposition that the
toxophorous group is more labile than the haptophorous. There
is, however, still dispute with regard to the exact nature of the
union of toxin and antitoxin. Ehrlich's view is that the two
substances form a firm combination like a strong acid and a base.
He found, however, that if he took the largest amount of toxin
which was just neutralized by a given amount of antitoxin, much
more than a single dose of toxin had to be added before a single
dose was left free. For example, if 100 doses of toxin were
neutralized by a unit of antitoxin (. supra) it might be that 125
doses would need to be added to the same amount of antitoxin
before the mixture produced a fatal result when it was injected.
This result, which is usually known now as the " Ehrlich pheno-
menon," was explained by him on the supposition that the
" toxin " does not represent molecules which are all the same,
but contains molecules of different degrees of combining affinity
and of toxic action. Accordingly, the most actively toxic
molecules will be neutralized first, and those which are left over,
that is, uncombined with antitoxin, will have a weaker toxic
action. This view has been assailed by Thorvald Madsen and
S. A. Arrhenius, who hold that the union of toxin and antitoxin
is comparatively loose, and belongs totheclassof reversibleactions,
being comparable in fact with the union of a weak acid and
base. If such were the condition there would always be a certain
amount both of free toxin and of free antitoxin in the mixture,
and in this case also considerably more than a dose of toxin
would have to be added to a " neutral mixture " before the
amount of free toxin was increased by a dose, that is, before
the mixture became lethal. It may be stated that while in
certain instances the union of toxin and antitoxin may be
reversible, all the facts established cannot be explained on this
simple hypothesis of reversible action. Still another view,
advocated by Bordet, is that the union of toxin and antitoxin
is rather of physical than of strictly chemical nature, and repre-
sents an interaction of colloidal substances, a sort of molecular
deposition by which the smaller toxin molecule becomes en-
tangled in the larger molecule of antitoxin. Sufficient has been
said to show that the subject is one of great intricacy, and no
simple statement with regard to it is as yet possible. We are
probably safe in saying, however, that the molecules of a toxin
are not identical but vary in the degree of their combining
affinities, and also in their toxic action, and that, while in some
cases the combination of anti-substances has been shown to be
reversible, we are far from being able to say that this is a general
law.
The origin of antitoxin is of course merely a part of the general
question regarding the production of anti-substances in general,
as these all combine in the same way with their homo-
1S US substances and have the same character of
toxia. specificity. As, however, most of the work has been
done with regard to antitoxin production we may
consider here the theoretical aspect of the subject. There are
three chief possibilities: (a) that the antitoxin is a modification
of the toxin; (6) that it is a substance normally present, but
produced in excess under stimulation of the toxin; (c) that it
is an entirely new product. The first of these, which would
imply a process of a very remarkable nature, is disproved by
what is observed after bleeding an animal whose blood contains
antitoxin. In such a case it has been shown that, without the
introduction of fresh toxin, new antitoxin appears, and therefore
must be produced by the living tissues. The second theory is
the more probable a priori, and if established removes the
necessity for the third. It is strongly supported by Ehrlich,
who, in his so-called " side-chain " (Seilenketle) theory, explains
antitoxin production as an instance of regeneration after loss.
Living protoplasm, or in other words a biogen molecule, is
regarded as consisting of a central atom group (Leistungskern) ,
related to which are numerous secondary atom groups or side-
chains, with unsatisfied chemical affinities. The side-chains
constitute the means by which other molecules are added to
the living molecule, e.g. in the process of nutrition. It is by
means of such side-chains that toxin molecules are attached to
the protoplasm, so that the living molecules are brought under
the action of the toxophorous groups of the toxins. In
antitoxin production this combination takes place,
though not in sufficient amount to produce serious theory.
toxic symptoms. It is further supposed that the
combination being of somewhat firm character, the side-chains
thus combined are lost for the purposes of the cell and are there-
fore thrown off. By the introduction of fresh toxin the process
is repeated and the regeneration of side-chains is increased.
Ultimately the regeneration becomes an over-regeneration and
free side-chains produced in excess are set free and appear in
the blood as antitoxin molecules. In other words the substances,
which when forming part of the cells fix the toxin to the cells,
constitute antitoxin molecules when free in the serum. This
theory, though not yet established, certainly affords the most
satisfactory explanation at present available. In support of it
there is the remarkable fact, discovered by A. Wassermann and
Takaki in the case of tetanus, that there do exist in the
nervous system molecules with combining affinity for the tetanus
toxin. If. for example, the brain and spinal cord removed from
an animal be bruised and brought into contact with tetanus
toxin, a certain amount of the toxicity disappears, as shown by
injecting the mixture into another animal. Further, these
molecules in the nervous system present the same susceptibility
to heat and other physical agencies as does tetanus antitoxin.
There is therefore strong evidence that antitoxin molecules do
exist as part of the living substance of nerve cells. It has,
moreover, been found that the serum of various animals has a
certain amount of antitoxic action, and thus the basis for anti-
toxin production, according to Ehrlich's theory, is afforded.
The theory also supplies the explanation of the power which an
animal possesses of producing various antitoxins, since this
depends ultimately upon susceptibility to toxic action. The
explanation is thus carried back to the complicated constitution
of biogen molecules in various living cells of the body. It may
be added that in the case of all the other kinds of anti-substances,
which are produced by a corresponding reaction, we have
examples of the existence of traces of them in the blood serum
under normal conditions. We are, accordingly, justified in
definitely concluding that their appearance in large amount in
the blood, as the result of active immunization, represents an
increased production of molecules which are already present in
the body, either in a free condition in its fluids or as constituent
elements of its cells.
In preparing anti-bacterial sera the lines of procedure corre-
spond to those followed in the case of antitoxins, but the bacteria
themselves in the living or dead condition or their
maceration products are always used in the injections,
Sometimes dead bacteria, living virulent bacteria,
and living supervirulent bacteria, are used in succes-
sion, the object being to arrive ultimately at a high dosage,
though the details vary in different instances. The serum of
an animal thus actively immunized has powerful protective
properties towards another animal, the amount necessary for
protection being sometimes almost inconceivably small. As
a rule it has no action on the corresponding toxin, i.e. is
not antitoxic. In addition to the protective action, such
a serum may possess activities which can be demonstrated
outside the body. Of these the most important are (a) bac-
teriolytic or lysogenic action, (6) agglutinative action, and
(c) opsonic action.
The first of these, lysogenic or bacteriolytic action, consists in
I 7 8
BACTERIOLOGY
the production of a change in the corresponding bacterium
whereby it becomes granular, swells up and ultimately may
undergo dissolution. Pfeiffer was the first to show
^ at tn J s occurred when the bacterium was injected
action. into the peritoneal cavity of the animal immunized
against it, and also when a little of the serum of
such an animal was injected with the bacterium into the peri-
toneum of a fresh, i.e. non-immunized animal. Metchnikoff and
Bordet subsequently devised means by which a similar change
could be produced in vitro, and analysed the conditions necessary
for its occurrence. It has been completely established that in
this phenomenon of lysogenesis there are two substances con-
cerned, one specially developed or developed in excess, and the
other present in normal serum. The former (Immunkorper of
Ehrlicb, substance sensibilisatrice of Bordet) is the more stable,
resisting a temperature of 60 C., and though giving the specific
character to the reaction cannot act alone. The latter is ferment-
like and much more labile than the former, being readily de-
stroyed at 60 C. It may be added that the protective power
is not lost by exposure to the temperature mentioned, this
apparently depending upon a specific anti-substance. Further-
more, lysogenic action is not confined to the case of bacteria
but obtains also with other organized structures, e.g. red corpuscles
(Bordet, Ehrlich and Morgenroth), leucocytes and spermatozoa
(Metchnikoff). That is to say, if an animal be treated with
injections of these bodies, its serum acquires the power of
dissolving or of producing some disintegrative effect in them.
The development of the immune body with specific combining
affinity thus presents an analogy to antitoxin production, the
difference being that in lysogenesis another substance is necessary
to complete the process. It can be shown that in many cases
when bacteria are injected the serum of the treated animal has
no bacteriolytic effect, and still an immune body is present,
which leads to the fixation of complement; in this case bacterio-
lysis does not occur, because the organism is not susceptible to
the action of the complement. In all cases the important action
is the binding of complement to the bacterium by means of the
corresponding immune body; whether or not death of the
bacterium occurs, will depend upon its susceptibility to the
action of the particular complement, the latter acting like a
toxin or digestive ferment. It is to be noted that in the process
of immunization complement does not increase in amount;
accordingly the immune serum comes to contain immune body
much in excess of the amount of complement necessary to
complete its action. An important point with regard to the
therapeutic apph'cation of an anti-bacterial serum, is that when
the serum is kept in vitro the complement rapidly disappears,
and accordingly the complement necessary for the production
of the bactericidal action must be supplied by the blood of the
patient treated. This latter complement may not suit the
immune body, that is, may not be fixed to the bacterium by
means of it, or if the latter event does occur, may fail to bring
about the death of the bacteria. These circumstances serve, in
part at least, to explain the fact that the success attending the
use of anti-bacterial sera has been much inferior to that in the
case of antitoxic sera.
Another property which may be possessed by an anti-bacterial
serum is that of agglutination. By this is meant the aggrega-
Xzrti t ' on ' nto c ' um P s f t ^ le bacteria uniformly distributed
tiaation"' m an indifferent fluid; if the bacterium is motile its
movement is arrested during the process. The pro-
cess is of course observed by means of the microscope, but the
clumps soon settle in the fluid and ultimately form a sediment,
leaving the upper part clear. This change, visible to the naked
eye, is called sedimentation. B. J. A. Charrin and G. E. H.
Roger first showed in the case of B. pyocyaneus that when a small
quantity of the homologous serum (i.e. the serum of an animal
immunized against the bacterium) was added to a fluid culture
of this bacillus, growth formed a sediment instead of a uniform
turbidity. Gruber and Durham showed that sedimentation
occurred when a small quantity of the homologous serum was
added to an emulsion of the bacterium in a small test-tube, and
found that this obtained in all cases where Pfeiffer's lysogenic
action could be demonstrated. Shortly afterwards Widal and
also Griinbaum showed that the serum of patients suffering
from typhoid fever, even at an early stage of the disease, agglu-
tinated the typhoid bacillus a fact which laid the foundation of
serum diagnosis. A similar phenomenon has been demonstrated
in the case of Malta fever, cholera, plague, infection with B. coli,
" meat-poisoning " due to Gartner's bacillus, and various other
infections. As regards the mode of action of agglutinins, Gruber
and Durham considered that it consists in a change in the
envelopes of the bacteria, by which they swell up and become
adhesive. The view has various facts in its support, but F. Kruse
and C. Nicolle have found that if a bacterial culture be filtered
germ-free, an agglutinating serum still produces some change
in it, so that particles suspended in it become gathered into
clumps. E. Duclaux, for this reason, considers that agglutinins
are coagulative ferments.
The phenomenon of agglutination depends essentially on the
union of molecules in the bacteria the agglutinogens with the
corresponding agglutinins, but another essential is the presence
of a certain amount of salts in the fluid, as it can be shown that
when agglutinated masses of bacteria are washed salt-free the
clumps become resolved. The fact that agglutinins appear in
the body at an early stage in a disease has been taken by some
observers as indicating that they have nothing to do with
immunity, their development being spoken of as a reaction of
infection. This conclusion is not justified, as we must suppose
that the process of immunization begins to be developed at an
early period in the disease, that it gradually increases, and
ultimately results in cure. It should also be stated that agglu-
tinins are used up in the process of agglutination, apparently
combining with some element of the bacterial structure. In
view of all the facts it must be admitted that the agglutinins
and immune bodies are the result of corresponding reactive
processes, and are probably related to one another. The develop-
ment of all antagonistic substances which confer the special
character on antimicrobic sera, as well as antitoxins, may be
expressed as the formation of bodies with specific combining
affinity for the' organic substance introduced into the system
toxin, bacterium, red corpuscle, &c., as the case may be. The
bacterium, being a complex organic substance, may thus give
rise to more than one antagonistic or combining substance.
By opsonic action is meant the effect which a serum has on
bacteria in making them more susceptible to phagocytosis by
the white corpuscles of the blood (<?..). Such an effect
may be demonstrated outside the body by making a a^tha^ "'"
suitable mixture of (a) a suspension of the particular
bacterium, (b) the serum to be tested, and (c) leucocytes of
a normal animal or person. The mixture is placed in a thin
capillary tube and incubated at 37 C. for half an hour; a film
preparation is then made from it on a glass slide, stained by
a suitable method and then examined microscopically. The
number of bacteria contained within a number of, say fifty,
leucocytes can be counted and the average taken. In estimating
the opsonic power of the serum in cases of disease a control with
normal serum is made at the same time and under precisely
the same conditions. The average number of bacteria contained
within leucocytes in the case tested, divided by the number
given by the normal serum , is called the phagocytic index. Wright
and Douglas showed that under these conditions phagocytosis
might occur when a small quantity of normal serum was present,
whereas it was absent when normal salt solution was substituted
for the serum ; the latter thus contained substances which made
the organisms susceptible to the action of the phagocytosis.
They further showed that this substance acted by combining
with the organisms and apparently producing some alteration
in them; on the other hand it had no direct action on the leuco-
cytes. This opsonin of normal serum is very labile, being
rapidly destroyed at 55 C.; that is, a serum heated at this
temperature has practically no greater effect in aiding phago-
cytosis than normal salt solution has. Various observers had
previously found that the serum of an animal immunized against
BACTERIOLOGY
179
a particular bacterium had a special action in bringing about
phagocytosis of that organism, and it had been found that this
property was retained when the serum was heated at 53 C.
It is now generally admitted that at least two distinct classes
of substances are concerned in opsonic action, that thermostable
immune opsonins are developed as a result of active immunization
and these possess the specific properties of anti-substances in
general, that is, act only on the corresponding bacterium. On
the contrary the labile opsonins of normal serum have a com-
paratively general action on different organisms. It is quite
evident that the specific immune-opsonins may play a very
important part in the phenomena of immunity, as by their means
the organisms are taken up more actively by the phagocytic
cells, and thereafter may undergo rapid disintegration.
The opsonic action of the serum has been employed by Sir A.
Wright and his co-workers to control the treatment of bacterial
infections by vaccines; that is, by injections of varying amounts
of a dead culture of the corresponding bacterium. The object
in such treatment is to raise the opsonic index of the serum, this
being taken as an indication of increased immunity. The effect
of the injection of a small quantity of vaccine is usually to
produce an increase in the opsonic index within a few days.
If then an additional quantity of vaccine be injected there occurs
a fall in the opsonic index (negative phase) which, however,
is followed later by a rise to a higher level than before. If the
amounts of vaccine used and the times of the injection are suit-
ably chosen, there may thus be produced by a series of steps
a rise of the opsonic index to a high level. One of the chief objects
in registering the opsonic power in such cases is to avoid the
introduction of additional vaccine when the opsonic index is
low, that is, during the negative phase, as if this were done a
further diminution of the opsonic action might result. The
principle in such treatment by means of vaccines is to stimulate
the gene'ral production of anti-substances throughout the body,
so that these may be carried to the sites of bacterial growth,
and aid the destruction of the organisms by means of the cells
of the tissues. A .large number of favourable results obtained
by such treatment controlled by the observation of the opsonic
index have already been published, but it would be unwise
at present to offer a decided opinion as to the ultimate value
of the method.
Active immunity has thus been shown to be associated with
the presence of certain anti-substances in the serum. After
these substances have disappeared, however, as they always
do in the course of time, the animal still possesses immunity
for a varying period. This apparently depends upon some altera-
tion in the cells of the body, but its exact nature is not known.
The destruction of bacteria by direct cellular agency both
in natural and acquired immunity must not be overlooked.
The behaviour of certain cells, especially leucocytes,
cytosis. m infective conditions led Metchnikoff to place great
importance on phagocytosis. In this process there are
two factors concerned, viz. the ingestion of bacteria by the cells,
and the subsequent intracellular digestion. If either of these
is wanting or interfered with, phagocytosis will necessarily fail
as a means of defence. As regards the former, leucocytes are
guided chiefly by chemiotaxis, i.e. by sensitiveness to chemical
substances in their surroundings a property which is not
peculiar to them but is possessed by various unicellular organisms,
including motile bacteria. When the cell moves from a less to
a greater degree of concentration, i.e. towards the focus of
production, the chemiotaxis is termed positive; when the con-
verse obtains, negative. This apparently purposive movement
has been pointed out by M. Verworn to depend upon stimula-
tion to contraction or the reverse. Metchnikoff showed that in
animals immune to a given organism phagocytosis is present,
whereas in susceptible animals it is deficient or absent. He
also showed that the development of artificial immunity is
attended by the appearance of phagocytosis; also, when an
anti-serum is injected into an animal, the phagocytes which
formerly were indifferent might move towards and destroy the
bacteria. In the light of all the facts, however, especially those
with regard to anti-bacterial sera, the presence of phagocytosis
cannot be regarded as the essence of immunity, but rather the
evidence of its existence. The increased ingestion of bacteria
in active immunity would seem to depend upon the presence
of immune opsonins in the serum. These, as already explained,
are true anti-substances. Thus the apparent increased activity
of the leucocytes is due to a preliminary effect of the opsonins
on the bacteria. We have no distinct proof that there occurs
in active immunity any education of the phagocytes, in
Metchnikoffs sense, that is, any increase of the inherent ingestive
or digestive activity of these cells. There is some evidence that
in certain cases anti-substances may act upon the leucocytes,
and to these the name of " stimulins " has been given. We
cannot, however, say that these play an important part in
immunity, and even if it were so, the essential factor would be
the development of the substances which act in this way. While
in immunity there probably occurs no marked change in the
leucocytes themselves, it must be admitted that the increased
destruction of bacteria by these cells is of the highest importance.
This, as already pointed out, depends upon the increase of
opsonins, though it is also to be noted that in many infective
conditions there is another factor present, namely a leucocytosis,
that is, an increase of the leucocytes in the blood, and the defen-
sive powers of the body are thereby increased. Evidence has
been brought forward within recent years that the leucocytes
may constitute an important source of the antagonistic sub-
stances which appear in the serum. Much of such evidence
possesses considerable weight, and seeing that these cells possess
active digestive powers it is by no means improbable that sub-
stances with corresponding properties may be set free by them.
To ascribe such powers to them exclusively is, however, not
justifiable. Probably the lining endothelium of the blood-vessels
as well as other tissues of the body participate in the production
of anti-substances.
The subject of artificial immunity has occupied a large pro-
portion of bacteriological literature within recent years, and our
endeavour has been mainly to indicate the general
laws which are in process of evolution. When the immunity
facts of natural immunity are examined, we find that
no single explanation is possible. Natural immunity against
toxins must be taken into account, and, if Ehrlich's view with
regard to toxic action be correct, this may depend upon either
the absence of chemical affinity of the living molecules of the
tissues for the toxic molecule, or upon insensitiveness to the action
of the toxophorous group. It has been shown with regard to the
former, for example, that the nervous system of the fowl, which
possesses immunity against tetanus toxin, has little combining
affinity for it. The non-sensitiveness of a cell to a toxic body
when brought into immediate relationship cannot, however, be
explained further than by saying that the disintegrative changes
which underlie symptoms of poisoning are not brought about.
Then as regards natural powers of destroying bacteria, phago-
cytosis aided by chemiotaxis plays a part, and it can be understood
that an animal whose phagocytes are attracted by a particular
bacterium will have an advantage over one in which this action
is absent. Variations in chemiotaxis towards different organisms
probably depend in natural conditions, as well as in active im-
munity, upon the opsonic content of the serum. Whether
bacteria will be destroyed or not after they have been ingested
by the leucocytes will depend upon the digestive powers of the
latter, and these probably vary in different species of animals.
The blood serum has a direct bactericidal action on certain
bacteria, as tested outside the body, and this also varies in differ-
ent animals. Observations made on this property with respect
to the anthrax bacillus at first gave the hope that it might explain
variations in natural immunity. Thus the serum of the white
rat, which is immune to anthrax, kills the bacillus; whereas the
serum of the guinea-pig, which is susceptible, has no such effect.
Further observations, however, showed that this does not hold
as a general law. The serum of the susceptible rabbit, for
example, is bactericidal to this organism, whilst the serum of the
immune dog is not. In the case of the latter animal the serum
i8o
BACTRIA
contains an opsonin which leads to phagocytosis of the bacillus,
and the latter is then destroyed by the leucocytes. It is quite
evident that bactericidal action as tested in vitro outside the body
does not correspond to the degree of immunity possessed by the
animal under natural conditions. We may say, however, that
there are several factors concerned in natural immunity, of which
the most important may be said to be the three following, viz.
variations in the bactericidal action of the serum in vivo, varia-
tions in the chemiotactic or opsonic properties of the serum in
vivo, and variations in the digestive properties of the leucocytes
of the particular animal. It is thus evident that the explanation
of natural immunity in any given instance may be a matter of
difficulty and much complexity.
AUTHORITIES. Bacteriological literature has become so extensive
that it is impossible to give here references to original articles,
even the more important. A number of these, giving an account
of classical researches, were translated from French and German,
and published by the New Sydenham Society under the title Micro-
parasites in Disease: Selected Essays, in 1886. The following list
contains some of the more important books published within recent
years. Abbott, Principles of Bacteriology (7th ed., London, 1905) ;
Crookshank, Bacteriology and Infective Diseases (with bibliography,
4th ed., London, 1896) ; Duclaux, Traite de microbiologie (Paris,
1899-1900); Eyre, Bacteriological Technique (Philadelphia and
London, 1902) ; Fliigge, Die Mikroorganismen (3rd ed., Leipzig,
1896); Fischer, Vorlesungen iiber Bakterien (2nd ed., Jena, 1902);
Gunther, Einfiihrung in das Stadium der Bakteriologie (6th ed.,
Leipzig, 1906); Hewlett, Manrtal of Bacteriology (2nd ed., London,
1902) ; Hueppe, Principles of Bacteriology (translation, London,
1899) ; Klein, Micro-organisms and Disease (3rd ed., London, 1896) ;
Kolle and Wassermann, Handbuch der pathogenen Mikroorganismen
(Jena, 1904) (supplements are still being published ; this is the most
important work on the subject) ; Loftier, Vorlesungen iiber die
geschichtiiche Entwickelung der Lehre von der Bacterien (Leipzig,
1887) ; M'Farland, Text-book upon the Pathogenic Bacteria (sth ed.,
London, 1906); Muir and Ritchie, Manual of Bacteriology (with
bibliography, 4th ed., Edin. and Lond., 1908) ; Park, Pathogenic
Micro-organisms (London, 1906); Sternberg, Manual of Bacteriology
(with full bibliography, 2nd ed., New York, 1896) ; Woodhead,
Bacteria and their products (with bibliography, London, 1891).
The bacteriology of the infective diseases (with bibliography) is
fully given in the System of Medicine, edited by Clifford Allbutt,
(2nd ed., London, 1007). For references consult Centralbl. fur
Bakter. u. Parasitenk. (Jena) ; also Index Medicus. The most import-
ant works on immunity are: Ehrlich, Studies in Immunity (English
translation, New York, 1906), and Metchnikoff, Immunity in Infective
Diseases (English translation, Cambridge, 1905). (R. M.*)
BACTRIA (Bactriana), the ancient name of the country
between the range of the Hindu Rush (Paropamisus) and the
Oxus (Amu Darya), with the capital Bactra (now Balkh) ; in the
Persian inscriptions Bakhtri. It is a mountainous country with
a moderate climate. Water is abundant and the land is very
fertile. Bactria was the home of one of the Iranian tribes (see
PERSIA: Ancient History). Modern authors have often used the
name in a wider sense, as the designation of the whole eastern
part of Iran. As there can be scarcely any doubt that it was in
these regions, where the fertile soil of the mountainous country is
everywhere surrounded and limited by the Turanian desert, that
the prophet Zoroaster preached and gained his first adherents,
and that his religion spread from here over the western parts of
Iran, the sacred language in which the Avesta, the holy book of
Zoroastrianism, is written, has often been called " old Bactrian."
But there is no reason for this extensive use of the name, and the
term " old Bactrian " is, therefore, at present completely aban-
doned by scholars. Still less foundation exists for the belief, once
widely spread, that Bactria was the cradle of the Indo-Euro-
pean race; it was based on the supposition that the nations of
Europe had immigrated from Asia, and that the Aryan languages
(Indian and Iranian) stood nearest to the original language of
the Indo-Europeans. It is now acknowledged by all linguists
that this supposition is quite wrong, and that the Aryans prob-
ably came from Europe. The eastern part of Iran seems to
have been the region where the Aryans lived as long as they
formed one people, and whence they separated into Indians
and Iranians.
The Iranian tradition, preserved in the Avesta and in Firdousi's
Shahnama, localizes a part of its heroes and myths in the east of
Iran, and has transformed the old gods who fight with the great
snake into kings of Iran who fight with the Turanians. Many
modern authors have attempted to make history out of these
stories, and have created an old Bactrian empire of great extent,
the kings of which had won great victories over the Turanians.
But this historical aspect of the myth is of late origin: it is
nothing but a reflex of the great Iranian empire founded by the
Achaemenids and restored by the Sassanids. The only historical
fact which we can learn from the Iranian tradition is that the
contrast and the feud between the peasants of Iran and the
nomads of Turan was as great in old times as it is now: it is
indeed based upon the natural geographical conditions, and is
therefore eternal. But a great Bactrian empire certainly never
existed; the Bactrians and their neighbours were in old times
ruled by petty local kings, one of whom was Vishtaspa, the pro-
tector of Zoroaster. Ctesias in his history of the Assyrian empire
(Diodor. Sic. ii. 6 ff .) narrates a war waged by Ninus and Semiram,
against the king of Bactria (whom some later authors, e.g. Justin
i. i, call Zoroaster). But the whole Assyrian history of Ctesias
is nothing but a fantastic fiction; from the Assyrian inscriptions
we know that the Assyrians never entered the eastern parts of
Iran.
Whether Bactria formed part of the Median empire, we do not
know; but it was subjugated by Cyrus and from then formed
one of the satrapies of the Persian empire. When Alexander had
defeated Darius III., his murderer Bessus, the satrap of Bactria,
tried to organize a national resistance in the east. But Bactria
was conquered by Alexander without much difficulty; it was
only farther in the north, beyond the Oxus, in Sogdiana, that he
met with strong resistance. Bactria became a province of the
Macedonian empire, and soon came under the rule of Seleucus,
king of Asia (see SELEUCID DYNASTY and HELLENISM). The
Macedonians (and especially Seleucus I. and his son Antiochus I.)
founded a great many Greek towns in eastern Iran, and the Greek
language became for some time dominant there. The many
difficulties against which the Seleucid kings had to fight and the
attacks of Ptolemy II., gave to Diodotus, satrap of Bactria, the
opportunity of making himself independent (about 255 B.C.) and
of conquering Sogdiana. He was the founder of the Graeco-
Bactrian kingdom. Diodotus and his successors were able to
maintain themselves against the attacks of the Seleucids; and
when Antiochus III., " the Great," had been defeated by the
Romans (190 B.C.), the Bactrian king Euthydemus and his son
Demetrius crossed the Hindu Kush and began the conquest of
eastern Iran and the Indus valley. For a short time they wielded
great power; a great Greek empire seemed to have arisen far in
the East. But this empire was torn by internal dissensions and
continual usurpations. When Demetrius advanced far into India
one of his generals, Eucratides, made himself king of Bactria,
and soon in every province there arose new usurpers, who pro-
claimed themselves kings and fought one against the other.
Most of them we know only by their coins, a great many of which
are found in Afghanistan and India. By these wars the dominant
position of the Greeks was undermined even more quickly than
would otherwise have been the case. After Demetrius and
Eucratides, the kings abandoned the Attic standard of coinage
and introduced a native standard; at the same time the native
language came into use by the side of the Greek. On the coins
struck in India, the well-known Indian alphabet (called Brahmi
by the Indians, the older form of the Devanagari) is used; on the
coins struck in Afghanistan and in the Punjab the Kharosh^hi
alphabet, which is derived directly from the Aramaic and was in
common use in the western parts of India, as is shown by one
of the inscriptions of Asoka and by the recent discovery of
many fragments of Indian manuscripts, written in Kharoshthi,
in eastern Turkestan (formerly this alphabet has been called
Arianic or Bactrian Pali; the true name is derived from Indian
sources).
The weakness of the Graeco-Bactrian kingdoms was shown by
their sudden and complete overthrow. In the west the Arsacid
empire had risen, and Mithradates I. and Phraates II. began to
conquer some of their western districts, especially Areia (Herat).
But in the north a new race appeared, Mongolian tribes, called
BACUP BADAJOZ
181
Scythians by the Greeks, amongst which the Tochari, identical
with the Yue-chi (q.v.) of the Chinese, were the most important.
In 159 B.C., according to Chinese sources, they entered Sogdiana,
in 139 they conquered Bactria, and during the next generation
they had made an end to the Greek rule in eastern Iran. Only
in India the Greek conquerors (Menander, Apollodotus) main-
tained themselves some time longer. But in the middle of the
ist century B.C. the whole of eastern Iran and western India
belonged to the great " Indo-Scythian " empire. The ruling
dynasty had the name Kushan (Kushana), by which they are
called on their coins and in the Persian sources. The most famous
of these kings is Kanishka (ca. 123-153), the great protector of
Buddhism. The principal seat of the Tochari and the Kushan
dynasty seems to have been Bactria; but they always main-
tained the eastern parts of modem Afghanistan and Baluchistan,
while the western regions (Areia, i.e. Herat, Seistan and part of
the Helmund valley) were conquered by the Arsacids. In the
3rd century the Kushan dynasty began to decay; about A.D.
320 the Gupta empire was founded in India. Thus the Kushanas
were reduced to eastern Iran, where they had to fight against the
Sassanids. In the 5th century a new people came from the east,
the Ephthalites (q.v.) or " white Huns," who subjected Bactria
(about 450); and they were followed by the Turks, who first
appear in history about A.D. 560 and subjugated the country
north of the Oxus. Most of the small principalities of the Tochari
or Kushan became subject to them. But when the Sassanian
empire was overthrown by the Arabs, the conquerors immedi-
ately advanced eastwards, and in a few years Bactria and the
whole Iran to the banks of the Jaxartes had submitted to the
rule of the caliph and of Islam.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For the earlier times see PERSIA. For the
Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Scythian kingdoms see (beside articles
on the separate kings): H. H. Wilson, Ariana Antiqua (184.1);
Cunningham, "The Greeks of Bactriana, Ariana and India' in
Numismatic Chronicle, N. Ser. viii.-xii. ; A. von Sallet, Die Nach-
folger Alexanders des Grossen in Baktrien und Indien (1879); P.
Gardner, The Coins of the Greek and Scythic Kings of India, (1886,
Catalogue of Greek Coins in the British Museum, x.); A. von
Gutschmid, Geschichte Irans und seiner Nachbarlander von Alexander
dem Grossen bis zum Untergang der Arsaciden (1888); A. Stein,
" Zoroastrian Deities on Indo-Scythian Coins," Babylonian and
Oriental Record, i. 1887 (cf. Cunningham, ib. ii. 1888); Vincent A.
Smith, " The Kushan or Indo-Scythian Period of Indian History,"
Journal of the R. Asiatic Soc., 1903 (cf. his Early History of India, 2nd
ed. 1908) ; W. W. Tarn, " Notes on Hellenism in Bactria and India "
in Journ. of Hellenic Studies, xxii. 1902. For the history and character
of the Indian alphabet cf. J. Buhler, " Indische Palaographie " (in
Grundriss der indo-arischen Philologie, Bd. i.). From the Greek
authors only a few notices have been preserved, especially by Justin
(and in the prologues of Trogus) and Strabo; for the later times
we get some information from the Byzantine authors and from
Persian and Armenian sources; cf. Th. Noldeke's translation of
Tabari (Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden,
1890) and J. Marquart, " Eransahr " (Abhandlungen der koniglichen
Ges. d. Wissenschaften zu Gottingen, 1901). The Chinese sources are
given by Deguignes, " Recherches sur quelques 6venements qui
concernent I'histoire des rois grecs de la Bactriane," Mem. de
I'acad. des inscriptions, xxv. ; E. Specht, "Etudes sur 1'Asie
centrale d'apres les historiens chinois " in Journal asiatique, 8 serie,
ii. 1883, 9 serie, x. 1897; Sylvain Levi, " Notes sur les Indo-
scythiens, ' Journal asiatique, 9 serie ix., x. and others. (ED. M.)
BACUP, a market town and municipal borough in the Rossen-
dale parliamentary division of Lancashire, England, on the river
Irwell, 203 m. N.N.W. from London, and 22 N. by E. from Man-
chester, on the Lancashire & Yorkshire railway. Pop. (1901)
22,505. It is finely situated in a narrow valley, surrounded by
wild, high-lying moorland. It is wholly of modern growth, and
contains several handsome churches and other buildings, while
among institutions thechief is the mechanics' institute and library.
The recreation grounds presented in 1893 by Mr. J. H. Maden,
M.P., are beautifully laid out. Cotton spinning and power-loom
weaving are the chief of numerous manufacturing industries,
and there are large collieries in the vicinity. The principle of
co-operation is strongly developed, and a large and handsome store
contains among other departments a free library for members.
The borough was incorporated in 1882, and the corporation
consists of a mayor, 6 aldermen and 17 councillors. Area, 6120
acres. In 1841 the population of the chapelry was only 1526.
One of the hills in the vicinity is fortified with a great ancient
earthwork and ditch.
BADAGAS (literally " a Telugu man "), a tribe inhabiting
the Nilgiri Hills, in India, by some authorities declared not to be
an aboriginal or jungle race. They are probably Dravidian by
descent, though they are in religion Hindus of the Saiva sect.
They are supposed to have migrated to the Nilgiris from Mysore
about A.D. 1600, after the breaking up of the kingdom of Vija-
yanagar. They are an agricultural people and far the most
numerous and wealthy of the hill tribes. They pay a tribute
in grain, &c., to the Todas. Their language is a corrupt form of
Kanarese. At the census of 1901 they numbered 34,178.
See J. W. Breeks, An Account of the Primitive Tribes of the Nilgiris
(1873); Nilgiri Manual, vol. i. pp. 218-228; Madras Journ. of Sci.
and Lit. vol. viii. pp. 103-105; Madras Museum Bulletin, vol. ii.,
no. I, pp. 1-7.
BADAJOZ (formerly sometimes written Badajos), a frontier
province of western Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from
the province of Estremadura (q.v.), and bounded on the N. by
Caceres, E. by Cordova and Ciudad Real, S. by Seville and
Huelva, and W. by Portugal. Pop. (1900) 520,246; area,
8451 sq. m. Badajoz is thus the largest province of the whole
kingdom. Although in many districts there are low ranges of
hills, the surface is more often a desolate and monotonous plain,
flat or slightly undulating. Its one large river is the Guadiana,
which traverses the north of the province from east to west,
fed by many tributaries; but it is only at certain seasons that
the river-beds fill with any considerable volume of water, and
the Guadiana may frequently be forded without difficulty. The
climate shows great extremes of heat in summer and of cold
in winter, when fierce north and north-west winds blow across
the plains. In the hot months intermittent fevers are prevalent
in the Guadiana valley. The rainfall is scanty in average years,
and only an insignificant proportion of the land is irrigated, while
the rest is devoted to pasture, or covered with thin bush and
forest. Agriculture, and the cultivation of fruit, including
the vine and olive, are thus in a very backward condition; but
Badajoz possesses more livestock than anyotherSpanish province.
Its acorn-fed swine are celebrated throughout Spain for their
hams and bacon, and large herds of sheep and goats thrive where
the pasture is too meagre for cattle. The exploitation of the
mineral resources of Badajoz is greatly hindered by lack of
water and means of communication; in 1903, out of nearly 600
mines registered only 26 were at work. Their output consisted
of lead, with very small quantities of copper. The local industries
are not of much importance: they comprise manufactures of
woollen and cotton stuffs of a coarse description, soaps, oils, cork
and leather. The purely commercial interests are more im-
portant than the industrial, because of the transit trade to
and from Portugal through no less than seven custom-houses.
Many parts of the province are inaccessible except by road, and
the roads are ill-made, ill-kept and wholly insufficient. The
main line of the Madrid-Lisbon railway passes through Villanueva
de la Serena, M6rida and Badajoz; at Merida it is joined by
the railways going north to Caceres and south to Zafra, where
the lines from Huelva and Seville unite. After Badajoz, the
capital (pop. (1900) 30,899), the principal towns are Almen-
dralejo (12,587), Azuaga (14,192), Don Benito (16,565), Jerez de
los Caballeros (10,271), M6rida (11,168) and Villanueva de la
Serena (13,489); these, and also the historically interesting
village of Albuera, are described in separate articles. Other small
towns, chiefly important as markets for agricultural produce,
are Albuquerque (9030), Cabeza del Buey (7566), Campanario
(745). Fregenal de la Sierra (9615), Fuente de Cantos (8483),
Fuente del Maestre (6934), Llerena (7049), Montijo (7644),
Olivade Jerez (8348), Olivenza (9066), San Vicente de Alcantara
(7722), and Villafranca de los Barros (9954). Very few in-
habitants emigrate from this province, where the birth-rate
considerably exceeds the death-rate. Education, even primary,
is in a very backward condition.
BADAJOZ, the capital of the Spanish province described
above; situated dose to the Portuguese frontier, on the left
182
BADAKSHAN
bank of the river Guadiana, and the Madrid-Lisbon railway.
Pop. (1900) 30,899. Badajoz is the see of a bishop, and the
official residence of the captain-general of Estremadura. It
occupies a slight eminence, crowned by the ruins of a Moorish
castle, and overlooking the Guadiana. A strong wall and
bastions, with a broad moat and outworks, and forts on the
surrounding heights, give the city an appearance of great strength.
The river, which flows between the castle-hill and the powerfully
armed fort of San Cristobal, is crossed by a magnificent granite
bridge, originally built hi 1460, repaired in 1597 and rebuilt in
1833. The whole aspect of Badajoz recalls its stormy history;
even the cathedral, built in 1258, resembles a fortress, with
massive embattled walls. Badajoz was the birthplace of the
statesman Manuel de Godoy , duke of Alcudia (176 7- 1851), and of
thepainterLuisdeMorales(i509-is86). Two pictures by Morales,
unfortunately retouched in modern tunes, are preserved in the
cathedral. Owing to its position the city enjoys a considerable
transit trade with Portugal; its other industries include the
manufacture of linen, woollen and leather goods, and of pottery.
It is not mentioned by any Roman historian, and first rose to
importance under Moorish rule. In 1031 it became the capital
of a small Moorish kingdom, and, though temporarily held by
the Portuguese hi 1168, it retained its independence until 1229,
when it was captured by Alphonso IX. of Leon. As a frontier
fortress it underwent many sieges. It was beleaguered by the
Portuguese in 1660, and in 1705 by the Allies in the War of the
Spanish Succession. During the Peninsular War Badajoz was
unsuccessfully attacked by the French in 1808 and 1809; but
on the toth of March 1811, the Spanish commander, Jose Imaz,
was bribed into surrendering to the French force under Marshal
Soult. A British army, commanded by Marshal Beresford,
endeavoured to retake it, and on the i6th of May defeated a
relieving force at Albuera, but the siege was abandoned in
June. The fortress was finally stormed on the 6th of April 181 2,
by the British under Lord Wellington, and carried with terrible
loss. It was then delivered up to a two day's pillage. A military
and republican rising took place here in August 1883, but com-
pletely failed.
BADAKSHAN, including WAKHAN, a province on the north-
east frontier of Afghanistan, adjoining Russian territory. Its
north-eastern boundaries were decided by the Anglo-Russian
agreement of 1873, which expressly acknowledged "Badakshan
with its dependent district Wakhan " as " fully belonging to the
amir of Kabul," and limited it to the left or southern bank of
the Oxus. Much of the ulterior of the province is still unex-
plored. On the west, Badakshan is bounded by a line which
crosses the Turkestan plains southwards from the junction of
the Kunduz and Oxus rivers till it touches the eastern water-
divide of the Tashkurghan river (here called the Koh-i-Chungar),
and then runs south-east, crossing the Sarkhab affluent of the
Khanabad (Kunduz), till it strikes the Hindu Kush. The southern
boundary is carried along the crest of the Hindu Kush as far as
the Khawak pass, leading from Badakshan into the Panjshir
valley. Beyond this it is indefinite. It is known that the Kafirs
occupy the crest of the Hindu Kush eastwards of the Khawak,
but how far they extend north of the main watershed is not
ascertainable. The southern limits of Badakshan become
definite again at the Dorah pass. The Dorah connects Zebak
and Ishkashim at the elbow, or bend, of the Oxus with the
Lutku valley leading to Chitral. From the Dorah eastwards
the crest of the Hindu Kush again becomes the boundary till
it effects a junction with the Muztagh and Sarikol ranges, which
shut off China from Russia and India. Skirting round the head
of the Tagdumbash Pamir, it finally merges into the Pamir
boundary, and turns westwards, following the course of the
Oxus, to the junction of that river and the Khanabad (Kunduz).
So far as the northern boundary follows the Oxus stream, under
the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush, it is only separated by
the length of these slopes (some 8 or 10 m.) from the southern
boundary along the crest. Thus Badakshan reaches out an arm
into the Pamirs eastwards bottle-shaped narrow at the neck
(represented by the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush), and
swelling out eastwards so as to include a part of the great and
little Pamirs. Before the boundary settlement of 1873 tne small
states of Roshan and Shignan extended to the left bank of the
Oxus, and the province of Darwaz, on the other hand, extended
to the right bank. Now, however, the Darwaz extension north-
wards is exchanged for the Russian Pamir extension westwards,
and the river throughout is the boundary between Russian and
Afghan territory; the political boundaries of those provinces
and those of Wakhan being no longer coincident with their
geographical limits. *
The following are the chief provincial subdivisions of Badak-
shan, omitting Roshan and Shignan: On the west Rustak,
Kataghan, Ghori, Narin and Anderab; on the north Darwaz,
Ragh and Shiwa; on the east Charan, Ishkashim, Zebak and
Wakhan; and in the centre Faizabad, Farkhar, Minjan and
Kishm. There are others, but nothing certain is known about
these minor subdivisions.
The conformation of the mountain districts, which comprise
all the southern districts of Badakshan and the northern hills
and valleys of Kafiristan, is undoubtedly analogous to that of
the rest of the Hindu Kush westwards. The water-divide of the
Hindu Kush from the Dorah to the Khawak pass, i.e. through
the centre of Kafiristan, has never been accurately traced; but
its topographical conformation is evidently a continuation of
that which has been observed in the districts of Badakshan
to the west of the Khawak. The Hindu Kush represents the
southern edge of a great central upheaval or plateau. It breaks
up into long spurs southwards, deep amongst which are hidden
the valleys of Kafiristan, almost isolated from each other by the
rugged and snow-capped altitudes which divide them. To the
north the plateau gradually slopes away towards the Oxus,
falling from an average altitude of 15,000 ft. to 4000 ft. about
Faizabad, hi the centre of Badakshan, but tailing off to noo at
Kunduz, in Kataghan, where it merges into the flat plains
bordering the Oxus.
The Kokcha river traverses Badakshan from south-east to
north-west, and, with the Kunduz, drains all the northern slopes
of the Hindu Kush west of the Dorah pass. Some of its sources
are near Zebak, close to the great bend of the Oxus northwards,
so that it cuts off all the mountainous area included within that
bend from the rest of Badakshan. Its chief affluent is the Minjan,
which Sir George Robertson found to be a considerable stream
where it approaches the Hindu Kush close under the Dorah.
Like the Kunduz, it probably drains the northern slopes of the
Hindu Kush by deep lateral valleys, more or less parallel to
the crest, reaching westwards towards the Khawak pass. From
the Oxus (1000 ft.) to Faizabad (4000 ft.) and Zebak (8500 ft.)
the course of the Kokcha offers a high road across Badakshan;
between Zebak and Ishkashim, at the Oxus bend, there is but
an insignificant pass of 9500 ft; and from Ishkashim by the
Panja, through the Pamirs, is the continuation of what must
once have been a much-traversed trade route connecting Afghan
Turkestan with Kashgar and China. It is undoubtedly one of
the great continental high-roads of Asia. North of the Kokcha,
within the Oxus bend, is the mountainous district of Darwaz,
of which the physiography belongs rather to the Pamir type than
to that of the Hindu Kush.
A very remarkable meridional range extends for 100 m. north-
wards from the Hindu Kush (it is across this range that the route
from Zebak to Ishkashim lies) , which determines the great bend
of the Oxus river northwards from Ishkashim, and narrows the
valley of that river into the formation of a trough as far as the
next bend westwards at Kala Wamar. The western slopes of
this range drain to the Oxus either north-westwards, by the
Kokcha and the Ragh, or else they twist their streams into the
Shiwa, which runs due north across Darwaz. Here again we
find the main routes which traverse the country following the
rivers closely. The valleys are narrow, but fertile and populous.
The mountains are rugged and difficult; but there is much of
the world-famous beauty of scenery, and of the almost phenomenal
agricultural wealth of the valleys of Bokhara and Ferghana to
be found in the as yet half-explored recesses of Badakshan.
BADALOCCHIO BADEN
183
The principal domesticated animal is the yak. There are also
large flocks of sheep, cows, goats, ponies, fine dogs and Bactrian
camels. The more important wild animals are a large wild
sheep (Ovis poll), foxes, wolves, jackals, bears, boars, deer
and leopards; amongst birds, there are partridges, pheasants,
ravens, jays, sparrows, larks, a famous breed of hawks, &c.
Badakshan proper is peopled by Tajiks, Turks and Arabs,
who speak the Persian and Turki languages, and profess the
orthodox doctrines of the Mahommedan law adopted by the
Sunnite sect; while the mountainous districts are inhabited
by Tajiks, professing the Shi'ite creed and speaking distinct
dialects in different districts.
History. Badakshan, part of the Greek Bactria, was visited by
Hsiian Tsang in 630 and 644. The Arabian geographers of the
loth century speak of its mines of ruby and lapis lazuli, and give
notices of the flourishing commerce and large towns of Waksh
and Khotl, regions which appear to have in part corresponded
with Badakshan. In 1272-1273 Marco Polo and his companions
stayed for a time in Badakshan. During this and the following
centuries the country was governed by kings who claimed to be
descendants of Alexander the Great. The last of these kings was
Shah Mahommed, who died in the middle of the isth century,
leaving only his married daughters to represent the royal line.
Early in the middle of the i6th century the Usbegs obtained
possession of Badakshan, but were soon expelled, and then the
country was generally governed by descendants of the old royal
dynasty by the female line. About the middle of the 1 8th century
the present dynasty of Mirs established its footing in the place of
the old one which had become extinct. In 1765 the country was
invaded and ravaged by the ruler of Kabul. During the first three
decades of the igth centuiy it was overrun and depopulated by
Kohan Beg and his son Murad Beg, chiefs of the Kataghan Usbegs
of Kunduz. When Murad Beg died, the power passed into the
hands of another Usbeg, Mahommed Amir Khan. In 1859 the
Kataghan Usbegs were expelled; and Mir Jahander Shah, the
representative of the modern royal line.was reinstatedat Faizabad
under the supremacy of the Afghans. In 1867 he was expelled
by Abdur Rahman and replaced by Mir Mahommed Shah, and
other representatives of the same family. (T. H. H.*)
BADALOCCHIO, SISTO, surnamed ROSA (1581-1647), Italian
painter and engraver, was born at Parma. He was of the school
of Annibale Carracci, by whom he was highly esteemed for design.
His principal engravings are the series known as Raphael's Bible,
which were executed by him in conjunction with Lanfranco,
another pupil of Carracci. The best of his paintings, which are
few in number, are at Parma. He died at Bologna.
BADALONA (anc. Baetulo), a town of north-eastern Spain,
in the province of Barcelona; 6 m. N.E. of the city of Barcelona,
on the left bank of the small river Bes6s, and on theMediterranean
Sea. Pop. (1900) 19,240. Badalona has a station on the coast
railway from Barcelona to Perpignan in France, and a small
harbour, chiefly important for its fishing and boat-building
trades. There are gas, chemical and mineral-oil works in the
town, which also manufactures woollen and cotton goods, glass,
biscuits, sugar and brandy; while the surrounding fertile plains
produce an abundance of grain, wine and fruit. Badalona thus
largely contributes to the export trade of Barcelona, and may,
in fact, be regarded as its industrial suburb.
BADBY, JOHN (d. 1410), one of the early Lollard martyrs,
was a tailor (or perhaps a blacksmith) in the west Midlands, and
was condemned by the Worcester diocesan court for his denial
of transubstantiation. Badby bluntly maintained that when
Christ sat at supper with his disciples he had not his body in
his hand to distribute, and that " if every host consecrated at
the altar were the Lord's body, then there be 20,000 Gods in
England." A further court in St Paul's, London, presided over
by Archbishop Arundel, condemned him to be burned at Smith-
field, the tournament ground just outside the city walls. It is
said that the prince of Wales (afterwards Henry V.) witnessed the
execution and offered the sufferer both life and a pension if he
would recant ; but in Walsingham's words, " the abandoned villain
declined the prince's advice, and chose rather to be burned than
to give reverence to the life-giving sacrament. So it befell that
this mischievous fellow was burnt to ashes, and died miserably
in his sin."
BADDELEY, ROBERT (c. 1732-1794), English actor, is said
to have been first a cook to Samuel Foote, " the English Aris-
tophanes," and then a valet, before he appeared on the stage.
In 1761, described as " of Drury Lane theatre," he was seen at
the theatre in Smock Alley, Dublin, as Gomez in Dryden's
Spanish Friar. Two years later he was a regular member of the
Drury Lane company in London, where he had a great success
in the low comedy and servants' parts. He remained at this
theatre and the Haymarket until his death. He was the original
Moses in the School for Scandal. Baddeley died on the 2oth of
November 1794. He bequeathed property to found a home for
decayed actors, and also 3 per annum to provide wine and cake
in the green-room of Drury Lane theatre on Twelfth Night.
The ceremony of the Baddeley cake has remained a regular
institution.
His wife SOPHIA BADDELEY (1745-1786), an actress and
singer, was born in London, the daughter of a sergeant-trumpeter
named Snow. She was a woman of great beauty, but excessive
vanity and notorious conduct. At the age of eighteen she ran
away with Baddeley, then acting at Drury Lane, and she herself
made her first appearance on the stage there on the 27th of April
1765, as Ophelia. Later, as a singer, she obtained engagements
at Ranelagh and Vauxhall. Though separated from her husband
on account of her misconduct, she still played several years in
the same company. Her beauty and her extravagance rendered
her celebrated, but the money which she made in all sorts of
ways was so freely squandered that she was obliged to take refuge
from her creditors in Edinburgh, where she made her last appear-
ance on the stage in 1784.
See Memoirs of Mistress Sophia Baddeley, by Mrs Elizabeth Steele,
6 vols. (1781).
BADEN, a town and watering-place of Austria, in lower
Austria, 17 m. S. of Vienna by rail. Pop. (1900) 12,447. It is
beautifully situated at the mouth of the romantic Helenenthal,
on the banks of the Schwechat, and has become the principal
summer resort of the inhabitants of the neighbouring capital.
It possesses a new Kurhaus, fifteen bathing-establishments, a
parish church in late Gothic style, and a town-hall, which contains
interesting archives. The warm baths, which gave name to the
town, are thirteen in number, with a temperature of from 72 F.
to 97 F., and contain, as chief ingredient, sulphate of lime.
They rise for the most part at the foot of the Calvarienberg
(1070 ft.), which is composed of dolomitic limestone, and are
mostly used for bathing purposes. Several members of the
Austrian imperial family have made Baden their summer
residence and have built here beautiful villas. There are about
20,000 visitors annually. Baden possesses several parks and is
surrounded by lovely and interesting spots, of which the most
frequented is the picturesque valley of the Helenenthal, which
is traversed by the Schwechat. Not far from Baden, the valley
is crossed by the magnificent aqueduct of the Vienna waterworks.
At the entrance to the valley, on the right bank of the river,
lie the ruins of the 12th-century castle of Rauheneck, and at its
foot stands the Chateau Weilburg, built in 1820-1825 by Arch-
duke Charles, the victor of Aspern. On the left bank, just
opposite, stands the ruined castle of Rauhenstein, dating also
from the i2th century. About 4 m. up the valley is Mayerling,
a hunting-lodge, where the crown prince Rudolph of Austria
was found dead in 1889. Farther up is Alland, whence a road
leads to the old and well-preserved abbey of Heiligenkreuz. It
possesses a church, in Romanesque style, dating from the nth
century, with fine cloisters and the tombs of several members
of the Babenberg family. The highest point in the neighbour-
hood of Baden is the peak of the Hoher Lindkogel (2825 ft.),
popularly called the Eiserne Thor, which is ascended in about
three hours.
The celebrity of Baden dates back to the days of the Romans,
who knew it by the name of Thermae Pannonicoe, and remains
of their occupation still exist. It received its charter as a town
184
BADEN
in 1480, and although sacked at various times by Hungarians
and Turks, it soon flourished again.
See J.Schwarz, Die Heilquellen von Baden bei Wien (Vienna, 3rd ed.,
1900).
BADEN, or BADEN-BADEN (to distinguish it from other places
of the name), a town and fashionable watering-place of Germany,
in the grand-duchy of Baden, 23 m. S. by W. of Karlsruhe, with
which it is connected by a branch of the Mannheim and Basel
railway. Its situation on a hill 600 ft. high, in the beautiful
valley of the Black Forest its extensive pleasure-grounds,
gardens and promenades, and the brilliancy of the life that is
led during the season, have long attracted crowds of visitors
from all parts of the world. The resident population was in
1885, 12,779; in 1895, 14,862; and in 1905, 16,238; but the
number of visitors exceeds 70,000 annually. Until the war of
1870, the prevailing nationality was French, but of late years
Americans, Russians and English are the more numerous. The
hot springs are twenty-nine in number, and vary in temperature
from 37 to 54 R., i.e. from 115 to 153 Fahr. They flow from
the castle rock at the rate of 90 gallons per minute, and the water
is conveyed through the town in pipes to supply the different
baths. There are two chief bathing-establishments, accounted
the most elegant in Europe. The waters of Baden-Baden are
specific in cases of chronic rheumatism and gout, paralysis,
neuralgia, skin diseases and various internal complaints, such
as stone and uric acid. The town proper is on the right bank
of the Oos, but the principal resorts of the visitors are en
the left. A Conversalionshaus and a Trinkhalle or pump-room,
a theatre and a picture-gallery, library and reading-room are
among the chief buildings. The public gaming-tables, which
for so many years were a striking feature, are now abolished.
The only building of much antiquarian interest, with the excep-
tion of the castles, is the parish church, which dates from the
iSth century, and contains the tombs of several of the margraves.
The churches include a Lutheran, an English, in the Norman
style of architecture, and a Russian, with beautiful frescoes;
while on the Michaelsberg is the Greek chapel, with a gilded
dome, which was erected over the tomb of a son of the Rumanian
prince Michel Stourdza, who died here in 1863.
The springs of Baden were known to the Romans, and the
foundation of the town is referred to the emperor Hadrian by
an inscription of somewhat doubtful authenticity. The name
of Aurelia Aquensis was given to it in honour of Aureh'us Severus,
in whose reign it would seem to have been well known. Frag-
ments of its ancient sculptures are still to be seen, and in 1847
remains of Roman vapour baths, well preserved, were discovered
just below the New Castle. From the i4th century down to the
dose of the I7th, Baden was the residence of the margraves,
to whom it gave its name. They first dwelt in the Old Castle,
the ruins of which still occupy the summit of a hill above the
town, but in 1479 they removed to the New Castle, which is
situated on the hill-side nearer to the town, and is remarkable
for its subterranean dungeons. During the Thirty Years' War
Baden suffered severely from the various combatants, but
especially from the French, who pillaged it in 1643, and laid it
in ashes in 1689. The margrave Louis William removed to
Rastatt in 1706. Since the beginning of the igth century the
government has greatly fostered the growth of the town.
See Wettendorfer, Der Kurort Baden-Baden (2nd ed., 1898) ;
Schwarz, Die Heilquellen von Baden-Baden (4th ed., 1902).
BADEN, a town in the Swiss canton of Aargau, on the left bank
of the river Limmat, 14 m. by rail N.W. of Zurich. It is now
chiefly visited by reason of its hot sulphur springs, which are
mentioned by Tacitus (Hist. i. cap. 67) and were very fashionable
in the isth and i6th centuries. They are especially efficacious in
cases of gouty and rheumatic affections, and are much frequented
by Swiss invalids, foreign visitors being but few in number.
They lie a little north of the old town, with which they are now
connected by a fine boulevard. Many Roman remains have been
found in the gardens of the Kursaal. The town is very picturesque,
with its steep and narrow streets, and its one surviving gateway,
while it is dominated on the west by the ruined castle of Stein,
formerly a stronghold of the Habsburgs, but destroyed in 1415
and again in 1712. In 1415 Baden (with the Aargau) was con-
quered by the Eight Swiss Confederates, whose bailiff inhabited
the other castle, on the right bank of the Limmat, which defends
the ancient bridge across that river. As the conquest of the
Aargau was the first made by the Confederates, their delegates
(or the federal diet) naturally met at Baden, from 1426 to about
1712, to settle matters relating to these subject lands, so that
during that period Baden was really the capital of Switzerland.
The diet sat in the old town-hall or Rathaus, where was also signed
in 1714 the treaty of Baden which put an end to the war between
France and the Empire, and thus completed the treaty of Utrecht
(1713). Baden was the capital of the canton of Baden, from
1798 to 1803, when the canton of Aargau was created. To the
N.W. of the baths a new industrial quarter has sprung up of
late years, the largest works being for electric engineering. In
1900 the permanent population of Baden was 6050 (German-
speaking, mainly Romanists, with many Jews), but it is greatly
swelled in summer by the influx of visitors.
One mile S. of Baden, on the Limmat, is the famous Cistercian
monastery of Wettingen (1227-1841 the monks are now at
Mehrerau near Bregenz), with splendid old painted glass in the
cloisters and magnificent early 17th-century carved stalls in
the choir of the church. Six miles W. of Baden is the small
town of Brugg (2345 inhabitants) in a fine position on the Aar,
and close to the remains of the Roman colony of Vindonissa
(Windisch), as well as to the monastery (founded 1310) of
Konigsfelden, formerly the burial-place of the early Habsburgs
(the castle of Habsburg is but a short way off), still retaining
much fine painted glass.
See Barth. Fricker, Geschichte der Stadt und Btider zu Baden
(Aarau, 1880). (W. A. B. C.)
BADEN, GRAND DUCHY OF, a sovereign state of Germany,
lying in the south-west corner of the empire, bounded N. by the
kingdom of Bavaria and the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt;
W. and practically throughout its whole length by the Rhine,
which separates it from the Bavarian Palatinate and the imperial
province of Alsace-Lorraine; S. by Switzerland, and E. by the
kingdom of Wurttemberg and part of Bavaria. The country has
an area of 5823 sq. m. and consists of a considerable portion of
the eastern half of the fertile valley of the Rhine and of the
mountains which form its boundary. The mountainous part is
by far the most extensive, forming, indeed, nearly 80 % of
the whole area. From the Lake of Constance in the south to the
river Neckar in the north is a portion of the Black Forest or
Schwarzwald, which is divided by the valley of the Kinzig into two
districts of different elevation. To the south of the Kinzig the
mean height is 3100 ft., and the loftiest summit, the Feldberg,
reaches about 4898 ft., while to the north the mean height is only
2100 ft., and the Belchen, the culminating point of the whole,
does not exceed 4480 ft. To the north of the Neckar is the
Odenwald Range, with a meanof 1440 ft., and in the Katzenbuckel,
an extreme of 1980 ft. Lying between the Rhine and the Dreisam
is the Kaiserstuhl, an independent volcanic group, nearly 10 m.
in length and 5 in breadth, the highest point of which is 1760 ft.
The greater part of Baden belongs to the basin of the Rhine,
which receives upwards of twenty tributaries from the highlands;
the north-eastern portion of the territory is also watered by the
Main and the Neckar. A part, however, of the eastern slope
of the Black Forest belongs to the basin of the Danube, which
there takes its rise in a number of mountain streams. Among
the numerous lakes which belong to the duchy are the Mummel,
Wilder, Eichener and Schluch, but none of them is of any size.
The Lake of Constance (Boden-See) belongs partly to Bavaria
and Switzerland.
Owing to its physical configuration Baden presents great
extremes of heat and cold. The Rhine valley is the warmest
district in Germany, but the higher elevations of the Black Forest
record the greatest degrees of cold experienced in the south.
The mean temperature of the Rhine valley is approximately
50 F. and that of the high table-land, 43 F. July is the hottest
and January the coldest month in the year.
BADEN
185
The mineral wealth of Baden is not great; but iron, coal,
zinc and lead of excellent quality are produced, and silver,
copper, gold, cobalt, vitriol and sulphur are obtained in small
quantities. Peat is found in abundance, 'as well as gypsum,
china-clay, potters' earth and salt. The mineral springs of Baden
are very numerous and have acquired great celebrity, those of
Baden-Baden, Badenweiler, Antogast, Griesbach, Freiersbach
and Petersthal being the most frequented.
In the valleys the soil is particularly fertile, yielding luxuriant
crops of wheat, maize, barley, spelt, beans, potatoes, flax, hemp,
hops, beetroot and tobacco; and even in the more mountainous
parts rye, wheat and oats are extensively cultivated. There is a
considerable extent of pasture land, and the rearing of cattle,
sheep, pigs and goats is largely practised. Of game, deer, wild
boars, hares, snipe and partridges are fairly abundant, while the
mountain streams yield trout of excellent quality. The culture
of the vine increases, and the wines, which are characterized by
a mildness of flavour, are in good demand. The gardens and
orchards supply great abundance of fruits, especially almonds
and walnuts; and bee-keeping is common throughout the
country. A greater proportion of Baden than cf any other of
the south German states is occupied by forests. ID. these the
predominant trees are the fir and pine, but many others, such as
the chestnut, are well represented. A third, at least, of the
annual supply of timber is exported.
Population. At the beginning of the igth century Baden was
only a margraviate, with an area little exceeding 1300 sq. m., and
a population of 210,000. Since then it has from time to time
acquired additional territory, so that its area now amounts to
5823 sq. m., and its population (1905) to 2,009,320, of whom
about 60 % are Roman Catholics, 37 % Protestants, ij %
Jews, and the remainder of other confessions. Of the population,
about one-half may be classified as rural, i.e. living in communities
of less than 2000 inhabitants; while the density of the popu-
lation is about 330 to the square mile. The country is divided
into the following districts, with the respective chief towns and
populations as shown:
District.
Chief towns.
Pop. (1905).
(i) Mannheim
(2) Karlsruhe
(3) Freiburg-im-Breisgau
(4) Constance
Mannheim
Heidelberg
Karlsruhe
Pforzheim
Freiburg
Constance
162,607
49439
111,200
59-307
74,102
24,818
The capital of the duchy is Karlsruhe, and among important
towns other than the above are Rastatt, Baden-Baden, Bruchsal
and Lahr. The population is most thickly clustered in the north
and in the neighbourhood of the Swiss town of Basel. The
inhabitants of Baden are of various origin those to the north
of the Murg being descended from the Alemanni and those to the
south from the Franks, while the Swabian plateau derives its name
and its population from another race. (See WURTTEMBERG.)
Industries. Of the area, 56-8 % is cultivated and 38 % forest,
but the agricultural industry, which formerly yielded the bulk of
the wealth of the country, is now equalled, if not surpassed, by
the industrial output, which has attained very considerable
dimensions. The chief articles of manufacture are machinery,
woollen and cotton goods, silk ribbons, paper, tobacco, leather,
china, glass, clocks, jewellery and chemicals. Beet sugar is also
largely manufactured, and the inhabitants of the Black Forest
have long been celebrated for their dexterity in the manufacture
of wooden ornaments and toys, musical boxes and organs.
The exports of Baden, which coincide largely with the in-
dustries just mentioned, are of considerable importance, but the
bulk of its trade consists in the transit of goods. The country is
well furnished with roads and railways, the greater proportion
of the latter being in the hands of the state. A line runs the
whole length of the land, for the most part parallel with the
Rhine, while branches cross obliquely from east to west. Mann-
heim is the great emporium for the export of goods down the
Rhine and has a large river traffic. It is also the chief manu-
facturing town of the duchy and the seat of administrative
government for the northern portion of the country.
Education and Religion. The educational establishments of
Baden are numerous and flourishing, and public education is
entirely in the hands of the government. There are two univer-
sities, the Protestant at Heidelberg and the Roman Catholic
at Freiburg-im-Breisgau, and a celebrated technical college at
Karlsruhe. The grand-duke is a Protestant; under him the
Evangelical Church is governed by a nominated council and a
synod consisting of the " prelate," 48 elected, and 7 nominated
lay and clerical members. The Roman Catholic archbishop of
Freiburg is metropolitan of the Upper Rhine.
Constitution and Government. The government of Baden is
an hereditary monarchy, with the executive power vested in the
grand-duke, while the legislative authority is shared by him
with a representative assembly (Landtag) consisting of two
chambers. The upper chamber is composed of all the princes
of the reigning family who are of full age; the chiefs of the
mediatized families; the archbishop of Freiburg; the president
of the Protestant Evangelical church; a deputy from each of the
universities and from the technical high school, eight members
elected by the territorial nobility for four years, three repre-
sentatives of the chamber of commerce, two of that of agri-
culture, one of that of trades, two mayors of municipalities,
one burgomaster of lesser towns, one member of a district council,
and eight members (two of them legal functionaries) nominated
by the grand-duke. The lower chamber consists of 73 popular
representatives, of whom 24 are elected by the burgesses of
certain towns and 49 by the rural communities. Every citizen
of 25 years of age, who has not been convicted and is not a
pauper, has a vote. The elections are, however, indirect; the
citizens nominating the Wahlmanner (deputy electors) and the
latter electing the representatives. The chambers meet at least
every two years. The members of the lower chamber are elected
for four years, half the number retiring at the expiration of every
two years. The executive consists of four departments of state
those of the interior, of foreign affairs and of the grand-ducal
house, of finance, and of justice, ecclesiastical affairs and educa-
tion. The chief sources of revenue are direct and indirect taxes,
domains and railways. The last are worked by the state, and
the sole public debt, amounting to about 22 millions sterling,
is attributable to this head. The supreme' courts of justice of
the duchy are in Karlsruhe, Freiburg, Offenburg, Heidelberg,
Mosbach, Waldshut, Constance and Mannheim, whence appeals
lie to the Reichsgericht (supreme tribunal of the empire) in
Leipzig. By virtue of a convention with Prussia, of 1871, the
Baden army forms a portion of the Prussian army.
History. During the middle ages the district which now
forms the grand-duchy of Baden was ruled by various counts,
prominent among whom were the counts and dukes of Zahringen.
In iii2 Hermann, a son of Hermann, margrave of Verona
(d. 1074), and grandson of Bertold, duke of Carinthia and count
of Zahringen, having inherited some of the German estates of
his family, called himself margrave of Baden, and from this date
the separate history of Baden may be said to begin. Hermann
appears to have called himself by the title of margrave, and not
the more usual title of count, owing to the connexion of his
family with the margraviate of Verona. His son and grandson,
both named Hermann, added to their territories, which about
1200 were divided, and the lines of Baden-Baden and Baden-
Hochberg were founded, the latter of which was divided about a
century later into the branches of Baden-Hochberg and Baden-
Sausenberg. The family of Baden-Baden was very successful
in increasing the area of its possessions, which after several
divisions were united by the margrave Bernard I. in 1391.
Bernard, a soldier of some renown, continued the work of his
predecessors, and obtained other districts, including Baden-
Hochberg, the ruling family of which died out in 1418.
During the isth century a war with the count palatine of the
Rhine deprived Margrave Charles I. (d. 1475) of a part of his
territories, but these losses were more than repaired by his son
and successor, Christopher I. In 1503 the family of Baden-
i86
BADEN
Sausenberg became extinct, and the whole of Baden was united
by Christopher, who divided it, however, before his death in
1527 among his three sons. One of these died childless in
1533, and in 1535 his remaining sons, Bernard and Ernest,
having shared their brother's territories, made a fresh division
and founded the lines of Baden-Baden and Baden-Pforzheim,
called after 1565 Baden-Durlach. Further divisions followed,
and the weakness caused by these partitions was accentuated
by a rivalry between the two main branches of the family.
This culminated in open warfare, and from 1584 to 1622 Baden-
Baden was in the possession of one of the princes of Baden-
Durlach. Religious differences added to this rivalry. During
the period of the Reformation some of the rulers of Baden
adhered to the older and some adopted the newer faith, and the
house was similarly divided during the Thirty Years' War.
Baden suffered severely during this struggle, and both branches
of the family were exiled in turn. The treaty of Westphalia in
1648 restored the status quo, and the family rivalry gradually
died out. During the wars of the reign of Louis XIV. the
margraviate was ravaged by the French troops, and the margrave
of Baden-Baden, Louis 'William (d. 1707), was prominent among
the soldiers who resisted the aggressions of France. In 1771
Augustus George of Baden-Baden died without sons, and his
territories passed to Charles Frederick of Baden-Durlach, who
thus became ruler of the whole of Baden.
Although in 1771 Baden was united under a single ruler it
did not form a compact territory, and its total area was only
about 1350 sq. m. Consisting of a number of isolated districts
lying on either bank of the upper Rhine, it was the work
of Charles Frederick to acquire the intervening stretches of
land, and so to give territorial unity to his country. Beginning
to reign in 1738 and coming of age in 1746, this prince is the
most notable of the rulers of Baden. He was interested in the
development of agriculture and commerce; sought to improve
education and the administration of justice, and was in general
a wise and liberal ruler. His opportunity for territorial aggrand-
dizement came during the Napoleonic wars. When war broke
out between France and Austria in 1792 the Badenese fought for
Austria; consequently their country was devastated and in 1796
the margrave was compelled to pay an indemnity, and to cede
his territories on the left bank of the Rhine to France. Fortune,
however, soon returned to his side. In 1803, largely owing to the
good offices of Alexander I., emperor of Russia, he received the
bishopric of Constance, part of the Rhenish Palatinate, and other
smaller districts, together with the dignity of a prince elector.
Changing sides in 1805 he fought for Napoleon, with the result
that by the peace of Pressburg in that year he obtained the
Breisgau and other territories at the expense of the Habsburgs.
In 1806 he joined the Confederation of the Rhine, declared
himself a sovereign prince, became a grand-duke, and received
other additions of territory. The Baden contingent continued
to assist France, and by the peace of Vienna in 1809 the grand-
duke was rewarded with accessions of territory at the expense
of the kingdom of Wurttemberg. Having quadrupled the area
of Baden, Charles Frederick died in June 1811, and was suc-
ceeded by his grandson, Charles, who was married to Stephanie
de Beauharnais (d. 1860), an adopted daughter of Napoleon.
Charles fought for his father-in-law until after the battle of
Leipzig in 1813, when he joined the Allies.
In 1815 Baden became a member of the Germanic confedera-
tion established by the Act of the 8th of June, annexed to the
Final Act of the congress of Vienna of the 9th of June. In the
hurry of the winding-up of the congress, however, the vexed
question of the succession to the grand-duchy had not been
settled. This was soon to become acute. By the treaty of the
i6th of April 1816, by which the territorial disputes between
Austria and Bavaria were settled, the succession to the Baden
Palatinate was guaranteed to Maximilian I., king of Bavaria, in
the expected event of the extinction of the line of Zahringen.
As a counterblast to this the grand-duke Charles issued in 1817 a
pragmatic sanction (Hausgeselz) declaring the counts of Hochberg,
the issue of a morganatic marriage between the grand-duke Charles
Frederick and Luise Geyer von Geyersberg (created Countess
Hochberg), capable of succeeding to the crown. A controversy
between Bavaria and Baden resulted, which was only decided
in favour of the Hochberg claims by the treaty signed by the
four great powers and Baden at Frankfort on the loth of July
1819. Meanwhile the dispute had produced important effects
in Baden. In order to secure popular support for the Hochberg
heir, Charles in 1818 granted to the grand-duchy, under article
xiii. of the Act of Confederation, a liberal constitution, under
which two chambers were constituted and their assent declared
necessary for legislation and taxation. Ttye outcome was of im-
portance far beyond the narrow limits of the duchy; for all
Germany watched the constitutional experiments of the southern
states. In Baden the conditions were not favourable to success.
The people, belonging to the " Celtic fringe " of Germany, had
fallen during the revolutionary period completely under the
influence of French ideas, and this was sufficiently illustrated
by the temper of the new chambers, which tended to model
their activity on the proceedings of the Convention in the earlier
days of the French Revolution. On the other hand, the new
grand-duke Louis, who had succeeded in 1818, was unpopular,
and the administration was in the hands of hide-bound and
inefficient bureaucrats. The result was a deadlock; and, even
before the promulgation of the Carlsbad decrees in October
1819 the grand-duke had prorogued the chambers, after three
months of sterile debate. The reaction that followed was as
severe in Baden as elsewhere in Germany, and culminated in
1823, when, on the refusal of the chambers to vote the military
budget, the grand-duke dissolved them and levied the taxes on
his own authority. In January 1825, owing to official pressure,
only three Liberals were returned to the chamber; a law was
passed making the budget presentable only every three years,
and the constitution ceased to have any active existence.
In 1830 Louis was succeeded as grand-duke by his half-brother
Leopold, the first of the Hochberg line. The July Revolution
led to no disturbances in Baden; but the new grand-duke from
the first showed liberal tendencies. The elections of 1830 were
not interfered with; and the result was the return of a Liberal
majority. The next few years saw the introduction, under
successive ministries, of Liberal reforms in the constitution, in
criminal and civil law, and in education. In 1832 the adhesion
of Baden to the Prussian Zollverein did much for the material
prosperity of the country. With the approach of the revolution-
ary year 1848, however, Radicalism once more began to lift up
its head. At a popular demonstration held at Offenburg on the
1 2th of September 1847, resolutions were passed demanding the
conversion of the regular army into a national militia which
should take an oath to the constitution, a progressive income-
tax and a fair adjustment of the interests of capital -and labour.
The news of the revolution of February 1848 in Paris brought
this agitation to a head. Numerous public meetings were held
at which the Offenburg programme was adopted, and on the 4th
of March, under the influence of the popular excitement, it was
accepted almost unanimously by the lower chamber. As in
other German states, the government bowed to the storm,
proclaimed an amnesty and promised reforms. The ministry
was remodelled in a more Liberal direction; and a new delegate
was sent to the federal diet at Frankfort, empowered to vote
for the establishment of a parliament for united Germany.
The disorders, fomented by republican agitators, none the less
continued; and the efforts of the government to suppress them
with the aid of federal troops led to an armed insurrection. For
the time this was mastered without much difficulty; the in-
surgents were beaten at Kandern on the 2Oth of April; Freiburg,
which they held, fell on the 24th; and on the 27th a Franco-
German " legion," which had invaded Baden from Strassburg,
was routed at Dossenbach.
At the beginning of 1849, however, the issue of a new consti-
tution, in accordance with the resolutions of the Frankfort
parliament, led to more serious trouble. It did little to satisfy
the Radicals, who were angered by the refusal of the second
chamber to agree to their proposal for the summoning of a
BADEN
187
constituent assembly (loth of February 1849). The new in-
surrection that now broke out was a more formidable affair than
the first. A military mutiny at Rastatt on the 1 1 th of May showed
that the army sympathized with the revolution, which was
proclaimed two days later at Offenburg amid tumultuous scenes.
On the same day (i3th of May) a mutiny at Karlsruhe forced
the grand-duke to take to flight, and the next day he was followed
by the ministers, while a committee of the diet under Lorenz
Brentano (1813-1801), who represented the more moderate
Radicals as against the republicans, established itself in the
capital to attempt to direct affairs pending the establishment of
a provisional government. This was accomplished on the ist of
June, and on the loth the " constituent diet," consisting entirely
of the most " advanced " politicians, assembled. It had little
chance of doing more than make speeches; the country was in
the hands of an armed mob of civilians and mutinous soldiers;
and, meanwhile, the grand-duke of Baden had joined with
Bavaria in requesting the armed intervention of Prussia, which
was granted on the condition that Baden should join the League
of the Three Kings.
From this moment the revolution in Baden was doomed, and
with it the revolution in all Germany. The Prussians, under
Prince William (afterwards emperor), invaded Baden in the
middle of June. The insurgent forces were under the command
of the Pole, Ludwig von Mieroslawski (1814-1878), who reduced
them to some semblance of order. On the 2oth he met the
Prussians at Waghausel, and was completely defeated; on the
25th Prince William entered Karlsruhe; and at the end of the
month the members of the provisional government, who had taken
refuge at Freiburg, dispersed. Such of the insurgent leaders as
were caught, notably the ex-officers, suffered military execution;
the army was dispersed among Prussian garrison towns; and
Baden was occupied for the time by Prussian troops. The
grand-duke returned on the igth of August, and at once dissolved
the diet. The elections resulted in a majority favourable to the
new ministry, and a series of laws were passed of a reactionary
tendency with a view to strengthening the government.
The grand-duke Leopold died on the 24th of April 1852, and
was succeeded by his second son, Frederick, as regent, the eldest,
Louis (d. 22nd of January 1858), being incapable of ruling. 1
The internal affairs of Baden during the period that followed
have comparatively little general interest. In the greater
politics of Germany, Baden, between 1850 and 1866, was a con-
sistent supporter of Austria; and in the war of 1866 her con-
tingents, under Prince William, had two sharp engagements
with the Prussian army of the Main. Two days before the
affair of Werbach (24th of July), however, the second chamber
had petitioned the grand-duke to end the war and enter into
an offensive and defensive alliance with Prussia. The grand-duke
had from the first been opposed to the war with Prussia, but
had been forced to yield owing to popular resentment at the
policy of Prussia in the Schleswig-Holstein question (<?..). The
ministry, now at one, resigned; Baden announced her with-
drawal from the German confederation; and on the 17th of
August a treaty of peace and alliance was signed with Prussia.
The adhesion of Baden to the North German confederation was
prevented by Bismarck himself, who had no wish to give
Napoleon III. so good an excuse for intervention; but it was
the opposition of Baden to the formation of a South German
confederation that made the ultimate union inevitable. The
troops of Baden took a conspicuous share in the war of 1870;
and it was the grand-duke of Baden, who, in the historic assembly
of the German princes at Versailles, was the first to hail the king
of Prussia as German emperor.
The internal politics of Baden, both before and after 1870,
centre in the main round the question of religion. The signing
on the 28th of June 1859 of a concordat with the Holy See, by
which education was placed under the oversight of the clergy
and the establishment of religious orders was facilitated, led to
a constitutional struggle, which ended in 1863 with the victory
1 Frederick assumed the title of grand-duke on the 5th of
September 1856.
of Liberal principles, the communes being made responsible for
education, though the priests were admitted to a share in the
management. The quarrel between Liberalism and Clericalism
was, however, not ended. In 1867, on the accession to the
premiership of Julius von Jolly (1823-1891), several constitu-
tional changes in a Liberal direction were made; responsibility
of ministers, freedom of the press, compulsory education. In
the same year (6th of September) a law was passed to compel all
candidates for the priesthood to pass the government examina-
tions. The archbishop of Freiburg resisted, and, on his death in
April 1868, the see was left vacant. In 1869 the introduction of
civil marriage did not tend to allay the strife, which reached its
climax after the proclamation of the dogma of papal infallibility
in 1870. The " Kulturkampf " raged in Baden, as in the rest
of Germany; and here as elsewhere the government encouraged
the formation of Old Catholic communities. Not till 1880, after
the fall of the ministry of Jolly, was a reconciliation with Rome
effected; in 1882 the archbishopric of Freiburg was again filled
up. The political tendency of Baden, meanwhile, mirrored
that of all Germany. In 1891 the National Liberals had but a
majority of one in the diet; from 1893 they could maintain them-
selves only with the aid of the Conservatives; and in 1897 a coali-
tion of Ultramontanes, Socialists, Social-democrats and Radicals
(Freisinrtige) , won a majority for the opposition in the chamber.
Amid all these contests the wise and statesmanlike moderation
of the grand-duke Frederick won him universal esteem. By
the treaty under which Baden had become an integral part of
the German empire, he had reserved only the exclusive right to
tax beer and spirits; the army, the post-office, railways and the
conduct of foreign relations were placed under the effective
control of Prussia. In his relations with the German empire,
too, Frederick proved himself rather a great German noble than
a sovereign prince actuated by particularist ambitions; and his
position as husband of the emperor William I.'s only daughter,
Louise (whom he had married in 1856), gave him a peculiar
influence in the councils of Berlin. When, on the 2oth of Sep-
tember 1906, the grand-duke celebrated at once the jubilee of
his reign and his golden wedding, all Europe combined to do
him honour. King Edward VII. sent him, by the hands of the
duke of Connaught, the order of the Garter. But more significant,
perhaps, was the tribute paid by the Temps, the leading Parisian
paper. " Nothing more clearly demonstrates the sterile paradox
of the Napoleonic work," it wrote, " than the history of the
grand-duchy. It was Napoleon, and he alone, who created this
whole state in 1803 to reward in the person of the little margrave
of Baden a relative of the emperor of Russia. It was he who
after Austerlitz aggrandized the margravate at the expense of
Austria; transformed it into a sovereign principality and raised
it to a grand-duchy. It was he too who, by the seculariza-
tion on the one hand and by the dismemberment of Wurttem-
berg on the other, gave the grand-duke 500,000 new subjects.
He believed that the recognition of the prince and the artificial
ethnical formation of the principality would be pledges of
security for France. But in 1813 Baden joined the coalition,
and since then that nation created of odds and ends (de brie et
de broc) and always handsomely treated by us, had not ceased
to take a leading part in the struggles against our country.
The grand-duke Frederick, grand-duke by the will of Napoleon,
has done France all the harm he could. But French opinion
itself renders justice to the probity of his character and to the
ardour of his patriotism, and nobody will feel surprise at the
homage with which Germany feels bound to surround his old
age." He died at Mainau on the 28th of September 1007, and
was succeeded by his son, the grand-duke Frederick II.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Das Grossherzogtum Baden in geographischer
. . . Hinsicht dargeslellt (Karlsruhe, 1885); Wielandt, Das Staats-
rechi des Grossherzogtums Baden (Freiburg, '895) ; F. von Weech,
Badische Geschichte (Karlsruhe, 1890); Die Zdhringer in Baden
(Karlsruhe, 1881); Baden unter den Grossherzogen Karl Friedrich.
Karl Ludwig (Freiburg, 1863); Geschichte der badischen Verfassung
(Karlsruhe, 1868); and Baden in den Jahren 1852 bis 1877 (Karls-
ruhe, 1877); C. F. Nebenius and F. von Weech, Karl Friedrich von
Baden (Karlsruhe, 1868); L. H. Hausser, Denkwiirdigkeiten zur
Geschichte der badischen Revolution (Heidelberg, 1851); L. Milller,
i88
BADENOCH BADHAM
Badische Landtagsgeschichte (Berlin, 1899-1002); E. von Chrismar,
Genealogie des Gesamthauscs Baden vom 10. Jahrhundert bis heute
(Gotha, 1892) ; E. H. Meyer, Badisches Volksleben im 19. Jahrhundert
(Strassburg, 1900) ; F. J. Mone, Quellensammlung zur badischen
Landesgeschichte (Karlsruhe, 1848-1867); Badische Biographien,
edited by F. von Weech (Karlsruhe, 1875-1891).
BADENOCH, a district of south-east Inverness-shire, Scotland,
bounded on the N. by the Monadhliath mountains, on the E. by
the Cairngorms and Braemar, on the S. by Athbll and the
Grampians, and on the W. by Lochaber. Its area is somewhat
undefined, but it may be estimated to measure 36 m. from N.E.
to S.W. and ism. from N. to S. Excepting the valley of the
Spey and the great glens, it is almost entirely a wild mountainous
tract, many hills exceeding 3000 ft. in height, and contains in
the forests of Alder, Drumochter, Gaick and Feshie some of
the best deer country in the Highlands. Loch Laggan and Loch
Ericht are the principal takes, and the district is abundantly
watered by the Spey and its numerous tributaries. It is
traversed, from Dalnaspidal to Boat of Garten, by the Highland
railway. There are very few industries, and population groups
itself at Kingussie and other places on or near the Spey. From
1229 to 1313 the lordship of Badenoch was owned by the Comyns.
In 1371 Robert II. granted it to his son Alexander Stewart,
ist earl of Buchan (1343-1405), the " Wolf of Badenoch."
Reverting to the crown, it was bestowed in 1452 upon the ist
earl of Huntly, and still gives the title of lord of Badenoch to
the marquess of Huntly.
BADENWEILER, a health resort and watering place of the
grand-duchy of Baden, Germany, 28 m. N. by E. by rail from
Basel, at the western edge of the Black Forest. It is sheltered
by the Blauen (3820 ft.) and the climate is excellent. Its new
parish (Evangelical) church (1897) is built at the foot of the
nth-century castle which belonged to the margraves of Baden,
and was destroyed by the French during the wars of Louis XV.
The place is visited by 5000 people annually, partly for its warm
mineral springs (70 F.), partly for its whey cure, and partly on
account of its equable climate and picturesque surroundings.
There are a Kurhaus, built in 1853, and a park of 15 acres;
also a grand-ducal castle, refitted in 1887-1888. In 1784 well-
preserved Roman baths were discovered here. The permanent
population is about 600.
BADGER, the common name for any animal of the Musteline
subfamily Melinae or the typical genus Meles (see CARNIVORA).
The name is probably derived from " badge," device, on account
of the marks on the head; or it may be identical with the term
separately noticed below, the French blaireau being used in both
senses. The members of the typical genus have the lower jaw so
articulated to the upper, by means of a transverse condyle firmly
locked into a long cavity of the cranium, that dislocation of the
jaw is all but impossible, and this enables those creatures to main-
tain their hold with the utmost tenacity. The European badger
(Meles taxus or M . meles) is from 25 in. to 29 in. long, with a tail
of about 8 in. ; the general hue of the fur is grey above and black
on the under parts; the head is white, with a black stripe on each
side. In habits it may be taken as typical of the subfamily. It
is nowhere abundant, but is found over the northern parts of
Europe and Asia, and is a quiet, inoffensive animal, nocturnal
and solitary in its habits, sleeping by day in its burrow, and
issuing forth at night to feed on roots, beech-mast, fruits, the eggs
of birds, small quadrupeds, frogs and insects. It is said also to
dig up the nests of wasps in order to eat the larvae, as the ratel
a closely allied South African form is said to rob the bees of
their honey. The male and female are seldom seen together, and
are supposed to trace each other by the odour of the secretion
in the anal glands. Fossil remains of the badger have been
found in England in deposits of Pleistocene age. In eastern
Persia this species is replaced by the Persian badger (M . canescens) ;
two species the white-tailed badger (M. leucurus) and the
Chinese badger (M. chinensis) occur in eastern Asia; and
another (M. anacuma) is found in Japan. The American badger
(Taxidea americana) ranges over the greater part of the United
States, and in habits closely resembles the European species,
but seems to be more carnivorous. When badgers were more
abundant than they now are, their skins, dressed with the hair
attached, were commonly used for pistol furniture. They are
now chiefly valued for the hair, that of the European badger being
used in the manufacture of the best shaving-brushes while the
softer hair of the American species is employed for the same
purpose, and also for painters' pencils, and the fur is used for
articles of ladies' apparel and trimmings. The Malay badger
(Mydaus meliceps) is confined to the mountains of Java (where
it is called the teledu), Sumatra and Borneo. The head and body
are about 15 in. long, and the tail no more than an inch; the fur
is dark brown, with the top of the head, neck and a broad dorsal
stripe, white. Like the skunk, this animal can eject the foetid
secretion of the anal glands. The sand-badgers (Arctonyx) are
Asiatic; the best-known species (A. collaris) ranges from the
eastern Himalayas to Burma; the smaller A. taxoides is found in
Assam, Arakan and perhaps in China; and there is probably
another in Tibet. In these the tail is much longer in proportion to
the body than in the rest of the group.
The badger does not usually seek to attack, but, when driven
to bay, its great muscular power and tough hide render it a for-
midable antagonist. The cruel sport of badger-drawing was for-
merly popular throughout Great Britain, but was prohibited
about the middle of the igth century, together with bear-baiting
and bull-baiting. The badger-ward, who was usually attached
to a bear-garden, kept his badger in a large box. Whenever a
drawing was arranged, bets were made as to how many times the
dog, usually a bull-terrier, would draw the badger, i.e. pull it out
of its box, within a given number of minutes. As soon as the dog
succeeded in doing this the animals were parted, often by the
attendants biting their tails, and the badger was again shut up
in his box, which, at a signal from the time-keeper, was again
opened. Another method of baiting this animal is thus described
in the Encyclopaedia of Sport: " They dig a place in the earth
about a yard long, so that one end is four feet deep. At this end
a strong stake is driven down. Then the badger's tail is split, a
chain put through it, and fastened to the stake with such ability
that the badger can come up to the other end of the place. The
dogs are brought and set upon the poor animal who sometimes
destroys several dogs before it is killed." The colloquial " to
badger " (i.e. worry or tease) is a metaphorical derivative, and
" drawing a badger" is similarly used in a figurative sense.
BADGER, a term of uncertain derivation (possibly derived
from bagger, in allusion to the hawker's bag) for a dealer in food,
such as corn or victuals (more expressly, fish, butter or cheese),
which he has purchased in one place and brought for sale to
another place; an itinerant dealer, corresponding to the modern
hawker or huckster. An English statute of 1552 which sum-
marized, and prescribed penalties against, the offences of en-
grossing, forestalling and regrating, specially exempted badgers
from these penalties, but required them to be licensed by three
justices of the peace for the county in which they dwelt. A
statute of 1 562-1 563, after declaring that many people took up the
trade of badgering " seeking only to live easily and to leave their
honest labour," enacted that badgers should be licensed for a
year only, should be householders of three years' standing in the
county in which they were licensed, and should enter into re-
cognizances not to engross or forestall. An act of 1844 abolished
the offence of badgering, and repealed the statutes passed in
relation to it. The word is still in common use in country
districts.
BADGHIS (" home of the winds ") , a district on the north-west of
Afghanistan, between the Murghab and Hari Rud rivers, extend-
ing as far northward as the edge of the desert of Sarakhs. It
includes the Chul formations through which the Russo-Afghan
boundary runs. This region was surveyed by the boundary com-
mission of 1885. Since that date it has been largely settled by
the amir with purely Afghan tribes.
BADHAM, CHARLES (1813-1884), English scholar, was born
at Ludlow, in Shropshire, on the i8th of July 1813. His father,
Charles Badham, translator of Juvenal and an excellent classical
scholar, was regius professor of physic at Glasgow; his mother
was a cousin of Thomas Campbell, the poet. When about seven
BADIUS BADMINTON
189
years old, Badham was sent to Switzerland, where he became a
pupil of Pestalozzi. He was afterwards transferred to Eton,
and in 1830 was elected to a scholarship at Wadham College,
Oxford, but only obtained a third class in classics (1836), a
failure which may have been due to his dislike of the methods of
study then in fashion at Oxford, at a time when classical scholar-
ship was in a very unsatisfactory condition. Shortly after taking
his degree in 1837 Badham went to Italy, where he occupied
himself in the study of ancient MSS., in particular those of the
Vatican library. It was here that he began a life-long friendship
with G. C. Cobet. He afterwards spent some time in Germany,
and on his return to England was incorporated M.A. at Peter-
house, Cambridge, in 1847. Having taken holy orders, he was
appointed headmaster of Louth grammar school, Lincolnshire
(1851-1854), and subsequently headmaster of Edgbaston
proprietary school, near Birmingham. In the interval he had
taken the degree of D.D. at Cambridge (1852). In 1860 he
received the honorary degree of doctor of letters at the university
of Leiden. In 1866 he left England to take up the professorship
of classics and logic in Sydney University, which he held until
his death on the 26th of February 1884. He was twice married.
Dr Badham's classical attainments were recognized by the most
famous European critics, such as G. C. Cobet, Ludwig Preller,
W. Dindorf, F. W. Schneidewin, J. A. F. Meineke, A. Ritschl
and Tischendorf. Like many schoolmasters who are good
scholars and even good teachers, he was not a professional
success; and his hasty temper and dislike of anything approach-
ing disingenuousness may have stood in the way of his advance-
ment. But it is strange that a scholar and textual critic of his
eminence and of European reputation should have made com-
paratively little mark in his native country. He published
editions of Euripides, Helena and Iphigenia in Tauris (1851),
Ion (1851); Plato's Philebus (1855, 1878); Laches and Euthy-
demus (1865), Phaedrus (1851), Symposium (1866) and De
Platonis Epistolis (1866). He also contributed to Mnemosyne
(Cobet's journal) and other classical periodicals. His Adhortatio
ad Discipulos Academiae Sydniensis (1869) contains a number of
emendations of Thucydides and other classical authors. He
also published an article on " The Text of Shakespere " in
Cambridge Essays (1856); Criticism applied to Shakespere
(1846) ; Thoughts on Classical and Commercial Education (1864).
A collected edition of his Speeches and Lectures delivered in
Australia (Sydney, 1890) contains a memoir by Thomas Butler.
BADIUS, JODOCUS or JOSSE (1462-1535), sometimes called
BADIUS ASCENSIUS from the village of Asche, near Brussels,
where he was born, an eminent printer at Paris, whose establish-
ment was celebrated under the name of Prelum Ascensianum.
He was himself a scholar of considerable repute, had studied at
Brussels and Ferrara, and before settling in Paris, had taught
Greek for several years at Lyons. He illustrated with notes
several of the classics which he printed, and was the author of
numerous pieces, amongst which are a life of Thomas a Kempis,
and a satire on the follies of women, entitled Navicula Stultarum
Mulierum.
BADLESMERE, BARTHOLOMEW, BARON (1275-1322),
English nobleman, was the son and heir of Gunselm de Badles-
mere (d. 1301), and fought in the English army both in France
and Scotland during the later years of the reign of Edward I.
In 1307 he became governor of Bristol Castle, and afterwards
Edward II. appointed him steward of his household; but these
marks of favour did not prevent him from making a compact
with some other noblemen to gain supreme influence in the royal
council. Although very hostile to Earl Thomas of Lancaster,
Badlesmere helped to make peace between the king and the earl
in 1318, and was a member of the middle party which detested
alike Edward's minions, like the Despensers, and his violent
enemies like Lancaster. The king's conduct, however, drew
him to the side of the earl, and he had already joined Edward's
enemies when, in October 1321, his wife, Margaret de Clare,
refused to admit Queen Isabella to her husband's castle at
Leeds in Kent. The king captured the castle, seized and im-
prisoned Lady Badlesmere, and civil war began. After the
defeat of Lancaster at Boroughbridge, Badlesmere was taken
and hanged at Canterbury on the 141)1 of April 1322. His son
and heir, Giles, died without children in 1338.
BADMINTON, or GREAT BADMINTON, a village in the southern
parliamentary division of Gloucestershire, England, 100 m. W.
of London by the Great Western railway (direct line to south
Wales). Here is Badminton House, the seat of the dukes of
Beaufort, standing in a park some 10 m. in circumference.
The manor of Badminton was acquired in 1608 from Nicolas
Boteler (to whose family it had belonged for several centuries)
by Thomas, Viscount Somerset (d. 1650 or 1651), third son of
Edward, 4th earl of Worcester, and was given by his daughter
and heiress Elizabeth to Henry Somerset, 3rd marquess of
Worcester and ist duke of Beaufort (1620-1699), who built the
present mansion (1682) on the site of the old manor house. It is
a stone building in Palladian style, and contains a number of
splendid paintings and much fine wood-carving. The parish
church of St. Michael stands close to it. This is a Grecian build-
ing (1785), with a richly ornamented ceiling and inlaid altar-
pavement; it also contains much fine sculpture in the memorials
to former dukes, and is the burial-place of Field Marshal Lord
Raglan, who was the youngest son of the 5th duke of Beaufort.
Raglan Castle, near Monmouth, now a beautiful ruin, was the
seat of the earls and the ist marquess of Worcester, until it was
besieged by the Parliamentarians in 1646, and after its capitula-
tion was dismantled.
BADMINTON, a game played with rackets and shuttlecocks,
its name being taken from the duke of Beaufort's seat in
Gloucestershire. The game appears to have been first played
in England about 1873, but before that time it was played in
India, where it is still very popular. The Badminton Association
in England was founded in 1895, and its laws were framed from
a code of rules drawn up in 1887 for the Bath Badminton Club
and based on the original Poona (1876) rules. In England the
game is almost always played in a covered court. The All
England championships for gentlemen's doubles, ladies' doubles,
and mixed doubles were instituted in 1899, and for gentlemen's
singles and ladies' singles in 1900; and the first championship
between England and Ireland was played in 1904. Badminton
may be played by daylight or by artificial light, either with two
players on each side (the four-handed or double game) or with
one player on each side (the two-handed or single game). The
game consists entirely of volleying and is extremely fast, a
single at Badminton being admitted to require more staying
power than a single at lawn tennis. There is much scope for
judgment and skill, e.g. in " dropping " (hitting the shuttle
Diagram of Court. In the two-
handed game, the width of the '
court is reduced to 17 ft. and
the long service lines are dis-
pensed with, the back boundary
lines being used as the long
service lines, and the lines
dividing the half courts being
produced to meet the back
boundary lines. The net posts '
are placed either on the side
boundary lines or at any dis-
tance not exceeding 2 ft. outside '
the said lines; thus in the four-
handed game, the distance be-
tween the posts is from 20 to
24 ft., and in the two-handed
pame, from 17 to 21 ft. N.B.
With the exception of the net
line, the dotted lines on the
court apply only to the court for '
the two-handed game.
4. . ,1*-.- , n
Back Boundary Line
Long Ser
'ice Line
Right half
Left half
court
court
Short Service Line
eY*
-
Net
-
Short Service Line
Left half
Right half
13
court
court
a 6,
LOR* Si t
rice Line
Back Boundary Line
gently just over the net) and in " smashing " (hitting the shuttle
with a hard downward stroke). The measurements of the court
are shown on the accompanying plan.
The Badminton hall should be not less than 18 ft. high. Along
the net line is stretched a net 30 in. deep, from 17 to 24 ft. long
according to the position of the posts, and edged on the top with
white tape 3 in. wide. The top of the net should be 5 ft. from
190
BADNUR BADULLA
the ground at the centre and 5 ft. i in. at the posts. The shuttle-
cock (or shuttle) has 16 feathers from 25 to af in. long; and weighs
from 73 to 85 grains. The racket (which is of no specified size,
shape or weight) is strung with strong fine gut and weighs as a
rule about 6 oz.
The game is for 15 or, rarely, for 21 aces, except in ladies'
singles, when it is for n aces; and a rubber is the best of three
games. Games of 2 1 aces are played only and always in matches
decided by a single game, and generally in handicap contests.
The right to choose ends or to serve first in the first game of the
rubber is decided by tossing. If the side which wins the toss
chooses first service, the other side chooses ends, and vice versa;
but the side which wins the toss may call upon the other side
to make first choice. The sides change ends at the beginning
of the second game, and again at the beginning of the third
game, if a third game is necessary. In the third game the sides
change ends when the side which is leading reaches 8 in a game
of 15 aces, and 6 in a game of n aces, or, in handicap games,
when the score of either side reaches half the number of aces
required to win the game. In matches of one game (21 aces)
the sides change ends when the side which is leading has scored
1 1 aces. The side winning a game serves first in the next game,
and, in the four-handed game, either player on the side that has
won the last game may take first service in the next game.
In a game of 15 aces, when the score is " 13 all " the side
which first reaches 13 has the option of " setting " the game to
5, and when the score is " 14 all " the side which first reaches 14
has the option of " setting " the game to 3, i.e. the side which
first scores 5 or 3 aces, according as the game has been " set "
at " 13 all " or " 14 all," wins. In ladies' singles, when the score
is " 9 all " the side first reaching 9 may " set " the game to 5,
and when the score is " 10 all " the side which first reaches 10
may " set " the game to 3. In games of 21 aces, the game may
be " set " to 5 at " 19 all " and to 3 at " 20 all." There is no
" setting " in handicap games.
In the four-handed game, the player who serves first stands
in his right-hand half court and serves to the player who is
standing in the opposite right-hand half court, the other players
meanwhile standing anywhere on their side of the net. As soon
as the shuttle is hit by the server's racket, all the players may
stand anywhere on their side of the net. If the player served
to returns the shuttle, i.e. hits it into any part of his opponents'
court before it touches the ground, it has to be returned by one
of the " in " (serving) side, and then by one of the " out "
(non-serving) side, and so on, until a " fault " is made or the
shuttle ceases to be " in play." * If the " in " side makes a
" fault," the server loses his " hand " (serve), and the player
served to becomes the server; but no score accrues. If the
" out " side makes a " fault," the " in " side scores an ace, and
the players on the " in " side change half courts, the server then
serving from his left half court to the player in the opposite
left half court, who has not yet been served to. Only the player
served to may take the service, and only the " in " side can score
an ace. The first service in each innings is made from the right-
hand half court. The side that starts a game has only one
" hand " in its first innings; in every subsequent innings each
player on each side has a " hand," the partners serving con-
secutively. While a side remains " in," service is made alter-
nately from each half court into the half court diagonally
opposite, the change of half courts taking place whenever an
ace is scored. If, in play, the shuttle strikes the net but still
goes over, the stroke is good; but. if this happens in service
and the service is otherwise good, it is a " let," i.e. the stroke
does not count, and the server must serve again, even if the shuttle
has been struck by the player served to, in which case it is
assumed that the shuttle would have fallen into the proper
half court. It is a " let," too, if the server, in attempting to
serve, misses the shuttle altogether. It is a good stroke, in service
or in play, if the shuttle falls on a line, or, in play, if it is followed
1 The shuttle is " in play " from the time it is struck by the server's
racket until it touches the ground, or touches the net without going
over, or until a " fault " is made.
over the net with the striker's racket, or passes outside either
of the net posts and then drops inside any of the boundary lines
of the opposite court. Mutatis mutandis, the above remarks
apply to the two-handed game, the main points of difference
being that, in the two-handed game, both sides change half
courts after each ace is scored and the same player takes con-
secutive serves, whereas in the double game only the serving
side changes half courts at an added ace and a player may not
take two consecutive serves in the same game.
It is a " fault " (a) if the service is overhand, i.e. if the shuttle
when struck is higher than the server's waist; (b) if, in serving,
the shuttle does not fall into the half court diagonally opposite
that from which service is made; (c) if, before the shuttle is
struck by the server, both feet of the server and of the player
served to are not inside their respective half courts, a foot on
a line being deemed out of court; (d) if, in play, the shuttle
falls outside the court, or, in service or play, passes through or
under the net, or hangs in the net, or touches the roof or side
walls of the hall or the person or dress of any player; (e) if the
shuttle " in play " is hit before it reaches the striker's side;
(/) if, when the shuttle is " in play," a player touches the net or
its supports with his racket, person or dress; (g) if the shuttle
is struck twice successively by the same player, or if it is struck
by a player and his partner successively, or if it is not distinctly
hit, i.e. if it is merely caught on the racket and spooned over the
net; (K) if a player wilfully obstructs his opponent.
For full information on the laws of the game the reader is referred
to the Laws of Badminton and the Rules of the Badminton Association,
published annually (London). See also an article by S. M. Massey
in the Badminton Magazine (February 1907), reprinted in a slightly
revised form in the Badminton Gazette (November 1907). Until
October 1907 Lawn Tennis and Badminton was the official organ
of the Badminton Association; in November 1907 the Badminton
Gazette became the official organ.
BADNUR, a town of British India, the headquarters of the
district of Betul in the Central Provinces. It consists, besides
the European houses, of two bazaars. Pop. (1901) 5766. There
is a good serai or inn for native travellers, and a dak bungalow or
resting-place for Europeans. Not far from Badnur is Kherla,
the former residence of the Gond rajas, where there is an old
fort, now in ruins, which used to be held by them.
BADRINATH, a village and celebrated temple in British India,
in the Garhwal district of the United Provinces. It is situated
on the right bank of the Vishnuganga, a tributary of the Alak-
nanda river, in the middle of a valley nearly 4 m. in length and
i in breadth. The village is small, containing only twenty or
thirty huts, in which reside the Brahmans and the attendants
of the temple. This building, which is considered a place of
high sanctity, is by no means equal to its great celebrity. It
is about 40 or 50 ft. in height, built in the form of a cone, with
a small cupola, on the top of which is a gilt ball and spire, and
contains the shrine of Badrinath, dedicated to an incarnation of
Vishnu. The principal idol is of black stone and is 3 ft. in height.
Badrinath is a favourite resort of pilgrims from all parts of
India. In ordinary years the number varies from 7000 to
10,000; but every twelfth year, when the festival of Kumbh-
mela is celebrated, the concourse of persons is said to be 50,000.
In addition to the gifts of votaries, the temple enjoys a further
source of revenue from the rents of villages assigned by former
rajas. Successive temples have been shattered by avalanches,
and the existing building is modern. It is situated among
mountains rising 23,000 ft. above the level of the sea. Elevation
of the site of the temple, 10,294 ft.
BADULLA, the capital of the province of Uva, Ceylon, 54 m.
S. E. of Kandy. It is the seat of a government agent and district
judge, besides minor courts. It was in Kandyan times the home
of a prince who ruled Uva as a principality. Badulla stands
2222 ft. above sea-level; the average annual rainfall is 79 J in.;
the average temperature, 73. The population of the town in
1901 was 5924; of the Badulla district, 186,674. There is a
botanic garden; and the town, being almost encircled by a
river the Badullaeya and overshadowed by the Naminacooly
Kande range of mountains (highest peak 6680 ft.), is very
BAEDEKER BAETYLUS
191
picturesquely situated. The railway terminus at Bandarawella
is 18 m. from Badulla. Tea is cultivated by the planters, and
rice, fruit and vegetables by the natives in the district.
BAEDEKER, KARL (1801-1859), German publisher, was born
at Essen on the 3rd of November 1801. His father had a printing
establishment and book-shop there, and Karl followed the same
business independently in Coblenz. Here he began to issue the
first of the series of guide-books with which his name is associated.
They followed the model of the English series instituted by John
Murray, but developed in the course of years so as to cover the
greater part of the civilized world, and later were issued in
English and French as well as German. Baedeker's son Fritz
carried on the business, which in 1872 was transferred to Leipzig.
BAEHR, JOHANN CHRISTIAN FELIX (1798-1872), German
philologist, was born at Darmstadt on the I3th of June 1798.
He studied at the university of Heidelberg where he was
appointed professor of classical philology in 1823, chief librarian
in 1832, and on the retirement of G. F. Creuzer became director
of the philological seminary. He died at Heidelberg on the 2gth
of November 1872. His earliest works were editions of Plutarch's
Alcibiades (1822), Philopoemen, Flamininus, Pyrrhus (1826), the
fragments of Ctesias (1824), and Herodotus (1830-1835, 1855-
1862) . But most important of all were his works on Roman litera-
ture and humanistic studies in the middle ages: Geschichte der
romischen Litteratur (4th ed., 1868-1870), and the supplementary
volumes, Die ckristlichen Dichter und Geschichtschreiber Roms
(znd ed.,i872), Die chrisllich-romische Theologie (1837), Geschichte
der rdmisclten Lilteralur im karolingischen Zeilalter (1840).
BAEL FRUIT (Aegle marmelos). Aegle is a genus of the
botanical natural order Rutaceae, containing two species in
tropical Asia and one in west tropical Africa. The plants are
trees bearing strong spines, with alternate, compound leaves
each with three leaflets and panicles of sweet-scented white
flowers. Aegle marmelos, the bael- or bel-fruit tree (also known
as Bengal quince), is found wild or cultivated throughout India.
The tree is valued for its fruit, which is oblong to pyriform in
shape, 2-5 in. in diameter, and has a grey or yellow rind and a
sweet, thick orange-coloured pulp. The unripe fruit is cut up
in slices, sun-dried and used as an astringent; the ripe fruit is
described as sweet, aromatic and cooling. The wood is yellowish-
white, and hard but not durable. The name Aegle is from one
of the Hesperides, in reference to the golden fruit; marmelos is
Portuguese for quince.
BAENA.a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cordova;
32 m. by road S.E. of the city of Cordova. Pop. (1900) 14,539.
Baena is picturesquely situated near the river Marbella, on the
slope of a hill crowned with a castle, which formerly belonged
to the famous captain Gonzalo de Cordova. Farming, horse-
breeding, linen-weaving and the manufacture of olive-oil are
the chief local industries. The nearest railway station is Luque
(pop. 4972), 4 m. S.E. on the Jaen-Lucena line. The site of
the Roman town (Baniana or Biniana) can still be traced, and
various Roman antiquities have been disinterred. In 1292 the
Moors under Mahommed II. of Granada vainly besieged Baena,
which was held for Sancho IV. of Castile; and the five Moorish
heads in its coat-of-arms commemorate the defence.
BAER, KARL ERNST VON (1792-1876), German biologist,
was born at Piep, in Esthonia, on the 2gthof February 1792. His
father, a small landowner, sent him to school at Reval, which he
left in his eighteenth year to study medicine at Dorpat Uni-
versity. The lectures of K. F. Burdach (1776-1847) suggested
research in the wider field of life-history, and as at that time
Germany offered more facilities for, and greater encouragement
to, scientific work, von Baer went to Wiirzburg, where J. I. J.
Dollinger (1770-1841), father of the Catholic theologian, was
professor of anatomy. In teaching von Baer, Dollinger gave a
direction to his studies which secured his future pre-eminence in
the science of organic development. He collaborated with C. H.
Pander (1794-1865) in researches on the evolution of the chick,
the results of which were first published in Burdach's treatise on
physiology. Continuing his investigations alone, von Baer ex-
tended them to the evolution of organisms generally, and after a
sojourn at Berlin he was invited by his old teacher Burdach, who
had become professor of anatomy at Konigsberg, to join him as
prosector and chief of the new zoological museum (1817). Von
Baer's great discovery of the human ovum is the subject of his
Epislola de Ovo Mammalium el Hominis Gcnesi (Leipzig, 1827),
and in the following year he published the first part of his History
of the Evolution of Animals (Ueber die Entwickelungsgesckichte der
Thiere), the second part following in 1837. In this work he
demonstrated first, that the Graafian follicles in the ovary are not
the actual eggs, but that they contain the spherical vesicle, which
is the true ovum, a body about the one hundred and twentieth of
an inch in diameter, wherein lie the properties transmitting the
physical and mental characteristics of the parent or grandparent,
or even of more remote ancestors. He next showed that in all
vertebrates the primary stage of cleavage of the fertilized egg is
followed bymodification intoleaf-likegermlayers skin, muscular,
vascular and mucous whence arise the several organs of the
body by differentiation. He further discovered the gelatinous,
cylindrical cord, known as the chorda dorsalis, which passes along
the body of the embryo of vertebrates, in the lower types of which
it is limited to the entire inner skeleton, while in the higher the
backbone and skull are developed round it. His " law of corre-
sponding stages " in the development of vertebrate embryos was
exemplified in the fact recorded by him about certain specimens
preserved in spirit which he had omitted to label. " I am quite
unable to say to what class they belong. They may be lizards,
or small birds, or very young mammalia, so complete is the
similarity in the mode of formation of the head and trunk in these
animals. The extremities are still absent, but even if they had
existed in the earliest stage of the development we should learn
nothing, because all arise from the same fundamental form."
Again, in his History of Evolution he suggests, "Are not all animals
in the beginning of their development essentially alike, and is
there not a primary form common to all ?" (i. p. 223). Notwith-
standing this, the " telic " idea, with the archetypal theory which
it involved, possessed von Baer to the end of his life, and explains
his inability to accept the theory of unbroken descent with
modification when it was propounded by Charles Darwin and
A. R. Wallace in 1858. The influence of von Baer's discoveries
has been far-reaching and abiding. Not only was he the pioneer
in that branch of biological science to which Francis Balfour,
gathering up the labours of many fellow-workers, gave coherence
in his Comparative Embryology (1881), but the impetus to T. H.
Huxley's researches on the structure of the medusae came from
him (Life, i. 163), and Herbert Spencer found in von Baer's " law
of development " the " law of all development " (Essays, i. 30).
In 1834 von Baer was appointed librarian of the Academy of
Sciences of St Petersburg. In 1835 he published his Development
of Fishes, and as the result of 'collection of all available informa-
tion concerning the fauna and flora of the Polar regions of the
empire, he was appointed leader of an Arctic expedition in 1837.
The remainder of his active life was occupied in divers fields of
research, geological as well as biological, an outcome of the latter
being his fine monograph on^the fishes of the Baltic and Caspian
Seas. One of the last works from his prolific pen was an interest-
ing autobiography published at the expense of the Esthonian
nobles on the celebration of the jubilee of his doctorate in 1864.
Three years afterwards he received the Copley medal. He died
at Dorpat on the 28th of November 1876. (E. CL.)
-BAER, WILLIAM JACOB (1860- ), American painter, was
born on the 29th of January 1860 in Cincinnati, Ohio. He studied
at Munich in 1880-1884. He had much to do with the revival in
America of the art of miniature-painting, to which he turned in
1892, and was the first president of the Society of Painters in
Miniature, New York. Among his miniatures are " The Golden
Hour," " Daphne," " In Arcadia " and " Madonna with the
Auburn Hair."
BAETYLUS (Gr. /Jturi/Xos, POJ.TV\IOV) , a word of Semitic origin
( = bethel) denoting a sacred stone, which was supposed to be
endowed with life. These fetish objects of worship were meteoric
stones, which were dedicated to the gods or revered as symbols of
the gods themselves (Pliny, Nat. Hist. xvii. 9; Photius, Cod. 242).
192
BAEYER BAFFIN BAY
In Greek mythology the term was specially applied to the stone
supposed to have been swallowed by Cronus (who feared mis-
fortune from his own children) in mistake for his infant son
' Zeus, for whom it had been substituted by Uranus and Gaea, his
wife's parents (Etymologicum Magnum, s.v.). This stone was
carefully preserved at Delphi, anointed with oil every day and on
festal occasions covered with raw wool (Pausanias x. 24). In
Phoenician mythology, one of the sons of Uranus is named
Baetylus. Another famous stone was the effigy of Rhea Cybele,
the holy stone of Pessinus, black and of irregular form, which was
brought to Rome in 204 B.C. and placed in the mouth of the
statue of the goddess. In some cases an attempt was made to
give a more regular form to the original shapeless stone: thus
Apollo Agyieus was represented by a conical pillar with pointed
end, Zeus Meilichius in the form of a pyramid. Other famous
baetylic idols were those in the temples of Zeus Casius at Seleucia,
and of Zeus Teleios at Tegea. Even in the declining years of
paganism, these idols still retained their significance, as is shown
by the attacks upon them by ecclesiastical writers.
' See Munter, Vber die vom Himmel gefallenen Steine (1805) ;
Bosigk, De Baetyliis (1854); and the exhaustive article by F.
Lenormant in Daremberg and Saglio's Dictionary of Antiquities.
BAEYER, JOHANN FRIEDRICH WILHELM ADOLF VON
(1835- ), German chemist, was born at Berlin on the 3ist of
October 1835, his father being Johann Jacob von Baeyer (1794-
1885), chief of the Berlin Geodetical Institute from 1870. He
studied chemistry under R. W. Bunsen and F. A. Kekule, and
in 1858 took his degree as Ph.D. at Berlin, becoming privat-
docent a few years afterwards and assistant professor in 1866.
Five years later he was appointed professor of chemistry at
Strassburg, and in 1875 he migrated in the same capacity to
Munich. He devoted himself mainly to investigations in organic
chemistry, and in particular to synthetical studies by the aid of
" condensation " reactions. The Royal Society of London
awarded him the Davy medal in 1881 for his researches on
indigo, the nature and composition of which he did more to
elucidate than any other single chemist, and which he also
succeeded in preparing artificially, though his methods were not
found commercially practicable. To celebrate his seventieth
birthday his scientific papers were collected and published in
two volumes (Gesammelte Werke, Brunswick, 1905), and the
names of the headings under which they are grouped give some
idea of the range and extent of his chemical work: (i) organic
arsenic compounds, (2) uric acid group, (3) indigo, (4) papers
arising from indigo researches, (5) pyrrol and pyridine bases,
(6) experiments on the elimination of water and on condensation,
(7) the phthaleins, (8) the hydro-aromatic compounds, (9) the
terpenes, (10) nitroso compounds, (u) furfurol, (12) acetylene
compounds and " strain " (Spannungs) theory, (13) peroxides,
(14) basic properties of oxygen, (15) dibenzalacetone and tri-
phenylamine, (16) various researches on the aromatic and (17)
the aliphatic series.
BA&ZA (anc. Beatia), a town of southern Spain, in the province
of Jaen; in the Loma de Ubeda, a mountain range between the
river Guadalquiver on the S. and its tributary the Guadalimar on
the N. Pop. (1000) 14,379. Baeza has a station 3 m. S.W. on the
Linares-Almeria railway. Its chief buildings are those of the uni-
versity (founded in 1533, and replaced by a theological seminary),
the cathedral and the Franciscan monastery. The Cordova and
Ubeda gates, and the arch of Baeza, are among the remains of its
old fortifications, which were of great strength. The town has
little trade except in farm-produce; but its red dye, made from
the native cochineal, was formerly celebrated. In the middle
ages Baeza was a flourishing Moorish city, said to contain 50,000
inhabitants; but it was sacked in 1239 by Ferdinand III. of
Castile, who in 1248 transferred its bishopric to Jaen. It was
the birthplace of the sculptor and painter, Caspar Becarra.
BAFFIN, WILLIAM (1584-1622), English navigator and
discoverer. Nothing is known of his early life, but it is con-
jectured that he was born in London of humble origin, and
gradually raised himself by his diligence and perseverance. The
earliest mention of his name occurs in 1612, in connexion with
an expedition in search of a North- West Passage, under the orders
of Captain James Hall, whom he accompanied as chief pilot.
Captain Hall was murdered in a fight with the natives on the
west coast of Greenland, and during the two following years
Baffin served in the Spitsbergen whale-fishery, at that time
controlled by the Muscovy Company. In 1615 he entered the
service of the Company for the discovery of the North- West
Passage, and accompanied Captain Robert Bylot as pilot of the
little ship " Discovery," and now carefully examined Hudson
Strait. The accuracy of Baffin's tidal and astronomical observa-
tions on this voyage was confirmed in a remarkable manner by
Sir Edward Parry, when passing over the same ground, two
centuries later (1821). In the following year Baffin again sailed
as pilot of the " Discovery," and passing up Davis Strait dis-
covered the fine bay to the north which now bears his name,
together with the magnificent series of straits which radiate from
its head and were named by him Lancaster, Smith and Jones
Sounds, in honour of the generous patrons of his voyages. On
this voyage he had sailed over 300 m. farther north than his
predecessor Davis, and for 236 years his farthest north (about
lat. 77 45') remained unsurpassed in that sea. All hopes,
however, seemed now ended of discovering a passage to India
by this route, and in course of time even Baffin's discoveries
came to be doubted until they were re-discovered by Captain
Ross in 1818. Baffin next took service with the East India
Company, and in 1617-1619 performed a voyage to Surat in
British India, and on his return received the special recognition
of the Company for certain valuable surveys of the Red Sea
and Persian Gulf which he had made in the course of the voyage.
Early in 1620 he again sailed to the East, and in the Anglo-
Persian attack on Kishm in the Persian Gulf, preparatory to
the reduction of Ormuz, he received his death-wound and died
on the 23rd of January 1622. Besides the importance of his
geographical discoveries, Baffin is to be remembered for the
importance and accuracy of his numerous scientific and magnetic
observations, for one of which (the determination of longitude
at sea by lunar observation) the honour is claimed of being the
first of its kind on record.
BAFFIN BAY and BAFFIN LAND, an arctic sea and an
insular tract named after the explorer William Baffin. Baffin
or Baffin's Bay is part of the long strait which separates Baffin
Land from Greenland. It extends from about 69 to 78 N.
and from 54 to 76 W. From the northern end it is connected
(i) with the polar sea northward by Smith Sound, prolonged by
Kane Basin and Kennedy and Robeson Channels; (2) with the
straits which ramify through the archipelago to the north-west
by narrow channels at the head of Jones Sound, from which
O. Sverdrup and his party conducted explorations in 1900-
1902; (3) with the more southerly part of the same archipelago
by Lancaster Sound. Baffin Bay was explored very fully in
1616 by Baffin. The coasts are generally high, precipitous and
deeply indented. The most important island on the east side
is Disco, to the north of Disco Bay, Greenland. During the
greater part of the year this sea is frozen, but, while hardly
ever free of ice, there are normally navigable channels along the
coasts from the beginning of June to the end of September
connected by transverse channels. The bay is noted as a centre
of the whale and seal fishery. At more than one point a depth
exceeding 1000 fathoms has been ascertained.
Baffin Land is a barren insular tract, included in Franklin
district, Canada, with an approximate area of 236,000 sq. m.,
situated between 61 and 90 W. and 62 and 74 N. The
eastern and northern coasts are rocky and mountainous, and are
deeply indented by large bays including Frobisher and Home
Bays, Cumberland Sound and Admiralty Inlet. Baffin Land is
separated from Greenland by Baffin Bay and Davis Strait, from
Ungava by Hudson Strait, from Keewatin and Melville Peninsula
by Fox Channel and Fury-and-Hecla Strait, from Boothia
Peninsula and North Somerset by the Gulf of Boothia and
Prince Regent Inlet, and from North Devon by Lancaster
Sound. Various names are given to various parts of the land
thus the north-western part is called Cockburn Land, farther
BAGAMOYO BAGDAD
east is North Galloway; on the extreme eastern peninsula are
Cumberland and Penny Lands, while the southern is called
Meta Incognita; in the west is Fox Land. In the southern
part of the interior are two large lakes, Amadjuak, which lies
at an altitude of 289 ft., and Nettiling or Kennedy.
BAGAMOYO, a seaport of German East Africa in 6 22' S.,
38 55' E. Pop. about 18,000, including a considerable number
of British Indians. Being the port on the mainland nearest the
town of Zanzibar, 26 m. distant, Bagamoyo became the starting-
point for caravans to the great lakes, and an entrep6t of trade with
the interior of the continent. It possesses no natural harbour.
The beach slopes gently down and ships anchor about 2 m.
off the coast. The town is oriental in character. The buildings
include the residence of the administrator, barracks, a govern-
ment school for natives, a mosque and Hindu temple, and the
establishment of the Mission du Sacre Cceur, which possesses
a large plantation of coco-nut palms. Bagamoyo is in telegraphic
communication with Zanzibar and with the other coast towns
of German East Africa, and has regular steamship communica-
tion with Zanzibar. Of the explorers who made Bagamoyo
the starting-point for their journeys to the interior of Africa,
the most illustrious were Sir Richard Burton, J. H. Speke,
J. A. Grant and Sir H. M. Stanley.
BAGATELLE (French, from Ital. bagatella, bagata, a trifle),
primarily a thing of trifling importance. The name, though
French, is given to a game which is probably of English origin,
though its connexion with the shovel-board of Cotton's Complete
Gamester is very doubtful. Strutt does not mention it. The game
is very likely a modification of billiards, and is played on an
oblong board or table varying in size from 6 ft. by ij ft. to 10 ft.
by 3 ft. The bed of the table is generally made of slate, although,
in the smaller sizes, wood covered with green cloth is often used.
The sides are cushioned with india-rubber. The head is semi-
circular and fitted with 9 numbered cups set into the bed,
their numbers showing the amount scored by putting a ball into
them. An ordinary billiard-cue and nine balls, one black, four
red and four white, are used. The black ball is placed upon a
spot about 9 in. in front of hole i, and about 18 in. from
the player's end of the board a line (the baulk) is drawn across
it, behind which is another spot for the player's ball. (These
measurements of course differ according to the size of the table.)
Some modern tables have pockets as well as cups.
Bagatelle Proper. The black ball having been placed on the
upper spot, the players " string " for the lead, the winner being
that player who plays his ball into the highest hole. Any
number may play, either separately, or in sides. Each player
in turn plays all eight balls up the table, no score being allowed
until a ball has touched the black ball, the object being to play
as many balls as possible into the holes, the black ball counting
double. Balls missing the black at the beginning, those rolling
back across the baulk-line, and those forced off the table are
" dead " for that round and removed. The game is decided by
the aggregate score made in an agreed number of rounds.
Sans gal. This is a French form of the game. Two players
take part, one using the red and one the white balls. After
stringing for lead, the leader plays at the black, forfeiting a
ball if he misses. His opponent then plays at the black if it
has not been touched, otherwise any way he likes, and each
then plays alternately, the object being to hole the black and his
own balls, the winner being the one who scores the highest
number of points. If a player holes one of his opponent's balls
it is scored for his opponent. The game is decided by a certain
number of rounds, or by points, usually 21 or 31. In other
matters the rules of bagatelle apply.
The Cannon Game. This is usually considered the best and
most scientific of bagatelle varieties. Tables without cups are
sometimes used. As in billiards three balls are required, the
white, spot-white and black, the last being spotted and the
non-striker's ball placed midway between holes i and 9. The
object of the game is to make cannons (caroms), balls played
into holes, at the same time counting the number of the holes,
but if a ball falls into a hole during a play in which no cannon
in. 7
is made the score counts for the adversary. If the striker's ball
is holed he plays from baulk; if an object-ball, it is spotted as
at the beginning of the game. A cannon counts 2; missing
the white object-ball scores i to the adversary; missing the
black, 5 to the adversary. If there are pockets, the striker scores
2 for holing the white object-ball and 3 for holing the black,
but a cannon must be made by the same stroke; otherwise the
score counts for the adversary.
The Irish Cannon Game. The rules of the cannon game
apply, except that in all cases pocketed balls count for the
adversary.
Mississippi. This variation is played with a bridge pierced
with 9 on ttnore arches, according to the size of the table, the
arches being numbered from i upwards. All nine balls are usually
played, though the black is sometimes omitted, each player
having a round, the object being to send the balls through the
arches. This may not be done directly, but the balls must strike
a cushion first, the black, if used,. counting double the arch made.
If a ball is played through an arch, without first striking a cushion,
the score goes to the adversary, but another ball, lying in front
of the bridge, may be sent through by the cue-ball if the latter
has struck a cushion. If a ball falls into a cup the striker scores
the value of the cup as well as of the arch.
Trou Madame. This is a game similar to Mississippi, with
the exceptions that the ball need not be played on to a cushion,
and that, if a ball falls into a cup, the opponent scores the value
of the cup and not the striker.
Bell- Bagatelle is played on a board provided with cups, arches
from which bells hang, and stalls each marked with a number.
The ball is played up the side and rolls down the board, which
is slightly inclined, through the arches or into a cup or stall, the
winner scoring the highest with a certain number of balls.
BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD, a vilayet of Asiatic Turkey, situated
between Persia and the Syrian desert, and including the greater
part of ancient Babylonia. The original vilayet extended
from Mardin on the N. to the Persian Gulf on the S., and
from the river Khabor on the W. to the Persian frontier on
the E. From the middle of the iyth century, when this region
was annexed by the Turks, until about the middle of the igth
century, the vilayet of Bagdad was the largest province of the
Turkish empire, constituting at times an almost independent
principality. Since then, however, it has lost much of its im-
portance and all of its independence. The first reduction in size
occurred in 1857, when some of the western portion of the vilayet
was added to the newly created sanjak of Zor. In 1878 the
Mosul vilayet was created out of its northern, and in 1884 the
Basra vilayet out of its southern sanjaks. At the present time
it extends from a point just below Kut el-Amara to a point
somewhat above Tekrit on the Tigris, and from a point somewhat
below Samawa to a point a little above Anah on the Euphrates.
It is still, territorially, the largest province of the empire, and
includes some of the most fertile lands in the Euphrates-Tigris
valleys; but while possessing great possibilities for fertility, by
far the larger portion of the vilayet is to-day a desert, owing
to the neglect of the irrigation canals on which the fertility of
the valley depends. From the latitude of Bagdad northward
the region between the two rivers is an arid, waterless, limestone
steppe, inhabited only by roving Arabs. From the latitude of
Bagdad southward the country is entirely alluvial soil, deposited
by the rivers Tigris and Euphrates, possessing great possibilities
of fertility, but absolutely flat and subject to inundations at the
time of flood of the two rivers. At that season much of the
country, including the immediate surroundings of Bagdad, is
under water. During the rest of the year a large part of the
country is a parched and barren desert, and much of the re-
mainder swamps and lagoons. Wherever there is any pretence
at irrigation, along the banks of the two great rivers and by
the few canals which are still in existence, the yield is enormous,
and the shores of the Tigris and Euphrates in the neighbour-
hood of Bagdad and Hilla seem to be one great palm garden.
Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II. personally acquired large tracts of land
in various parts of the vilayet. These so-called tenniehs are
194
BAGDAD
well farmed and managed, in conspicuous contrast with the sur-
rounding territory. Canals and dikes have been constructed to
control and distribute the much-needed water, and the officials
are housed in new buildings of substantial appearance. Indeed,
wherever one finds a new and prosperous-looking village, it may
be assumed to belong to the sultan. These senniehs are an
advantage to the country in that they give security to their
immediate region and certain employment to some part of its
population. On the other hand, they withdrew large tracts of
fertile and productive land from taxation (one-half of the
cultivated land of the vilayet was said to be administered for
the sultan's privy purse), and thus greatly reduced the revenue
of the vilayet.
The chief city of the vilayet is its capital, Bagdad. Between
the Euphrates and the Arabian plateau lie the sacred cities of
Kerbela or Meshed-Hosain, and Nejef or Meshed All, with a
population of 20,000 to 60,000 each, while a number of towns,
varying in population from 3000 to 10,000, are found along the
Euphrates (Anah, Hit, Ramadieh, Musseyib, Hilla, Diwanieh
and Samawa) and the Tigris (Tekrit, Samarra and Kut el-
Amara). The settled population lies entirely along the banks
of these streams and the canals and lagoons westward of the
Euphrates, between Kerbela and Nejef. Away from the banks
of the rivers, between the Euphrates and the Tigris and between
the latter and the Persian mountains, are tribes of wandering
Arabs, some of whom possess great herds of horses, sheep, goats,
asses and camels, while in and by the marshes other tribes, in
the transition stage from the nomadic to the settled life, own
great herds of buffaloes. Of the wandering Arab tribes, the most
powerful is the great tribe of Shammar, which ranges over all
Mesopotamia. In January and February they descend as low
as the neighbourhood of Diwanieh in such numbers that even
Bagdad is afraid. Here and there are regions occupied by a
semi-sedentary population, called Madan, occupying reed huts
huddled around mud castles, called meftul. These, like the
Bedouin Arabs, are practically independent, waging constant
warfare among themselves and paying an uncertain tribute to
the Turkish government. In general, Turkish rule is confined
to the villages, towns and cities along the river banks, in and by
which garrisons are located. Since the time (1868-1872) of Midhat
Pasha, who did much to bring the independent Arab tribes under
control, the Turkish government has been, however, gradually
strengthening its grip on the country and extending the area of
conscription and taxation. But from both the racial and religious
standpoint, the Arab and Persian Shi'as, who constitute the vast
bulk of the population, regard the Turks as foreigners and tyrants.
Of crops the vilayet produces wheat (which is indigenous),
rice, barley (which takes the place of oats as food for horses),
durra (a coarse, maize-like grain), sesame, cotton and tobacco;
of fruits, the date, orange, lemon, fig, banana and pomegranate.
The country is naturally treeless, except for the tamarisk, which
grows by the swamps and along the river-beds. Here and there
one sees a solitary sifsaf tree, or a small plantation of poplars
or white mulberries, which trees, with the date-palm, constitute
the only timber of the country. The willows reported by some
travellers are in reality a narrow-leaved variety of poplar.
Besides the buffaloes and a few humped Indian oxen, there
are no cattle in the country. Of wild animals, the pig, hyena,
jackal, antelope and hare are extremely numerous; lions are
still found, and wolves and foxes are not uncommon. Snipe and
various species of wild fowl are found in the marshes, and
pelicans and storks abound along the banks of the Euphrates
and Tigris. Fish are caught in great numbers in the rivers and
marshes, chiefly barbel and carp, and the latter attain so great
a size that one is a sufficient load for an ass. The principal
exports of the province are coarse wool, hides, dates and horses.
At various points, especially at Hit, and from Hit southward along
the edge of the Arabian plateau occur bitumen, naphtha and
white petroleum springs, all of which remain undeveloped. The
climate is very hot in summer, with a mean temperature of 97 F.
From April to November no rain falls; in November the rains
commence, and during the winter the thermometer falls to 46 F.
Cholera is endemic in some parts of the vilayet, and before
1875 tne same was true of the bubonic plague. At that date
this disease was stamped out by energetic measures on the part
of the government, but it has reappeared again in recent years,
introduced apparently from India or Persia by pilgrims. There
are four great centres of pilgrimage for Shi'ite Moslems in the
vilayet, Samarra, Kazemain, a suburb of Bagdad, Kerbela and
Nejef. These are visited annually by tens of thousands of
pilgrims, not only from the surrounding regions, but also from
Persia and India; many of whom bring their dead to be buried
in the neighbourhood of the sacred tombs.
Unpleasant, but not dangerous, is another disease, the so-called
" Bagdad date-mark," known elsewhere as the "Aleppo button,"
&c. This disease extends along the rivers Tigris and Euphrates,
and the country adjacent from Aleppo and Diarbekr to the
Persian Gulf, although there are individual towns and regions
in this territory which seem to be exempt. It shows itself as a
boil, attacking the face and extremities. It appears in two
forms, known to the natives as male and female respectively.
The former is a dry scaly sore, and the latter a running, open boil.
It is not painful but leaves ugly scars. The natives all carry
somewhere on their face, neck, hands, arms or feet the scars of
these boils which they have had as children. European children
born in the country are apt to be seriously disfigured, as in their
case the boils almost invariably appear on the face, and whereas
native children have as a rule but one boil, those born of European
parents will have several. Adult foreigners visiting the country
are also liable to be attacked, and women, especially, rarely escape
disfigurement if they stay in the country for any length of time.
The boils last for about a year, after which there is no more
likelihood of a recurrence of the trouble than in the case of
smallpox.
The area of the vilayet is 54,480 sq. m. The population
is estimated at 852,000; Christians, 8000, principally Nestorians
or Chaldaeans; Jews, 54,000; Moslems, 790,000, of whom the
larger part are Shi'as.
See G. le Strange, Baghdad under the Abbasid Caliphate (1901);
The Lands of the Eastern Caliphate (Cambridge, 1905); V. Cuinet,
La Turquie d'Asie (Paris, 1890); J. P. Peters, Nippur (New
York and London, 1897); Ed. Sachau, Am Euphrat und Tigris
(Leipzig, 1900) ; A. V. Geere, By Nile and Euphrates (Edinburgh,
1904)- U- P. PE.)
BAGDAD, or BAGHDAD, the capital of the Turkish vilayet
of the same name. It is the headquarters of the VI. Army
Corps, which garrisons also the Basra and Mosul vilayets. It
lies on both sides of the river Tigris, in an extensive desert plain
which has scarcely a tree or village throughout its whole extent,
in latitude 33 20' N., longitude 44 24' E. At thispoint the
Tigris and the Euphrates approach each other most nearly,
the distance between them being little more than 25 m. At
this point also the two rivers are connected by a canal, the
northernmost of a series of canals which formerly united the two
great waterways, and at the same time irrigated the intervening
plain. This canal, the Sakhlawieh (formerly Isa), leaves the
Euphrates a few miles above Feluja and the bridge of boats,
near the ruins of the ancient Anbar. As it approaches Bagdad
it spreads out in a great marsh, and finally, through the Masudi
canal, which encircles western Bagdad, enters the Tigris below
the town. At the time of Chesney's survey of the Euphrates in
1838 this canal was still navigable for craft of some size. At
present it serves no other purpose than to increase the floods
which periodically turn Bagdad into an island city, and some-
times threaten to overwhelm the dikes which protect it and
to submerge it entirely.
The original city of Bagdad was built on the western bank of
the Tigris, but this is now, and has been for centuries, little
more than a suburb of the larger and more important city on
the eastern shore, the former containing an area of only 146 acres
within the walls, while the latter extends over 591 acres. Both
the eastern and the western part of the city were formerly
enclosed by brick walls, with large round towers at the principal
angles and smaller towers intervening at shorter distances, the
whole surrounded by a deep fosse. There were three gates in the
BAGDAD
195
western city and four in the eastern; one of the latter, however,
on the north side, called " Gate of the Talisman " from an
Arabic inscription bearing the date A.D. 1220, has remained
closed since the capture of the city by Murad IV. in 1638.
These walls all fell into decay long since; at places they were
used as brick quarries, and finally the great reforming governor,
(1868-1872), Midhat Pasha, following the example set by many
European cities, undertook to destroy them altogether and utilize
the free space thus obtained as a public park and esplanade.
His plans were only partially carried out. At present fragments
of the walls exist here and there, with the great ditch about
them, while elsewhere a line of mounds marks their course. A
great portion of the ground within the wall lines is not occupied
by buildings, especially in the north-western quarter; and
even in the more populous parts of the city, near the river, a
considerable space between the houses is occupied by gardens,
where pomegranates, figs, oranges, lemons and date-palms grow
in great abundance, so that the city, when seen at a distance,
has the appearance of rising out of the midst of trees.
Along the Tigris the city spreads out into suburbs, the most
important of which is Kazemain, on the western side of the river
northward, opposite which on the eastern side lies Muazzam.
The former of these is connected with western Bagdad by a very
primitive horse-tramway, also a relic of Midhat Pasha's reforms.
The two parts of the city are joined by pontoon bridges, one in
the suburbs and one in the main city. The Tigris is at this point
some 275 yds. wide and very deep. Its banks are of mud,
with no other retaining walls than those formed by the founda-
tions of the houses, which are consequently always liable to be
undermined by the action of the water. The western part of
the city, which is very irregular in shape, is occupied entirely by
Shi'as. It has its own shops, bazaars, mosques, &c., and con-
stitutes a quarter by itself. Beyond the wall line on that side
vestiges of ancient buildings are visible in various directions,
and the plain is strewn with fragments of bricks, tiles and
rubbish. A burying-ground has also extended itself over a
large tract of land, formerly occupied by the streets of the city.
The form of the new or eastern city is that of an irregular oblong,
about 1500 paces in length by 800 in breadth. The town has
been built without the slightest regard to regularity; the
streets are even more intricate and winding than those in most
other Eastern towns, and with the exception of the bazaars and
some open squares, the interior is little else than a labyrinth of
alleys and passages. The streets are unpaved and in many
places so narrow that two horsemen can scarcely pass each
other; as it is seldom that the houses have windows facing the
thoroughfares, and the doors are small and mean, they present
on both sides the gloomy appearance of dead walls. All the
buildings, both public and private, are constructed of furnace-
burnt bricks of a yellowish-red colour, principally derived from
the ruins of other places, chiefly Madain (Ctesiphon), Wasit and
Babylon, which have been plundered at various times to furnish
materials for the construction of Bagdad.
The houses of the richer classes are regularly built about an
interior court. The ground floor, except for the serdab, is given
up to kitchens, store-rooms, servants' quarters, stables, &c.
The principal rooms are on the first floor and open directly from
a covered veranda, which is reached by an open staircase from
the court. These constitute the winter residence of the family,
reception rooms, &c. The roofs of the houses are all flat, sur-
rounded by parapets of sufficient height to protect them from
the observation of the dwellers opposite, and separate them
from their neighbours. In the summer the population sleeps
and dines upon the roofs, which thus constitute to all intents a
third storey. The remainder of the day, so far as family life is
concerned, is spent in the serdab, a cellar sunk somewhat below
the level of the courtyard, damp from frequent wettings, with its
half windows covered with hurdles thatched with camel thorn
and kept dripping with water. Occasionally the serdabs are
provided with punkahs.
Sometimes, in the months of June, July and August, when
the sherki or south wind is blowing, the thermometer at break
of day is known to stand at 112 F., while at noon it rises to
119 and a little before two o'clock to 122, standing at sunset
at 1 14, but this scale of temperature is exceptional. Ordinarily
during the summer months the thermometer averages from
about 75 at sunrise to 107 at the hottest time of the day.
Owing to the extreme dryness of the atmosphere and the fact
that there is always a breeze, usually from the N.W., this heat
is felt much less than a greatly lower temperature in a more
humid atmosphere. Moreover, the nights are almost invariably
cool.
Formerly Bagdad was intersected by innumerable canals and
aqueducts which carried the water of both the Euphrates and
the Tigris through the streets and into the houses. To-day
these have all vanished, with the exception of one aqueduct
which still conveys the water of the Tigris to the shrine of Abd
al-Qadir (ul-Kadir). The present population draws its water
directly from the Tigris, and it is distributed through the city
in goat-skins carried on the backs of men and asses. There is, of
course, no sewerage system, the surfaces of the streets serving that
purpose, and what garbage and refuse is not consumed by the
dog scavengers washes down into the Tigris at the same place
from which the water for drinking is drawn. As a consequence
of these insanitary conditions the death-rate is very high, and
in case of epidemics the mortality is enormous. At such times
a large part of the population leaves the city and encamps in the
desert northward.
The principal public buildings of the city, such as they are,
lie in the eastern section along the river bank. To the north,
just within the old wall line, stands the citadel, surrounded by a
high wall, with a lofty clock-tower which commands an excellent
view. To the south of this, also on the Tigris, is the serai or
palace of the Turkish governor, distinguished rather for extent
than grandeur. It is comparatively modern, built at different
periods, a large and confused structure without proportion,
beauty or strength. Somewhat farther southward, just below
the pontoon bridge, stands the custom house, which occupies
the site and is built out of the material of the medreseh or
college of Mostansir (A.D. 1233). Of the original building of the
caliph Mostansir all that remains is a minaret and a small
portion of the outer walls. Farther down are the imposing
buildings of the British residency. The German consulate also
is on the river-front. As in all Mahommedan cities, the mosques
are conspicuous objects. Of these very few are old. The
Marjanieh mosque, not far from the minaret of Mostansir,
although its body is modern, has some remains of old and very
rich arabesque work on its surface, dating from the I4th century.
The door is formed by a lofty arch of the pointed form guarded
on both sides with red bands exquisitely sculptured and having
numerous inscriptions. The mosque of Khaseki, supposed to
have been an old Christian church, is chiefly distinguished for
its prayer niche, which, instead of being a simple recess, is
crowned by a Roman arch, with square pedestals, spirally
fluted shafts and a rich capital of flowers, with a fine fan or
shell-top in the Roman style. The building in its present form
bears the date of A.D. 1682, but the sculptures which it contains
belong probably to the time of the caliphate. The minaret of
Suk el-Ghazl, in the south-eastern part of the city, dates from
the I3th century. The other mosques, of which there are about
thirty within the walls, excluding the chapels and places of
prayer, are all of recent erection. Most of them are surmounted
by bright-coloured cupolas and minarets. The Mosque of the
Vizier, on the eastern side of the Tigris, near the pontoon bridge,
has a fine dome and a lofty minaret, and the Great Mosque in
the square of el Meidan, in the neighbourhood of the serai, is
also a noble building.
The other mosques do not merit any particular attention, and
in general it may be said that Bagdad architecture is neither
distinctive nor imposing. Such attractions as the buildings
possess are due rather to the richly coloured tiles with which
many of them are adorned, or to inscriptions, like the Kufic
inscription, dated A.D. 944, on the ruined tekke of the Bektash
dervishes in western Bagdad. More important than the mosques
196
BAGDAD
proper are the tomb mosques. Of these, the most important and
most imposing is that of Kazemain, in the northern suburb of
the western city. Here are buried the seventh and ninth of the
successors of Ali, recognized by Shi'as, namely Musa Ibn Ja'far
el-Kazim, and his grandson, Mahommed Ibn Ali el-Jawad.
In its present form this mosque dates from the ipth century.
The two great domes above the tombs, the four lofty minarets
and part of the facade of this shrine, are overlaid with gold,
and from whatever direction the traveler approaches Bagdad,
its glittering domes and minarets are the first objects which
meet his eye. It is one of the four great shrines of the Shi'ite
Moslems in the vilayet of Bagdad. Christians are not allowed
to enter its precincts, and the population of the Kazemain
quarter is so fanatical that it is difficult and even dangerous to
approach it.
In the suburb of Muazzam, on the western side of the river,
is the tomb of Abu Hanifa (q.v.) , the canon lawyer. There is a
large mosque with a painted dome connected with this tomb,
which is an object of veneration to the Sunni Moslems, but it
seems cheap and unworthy in comparison with the magnificent
shrine of Kazemain. On the same side of the river, lower down,
is the shrine of Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (of Jilan), founder of the
Qadirite (Kadaria) sect of dervishes, also a noted place of
pilgrimage. The original tomb was erected about A.D. 1253,
but the present fine dome above the grave is later by at least
two or three centuries. The possessor or controller of this
wealthy mosque is the nakib, locally pronounced najeeb, or
marshal of the nobles, whose office is to determine who are
Se'ids, i.e. entitled to wear the green turban. He is second
only to the governor or vali pasha in power, and indeed his
influence is often greater than that of the official ruler of the
vilayet. Just outside of the wall of the western city lies the
tomb and shrine of Ma'ruf Karkhi, dating from A.D. 1215, which
also is a place of pilgrimage. Close to this stands the so-called
tomb of Sitte Zobeide (Zobaida), with its octagonal base and
pineapple dome, one of the most conspicuous and curious objects
in the neighbourhood of Bagdad. Unfortunately it is rapidly
falling into decay. K. Niebuhr reports that in his day ( A .D. 1 7 50)
this tomb bore an inscription setting forth that Ayesha Khanum,
the wife of the governor of Bagdad, was buried here in 1488,
her grave having been made in the ancient sepulchre of the lady
Zobeide (Zobaida), granddaughter of Caliph Mansur and wife of
Harun al-Rashid, who died in A.D. 831. The tomb was restored
at the time of her burial, at which date it was already ancient,
and it was evidently believed to be the tomb of Zobeide. Con-
temporary historians, however, state that Zobeide was actually
buried in Kazemain, and moreover, early writers, who describe
the neighbouring tomb and shrine of Ma'ruf Karkhi, make no
reference to this monument.
About 3 m. west of Bagdad, on the Euphrates road, in
or by a grove of trees, stands the shrine and tomb of Nabi
Yusha or Kohen Yusha, a place of monthly pilgrimage to the
Jews, who believe it to be the place of sepulture of Joshua, son
of Josedech, the high priest at the close of the exilian period.
This is one of four similar Jewish shrines in Irak; the others
being the tomb of Ezra on the Shatt el-Arab near Korna, the
tomb of Ezekiel in the village of Kefil near Kufa, and the well
of Daniel near Hillah. This shrine is also venerated by Moslems,
who call it the tomb of Yusuf (Joseph). The Jews bury here
their chief priests, a right the Moslems at times contest, and in
1889 a serious conflict between Jews and Moslems resulted from
an attempt of the former to exercise this right.
There are said to be about thirty khans or caravanserais in
Bagdad for the reception of pilgrims and merchants and their
goods, none of which is of any importance as a building, with
the single exception of the khan el-Aurtmeh adjoining the
Marjanieh mosque, to which it formerly belonged. This dates
from A.D. 1356, and is said to occupy the site of an ancient
Christian church. Its vaulted roof is a fine specimen of Saracenic
brickwork. In recent years the demands of modern travel have
led to the establishment of a hotel, which affords comfortable
accommodation according to European methods. There is
also an English club-house. There are said to be about fifty
baths in Bagdad, but in general they are inferior in construction
and accommodation. The bazaars of Bagdad are extensive
and well stocked, and while not so fine in construction as those
of some other Eastern cities, they are more interesting in their
contents and industries, because Bagdad has on the whole been
less affected by foreign innovations. Several of the bazaars are
vaulted over with brickwork, but the greater number are merely
covered with flat beams which support roofs of dried leaves or
branches of trees and grass. The streets of the entire business
section of the city are roofed over in this manner, and in the
summer months the shelter from the sun is very grateful, but in
the winter these streets are extremely trying to the foreign visitor,
owing to their darkness and their damp and chilly atmosphere.
Bagdad is about 500 m. from the Persian Gulf, following the
course of the river. It maintains steam communication with
Basra, its port, which is situated on the Shatt el-Arab, somewhat
more than 50 m. from the Persian Gulf, by means of two lines
of steamers, one English and one Turkish. British steamers
were first placed upon the Tigris as a result of the expedition of
Colonel F. R. Chesney, in 1836. Since that time, a British gun-
boat has been stationed before the residency, and British steamers
have been allowed to navigate the river. Only two of these,
however, maintain a weekly connexion with Basra, and they are
quite inadequate to the freight traffic between the two cities.
The more numerous vessels of the Turkish service are so small,
so inadequately equipped and so poorly handled, that they
are used for either passenger or freight transport only by those
who cannot secure the services of the British steamers. The
navigation of the Tigris during the greater party of its course
from Bagdad to Korna is slow and uncertain. The river,
running through an absolutely flat country, composed entirely
of alluvial soil, is apt to change its channel. In flood time the
country at places becomes a huge lake, through which it is
extremely difficult to find the channel. In the dry season, the
autumn and winter, on the other hand, there is danger of ground-
ing on the constantly shifting flats and shoals. To add to the
uncertainties of navigation, the inhabitants along the eastern
bank of the stream frequently dig new canals for irrigation pur-
poses, which both reduces the water of the river and tends to
make it shift its channel. Above Bagdad there are no steamers
on the Tigris, but sailing vessels of 30 tons and more navigate
the river to Samarra and beyond. The characteristic craft for
local service in the immediate environment of Bagdad is the
kufa, a circular boat of basket-work covered with bitumen,
often of a size sufficient to carry five or six horses and a dozen
men. These boats have been employed from the remotest
antiquity through all this region, and are often depicted on the
old Assyrian monuments. Equally ancient are the rafts called
kellek, constructed of inflated goat-skins, covered with a frame-
work of wood, often supporting a small house for passengers,
which descend the Tigris from above Diarbekr. The wood of
these rafts is sold in Bagdad, and constitutes, in fact, the chief
supply of wood in that city.
Bagdad also lies on a natural line of communication between
Persia and the west, the ancient caravan route from Khorasan
debouching from the mountains at this point, while another
natural caravan route led up the Euphrates to Syria and the
Mediterranean and still another up the Tigris to Armenia and
the Black Sea. It was its situation at the centre of the lines of
communication between India and Persia and the west, both by
land and water, which gave the city its great importance in
early times. With the change of the methods of transportation
its importance has naturally declined. The trade of Persia with
the west now passes either through the ports of the Persian Gulf
or northward over Trebizond, while India communicates with
the west directly through the Suez Canal. Bagdad is, therefore,
a decayed city. Money is scarce among all classes, and the
wages of common labourers are scarcely half what is paid in
Syria. It is still, however, the centre of distribution for a very
large, if scantily populated, country, and it also derives much
profit from pilgrims, lying as it does on the route which Shi'ite
BAGDAD
197
pilgrims from Persia must take on their way to the sacred cities.
It also possesses important shrines of its own which cause many
pilgrims to linger there, and wealthy Indians not infrequently
choose Bagdad as a suitable spot in which to end their days in
the odour of sanctity. There has also sprung up of late years
considerable direct trade between the European and American
markets and Bagdad, and several foreign houses, especially
English, have established themselves there. Germany also has
invaded this market.
The staple articles of export are hides, wool and dates. The
export trade of Bagdad amounts to about 750,000 annually,
and the import trade to about 2,000,000. The imports consist
of oil, cheap cottons, shoes and other similar goods, which
are taking the place of the picturesque native manufactures.
Even the Bedouin Arabs wear headdresses of cheap European
cotton stuff purchased in Bagdad or thereabouts, while the
common water vessels throughout the country are five-gallon
petroleum tins, which also furnish metal for the manufacture of
various utensils in the native bazaars.
Bagdad is in communication with Europe by means of two
lines of telegraph, one British and one Turkish, and two postal
services. There is a British consul-general, who is also political
agent to the Indian government. His state is second only to
that of the British ambassador at Constantinople. Besides the
gunboat in the river, he has a guard of sepoys, and there is an
Indian post-office in the residency. Formerly the British govern-
ment maintained a camel-post across the desert to Damascus.
This was abandoned about 1880 when the Turks established a
similar service. By means of the Turkish camel-post letters
reached Damascus in nine days. There is also a Russian consul-
general at Bagdad, and French, Austrian and American consuls.
The Euphrates Valley (or Bagdad) railway scheme, which
had previously been discussed, was brought forward prominently
in 1899, and Russian proposals to undertake it were rejected.
British proposals followed, but were opposed by the Germans,
who, as controlling the line to Konia in Asia Minor, claimed
preference in the matter. A provisional convention was granted
to a German company by the Porte, and an irade was obtained
in 1902. In 1903 there was considerable discussion as to the
placing of the line under international control, and the question
aroused special interest in England in view of the short route
which the line would provide to India, in connexion with fast
steamship services in the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf.
It was decided by the British government that the proposals
made to this effect did not offer sufficient security. The
financial arrangement as finally agreed upon was that German
financiers should control 40% of the capital of the line; French
(through the Imperial Ottoman Bank), 30%; Austrian, Swiss,
Italian and Turkish, 20 % ; and the Anatolian Railway Company,
10%. In 1904 the line was completed from Konia through
Eregli to Bulgurli. In 1908 an irade sanctioned the extension
across the Taurus to Adana, and so to Helif near Mardin (5 2 2 m.) .
The population of Bagdad is estimated variously from 70,000
to 200,000; perhaps halfway between may represent approxi-
mately the reality. More than two-thirds of the population are
Moslems, mostly Shi'as, with the exception of the official classes.
There are about 34,000 Jews occupying a quarter of their own
in the north-western part of the city; while in a neighbouring
quarter dwell upwards of 6000 Christians, chiefly so-called
Chaldaeans or Nestorians. The Carmelites maintain a mission
in Bagdad, as does also the (English) Church Missionary Society.
The Jews are the only part of the population who are provided
with schools. A school for boys was established by the Alliance
Isratlile in 1865, and one for girls in 1899. Besides these, there
is also an apprentice school for industrial training.
The Jews constitute the wealthiest and most intelligent portion
of the population. A large part of the foreign trade is in their
hands, and at the season of the sheep-shearing their agents and
representatives are found everywhere among the Bedouins and
Madan Arabs of the interior, purchasing the wool and selling
various commodities in return. They are the bankers of the
country, and it is through their communications that the traveller
is able to obtain credit. They are also the dealers in antiquities,
both genuine and fraudulent. Next to them in enterprise and
prosperity are the Persians. The porters of the town are all
Kurds, the river-men Chaldaean Christians. Every nation
retains its peculiar dress. The characteristic, but by no means
attractive, street dress of the Moslem women of the better class
comprises a black horse-hair visor completely covering the face
and projecting like an enormous beak, the nether extremities
being encased in yellow boots reaching to the knee and fully
displayed by the method of draping the garments in front.
Bagdad is governed by a pasha, assisted by a council. The
pasha and the higher officials in general come from Constantinople,
but a very large portion of the other Turkish officials seem to
come from the town of Kerkuk. They constitute a class quite
distinct from the native Arab population, and they and the
Turkish government in general are intensely unpopular among
the Arabs, an unpopularity increased by their religious differences,
the Arabs being as a rule Shi'ites, the Turks Sunnites. Besides
the court of superior officers, which assists the pasha in the
general administration of the province, there is also a mejlis or
mixed tribunal for the settlement of municipal and commercial
affairs, to which both Christian and Jewish merchants are
admitted. Besides these, there are the religious heads of the
community, especially the nakib and Jewish high priest, who
possess an undefined and extensive authority in their own
communities. The Jewish chief priest may be said to be the
successor of the exilarch or resh galutha of the earlier period.
History. There are in or near Bagdad a few remains of a
period antedating Islam, the most conspicuous of which are the
ruins of the palace of Chosroes at Ctesiphon or Madain, about
15 m. below Bagdad on the east side of the river. Almost
equally conspicuous, and a landmark through the whole region,
is the ruin called Akerkuf, in the desert, about 9 m. west-
ward of Bagdad. This consists of a huge tower of unburned
brick resting on a small hill of debris, the whole rising to a height
of 100 ft. or more above the plain, in the centre of a network of
ancient canals. Inscribed bricks found in the neighbourhood
seem to connect this ruin with Kurigalzu, king of Babylon about
1300 B.C. Under substantially its present name, Akukafa, it is
mentioned as a place of importance in connexion with the canals
as late as the Abbasid caliphate. Within the limits of the city
itself, on the west bank of the Tigris, are the remains of a quay,
first observed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, at a period of low water,
in 1849, built of bricks laid in bitumen, and bearing an inscription
of Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon. Baghdadu was an ancient
Babylonian city, dating back perhaps as far as 2000 B.C., the
name occurring in lists in the library of Assur-bani-pal. It is also
mentioned on the Michaux stone, found on the Tigris near the
site of the present city, and dating from the time of Tiglath-
Pileser I. (noo B.C.) The quay of Nebuchadrezzar, mentioned
above, establishes the fact that this ancient city of Baghdadu
was located on the site of western or old Bagdad (see further
under CALIPHATE: Abbasids, sections 2 foil.). References in
the Jewish Talmud show that this city still continued to exist
at and after the commencement of our era; but according to
Arabian writers, at the time when the Arab city of Bagdad was
founded by the caliph Mansur, there was nothing on that site
except an old convent. One may venture to doubt the literal
accuracy of this statement. It is clear that the ancient name, at
least, still held firm possession of the site and was hence inherited
by the new city.
The Arab city, the old or round city of Bagdad, was founded
by the caliph Mansur of the Abbasid dynasty on the west side of
the Tigris just north of the Isa canal in A.D. 762. It was a mile
in diameter, built in concentric circles, with the mosque and
palace of the caliph in the centre, and had four gates toward the
four points of the compass. It grew with great rapidity. The
suburb of Rusafa, on the eastern bank, sprang up almost immedi-
ately, and after the siege and capture of the round city by
Mamun, in 814, this became the most important part of the
capital. The period of the greatest prosperity of Bagdad was
the period from its foundation until the death of Mamun, the
198
BAGE BAGEHOT
successor of Harun, in 833. During this period the city, including
both sides of the river, was 5 m. across within the walls,
and it is said to have had a population of 2,000,000 souls. In
literature, art and science, it divided the supremacy of the
world with Cordova; in commerce and wealth it far surpassed
that city. How its splendour impressed the imagination may be
seen from the stories of the Arabian Nights. It was the religious
capital of all Islam, and the political capital of the greater part
of it, at a time when Islam bore the same relation to civilization
which Christendom does to-day. As in Spanish Islam, so in the
lands of the eastern caliphate, the Jews were treated relatively
with favour. The seat of the exilarch or resh galutha was trans-
ferred fromPumbedita(PumbedithaorPombeditha) inBabylonia
to Bagdad, which thus became the capital of oriental Judaism;
from then to the present day the Jews have played no mean part
in Bagdad.
Situated in a region where there is no stone, and practically no
timber, Bagdad was built, like all the cities of the Babylonian
plain, of brick and tiles. Its buildings depended for their effect
principally on mass and gorgeous colouring. Like old Babylon,
also, Bagdad was celebrated throughout the world for its brilliant-
coloured textile fabrics. So famous was the silk of Bagdad,
manufactured in the Attabieh quarter (named after Attab, a
contemporary of the Prophet) , that the place-name passed over
into Spanish, Italian, French and finally into English in the form
of " tabby," as the designation of a rich-coloured watered silk.
Depending on coloured tiles and gorgeous fabrics for their rich
effects, nothing of the buildings of the times of Harun al-Rashid
or Mamun, once counted so magnificent, have come down to us.
All have perished in the numerous sieges and inundations which
have devastated the city.
With the rise of the Turkish body-guard under Mamun's
successor, Mo'tassim, began the downfall of the Abbasid dynasty,
and with it of the Abbasid capital, Bagdad. Mo'tassim founded
Samarra, and for fifty-eight years caliph and court deserted
Bagdad (see CALIPHATE, sect. C). Then, in A.D. 865, Mosta'in,
attempting to escape from the tyranny of the Turkish guard, fled
back again to Bagdad. The attempt was futile, Bagdad was
besieged and taken, and from that time until their final downfall
the Abbasid caliphs were mere puppets, while the real rulers were
successively the Turkish guard, the Buyids and the Seljuks. But
during all this period the caliphs continued to be the religious
heads of Islam and their residence its capital. Bagdad, accord-
ingly, although fallen from its first eminence, continued to be a
city of the first rank, and during most of that period still the
richest and most splendid city in the world. Its religious import-
ance is attested by the number of its great shrines dating from
those times; as for its wealth and size, while, as stated above,
few remains of the actual buildings of that period survive, we still
have abundant records describing their character, their size and
their position. With the last century of the caliphates began a
more rapid decline. From the records of that period it seems that
the present city is identical in the position of its walls and the
space occupied by the town proper with Bagdad at the close of
the 1 2th century, the period when this rapid decline had already
advanced so far that the western city is described by travellers
as almost in ruins, and the eastern half as containing large unin-
habited spaces. With the capture of the city by the Mongols,
under Hulagu (Hulaku), the grandson of Jenghiz Khan, in 1258,
and the extinction of the Abbasid caliphate of Bagdad, its im-
portance as the religious centre of Islam passed away, and it
ceased to be a city of the first rank, although the glamour of its
former grandeur still clung to it, so that even to-day in Turkish
official documents it is called the " glorious city."
The Tatars retained possession of Bagdad for a century and a
half, until about A.D. 1400. Then it was taken by Timur, from
whom the sultan Ahmed Ben Avis fled, and, finding refuge with
the Greek emperor, contrived later to repossess himself of the city,
whence he was finally expelled by Kara Yusuf of the Kara-
Kuyunli (" Black Sheep ") Mongols in 1417. About 1468 the
descendants of the latter were driven out by Uzun Hasan or
Cassim of the Ak-Kuyunli (" White Sheep ") Mongols. He and
his descendants reigned in Bagdad until Shah Ismail I., the
founder of the Safawid royal house of Persia, made himself master
of the place (c. 1502 or 1508). From that time it continued for
a long period an object of contention between the Turks and the
Persians. It was taken by Suleiman I. the Magnificent and re-
taken by Shah Abbas the Great, in 1620. Eighteen years later,
in 1638, it was besieged by Sultan Murad IV., with an army
of 300,000 men and, after an obstinate resistance, forced to
surrender, when, in defiance of the terms of capitulation, most
of the inhabitants were massacred.
Since that period it has remained nominally, a part of the
Turkish empire; but with the decline of Turkish power, and the
general disintegration of the empire, in the first half of the i8th
century, a then governor-general, Ahmed Pasha, made it an
independent pashalic. Nadir Shah, the able and energetic
usurper of the Persian throne, attempting to annex the province
once more to Persia, besieged the city, but Ahmed defended it
with such courage that the invader was compelled to raise the
siege, after suffering great loss. Turkish authority over the
pashalic was again restored in the first part of the ipth century.
AUTHORITIES. Allen's Indian Mail (1874); J. S. Buckingham,
Travels in Mesopotamia (1827); Sir R. K. Porter, Travels in Georgia,
Persia, Armenia and Ancient Babylonia (1821-1822);!. M. Kinneir,
Geographical Memoir of the Persian Empire (1813); F. R. Chesney,
Expedition (1850); J. B. L. J. Rousseau, Description du pachalik
de Bagdad (1809); J. R. Wellsted, City of the Caliphs; A. N. Groves,
Residence in Baghdad (1830-1832); Transactions of Bombay Geog.
Soc. (1856) ; G. le Strange, Description of Mesopotamia and Baghdad
about A.D. goo; "Greek Embassy to Baghdad in A.D. 917," in
Journal Royal Asiatic Society, 1895, 1897; Baghdad under the
Abbasid Caliphate (1901). (H. C. R. ; J. P. PE.)
BAGS, a town and municipality of the state of Rio Grande do
Sul, Brazil, about 176 m. by rail W.N.W. of the city of Rio Grande
do Sul. Pop. of the municipality (1890) 22,692. It is situated
in a hilly region 774 ft. above sea-level, and is the commercial
centre of a large district on the Uruguayan border in which
pastoral occupations are largely predominant. This region is the
watershed for southern Rio Grande do Sul, from which streams
flow E. and S.E. to the Atlantic coast, and N.W. and S.W. to
the Uruguay river. The town dates from colonial times, and has
always been considered a place of military importance because of
its nearness to the Uruguay frontier, only 25 m. distant. It was
captured by the Argentine general Lavalle in 1827, and figured
conspicuously in most of the civil wars of Argentina. It is also
much frequented by Uruguayan revolutionists.
BAGEHOT, WALTER (1826-1877), English publicist and
economist, editor of the Economist newspaper from 1860 to his
death, was born at Langport, Somerset, on the 3rd of February
1826, his father being a banker at that place. Bagehot was alto-
gether a remarkable personality, his writings on different subjects
exhibiting the same bent of mind and characteristics, philosophic
reflectiveness, practical common-sense, a bright and buoyant
humour, brilliant wit and always a calm and tolerant judgment
of men and things. Though he belonged to the Liberal party
in politics he was essentially of conservative disposition, and
often spoke with sarcastic boastfulness to his Liberal friends of
the stupidity and tenacity of the English mind in adhering to
old ways, as displayed in city and country alike. His life was
comparatively uneventful, as he early gave up to literature
the energies which might have gained him a large fortune in
business or a great position in the political world. He took
his degree at the London University in 1848, and was called to
the bar in 1852, but from an early date he joined his father in the
banking business of Stuckey & Co. in the west of England, and
during a great part of his life, while he was editor of the Economist,
he managed the London agency of the bank, lending its surplus
money in " Lombard Street," and otherwise attending to its
London affairs. He became also an underwriter at Lloyd's,
taking no part, however, in the active detailed business, which
was done for him by proxy.
Bagehot's connexion with the Economist began in 1858, about
which time he married a daughter of the first editor, the Right
Hon. James Wilson, at that time secretary of the treasury, and
afterwards secretary of finance in India. Partly through this
BAGELKHAND
199
connexion he was brought into the inside of the political life
of the time. He was an intimate friend of Sir George Cornewall
Lewis, and was afterwards in constant communication with many
of the political chiefs, especially with Gladstone, Robert Lowe
and Grant Duff, and with the permanent heads of the great
departments of state. In the city in the same way he was
intimate with the governor and directors of the Bank of England,
and with leading magnates in the banking and commercial
world; while his connexion with the Political Economy Club
brought him into contact in another way with both city and
politics. His active life in business and politics, however, was
not of so absorbing a kind as to prevent his real devotion to
literature, but the literature largely grew out of his activities,
and of no one can it be said more truly than of Bagehot that the
atmosphere in which he lived gave tone and colour and direction
to his studies, one thing of course acting and reacting on another.
The special note of his books, apart from his remarkable gift of
conversational epigrammatic style, which gives a peculiar zest
to the writing, is the quality of scientific dispassionate description
of matters which were hardly thought of previously as subjects
of scientific study. This is specially the case with the two books
which perhaps brought him the most reputation, The English
Constitution (1867) and Lombard Street (1873). They are both
books of observation and description. The English constitution
is described, not from law books and as a lawyer would describe
it, but from the actual working, as Bagehot himself had witnessed
it, in his contact with ministers and the heads of government
departments, and with the life of the society in which the
politicians moved. The true springs and method of action are
consequently described with a vivid freshness which gives the
book a wonderful charm, and makes it really a new departure
in the study of politics. It is the same with Lombard Street. The
money market is there pictured as it really was in 1850-1870,
and as Bagehot saw it with philosophic eyes. Beginning with
the sentence, " The objects which you see in Lombard Street are
the Bank of England, the joint stock banks, the private banks
and the discount houses," he describes briefly and clearly the
respective functions of these different bodies in the organism
of the city, according to his own close observation as a banker
himself, knowing the ways and thoughts of the men he describes,
and as a man of business likewise in other ways, knowing at first
hand the relation of banking to the trade and commerce of the
country. Lombard Street is perhaps a riper work than The English
Constitution, as its foundation was really laid in 1858 in a series
of articles which Bagehot then wrote in the Economist, though
it was not published till the early 'seventies, after it had been
twice rewritten and revised with infinite labour and care.
Lombard Street, like The English Constitution in political studies,
is thus a new departure in economic and financial studies, apply-
ing the same sort of keen observation which Adam Smith used
in the analysis of business generally to the special business of
banking and finance in the complex modern world. It is, perhaps,
not going too far to say that the whole theory of a one-reserve
system of banking and how to work it, and of the practical
means of fixing an " apprehension minimum " below which the
reserve should not fall, originated in Lombard Street and the
articles which were the foundation of it; and the subsequent
conduct of banking in England and throughout the world has
been infinitely better and safer in consequence. A like note is
also struck in Physicsand Politics (1869), which is a description of
the evolution of communities of men. The materials here are
derived mainly from books, the surface to be observed being
so extensive, but the attitude is precisely the same, that of a
scientific observer. To a certain extent the Physics and Politics
had even a more remarkable influence on opinion, at least on
foreign opinion, than The English Constitution or Lombard Street.
It " caught on " as a development of the theory of evolution
in a new direction, and Darwin himself was greatly interested,
while one of the pleasures of Bagehot's later years was to receive
a translation of the book into the Russian language. In Literary
Studies (1879) and Economic Studies (1880), published after his
death, there is more scope than in the books already mentioned
for other characteristics besides those of the scientific observer,
but observation always comes to the front, as in the account
of Ricardo, whom Bagehot describes as often, when he is most
theoretical, really describing what a first-rate man of business
would do and think in actual transactions. The observation,
of course, is that of a type of business man in the city to which
Ricardo as well as Bagehot belonged, though Ricardo could
hardly look at it from the outside as Bagehot was able to do.
Bagehot had great city, political and literary influence, to
which all his activities contributed, and much of his influence
was lasting. In politics and economics especially his habit of
scientific observation affected the tone of discussion, and both
the English constitution and the money market have been better
understood generally because he wrote and talked and diffused
his ideas in every possible way. He was unsuccessful in two or
three attempts to enter parliament, but he had the influence of
far more than an ordinary member, as director of the Economist
and as the adviser behind the scenes of the ministers and per-
manent heads of departments who consulted him. His death,
on the 24th of March 1877, occurred at Langport very suddenly,
when he was in the fullest mental vigour and might have looked
forward to the accomplishment of much additional work and the
exercise of even wider influence.
It is impossible to give a full idea of the brightness and life
of Bagehot's conversation, although the conversational style
of his writing may help those who did not know him person-
ally to understand it. With winged words he would transfix a
fallacy or stamp a true idea so that it could not be forgotten.
He was certainly greater than his books and always full of ideas.
The present writer recalls two notions he had, not for writing
new books himself, but as something that might be done. One
was that there might be a history of recent politics with new
lights if some one were to do it who knew the family connexions
and history of English politicians. This was apropos of the
passage of a certain bill through parliament, when the head of
the department in the House of Commons failed and the manage-
ment of the measure was taken by the chancellor of the exchequer
himself, a relative of the permanent head of the department
concerned, who was thus able to carry his own ideas in legislation
notwithstanding the failure of his political chief. Another book
he wished to see written was an account of the differences in
the administrative systems of England and Scotland, by which
he .had been greatly impressed, the differences not being in
detail, but in fundamental idea and in form, so that no judicial
or other officers in the one were represented in the other by
corresponding functionaries. Many other illustrations might
be given of his fulness of ideas which helped to make him an
ideal editor. Reference must also be made to the assistance
which Bagehot gave as a journalist to the study of statistics.
From the manipulation of figures he was most averse, and he
rather boasted that he was unable to add up. But he was a
most excellent mathematician, and no one could be so careful
as he was about the logic of the figures got together for his
articles, which he always most carefully scrutinized. He would
frequently point out that his figures were illustrative merely,
and did not by themselves establish an argument. He was
always anxious, again, to impress on those about him that a
subject could not be studied with the help of figures and accounts
alone. Whether it was insurance, or banking, or underwriting,
or shipowning, he insisted that some one who knew the business
should see the writing before it was published. Knowing so
many departments of business from actual experience, he was
a host in himself as referee, but when in doubt he would always
consult some one who knew the facts; and he used his great
influence so well that in subsequent years it inspired indirectly
not a few who were hardly aware of his claims to be a statistician
at all. (R. GN.)
BAGELKHAND, or BAGHELKHAND, a tract of country in
central India, occupied by a collection of native states. The
Bagelkhand agency is under the political superintendence of
the governor-general's agent for central India, and under the
direct jurisdiction of a political agent who is also superintendent
200
BAGGARA BAGGING
of the Rewa state, residing ordinarily at Sutna or Rewa. The
agency consists of Rewa state and eleven minor states and
estates, of which the more important are Maihar, Nagode and
Sohawal. The total area is 14,323 sq. m., and the population
in 1901 was 1,555,024, showing a decrease of 1 1 % in the decade,
due to the results of famine. The rainfall was very deficient
in 1895-1897, causing famine in 1897; and in 1899-1900 there
was drought in some sections. The agency was established in
March 1871. Until that date Bagelkhand was under the
Bundelkhand agency, with which it is geographically and
historically connected; a general description of the country
will be found under that heading. According to Wilson, in his
Glossary of Indian Terms, the Baghelas, who give their name
to this tract of country, are a branch of the Sisodhyia Rajputs
who migrated eastward and once ruled in Gujarat.
BAGGARA ("Cowherds"), African "Arabs" of Semitic
origin, so called because they are great cattle owners and breeders.
They occupy the country west of the White Nile between the
Shilluk territory and Dar Nuba, being found principally in
Kordofan. They are true nomad Arabs, having intermarried
little with the Nuba, and have preserved most of their national
characteristics. The date of their arrival in the Sudan is un-
certain: they appear to have drifted up the Nile valley and
to have dispossessed the original Nuba population. A purely
pastoral people, they move from pasture to pasture, as food
becomes deficient. The true Baggara tribesmen employ oxen
as saddle and pack animals, carry no shield, and though many
possess firearms the customary weapons are lance and sword.
They have always had the reputation of being resolute fighters.
Engaged from the earliest times in the slave trade, they were
among the first, as they were certainly the most fervent, sup-
porters of the mahdi when he rose in revolt against the Egyptians
(1882). They constituted his real fighting force, and to their
fanatical courage his victories were due. Their decision to
follow him out of their own country to Khartum brought about
the fall of that city. The mahdi's successor, the khalifa Ab-
dullah, was a Baggara, and throughout his rule the tribe held
the first place in his favour. They have been described as
" men who look the fiends they really are of most sinister
expression, with murder and every crime speaking from their
savage eyes. Courage is their only good quality." They are
famous, too, as hunters of big game, attacking even elephants
with sword and spear. G. A. Schweinfurth declares them the
best-looking of the Nile nomads, and the men are types of
physical beauty, with fine heads, erect athletic bodies and
sinewy limbs. There is little that is Semitic in their appearance.
Their skins vary in colour from a dark red-brown to a deep
black; but their features are regular and free of negro character-
istics. In mental power they are much superior to the indigenous
races around them. They have a passion for fine clothes and
ornaments, tricking themselves out with glass trinkets, rings
and articles of ivory and horn. Their mode of hair-dressing
(mop-fashion) earned them, in common with the Hadendoa,
the name of " Fuzzy-wuzzies " among the British soldiers in
the campaigns of 1884-98.
See G. A. Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa (1874) ; Sir F. R. Wingate,
Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (1891), Anglo- Egyptian Sudan,
edited by Count Gleichen (1905); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of the
Egyptian Sudan (1884).
BAGGESEN, JENS IMMANUEL (1764-1826), Danish poet,
was born on the isth of February 1764 at Korsor. His parents
were very poor, and before he was twelve he was sent to copy
documents at the office of the clerk of the district. He was a
melancholy, feeble child, and before this he had attempted
suicide more than once. By dint of indomitable perseverance,
he managed to gain an education, and in 1782 entered the
university of Copenhagen. His success as a writer was coeval
with his earliest publication; his Comical Tales in verse, poems
that recall the Broad Grins that Colman the younger brought
out a decade later, took the town by storm, and the struggling
young poet found himself a popular favourite at twenty-one.
He then tried serious lyrical writing, and his tact, elegance of
manner and versatility, gained him a place in the best society.
This sudden success received a blow in 1789, when a very poor
opera, Holge Danske, which he had produced, was received with
mockery and a reaction against him set in. He left Denmark
in a rage and spent the next years hi Germany, France and
Switzerland. He married at Berne in 1790, began to write in
German and published in that language his next poem, Alpenlied.
In the winter of the same year he returned to his mother-country,
bringing with him as a peace-offering his fine descriptive poem,
the Labyrinth, in Danish, and was received with unbounded
homage. The next twenty years were spent in incessant restless
wanderings over the north of Europe, Paris latterly becoming
his nominal home. He continued to publish volumes alternately
in Danish and German. Of the latter the most important was
the idyllic epos in hexameters called Parthenais (1803). In
1 806 he returned to Copenhagen to find the young Ohlenschlager
installed as the great poet of the day, and he himself beginning
to lose his previously unbounded popularity. Until 1820 he
resided in Copenhagen, in almost unceasing literary feud with
some one or other, abusing and being abused, the most important
feature of the whole being Baggesen's determination not to
allow Ohlenschlager to be considered a greater poet than himself.
He then left Denmark for the last time and went back to his
beloved Paris, where he lost his second wife and youngest child
in 1822, and after the miseries of an imprisonment for debt,
fell at last into a state of hopeless melancholy madness. In
1826, having slightly recovered, he wished to see Denmark once
more, but died in the freemasons' hospital at Hamburg on his
way, on the 3rd of October, and was buried at Kiel. His many-
sided talents achieved success in all forms of writing, but his
domestic, philosophical and critical works have long ceased to
occupy attention. A little more power of restraining his egotism
and passion would have made him one of the wittiest and
keenest of modern satirists, and his comic poems are deathless.
The Danish literature owes Baggesen a great debt for the firm-
ness, polish and form which he introduced into it his style
being always finished and elegant. With all his faults he stands
as the greatest figure between Holberg and Ohlenschlager. Of
all his poems, however, the loveliest and best is a little simple
song, There was a time when I was very little, which every Dane,
high or low, knows by heart, and which is matchless in its
simplicity and pathos. It has outlived all his epics. (E. G.)
BAGGING, the name given to the textile stuff used for making
bags (see also SACKING and TARPAULIN). The material used
was originally Baltic hemp, while in the beginning of the igth
century Sunn hemp or India hemp was also employed. Modern
requirements call for so many different types of bagging that
it is not surprising to find all kinds of fibres used for this purpose.
Most bagging is now made from yarns of the jute fibre. The
cloth is, in general, woven with the plain weave, and the warp
threads run in pairs, but large quantities
of bags are made from cloths with single
warp threads. In both cases the weave
used for the cloth is that shown at A
in the figure, but when double threads
of warp are used, the arrangement is
equivalent to the weave shown at B.
The interlacings of the two sets of warp
and weft for single and double warp are O
shown respectively at C and D, the
black marks indicating the warp threads, and the white or
blanks showing the weft. The particular style of bagging
depends, naturally, upon the kind of material it is intended to
hold. The coarsest type of bagging is perhaps that known as
" cotton bagging," which derives its name from the fact that
it is used in the manufacture of bags for transporting raw cotton
from the United States of America. It is a heavy fabric 42 in.
wide, and weighs from 2 to 2^ Ib per yard. A similar, but rather
finer make, is used for Sea Island and other fine cotton, and for
any species of fibrous material; but for grain, spices, sugar,
flour, coffee, manure, &c., the threads of warp and weft must
lie closer, and the warp is usually single. For transporting such
BAGHAL BAGNACAVALLO
201
substances as sugar, it is not uncommon to line the bag with
paper, which excludes foreign matter, and minimizes the loss.
Although there are large quantities of seamless bags woven in
the loom, the greater part of the cloth is woven in the ordinary
way. It is then cut up into the required sizes by hand and by
special machines, and afterwards sewn by one of the chain-stitch
or straight-stitch bag sewing-machines.
BAGHAL, a small native state in the Punjab, India. It is
one of the group known as the Simla Hill states, and has an area
of 124 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 25,720, showing an increase of 5%
in the decade; a revenue 3300.
BAGHERIA, a town of the province of Palermo, Sicily, 8 m.
by rail E. by S. of Palermo. Pop. (1901) 18,218. It contains
many villas of the aristocracy of Palermo, the majority of which
were erected in the i8th century, but have now fallen into decay.
BAGILLT, a town of Flintshire, North Wales, 14^ m. from
Chester, on the London & North Western railway, in the ancient
parish of Holywell. Pop. (1901) 2637. Its importance is due
to its zinc, lead, iron, alkali and kindred works, and its collieries.
Above Bagillt is Bryn Dychwelwch, " Hill of Retreat," so called
from the retreat effected by Owen Gwynedd, when pursued by
Henry II., with superior numbers. Near is Mostyn Hall, dating
from the time of Henry VI., the seat of one of the oldest Welsh
families. Here are antiquities and MSS. (old British history and
Welsh, brought from Gloddaeth), a harp dated 1568, torques
(torchau), &c. Henry VII., then earl of Richmond, is said to
have been concealed here in the reign of Richard III., when the
lord of Mostyn was Richard ap Howel.
BAGIMOND'S ROLL. In 1274 the council of Lyons imposed
a tax of a tenth part of all church revenues during the six follow-
ing years for the relief of the Holy Land. In Scotland Pope
Gregory X. entrusted the collection of this tax to Master Boia-
mund (better known as Bagimund) de Vitia, a canon of Asti,
whose roll of valuation formed the basis of ecclesiastical taxation
for some centuries. Boiamund proposed to assess the tax, not
according to the old conventional valuation but on the true value
of the benefices at the time of assessment. The clergy of Scotland
objected to this innovation, and, having held a council at Perth in
August 1275, prevailed upon Boiamund to return to Rome for the
purpose of persuading the pope to accept the older method of
taxation. The pope insisted upon the tax being collected accord-
ing to the true value, and Boiamund returned to Scotland to
superintend its collection. A fragment of Bagimond's Roll in
something very like its original form is preserved at Durham, and
has been printed by James Raine in his Priory of Coldingham
(Publications of the Surtees Society, vol. xii.). It gives the real
values in one column and tenth parts in another column of each
of the benefices in the archdeaconry of Lothian. The actual
taxation to which this fragment refers was not the tenth collected
by Boiamund but the tenth of all ecclesiastical property in Eng-
land, Scotland, Wales and Ireland granted by Pope Nicholas IV.
to Edward I. of England in the year 1 288. The fragment should
therefore be regarded as supplementary to the Taxatio Ecclesi-
astica Angliae et Walliae printed by the Record Commissioners
in 1802. Although no contemporary copy of Bagimond's Roll
is known to exist, at least three documents give particulars of the
taxation of the Church of Scotland in the 1 6th century, which are
based upon the original roll.
See Statuta Ecclesiae Scoticanae (Bannatyne Club, Edinburgh,
1866).
BAGIRMI, a country of north-central Africa, lying S.E. of
Lake Chad and forming part of the Chad circumscription of
French Congo. It extends some 240 m. north to south and has
a breadth of about 150 m., with an area of 20,000 sq. m. The
population in 1903 was estimated at 100,000, having been greatly
reduced as the result of wars and slave-raiding. By including
districts S. and S.E. occupied by former vassal states, the area
and population of Bagirmi would be more than doubled. The
surface of the country, which lies about 1000 ft. above sea-level,
is almost flat with a very slight inclination N. to Lake Chad. It
forms part of what seems to be the basin of an immense lake, of
which Chad is the remnant. The soil is clay. The river Shari
(q.v.) forms the western boundary. Numerous tributaries of the
Shari flow through the country, but much of the water is absorbed
by swamps and sand-obstructed channels, and seasons of drought
are recurrent. The southern part of the country is the most fertile.
Among the trees the acacia and the dum-palm are common.
Various kinds of rubber vine are found. The fauna includes the
elephant, hippopotamus, lion and several species of antelope.
Ants are very numerous. Millet and sesame are the principal
grains cultivated. Rice grows wild, and several kinds of Poa
gras,s are used as food by the natives. Cotton and indigo are
grown to a considerable extent, especially by Bornu immigrants.
The capital is Chekna, on a tributary of the Shari, the former
capital, Massenia, having been destroyed in 1898. Fort Lamy
at the confluence of the Logone and Shari, and Fort de Cointet
on the middle Shari, are French posts round which towns have
grown. Trade is chiefly with Yola, a town on the Benue in
British Nigeria, and with Khartum via Wadai. There is also an
ancient caravan route which runs through Ranem and across the
Sahara to Tripoli.
The population of Bagirmi is mixed. Negroid peoples pre-
dominate, but there are many pastoral Fula and Arabs. The
Bagirmese proper are a vigorous, well-formed race of Negroid-
Arab blood, who, according to their own traditions, came from
the eastward several centuries ago, a tradition borne out by their
language, which resembles those spoken on the White Nile. On
their arrival they appear to have taken the place of the Bulala
dynasty. They subdued the Fula and Arabs already settled in
the district, and after being converted to Islam under Abdullah,
their fourth king (about 1600), they extended their authority
over a large number of tribes living to the south and east. The
most important of these tribes are the Saras, Gaberi, Somrai,
Gulla, Nduka, Nuba and Sokoro. These pagan tribes were
repeatedly raided by the Bagirmese for slaves. Most of them
are of a primitive type and appear to be dying out. The
Saras are remarkable for their herculean stature, and are one of
the most promising of African races. Tree worship is prevalent
among the Somrai and the Gaberi. All the tribes believe in a
supreme being whose voice is the thunder. Polygamy is general
in upper Bagirmi, where some traces of a matriarchal stage of
society linger, one small state being called Beled-el-Mra,
" Women's Land," because its ruler is always a queen.
Bagirmi was made known to Europe by the travels of Dixon
Denham (1623), Heinrich Barth (1852), who was imprisoned by
the Bagirmese for some time, Gustav Nachtigal (1872), and P.
Matteucci and A. M. Massari (1881). The country in 1871 had
been conquered by the sultan of Wadai, and about 1890 was
over-run by Rabah Zobeir (q.v.) who subsequently removed
farther west to Bornu. About this time French interest in the
countries surrounding Lake Chad was aroused. The first ex-
pedition led thither through Bagirmi met with disaster, its leader,
Paul Crampel, being killed by order of Rabah. Subsequent
missions were more fortunate, and in 1897 Emile Gentil, the
French commissioner for the district, concluded a treaty with the
sultan of Bagirmi, placing his country under French protection.
A resident was left at the capital, Massenia, but on Gentil's with-
drawal Rabah descended from Bornu and forced sultan and
resident to flee. It was not until after the death of Rabah in
battle and the rout of his sons (1901) that French authority was
firmly established. Kanem, a country north of Bagirmi and
subject in turn to it and to Wadai, was at the same time
brought under French control. So far as its European rivals are
concerned, the French 'right to these regions is based on the
Franco-German convention of the isth of March 1894 and
the Anglo-French declaration of the 2ist of March 1899.
See H. Barth, Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa
(London, 1857-1858); G. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan (Berlin,
1879-1889) ; E. Gentil, La Chute de I'Empire de Rabah (Paris, 1902).
Aho FRENCH CONGO.
BAGNACAVALLO, BARTOLOMMEO (1484-1542), Italian
painter. His real name was RAMENGHI, but he received the
cognomen Bagnacavallo from the little village where he was
born. He studied first under Francia, and then proceeded to
2O2
BAGNERES-DE-BIGORRE BAG-PIPE
Rome, where he became a pupil of Raphael. While studying
under him he worked along with many others at the decoration
of the gallery in the Vatican, though it is not known what portions
are his work. On his return to Bologna he quickly took the
leading place as an artist, and to him were due the great improve-
ments in the general style of what has been called the Bolognese
school. His works were considered to be inferior in point of
design to some other productions of the school of Raphael,
but they were distinguished by rich colouring and graceful
delineation. They were highly esteemed by Guido Reni and the
Carracci, who studied them carefully and in some points imitated
them. The best specimens of Bagnacavallo's works, the " Dispute
of St Augustine," and a " Madonna and Child," are at Bologna.
BAGNERES-DE-BIGORRE, a town of south-western France,
capital of an arrondissement in the department of Hautes-
Pyrenees, 13 m. S.S.E. of Tarbes on a branch line of the Southern
railway. Pop. (1906) 6661. It is beautifully situated on the
left bank of the Adour, at the northern end of the valley of
Campan, and the vicinity abounds in picturesque mountain
scenery. The town is remarkably neat and clean and many of
the houses are built or ornamented with marble. It is one of the
principal watering-places in France, and has some fifty mineral
springs, characterized chiefly by the presence of sulphate of lime
or iron. Their temperature ranges approximately from 59 to
122 Fahr., and they are efficacious in cases of rheumatism,
nervous affections, indigestion and other maladies. The season
begins in May and terminates about the end of October, during
which time the population is more than doubled. The Pro-
menade des Coustous is the centre of the life of Bagneres. Close
by stands the church of St Vincent of the I4th and isth centuries.
The old quarter of the town, in which there are several old houses,
contains a graceful octagonal tower of the isth century, the
remains of a Jacobin monastery. The Neothermes, occupying
part of the casino, and the Thermes (dating from 1824), which
has a good library, are the principal bathing-establishments;
both are town property. The other chief buildings include the
Carmelite church, remains of the old church of St Jean, a museum
and the town-hall. Bagneres has tribunals of first instance and
of commerce, and a communal college. The manufacture of
barege, a light fabric of silk and wool, and the weaving and knit-
ting of woollen goods, wood-turning and the working of marble
found in the neighbourhood and imported from elsewhere,
are among the industries, and there are also slate quarries.
Bagneres was much frequented by the Romans, under whom
it was known as Vicus Aquensis, but afterwards lost itsVenown.
It begins to appear again in history in the I2th century when
Centulle III., count of Bigorre, granted it a liberal charter.
The baths rose into permanent importance in the i6th century,
when they were visited by Jeanne d'Albret, mother of Henry IV.,
and by many other distinguished persons.
BAGNERES-DE-LUCHON, a town of south-western France,
in the department of Haute-Garonne, 87 m. S.S.W. of Toulouse,
on a branch line of the Southern railway from Montrejeau.
Pop. (1906) 3448. The town is situated at the foot of the central
Pyrenees in a beautiful valley at the confluence of the One and
the Pique. It is celebrated for its thermal springs and as a
fashionable resort. Of the promenades the finest and most
frequented are the A116es d'Etigny, an avenue planted with
lime-trees, at the southern extremity of which is the Thermes,
or bathing-establishment, one of the most complete in existence.
The springs, which number 48, vary in composition, but are
chiefly impregnated with sulphate of sodium, and range in tem-
perature from 62 to 150. A large casino was opened in the
town in 1877. The discovery of numerous Roman remains
attests the antiquity of the baths, which are identified with the
Onesiorum Thermae of Strabo. Their revival in modern times
dates from the latter half of the i8th century, and was due to
Antoine M6gret d'Etigny, intendant of Auch.
BAGOAS, a Persian name (Bagtn), a shortened form of names
like Bagadata, " given by God," often used for eunuchs. The
best-known of these (" Bagoses " in Josephus) became the con-
fidential minister of Artazerxes III. He threw injhis lot with the
Rhodian condottiere Mentor, and with his help succeeded in
subjecting Egypt again to the Persian empire (probably 342 B.C.).
Mentor became general of the maritime provinces, suppressed
the rebels, and sent Greek mercenaries to the king, while Bagoas
administered the upper satrapies and gained such power that he
was the real master of the kingdom (Diod. xvi. 50; cf. Didymus,
Comm. in Demosth. Phil. vi. 5). He became very wealthy by
confiscating the sacred writings of the Egyptian temples and
giving them back to the priests for large bribes (Diod. xvi. 51).
When the high priest of Jerusalem, Jesus, murdered his brother
Johannes in the temple, Bagoas (who had supported Johannes)
put a new tax on the Jews and entered the temple, saying that
he was purer than the murderer who performed the priestly
office (Joseph. Ant. xi. 7.1). In 338 Bagoas killed the king and all
his sons but the youngest, Arses (q.v.), whom he raised to the
throne; two years later he murdered Arses and made Darius
III. king. When Darius attempted to become independent of
the powerful vizier (xtXiapxos), Bagoas tried to poison him
too; but Darius was warned and forced him to drink the poison
himself (Diod xvii. 5; Johann. Antioch, p. 38, 39 ed. Miiller;
Arrian ii. 14. 5; Curt. vi. 4. 10). A later story, that Bagoas
was an Egyptian and killed Artaxerxes III. because he had killed
the sacred Apis (Aelian, Var. Hist. vi. 8), is without historical
value. Bagoas' house in Susa, with rich treasures, was presented
by Alexander to Parmenio (Plut. Alex. 39); his gardens in
Babylon, with the best species of palms, are mentioned by
Theophrastus (Hist. Plant, ii. 6; Plin. Nat. Hist. xiii. 41). Another
eunuch, Bagoas, was a favourite of Alexander the Great (Dicae-
archus in Athen. xiii. 6036; Plut. Al. 67; Aelian, Var. Hist,
3.23; Curt. vi. 5. 23; x. i. 25 ff.). (Eo. M.)
BAG-PIPE (Celt, piob-mala, ullan-piob, cuislean, cuislin;
Fr. cornemuse, chalemie, musette, sourdeline, chevrette, loure;
Ger. Sackpfeife, Dudelsack; M. H. Ger. Suegdbalch 1 ; Ital.
cornamusa, piva, zampogna, surdelina; Gr. ftovcauXos (?); Lat.
ascaulus (?), tibia utricidaris, utricularium; med. Lat. chorus), a
complex reed instrument of great antiquity. The bag-pipe
forms the link between the syrinx (q.v.) and the primitive
organ, by furnishing the principle of the reservoir for the wind-
supply, combined with a simple method of regulating the sound-
producing pressure by means of the arm of the performer. The
bag-pipes consists of an air-tight leather bag having three to five
apertures, each of which contains a fixed stock or short tube.
The stocks act as sockets for the reception of the pipes, and as
air-chambers for the accomodation and protection of the reeds.
The pipes are of three "kinds: (i) a simple valved insufflation
tube or " blow-pipe," by means of which the performer fills the
bag reservoir; (2) the " chaunter " (chanter)or the melody-pipe,
having according to the variety of the bag-pipe a conical or a
cylindrical bore, lateral holes, and in some cases keys and a bell;
the " chaunter " is invariably made to speak by means of a
double-reed; (3) the " drones," jointed pipes with cylindrical
bore, generally terminating in a bell, but having no lateral
holes and being capable, therefore, of producing but one fixed
note.
The main characteristic of the bag-pipe is the drone ground
bass which sounds without intermission. Each drone is fitted
with a beating-reed resembling the primitive " squeaker " known
to all country lads; it is prepared by making a cut partly
across a piece of cane or reed, near the open end, and splitting
back from this towards a joint or knot, thus raising a tongue
or flap. The beating-reed is then fixed in a socket of the drone,
which fits into the stock. The sound is produced by the stream
of air forced from the bag into the drone-pipe by the pressure
of the performer's arm, causing the tongue of reed to vibrate
over the aperture, thus setting the whole column of air in vibra-
tion. The drone-pipe, like all cylindrical tubes with reed mouth-
pieces, has the acoustic properties of the closed pipe and produces
the note of a pipe twice its length. The drones are tuned by
means of sliding-joints.
1 See E. G. Graff, Deutsche Interlineanersionen der Psalmen (from
a I2th-cent. Windberg MS. at Munich), p. 384, Ps. Ixxx. 2. " nemet
den Sulmen unde gebet den Suegdbalch. '
BAG-PIPE
203
The blow-pipe and the chaunter occupy positions at opposite
extremities of the bag, which rests under the arm of the performer
while the drones point over his shoulder. These are the main
features in the construction of the bag-pipe, whose numerous
varieties fall into two classes according to the method of inflating
the bag: (i) by means of the blow-pipe described above; (2) by
means of a small bellows connected by a valved feed-pipe with
the bag and worked by the other arm or elbow to which it is
attached by a ribbon or strap.
Class I. comprises: (a) the Highland bag-pipe; (6) the old
Irish bag-pipe; (c) the cornemuse; (d) the bignou or biniou
(Breton bag-pipe); (e) the Calabrian bag-pipe; (/) the ascaulus
of the Greeks and Romans; (g) the tibia utricularis; (h) the
chorus. To Class II. belong: (a) the musette; (6) the North-
umbrian or border bag-pipe; (c) the Lowland bag-pipe; (d) the
union pipes of Ireland; (e) the surdelina of Naples.
I. The Highland Bag-pipe. The construction of the Highland
pipes is practically that given above. The chaunter consists of a
conical wooden tube terminating in a bell and measuring from 14
to 16 in. including the reed. There are seven holes in front
and one at the back for the thumb of the left hand, which fingers
the upper holes while the right thumb merely supports the instru-
ment. The holes are stopped by the under part of the joints of the
fingers. There is in addition a double hole near the bell, which is
never covered, and merely serves to regulate the pitch. As the
double reed is not manipulated by the lips of the performer, only
nine notes are obtained from the chaunter, as shown :
The notes do not form any known diatonic scale, for in addition to
the C and F being too sharp, the notes are not strictly in tune with
each other. Donald MacDonald, in his treatise on the bag-pipe a
states that " the piper is to pay no attention to the flats and sharps
marked on the clef, as they are not used in pipe music; yet trie
pipe imitates several different keys which are real, but ideal on the
bag-pipe, as the music cannot be transposed for it into any other
key than that in which it is first played or marked." Mr Glen, the
great dealer in bag-pipes, gave it as his opinion " that if the chaunter
were to be made perfect in any one scale, it would not go well with
the drones. Also, there would not be nearly so much music produced
(if you take into consideration that it has only nine invariable notes)
as at present it adapts itself to the keys of A maj., D maj., B min.,
G maj., E min. and A min. Of course we do not mean that it has all
the intervals necessary to form scales in all those keys, but that we
find it playing tunes that are in one or other of them." 4 Mr Ellis
considers that the natural scale of the chaunter of the bag-pipe
corresponds most nearly with the Arab scale of Zalzal, a celebrated
lutist who died c. A.D. 800.
The three drones are usually tuned to A, the two smallest one
octave below the A of the chaunter, and the largest two octaves
below. The three principal methods of tuning the drones are
shown as follows:
A. J. ELLIS.
Chaunter.
DAVID GLEN.'
Chaunter.
Drones.
ANGUS MACKAY.*
Chaunter.
Drones.
The excessive use of ornamental notes on the Highland bag-pipe
has arisen from a technical peculiarity of the instrument, which
makes a repetition of the same note difficult without the interpolation
of what is known among pipers as " cuts " or " warblers," i.e. grace
notes fingered with great rapidity (see below for an example). These
warblers, which consist not only of single notes but of groups of
1 These harmonics may be obtained by good performers by what
is known as " pinching " or only partially covering the B and C
holes and increasing the wind pressure.
* The notes marked with asterisks are approximately a quarter
of a tone sharp.
" Complete Tutor for attaining a thorough knowledge of the
pipe music," prefixed to A Collection of the Ancient Martial Music of
Caledonia called Piobaireachd, as performed on the Great Highland
Bag-pipe, Edinburgh, c. 1805.
* Paper on " The Musical Scales of Various Nations," by Alex. J.
Ellis, F.R.S., Jrnl. Soc. Arts, 1885, vol. xxxiii. p. 499.
' Tutor for the Highland Bag-pipe, by David Glen (Edinburgh,
1899).
' Tutor for the Highland Bag-pipe, by Angus Mackay (Edinburgh,
1839).
from three to seven notes, not consecutive but in leaps, assist in
relieving the constant discord with the drone bass. Skilful pipers
have been known to introduce warblers of as many as eleven notes
between two beats in a bar.
The use of musical notation for the Highland pipe tunes is a
recent innovation; the pipers used verbal equivalents for the notes;
for instance, the piobaireachd Coghiegh nha Shie, " War of peace," '
which opens as shown here, was taken down by Capt. Niel MacLeod
from the piper John M'Crummen of Skye as verbally taught to
apprentices as follows :
" Hodroho, hodroho, haninin, hit-chin,
Hpdroha, hodroho, hodroho, hachin,
Hiodroho, hodroho, haninin, hiechin," &c.
The conclusion of the tune is thus expressed :
' Hiundratatateriri, hiendatatateriri, hiundratata-
teriri, hiundratatateriri." '
Written _down this seems a mere unintelligible jumble, but could
we hear it, as sounded by the pipers, with due regard for the rhyth-
mical value of notes, it would be a very different matter. Alexander
Campbell relates that a melody had to be taken down or translated
" from the syllabic jargon of illiterate pipers into musical characters,
which, when correctly done, he found to his astonishment to coincide
exactly with musical notation."
A Highland bag-pipe of the isth century, dated MCCCCIX., in
the possession of Messrs J. & R. Glen of Edinburgh, was exhibited
at the Royal Military Exhibition in London in 1890 m (see fig. I
(4)). There were two drones, inserted in-a single stock in the form
of a wide-spread fork, and tuned to A in unison with the lowest
note of the chaunter, which had seven finger-holes in front and a
thumb-hole at the back.
FIG. i. (i) Cornemuse. (2) Irish bag-pipe. (3) Musette. (4)
Highland bag-pipe, A.D. 1409. (5) Border bag-pipe.
(From Capt. C. R. Day's Descriptive Catalogue of Musical Instruments exhibited at
the Royal Military Exhibition, by permission of Eyre & Spotiiswoode.)
The old Irish Bag-pipe. Very little is known about this instru-
ment. It is mentioned in the ancient Brehon Laws, said to date
from the jth century (they are cited in compilations of the loth
century), in describing the order of precedence of the king's body-
guard and household in the Crilh Gabhlach: " Poets, harpers,
pipers, horn-blowers and jugglers have their place in the south-east
part of the house." u The word used for (bag-) pipers is Cuislen-
naigh, a word associated with reed instruments (cuiscrigh = reeds ;
O'Reilly's Irish-English Dictionary, Dublin, 1864). The old Irish
bag-pip, of which we possess an illustration dated 1581," had a long
conical chaunter with a bell and apparently seven holes in front
and a thumb-hole behind; there were two drones of different
lengths-; one very long both set in the same stock. It is exceed-
ingly difficult to procure any accurate information concerning the
development of the bag-pipe in Ireland until it assumed the present
form, known as the union-pipes, which belong to Class II.
7 A Collection of Ancient Piobaireachd or Highland Pipe Music by
Angus Mackay (Edinburgh, 1839), p. 128.
8 A Collection of Piobaireachd or Pipe Tunes as verbally taught by
the M'Crummen Pipers on the Isle of Skye to their apprentices, as
taken from John M'Crummen (or Crimmon) by Niel MacLeod of
Gesto, Skye (Edinburgh, 1880).
* Albyn s Anthology, vol. i. p. 90.
10 Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical Instruments exhibited at the
Royal Military Exhibition, London, iSyo, Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1891,
pi. ix. A, and description p. 57.
11 Ancient Laws of Ireland, Brehon Law Tracts, published by the
Commissioners for publishing the Ancient Laws and Institutions of
Ireland (Dublin, 1879), vo '- IV - PP- 33 8 and 339.
12 John Derrick, Image of Ireland and Discoverie of Woodkarne
(London, 1581), pi. ii.
204
BAG-PIPE
Petit
bourdon.
Gros
bourdon.
The cornemuse and chalemie were the bag-pipes in use in France,
Italy and the Netherlands before the advent of the musette, to which
they bear the same relation as the old Irish bag-pipe does to the
union-pipes, or the cornemusa or piva to the sampogna or surdelina
in Italy. Two kinds of cprnemuses were known in France during
the l6th and I7th centuries, differing in one important structural
detail, which affected the timbre of the instruments. Pere Marin
Mersenne ' has given a detailed description of these varieties and
of the musette, with very clear illustrations of the instruments
and all their parts. The cornemuse or chalemie used by shepherds,
and as a solo instrument (see fig. I (l) ), was similar to the High-
land bag-pipe; it consisted of a leather bag, inflated by means of
a valved blow-pipe; a large drone (gros bourdon)
2\ ft. long included the beating-reed, which
measured 2\ in., and was fixed in the stock;
the small drone (petit bourdon), I ft. in length
including a reed 2 in. long, also had a beat-
ing-reed and was fixed in the same stock as
the chaunter. The two drones were tuned to C.
The chaunter had a conical bore and a double reed like an oboe,
but hidden within the stock; it could be taken out and played
separately, when the compass given by the eight holes (seven in
front and a thumb-hole) C to C' could be increased by a third
to E, by overblowing the D and E an octave by
it zp pressure of the breath and lips on the reed,
" now taken directly into the mouth. The second
kind of cornemuse was played only in concert
with a family of instruments known as Hautbois de Poitou, a hautbois
having the reed enclosed in an air-chamber, just as is the case with the
reeds of the bag-pipe. This cornemuse had but one drone which could,
like the others, be lengthened for tuning by drawing out the joint ;
the reed was not a beating-reed but a double reed like that of the
chaunter; this constitutes the main difference between the two
cornemuses. The chaunter had eight holes, the lowest of which was
covered by a key enclosed in a perforated box.
The Sackpfeife or Dudelsack of Germany was an instrument of some
importance made in no less than five sizes, all described and illustrated
by Michael Praetorius. 8 They consist of the Grosser Bock or double-
bass bag-pipe, aformidable-looking instrument with a singlecylindrical
drone of a great length, terminating, as did the chaunter also, in a
curved ram s horn (to which the name was due). The chaunter had
seven finger-holes and a vent-hole in front, and a thumb-hole at the
back. The drone was tuned to G, an octave below the chaunter.
Compass of
chaunter.
Compass of
chaunter.
Drone. Drone -
Sackpfeife or Dudelsack. Bock.
The Bock, of similar construction, was pitched a fourth higher in C.
The Schaferpfeife had two drones in Bb and F. Praetorius ex-
plains that the upper notes of the chaunter of this sackpfeife had a
faulty intonation which could not be corrected owing to the absence
of the thumb-hole, usual in all other varieties of the instrument.
Drones.
Schaferpfeife. Hummelchen.
The Hummelchen had two drones tuned to F and C.
The Dudey or treble sackpfeife was the smallest of the family,
and had three drones tuned to Eb, Bl and Eb, and a chaunter with
a compass ranging from F or Et> to C or D.
Compass of chaunter.
Drones. . to f- i._ * 1
Compass of
chau liter.
Praetorius also mentions a different kind of sackpfeife he saw in
Magdeburg (see op. cit. Theatrum, pi.
v., No. 4), which was somewhat larger
than the Schaferpfeife and pitched a
third lower. There were two chaun-
ters mounted in one stock, each having
three holes in front and one for the
thumb at the back. The right-hand chaunter sounded the five
notes D, E, F, G, A, and the left-hand chaunter, G, A, B, C, D.
The performer was thus able to play simple two-part melodies on
the Magdeburg bag-pipe. Praetonus mentions in addition the
French bag-pipe (musette'), similar in pitch to the hummelchen, but
inflated by means of the bellows.
1 L'Harmonie universelle, vol. ii. bk. v. pp. 282-287 an d 35 (Paris,
1636-1637).
1 Syntagma Musicum, part ii., De Organographia (Wolfenbtittel,
1618); republished in Band xiii. of the Publicatwnen der Gesellschaft
fur Musikforschung (Berlin, 1884), chap. xix. and pi. v., xi., xiii.
The Calabrian bag-pipe has a bag of goatskin with the hair left
on, and is inflated by means of a blow-pipe. There are two drones
and two chaunters, all fixed in one stock. Each chaunter has
three or four finger-holes and the right-hand pipe has the fourth
covered by a key enclosed in a perforated box; both drones and
chaunter have double reeds.
The ancient Greek bag-pipe (see ASKAULES), and the Roman tibia
utricularis, belonged to this class of instrument, inflated by the mouth,
but it is not certain that they had drones (see below, History).
II. The second class of instruments, inflated by means of a small
bellows worked by the arm, has as prototype the musette (see fig. I (3)),
which is said to have been evolved during the I5th century; 3 from
the end of the 1 5th century there were always musette players 4
at the French court, and we find the instrument fully developed
at the beginning of the 1 7th century when Mersenne 6 gives a full
description of all its parts. The chief characteristic of the musette
was a certain rustic Watteau-like grace. The face of the performer
was no longer distorted by inflating the bag; for the long cumber-
some drones was substituted a short barrel droner, containing the
necessary lengths of tubing for four or five drones, reduced to the
smallest and most compact form. The bores were pierced longi-
tudinally through the thickness of the wood in parallel channels,
communicating with each other in twos or threes and providing the
requisite length for each drone. The reeds were double " hautbois "
reeds all set in a wooden stock or box within the bag; by means of
regulators or slides, called layettes, moving up and down in longi-
tudinal grooves round the circumference of the barrel, the length
of the drone pipes could be so regulated that a simple harmonic
bass, consisting mainly of the common chord, could be obtained.
The chaunter, of narrow cylindrical bore, was also
furnished with a double reed and had eleven holes,
four of which had keys, giving a compass of twelve
notes from F to C. This number of holes was not
invariable. After Mersenne's time, Jean Hotteterre
(d. 1678), a court musician, belonging to the band known as the
Musique de la Grande Ecurief in which he played the dessus de
hautbois, introduced certain improvements in the drones of the
musette. 7 His son Martin Hotteterre (d. 1712) added a second
chaunter to the musette, shorter than the first, to which it was
attached instead of being inserted into the stock. The Hotteterre
chaunter, known as le petit chalumeau, had six keys, whereas the
grand chalumeau had seven, besides eight finger-holes and a vent-
hole in the bell. All these keys were actuated by the little finger
ot the left hand and the thumb of the right hand, which were not
required to stop holes on the large chaunter. The grand and petit
chalumeaux are figured in detail with keys and holes in a rare
and anonymous work by Borjon (or Bourgeon 8 ), who gives much
interesting information concerning one of the most popular instru-
ments of his day. The bellows, he states, borrowed from the
organ, were added to the musette about forty or fifty years before
he wrote his treatise. The compass of the improved musette of
Hotteterre was as shown :
the eight holes of the grand chalumeau.
the seven keys of the grand > halumeau.
the six keys of the petit chalumeau.
The four or five drones were
usually tuned thus:
The chaunters and drones were
pierced with a very narrow cylin-
drical bore, and double reeds were used throughout, causing them to
speak as closed pipes, which accounts for the deep pitch of these
relatively short pipes (see AULOS). Martin Hotteterre was hardly
the first to introduce the second chaunter for the bag-pipe, since
* See E. Thoinan, Les Hotteterre et les Chedeville, celebres facteurs
de flutes, hautbois, bassons et musettes (Paris, 1894), p. 23. It is
probable, however, that M. Thoinan, who makes this statement,
has not considered the possibility of the word musette applying in
this case to the small rustic hautbois or dessus de bombarde, also
written muse, muset, musele, which occurs in many ballads of the
I3th, I4th and isth centuries. See Fr. Gqdefroy, Dictionnaire de
I'ancienne langue franf aise du IX' au XV' siecle (Paris, 1888).
4 Musettes de Poitou; probably the cornemuses used in concert
with the Hautbois de Poitou.
* Op. cit. vol. ii. bk. v. pp. 287-292.
* See Ernest Thoinan, op. cit. pp. 15 et seq. (cf. Jules Ecorcheville,
" Quelques documents sur la musique de la Grande Ecurie du Roi "
in Intern. Mus. Ges., Sammelband ii. 4, p. 625 and table 2, " Grands
Hautbois ").
1 Methode pour la musette, &c., by Hotteterre le Remain (Paris,
!737). 4to, chap. xvi.
8 Traite de la musette avec une nouvelle methode, &c. (Lyons, 1672),
pp. 25-27 and plate. A copy of this work is in the British Museum.
BAG-PIPE
205
Praetorius in 1618 figures and describes the Magdeburg sackpfeife
with two chaunters, out without keys and with a conical bore.
The surdelina or sampogna is described and illustrated by Mer-
senne 1 as the musette de Naples; its construction was very com-
plicated. Mersenne states that the instrument was invented by
Jean Baptiste Riva (who was living in Paris in 1620), Dom Julio
and Vincenze; but Mersenne seems to have made alterations
himself in the original instrument, which are not very clearly
explained. There were two chaunters with narrow cylindrical
bore and having both finger-holes and keys; and two drones each
having ten keys. The four pipes were fixed in the same stock, and
double reeds were used throughout ; the bag was inflated by means
of bellows. Passenti of Venice published a collection of melodies
for the zampogna in 1628, under the title of Canora Zampogna.
The modern Lowland bag-pipe differs from the Highland bag-pipe
mainly in that it is blown by bellows instead of by the mouth.
The Northumbrian or Border bag-pipe, also blown by means of
bellows, is chiefly distinguished by having a chaunter stopped at
the lower end so that when all the holes are closed, the pipe is silent.
There are seven finger-holes, one for the thumb, and a varying
number of keys. The four drones are fixed in one stock and are
tuned by means of stoppers, so that, as in the musette, any one of
them may be silenced. A fine Northumbrian bag-pipe 2 from the
collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin is illustrated (fig. I. (5)).
The union pipes of the i8th century, or modern Irish bag-pipe,
blown by bellows (see fig. I. (2)), had one chaunter with seven
finger-holes, one thumb-hole and eight keys, which together gave
the chromatic scale in two octaves. The drones were tuned to A in
different octaves, and three regulators or drones with keys, played by
the elbow, produced a kind of harmony; the regulators correspond
to the sliders on the drone-barrel of the musette.
History of the Bag-pipe. There is reason to believe that the
origin of the bag-pipe must be sought in remote antiquity.
No instrument in any degree similar to it is represented
on any of the monuments of Egypt or Assyria known at the
present day; we are, nevertheless, able to trace it in ancient
Persia and by inference in Egypt, in Chaldaea and in ancient
Greece. The most characteristic feature of the bag-pipe is not
the obvious bag or air-reservoir from which the instrument
derives its name in most languages, but the fixed harmony of
the buzzing drones. The principle of the drone, i.e. the beating-
reed sunk some three inches down the pipe, was known to the
ancient Egyptians. In a pipe discovered in a mummy-case
and now in the museum at Turin, was found a straw beating-
reed in position. The arghoul (q.v.), a modern Egyptian instru-
ment, possesses the characteristic feature of drone and chaunter
without the bag. The same instrument occurs once in the
hieroglyphs, being sounded as-il, and once on a mural painting
preserved in the Musee Guimet and reproduced by Victor Loret. 3
During Jacques de Morgan's excavations in Persia some terra-
cotta figures of musicians, dating from the 8th century B.C.,
were discovered in a tell (mound) at Susa, 4 two of which appear to
be playing bag-pipes; the chaunter, curved in the shape of a
hook from the stock, is clearly visible, the bag under the arm is
indicated, and the lips are pursed as if in the act of blowing, but
the insufflation tube is absent; a round hole in one of the
figures suggests its presence formerly.
Among the names of musical instruments in Daniel iii. 5 and
15, the sixth, generally but wrongly rendered " dulcimer," is
thought by many scholars to signify a kind of bag-pipe (see
commentaries on Daniel and the theological encyc.). This
belief is based on the supposition that the Aramaic sumpdnya
is a loan-word from the Greek, being a mispronunciation of
orv/jKbuvla. The argument is, however, exceedingly weak. In
the first place, the date of the book of Daniel is matter of con-
troversy, hingeing partly on precisely such questions as the true
significance and derivation of sumpdnya. Second, it is possible
that the word sumpdnya is a late interpolation. Third, its
exact form is uncertain; in verse 10, sipponya is used of the same
instrument, suggesting a derivation from the Gr. a'utxav (tube
or pipe). Fourth, even if o-v^ttxavia is the source of the word,
there is very little evidence that it was used for any particular
1 Op, cit. bk. v. p. 293.
' Illustrated and described by Capt. C. R. Day, Descriptive
Catalogue, pi. ix. fig. C, p. 62.
* L'Egypte au temps des Pharaons la vie, la science el I'art; avec
Photogravures, &c. (Paris, 1889) I2mo, p. 139.
4 See Delegation en Perse, by J. de Morgan (Paris, 1900), vol. i.
pi. viii., Nos. 10 and 14.
instrument. The original natural sense of avn<j>uvia. is " con-
cord of sound," "a concordant interval," and the evidence
of its use for a particular instrument is of the 2nd century B.C.,
and, even so, very slight. Only one passage (Polyb. xxvi.
10. 5) really bears on the question, and there the translation
of the word depends on a context the reading of which is
uncertain (see SYMPHONIA). It is, however, curious that the
bag-pipe was known in Italy and Spain during the middle
ages, the two countries through which Eastern culture was intro-
duced into Europe, by the name of zampogna or sampogna,
which strongly recall the Chaldaean sumponyd; and further
that in the same countries the word sinjonia should be co-
existent with zampogna and have the original meaning attached
to the classical ovfi<t>(i)via, " a concord of sound." A single
passage only in Dion Chrysostom (see ASKAULES) is enough to
prove that the instrument was known in Greece in A.D. 100.'
The Greeks had undoubtedly received some kind of bag-pipe
from Egypt (in the form of the as-it), or from Chaldaea, but
it remained a rustic instrument used only by shepherds and
peasants. This conclusion is supported by allusions in Aristo-
phanes and in Plato's Crito, which undoubtedly refer to the
drone: " This, dear Crito, is the voice which I seem to hear
murmuring in my ears like the sound of the flute (aulos) in the
ears of the mystic; that voice, I say, is humming in my ears."*
Aristophanes, in his play The Acharnians, indulges in a flight
of satire at the expense of the musical Boeotians, by making a
band of Theban pipers play a Boeotian merchant and his slave
into town. The musicians are dubbed " bumblebee pipers "
(/8oju/3a{iXtoi, 1. 866) by the exasperated inhabitants. The verb
used here for "blowing" is <bvo-av, the very word applied to
blowing or inflating the bellows (<t>vaa), and not the usual verb
av\tlv, to play the aulos. Another instrument, mentioned by
Aristophanes in Lysistrata (11. 1242 and 1245), which was probably
a kind of bag-pipe, is also derived from <j>vcra, i.e. physallis, the
"concrete," 7 and physateria* the "collective" 7 form of the
instrument. We leave the realm of inference for that of certainty
when we reach the reign of Nero, who had a passion for the
Hydraulus (see ORGAN: History) and the tibia, utricularis.'
That the bag-pipe was introduced by the Romans into the
British Isles is a conclusion supported by the discovery in the
foundations of the praetorian camp at Richborough of a small
bronze figure of a Roman soldier playing the tibia utricularis.
The Rev. Stephen Weston, who made a communication on the
subject to Archaeologia, 10 points out further the interesting fact
in connexion with the instrument, that the Romans had instituted
colleges for training pipers on the bag-pipe, a practice followed
in the Highlands in the i8th century and notably in Skye.
Gruterus " mentions among the fraternities a Corpus el Collegium
Utriculariorum, and Spon u also quotes the Collegia Utricular.
The bag-pipe in question appears to have two drones in front
pointing towards the right shoulder, and although no chaunter
is shown in the design, both hands are held in correct positions
over the spot where it ought to be; it may have been broken
off. The bronze figure has been reproduced from drawings by
Edward King in three positions. 13 The statement made by
several writers on music that a bag-pipe is represented on a
contorniate of Nero is erroneous, as a verification of certain
references will show. 14 The error is due in the first place to
I Dion Chrysostom, ed. Adolphus Emperius (Brunswick, 1844),
p. 728 or Ixxi. (R) 381. See Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie, s.v.
Askaules."
6 54, B. Jowett's Eng. translation (Oxford, 1892).
7 A suggestion the writer owes to Mr G. Barwick of the British
Museum.
See " Researches into the Origin of the Organs of the Ancients,"
by Kathleen Schlesinger, Sammelband ii. Intern. Musik. Ges. vol. ii.
1901, pp. 188-202.
' Suetonius, Nero, 54 (S. Clarke's translation and text).
10 Archaeologia, vol. xvii. pp. 176-179 (London, 1814).
II Inscriptions anliquae totius orbis romani (Heidelberg, 1602-
1603).
" Miscell. erudit. antiquitalis.
11 Munimenta antiqua, vol. ii. (London, 1799), p. 33, pi. xx. fig. 3.
14 See Montfaucon, Suppl. de I'antiq. exphquec, vol. hi. pi. Ixxiii.,
Nos. i and 2, and explanation p. 189; Francesco Bianchini, de
206
BAGRATION
Montfaucon, who misunderstood the explanation of Bianchini's
drawing which he reproduced. The contorniate referred to is
one containing the hydraulic organ, and the legend Laurentinus
Aug., but no bag-pipe. Bianchini gives a drawing of a bag-pipe
with two long drones, which, he says, was copied from a marble
relief over the gateway of the palace of the prince of Santa
Croce in Rome, near the church of San Carlo ad Catinarios.
If the drawing be accurate and the sculpture of classical Roman
period, it would corroborate the details of the instrument held
by the little bronze figure of the Roman soldier.
From England the bag-pipe spread to Caledonia and Ireland,
where it took root, identifying itself with the life of the people,
as a military instrument held in great esteem by the Celtic races.
The bag-pipe was used at weddings and funerals, and at all
festivals; to lighten labour, during the i8th century, as for
instance in Skye, in 1786, when the inhabitants were engaged
in roadmaking, and each party of labourers had its bag-piper.
It was used in old mysteries at Coventry in 1534. Readers who
wish to follow closely the history of the bag-pipe in the British
Isles should consult Sir John Graham Dalyell's Musical Memoirs
of Scotland (London, 1849, with illustrative plates). _
On the downfall of the Roman empire, the bag-pipe, sharing
the fate of other instruments, probably lingered for a time
among itinerant musicians, actors, jug-
glers, &c., reappearing later in primi-
tive guise with the stamp of naivete
which characterizes the productions of
the early middle ages, and with a new
name, chorus (q.v.). An illustration of
a Persian bag-pipe dating from the 6th
century A.D. (reign of Chosroes II.) is
to be found on the great arch at
Takht-i-Bostan (see fig. 2). This very
crude representation of the bag-pipe
can only be useful as evidence that
centuries which elapsed between the
FIG. 2. Ancient Persian
bag-pipe.
(From Sir Robert Porter's
Travels in Georgia. Persia, &c. t
vol. ii. p. 177, pi. Iv.)
during the fourteen
moulding of the figurine found in the tell at Susa, mentioned
above, and the carving in the rock at Takht-i-Bostan, the
instrument had survived. The reign of Chosroes was noted
for its high standard of musical culture. The fault probably
lies with the draughtsman, who drew the sculptures on the arch
for the book. Nothing more is heard henceforth of the tibia
utricularis. If the drawings of the early medieval bag-pipes,
which are by no means rare in MSS. and monuments of the gth
to the i3th century, are to be trusted, it seems hard to under-
stand the raison d'itre of the instrument shorn of its drones,
to see how it justified its existence except as an ill-understood
reminiscence. What could be the object of laboriously inflating
a bag for the purpose of making a single chaunter speak, which
could be done so much more satisfactorily by taking the reed
itself into the mouth, as was the practice of the Greeks and
Romans? There is a fine psalter in the library of University
Court, Glasgow, 1 belonging to the Hunterian collection, in which
King David is represented, as usual in the 1 2th century, playing
or rather tuning a harp, surrounded by musicians playing bells,
rebec, guitar fiddle (in 'cello position), quadruple pipes or
ganistrum, and a bag-pipe with long chaunter having a well-
defined stock. The insufflation tube appears to have been left
out, and there are no drones to be seen.
There are interesting specimens of bag-pipes in Spanish illu-
minated MSS. such as the magnificent volume of the Cantigas
di Santa Maria, in the Escurial, compiled for King Alphonso the
Wise ( 1 3th century) . There are fifty-one separate figures of instru-
mentalists forming a kind of introduction to the canticles, and
among the instruments are three bag-pipes, one of which is a
remarkable instrument having no less than four long drones and
two chaunters which by an error of the draughtsmen are repre-
tribus generibus instr. mus. veterum, Romae, 1742, pi. ii., Nos. 12 and
13, and p. ii; Suetonius, Vitae Neronis, ed. Charles Patin, cap. 41,
p. 304, where the contorniate in question, whose musical instrument
differs essentially from Bianchini s and Montfaucon's, is figured.
1 See Catalogue of the Exhibition of Illuminated MSS. at the
Burlington Fine Arts Club, 1908, No. 31.
sented as being blown from the piper's mouth. The fifty-one
musicians have been reproduced in black and white by Juan F.
Riano 2 and also by Don F. Aznar. 3 Another fine Spanish MS.
in the British Museum, Add. MS. 18,851, of the end of the i^th
century, illustrated by Flemish artists for presentation to Queen
Isabella, displays a profusion of musical instruments in innumer-
able concert scenes; there are bag-pipes on f. I3,4i2 b and 419;
one of these has two drones, one conical, the other cylindrical,
bound together, and a curved chaunter.
The most trustworthy evidence we have of the medieval
bag-pipe is the fine Highland bag-pipe dated 1409, and belong-
ing to Messrs J. & R. Glen, described above. Edward Buhle 4
points out that from the i3th century the bag-pipe became a
court instrument played by minnesingers and troubadours, as
seen in literature and in the MSS. and monuments. It was about
1 250 that the human or animals' heads were used as stocks and as
bells for the chaunters. The opinion advanced that the bellows
were first added to the bag-pipe in Ireland seems untenable and is
quite unsupported by facts; the bellows were in all probability
added to the union-pipes in imitation of the musette. In the
Image of Ireland and Discaverie of Woodkarne, by John Derrick,
1581, the Irish insurgents are portrayed in pictures full of life
and character, as led to rebellion and pillage by a piper armed
with a bag- pipe, similar to the Highland bag-pipe. The
cradle of the musette is inconceivable anywhere but in France,
among the courtiers and elegant world, turning from the pomps
and luxuries of court life to an artificial admiration and cult
of Nature, idealized to harmonize with silks and satins. The
cornemuse of shepherds and rustic swains became the fashionable
instrument, but as inflating the bag by the breath distorted the
performer's face, the bellows were substituted, and the whole
instrument was refined in appearance and tone-quality to fit it
for its more exalted position. The Hotteterre family and that
of Chedeville were past masters of the art of making the musette
and of playing upon it; they counted among their pupils the
highest and noblest in the land. The cult of the musette con-
tinued throughout the 1 7th and i8th centuries until the 'seventies,
when its popularity was on the wane and musettes figured
largely in sales. 5 Lully introduced the musette into his operas,
and in 1758 the list of instruments forming the orchestra at the
Opera includes one musette. 6
Illustrations of bag-pipes are found in the miniatures of the
following MSS. in the British Museum. 2 B. VII. f. 192 and 197;
Add. MS. 34,294 (the Sforza Book), f. 62, vol. i. ; Burney, 275,
f. 715; Add. MS. 17,280, f. 238"; Add. MS. 24,686 (Tennyson
Psalter), (. 17"; Add. MS. 17,280, f. 82"; Add. MS. 24,681, f. 44;
Add. MS. 32,454; Add. MS. 11,867, f. 38; &c. &c. (K. S.)
BAGRATION, PETER, PRINCE (1765-1812), Russian general,
descended from the noble Georgian family of the Bagratides,
was born in 1765. He entered the Russian army in 1782, and
served for some years in the Caucasus. He was engaged in the
siege of Ochakov (1788), and in the Polish campaign of 1794,
being present at the taking of Praga and Warsaw. His merits
were recognized by Suvarov, whom he accompanied in the Italian
and Swiss campaign of 1799, winning particular distinction by
the capture of the town of Brescia. In the wars of 1805 his
achievements were even more brilliant. With a small rearguard
he successfully resisted the repeated attacks of forces five times
his own numbers (Hollabrunn), and though half his men fell,
the retreat of the main army under Kutusov was thereby secured.
At Austerlitz he was engaged against the left wing of the French
army, under Murat and Lannes, and at Eylau, Heilsberg and
Friedland he fought with the most resolute and stubborn courage.
In 1808 by a daring march across the frozen Gull of Finland he
captured the Aland Islands, and in 1809 he commanded against
the Turks at the battles of Rassowa and Tataritza. In 1812 he
1 Notes of Early Spanish Music (London, 1887), pp. 120 and 121.
' Idumentario Espanola (Madrid, 1880).
4 Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen des fruhen
Mittelalters, p. 50 (Leipzig, 1903).
6 An interesting pamphlet by Eugene de Bricqueville, Les Musettes
(Paris, 1894), p. 36, with illustrations.
See Antoine Vidal, Les Instruments a arcnet (Paris, 1871), vol. i.
p. 81, note I.
BAGSHOT BEDS BAHAMAS
207
commanded the 2nd army of the West, and though defeated
at Mogilev (23rd July), rejoined the main army under Barclay,
and led the left wing at Borodino (yth Sept.), where he received
a mortal wound. A monument was erected in his honour by the
tsar Nicholas I. on the battlefield of Borodino.
BAGSHOT BEDS, in geology, a series of sands and clays of
shallow- water origin, some being fresh- water, some marine. They
belong to the upper Eocene formation of the London and Hamp-
shire basins (England), and derive their name from Bagshot
Heath in Surrey; but they are also well developed in Hampshire
and the Isle of Wight. The following divisions are generally
accepted :
Upper Bagshot Beds Barton sand, and Barton clay.
Middle ,, Bracklesham beds.
Lower Bournemouth beds, Alum Bay beds,
and Bovey Tracey beds (?).
The lower division consists of pale-yellow, current-bedded
sand and loam, with layers of pipeclay and occasional beds of
flint pebbles. In the London basin, wherever the junction of the
Bagshot beds with the London clay is exposed, it is clear that
no sharp line can be drawn between these formations. The
Lower Bagshot beds may be observed at Brentwood, Billericay
and Highbeech in Essex; outliers, capping hills of London clay,
occur at Hampstead, Highgate and Harrow. In Surrey consider-
able tracts of London clay are covered by heath-bearing Lower
Bagshot beds, as at Weybridge, Aldershot, Woking, &c. The
" Ramsdell clay," N.W. of Basingstoke, belongs to this formation.
In the Isle of Wight the lower division is well exposed at Alum
Bay (660 ft.) and White Cliff Bay (140 ft.); here it consists of
unfossiliferous sands (white, yellow, brown, crimson and every
intermediate shade), and clays with layers of lignite and ferru-
ginous sandstone. Similar beds are visible at Bournemouth,
and in the neighbourhood of Poole, Wareham, Corfe and Studland.
The leaf-bearing clays of Alum Bay and Bournemouth are
well known, and have yielded a large and interesting series
of plant remains, including Eucalyptus, Caesdpinia, Populus,
Platanus, Sequoia, Aralia, Polypodium, Osmunda, Nipadites
and many others. The sands and clays of Bovey Tracey (see
BOVEY BEDS) are probably of the same age. The clays of
this formation are of great value for pottery manufacture; they
are extensively mined in the vicinity of Wareham and Corfe,
whence they are shipped from Poole and are consequently
known as "Poole clays"; similarly, "Teignmouth clay" is
obtained from the Bovey beds. Alum was formerly obtained
from the clays of Alum Bay; and the lignites have been used as
fuel near Corfe and at Bovey.
The Bracklesham beds (q.v.) are sometimes classed with the
overlying Barton clay as Middle Bagshot. In the London basin
the Barton beds are unknown. In Surrey and Berkshire the
Bracklesham beds are from 20 to 50 ft. thick; in Alum Bay they
are 100 ft., with beds of lignite in the lower portion; and about
here they are sharply marked off from the Barton clay by a bed
of conglomerate formed of flint pebbles. The Upper Bagshot
beds, Barton sand and Barton clay, are from 140 to 200 ft. thick
in the Isle of Wight.
The Agglestone (or Haggerstone) rock and Puckstone rock,
near Studland in Dorsetshire, are formed of large indurated
masses of the Lower Bagshot beds that have resisted the weather;
Creechbarrow near Corfe is another striking feature due to the
same beds. Many of the sarsen stones or greywethers of S.E.
England have been derived from Bagshot strata.
See Memoirs of the Geological Survey (England): " Geology of
the Isle of Wight," new edition (1889); " The Geology of London
and Part of the Thames Valley," vol. i. (1889); and ' F The Geology
of the Country around Bournemouth " (1898).
BAHADUR KHEL, an Indian salt-mine in the Kohat district
of the North-West Frontier Province, in the range of hills south
of the village of Bahadur Khel between Kohat and Bannu. For
a space of 4 m. in length by a quarter of a mile in breadth
there exists an exposed mass of rock-salt with several large
hillocks of salt on either side. The quarries extend over an area
i m. long by half a mile broad, and the salt is hewn out in
large blocks with picks and wedges. The Indian government
formerly maintained a large preventive establishment for the
preservation of the revenue, but it was withdrawn in 1898.
Consumption of Kohat salt is restricted, on account of its paying
less duty, to the tracts lying to the north of the Indus and to
the frontier tribes. In 1903 the rate was fixed at R.iJ per
maund, against R.2 for the rest of India. The mines are under
the control of the Northern India Salt Department.
BAHADUR SHAH I., a Mogul emperor of Hindustan, A.D.
1707-1712, the son and successor of Aurangzeb. At the time
of the latter's death his eldest surviving son, Prince Muazim,
was governor of Kabul, and in his absence the next brother,
Azam Shah, assumed the functions of royalty. Muazim came
down from Kabul, and with characteristic magnanimity offered
to share the empire with his brother. Azam would not accept
the proposal and was defeated and slain on the plains of Agra.
Muazim then ascended the throne under the title of Bahadur
Shah. He was a man of 64 and died five years later. During
his lifetime the empire was already falling to pieces before the
inroads of the Sikhs and Mahrattas, and through internal
dissensions.
BAHADUR SHAH II., the last of the Mogul emperors of
Hindustan, 1837-1857. He was a titular emperor only, since
from the time of the defeat of Shah Alam at Buxar in 1764 all
real power had resided with the East India Company ; but all
proclamations were still worded under " The King's Realm
and the Company's rule." His sole importance is due to the
use made of his name during the Mutiny of 1857. Always feeble
in character, he was at that time old, and, from the first, was
wholly at the mercy of the mutinous soldiery in Delhi, who
were controlled by a council called the Barah Topi, or Twelve
Heads. His papers, seized after the fall of Delhi, are full of senile
complaint of the disrespect and discourtesy which he suffered
from them. At the time of the assault he fled to the Tomb of
Humayun, 6 m. from Delhi, where he was captured by Major
Hodson. In January 1858 he was brought to trial for rebellion
and for complicity in the murder of Europeans. The trial lasted
more than two months. The substance of the king's defence
was that he had been a mere instrument in the hands of the
mutineers. On the 29th of March he was found guilty and
sentenced to imprisonment for life. He was transported to
Rangoon, and died there on the 7th of November 1862.
BAHAMAS (Lucayos), an archipelago of the British West
Indies. It is estimated to consist of 29 islands, 661 cays and
2387 rocks, and extends along a line from Florida on the north-
west to Haiti on the south-east, between Cuba and the open
Atlantic, over a distance of about 630 m., from 80 50' to 72 50'
W., and 22 25' to 26 40' N. The total land area is estimated
at 5450 sq. m., of which the main islands occupy 4424 sq. m.,
and the population was 43,5 2 1 in 1881 and 53, 735 in 1901. Some
12,000 of these are whites, the remainder coloured. The main
islands and groups, beginning from the north-west, are as
follows: Little and Great Abaco, with Great Bahama to the
west; Eleuthera (a name probably corrupted from the Spanish
Isla de Tierra), Cat, Watling, or Guanahani, and Rum Cay on
the outer line towards the open ocean, with New Providence,
the Exuma chain and Long Island forming an inner line to the
west, and still farther west Andros (named from Sir Edmund
Andros, govefnor of Massachusetts, &c., at the close of the
1 7th century; often spoken of as one island, but actually divided
into several by narrow straits) ; and finally the Crooked Islands,
Mayaguana and Inagua. The Turks and Caicos islands continue
the outer line, and belong geographically to the archipelago,
but not politically. The surrounding seas are shallow for the
most part, but there are three well-defined channels the Florida
or New Bahama channel, between the north-western islands
and Florida, followed by the Gulf Stream, the Providence channels
(north-east and north-west) from which a depression known
as the Tongue of Ocean extends southward along the east side
of Andros, and the Old Bahama channel, between the archipelago
and Cuba. The Andros islands have a length of 95 m. and an
area of 1600 sq. m.; Great Abaco is 70 m. long and its area is
680 sq. m. ; Great Inagua is 34 m. long with an area of 530 sq. m.,
208
BAHAMAS
and Grand Bahama 66 m., with an area of 430 sq. m. But the
most important island, as containing the capital, Nassau, is
New Providence, which is only ipf m. in length, with an area of
85 sq. m. This island supported a population in 1901 of 12,534.
In point of population the next most important islandisEleuthera
(8733), followed by the Andros Islands (5347) and Cat Island
(4658). The Abaco and Exuma groups and Long Island each
support populations exceeding 3000, and there are smaller
populations on Grand Bahama, the Crooked Islands, Inagua,
Mayaguana, Watling, Rum Cay and the Biminis, though these
last, which are two very small north-western islands, are rela-
tively densely populated with 545 persons.
Physical Geography. The islands are of coral formation and
low-lying. The rock on the surface is as hard as flint, but under-
neath it gradually softens and furnishes an admirable stone for
building which can be sawn into blocks of any size, hardening
on exposure to the atmosphere. The highest hill in the whole
range of the islands (in Cat Island) is only 400 ft. high. It is a
remarkable fact that, except in the island of Andros, no streams
of running water are to be found in the whole group. The
inhabitants derive their water supply from wells. As a result
of the porosity of the rock, many of the wells feel the influence
of the sea and exhibit an ebb and flow. There is an extensive
swampy lagoon in Eleuthera, the water of which is fresh or nearly
so; and brackish lagoons also occur, as in Watling Island. An
artificial lake in New Providence, constructed for the use of the
turtle-catchers, is noted as exhibiting an extraordinary degree
of phosphorescence. A remarkable natural phenomenon is that
of the so-called " banana holes," which frequently occur in the
limestone. Their formation has been attributed to the effect
of rotting vegetation on the rock, but without certainty. These
holes are of various depths up to about 40 ft., and of curiously
regular form. The Mermaid's Pool in New Providence, which is
deeper still, is partly filled with water.
Geology. The Bahamas consist almost entirely of aeolian
deposits (cf. BERMUDAS) and coral reefs. The aeolian deposits,
which form the greater part of the islands, frequently rise [in
rounded hills and ridges to a height of 100 or 200 ft., and in Cat
Island nearly 400 ft. They vary in texture from a fine-grained
compact oolite to a coarse-grained rock composed of angular or
rounded fragments, and they commonly exhibit strongly marked
false bedding. The material is largely calcareous, and has
probably been derived from the disintegration of the reefs, and
from the shells of animals living in the shallows. When freshly
exposed the rock is soft, but by the action of rain and sea it
becomes covered with a hard crust. The surface is often remark-
ably honeycombed, and the rock weathers into pinnacles, pillars
and arches of extraordinary shapes. On the island of Andros
there is an extremely fine white marl almost resembling a
chalky ooze. The coral reefs are of especial interest from their
bearing on the general question of the formation of coral reefs.
Nassau. The scenery of the islands is picturesque, gaining
beauty from the fine colouring of the sea and the rich vegetation.
Nassau is a winter health-resort for many visitors from the
United States and Canada. The town lies on a safe harbour on
the north shore of New Providence, sheltered by the small Hog
Island. There is a depth of 14 ft. at low-water spring-tide on
the bar. The town extends along the shore, and up a slightly
elevated ridge behind it. It contains the principal public build-
ings, and some interesting old forts, dating from the middle and
close of the i8th century, though the subterranean works below
Fort Charlotte are attributed to an earlier period. From the
same century dates the octagonal building which, formerly a
gaol, now contains a good public library. The sea-bathing is
excellent. The months of February and March are the principal
season for visitors. There is direct connexion with New York
by steamers, which make the journey in about four days; and
there is also connexion with Miami in Florida.
Climate, Flora, Fauna. The climate of the Bahamas adds to
their attractions. The mean temperature of the hottest months
(June to September) is 88 F., and that of the coldest (January
to March ) 66. In a series of observations of winds about one
half have been found to indicate a direction from north-east or
east. Hurricanes occur from July to October, and May to
October are reckoned as the rainy months. The rainfall recorded
in 1901 at Nassau amounted to 63-32 in. Where a mantle of
soil covers the rock it is generally thin but very fertile. A
well-defined area in New Providence is known as the " pine
barrens," from the tree which principally grows in this rocky
soil. Elsewhere three types of soil are distinguished a black
soil, of decayed vegetable matter, where the land is under forest,
a reddish clay, and a white soil occurring along the shores.
Andros Island and the Abaco Islands may be specially noted
for their profusion of large timber, including mahogany, mastic,
lignum vitae, iron and bullet woods, and many others. Un-
fortunately the want both of labour and of roads renders it
impossible to turn much of this valuable timber to useful account,
although attempts have been made to work it in Abaco. The
fruits and spices of the Bahamas are very numerous, the fruit
equalling any in the world. The produce of the islands includes
tamarinds, olives, oranges, lemons, limes, citrons, pomegranates,
pine-apples, figs, sapodillas, bananas, sour-sops, melons, yams,
potatoes, gourds, cucumbers, pepper, cassava, prickly pears,
sugar-cane, ginger, coffee, indigo, Guinea corn and pease.
Tobacco and cascarilla bark also flourish; and cotton is indi-
genous and was woven into cloth by the aborigines. But
although oranges, pine-apples and some other fruits form
important articles of commerce, it is only rarely that systematic
and thorough methods of cultivation are prosecuted. Cotton
has been found to suffer much from insect pests. Sisal is grown
in increasing quantity. The Bahamas are far poorer in their
fauna than in their flora. It is said that the aborigines had a
breed of dogs which did not bark, and a small coney is also
mentioned. The guana also is indigenous to the islands. Oxen,
sheep, horses and other live-stock introduced from Europe
thrive well, but little attention is paid to stock-rearing. There
are many varieties of birds to be found in the woods of the
Bahamas; they include flamingoes and the beautiful humming-
bird, as well as wild geese, ducks, pigeons, hawks, green parrots
and doves. The waters of the Bahamas swarm with fish; the
turtle procured here is particularly fine, and the sponge fishery
is of importance. In some islands there are rich salt ponds, but
their working has decreased. The portion of Nassau harbour
known as the Sea Gardens exhibits an extraordinarily beautiful
development of marine organisms.
Government, Trade, &c. The colony of the Bahamas is under
a British governor, who is assisted by an executive council of
nine members, partly official, partly unofficial; and by a
legislative council of nine members nominated by the crown.
There is also a legislative assembly of 29 members, representing
15 electoral districts; the franchise being extended to white
and coloured men of 21 years of age at least, resident in the
colony for not less than twelve months, and possessing land of a
value of 5 or more, or being householders for six months at a
rental not less than 2 : i8s. in New Providence, or i : 43. in other
islands. The members' qualification is the possession of real
or personal estate to the value of 200. The average annual
revenue and expenditure may be set down at about 75,000,
expenditure somewhat exceeding revenue. There is a public
debt of about 105,000. The average annual value of imports
is somewhat over 300,000, and of exports 200,000. The
average annual tonnage of shipping, entering and clearing,
exceeds 1,000,000. The government supports elementary free
schools, controlled by a nominated board of education, while
committees partly elected exercise local supervision. There
are higher schools and a Queen's College in Nassau. Nassau is
the seat of a bishopric of the Church of England created in 1861.
The Bahamas are without railways, but there are good roads
in New Providence, and a few elsewhere. A cable connects
Nassau with West Jupiter in Florida.
History. The story of the Bahamas is a singular one, and
bears principally upon the fortunes of New Providence, which,
from the fact that it alone possesses a perfectly safe harbour for
vessels drawing more than 9 ft., has always been the seat of
BAHAWALPUR
209
government when it was not the headquarters of lawlessness.
San Salvador, however, claims historical precedence as the land-
fall of Columbus on his memorable voyage. Cat Island was long
supposed to be the island first reached by Columbus ( 1 2th October
1492) and named by him San Salvador. Then the distinction was
successively transferred to the neighbouring Watling, Great Turk,
and Mariguana; but in 1880 the American marine surveyor, G. V.
Fox, identified San Salvador, on seemingly good grounds, with
Samana ( Atwood Cay) , which lies about midway between Watling
and Mariguana. The chief difficulty is its size, for, if Samana is
the true San Salvador, it must have been considerably larger then
than now. Watling Island is generally accepted as the landfall.
Columbus passed through the islands, and in one of his letters
to Ferdinand and Isabella he said," This country excels all others
as far as the day surpasses the night in splendour; the natives
love their neighbours as themselves; their conversation is the
sweetest imaginable; their faces always smiling; and so gentle
and so affectionate are they, that I swear to your highness there
is not a better people in the world." But the natives, innocent
as they appeared, were doomed to utter destruction. Ovando,
the governor of Hispaniola (Haiti) , who had exhausted the labour
of that island, turned his thoughts to the Bahamas, and in 1509
Ferdinand authorized him to procure labourers from these islands.
It is said that reverence and love for their departed relatives
was a marked feature in the character of the aborigines, and that
the Spaniards made use of this as a bait to trap the unhappy
natives. They promised to convey the ignorant savages in their
ships to the " heavenly shores " where their departed friends now
dwelt, and about 40,000 were transported to Hispaniola to perish
miserably in the mines. From that date, until after the coloniza-
tion of New Providence by the British, there is no record of a
Spanish visit to the Bahamas, with the exception of the extra-
ordinary cruise of Juan Ponce de Leon, the conqueror of Porto
Rico, who passed months searching the islands for Bimini, which
was reported to contain the miraculous " Fountain of Youth."
This is in South Bimini, and has still a local reputation for
healing powers.
It is commonly stated that in 1629 the British formed a
settlement in New Providence, which they held till 1641, when
the Spaniards expelled them. This, however, refers to the
Providence Island off the Mosquito Coast; it was only in 1646
that Eleuthera was colonized, and in 1666 New Providence, by
settlers from the Bermudas. In 1670 Charles II. made a grant
of the islands to Christopher, duke of Albemarle, and others.
Governors were appointed by the lords proprietors, and there
are copious records in the state papers of the attempts made
to develop the resources of the islands. But the buccaneers
or pirates who had made their retreat here offered heavy
opposition; in 1680 there was an attack by the Spaniards,
and in July 1703 the French and Spaniards made a descent on
New Providence, blew up the fort, spiked the guns, burnt the
church and carried off the governor, with the principal inhabit-
ants, to Havana. In October the Spaniards made a second
descent and completed the work of destruction. It is said that
when the last of the governors appointed by the lords proprietors,
in ignorance of the Spanish raid, arrived in New Providence,
he found the island without an inhabitant. It again, however,
became the resort of pirates, and the names of many of the
worst of these ruffians are associated with New Providence;
the notorious Edward Teach, called Blackbeard, who was
afterwards killed in action against two American ships in 1718,
being chief among the number.
At last matters became so intolerable that the merchants of
London and Bristol petitioned the crown to take possession and
restore order, and Captain Woodes Rogers was sent out as the
first crown governor and arrived at New Providence in 1718.
Many families of good character now settled at the Bahamas,
and some progress was made in developing the resources of the
colony, although this was interrupted by the tyrannical conduct
of some of the governors who succeeded Captain Woodes Rogers.
At this time the pine-apple was introduced as an article of
cultivation at Eleuthera; and a few years subsequently, during
the American war of independence, colonists arrived in great
numbers, bringing with them wealth and also slave labour.
Cotton cultivation was now attempted on a large scale. In 1783,
at Long Island, 800 slaves were at work, and nearly 4000 acres
of land under cultivation. But the usual bad luck of the Bahamas
prevailed; the red bug destroyed the cotton crops in 1788 and
again in 1794, and by the year 1800 cotton cultivation was almost
abandoned. There were also other causes that tended to retard
the progress of the colony. In 1776 Commodore Hopkins, of the
American navy, took the island of New Providence; he soon,
however, abandoned it as untenable, but ini78i it was retaken
by the Spanish governor of Cuba. The Spaniards retained
nominal possession of the Bahamas until 1783, but before peace
was notified New Providence was recaptured by a loyalist,
Lieutenant-Colonel Deveaux, of the South Carolina militia, in
June 1783.
In 1784 and 1786 sums were voted in parliament to indemnify
the descendants of the old lords proprietors, and the islands
were formally reconveyed to the crown. The Bahamas began
again to make a little progress, until the separation of Turks
and Caicos Islands in 1848, which had been hitherto the most
productive of the salt-producing islands, unfavourably affected
the finances. Probably the abolition of the slave-trade in 1834
was not without its effect upon the fortunes of the landed
proprietors. The next event of importance in the history of the
Bahamas was the rise of the blockade-running trade, consequent
on the closing of the southern ports of America by the Federals
in 1861. At the commencement of 1865 this trade was at its
highest point. In January and February 1865 no less than
20 steamers arrived at Nassau, importing 14,182 bales of cotton,
valued at 554,675. The extraordinary difference between the
normal trade of the islands and that due to blockade-running
will be seen by comparing the imports and exports before the
closing of the southern ports in 1860 with those of 1864. In the
first year the imports were 234,029, and the exports 157,350,
while in the second year the imports were 5,346,112, and the
exports 4,672,398. The excitement, extravagance and waste
existing at Nassau during the days of blockade-running exceed
belief. Individuals may have profited largely, but the Bahamas
probably benefited little. The government managed to pay its
debt amounting to 43,786, but crime increased and sickness
became very prevalent. The cessation of the trade was marked,
however, by hardly any disturbance; there were no local failures,
and in a few months the steamers and their crews departed,
and New Providence subsided into its usual state of quietude.
This, however, was not fated to last long, for in October 1866 a
most violent hurricane passed over the island, injuring the
orchards, destroying the fruit-trees, and damaging the sponges,
which had proved hitherto a source of profit. The hurricane,
too, was followed by repeated droughts, and the inhabitants of
the out-islands were reduced to indigence and want, a condition
which is still, in some measure, in evidence.
See the valuable General Descriptive Report on the Bahama Islands,
by Sir G. T. Carter (governor, 1898-1904), issued in place of the
ordinary annual report by the Colonial Office, London, 1902; also
Governor R. W. Rawson's Report, 1866; Stark's History and Guide
to the Bahama Islands (Boston, Mass., 1891); Bahama Islands
(Geog. Soc. of Baltimore), ed. G. B. Shattuck (New York, 1905). For
geology see A. Agassiz, " A Reconnaissance of the Bahamas and of
the Elevated Reefsof Cuba in the steam yacht ' Wild Duck,' January
to April 1893," Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard, vol. xxvi. no. I,
1894.
BAHAWALPUR, or BHAWALPUR, a native state of India,
within the Punjab, stretching for more than 300 m. along the
left bank of the Sutlej, the Punjnud and the Indus. It is
bounded on the N. and E. by Sind and the Punjab, and on the
S. by the Rajputana desert. It is the principal Mahommedan
state in the Punjab, ranking second only to Patiala. Edward
Thornton thus described the general aspect of the state:
" Bahawalpur is a remarkably level country, there being no
considerable eminence within its limits, as the occasional sand-hills,
seldom exceeding 50 or 60 ft. in height, cannot be considered excep-
tions. The cultivable part extends along the river line for a distancs
of about 10 ra. in breadth from the left or eastern bank. In the
210
sandy part of the desert beyond this strip of fertility both men and
beasts, leaving the beaten path, sink as if in loose snow. Here,
too, the sand is raised into ever-changing hills by the force of the
wind sweeping over it. In those parts of the desert which have a
hard level soil of clay, a few stunted mimosas, acacias and other
shrubs are produced, together with rue, various bitter and aromatic
plants, and occasionally tufts of grass. Much of the soil of the
desert appears to be alluvial ; there are numerous traces of streams
having formerly passed over it, and still, where irrigation is at all
practicable, fertility in the clayey tract follows; but the rams are
scanty, the wells few and generally 100 ft. deep or more.'
The area covers 15,918 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 720,877, showing
an increase of n % on the previous decade; estimated gross
revenue, 146,700; there is no tribute. The chief, whose title is
nawab, is a Mahommedan of the Daudputra family from Sind,
and claims descent from Abbas, uncle of the Prophet. The
dynasty established its independence of the Afghans towards
the end of the i8th century, and made a treaty with the British
in 1838 to which it has always been loyal. The benefits of
canal irrigation were introduced in the 'seventies, and the revenue
thus doubled. The territory is traversed throughout its length
by the North-Western and Southern Punjab railways. There
are an arts college and Anglo-vernacular schools.
The town of Bahawalpur is situated near the left bank of the
Sutlej, and has a railway station 65 m. from Mooltan. It has a
magnificent palace, which is visible from far across the Bikanir
desert; it was built in 1882 by Nawab Sadik Mahommed Khan.
Pop. (1901) 18,546.
BAHIA, an Atlantic state of Brazil, bounded N. by the states
of Piauhy, Pernambuco and Sergipe, E. by Sergipe and the
Atlantic, S. by Espirito Santo and Minas Geraes, and W. by
Minas Geraes and Goyaz. Its area is 164,650 sq. m., a great part
of which is an arid barren chapada (plateau), traversed from
S. to N. and N.E. by the drainage basin of the Sao Francisco
river, and having a general elevation of 1000 to 1700 ft. above
that river, or 2300 to 3000 ft. above sea-level. On the W. the
chapada, with an elevation of 2300 ft. and a breadth of 60 m.,
forms the western boundary of the state and the water-parting
between the Sao Francisco and the Tocantins. East of the Sao
Francisco it may be divided into three distinct regions: a rough
limestone plateau rising gradually to the culminating ridges
of the Serra da Chapada; a gneissose plateau showing extensive
exposures of bare rock dipping slightly toward the coast; and a
narrower plateau covered with a compact sandy soil descending
to the coastal plain. The first two have a breadth of about
200 m. each, and are arid, barren and inhospitable, except at
the dividing ridges where the clouds from the sea are deprived
of some of their moisture. The third zone loses its arid character
as it approaches the coast, and is better clothed with vegetation.
The coastal plain varies in width and character: in some places
low and sandy, or swampy, filled with lagoons and intersecting
canals; in others more elevated, rolling and very fertile. The
climate corresponds closely to these surface features, being hot
and dry throughout the interior, hot and humid, in places un-
healthy, along the coast. Cattle-raising was once the principal
industry in the interior, but has been almost extinguished by
the devastating droughts and increasing aridity caused by the
custom of annually burning over the campos to improve the
grass. In the agricultural regions sugar, cotton, tobacco, cacao,
coffee, mandioca and tropical fruits are produced. The exports
also include hides, mangabeira rubber, piassava fibre, diamonds,
cabinet woods and rum. The population is largely of a mixed
and unprogressive character, and numbered 1,919,802 in 1890.
There is but little immigration and the vegetative increase is
low. The capital, Sao Salvador or Bahia (q.v.), which is one of
the principal cities and ports of Brazil, is the export town for
the Reconcavo, as the fertile agricultural district surrounding
the bay is called. The principal cities of the state are Alagoinhas
and Bom Fim (formerly Villa Nova da Rainha) on the main
railway line running N. to the Sao Francisco, Cachoeira and
Santo Amaro near the capital in the Reconcavo, Caravellas and
Ilheos on the southern coast, with tolerably good harbours, the
former being the port for the Bahia & Minas railway, Feira de
Santa Anna on the border of the sertao and long celebrated for
BAHIA BAHIA BLANCA
its cattle fairs, and Jacobina, an inland town N.W. of the capital,
on the slopes of the Serra da Chapada, and noted for its mining
industries, cotton and tobacco. The state of Bahia includes
four of the original captaincies granted by the Portuguese crown
Bahia, Paraguassu, Ilheos and Porto Seguro, all of which
reverted to the direct control of that government in 1549.
During the war with Holland several efforts were made to
conquer this captaincy, but without success. In 1823 Bahia
became a province of the empire, and in 1889 a state in
the republic. Its government consists of a governor elected
for four years, and a general assembly of two chambers, the
senators being elected for six years and the deputies for two
years. (A. J. L.)
BAHIA, or SAo SALVADOR, a maritime city of Brazil and
capital of the state of Bahia, situated on the Bay of All Saints
(Bahia de Todos os Santos) , and on the western side of the peninsula
separating that bay from the Atlantic, in 13 S. lat. and 38 30'
W. long. Pop. (1890) 174,412; (est. 1900) 200,000. The com-
mercial section of the city occupies a long, narrow beach between
the water-line and bluffs, and contains the arsenal, exchange,
custom-house, post-office, railway station, market and principal
business houses. It has narrow streets badly paved and drained,
and made still more dirty and offensive by the surface drainage
of the upper town. Communication with the upper town is
effected by means of two elevators, a circular tramway, and steep
zigzag roads. The upper town is built on the western slope of a
low ridge, the backbone of the peninsula, and rises from the
edge of the bluffs to altitudes of 200 to 260 ft. above the sea-level,
affording magnificent views of the bay and its islands. There
are wider streets, comfortable residences, and attractive gardens
in this part of the city. Here also are to be found the churches,
schools, theatres, asylums, and hospitals, academies of law and
medicine, governor's palace, public library, and museum, and
an interesting public garden on the edge of the bluff, overlooking
the bay. The city is served by four street-car lines, connecting
the suburbs with both the upper and lower towns. In 1906
contracts were made to reconstruct some of these lines for' electric
traction. The railways radiating from the city to inland points
are the Bahia & Alagoinhas which is under construction to
Joazeiro, on the Sao Francisco river, a short line to Santo Amaro,
and two lines the Bahia Central and the Nazareth tramway
extending inland from points on the opposite side of the bay.
The'port of Bahia, which_has one of the best and most accessible
harbours on the east coast of South America, has a large coastwise
and foreign trade, and is also used as a port of call by most of the
steamship lines trading between Europe and that continent. Bahia
was founded in 1549 by Thome de Souza, the first Portuguese
governor-general of Brazil, and was the seat of colonial adminis-
tration down to 1763. It was made the seat of a bishopric in
1551, and of an archbishopric in 1676, and until 1905 was the
metropolis of the Roman Catholic Church in Brazil. The city
was captured in 1624 by the Dutch, who held it only a few months.
Always conservative in character, the city hesitated in adhering
to the declaration of independence in 1822, and also to the
declaration of the republic in 1889. Much of its commercial
and political importance has been lost, also, through the decay
of industrial activity in the state, and through the more vigorous
competition of the agricultural states of the south. (A. J. L.)
BAHIA BLANCA, a city and port of Argentina, on the Naposta
river, 3 m. from its outlet into a deep, well-sheltered bay of the
same name. Pop. (est. 1903) 11,600. It is situated in the
extreme southern part of the province of Buenos Aires and is
447 m. by rail S.W. of the national capital. The opening to
settlement of the national territories of La Pampa and Neuquen
has contributed largely to the growth and importance of Bahia
Blanca. It is the natural shipping-port for these territories
and for the southern districts of the province of Buenos Aires,
from which great quantities of wheat and wool are exported.
The bay has long been recognized as one of the best on the
Argentine coast, and when the channel is properly dredged, will
admit steamers of 30 ft. draught at low-water. The Argentine
government has located its principal naval station here, at the
BAHR BAHRDT
211
Puerto Militar, between the city and the entrance to the bay.
The port, whose trade is increasing rapidly, is connected with
the neighbouring and interior producing districts by five or six
lines of railway and their branches. Bahia Blanca dates from
1828, when a fort and trading post were located here, but its
development as a commercial centre began only in 1885, when
its first railway line was opened. In 1908 direct railway com-
munication was opened with Mendoza and San Juan. Though
situated near the mountainous section of southern Buenos Aires,
the immediate vicinity of the city is low and swampy, its water
is brackish, and it has been decidedly unhealthy; but a water
supply from the Sauce Grande, 50 m. distant, was projected in
1006, and this, with better drainage and street paving, was
expected to improve matters. The mean annual temperature
is 60, and the average annual rainfall is 19 in. The city has
street cars, electric-lights and telephone service, and the port
has a shipping pier 1640 ft. long, with spacious warehouses
and several miles of railway sidings.
BAHR, the Arabic for "sea," with the diminutive bahira.
Bahr also signifies a river, especially one with a large body of
water, e.g. the Nile, and is sometimes used to designate the dry
bed of a river.
BAHRAICH or BHARAICH, a town and district of British
India, situated in the Fyzabad division of the United Provinces.
The town is on the river Sarju. Since the opening of the railway
the place has begun to flourish. It contains the most popular
place of pilgrimage in Oudh, the tomb of Masaud, a champion of
Islam, slain in battle by the confederate Rajputs in 1033, which
is resorted to by Mahommedans and Hindus alike. There is also
a Mussulman monastery, and the ruined palace of a nawab of
Oudh. The American Methodists have a mission here. Pop.
(1001) 27,304.
The district of Bahraich contains an area of 2647 sq. m. It
consists of three tracts: (i) in the centre, an elevated triangular
plateau, projecting from the base of the Himalayas for about
50 m. in a south-easterly direction average breadth, 13 m.,
area, 670 sq. m.; (2) the great plain of the Gogra, on the west,
about 40 ft. below the level of the plateau; and (3) on the east,
another lesser area of depression, comprising the basin of the
Rapti. The tarai, or the forest and marshy tracts along the
southern slopes of the Himalayas, gradually merge within the
district into drier land, the beds of the streams become deeper
and more marked, the marshes disappear, and the country
assumes the ordinary appearance of the plain of the Ganges.
The Gogra skirts the district for 114 m.; and the Rapti, with
its branch the Bhalka, drains the high grounds. In 1901 the
population was 1,051,347, showing an increase of 5% in the
decade. A considerable trade is conducted with Nepal, chiefly
in timber. A line of railway has been opened through the
district to Nepalganj on the frontier. As there are no canals
in the district, irrigation is obtained solely from wells, tanks
and rivers. The district is purely agricultural in character, and
is one of large estates, 78% being held by taluqdars, of whom the
four chief are the raja of Kapurthala, the maharaja of Balrampur,
the raja of Nanpara and the raja of Payagpur.
Little is known of the history of the district before the Mahom-
medan invasion in A.D. 1033. Masaud was defeated and slain
by the nobles of Bahraich in 1033, and the Mahommedans did
not establish their authority over the country till the middle of
the I3th century. About 1450 the Raikwars, or Rajput adven-
turers, made themselves masters of the western portion of the
district, which they retain to this day. In 1816 by the treaty of
Segauli the Nepal tarai was ceded to the British, but was given
back in 1860. During the Mutiny the district was the scene of
considerable fighting, and after its close a large portion was
distributed mjagirs to loyal chiefs, thus originating the taluqdari
estates of the present day.
BAHRAM (Varahran, in Gr. Oia.pap6.vris or Ofcpopdpjjs, the
younger form of the old Verethragna, the name of a Persian
god, "the killer of the dragon Verethra"), the name of five
Sassanid kings.
i. BAHRAM I. (A.D. 274-277). From a Pahlavi inscription we
learn that he was the son (not, as the Greek authors and Tabari
say, the grandson) of Shapur I., and succeeded his brother
Hormizd (Ormizdas) I. , who had only reigned a year. Bahrain I.
is the king who, by the instigation of the magians, put to a cruel
death the prophet Mani, the founder of Manichaeism. Nothing
else is known of his reign.
2. BAHRAM II. (277-294), son of Bahrain I. During his reign
the emperor Carus attacked the Persians and conquered Ctesiphon
(283), but died by the plague. Of Hahram II. 's reign some
theological inscriptions exist (F. Stolze and J. C. Andreas,
Persepolis (Berlin, 1882), and E. W. West, " Pahlavi Literature "
in Grundriss d. iranischen Philologie, ii. pp. 75-129).
3. BAHRAM III., son of Bahrain II., under whose rule he had
been governing Sejistan (therefore called Saganshah, Agathias iv.
24, Tabari). He reigned only four months (in 294), and was
succeeded by the pretender Narseh.
4. BAHRAM IV. (389-399), son and successor of Shapur III.,
under whom he had been governor of Kirman; therefore he
was called Kirmanshah (Agathias iv. 26; Tabari). Under him
or his predecessor Armenia was divided between the Roman
and the Persian empire. Bahrain IV. was killed by some mal-
contents.
5. BAHRAM V. (420-439), son of Yazdegerd I., after whose
sudden death (or assassination) he gained the crown against
the opposition of the grandees by the help of al-Mondhir, the
Arabic dynast of Hira. He promised to rule otherwise than his
father, who had been very energetic and at the same time tolerant
in religion. So Hahram V. began a systematic persecution of
the Christians, which led to a war with the Roman empire.
But he had little success, and soon concluded a treaty by which
both empires promised toleration to the worshippers of the two
rival religions, Christianity and Zoroastrianism. Bahrain de-
posed the vassal king of the Persian part of Armenia and made
it a province. He is a great favourite in Persian tradition, which
relates many stories of his valour and beauty, of his victories
over the Romans, Turks, Indians and Negroes, and of his ad-
ventures in hunting and in love; he is called Bahram Gor,
" the wild ass," on account of his strength and courage. In
reality he seems to have been rather a weak monarch, after
the heart of the grandees and the priests. He is said to have
built many great fire-temples, with large gardens and villages
(Tabari). (En. M.)
BAHRDT, KARL FRIEDRICH (1741-1792), German theo-
logian and adventurer, was born on the 25th of August 1741
at Bischofswerda, where his father, afterwards professor, canon
and general superintendent at Leipzig, was pastor. At the age
of sixteen young Bahrdt, a precocious lad whose training had
been grossly neglected, began to study theology under the
orthodox mystic, Christian August Crusius (1715-1775), who in
1757 had become first professor in the theological faculty. The
boy varied the monotony of his studies by pranks which revealed
his unbalanced character, including an attempt to raise spirits
with the aid of Dr Faust's Hollenzwang. His orthodoxy was,
however, unimpeachable, his talent conspicuous, and in 1761
he was appointed lecturer on biblical exegesis, and preacher
(Katechet) at the church of St Peter., His eloquence soon gave him
a reputation, and in 1766 he was appointed professor extra-
ordinarius of biblical philology. Two years later, however, the
scandals of his private life led to his dismissal. In spite of this
he succeeded in obtaining the chair of biblical antiquities in
the philosophical faculty at Erfurt. The post was unpaid, and
Bahrdt, who had now married, lived by taking pupils and
keeping an inn. He had meanwhile obtained the degree of doctor
of theology from Erlangen, and was clever enough to persuade
the Erfurt authorities to appoint him professor designate of
theology. His financial troubles and coarse and truculent char-
acter, however, soon made the town too hot to hold him; and
in 1771 he was glad to accept the offer of the post of professor
of theology and preacher at Giessen.
Thus farBahrdt'sorthodoxy had counterbalanced his character;
but at Giessen, where his behaviour was no less objectionable
than elsewhere, he gave a handle to his enemies by a change
212
BAHREIN ISLANDS BAHR-EL-GHAZAL
in his public attitude towards religion. The climax came with
the publication of his Neueste 0/enbarungen Cottes in Brief en
und Erziihlungen (1773-1775), purporting to be a "model
version " of the New Testament, rendered, with due regard to
enlightenment, into modern German. The book is remembered
solely through Goethe's scornful attack on its want of taste;
its immediate effect was to produce Bahrdt's expulsion from
Giessen. He was lucky enough at once to find a post as principal
of the educational institution established in his chateau at
Marschlins by the Swiss statesman Ulysses von Salis (1728-1800).
The school had languished since the death of its founder and
first head, Martin Planta (1727-1772), and von Salis hoped to
revive it by reconstituting it as a " Philanthropin " under
Bahrdt's management. The experiment was a failure; Bahrdt,
never at ease under the strict discipline maintained by von
Salis, resigned in 1777, and the school was closed. At the invita-
tion of the count of Leiningen-Dachsburg, Bahrdt now went
as general superintendent to Diirkheim on the Hardt; his
luckless translation of the Testament, however, pursued him,
and in 1778 he was suspended by a decision of the high court
of the Empire. In dire poverty he fled, in 1779, to Halle, where
in spite of the opposition of the senate and the theologians, he
obtained through the interest of the Prussian minister, von
Zedlitz, permission to lecture on subjects other than theology.
Forced to earn a living by writing, he developed an astound-
ing -literary activity. His orthodoxy had now quite gone
by the board, and all his efforts were directed to the propa-
ganda of a " moral system " which should replace supernatural
Christianity.
By such means Bahrdt succeeded in maintaining himself
until, on the death of Frederick the Great, the religious reaction
set in at the Berlin court. The strain of writing had forced him
to give up his lectures, and he had again opened an inn on the
Weinberg near Halle. Here he lived with his mistress and his
daughters he had repudiated his wife in disreputable peace
until 1789, when he was condemned to a year's imprisonment
for a lampoon on the Prussian religious edict of 1788. His
year's enforced leisure he spent in writing indecent stories,
coarse polemics, and an autobiography which is described as
" a mixture of lies, hypocrisy and self-prostitution." He died
on the 23rd of April 1792.
See life, with detailed bibliography, by Paul Tschakert in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopddie; a more favourable account is given in
J. M. Robertson's Short History of Freethought, ii. 278.
BAHREIN ISLANDS, a group of islands situated about 20 m.
east of the coast of El Hasa, in the Persian Gulf, a little to the
south of the port of El Katif, which, if rightly identified with the
ancient Gerrha, has been celebrated throughout history as the
mart of Indian trade, the starting-point of caravans across Arabia.
The largest of the group is called Bahrein. It is about 27 m. long
from north to south and about 10 wide a low flat space of sandy
waste with cultivated oases and palm groves of great luxuriance
and beauty. The rocky hill of Jebel Dukhan (the " mountain of
the mist ") rises in the midst of it to a height of 400 ft. The rest
of the group are of coral formation. The next island in size to
Bahrein is Moharek, curved in shape, and about 5 m. long by 5 m.
in breadth. It lies i m. to the north of Bahrein. Sitrah (4 m.
long) Nebbi, Saleh, Sayeh, Khasifeh and Arad (f m. long) com-
plete the group. Of these minor islands Arad alone retains its
classical name.
The climate is mild, but humid, and rather unhealthy. The
soil is for the most part fertile, and produces rice, pot herbs and
fruits, of which the citrons are especially good. Water is abun-
dant. Fish of all kinds abound off the coast, and are very cheap
in the markets. The inhabitants are a mixed race of Arab,
Omanite and Persian blood, slender and small in their physical
appearance; they possess great activity and intelligence, and are
known in all the ports of the Persian Gulf for their commercial
and industrial ability.
The sea around the Bahrein islands is shallow, so shallow as to
admit only of the approach of native craft, and the harbour is
closely shut in by reefs. There is very little doubt that it was
from these islands that the Puni, or Phoenicians, emigrated north-
wards to the Mediterranean. Bahrein has always been the centre
of the pearl fishing industry of the Persian Gulf. There are about
400 boats now employed in the pearl fisheries, each of them
paying a tax to the Sheik. The pearl export from Linja is valued
at about 30,000 to 35,000 per annum.
The capital town of Bahrein is Manameh, a long, straggling,
narrow town of about 8000 inhabitants, chiefly of the Wahabi
sect. Manameh is adjacent to the most northern point of the
island, and looks across the narrow strait to Moharek.
Fish and sea-weed form the staple food of the islanders. The
water-supply of Moharek is probably unique. It is derived from
springs which burst through the beds below sea-level with such
force as to retain their freshness in the midst of the surrounding
salt water. Scattered through the islands are some fifty villages,
each possessing its own date groves and cultivation, forming
features in the landscape of great fertility and beauty. Most of
these villages are walled in for protection.
The Portuguese obtained possession of the islands in 1507,
but were driven from their settlements in that quarter by Shah
Abbas in 1622. The islands afterwards became an object of
contention between the Persians and Arabs, and at last the
Arabian tribe of the Athubis made themselves masters of them
in 1784.
The present Sheik of Bahrein (who lives chiefly at Moharek) is
of the family of El Kalifa. This ruling race was driven from the
mainland (where they held great possessions) by the Turks about
1850. In the year 1867 the Persians threatened Bahrein, and in
1875 the Turks laid their hands on it. British interference in both
cases was successful in maintaining the integrity of Arab rule, and
the Bahrein islands are now under British protection.
To the south-west of the picturesque belts of palm trees which
stretch inland from the northern coast of Bahrein, is a wide space
of open sandy plain filled with gigantic tumuli or earth mounds,
of which the outer layers of gravel and clay have been hardened
by the weather action of centuries to the consistency of con-
glomerate. Within these mounds are two-chambered sepulchres,
built of huge slabs of limestone, several of which have been opened
and examined by Durand, Bent and others, and found to contain
relics of undoubted Phoenician design. Scattered here and there
throughout the islands are isolated mounds, or smaller groups,
all of which are of the same appearance, and probably of similar
origin. (T. H. H.*)
BAHR-EL-GHAZAL, the chief western affluent of the river
Nile, N.E. Africa, which it joines in 9 30' N., 30 25' E. The
Bahr-el-Ghazal (Gazelle river) is a deep stream formed by the
junction of many rivers, of which the Jur (see below) is the most
important. The basin of the Ghazal is a large one, extending
north-west to Darfur, and south-west to the Congo watershed.
The main northern feeder of the Ghazal is a large river, whose
headwaters are in the country west of 24 E. where the Nile,
Congo and Shari watersheds meet. Reinforced by intermittent
streams from the hills of Darfur and by considerable rivers flow-
ing north from Dar Fertit, this river after reaching as far north
as about 10 30' pursues a general south-easterly direction until
it joins the Ghazal 87 m. above the Deleb confluence (see below).
This main northern feeder passes through the country of the
Homr Arabs and Bahr-el-Homr may be adopted as its name.
On many maps it is marked as the Bahr-el-Arab, a designation
also used as an alternative name for the Lol l another tributary
of the Ghazal, which eventually unites with the Bahr-el-Homr.
The Bahr-el-Homr in its lower reaches was in 1906 completely
blocked by sudd (<?..), and then brought no water into the
Bahr-el-Ghazal. The Sudan government, however, sent engin-
eering parties to remove the sudd blocks and open out a con-
tinuous waterway. This Bahr-el-Homr is the only affluent of
1 The Lol is also called the Kir, a name given likewise to the
lower course of the Bahr-el-Homr. The confusion of names is
partly attributable to the fact that each tribe has a different name
for the same stream. It is also due in part to the belief that there
was a large river flowing between the Bahr-el-Homr and the Lol.
This third river, generally called the Kir, has proved to be only
the lower course of the Lol or Bahr-el-Arab.
BAHUT BAHYA
importance which has tributaries coming from north of the main
stream; the rest of the very numerous affluents have their rise
in the hilly country which stretches from Albert Nyanza in a
general north-west direction as far as 23 E., and forms the water-
shed between the Nile basin and that of the Congo.
af/Tueats The most westerly is the Lol or Bahr-el-Arab. It rises,
as the Boro or Telgona, in Dar Fertit, and receives from
the south and south-west the Raga, Sopo, Chel and Bongo. Dem
Zobeir, formerly the chief station of Zobeir Rahama (g.v.), is
near the Biri tributary of the Chel, in 7 40' N., 26 10 E. The
Lol maintains a fairly straight course east to about 28 E., when
it turns north-cast, and in about 28J E., 9$ N., joins the Bahr-
el-Homr. The chief of the southern affluents, and that tributary
of the Ghazal which contributes the largest volume of water, is
the Jur, known in its upper course as the Sue, Swe or Souch. The
Sue rises north of 4 N. in about 29 E., within three or four days'
journey of the navigable waters of the Mbomu, a northern sub-
tributary of the Congo. After flowing north for several hundred
miles the Sue, now the Jur, is joined on the left bank, in about
7 3o'N.,28E., by the Wau,aconsiderableriverwhose head waters
are west of those of the Jur. The united stream now turns east
and joins the Ghazal through a lake-like expansion (see below).
The town of Wau (7 42' N., 28 3' E.), on the Jur, is the capital
of the Bahr-el-Ghazal province of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
Meshra-er-Rek, the chief station and trading centre of the first
European visitors to the country, is on a backwater south of this
lake. Between the Jur and the Nile, and following a course
generally parallel with these rivers, several streams run north
from the Congo-Nile watershed and join the Bahr-el-Ghazal.
The Tonj, the most westerly of these rivers, joins the Jur a little
above its confluence with the Ghazal. The Rohl (or Yalo),
farther east, empties into a wide channel known as Khor Deleb,
which joins the Ghazal some 9 m. above Lake No, and from
the confluence the stream is known as the Deleb. Lake No is
little more than a depression into which the waters of the Ghazal
system pass near the point of junction with the Bahr-el-Jebel.
The lake is about 7 m. long from west to east, and the
Bahr-el-Jebel, after passing through its eastern corner, changes
its name to Bahr-el-Abiad or White Nile.
In their upper courses all the southern affluents of the Ghazal
flow across a plateau of ferruginous laterite, their valleys having
steep banks. North of 7 20' -N. (where rapids interrupt the
currents) the valleys open out and the rivers wind in tortuous
channels often choked by sandbanks. This alluvial region,
flooded in the rainy season, gives place about 9 N. to a sea of
swamps, forming in fact part of the huge swamp region of the
Nile (q.v.). Through these swamps it is almost impossible to
trace the course of the various rivers. The Bahr-el-Ghazal itself
is described as a drainage channel rather than a true river.
From the confluence of the Lol with the Jur, above which point
none of the rivers is called Bahr-el-Ghazal, to the junction with
the Nile at Lake No, is a distance of about 200 m. Just above
the Lol confluence the Jur broadens out and forms a lake (Ambadi)
10 m. long and over a mile broad at low water and very much
larger in flood time. This lake is the home of many sudd plants
of the " swimming " variety papyrus and ambach are absent.
The Balaeniceps rex, elsewhere rare, is found here in large
numbers. At first the Ghazal flows north with lagoon-like
expansions having great breadth and little depth nowhere
more than 13 ft. Turning north-east the channel becomes
narrower and deeper, and is characterized by occasional reaches
of papyrus. Finally, the Ghazal turns east and again becomes
broader until Lake No is reached. As a rule the banks in this
section are marked by anthills and scrub. The anthills in <5ne
valley are so close together " that they somewhat resemble a
gigantic graveyard " (Sir William Garstin). The rise of the
Ghazal river in flood time is barely 3 ft., a depth sufficient,
however, to place an enormous area of country under water.
Exploration of the River. Rumours of the existence of the
Bahr-el-Ghazal led some of the Greek geographers to imagine
that the source of the Nile was westward in the direction of
Lake Chad. The first map on which the course of the Ghazal
is indicated with anything like accuracy is that of the French
cartographer d'Anville, published in 1772. The exploration of
the river followed the ascent of the White Nile by the Egyptian
expeditions of 1830-1842. For a considerable portion of the
period between 1853 and 1865 John Petherick, a Welshman,
originally a mining engineer, explored the Ghazal region, particu-
larly the main stream and the Jur. In 1859 a Venetian, Giovanni
Miani, penetrated the southern regions of the Ghazal basin and
was the first to bring back reports of a great river (the Welle)
flowing west beyond the Nile watershed. In 1862 a Frenchman
named Lejean surveyed the main river, of which he published
a map. In 1863 Miss Alexandrine Tinn6 (q.v.) with a large
party of friends and scientists ascended the Ghazal with the
intention of seeing how far west the basin of the Nile extended.
The chief scientists of the party were the Germans, Theodor von
Heuglin and Hermann Steudner. Considerable additions to the
knowledge of the region were made by this expedition, five out
of the nine white members of which died from blackwater fever. 1
Georg Schweinfurth (g.v.) between 1869 and 1871 traversed the
whole of the southern district, and crossing the watershed
discovered the Welle. The efforts to destroy the slave trade in
the Ghazal province led (1879-1881) to the further exploration
of the river and its tributaries by Gessi Pasha, the Italian
governor under General C. G. Gordon. Wilhelm Junker (g.v.)
about the same period also explored the southern tributaries
of the Ghazal. These were carefully surveyed, and the Jur (Sue)
followed throughout its course by Lieutenant A. H. Dy6 and
other members of the French mission under Colonel (then
Captain) J. B. Marchand, which crossing from the Congo (Oct.
1897) reached Fashoda on the White Nile in July 1898.
Like the Bahr-el-Jebel the Bahr-el-Ghazal is liable to be
choked by sudd. Gessi Pasha was imprisoned in it for some six
weeks. The river became almost blocked by the accumulation
of this obstruction during the rule of the Mahdists. In 1901
and following years the sudd was removed by British officers
from the Bahr-el-Ghazal, the Jur and other rivers. Uninter-
rupted steamboat communication was thus established during
the flood season between Khartum and Wau, a distance of some
930 m. In 1905-1907 R. C. Bayldon, a British naval officer, Capt.
C. Percival and Lieut. D. Comyn partly explored the northern
and western affluents of the Ghazal, and threw some light on
the puzzling hydrography and nomenclature of those tributaries.
See NILE and the authorities there quoted, especially Sir William
Garstin's Report upon the Basin of the Upper Nile, Egypt, No. 2
(1904), and Capt. H. G. Lyons's The Physiography of the River Nile
and its Basin (Cairo, 1906) ; also The Geographical Journal, vol. xxx.
(1907). (W. E. G.;F. R. C.)
BAHUT (a French word of unknown origin), a portable coffer
or chest, with a rounded lid covered in leather, garnished with
nails, used for the transport of clothes or other personal luggage,
it was, in short, the original portmanteau. This ancient
receptacle, of which mention is made as early as the I4th century
its traditional form is still preserved in many varieties of the
modern travelling trunk, sometimes had its leather covering
richly ornamented, and occasionally its interior was divided
into compartments; but whatever the details of its construction
it was always readily portable. Towards the end of the 1 7th cen-
tury the name fell into desuetude, and was replaced by "coffer "
(q.v.), which probably accounts for its misuse by the French
romantic writers of the early igth century. They applied it to
almost any antique buffet, cupboard or wardrobe, and its use
has now become hopelessly confused.
In architecture, this term is also used for a dwarf-wall of plain
masonry, carrying the roof of a cathedral or church and masked
or hidden behind the balustrade.
BAHYA, IBN PAQUDA, a Jewish ethical writer who flourished
at Saragossa in the nth century. In 1040 he wrote in Arabic a
treatise, Duties of the Heart. This book was one of the most
significant and influential Jewish works of the middle ages.
Bahya portrays an intensely spiritual conception of religion,
and rises at times to great heights of impassioned mysticism.
1 Including Miss Tinne's mother and aunt and Dr Steudner.
214
BAIAE BAIF
The Law, in the rabbinical sense, was reverenced by Bahya,
and he converted it into part and parcel of the Jew's inner life.
The book is divided into ten parts: the Unity of God; Con-
templation; Worship; Trust; Consecration; Humility; Repent-
ance; Self -Examination; the Ascetic Life; the Love of God.
Some selections from Bahya's work have been rendered into
English by E. Collins. (I. A.)
BAIAE, an ancient city of Campania, Italy, 10 m. W. of
Neapolis, on the Sinus Baianus, a bay on the W. coast of the
Gulf of Puteoli. It is said to derive its name from Btuos, the
helmsman of Ulysses, whose grave was shown there; it was
originally, perhaps, the harbour of Cumae. It was principally
famous, however, for its warm sulphur springs, remarkable for
their variety and curative properties (Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxi. 4),
its mild climate, and its luxuriant vegetation (though in summer
there was some malaria in the low ground). It was already
frequented, especially by the rich, at the end of the republican
period; and in Strabo's day it was as large as Puteoli. Julius
Caesar possessed a villa here, the remains of which are probably
to be recognized in some large substructures on the ridge above
the 16th-century castle. Baiae was a favourite residence of the
emperors. Nero built a huge villa probably on the site now
occupied by the castle. Hadrian died in Caesar's villa in A.D.
138, and Alexander Severus erected large buildings for his
mother. Baiae never became, however, an independent town,
but formed part of the territory of Cumae. Three glass vases
with views of the coast and its buildings were published by
H. Jordan in Archaologische Zeitung (1868, 91). The luxury
and immorality of the life of Baiae under both the republic
and the empire are frequently spoken of by ancient writers.
Near Baiae was the villa resort of Bauli, so called from the
/SoaiiXia (stalls) in which the oxen of Geryon were 1 concealed by
Hercules. By some it is identified with the modern village of
Bacoli (owing to a presumed similarity to the ancient name),
2 m. S.S.E. of Baiae; by others with the Punta dell' Epitaffio,
i m. N.E. of Baiae (see G. B. de Rossi in Notizie degli scavi,
1888, 709). At Bauli, Pompey and Hortensius possessed villas,
the former on the hills, while that of the latter, on the shores
of the Lacus Lucrinus, was remarkable for its tame lampreys
and as the scene of the dialogue in the second book of Cicero's
A cade-mica Prior a; it afterwards became imperial property
and was the scene of Agrippina's murder by Nero. It was from
Bauli to Puteoli that Caligula built his bridge of boats.
Of the once splendid villas and baths of Baiae and its district,
the foundations of which were often thrown far out into the sea,
considerable, though fragmentary, remains exist. It is not, as
a rule, possible to identify the various buildings, and the names
which have been applied to the ruins are not authenticated. At
Baiae itself there exist three large and lofty domed buildings,
two octagonal, one circular, and all circular in the interior, of
opus reticulatum and brick, which, though popularly called
temples, are remains of baths or nymphaea. The Punta dell'
Epitaffio also is covered with remains, while at Bacoli are
several ruins to the north of the village a small theatre, called
the tomb of Agrippina; under the village the remains of a large
villa; to the E. the remains of a large water reservoir, the
so-called Cento Camerelle; to the S. another with a vaulted
ceiling, known as the piscina mirabilis, measuring 230 by 85 ft.
The villa of Marius, which was bought by LucuUus, and after-
wards came into the possession of the imperial house, was the
scene of the death of Tiberius. It is sometimes spoken of as
Baiana, sometimes as Misenensis, and is perhaps to be sought
at Bacoli (Th. Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Latin., x., Berlin,
1883, 1748), though Beloch inclines to place it on the promontory
S. of Misenum, and this perhaps agrees better with the description
given by Phaedrus.
Baiae was devastated by the Saracens in the 8th century and
entirely deserted on account of malaria in 1500.
See J. Beloch, Campanien (2nd ed., Breslau, 1890), 180 seq.
(T. As.)
BAIBURT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the direct carriage
road from Trebizond to Erzerum, situated on both banks of the
Churuk river, which here traverses an open cultivated plateau
(altitude, 5100 ft.), before turning east. It is the chief place of
a kaza under Erzerum; the bazaar is poor, and there is no
special industry in the town. The houses run up the hillsides
on both banks of the river to a considerable height. On an
isolated mass of rock, on the left bank, is the old castle, with
extensive walls partly ruined, built originally by the Armenians
and restored by the Seljuks. The principal gate with some
Arabic inscriptions stands at the S.W. corner. There are remains
of a vaulted chamber, a Christian church, a mosque and two
covered staircases to the river. A fine view is seen from the
summit over the plain and the Pontic ranges to the north.
The population numbers 10,000, mostly Turkish with some
Armenians. The place was occupied by the Russians under
General Paskevich during their invasion of 1829, and was the
farthest point westward then reached by them. (F. R. M.)
BAIDAWI ('Abdallah ibn 'Umar al-Baidawi), Mahommedan
critic, was born in Pars, where his father was chief judge, in the
time of the Atabek ruler Abu Bakr ibn Sa'd (1226-1260). He
himself became judge in Shiraz, and died in Tabriz about 1286.
His chief work is the commentary on the Koran entitled The
Secrets of Revelation and the Secrets of Interpretation (Asrar ut-
tanzti wa Asrar ut-ta' wil). This work is in the main a digest of
the great Mu'tazalite commentary (al-Kashshaf) of Zamakhsharl
(q.v.) with omissions and additional notes. By the orthodox
Moslems it is considered the standard commentary and almost
holy, though it is not complete in its treatment of any branch
of theological or linguistic knowledge of which it treats, and
is not always accurate (cf. Th. Noldeke's Geschichte des Qorans,
Gottingen, 1860, p. 29). It has been edited by H. O. Fleischer
(2 vols., Leipzig, 1846-1848; indices ed. W. Fell, Leipzig, 1878).
There are many editions published in the East. A selection
with numerous notes was edited by D. S. Margoliouth as Chresto-
mathia Beidawiana (London, 1894). Many supercommentaries
have been written on Baidawl's work. He was also the author
of several theological treatises.
See C. Brockelmann's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar,
1898), vol. i. pp. 416-418. (G. W. T.)
BAlF, JEAN ANTOINE DE (1532-1589), French poet and
member of the Pleiade, was born at Venice in 1532. He was
the natural son of the scholar Lazare de Baif, who was at that
time French ambassador at Venice. Thanks, perhaps, to the
surroundings of his childhood, he grew up an enthusiast for the
fine arts, and surpassed in zeal all the leaders of the Renaissance
in France. His father spared no pains to secure the best possible
education for his son. The boy was taught Latin by Charles
Estienne, and Greek by Ange Vergece, the Cretan scholar and
calligraphist who designed Greek types for Francis I. When he
was eleven years old he was put under the care of the famous
Jean Daurat (q.v.). Ronsard, who was eight years his senior,
now began to share his studies. Claude Binet tells how young
Baif, bred on Latin and Greek, smoothed out the tiresome
beginnings of the Greek language for Ronsard, who in return
initiated his companion into the mysteries of French versification.
Baif possessed an extraordinary facility, and the mass of his
work has injured his reputation. Besides a number of volumes
of short poems of an amorous or congratulatory kind, he trans-
lated or paraphrased various pieces from Bion, Moschus,
Theocritus, Anacreon, Catullus and Martial. He resided in
Paris, and enjoyed the continued favour of the court. He
founded in 1567 an academie de musique et de poesie, 1 with the
idea of establishing a closer union between music and poetry; his
house became famous for the charming concerts which he gave,
entertainments at which Charles IX. and Henry III. frequently
flattered him with their presence. Baif elaborated a system
for regulating French versification by quantity. In this he was
not a pioneer. Jacques de la Taille had written in 1562 the
Maniere de faire des vers en franqais comme en grec et en latin
(printed 1573), and other poets had made experiments in the
same direction. The 16th-century poets did not realize the
1 For an account of this academy see Edouard Frfimy, Les Origines
del' Academic Frartfaise (1887).
BAIKAL
215
incompatibility of the system of quantity with French rhythm.
Half's innovations included a line of 15 syllables known as the
vers baifin. He also meditated reforms in French spelling.
His theories are exemplified in Etrenes de poetic Franzoeze an
vers mezures (1514). 'His works were published in 4 volumes,
entitled (Euvres en rime (1573), consisting of Amours, Jeux,
Passetemps, et Poemes, containing, among much that is now
hardly readable, some pieces of infinite grace and delicacy.
His sonnet on the Roman de la Rose was said to contain the whole
argument of that celebrated work, and Colletet says it was on
everybody's lips. He also wrote a celebrated sonnet in praise
of the massacre of Saint Bartholomew. Baif was the author
of two comedies, L'Eunuque, 1565 (published 1573), a free trans-
lation of Terence, and Le Brave (1567), an imitation of the Miles
Gloriosus, in which the characters of Plautus are turned into
Frenchmen, the action taking place at Orleans. Baif published
a collection of Latin verse in 1577, and in 1576 a popular volume
of Mimes, enseignemens et proverbes. He died in 1589. His
father, Lazare de Baif, 1 published a translation of the Electra
of Sophocles in 1537, and afterwards a version of the Hecuba;
he was an elegant writer of Latin verse, and is commended by
Joachim du Bellay as having introduced certain valuable words
into the French language.
The (Euvres en rime (5 vols., 1881-1800) of J. A. de Baif form
part of the Pleiade francaise of M. Ch. Marty-Laveaux. See also
Becq de Fouquieres, Poesies choisies de J. A. de Baif (1874), with a
valuable introduction; and F. Brunetiere, Hist, de la lilt. franc.aise
classigue (1904, bk. iii. pp. 398-422).
BAIKAL (known to the Mongols as Dalai-nor, and to the
Turkish tribes as Bai-kul), a lake of East Siberia, the sixth in
size of all the lakes of the world and the largest fresh-water basin
of Eurasia. It stretches from S.W. to N.E. (51 29' to 55 50'
N. lat. and 103 40' to 110 E. long.), separating the government
of Irkutsk from that of Transbaikalia, and has a length of 386 m.
and a width of from 20 m. to 50 m. Its southern extremity pene-
trates into the high plateau of Asia, and the lake lies entirely
in the Alpine zone which fringes that plateau on the north-west.
Its area is 13,200 sq. m., i.e. nearly as great as Switzerland.
The length of its coast-line is 525 m. along the western, and
640 m. along the eastern shore. Its altitude has been estimated at
1 587 ft. (Chersky) and at 1679 ft. (Suess) 118 ft. above the level
of the Angara at Irkutsk (Zapiski Russ. Geog. Soc. xv., 1885);
but 1500 ft. would seem to be a more correct altitude (Izvestia
East Sib. Branch, xxviii. i, 1897). Its level is subject to slight
oscillations, and after a heavy five weeks' rain in 1869 it rose
7 ft., an immense territory at the mouth of the Selenga being
submerged.
A hydrographic survey of this lake was made by Drizhenko
in 1897-1902. The elongated hilly island of Olkhon, and the
peninsula of Svyatoi Nos, which forms its continuation on the
opposite eastern shore, divide the lake into two basins. The
deepest part is in the south-east, at the foot of the Khamar-
daban border-ridge of the high plateau. An elongated trough,
66 m. long, reaches there a depth of over 600 fathoms, with a
maximum depth of 880 fathoms, i.e. about 5280 ft. below the
level of the ocean. As a rule the bottom of the lake has very
steep slopes : the ico-fathom and even the 25o-fathom lines
run close to the shores, that is to say, the steepness of the sur-
rounding mountains (4600 to 6000 ft.) continues beneath the
surface. At the mouth of the Selenga, however, which enters
from the south-east, pouring into it the waters and the alluvial
deposits from a drainage area of 173,500 sq. m., a wide delta
is thrust out into the lake, reducing its width to 20 m. and
spreading under its waters, so as to leave only a narrow channel,
230 to 247 fathoms deep, along the opposite coast. The depth
of the middle portion of the lake has not yet been measured,
but must exceed 500 fathoms. It was expected that an under-
ground ridge would be found connecting Olkhon with Svyatoi
Nos; but depths exceeding 622 fathoms have been sounded
even along that line. As to the northern basin, the configuration
of its bottom is in accordance with the high mountains which
1 See L. Pinvert, Lazare de Baif, 1496 P-I547 (1900).
surround it, and most of its area has a depth exceeding 400
fathoms, the maximum depths along three lines of soundings
taken across it being 491, 485, and 476 fathoms respectively.
The water is beautifully clear.
Temperature. The surface-layers of this immense basin are
heated in the summer up to temperatures of 55$ to 57 F.,
both close to the shores and at some distance from the mouth
of the Selenga ; but these warmer layers are not deep, and a
uniform temperature of nearly 39 F. is generally found at a
depth of 20 fathoms, as also on the surface in the middle of the
lake. At a depth of 500 fathoms there is a nearly uniform
temperature of 38. At various places round the shores, e.g.
the mouth of the Barguzin, hot springs exist. The lake freezes
usually at the end of December, or in the beginning of January,
so solidly that a temporary post-horse station is erected on the
ice in the middle of the lake, and it remains frozen till the second
half of May. The evaporation from this large basin exercises
a certain influence on the climate of the surrounding country,
while the absorption of heat for the thawing of the ice has a
notable cooling effect in early summer.
Rivers. Lake Baikal receives over 300 streams, mostly short
mountain torrents, besides the Upper Angara, which enters
its north-east extremity, the Barguzin, on the east, and the
Selenga on the south-east. Its only outflow is the lower Angara,
which issues through a rocky cleft on the west shore. The Irkut
no longer reaches the Baikal, though it once did so. After
approaching its south-west extremity it abandons the broad
valley which leads to the lake, and makes its way northwards
through a narrow gap in the mountains and joins the Angara
at Irkutsk.
Mountains. With the exception of the delta of tne Selenga,
Lake Baikal is surrounded by lofty mountains. The Khamar-
daban border-ridge (the summit of a mountain of the same name
is 5300 ft. above the lake), falling with steep cliffs towards the
lake, fringes it on the south; a massive, deeply-ravined highland
occupies the space between the Irkut and the Angara; the
Onot and Baikal ridges (also Primorskiy) run along its north-
west shore, striking it diagonally; an Alpine complex of yet
unexplored mountains rises on its north-east shore ; the Barguzin
range impinges upon it obliquely in the east; and the Ulan-
burgasu mountains intrude into the delta of the Selenga.
Geology. It is certain that in previous geological ages Lake
Baikal had a much greater extension. It stretched westwards
into the valley of the Irkut, and up the lower valleys of the
Upper Angara and the Barguzin. Volcanic activity took place
around its shores at the end of the Tertiary or during the
Quaternary Age, and great streams of lava cover the Sayan and
Khamar-daban mountains, as well as the valley of Irkut. Earth-
quakes are still frequent along its shores.
Fauna. The fauna, explored by Dybowski and Godlewski,
and in 1900-2 by Korotnev, is much richer than it was supposed
to be, and has quite an original character; but hypotheses as to
a direct communication having existed between Lake Baikal
and the Arctic Ocean during the Post-Tertiary or Tertiary ages
are not proved. Still, Lake Baikal has a seal (Phoca vitulina,
Phoca baikalensis of Dybowski) quite akin to the seals of
Spitsbergen, marine sponges, polychaetes, a marine mollusc
(ancilodoris), and some marine gammarids. The waters of the
lake swarm with fish (sturgeons and salmonidae), and its herring
(Salmo omul) is the chief product of the fisheries, though notably
fewer have been taken within the last forty or fifty years.
Planktonisveryabundant. ThelittleLakeFrolikha.situated close
to the northern extremity of Lake Baikal and communicating
with it by means of a river of the same name, contains a peculiar
species of trout, Salmo erythreas, which is not known elsewhere.
Generally, while there is a relative poverty of zoological groups,
there is a great wealth of species within the group. Of gammarids,
there are as many as 300 species, and those living at great depths
(330 to 380 fathoms) tend to assume abyssal characters similar
to those displayed by the deep-sea fauna of the ocean.
Navigation. Navigation of the lake is rendered difficult both
by sudden storms and by the absence of good bays and ports.
2l6
BAIKIE BAIL
The principal port on the western shore, Listvinichnoe, near
the outflow of the Angara, is an open roadstead at the foot of
steep mountains. Steamers ply from it weekly to Misovaya
(Posolskoe) on the opposite shore, a few times a year to Verkhne-
Angarsk, at the northern extremity of the lake, and frequently
to the mouth of the Selenga. Steamers ascend this river as far
as Bilyutai, near the Mongolian frontier, and bring back tea,
imported via Kiakhta, while grain, cedar nuts, salt, soda, wool
and timber are shipped on rafts down the Khilok, Chikoi and Uda
(tributaries of the Selenga), and manufactured goods are taken
up the river for export to China. Attempts are being made
to render the Angara navigable below Irkutsk down to the
Yenisei. In winter, when the lake is covered with ice 3 ft.
to 4 ft. thick, it is crossed on sledges from Listvinichnoe to
Misovaya. But a highway, available all the year round, was
made in 1863-1864 around its southern shore, partly by blasting
the cliffs, and it is now (since 1905) followed by the trans-
Siberian railway. Further, a powerful ice-breaker is used to
ferry trains across from Listvinichnoe to Misovaya.
AUTHORITIES. Drizhenko, " Hydrographic Reconnoitring of Lake
Baikal," in Izuestia Russ. Geogr. Soc. (1897, 2) ; Russian Addenda
to Ritter's Asia, East Siberia, Baikal, &c. (1895); Chersky's Geo-
logical Map of Shores of Lake Baikal, 6| m. to the inch, in
Zapiski of Russ. Geogr. Soc. xv. (1886); "Report of Geological
Exploration of Shores of Lake Baikal," in Zapiski of East Siberian
Branch of Russ. Geogr. Soc. xii. (1886) ; Obruchev, " Geology of
Baikal Mountains," Izvestia of same Society (1890, xxi. 4 and 5) ;
Dybowski and Godlewski on " Fauna," in same periodical (1876);
Witkowski, on " Seals "; Yakovlev's " Fishes of Angara," in same
periodical (1890-1893); "Fishing in Lake Baikal and its Tribu-
taries," in same periodical (1886-1890); and La Geographic (No. 3,
1904). (P.A.K.;J.T. BE.)
BAIKIE, WILLIAM BALFOUR (1824-1864), Scottish
explorer, naturalist and philologist, eldest son of Captain
John Baikie, R.N., was born at Kirkwall, Orkney, on the 2ist
of August 1824. He studied medicine at Edinburgh, and, on
obtaining his M.D. degree, joined the royal navy in 1848. He
early attracted the notice of Sir Roderick Murchison, through
whom he was appointed surgeon and naturalist to the Niger
expedition sent out in 1854 by Macgregor Laird with government
support. The death of the senior officer (Consul Beecroft)
occurring at Fernando Po, Baikie succeeded to the command.
Ascending the Benue about 250 m. beyond the point reached
by former explorers, the little steamer " Pleiad " returned and
reached the mouth of the Niger, after a voyage of 118 days,
without the loss of a single man. The expedition had been
instructed to endeavour to afford assistance to Heinrich Earth
(q.v.), who had in 1851 crossed the Benue in its upper course,
but Baikie was unable to gain any trustworthy information
concerning him. Returning to England, Baikie gave an account
of his work in his Narrative of an Exploring Voyage up the Rivers
Kwora and Binue. . . (London, 1856). In March 1857 Baikie
with the rank of British consul started on another expedition
in the " Pleiad." After two years spent in exploring the Niger,
the navigating vessel was wrecked in passing through some of
the rapids of the river, and Baikie was unable longer to keep his
party together. All returned home but himself; in no way
daunted, he determined single-handed to carry out the purposes
of the expedition. Landing from a small boat, with one or two
native followers, at the confluence of the Niger and Benue, he
chose Lokoja as the base of his future operations, it being the
site of the model farm established by the expedition sent by
the British government in 1841, and abandoned within a twelve-
month on the death of most of the white settlers (see Capt. W.
Allen, R.N., and T. R. H. Thomson, M.D., A Narrative of the
Expedition . , , to the River Niger in 1841, London, 1848). After
purchasing the site, and concluding a treaty with the Fula emir
of Nupe, he proceeded to clear the ground, build houses, form
enclosures and pave the way for a future city. Numbers flocked
to him from all neighbouring districts, and in his settlement were
representatives of almost all the tribes of West-Central Africa.
To the motley commonwealth thus formed he acted not merely
as ruler, but also as physician, teacher and priest. In less than
five years he had opened up the navigation of the Niger, made
roads, and established a market to which the native produce
was brought for sale and barter. He had also collected vocabu-
laries of nearly fifty African dialects, and translated portions
of the Bible and prayer-book into Hausa. Once only during his
residence had he to employ armed force against the surrounding
tribes. While on his way home, on leave of absence, he died at
Sierra Leone on the 3Oth of November 1864. He had done
much to establish British influence on the Niger, but after his
death the British government abolished the consulate (1866),
and it was through private enterprise that some twenty years
later the district where Baikie had worked so successfully was
finally secured for Great Britain (see NIGERIA).
Baikie's Observations on the Hausa and Fulfulde (i.e. Fula)
Languages was privately printed in 1861, and his translation of
the Psalms into Hausa was published by the Bible Society in
1 88 1. He was also the author of various works concerning
Orkney and Shetland. A monument to his memory was placed
in the nave of the ancient cathedral of St Magnus, Kirkwall.
BAIL, 1 in English common law, the freeing or setting at
liberty of one arrested or imprisoned upon any action, either
civil or criminal, on surety taken for his appearance on a certain
day and at a place named. The surety is termed bail, because
the person arrested or imprisoned is placed in .the custody of
those who bind themselves or become bail for his due appearance
when required. So he may be released by them if they suspect
that he is about to escape and surrendered to the court, when
they are discharged from further liability. The sureties must be
sufficient in the opinion of the court, and, as a rule, only house-
holders are accepted; in criminal cases the solicitor or an
accomplice of the person to be bailed, a married woman or an
infant would not be accepted. Bail is obligatory in all summary
cases. It is also obligatory in all misdemeanours, except such
as have been placed on the level of felonies, viz. obtaining or
attempting to obtain property on false pretences, receiving
property so obtained or stolen, perjury or subornation of perjury,
concealment of birth, wilful or indecent exposure of the person,
riot, assault in pursuance of a conspiracy to raise wages, assault
upon a peace-officer in the execution of his duty or upon any one
assisting him, neglect or breach of duty as a peace-officer, any
prosecution of which the costs are payable out of the county
or borough rate or fund. In cases of treason, bail can only be
granted by a secretary of state or the king's bench division.
A person charged with felony is not entitled as of right to be
released on bail. The power of admitting a prisoner to bail is
discretionary and not ministerial, and the chief consideration
in the exercise of that discretion must be the likelihood of the
prisoner failing to appear at the trial. This must be gauged
from the nature of the evidence in support of the accusation,
the position of the accused and the severity of the punishment
which his conviction will entail, as well as the independence of
the sureties. The Bail Act 1898 gives a magistrate power,
where a person is charged with felony or certain misdemeanours,
or where he is committed for trial for any indictable offence,
to dispense with sureties, if in his opinion the so dispensing
will not tend to defeat the ends of justice. A surety may be
examined on oath as to his means, while the court may also
require notice to be given to the plaintiff, prosecutor or police.
A person who has been taken into custody for an offence without
a warrant, and cannot be brought before a court of summary
jurisdiction within twenty-four hours, may be admitted to bail
by a superintendent or inspector of police; and in a borough, if
a person is arrested for a petty misdemeanour, he may be bailed
by the constable in charge of the police-station. Bail in civil
matters, since the abolition of arrest on mesne process, is
virtually extinct. It took the form of an instrument termed a
1 The ultimate origin of this and cognate words is the Lat.
bajulus, properly a bearer of burdens or porter, later a tutor or
guardian, and hence a governor or custodian, from which comes
" bailiff " ; from bajulare is derived the French battler, to take charge
of, or to place in charge of, and " bail " thus means " custody," and
is applied to the person who gives security for the appearance of the
prisoner, the security given, or the release of the prisoner on such
security.
BAILEN BAILEY
217
bail-bond, which was prepared in the sheriff's office after arrest,
and executed by two sufficient sureties and the person arrested.
In admiralty proceedings in rent, bail is often required for
procuring the release of arrested ships or cargo. It is also given
without the arrest of the ship, as a substitution of personal
security for that of the res, generally in an amount to cover the
claim and costs.
In the United States, bail (in a sum fixed by the committing
magistrate) is a matter of right in all cases where a sentence of
death cannot be inflicted (Rev. Stat. 1015). In those where
such a sentence can be inflicted, it may be allowed by one of
the judges of the United States courts at his discretion (ibid.
1016).
BAILEN, or BAYLEN, a town of southern Spain, in the province
of Jaen; 21 m. by road N. of the city of Jaen. Pop. (1900)
7420. Bailen is probably the ancient Baecula, where the Romans,
under P. Cornelius Scipio the elder, signally defeated the
Carthaginians in 209 and 206 B.C. In its neighbourhood, also,
in 1 21 2, was fought the great battle of Las Navas de Tolosa,
in which, according to the ancient chroniclers, the Castilians
under Alphonso VIII, slew 200,000 Moors, and themselves only
lost 25 men. Although this estimate is absurd, the victory
of the Christians was complete. The capitulation of Bailen,
signed at Andujar by the French general Dupont, on the 23rd
of July 1808 after several days' hard fighting, involved the
surrender of 17,000 men to the Spaniards, and was the first severe
blow suffered by the French in the Peninsular War.
BAILEY, GAMALIEL (1807-1859), American journalist, was
born at Mount Holly, New Jersey, on the 3rd of December 1807.
He graduated at the Jefferson Medical College in Philadelphia in
1827. After editing for a short time a religious journal, the
Methodist Protestant, at Baltimore, he removed in 1831 to
Cincinnati, Ohio, where at first he devoted himself almost ex-
clusively to the practice of medicine. He was also a lecturer on
physiology at the Lane Theological Seminary, and at the time
of the Lane Seminary debates (February 1834) between the
pro-slavery and the anti -slavery students, and the subsequent
withdrawal of the latter, he became an ardent abolitionist. In
1836 he joined James G. Birney in the editorial control of the
Philanthropist; in the following year he succeeded Birney as
editor, and conducted the paper in spite of threats and acts
of violence the printing-office being thrice wrecked by a mob
until 1847. From 1843 also he edited a daily paper, the
Herald. In 1847 he assumed control of the new abolitional
organ, the National Era, at Washington, D.C. Here also his
paper was the object of attack by pro-slavery mobs, at one time
in 1848 the editor and printers being besieged in their office for
three days. This paper had a considerable circulation, and in it,
in 1851-1852, Mrs. H. B. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin was first
published. Bailey died at sea in the course of a trip to Europe
on the sth of June 1859.
BAILEY, NATHAN or NATHANIEL (d. 1742), English philo-
logist and lexicographer. He compiled a Dictionarium Brilan-
nicum: a more compleat universal etymological English dictionary
than any extant, bearing the date 1730, but supposed to have
been published in 1721. This was a great improvement on all
previous attempts, and formed the basis of Dr Johnson's great
work. Bailey, who was a Seventh-day Baptist (admitted 1691),
had a school at Stepney, near London, and was the author of
Dictionarium Domesticum and several other educational works.
He died on the 27th of June 1742.
BAILEY, PHILIP JAMES (1816-1902), English poet, author
of Festus, was born at Nottingham on the 22nd of April 1816.
His father, who himself published both prose and verse, owned
and edited from 1845 to 1852 the Nottingham Mercury, one of
the chief journals in his native town. Philip James Bailey
received a local education until his sixteenth year, when he
matriculated at Glasgow University. He did not, however,
take his degree, but moved in 1835 to London and entered
Lincoln's Inn. Without making serious practice of the law he
settled at Basford, and for three years was occupied with the
composition of Festus, which appeared anonymously in 1839.
Its success, both in England and America, was immediate. It
passed through a dozen editions in the country of its birth, and
nearly three times as many in the United States; and when
in 1889 its author was able to publish a " Jubilee Edition," he
could feel that it was one of the (few poems of |its time which
was known to both the older and the younger generations. Its
author is known almost exclusively by his one voluminous poem,
for though Bailey published other verses he is essentially a man
of one book. Festus has undergone many changes and incorpora-
tions, but it remains a singular example of a piece of work
virtually completed in youth, and never supplanted or reinforced
by later achievements of its author. It is a vast pageant of
theology and philosophy, comprising in some twelve divisions
an attempt to represent the relation of God to man and of man
to God, to emphasize the benignity of Providence, to preach the
immortality of the soul, and to postulate " a gospel of faith and
reason combined." It contains fine lines and dignified thought,
but its ambitious theme, and a certain incoherency in the manner
in which it is worked out, prevent it from being easily readable
by any but the most sympathetic student. Bailey died on the
6th of September 1902.
BAILEY, SAMUEL (1791-1870), British philosopher and
author, was born at Sheffield in 1791. He was among the first
of those Sheffield merchants who went to the United States to
establish trade connexions. After a few years in his father's
business, he retired with an ample fortune from all business
concerns, with the exception of the Sheffield Banking Company,
of which he was chairman for many years. Although an ardent
liberal, he took little part in political affairs. On two occasions
he stood for Sheffield as a " philosophic radical," but without
success. His life is for the most part a history of his numerous
and varied publications. His books, if not of first-rate import-
ance, are marked by lucidity, elegance of style and originality of
treatment. He died suddenly on the i8th of January 1870,
leaving over 80,000 to the town of Sheffield. His first work,
Essays on the Formation and Publication of Opinions, published
anonymously in 1821 (2nd ed., 1826; 3rd ed., 1837), attracted
more attention than any of his other writings. A sequel to it ap-
peared in 1829, Essays on the Pursuit of Truth (2nd ed., 1844).
Between these two were Questions in Political Economy, Politics,
Morals, &c. (1823), and a Critical Dissertation on t/te Nature,
Measure, and Causes of Value (1825), directed against the
opinions of Ricardo and his school. His next publications also
were on economic or political subjects, Rationale of Political
Representation (1835), and Money and its Vicissitudes (1837), now
practically forgotten; about the same time also appeared some
of his pamphlets, Discussion of Parliamentary Reform, Right of
Primogeniture Examined, Defence of Joint-Stock Banks. In 1842
appeared his Review of Berkeley's Theory of Vision, an able work,
which called forth rejoinders from J. S. Mill in the Westminster
Review (reprinted in Dissertations), and from Ferrier in Blackwood
(reprinted in Lectures and Remains, ii). Bailey replied to his
critics in a Letter to a Philosopher (1843), &c. In 1851 he
published Theory of Reasoning (2nd ed., 1852), a discussion of the
nature of inference, and an able criticism of the functions and
value of the syllogism. In 1852 he published Discourses on
Various Subjects; and finally summed up his philosophic views
in the Letters on the Philosophy of the Human Mind (three series,
1855, 1858, 1863). In 1845 he published Maro, a poem in four
cantoes (85 pp., Longmans), containing a description of a young
poet who printed 1000 copies of his first poem, of which only 10
were sold. He was a diligent student of Shakespeare, and his
last literary work was On the Received Text of Shakespeare's
Dramatic Writings and its Improvement (1862). Many of the
emendations suggested are more fantastic than felicitous.
The Letters contain a discussion of many of the principal problems
in psychology and ethics. Bailey can hardly be classed as belonging
either to the strictly empirical or to the idealist school, but his
general tendency is towards the former, (i) In regard to method,
he founds psychology entirely on introspection. He thus, to a
certain extent, agrees with the Scottish school, but he differs from
them in rejecting altogether the doctrine of mental faculties. What
have been designated faculties are, upon his view, merely classified
2l8
BAILEY BAILIFF
facts or phenomena of consciousness. He criticizes very severely
the habitual use of metaphorical language in describing mental
operations. (2) His doctrine of perception, which is, in brief, that
" the perception of external things through the organs of sense is a
direct mental act or phenomenon of consciousness not susceptible
of being resolved into anything else," and the reality of which can be
neither proved nor disproved, is not worked out in detail, but is
supported by elaborate and sometimes subtle criticisms of all other
theories. (3) With regard to general and abstract ideas and general
propositions, his opinions are those of the empirical school, but his
analysis frequently puts the matter in a new light. (4) In the
theory of morals, Bailey is an advocate of utilitarianism (though he
objects to the term " utility " as being narrow and, to the un-
thinking, of sordid content), and works out with great skill the
steps in the formation of the " complex " mental facts involved in
the recognition of duty, obligation, right. He bases all moral
phenomena on five facts: (i) Man is susceptible to pleasure (and
pain); (2) he likes (or dislikes) their causes; (3) he desires to
reciprocate pleasure and pain received ; (4) he expects such reciproca-
tion from others; (5) he feels more or less sympathy with the same
feelings in his fellows (Letters, yA series).
See A. Bain's Moral Science; Th. Ribot, La Psychologie anglaise
contemp.; J. F. Ferrier, Philos. Remains (Edinb. and Lond., 1875),
PP- 35 '-38 1-
BAILEY (said to be a corruption of Ballium by some, and
derived by others from the Fr. bailie, a corruption of bataille,
because there the soldiers were drilled in battle array), the
open space between the inner and outer lines of a fortification.
Sometimes there were more than one, as the Inner and Outer
Bailey; there are in England the Old Bailey at London and at
York, and the Upper and Nether Baileys at Colchester.
BAILIFF and BAILIE (from Late Lat. bajulivus, adjectival
form of bajulus, a governor or custodian; cf. BAIL), a legal
officer to whom some degree of authority, care or jurisdiction
is committed. Bailiffs are of various kinds and their offices and
duties vary greatly.
The term was first applied in England to the king's officers
generally, such as sheriffs, mayors, &c., and more particularly
to the chief officer of a hundred. The county within which the
sheriff exercises his jurisdiction is still called his bailiwick,
while the term bailiff is retained as a title by the chief magistrates
of various towns and the keepers of royal castles, as the high
bailiff of Westminster, the bailiff of Dover Castle, &c. Under
the manorial system, the bailiff, the steward and the reeve
were important officers; the bailiff managed the property of
the manor and superintended its cultivation (see Walter of
Henley, Husbandry, R. Hist. Soc., 1800).
The bailiff of a franchise or liberty is the officer who executes
writs and processes, and impanels juries within the franchise.
He is appointed by the lord of such franchise (who, in the Sheriffs
Act 1887, 34, is referred to as the bailiff of the franchise).
The bailiff of a sheriff is an under-officer employed by a sheriff
within a county for the purpose of executing writs, processes,
distraints and arrests. As a sheriff is liable for the acts of his
officers acting under his warrant, his bailiffs are annually bound
to him in an obligation with sureties for the faithful discharge
of their office, and thence are called bound bailiffs. They are
also often called bum-bailiffs, or, shortly, bums. The origin of
this word is uncertain; the New English Dictionary suggests
that it is in allusion to the mode of catching the offender. Special
bailiffs are officers appointed by the sheriff at the request of a
plaintiff for the purpose of executing a particular process. The
appointment of a special bailiff relieves the sheriff from all
responsibility until the party is arrested and delivered into the
sheriff's actual custody.
By the County Courts Act 1888, it is provided that there shall
be one or more high-bailiffs, appointed by the judge and remov-
able by the lord-chancellor; and every person discharging the
duties of high-bailiff is empowered to appoint a sufficient number
of able and fit persons as bailiffs to assist him, whom he can
dismiss at his pleasure. The duty of the high-bailiff is to serve
all summonses and orders, and execute all the warrants, precepts
and writs issued out of the court. The high bailiff is responsible
for all the acts and defaults of himself, and of the bailiffs appointed
to assist him, in the same way as a sheriff of a county is responsible
for the acts and defaults of himself and his officers. By the same
act (49) bailiffs are answerable for any connivance, omission
or neglect to levy any such execution. No action can be brought
against a bailiff acting under order of the court without six days'
notice (54). Any warrant to a bailiff to give possession of a
tenement justifies him in entering upon the premises named in
the warrant, and giving possession, provided the entry be made
between the hours of 9 A.M. and 4 P.M. ( 142). The Law of
Distress Amendment Act 1888 enacts that no person may act
as a bailiff to levy any distress for rent, unless he is authorized
by a county-court judge to act as a bailiff.
In the Channel Islands the bailiff is .the first civil officer in
each island. He is appointed by the crown, and generally holds
office for life. He presides at the royal court, and takes the
opinions of the jurats; he also presides over the states, and
represents the crown in all civil matters. Though he need not
necessarily have had legal training, he is usually selected from
among those who have held some appointment at the island bar.
In the United States the word bailiff has no special significance.
It is sometimes applied to the officer who takes charge of juries
and waits upon the court. The officer who corresponds to the
English sheriff's bailiff is termed a deputy or under-sheriff.
Bailie. In Scotland the word bailiff has taken the form of
" bailie," signifying a superior officer or magistrate of a municipal
corporation. Bailies, by virtue of their office, are invested with
certain judicial and administrative powers within the burgh
for which they are appointed. They sit as police-court magis-
trates, being assisted usually by a paid legal adviser, called an
" assessor," and, in the larger burghs, act as a licensing court.
It is usually said that a bailie is analogous to the English alder-
man, but this is only in so far as he is a person of superior dignity
in the council, for, unlike an alderman, he continues to sit for
the ward for which he has been elected after selection as a bailie.
He is always appointed from within the council, and his term of
office is only that of an ordinary councillor, that is, for not more
than three years. Bailie to give sasine was the person who
appeared for the superior at the ceremony of giving sasine.
This ceremony was abolished in 1845. The Bailie of Holyrood,
or Bailie of the Abbey, was the official who had jurisdiction in
all civil debts contracted within the precincts of the sanctuary
(q.v.). (T. A. I.)
Bailli. In France the bailiff (bailli), or seneschal in feudal
days, was the principal officer of any noble importance. He
it was who held the feudal court of assizes when the lord was
not present himself. A great noble often also had a pr&vdte,
where small matters were settled, and the preparatory steps
taken relative to the more important cases reserved for the
assizes. Among the great officers of the crown of France a
grand-seneschal formerly figured until the reign of Philip
Augustus, when the last holder of the office was not replaced by
a successor. It is also under Philip Augustus that local bailiffs
first make a .definite appearance. In the ordinance of 1190, by
which the king, about to set forth on the crusade, arranged for
the administration of the kingdom during his absence, they
figure as part of a general system. Probably the first royal
bailiffs or seneschals were the seigniorial bailiffs of certain great
fiefs that had been reunited to the crown, their functions still
continuing after the annexation. Their essential function was
at first the surveillance of the royal provosts (prevdts), who until
then had had the sole administration of the various parts of the
domain. They concentrated in their own hands the produce of
the provostships, and they organized and led the men who by
feudal rules owed military service to the king. They had also
judicial functions, which, at first narrowly restricted in applica-
tion, became much enlarged as time went on, and they held
periodical assizes in the principal centres of their districts.
When the right of appeal was instituted, it was they who heard
the appeals from 'sentences pronounced by inferior royal judges
and by the seigniorial justices. Royal cases, and cases in which
a noble was defendant, were also reserved for them. The royal
bailli or seneschal (no real difference existed between the two
offices, the names merely changing according to the district),
was for long the king's principal representative in the provinces,
BAILLET BAILLIE
219
and the bailliage or the sentchaussle was then as important
administratively as judicially. But the political power of the
bailiffs was greatly lessened when the provincial governors were
created. They had already lost their financial powers, and their
judicial functions now passed from them to their lieutenants.
By his origin the bailiff had a military character; he was an
officer of the " short robe " and not of the " long robe," which in
those days was no obstacle to his being well versed in precedents.
But when, under the influence of Roman and canon law, the legal
procedure of the civil courts became learned, the bailiff often
availed himself of a right granted him by ancient public law: that
of delegating the exercise of his functions to whomsoever he
thought fit. He delegated his judicial functions to lieutenants,
whom he selected and discharged at will. But as this delegation
became habitual, the position of the lieutenants was strengthened;
in the i6th century they became royal officers by title, and even
dispossessed the bailiffs of their judiciary prerogatives. The
tribunal of the bailliage or senechaussee underwent yet another
transformation, becoming a stationary court of justice, the seat
of which was fixed at the chief town. During the isth and i6th
centuries ambulatory assizes diminished in both frequency and
importance. In the iyth and i8th centuries they were no more
than a survival, the lieutenant of such a bailliage having preserved
the right to hold one assize each year at a certain locality in his
district. The ancient bailiff or bailli d'epee still existed, however;
the judgments in the tribunal of the bailliage were delivered in
his name, and he was responsible for their execution. So long
as the military service of the ban and arriere ban, due to the king
from all fief-holders, was maintained (and it was still in force at
the end of the i7th century), it was the bailiffs who organized it.
Finally the bailliage became in principle the electoral district for
the states-general, the unit represented therein by its three
estates. The justiciary nobles retained their judges, often called
bailiffs, until the Revolution. These judges, who were competent
to decide questions as to the payment of seigniorial dues, could
not, legally at all events, themselves farm those revenues.
See Dupont Ferrier, Les Officiers royaux des bailliages et sene-
chaussees et les institutions monarchiques locales en France a la fin
du moyen Age (1902) ; Armand Brette, Recueil 'de documents
relatifs d la convocation des etats-generaux de 1780 (3 vols. 1904)
(vol. iii. gives the condition of the bailliages and senechaussees in
1789). 0- P. E.)
BAILLET, ADRIEN (1649-1706), French scholar and critic,
was born on the i3th of June 1649, at the village of Neuville near
Beauvais, in Picardy. His parents could only afford to send him
to a small school in the village, but he picked up some Latin from
the friars of a neighbouring convent, who brought him under the
notice of the bishop of Be'auvais. By his kindness Baillet re-
ceived a thorough education at the theological seminary, and was
afterwards appointed to a post as teacher in the college of Beau-
vais. In 1 676 he was ordained priest and was presented to a small
vicarage. He accepted in 1680 the appointment of librarian to M.
de Lamoignon, advocate-general to the parlement of Paris, of whose
library he made a catalogue raisonni (35 vols.), all written with
his own hand. The remainder of his life was spent in incessant,
unremitting labour; so keen was his devotion to study that he
allowed himself only five hours a day for rest. He died on the
zist of January 1706. Of his numerous works the following are
the most conspicuous: (i) Histoire de Hollande depuis la treve de
1609 jusqu'a i6go (4 vols. 1693), a continuation of Grotius, and
published under the name of La Neuville, (2) Les Vies des saints
... (4 vols. 1701), (3) Des Satires personettes, traite historique et
critique de celles qui portent le litre d Anti (2 vols. 1689), (4) Vie de
Descartes ( 2 vols. 1 69 1 ) , ( 5) .4 uteurs dguis(s sous des noms ((rangers,
empruntfs, 6*c. (1690), (6) Jugemens des savans sur les principaux
outrages des auteurs (9 vols. 1685-1686). The last is the most cele-
brated and useful of all his works. At the time of his death he
was engaged on a Dictionnaire universelle eccUsiastique. The
praise bestowed on the Jansenists in the Jugemens des savans
brought down on Baillet the hatred of the Jesuits, and his Vie
des saints, in which he brought his critical mind to bear on the
question of miracles, caused some scandal. His Vie de Descartes is
a mine of information on the philosopher and his work, derived
from numerous unimpeachable authorities.
See the edition by M. de la Monnoye of the Jugemens des savans
(Amsterdam, 4 vols. 1725), which contains the Anti-Baillet of Gilles
Menage and an Abrtge de la vie at Mr Baillet.
BAILLIE, LADY GRIZEL (1665-1746), Scottish song-writer,
eldest daughter of Sir Patrick Hume or Home of Polwarth,
afterwards earl of Marchmont, was born at Redbraes Castle,
Berwickshire, on the 25th of December 1665. When she was
twelve years old she carried letters from her father to the Scottish
patriot, Robert Baillie of Jerviswood, who was then in prison.
Home's friendship for Baillie made him a suspected man, and the
king's troops occupied Redbraes Castle. He remained in hiding
for some time in a churchyard, where his daughter kept him
supplied with food, but on hearing of the execution of Baillie
(1684) he fled to Holland, where his family soon after joined him.
They returned to Scotland at the Revolution. Lady Grizel
married in 1692 George Baillie, son of the patriot. She died on
the 6th of December 1 746. She had two daughters, Grizel, who
married Sir Alexander Murray of Stanhope, and Rachel, Lady
Binning. Lady Murray had in her possession a MS. of her
mother's in prose and verse.- Some of the songs had been printed
in Allan Ramsay's Tea-Table Miscellany. "And werena my
heart light I wad dee," the most famous of Lady Grizel's songs,
originally appeared in Orpheus Caledonius (1725).
Memoirs of the Lives and Characters of the Right Hon. George
Baillie of Jerviswood and Lady Grisell Baillie, by their daughter.
Lady Murray of Stanhope, were printed in 1822. George Baillie's
Correspondence (1702-1708) was edited by Lord Minto for the
Bannatyne Club in 1842. " The Legend of Lady Grizelda Baillie "
forms one of Joanna Baillie's Metrical Legends of Exalted Character.
BAILLIE, JOANNA (1762-1851), British poet and dramatist,
was born at the manse of Bothwell, on the banks of the Clyde, on
the nth of September 1762. She belonged to an old Scottish
family, which claimed among its ancestors Sir William Wallace.
At an early period she moved with her sister Agnes to London,
where their brother, Dr Matthew Baillie, was settled. The two
sisters inherited a small competence from their uncle, Dr William
Hunter, and took up their residence at Hampstead, then on the
outskirts of London, where they passed the remainder of their
lives. Joanna Baillie had received an excellent education, and
began very early to write poetry. She published anonymously
in 1790 a volume called Fugitive Verses; but it was not till 1798
that she produced the first volume of her " plays on the passions "
under the title of A Series of Plays. Her design was to illustrate
each of the deepest and strongest passions of the human mind,
such as hate, jealousy, fear, love, by a tragedy and a comedy, in
each of which should be exhibited the actions of an individual
under the influence of these passions. The first volume was
published anonymously, but the authorship, though at first
attributed to Sir Walter Scott, was soon discovered. The book
had considerable success and was followed by a second volume in
1802, a third in 1812 and three volumes of Dramas in 1836.
Miscellaneous Plays appeared in 1804, and the Family Legend in
1810. Miss Baillie herself intended her plays not for the closet
but for the stage. The Family Legend, brought out in 1810 at
Edinburgh, under the enthusiastic patronage of Sir Walter Scott,
had a brief though brilliant success; De Monfort had a short run
in London, mainly through the acting of John Kemble and Mrs
Siddons; Henriquez and The Separation were coldly received.
With very few exceptions, Joanna Baillie's plays are unsuited for
stage exhibition. Not only is there a flaw in the fundamental
idea, viz. that of an individual who is the embodiment of a single
passion, but the want of incident and the direction of the
attention to a single point, present insuperable obstacles to their
success as acting pieces. At the same time they show remarkable
powers of analysis and acute observation and are written in a
pure and Vigorous style. Joanna Baillie's reputation does not
rest entirely on her dramas; she was the author of some poems
and songs of great beauty. The best of them are the Lines to
Agnes Baillie on her Birthday, The Kitten, To a Child and some
of her adaptations of Scottish songs, such as Woo'd and Married
an'a'. Scattered throughout the dramas are also some lively and
220
BAILLIE BAILMENT
beautiful songs, The Chough and the Crow in Orra, and the lover's
song in the Phantom. Miss Baillie died on the 23rd of February
1851, at the advanced age of 89, her faculties remaining unim-
paired to the last. Her gentleness and sweetness of disposition
made her a universal favourite, and her little cottage at Hamp-
stead was the centre of a brilliant literary society.
See Joanna 'Baillie's Dramatic and Poetical Works (London, 1851).
BAILLIE, ROBERT (1602-1662), Scottish divine, was born
at Glasgow. Having graduated there in 1620, he gave himself to
the study of divinity. In 1631, after he had been ordained and
had acted for some years as regent in the university, he was
appointed to the living of Kilwinning in Ayrshire. In 1638 he
was a member of the famous Glasgow Assembly, and soon after
he accompanied Leslie and the Scottish army as chaplain or
preacher. In 1642 he was made professor of divinityat Glasgow,
and in the following year was selected as one of the five Scottish
clergymen who were sent to the Westminster Assembly. In
1649 he was one of the commissioners sent to Holland for the
purpose of inviting Charles II. to Scotland, and of settling the
terms of his admission to the government. He continued to
take an active part in all the minor disputes of the church, and
in 1661 was made principal of Glasgow University. He died in
August of the following year, his death being probably hastened
by his mortification at the apparently firm establishment of
episcopacy in Scotland. Baillie was a man of learning and
ability; his views were not extreme, and he played but a
secondary part in the stirring events of the time. His Letters,
by which he is now chiefly remembered, are of first-rate historical
importance, and give a very lively picture of the period.
A complete memoir and a full notice of all his writings will be
found in D. Laing's edition of the Letters and Journals of Robert Baillie
(1637-1662), Bannatyne Club, 3 vols. (Edinburgh, 1841-1842).
Among his works are Ladensium ai/TOKar&KpKra, an answer to
Lysimachus Nicanor, an attack on Laud and his system, in reply to a
publication which charged the Covenanters with Jesuitry; Ana-
baptism, the true Fountain of Independency, Brpwnisme, Antinomy,
Familisme, &c., a sermon; An Historical Vindication of the Govern-
ment of the Church of Scotland ; The Life of William (Laud) now Lord
Archbishop of Canterbury Examined (London, 1643); A Parallel of
the Liturgy with the Mass Book, the Breviary, the Ceremonial and
other Romish Rituals (London, 1661).
BAILLIE, ROBERT (d. 1684), Scottish conspirator, known
as BAILLIE OF JERVISWOOD, was the son of George Baillie of St.
John's Kirk, Lanarkshire. He incurred the resentment of the
Scottish government by rescuing, in June 1676, his brother-in-law
Kirkton, a Presbyterian minister who had illegally been seized
and confined in a house by Carstairs, an informer. He was fined
500, remaining in prison for four months and then being
liberated on paying one-half the fine to Carstairs. In despair
at the state of his country he determined in 1683 to emigrate
to South Carolina, but the plan came to nothing. The same
year Baillie, with some of his friends, went to London and entered
into communication with Monmouth, Russell and their party
in order to obtain redress; and on the discovery of the Rye
House Plot he was arrested. Questioned by the king himself he
repudiated any knowledge of the conspiracy, but with striking
truthfulness would not deny that he had been consulted with
the view of an insurrection in Scotland. He was subsequently
loaded with irons and sent back a prisoner to Scotland. Though
there was no evidence whatever to support his connexion with
the plot, he was fined 6000 and kept in close confinement.
He was already in a languishing state when on the 23rd of
December 1684 he was brought up again before the high court
on the charge of treason. He was pronounced guilty on the
following day and hanged the same afternoon at the market
cross at Edinburgh with all the usual barbarities. His shocking
treatment was long remembered as one of the worst crimes
committed by the Stuart administration in Scotland. Bishop
Burnet, who was his cousin, describes him as " in the presbyterian
principles but ... a man of great piety and virtue, learned
in the law, in mathematics and in languages." He married
a sister of Sir Archibald Johnston, Lord Warriston, and left a
son, George, who took refuge in Holland, afterwards returning
with William III. and being restored to his estates.
BAILLY, JEAN SYLVAIN (1736-1793), French astronomer
and orator, was born at Paris on the isth of September 1736.
Originally intended for the profession of a painter, he preferred
writing tragedies until attracted to science by the influence of
Nicolas de Lacaille. He calculated an orbit for the comet of
1759 (Halley's), reduced Lacaille's observations of 515 zodiacal
stars, and was, in 1763, elected a member of the Academy of
Sciences. His Essai sur la theorie des satellites de Jupiter (1766),
an expansion of a memoir presented to the Academy in 1763,
showed much original power; and it was followed up in 1771
by a noteworthy dissertation Sur les inegalitis de la lumiere des
satellites de Jupiter^. Meantime, he had gained a high literary
reputation by his Eloges of Charles V., jLacaille, Moliere, Corneille
and Leibnitz, which were issued in a collected form in 1770 and
1790; he was admitted to the French Academy (February 26,
1784), and to the Academic des Inscriptions in 1785, when
Fontenelle's simultaneous membership of all three Academies
was renewed in him. Thenceforth, he devoted himself to the
history of science, publishing successively: Histoire de I'astro-
nomie ancienne (1775); Histoire, de I'astronomie moderns (3 vols.
1779-1782); Lettres sur I'origine des sciences (1777); Leitres
sur I'Atlantide de Platan (1779); and Traite de I'astronomie
indienne et orientate (1787). Their erudition was, however,
marred by speculative extravagances.
The cataclysm of the French Revolution interrupted his
studies. Elected deputy from Paris to the states-general, he
was chosen president of the Third Estate (May 5, 1789), led the
famous proceedings in the Tennis Court (June 20), and acted
as mayor of Paris (July 15, 1789, to November 16, 1791). The
dispersal by the National Guard, under his orders, of the riotous
assembly in the Champ de Mars (July 17, 1791) rendered him
obnoxious to the infuriated populace, and he retired to Nantes,
where he composed his Memoires d'un temoin (published in
3 vols. by MM. Berville and Barriere, 1821-1822), an incom-
plete narrative of the extraordinary events of his public life.
Late in 1793, Bailly quitted Nantes to join his friend Pierre
Simon Laplace at Melun; but was there recognized, arrested
and brought (November 10) before the Revolutionary Tribunal
at Paris. On the I2th of November he was guillotined amid
the insults of a howling mob. He met his death with patient
dignity, having, indeed, disastrously shared the enthusiasms of
his age, but taken no share in its crimes.
Notices of his life are contained in the Eloges by Merard de Saint
Just, Delisle de Salles, Lalande and Lacretelle; in a memoir by
Arago, read'.'the 26th of February 1844 before the Academic des
Sciences, and published in Notices biographiques, t. ii. (1852). See
also Delambre, Histoire de I'astronomie au iSme siecle, p. 735, and
Lalande, Bibliographic astronomique, p. 730.
BAILMENT (from Fr. bailler, to place in charge of, cf. BAIL),
in law, a delivery of goods from one person called the bailor, to
another person called the bailee, for some purpose, upon a
contract, express or implied, that after the purpose has been
fulfilled they shall be redelivered to the bailor, or otherwise
dealt with according to his direction, or kept till he reclaims
them. The following is Chief Justice Holt's classification of
bailments in Coggs v. Bernard, 1704, i Sm. L.C. 167, which
is generally adopted, (i) Depositum, or bailment without
reward, in order that the bailee may keep the goods for the
bailor. In this case, the bailee has no right to use the thing
entrusted to him, and is liable for gross negligence, but not
for ordinary negligence. Thus, where a customer had deposited
some securities with his banker (who received nothing for his
services) and they were stolen by a cashier, it was held that as
there was no proof of gross negligence the banker was not liable
(Giblin v. McMullen, 1868, L.R. 2 P.C. 317). (2) Commodatum,
or loan, where goods or chattels that are useful are lent to the
bailee gratis, to be used by him. The bailee may be justly
considered as representing himself to the bailor to be a person
of competent skill to take care of the thing lent (Wilson v. Brett,
1843, ii M. & W. 113), and the transaction being a gratuitous
loan, and one for the advantage of the bailee solely, he is bound
to use great diligence in the protection of the thing bailed and
will be responsible even for slight negligence. Thus, where a
BAILY BAIN
221
horse was lent to the defendant to ride, it was held that it did
not warrant him in allowing his servant to do so (Bringloe v.
Morrice, 1676, i Mod. 210). But where a horse was for sale
and the vendor allowed the defendant to have the horse for the
purpose of trying it, it was held that he had a right to allow a
competent person upon the horse to try it (Camoys v. Scurr,
1840, 9 C. & P. 383). (3) Locatio rei, or lending for hire. In
the case of hiring the bailee is bound to use such diligence as a
prudent man would exercise towards his own property. Thus,
where the defendant hired a horse, and it having fallen ill,
prescribed for it himself instead of calling in a veterinary surgeon,
he was held liable for the loss(Dean v. Keate, 1811, 3 Camp. 4).
(4) V odium, pawn or pledge; a bailment of personal property
as a security for a debt. In this case the pledgee is bound to use
ordinary diligence in guarding the thing pledged. (5) Locatio
o peris faciendi, where goods are delivered to be carried, or some-
thing is to be done about them for a reward to be paid to the
bailee. In this case, the bailee is bound to use ordinary diligence
in preserving the property entrusted to him. (6) Mandatum,
a delivery of goods to somebody, who is to carry them, or do
something about them gratis. The liabilities of a mandatory
and of a depository are exactly the same ; neither is liable for
anything short of gross negligence.
See further under BANKS AND BANKING; CARRIER; DILIGENCE;
FACTOR; HIRING; INNS AND INNKEEPERS; LIEN; NEGLIGENCE;
PLEDGE; PAWNBROKING; PRINCIPAL AND AGENT, &c.
BAILY, EDWARD HODGES (1788-1867), British sculptor,
was born at Bristol on the zoth of March 1788. His father,
who was a celebrated carver of figureheads for ships, destined
him for a commercial life, but even at school the boy showed
his natural taste and remarkable talents by producing numerous
wax models and busts of his schoolfellows, and afterwards, when
placed in a mercantile house, still carried on his favourite employ-
ment. Two Homeric studies, executed for a friend, were shown
to J. Flaxman, who bestowed on them such high commendation
that in 1807 Baily came to London and placed himself as a pupil
under the great sculptor. In 1809 he entered the academy
schools. In 1811 he gained the academy gold medal for a model
of " Hercules restoring Alcestis to Admetus," and soon after
exhibited " Apollo discharging his Arrows against the Greeks "
and " Hercules casting Lichas into the Sea." In 1821 he was
elected R.A., and exhibited one of his best pieces, " Eve at the
Fountain." He was entrusted with the carving of the bas-reliefs
on the south side of the Marble Arch in Hyde Park, and executed
numerous busts and statues, such as those of Nelson in Trafalgar
Square, of Earl Grey, of Lord Mansfield and others. Baily
died at Holloway on the 22nd of May 1867.
BAILY, FRANCIS (1774-1844), English astronomer, was born
at Newbury in Berkshire, on the 28th of April 1774. After a
tour in the unsettled parts of North America in 1796-1797, his
journal of which was edited by Augustus de Morgan in 1856, he
entered the London Stock Exchange in 1799. The successive
publication of Tables for the Purchasing and Renewing of Leases
(1802), of The Doctrine of Interest and Annuities (1808), and The
Doctrine of Life- Annuities and Assurances (1810), earned him a
high reputation as a writer on life-contingencies; he amassed
a fortune through diligence and integrity and retired from
business in 1825, to devote himself wholly to astronomy. He
had already, in 1820, taken a leading part in the foundation
of the Royal Astronomical Society ; and its gold medal was
awarded him, in 1827, for his preparation of the Astronomical
Society's Catalogue of 2881 stars (Memoirs R. Astr. Soc. ii.).
The reform of the Nautical Almanac in 1829 was set on foot by
his protests; he recommended to the British Association in
1837, and in great part executed, the reduction of Joseph de
Lalande's and Nicolas de Lacaille's catalogues containing about
57,000 stars; he superintended the compilation of the British
Association's Catalogue of 8377 stars (published 1845); and
revised the catalogues of Tobias Mayer, Ptolemy, Ulugh Beg,
Tycho Brahe, Edmund Halley and Hevelius (Memoirs R. Astr.
Soc. iv., xiii.).
His notice of " Baily's Beads," during an annular eclipse of the
sun on the isth of May 1836, at Inch Bonney in Roxburghshire,
started the modern series of eclipse-expeditions. The pheno-
menon, which depends upon the inequalities of the moon's
limb, was so vividly described by him as to attract an unprece-
dented amount of attention to the totality of the 8th of July
1842, observed by Baily himself at Pavia. He completed and
discussed H. Foster's pendulum-experiments, deducing from
them an ellipticity for the earth of -j-J-g- (Memoirs R. A sir. Soc.
vii.); corrected for the length of the seconds-pendulum by
introducing a neglected element of reduction; and was entrusted,
in 1843, with the reconstruction of the standards of length.
His laborious operations for determining the mean density of
the earth, carried on by Henry Cavendish's method (1838-1842),
yielded for it the authoritative value of 5-66. He died in London,
on the 3oth of August 1844. Baily's Account of Ike Rev. John
Flamsteed (1835) is of fundamental importance to the scientific
history of that time. It included a republication of the British
Catalogue.
See J. Herschel's Memoir of F. Baily, Esq. (1845), also prefixed to
Baily's Journal of a Tour, with a list of his writings; Month. Not. R.
Astr. Soc. xiv. 1844.
BAILY, WILLIAM HELLIER (1819-1888), English palaeon-
tologist, nephew of E. H. Baily the sculptor, was born at Bristol
on' the 7th of July 1819. From 1837 to 1844 he was Assistant
Curator in the Bristol Museum, a post he relinquished to join
the staff of the Geological Survey in London. In 1854 he became
assistant naturalist, under Edward Forbes and afterwards under
Huxley. In 1857 he was transferred to the Irish branch of the
Geological Survey, as acting palaeontologist, and retained this
post until the end of his life. He was the author of many papers
on palaeontological subjects, and of notes on fossils in the
explanatory memoirs of the Geological Survey of Ireland. He
published (1867-1875) a useful work entitled Figures of Charac-
teristic British Fossils, with Descriptive Remarks, of which only
the first volume, dealing with palaeozoic species, was issued.
The figures were all drawn on stone by himself. He died at
Rathmines near Dublin on the 6th of August 1888.
BAIN, ALEXANDER (1818-1903), Scottish philosopher
and educationalist, was born on the nth of June 1818 in
Aberdeen, where he received his first schooling. In early life
he was a weaver, hence the punning description of him as Wee-
vir, rex philosophorum. In 1836 he entered Marischal College,
and came under the influence of John Cruickshank, professor
of mathematics, Thomas Clark, professor of chemistry, and
William Knight, professor of natural philosophy. His college
career was distinguished, especially in mental philosophy,
mathematics and physics. Towards the end of his arts course
he became a contributor to the Westminster Review (first article
" Electrotype and Daguerreotype," September 1840). This
was the beginning of his connexion with John Stuart Mill,
which led to a life-long friendship. In 1841 he became sub-
stitute for Dr Glennie, the professor of moral philosophy, who,
through ill-health, was unable to discharge the active duties of
the chair. This post he occupied for three successive sessions,
during which he continued writing for the Westminster, and
also in 1842 helped Mill with the revision of the MS. of his
System of Logic. In 1843 h e contributed the first review of
the book to the London and Westminster. In 1845 h e was-
appointed professor of mathematics and natural philosophy
in the Andersonian University of Glasgow. A year later,
preferring a wider field, he resigned the position and devoted
himself to literary work. In 1848 he removed to London to
fill a post in the board of health, under Edwin Chadwick,
and became a prominent member of the brilliant circle which
included George Grote and John Stuart Mill. In 1855 he pub-
lished his first large work, The Senses and the Intellect, followed
in 1859 by The Emotions and the Will. These treatises won for
him a position among independent thinkers. He was examiner
in logical and moral philosophy (1857-1862 and 1864-1869) to
the university of London, and in moral science in the Indian
Civil Service examinations.
In 1860 he was appointed by the crown to the new chair of
222
BAIN BAINBRIDGE
logic and English in the university of Aberdeen (created on
the amalgamation of the two colleges, King's and Marischal,
by the Scottish Universities Commission of 1858). Up to this
date neither logic nor English had received adequate attention
in Aberdeen, and Bain devoted himself to supplying these
deficiencies. He succeeded not only in raising the standard of
education generally in the north of Scotland, but also in forming
a school of philosophy and in widely influencing the teaching
of English grammar and composition. His efforts were first
directed to the preparation of English textbooks: Higher English
Grammar (1863), followed in 1866 by the Manual of Rhetoric, in
1872 by A First English Grammar, and in 1874 by the Companion
to the Higher Grammar. These works covered a large field and
their original views and methods met with wide acceptance.
But the other subject of his chair also called for attention. His
own philosophical writings already published, especially The
Senses and the Intellect (to which was added, in 1861, The Study
of Character, including an Estimate of Phrenology), were too large
for effective use in the class-room. Accordingly in 1868, he
published his Manual of Mental and Moral Science, mainly a
condensed form of his treatises, with the doctrines re-stated, and
in many instances freshly illustrated, and with many important
additions. The year 1870 saw the publication of the Logic.
This, too, was a work designed for the use of students; it was
based on J. S. Mill, but differed from him in many particulars,
and had as distinctive features the treatment of the doctrine of
the conservation of energy in connexion with causation and the
detailed application of the principles of logic to the various
sciences. His services to education in Scotland were now recog-
nized by the conferment of the honorary degree of doctor of
laws by the university of Edinburgh in 1871. Next came two
publications in " The International Scientific Series," namely,
Mind and Body (1872), and Education as a Science (1879).
All these works, from the Higher English Grammar down-
wards, were written by Bain during his twenty years'
professoriate at Aberdeen. To the same period belongs his
institution of the philosophical journal Mind; the first number
appeared in January 1876, under the editorship of a former
pupil, G. Croom Robertson, of University College, London. To
this journal Bain contributed many important articles and
discussions; and in fact he bore the whole expenses of it till
Robertson, owing to ill-health, resigned the editorship in 1891,
when it passed into other hands. Bain resigned his professorship
in 1880 and was succeeded by William Minto, one of his most
brilliant pupils. Nevertheless his interest in thought, and his
desire to complete the scheme of work mapped out in earlier
years, remained as keen as ever. Accordingly, in 1882 appeared
the Biography of James Mill, and accompanying it John Stuart
Mill: a Criticism, with Personal Recollections. Next came (1884)
a collection of articles and papers, most of which had appeared
in magazines, under the title of Practical Essays. This was suc-
ceeded (1887, 1888) by a new edition of the Rhetoric, and along
with it, a book On Teaching English, being an exhaustive
application of the principles of rhetoric to the criticism of style,
for the use of teachers; and in 1894 he published a revised
edition of The Senses and the Intellect, which contains his last
word on psychology. In 1894 also appeared his last contribution
to Mind. His last years were spent in privacy at Aberdeen,
where he died on the i8th of September 1903. He married
twice but left no children.
Bain's life was mainly that of a thinker and a man of letters.
But he also took a keen interest and frequently an active part in
the political and social movements of the day; and so highly
did the students of Aberdeen rate his practical ability, that,
after his retirement from the chair of logic, they twice in suc-
cession elected him lord rector of the university, each term of
office extending over three years. He was a strenuous advocate
of reform, especially in the teaching of sciences, and supported
the claims of modern languages to a place in the curriculum.
A marble bust of him stands in the public library and his
portrait hangs in the Marischal College.
Wide as Bain's influence has been as a logician, a grammarian
and a writer on rhetoric, his reputation rests on his psychology.
At one with Johannes Mttller in the conviction psychologus nemo
nisi physiologus, he was the first in Great Britain during the igth
century to apply physiology hi a thoroughgoing fashion to the
elucidation of mental states. He was the originator of the
theory of psycho-physical parallelism, which is used so widely
as a working basis by modern psychologists. His idea of
applying the natural history method of classification to psychical
phenomena gave scientific character to his work, the value of
which was enhanced by his methodical exposition and his
command of illustration. In line with this, too, is his demand
that psychology shall be cleared of metaphysics; and to his
lead is no doubt due in great measure the position that
psychology has now acquired as a distinct positive science.
Prof. Wm. James calls his work the " last word " of the earlier
stage of psychology, but he was in reality the pioneer of the new.
Subsequent psycho-physical investigations have all been in the
spirit of his work; and although he consistently advocated the
introspective method in psychological investigation, he was
among the first to appreciate the help that may be given to it
by animal and social and infant psychology. He may justly
claim the merit of having guided the awakened psychological
interest of British thinkers of the second half of the igth century
into fruitful channels. He emphasized the importance of our
active experiences of movement and effort, and though his theory
of a central innervation sense is no longer held as he propounded
it, its value as a suggestion to later psychologists is great.
His autobiography, published in 1904, contains a full list of his
works, and also the history of the last thirteen years of his life by
W. L. Davidson of Aberdeen University, who further contributed
to Mind (April 1904) a review of Bain's services to philosophy.
Works (beside the above) : Edition with notes of Paley's Moral
Philosophy (1852) ; Education as a Science ( 1879) ; Dissertations on lead-
ing philosophical topics (1903, mainly reprints of papers in Mind) ; he
collaborated with J. S. Mill and Grote in editing James Mill's Analysis
of the Phenomena of the Human Mind (1869), and assisted in editing
Grote's Aristotle and Minor Works; he also wrote a memoir pre-
fixed to G. Croom Robertson's Philosophical Remains (1894). (See
PSYCHOLOGY and ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS.) (W. L. D.)
BAIN, ANDREW GEDDES (1797-1864), British geologist,
was a native of Scotland. In 1820 he emigrated to Cape Colony,
and carried on for some years the business of a saddler at Graaf
Reinet. During the Kaffir War in 1833-34 he took command
of a provisional battalion raised for the defence of the frontier.
Later he was engaged to construct a military road through the
Ecca Pass, and displayed engineering talents which led to his
being permanently employed as surveyor of military roads
under the corps of Royal Engineers. This occupation created an
interest in geology, which was fostered in 1837 by the loan of
Lyell's Elements. He discovered the remains of many reptilia,
including the Dicynodon, which was obtained from the Karroo
Beds near Fort Beaufort and described by Owen. Devoting all
his spare energies to geological studies, Bain prepared in 1852
the first [comprehensive geological map of South Africa, a work
of great merit, which was published by the Geological Society of
London in 1856. He died at Cape Town in 1864.
Obituary by Dr R. N. Rubidge, in Geol. Mag. January 1865,
p. 47; also Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Africa, vol. ii. part v., June 1896
(with portrait).
BAINBRIDGE, JOHN (1582-1643), English astronomer, was
born at Ashby-de-la-Zouch, in Leicestershire. He started as a
physician and practised for some years, kept a school and studied
astronomy. Having removed to London, he was admitted
(November 6, 1618) a licentiate of the college of physicians, and
attracted notice by a publication concerning the comet of 1618.
Sir Henry Savile (1540-1622) thereupon appointed him in 1619
to the Savilian chair of astronomy just founded by him at
Oxford ; Bainbridge was incorporated of Merton College and
became, in 1631 and 1635 respectively, junior and senior reader
of Linacre's lectures. He died at Oxford on the 3rd of November
1643. He wrote An Astronomical Description of the late Comet
(1619); Canicularia (1648); and translated Proems' De Sphaera,
and Ptolemy's De Planelarum Hypothesibus (1620). Several
BAINBRIDGE BAIRAM
223
manuscript works by him exist in the library of Trinity College,
Dublin.
See Munk's College of Physicians, \. 175; Wood's Athenae (Bliss),
iii. 67; Biographic Britannica, I. 419.
BAINBRIDGE, WILLIAM (1774-1833), commodore in the
United States navy, was born on the 7th of May 1 774 in Princeton,
New Jersey. At the age of fourteen he went to sea in the merchant
service, and was in command of a trading schooner at an early
age. The American trading vessels of that period were supposed
to be excluded by the navigation laws from commerce with the
British West Indian Islands, though with the concealed or very
slightly disguised assistance of the planters, they engaged in
a good deal of contraband commerce. The war between France
and Great Britain tended further to make the carrying trade
of neutrals difficult. Bainbridge had therefore to expect, and
when he could to elude or beat off, much interference on the part
of French and British cruisers alike. He is said to have forced
a British schooner, probably a privateer, which attacked him
when on his way from Bordeaux to St Thomas, to strike, but
he did not take possession. On another occasion he is said to
have taken a man out of a British ship in retaliation for the
impressment of an American seaman by H.M.S. " Indefatigable,"
then commanded by Sir Edward Pellew. When the United States
navy was organized in 1 798 he was included in the corps of naval
officers, and appointed to the schooner " Retaliation." She was
on one occasion seized by the French but afterwards released.
As captain of the brig " Norfolk " of 18 guns, he was employed
in cruising against the French, who were as aggressive against
American commerce as the English. He was also sent to carry
the tribute which the United States still condescended to pay
to the dey of Algiers, in order to secure exemption from capture
for its merchant ships in the Mediterranean a service which
he performed punctually, though with great disgust. When the
United States found that bribing the pirate Barbary states did
not secure exemption from their outrages, and was constrained
at 'last to use force, he served against Algiers and Tunis. His
ship, the " Philadelphia," ran aground on the Tunisian coast,
and he was for a time imprisoned. On his release he returned
for a time to the merchant service in order to make good the
pecuniary loss caused by his captivity. When the war of 1812
broke out between Great Britain and the United States, Bainbridge
was appointed to command the United States frigate " Constitu-
tion " (44) , in succession to Captain Isaac Hull (<?..). The " Con-
stitution" was a very fine ship of 1533 tons, which had already
captured the " Guerriere." Under Bainbridge she was sent to
cruise in the South Atlantic. On the agth of December 1812
he fell in with H.M.S. " Java," a vessel of 1073 tons, formerly
the French frigate " Renommee "(40). She was on her way to the
East Indies, carrying the newly appointed lieutenant-governor
of Bombay. She had a very raw crew, including very few real
seamen, and her men had only had one day's gunnery drill.
The United States navy paid great attention to its gunnery,
which the British navy, misled by its easy victories over the
French, had greatly neglected. In these conditions the fate of
the "Java" was soon sealed. She was cut to pieces and forced
to surrender, after suffering heavy loss, and inflicting very little
on the " Constitution." After the conclusion of the war with
Great Britain, Bainbridge served against the Barbary pirates
once more. During his later years he served on the board of navy
commissioners. He died on the 28th of July 1833. (D. H.)
BAINDIR (anc. Caystrus), a town in Asiatic Turkey in the
Aidin vilayet, situated in the valley of the Kuchuk Menderes.
Pop. under 10,000, nearly half Christian. It is connected with
Smyrna by a branch of the Aidin railway, and has a. trade in
cotton, figs, raisins and tobacco.
BAINES, EDWARD (1774-1848), English newspaper-pro-
prietor and politician, was born in 1774 at Walton-le-Dale, near
Preston, Lancashire. He was educated at the grammar schools
of Hawkshead and Preston, and at the age of sixteen was appren-
ticed to a printer in the latter town. After remaining there
four years and a half he removed to Leeds, finished his apprentice-
ship, and at once started in business for himself. He was always
a most assiduous student, and quickly became known as a man
of great practical shrewdness and ability, who took a keen interest
in political and social movements. His political opinions led
him to sympathize with nonconformity and he soon joined the
Independents. In 1801 the assistance of party friends enabled
him to buy the Leeds Mercury. Provincial newspapers did not
at that time possess much influence; it was no part of the editor's
duty to supply what are now called " leading articles," and the
system of reporting was defective. In both respects Baines made
a complete change in the Mercury. His able political articles
gradually made the paper the organ of Liberal opinion in Leeds,
and the connexion of the Baines family with the paper made their
influence powerful for many years in this direction. Baines
soon began to take a prominent part in politics; he was an
ardent advocate of parliamentary reform, and it was mainly
by his influence that Macaulay was returned for Leeds in 1832;
and in 1834 he succeeded Macaulay as member. He was re-
elected in 1835 and 1837, but resigned in 1841. In parliament
he supported the Liberal party, but with independent views.
Like his son Edward after him, he strongly advocated the
separation of church and state, and opposed government inter-
ference in national education. His letters to Lord John Russell
on the latter question (1846) had a powerful influence in deter-
mining the action of the government. He died in 1848. His
best-known writings are: The History, Directory and Gazetteer
of the County of York; History, Directory and Gazetteer of the
County of Lancaster; History of the County Palatine and Duchy
of Lancaster. He was also the author of a History of the Wars
of Napoleon, which was continued under the title of A History
of the Reign of George III.
His Life (1861) has been written by his son, Sir Edward Baines
(1800-1890), who was editor and afterwards proprietor of the
Leeds Mercury, M.P. for Leeds (1859-1874), and was knighted
in 1880; his History of the Cotton Manufacture (1835) was long
a standard authority. An elder son, Matthew Talbot Baines
(i 799-1860), went to the bar, and became recorder of Hull (1837).
He became M.P. for Hull in 1847, and in 1849 president of the
Poor Law Board. In 1852 he was returned for Leeds, and again
became president of the Poor Law Board (till 1855). In 1856
he entered the cabinet as chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster.
BAINI, GIUSEPPE (1775-1844), Italian priest, musical critic
and composer of church music, was born at Rome on the zist
of October 1775. He was instructed in composition by his uncle,
Lorenzo Baini, and afterwards by G. Jannaconi. In 1814 he was
appointed musical director to the choir of the pontifical chapel, to
which he had as early as 1802 gained admission in virtue of his
fine bass voice. His compositions, of which very few have been
published, were very favourable specimens of the severe ecclesi-
astical style; one in particular, a ten-part Miserere, composed
for Holy Week in 1821 by order of Pope Pius VII., has taken a
permanent place in the services of the Sistine chapel during
Passion Week. Baini held a higher place, however, as a musical
critic and historian than as a composer, and his Life of Palestrina
(Memorie storico-critiche della vita e delle opere di Giovanni
Pierluigi da Palestrina, 1828) ranks as one of the best works
of its class. The phrase // Principe della Musica, which has
become finally associated with the name of Palestrina, originates
with this biography. Giuseppe Baini died on the 2ist of May
1844 in Rome.
BAIRAM, a Perso-Turkish word meaning "festival," applied
in Turkish to the two principal festivals of Islam. The first
of these, according to the calendar, is the "Lesser Festival,"
called by the Turks Kiitshiik Bairam ("Lesser Bairam"), or
Sheker Bairam ("Sugar Bairam"), and by Arabic -speaking
Moslems 'Id al-FUr ("Festival of Fast-breaking"), or Al-'id oj-
$aghir ("Lesser Festival"). It follows immediately the ninth
or the fasting-month, Ramadan, occupying the first three days
of the tenth month, Shawwal. It is, therefore, also called by
Turks Ramazan Bairam, and exhibits more outward signs of
rejoicing than the technically "Greater Festival." Official
receptions are held on it, and private visits paid; friends con-
gratulate one another, and presents are given; new clothes
224
BAIRD
are put on, and the graves of relatives are visited. The second,
or " Greater Festival," is called by the Turks Qurbdn Bairam,
Sacrifice Bairam," and by Arabic speakers Al-'id al-kabir,
" Greater Festival," or 'Id al-adha, " Festival of Sacrifice." It
falls on the tenth, and two or three following days, of the last
month, Dhii-l-hijja, when the pilgrims each slay a ram, a he-goat,
a cow or a camel in the valley of Mina in commemoration of the
ransom of Ishmael with a ram. Similarly throughout the Moslem
world, all who can afford it sacrifice at this time a legal animal,
and either consume the flesh themselves or give it to the poor.
Otherwise it is celebrated like the " Lesser Festival," but with
less ardour. Both festivals, of course, belong to a lunar calendar,
and move through the solar year every thirty-two years.
See Lane's Modern Egyptians, chap. xxv. ; Michell, Egyptian
Calendar; Hughes, Dictionary of Islam, pp. 192 ff. ; Sir R. Burton,
Pilgrimage, chaps, vii., xxx. (D. B. MA.)
BAIRD, SIR DAVID (1757-1829), British general, was born
at Newbyth in Aberdeenshire in December 1757. He entered
the British army in 1773, and was sent to India in 1779 with
the 73rd (afterwards 7ist) Highlanders, in which he was a
captain. Immediately on his arrival, Baird was attached to
the force commanded by Sir Hector Munro, which was sent
forward to assist the detachment of Colonel Baillie, threatened
by Hyder Ali. In the action which followed the whole force
was destroyed, and Baird, severely wounded, fell into the hands
of the Mysore chief. The prisoners, who were most barbarously
treated, remained captive for over four years. Baird's mother,
on hearing that her son and other prisoners were in fetters, is
said to have remarked, " God help the chiel chained to oor
Davie." The bullet was not extracted from Baird's wound until
his release. He became major in 1787, visited England in 1789,
and purchased a lieutenant-colonelcy in 1790, returning to India
in the following year. He held a brigade command in the war
against Tippoo, and served under Cornwallis in the Seringapatam
operations of 1792, being promoted colonel in 1795. Baird
served also at the Cape of Good Hope as a brigadier-general,
and he returned to India as a major-general in 1798. In the last
war against Tippoo in 1799 Baird was appointed to the senior
brigade commandinthearmy. At thesuccessful assaultof Seringa-
patam Baird led the storming party, and was soon a master
of the stronghold in which he had long been a prisoner. He
had been disappointed that the command of the large contingent
of the nizam was given to Colonel Arthur Wellesley; and when
after the capture of the fortress the same officer obtained the
governorship, Baird judged himself to have been treated with
injustice and disrespect. He afterwards received the thanks of
parliament and of the East India Company for his gallant
bearing on that important day, and a pension was offered to him
by the Company, which he declined, apparently from the hope
of receiving the order of the Bath from the government. General
Baird commanded the Indian army which was sent in 1801 to
co-operate with Abercromby in the expulsion of the French
from Egypt. Wellesley was appointed second in command,
but owing to ill-health did not accompany the expedition.
Baird landed at Kosseir, conducted his army across the desert
to Kena on the Nile, and thence to Cairo. He arrived before
Alexandria in time for the final operations. On his return to
India in 1802, he was employed against Sindhia, but being
irritated at another appointment given to Wellesley he relin-
quished his command and returned to Europe. In 1804 he was
knighted, and in 1805-1806, being by now a lieutenant-general,
he commanded the expedition against the Cape of Good Hope
with complete success, capturing Cape Town and forcing the
Dutch general Janssens to surrender. But here again his usual
ill luck attended him. Commodore Sir Home Popham persuaded
Sir David to lend him troops for an expedition against Buenos
Aires; the successive failures of operations against this place
involved the recall of Baird, though on his return home he was
quickly re-employed as a divisional general in the Copenhagen
expedition of 1807. During the bombardment of Copenhagen
Baird was wounded. Shortly after his return, he was sent out
to the Peninsular War in command of a considerable force
which was sent to Spain to co-operate with Sir John Moore, to
whom he was appointed second in command. It was Baird's
misfortune that he was junior by a few days both to Moore and
to Lord Cavan, under whom he had served at Alexandria, and
thus never had an opportunity of a chief command in the field.
At the battle of Corunna he succeeded to the supreme command
after Moore's fall, but shortly afterwards his left arm was
shattered, and the command passed to Sir John Hope. He
again obtained the thanks of parliament for his gallant services,
and was made a K.B. and a baronet. Sir David married Miss
Campbell-Preston, a Perthshire heiress, in 1810. He was not
employed again in the field, and personal and political enmities
caused him to be neglected and repeatedly passed over. He was
not given the full rank of general until 1814, and his governor-
ship of Kinsale was given five years later. In 1820 he was
appointed commander-in-chief in Ireland, but the command
was soon reduced, and he resigned in 1822. He died on the i8th
of August 1829.
See Theodore Hook's Life of Sir David Baird.
BAIRD, HENRY MARTYN (1832-1906), American historian
and educationalist, a son of Robert Baird (1798-1863), a Presby-
terian preacher and author who worked earnestly both in the
United States and in Europe for the cause of temperance, was
born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the I7th of January
1832. He spent eight years of his early youth with his father
in Paris and Geneva, and in 1850 graduated at New York
University. He then lived for two years in Italy and Greece,
was a student in the Union Theological Seminary in New York
city from 1853 to 1855, and in 1856 graduated at the Princeton
Theological Seminary. He was a tutor for four years in the
College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), and from
1859 until his death was professor of Greek language and litera-
ture in New York University. He is best known, however, as
a historian of the Huguenots. His work, which appeared in
three parts, entitled respectively History of the Rise of the
Huguenots of France (2 vols., 1879), The Huguenots and Henry of
Navarre (2 vols., 1886), and The Huguenots and the Revocation of
the Edict of Nantes (2 vols., 1895), is characterized by painstaking
thoroughness, by a judicial temper, and by scholarship of a
high order. He also published Modern Greece, A Narrative of a
Residence and Travels in that Country (1856); a biography of
his father, The Life of the Rev. Robert Baird, D.D. (1866); and
Theodore Beza, the Counsellor of the French Reformation (1899).
He died in New York city on the nth of November 1906.
His brother, CHARLES WASHINGTON BAIRD (1828-1887), a
graduate of New York University (1848) and of the Union
Theological Seminary (1852), and the minister in turn of a
Dutch Reformed church at Brooklyn, New York, and of a
Presbyterian church at Rye, New York, also was deeply inter-
ested in the history of the Huguenots, and published a scholarly
work 'entitled The History of the Huguenot Emigration to America
(2 vols., 1885), left unfinished at his death.
BAIRD, JAMES (1802-1876) Scottish iron-master, was born at
Kirkwood, Lanarkshire, on the 5th of December 1802, the son of
a coal-master. In 1826 his father, two brothers and himself leased
coalfields at Gartsherrie and in the vicinity, and in 1828 iron mines
near by, and in 1830 built blast furnaces. In this year the father
retired, the firm of William Baird & Co. was organized, and James
Baird assumed active control. His improvements in machinery
largely increased the output of his furnaces, which by 1864 had
grown in number to nearly fifty, producing 300,000 tons annually
and employing 10,000 hands. The brothers became great land-
owners/and James was M. P. fortheFalkirk burghs in 185 1-185 2 and
1852-1857. He died at his estate near Ayronthe2othof June 1876,
leaving property valued at three million pounds. He had been
during his life a great public benefactor, founding schools and the
Baird Lectures (1871) for the defence of orthodox theology, and
in 1873 the Baird Trust of 500,000 to enable the Established
Church of Scotland to cope with the spiritual needs of the masses.
He was twice married but left no children.
BAIRD, SPENCER FULLERTON (1823-1887), American
naturalist, was born in Reading, Pennsylvania, on the 3rd of
BAIRNSDALE BAJOCIAN
February 1823. Hegraduated at Dickinson College, Carlisle, Penn-
sylvania in 1840, and next year made an ornithological excursion
through the mountains of Pennsylvania, walking, says one of his
biographers, " 400 m. in twenty-one days, and the last day 60 m.'
In 1838 he met J. J. Audubon, and thenceforward his studies
were largely ornithological, Audubon giving him a part of his own
collection of birds. After studying medicine for a time, Baird
became professor of natural history in Dickinson College in 1845,
assuming also the duties of the chair of chemistry, and giving
instruction in physiology and mathematics. This variety ol
duties in a small college tended to give him that breadth of
scientific interest which characterized him through life, and
made him perhaps the most representative general man of
science in America. For the long period between 1850 and 1878 he
was assistant-secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Washing-
ton, and on the death of Joseph Henry he became secretary.
From 1871 till his death he was U.S. Commissioner of Fish and
Fisheries. While an officer of the Smithsonian, Baird's
duties included the superintendence of the labour of workers
in widely different lines. Thus, apart from his assistance
to others, his own studies and published writings cover a broad
range: iconography, geology, mineralogy, botany, anthropology,
general zoology, and, in particular, ornithology; while for a
series of years he edited an annual volume summarizing progress
in all scientific lines of investigation. He gave general superin-
tendence, between 1850 and 1860, to several government expedi-
tions for scientific exploration of the western territories of the
United States, preparing for them a manual of Instructions to
Collectors. Of his own publications, the bibliography by G. Brown
Goode, from 1843 t the close of 1882, includes 1063 entries, of
which 775 were short articles in his Annual Record. His most
important volumes, on the whole, were Birds, in the series of
reports of explorations and surveys for a railway route from the
Mississippi river to the Pacific ocean (1858), of which Dr Elliott
Coues says (as quoted in the Popular Science Monthly, xxxiii. 553)
that it " exerted an influence perhaps stronger and more widely
felt than that of any of its predecessors, Audubon's and Wilson's
not excepted, and marked an epoch in the history of American
ornithology "; Mammals of North America: Descriptions based
on Collections in the Smithsonian Institution (Philadelphia, 1859) ;
and the monumental work (with Thomas Mayo Brewer and
Robert Ridgway) History of North A merican Birds (Boston, 1875-
1884; " Land Birds," 3 vols., " Water Birds," 2 vols). He died
on the 1 9th of August 1887 at the great marine biological
laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, an institution which
was largely the result of his own efforts, and which has exercised
a wide effect upon both scientific and economic ichthyology.
BAIRNSDALE, a town of Tanjil county, Victoria, Australia,
on the Mitchell river, 171 m. by rail E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901)
3074. It lies near the head of a lagoon called Lake King, which
is open to the sea, and affords regular communication by water
with Melbourne. In the district, which is chiefly pastoral, there
are several goldfields, with both alluvial and reef mining. The
town has tanneries, and cheese and butter factories. There is an
active shipping trade with Melbourne in maize and other grain,
hops, fruit and dairy produce.
BAITER, JOHANN 6EORG (1801-1877), Swiss philologist and
textual critic, was born at Zurich on the 3151 of May 1801.
Having received his early education in his native place, he went
(1818) to the university of Tubingen, but from want of funds was
obliged to return to Zurich, where for several years he was a
private tutor. From 1824 to 1829 he studied at Munich under
Friedrich Thiersch; at Gottingen, under Georg Dissen; at
Konigsberg, under Christian Lobeck. From 1833 to 1876 he was
Oberlehrer at the gymnasium in Zurich, where he died on the loth
of October 1877. Baiter's strong point was textual criticism,
applied chiefly to Cicero and the Attic orators; he was very
successful in hunting up the best MS. authorities, and his colla-
tions were made with the greatest accuracy. Most of his works
were produced in collaboration with other scholars, such as
Orelli, who regarded him as his right-hand man. He edited
Isocrates, Panegyricus (1831); with Sauppe, Lycurgus, Leocralea
nt. 8
225
(1834) and Oralores Attici (1838-1850); with Orelli and Winckel-
mann, a critical edition of Plato (1830-1842), which marked a
distinct advance in the text, two new MSS. being laid under
contribution; with Orelli, Babrius, Fabellae lambicae nuper
repertae (1845); Isocrates, in the Didot collection of classics
(1846). He had for some time been associated with Orelli in his
great work on Cicero, and assisted in Ciceronis Scholiastae (1833)
undOnomasticon Tullianum(i&36-i&3&). ForihcFastiConsulara
and Triumphales he was alone responsible. With Orelli and (after
his death) Halm, he assisted in the second edition of the Cicero,
and, with Kayser, edited the same author for the Tauchnitz
series (1860-1869). New editions of Orelli's Tacitus and Horace
were also due to him. It is worth noting that, with Sauppe, he
translated Leake's Topography of Athens.
BAIUS, or DE BAY, MICHAEL (1513-1589), Belgian theologian,
was born at Melun in Hainault in 1513. Educated at Louvain
University, he studied'philosophy and theology with distinguished
success, and was rewarded by a series of academic appointments.
In 1552 Charles V. appointed him professor of scriptural inter-
pretation in the university. In 1563 he was nominated one of
the Belgian representatives at the council of Trent, but arrived
too late to take an important part in its deliberations. At
Louvain, however, he obtained a great name as a leader in the
anti-scholastic reaction of the i6th century. The champions of
this reaction fought under the banner of St Augustine; and
Baius' Augustinian predilections brought him into conflict with
Rome on questions of grace, free-will and the like. In 1567
Pius V. condemned seventy-nine propositions from his writings in
the Bull Ex omnibus afflictionibus. To this Baius submitted;
though certain indiscreet utterances on the part of himself
and his supporters led to a renewal of the condemnation in 1579
by Gregory XIII. Baius, however, was not disturbed in the
tenure of his professorship, and even became chancellor of
Louvain in 1575. He died, still in the enjoyment of these two
dignities, in 1589. Baius is chiefly interesting as a forerunner
of the more celebrated Cornelius Jansen (see JANSEN). His
writings are described by Harnack as a curious mixture of
Catholic orthodoxy and unconscious tendencies to Protestantism ;
their most noticeable point is the great importance they attach
to the fact of sin, both original and actual.
His principal works were published in a collected form at Cologne,
1696, i vol. 410, in two parts; some large treatises have not been
published. There is an excellent study or both books and author by
Linsenmann, Michael Baius, und die Grundlegung des Jansenismus,
published at Tubingen in 1867.
BAIZE (i6th century Fr. baies, cf. English "bay"), a
material probably named from its original colour, though a
derivation is also suggested from the Fr. baie, as the cloth
is said to have been originally dyed with Avignon berries. It
is generally a coarse, woollen cloth with a long nap and is
commonly dyed green or red. It is now also made of cotton.
The manufacture is said to have been introduced into England
in the i6th century by refugees from France and the Netherlands.
It is used chiefly for curtains, linings, &c., and sometimes, in
the lighter makes, for clothing. Table baize is a kind of oilcloth
used as a cheap and easily-cleaned covering for tables.
BAJOCIAN, in geology, the name proposed in 1849 by
d'Orbigny for the rocks of Middle Jurassic age which are well
developed in the neighborourhood of Bayeux, Calvados. The
Bajocian stage is practically equivalent to the Inferior Oolite
of British geologists. It corresponds fairly closely with the
Lower and Middle Brown Jura of Quenstedt, and with the
Dogger of Oppel. By means of the fossil ammonites the Bajocia
strata have been subdivided into the following zones, in descend-
ng order:
Zone of Parkinsonia Parkinsoni and Cosmoceras garantianum
Coeloceras subcoronatum (Humphriesianum)
Sonninia Romani
Stephaeoceras Sowerbyi
Harpoceras concavum
Murchisonae ) = Substage Aalenion
opalinum \of Mayer-Eymar.
It should be remarked that some European geologists prefer
5
226
BAJOUR BAKE
to include the Parkinsonia zone in the base of the overlying
Bathonian (q.v.).
The Bajocian rocks of Europe are mostly limestones of various
kinds, very frequently oolitic. At Bayeux, the type district,
they are ferruginous oolites; in the Jura and Lorraine a coral
limestone overlies a crinoidal variety; calcareous sandy and
marly beds occur in Maine and Anjou; in Poitou the limestone
is dolomitic and bears nodules of chert. Rocks of the same age,
as recognized by their fossil contents, have a wide range; they
are found in north Africa, Goa, Somaliland, German East Africa,
and north-west Madagascar; through southern Europe they
may be followed into Turkestan, and the Kota-Maleri beds of
the Upper Gondwana series of India may possibly belong to
this stage. In South America they appear in Bolivia, Chile and
Argentina; in North America, in British Columbia, Dakota,
Mexico, Oregon and California. The Bajocian sea also included
parts of New South Wales, New Zealand (Flag Hills beds?),
Borneo and Japan, and it extended into the polar region of
eastern Greenland and Franz Josef Land.
In addition to the ammonites already mentioned, the large
belemnites (Megateuthis giganteus) and terebratulas ( T. perovalis)
are worthy of notice; crinoids and corals were abundant, and
so also were certain forms of Trigonia (T. costata), Pleurotomaria
and Cidaris.
See JURASSIC; also A. de Lapparent, Traite de geologic, vol. ii.
(5th ed., 1906) ; and H. B. Woodward, " The Jurassic Rocks of
Britain," vol. iy., 1894 (Mem. Geol. Survey) ; both works contain
references to original papers. (J. A. H.)
BAJOUR, or BAJAUR, a small district peopled by Pathan
races of Afghan origin, in the North- West Frontier Province of
India. It is about 45 m. long by 20. broad, and h'es at a high
level to the east of the Kunar valley, from which it is separated
by a continuous line of rugged frontier hills, forming a barrier
easily passable at one or two points. Across this barrier the old
road from Kabul to India ran before the Khyber Pass was
adopted as the main route. Bajour is inhabited almost exclusively
by Tarkani (Tarkalanri) Pathans, sub-divided into Mamunds,
Isazai, and Ismailzai, numbering together with a few Mohmands,
Utmauzais, &c., about 100,000. To the south of Bajour is the
wild mountain district of the Mohmands, a Pathan race. To
the east, beyond the Panjkora river, are the hills of Swat,
dominated by another Pathan race. To the north is an inter-
vening watershed between Bajour and the small state of Dir;
and it is over this watershed and through the valley of Dir that
the new road from Malakand and the Punjab runs to Chitral.
The drainage of Bajour flows eastwards, starting from the eastern
slopes of the dividing ridge which overlooks the Kunar and
terminating in the Panjkora river, so that the district lies on
a slope tilting gradually downwards from the Kunar ridge
to the Panjkora. Nawagai is the chief town of Bajour, and
the khan of Nawagai is under British protection for the safe-
guarding of the Chitral road. Jandol, one of the northern valleys
of Bajour, has ceased to be of political importance since the
failure of its chief, Umra Khan, to appropriate to himself Bajour,
Dir, and a great part of the Kunar valley. It was the active
hostility between the amir of Kabul (who claimed sovereignty
of the same districts) and Umra Khan that led, firstly to the
demarcation agreement of 1893 which fixed the boundary of
Afghanistan in Kunar; and, secondly, to the invasion of Chitral
by Umra Khan (who was no party to the boundary settlement)
and the siege of the Chitral fort in 1895.
An interesting feature in Bajour topography is a mountain
spur from the Kunar range, which curving eastwards culminates
in the well-known peak of Koh-i-Mor, which is visible from the
Peshawar valley. It was here, at the foot of the mountain,
that Alexander found the ancient city of Nysa and the Nysaean
colony, traditionally said to have been founded by Dionysus.
The Koh-i-Mor has been identified as the Meros of Arrian's
history the three-peaked mountain from which the god issued.
It is also interesting to find that a section of the Kafir community
of Kamdesh still claim the same Greek origin as did the Nysaeans ;
still chant hymns to the god who sprang from Gir Nysa (the
mountain of Nysa); whilst they maintain that they originally
migrated from the Swat country to their present habitat in the
lower Bashgol. Long after Buddhism had spread to Chitral,
Gilgit, Dir and Swat ; whilst Ningrahar was still full of monasteries
and temples, and the Peshawar valley was recognized as the seat
of Buddhist learning, the Kafirs or Nysaeans held their own in
Bajour and in the lower Kunar valley, where B uddhism apparently
never prevailed. It is probable that the invader Baber (who has
much to say about Bajour) fought them there in the early years
of the 1 6th century, when on his way to found the Mogul dynasty
of India centuries after Buddhism has been crushed in northern
India by the destroyer Mahmud.
The Gazetteers and Reports of the Indian government contain
nearly all the modern information available about Bajour. The
autobiography of Baber (by Leyden and Erskine) gives interesting
details about the country in the i6th century. For the connexion
between the Kafirs and the ancient Nysaeans of Swat, see R. G. S.
Journal, vol. vii., 1896. (T. H. H.*)
BAJZA, JOSEPH (1804-1858), Hungarian poet and critic,
was born at Sziicsi in 1804. His earliest contributions were
made to Kisfaludy's Aurora, a literary paper of which he was
editor from 1830 to 1837. He also wrote largely in the Kritische
Blatter, the Athenaeum, and the Figyelmezo or Observer. His
criticisms on dramatic art were considered the best of these mis-
cellaneous writings. In 1830 he published translations of some
foreign dramas, Ausldndische Buhna, and in 1835 a collection
of his own poems. In 1837 he was made director of the newly
established national theatre at Pest. He then, for some years,
devoted himself to historical writing, and published in succession
the Historical Library (Tortereti Konyvtdr), 6 vols., 1843-1845;
the Modern Plutarch ( Uj Plutarch), 1845-1847 ; and the Universal
History (Vilagtorttet), 1847. These works are to some extent
translations from German authors. In 1847 Bajza edited the
journal of the opposition, Ellenor, at Leipzig, and in March 1848
Kossuth made him editor of his paper, Kossuth Hirlapja. In
1850 he was attacked with brain disease and died in 1858.
BAKALAI (BAKALE, BANGOUENS), a Bantu negroid tribe
inhabiting a wide tract of French Congo between the river
Ogowe and 2 S. They appear to be immigrants from the
south-east, and have been supposed to be connected racially
with the Galoa, one of the Mpongwe tribes and the chief rrver-
people of the Ogowe. The Bakalai have suffered much from
the incursions of their neighbours the Fang, also arrivals from
the south-east, and it may be that they migrated to their present
abode under pressure from this people at an earlier date. They
are keen hunters and were traders in slaves and rubber; the
slave traffic has been prohibited by the French authorities.
Their women display considerable ingenuity in dressing their
hair, often taking a whole day to arrange a coiffure; the hair
is built up on a substructure of clay and a good deal of false
hair incorporated; a coat of red, green or yellow pigment often
completes the effect. The same colours are used to decorate the
hut doors. The villages, some of which are fortified with pali-
sades, are usually very dirty; chiefs and rich men own planta-
tions which are situated at some distance from the village and
to which their womenfolk are sent in times of war. The
Bakalai of Lake Isanga cremate their dead; those of the Upper
Ogowe throw the bodies into the river, with the exception of
those killed in war. The body of a chief is placed secretly in a
hut erected in the depths of the forest, and the village is deserted
for that night, in some cases altogether; the slaves of the
deceased are (or were) sacrificed, and his wives scourged and
secluded in huts for a week. " Natural " deaths are attributed
to the machinations of a sorcerer, and the poison-ordeal is often
practised. Of their social organization little is known, but it
appears that nearly all individuals refrain from eating the flesh
of some particular animal.
BAKE, JAN (1787-1864), Dutch philologist and critic, was
born at Leiden on the ist of September 1787, and from 1817 to
1854 he was professor of Greek and Roman literature at the
university. He died on the 26th of March 1864. His principal
works are: Posidonii Rhodii Reliquiae Doctrinae (1810);
Cleomedis Circularis Doctrina de Sublimitate (1820); Bibliotheca
BAKER, SIR B. BAKER, SIR S. W.
227
Critica Nova (1825-1831) and Scholica Hypomnemala (1837-
1862), a collection of essays dealing mainly with Cicero and the
Attic orators; Cicero, De Legibus (1842) and De Oratore (1863);
the Rhetorica of Apsines and Longinus (1849).
His biography was written (in Dutch) by his pupil Bakhuizen van
der Brink (1865); for an appreciation of his services to classical
literature see L. Muller, Geschichte der klassischen Philologie in den
Nicderlanden (1869).
BAKER, SIR BENJAMIN (1840-1907), English engineer, was
born near Bath in 1840, and, after receiving his early training
in a South Wales ironworks, became associated with Sir John
Fowler in London. He took part in the construction of the
Metropolitan railway (London), and in designing the cylindrical
vessel in which Cleopatra's Needle, now standing on the Thames
Embankment, London, was brought over from Egypt to England
in 1877-1878. By this time he had already made himself an
authority on bridge-construction, and shortly afterwards he
was engaged on the work which made his reputation with the
general public the design and erection of the Forth Bridge.
On the completion of this undertaking in 1890 he was made
K.C.M.G., and in the same year the Royal Society recognized
his scientific attainments by electing him one of its fellows.
Twelve years later at the formal opening of the Assuan dam,
for which he was consulting-engineer, he was created K.C.B.
Sir Benjamin Baker, who also had a large share in the introduc-
tion of the system widely adopted in London of constructing
intra-urban railways in deep tubular tunnels built up of cast
iron segments, obtained an extremely large professional practice,
ranging over almost every branch of civil engineering, and was
more or less directly concerned with most of the great engineering
achievements of his day. He was also the author of many papers
on engineering subjects. He died at Pangbourne, Berks, on the
igth of May 1907.
BAKER, HENRY (1698-1774), English naturalist, was born
in London on the 8th of May 1698. After serving an apprentice-
ship with a bookseller, he devised a system of instructing the
deaf and dumb, by the practice of which hemade a considerable
fortune. It brought him to the notice of Daniel Defoe, whose
youngest daughter Sophia he married in 1729. A year before,
under the name of Henry Stonecastle, he was associated with
Defoe in starting the Universal Spectator and Weekly Journal.
In 1740 he was elected fellow of the Society of Antiquaries and
of the Royal Society. He contributed many memoirs to the
Transactions of the latter society, and in 1744 received the
Copley gold medal for microscopical observations on the crystal-
lization of saline particles. He was one of the founders of the
Society of Arts in 1 7 54, and for some time acted as its secretary.
He died in London on the 25th of November 1774. Among his
publications were The Microscope made Easy (1743), Employment
for the Microscope (1753), and several volumes of verse, original
and translated, including The Universe, a Poem intended to
restrain the Pride of Man (1727). His name is perpetuated by
the Bakerian lecture of the Royal Society, for the foundation of
which he left by will the sum of 100.
BAKER, SIR RICHARD (1568-1644/5), author of the Chronicle
of the Kings of England and other works, was probably born at
Sissinghurst in Kent, and entered Hart Hall, Oxford, as a
commoner in 1584. He left the university without taking a
degree, studied law in London and afterwards travelled in
Europe. In 1593 he was chosen member of parliament for
Arundel, in 1594 his university conferred upon him the degree
of M.A., and in 1597 he was elected to parliament as the repre-
sentative of East Grinstead. In 1603 he was knighted by King
James I., in 1620 he acted as high sheriff at Oxfordshire where
he owned some property, and soon afterwards he married
Margaret, daughter of Sir George Mainwaring, of Ightfield,
Shropshire. By making himself responsible for some debts of
his wife's family, he was reduced to great poverty, which led to
the seizure of his Oxfordshire property in 1625. Quite penniless,
he took refuge in the Fleet prison in 1635, and was still in con-
finement when he died on the i8th of February 1644 (1645).
He was buried in the church of St Bride, Fleet Street, London.
During his imprisonment Baker spent his time mainly in
writing. His chief work is the Chronicle of the Kings of England
from the Time of the Romans' Government unto the Death of King
James (1643, and many subsequent editions). It was translated
into Dutch in 1649, and was continued down to 1658 by Edward
Phillips, a nephew of John Milton. For many years the Chronicle
was extremely popular, but owing to numerous inaccuracies its
historical value is very slight. Baker also wrote Cato Variegatus
or Calces Moratt Distichs, Translated and Paraphrased by Sir
Richard Baker, Knight (London, 1636); Meditations on the
Lord's Prayer (1637); Translation of New Epistles by Moonsieur
D' Balzac (1638); Apologie for Laymen's Writing in Divinity,
with a Short Meditation upon the Fall of Lucifer ^1641); Motives
for Prayer upon the seaven dayes of ye weeke (1642); a transla-
tion of MoJvezzi's Discourses upon Cornelius Tacitus (1642),
and ThealrumRedivivum, or The Theatre Vindicated, a reply to
the Hislrio-Mastix of William Prynne (1642). He also wrote
Meditations upon several of the psalms of David, which have
been collected and edited by A. B. Grosart (London, 1882).
See J. Granger, Biographical History of England to the Revolution
(London, 1804); Biographic Britannica, corrected by A. Kippis
(London, 1778-1793).
BAKER, SIR SAMUEL WHITE (1821-1893), English explorer,
was born in London on the 8th of June 1821. He was educated
partly in England and partly in Germany. His father, a West
India merchant, destined him for a commercial career, but a
short experience of office work proved him to be entirely un-
suited to such a life. On the 3rd of August 1843 he married
Henrietta Biddulph Martin, daughter of the rector of Maisemore,
Gloucestershire, and after two years in Mauritius the desire for
travel took him in 1846 to Ceylon, where in the following year
he founded an agricultural settlement at Nuwara Eliya, a
mountain health-resort. Aided by his brother, he brought
emigrants thither from England, together with choice breeds of
cattle, and before long the new settlement was a success. During
his residence in Ceylon he published, as a result of many adven-
turous hunting expeditions, The Rifle and the Hound in Ceylon
(1853), and two years later Eight Years' Wanderings in Ceylon
(1855). After a journey to Constantinople and the Crimea in
1856, he found an outlet for his restless energy by undertaking
the supervision of the construction of a railway across the
Dobrudja, connecting the Danube with the Black Sea. After
its completion he spent some months in a tour in south-eastern
Europe and Asia Minor. It was during this time that he met
in Hungary the lady who (in 1860) became his second wife,
Florence, daughter of Finnian von Sass, his first wife having died
in 1855. In March 1861 he started upon his first tour of explora-
tion in central Africa. This, in his own words, was undertaken
" to discover the sources of the Nile, with the hope of meeting
the East African expedition under Captains Speke and Grant
somewhere about the Victoria Lake." After a year spent on the
Sudan-Abyssinian border, during which time he learnt Arabic,
explored the Atbara and other Nile tributaries, and proved that
the Nile sediment came from Abyssinia, he arrived at Khartum,
leaving that city in December 1862 to follow up the course of the
White Nile. Two months later at Gondokoro he met Speke and
Grant, who, after discovering the source of the Nile, were
following the river to Egypt. Their success made him fear that
there was nothing left for his own expedition to accomplish;
but the two explorers generously gave him information which
enabled him, after separating from them, to achieve the discovery
of Albert Nyanza, of whose existence credible assurance had
already been given to Speke and Grant. Baker first sighted
the lake on the i4th of March 1864. After some time spent in
the exploration of the neighbourhood, during which Baker
demonstrated that the Nile flowed through the Albert Nyanza
of whose size he formed an exaggerated idea he started upon
his return journey, and reached Khartum after many checks
in May 1865. In the following October he returned to England
with his wife, who had accompanied him throughout the whole
of the perilous and arduous journey. In recognition of the
achievements by which Baker had indissolubly linked his name
228
BAKER, T. BAKER CITY
with the solution of the problem of the Nile sources, the Royal
Geographical Society awarded him its gold medal, and a similar
distinction was bestowed on him by the Paris Geographical Society.
In August 1866 he was knighted. In the same year he published
The Albert N'yanza, Great Basin of the Nile, and Explorations of
the Nile Sources, and in 1867 The Nile Tributaries of Abyssinia,
both books quickly going through several editions. In 1868 he
published a popular story called Cast up by the Sea. In 1869 he
attended the prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward VII., in
a tour through Egypt. In the same year, at the request of the
khedive Ismail, Baker undertook the command of a military
expedition to the equatorial regions of the Nile, with the object
of suppressing the slave-trade there and opening the way to
commerce and civilization. Before starting from Cairo with a
force of 1 700 Egyptian troops many of them discharged convicts
he was given the rank of pasha and major-general in the
Ottoman army. Lady Baker, as before, accompanied him. The
khedive appointed him governor-general of the new territory for
four years at a salary of 10,000 a year; and it was not until
the expiration of that time that Baker returned to Cairo, leaving
his work to be carried on by the new governor, Colonel Charles
George Gordon. He had to contend with innumerable difficulties
the blocking of the river by sudd, the bitter hostility of
officials interested in the slave-trade, the armed opposition of the
natives but he succeeded in planting in the new territory the
foundations upon which others could build up an administration.
He returned to England with his wife in 1874, and in the following
year purchased the estate of Sandford Orieigh in South Devon,
where he made his home for the rest of his life. He published his
narrative of the central African expedition under the title of
Ismailia (1874). Cyprus as I saw it in 187(1 was the result of a
visit to that island. He spent several winters in Egypt, and
travelled in India, the Rocky Mountains and Japan in search
of big game, publishing in 1890 Wild Beasts and their Ways.
He kept up an exhaustive and vigorous correspondence with
men of all shades of opinion upon Egyptian affairs, strongly
opposing the abandonment of the Sudan and subsequently
urging its reconquest. Next to these, questions of maritime
defence and strategy chiefly attracted him in his later years.
He died at Sandford Orieigh on the 3oth of December 1893.
See, besides his own writings, Sir Samuel Baker, a Memoir, by
T. Douglas Murray and A. Silva White (London, 1895).
BAKER, THOMAS (1656-1740), English antiquary, was born
on the I4th of September 1656 at Lanchester, Durham. He
was the grandson of Colonel Baker of Crook, Durham, who won
fame in the civil war by his defence of Newcastle against the
Scots. He was educated at the free school at Durham, and
proceeded thence in 1672 to St John's College, Cambridge,
where he afterwards obtained a fellowship. Lord Crew, bishop
of Durham, collated him to the rectory of Long-Newton in his
diocese in 1687, and intended to give him that of Sedgefield
with a prebend had not Baker incurred his displeasure by
refusing to read James II. 's Declaration of Indulgence. The
bishop who disgraced him for this refusal, and who was after-
wards specially excepted from William's Act of Indemnity, took
the oaths to that king and kept his bishopric till his death.
Baker, on the other hand, though he had opposed James, refused
to take the oaths to William; he resigned Long-Newton on the
ist of August 1690, and retired to St John's, in which he was
protected till the 2oth of January 1716-1717, when he and
one - and - twenty others were deprived of their fellowships.
After the passing of the Registering Act in 1723, he could not
be prevailed on to comply with its requirements by registering
his annuity of 40, although that annuity, left him by his father,
with 20 per annum from his elder brother's collieries, was now
his whole subsistence. He retained a lively sense of the injuries
he had suffered; and inscribed himself in all his own books, as
well as in those which he gave to the college library, socius ejectus,
and in some rector ejectus. He continued to reside in the college
as commoner-master till his sudden death from apoplexy on
the 2nd of July 1740. The whole of his valuable books and
manuscripts he bequeathed to the university. The only works
he published were, Reflections on Learning, showing the In-
sufficiency thereof in its several particulars, in order to evince the
usefulness and necessity of Revelation (Lond., 1700-1710) and
the preface to Bishop Fisher's Funeral Sermon for Margaret,
Countess of Richmond and Derby (1708) both without his name.
His valuable manuscript collections relative to the history and
antiquities of the university of Cambridge, amounting to thirty-
nine volumes in folio and three in quarto, are divided between
the British Museum and the public library at Cambridge, the
former possessing twenty-three volumes, the latter sixteen in
folio and three in quarto.
The life of Baker was written by Robert Masters (Camb., 1784),
and by Horace Walpole in the quarto edition of his works.
BAKER, VALENTINE [BAKER PASHA] (1827-1887), British
soldier, was a younger brother of Sir Samuel Baker (q.v.). He
was educated at Gloucester and in Ceylon, and in 1848 entered
the Ceylon Rifles as an ensign. Soon transferred to the i2th
Lancers, he saw active service with that regiment in the Kaffir
war of 1852-53. In the Crimean War Baker was present at the
action of Traktir (or Tchernaya) and at the fall of Sevastopol,
and in 1859 he became major in the loth Hussars, succeeding
only a year later to the command. This position he held for
thirteen years, during which period the highest efficiency of
his men was reached, and outside the regiment he did good
service to his arm by his writings. He went through the wars of
1866 and 1870 as a spectator with the German armies, and in
1873 he started upon a famous journey through Khorassan.
Though he was unable to reach Khiva the results of the journey
afforded a great deal of political, geographical and military
information, especially as to the advance of Russia in central
Asia. In 1874 he was back in England and took up a staff
appointment at Aldershot. Less than a year later Colonel
Baker's career in the British army came to an untimely end.
He was arrested on a charge of indecent assault upon a young
woman in a railway carriage, and was sentenced to a year's
imprisonment and a fine. His dismissal from the service was an
inevitable consequence; it must be stated, however, that the view
taken of the circumstances by good authorities was that Baker's
conduct, when judged by conventional standards, admitted of
considerable extenuation. He himself never opened his mouth
in self-defence. Two years later, having meanwhile left England,
he entered the service of Turkey in the war with Russia. At first
in a high position in the gendarmerie, he was soon transferred to
Mehemet's staff, and thence took over the command of a division
of infantry. With this division Baker sustained the brilliant
rearguard action of Tashkessan against the troops of Gourko.
Promoted Ferik (lieutenant-general) for this feat, he continued to
command Suleiman's rearguard with distinction. After the peace
he was employed in an administrative post in Armenia, where he
remained until 1882. In this year he was offered the command
of the newly formed Egyptian army, which he accepted. On his
arrival at Cairo, however, the offer was withdrawn and he only
obtained the command of the Egyptian police. In this post he
devoted by far the greater amount of his energy to the training
of the gendarmerie, which he realized would be the reserve of
the purely military forces.
When the Sudan War broke out, Baker, hastening with 3500
men to relieve Tokar, encountered the enemy under Osman
Digna at El Teb. His men became panic-stricken at the first
rush and allowed themselves to be slaughtered like sheep. Baker
himself with a few of his officers succeeded by hard fighting in
cutting a way out, but his force was annihilated. British troops
soon afterwards arrived at Suakin, and Sir Gerald Graham took
the offensive. Baker Pasha accompanied the British force, and
guided it in its march to the scene of his defeat, and at the
desperately-fought second battle of El Teb he was wounded.
He remained in command of the Egyptian police until his death
in 1887. Amongst his works may be mentioned Our National
Defences (1860), War in Bulgaria, a Narrative of Personal Ex-
perience (London, 1879), Clouds in the East (London, 1876).
BAKER CITY, a city and the county-seat of Baker county,
Oregon, U.S.A., about 337 m. E. by S. of Portland. Pop. (1890,
BAKEWELL BAKING
229
2604; (1900) 6663 (1017 foreign-born); (1910) 6742. The city
is served by the Oregon Railroad & Navigation Company, and by
the Sumpter Valley railway, a short line (62 m.) extending from
Baker City to Austin, Oregon. Baker City lies in the valley of
Powder river, at the base of the Blue Mountains, and has an
elevation of about 3440 ft. above the sea. It is the largest city
in eastern Oregon, and is the centre of important mining, lumber,
farming and live-stock interests. It was laid out as a town in
1865, became the county-seat in 1868, and was chartered as a
city in 1874. The county and the city were named in honour of
Edward Dickinson Baker (1811-1861), a political leader, orator
and soldier, who was born in London, England, was taken to the
United States in 1815, was a representative in Congress from
Illinois ini845-i846and 1840-1851, served in the Mexi can Warasa
colonel (1846-1847), became a prominent lawyer in California and
later in Oregon, was a Republican member of the United States
Senate in 1860-1861 and was killed at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, on the
2istofOctoberini86i,whileservingasacolonelintheFederalarmy.
BAKEWELL, ROBERT (1725-1795) English agriculturist,
was born at Dishley, Leicestershire, in 1725. His father, a farmer
at the same place, died in 1760, and Robert Bakewell then took
over the management of the estate. By visiting a large number
of farms all over the country, he had already acquired a wide
theoretical knowledge of agriculture and stock-breeding; and
this knowledge he now put to practical use at Dishley. His main
object was to improve the breed of sheep and oxen, and in this
he was highly successful, his new Leicestershire breed of sheep
attaining within little more than half a century an international
reputation, while the Dishley cattle (also known as the new
Leicestershire long-horn) became almost as famous. He extended
his breeding experiments to horses, producing a new and particu-
larly useful type of farm-horse. He was the first to establish the
trade in ram-letting on a large scale, and founded the Dishley
Society, the object of which was to ensure purity of breed. The
value of his own stock was quickly recognized, and in one year
he made 1 200 guineas from the letting of a single ram. Bakewell's
agricultural experiments were not confined to stock-breeding.
His reputation stood high in every detail of farm-management,
and as an improver of grass land by systematic irrigation he had
no rival. He died on the ist of October 1795.
BAKEWELL, ROBERT (1768-1843), English geologist, was
born in 1 768. He was an able observer, and deserving of mention
as one of the earliest teachers of general and practical geology.
His Introduction to Geology (1813) contained much sound informa-
tion, and reached a fifth edition in 1838. The second edition was
translated and published in Germany, and the third and fourth
editions were reprinted in America by Professor Silliman of Yale
College. Bakewell as author also of an Introduction to Minera-
logy (1819), and of Travels comprising Observations made during
a Residence in the Tarenlaise, &c. (2 vols., 1823). He died at
Hampstead on the isth of August 1843.
BAKEWELL, a market-town in the western parliamentary
division of Derbyshire, England, on the river Wye, 25 m. N.N.W.
of Derby, on the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
2850. The church of All Saints is mentioned in Domesday, and
tradition ascribes the building of its nave to King John, while the
western side of the tower must be older still. Within are some
admirable specimens of encaustic tiles, and several monuments of
the Vernon and Manners families; while an ancient runic rood-
stone stands in the churchyard. Zinc and marble are worked in
the neighbourhood. The cotton manufacture was established in
the town by Sir Richard Arkwright. Bakewell is noted for a
chalybeate spring, of use in cases of chronic rheumatism, and
there are baths attached to it. A kind of jam-cake, called a
" Bakewell pudding," gives another sort of fame to the place.
The almshouses, known as St John's hospital, were founded in
1602; and in 1637 a free grammar school was endowed by Lady
Grace Manners. Among modern buildings may be mentioned
the Bakewell and High Peak Institute, and the town hall and
museum. On Castle Hill, in the vicinity, are the remains of an
earthwork, said to have been raised by Edward the Elder in 924.
Within the parish are included the mansions of Burton Closes
and Castle Hill. Two miles from the town, amidst beautiful
gardens and meadows, is Haddon Hall. To the east lies the
magnificent domain of Chatsworth. The scenery of the neigh-
bourhood, in both the Wye and the Derwent valleys, is very
beautiful; the village of Eyam (pronounced Eem) near the
Derwent may be noticed as specially picturesque. The plague
of 1665, carried hither from London, almost depopulated this
village, and the name of the rector, William Mompesson,
attracted wide notice on account of his brave attempts to
combat the outbreak.
BAKHCHI-SARAI (Turk, for " garden-palace "), a town of
Russia, in the government of Taurida, situated in a narrow gorge
in the Crimea, 20 m. by rail S.S.W. of Simferopol. From the
close of the i sth century down to 1783 it was the residence of the
Tatar khans of the Crimea; and its streets wear a decidedly
oriental look. The principal building, the palace, or Khan-sarai,
was originally erected in 1519 by Abdul-Sahal-Ghirai, destroyed
in 1736, and restored at Potemkin's command for the reception
of Catherine II. Attached to it is a mausoleum, which contains
the tombs of many of the khans. There are in the place no fewer
then thirty-six mosques. The population consists for the most
part of Tatars. Bakhchi-sarai manufactures morocco, sheep-
skin cloaks, agricultural implements, sabres and cutlery. Pop.
(1897) 12,955. Two and a half miles to the east is Chufut-Kaleh
(or Jews' city), formerly the chief seat of the Karaite Jews of
the Crimea, situated on lofty and almost inaccessible cliffs; it is
now deserted except by the rabbi. Between Bakhchi-sarai and
Chufut-kaleh is the Uspenskiy monastery, clinging likeaswallow's
nest to the face of the cliffs, and the scene of a great pilgrimage
on the isth (29th) of August every year.
BAKHMUT, a town of Russia, in the government of Ekateri-
noslav, near the river from which it derives its name, 136 m. E.
of the town of Ekaterinoslav. It owed its origin in the latter half
of the 1 7th century to the discovery of salt-springs, and now
produces coal, salt, alabaster and quicksilver, and manufactures
steel rails. Pop. (1897) 19,416.
BAKHTIARI, one of the great nomad tribes of Persia, whose
camping-grounds are in the hilly district, known as the Bakhtiari
province. This province extends from Chaharmahal (west of
Isfahan) in the E., to near Shushter in the W., and separated from
Luristan in the N. by the Dizful river (Ab i Diz), and in the S.
touches Behbahan and Ram Hormuz. The Bakhtiari are divided
into the two great divisions Haft-lang and Chahar-lang, and a
number of branches and clans, and were known until the isth
century as the " Great Lurs," the " Little Lurs " being the tribes
settled in the district now known as Luristan, with Khorremabad
as capital. According to popular tradition the Lurs originally
came from Syria in the loth century, but it is now held that they
were in Persia long, perhaps fifteen centuries, before. They speak
the Lur language, a Persian dialect. The Bakhtiari number about
38,000 or 40,000 families, under 200,000 souls, while the area of
the district occupied by them is about 25,000 sq. m. In the
middle of the I9th century they could put 20,000 well-equipped
horsemen into the field, but in consequence of misrule and long-
lasting feuds between the different branches, which the govern-
ment often fostered, or even instigated, the district has become
poor, and it would now be difficult to find 4000 horsemen. The
province is under the governor-general of Arabistan, and pays a
yearly tribute of about 5000. The chiefs of the Bakhtiari in
1897, having obtained the shah's permission for improving the
road between Shushter or Ahvaz and Isfahan, an iron suspension
bridge with a span of 1 20 ft. was erected over the Karun river at
Gudar i Bulutek; another, with a span of 70 ft., over the Bazuft
river at Pul i Amarat; and a stone bridge over the Karun at
Do-pu-lan.
For accounts of the Bakht&ri see Mrs Bishop (Isabella Bird),
Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan (London, 1893); C. de Bode,
Travels in Luristan (London, 1841); Lord Curzon, Persia and the
Persian Question, vol. ii. 283-303 (London, 1892); Sir H. Layard,
Early Adventures in Persia (London, 1894). (A. H.-S.)
BAKING, the action of the verb " to bake," a word, in various
forms, common to Teutonic languages (cf. Ger. backen), meaning
to cook by dry heat. " Baking " is thus primarily applied to
230
BAKIS BAKU
the process of preparing bread, and is also applied to the harden-
ing by heat or " firing " of pottery, earthenware or bricks. (See
BREAD; CERAMICS and BRICK.)
BAKIS (i.e. " speaker," from /3if), a general name for the
inspired prophets and dispensers of oracles who flourished in
Greece from the 8th to the 6th century B.C. Suidas mentions
three: a Boeotian, an Arcadian and an Athenian. The first,
who was the most famous, was said to have been inspired by
the nymphs of the Corycian cave. His oracles, of which speci-
mens are extant in Herodotus and Pausanias, were written in
hexameter verse, and were considered to have been strikingly
fulfilled. The Arcadian was said to have cured the women of
Sparta of a fit of madness. Many of the oracles which were
current under his name have been attributed to Onomacritus.
Herodotus viii. 20, 77, ix. 43; Pausanias iv. 27, ix. 17, x. 12;
Schol. Aristoph. Pax, 1070; see Gottling, Opuscula Academica (1869).
BAKOCZ, TAMAS, CARDINAL (1442-1521), Hungarian ecclesi-
astic and statesman, was the son of a wagoner, adopted by his
uncle, who trained him for the priesthood and whom he succeeded
as rector of Tetel (1480). Shortly afterwards he became one of
the secretaries of King Matthias I., who made him bishop of
Gyor and a member of the royal council (1490). Under
Wladislaus II. (1400-1516) he became successively bishop of
Eger, the richest of the Hungarian sees, archbishop of Esztergom
(1497), cardinal (1500), and titular patriarch of, Constantinople
(1510). From 1490 to his death in 1521 he was the leading
statesman of Hungary and mainly responsible for her foreign
policy. It was solely through his efforts that Hungary did not
accede to the league of Cambrai, was consistently friendly with
Venice, and formed a family compact with the Habsburgs. He
was also the only Magyar prelate who seriously aspired to the
papal throne. In 1513, on the death of Julius II., he went to
Rome for the express purpose of bringing about his own election
as pope. He was received with more than princely pomp, and
all but succeeded in his design, thanks to his extraordinary
adroitness and the command of an almost unlimited bribing-fund.
But Venice and the emperor played him false, and he failed.
He returned to Hungary as papal legate, bringing with him the
bull of Leo X. proclaiming a fresh crusade against the Turks.
But the crusade degenerated into a jacquerie which ravaged
the whole kingdom, and much discredited Bak6cz. He lost
some of his influence at first after the death of Wladislaus, but
continued to be the guiding spirit at court, till age and infirmity
confined him almost entirely to his house in the last three years
of his life. Bakocz was a man of great ability but of no moral
principle whatever. His whole life was a tissue of treachery.
He was false to his benefactor Matthias, false to Matthias's son
Janos Corvinus (?..), whom he chicaned out of the throne, and
false to his accomplice in that transaction, Queen Beatrice.
His rapacity disgusted even an age in which every one could
be bought and sold. His attempt to incorporate the wealthy
diocese of Transylvania with his own primatial province was
one of the principal causes of the spread of the Reformation
in Hungary. He left a fortune of many millions. His one re-
deeming feature was a love of art; his own cathedral was a
veritable Pantheon.
See Vilmos Fraknoi, Tam&s Bak6cz (Hung.) (Budapest, 1889).
(R. N. B.)
BAKRI [Abu 'Ubaid 'Abdallah ibn 'Abd ut-'Aziz ul-Bakri],
(1040-1094), Arabian geographer, was born at Cordova. His
best-known work is the dictionary of geographical names which
occur in the poets, with an introduction on the seats of the
Arabian tribes. This has been edited by F. Wiistenfeld
(Gottingen, 1876-1877). Another of his works was a general
geography of the world, which exists in manuscript. The part
referring to North Africa was edited by M'G. de Slane (Algiers,
i857).
See C. Brockelmann's Gesch. der Arab. Litteratur (Weimar, 1898),
vol. i. p. 476.
BAKU, a government of Russian Transcaucasia, stretching
along the west coast of the Caspian Sea from 41 50' to 38 30'
N. lat., and bounded on the W. by the government of Elisavetpol
and the province of Daghestan, and on the S. by Persia. It
includes the Kuba plain on the north-east slope of the Caucasus;
the eastern extremity of that range from the Shad-dagh (13,960
ft.) and the Bazardyuz (14,727 ft.) to the Caspian, where it ter-
minates in the Apsheron peninsula; the steppes of the lower Kura
and Aras on the south of the Caucasus, and a narrow coast-belt
between the Anti-Caucasus and the Caspian. The last-mentioned
region lies partly round the Kizil-agach Bay, opening to the
south. Area of government, 15,172 sq. m. Both slopes of the
Caucasus are very fertile and well irrigated, with fine forests,
fields of rice and other cereals, and flourishing gardens. The
steppes of the Kura are also fertile, but require artificial irriga-
tion, especially for cotton. In addition to agriculture and cattle-
breeding, the vine and mulberry are extensively grown. The
Apsheron peninsula is dry and bare of vegetation; but within
it are situated the famous petroleum wells of Baku. These,
which go down to depths of 700 to 1700 ft., yield crude naphtha,
from which the petroleum or kerosene is distilled; while the
heavier residue (maz-ut) is used as lubricating oil and for fuel,
for instance in the locomotives of the Transcaspian railway.
Whereas in 1863 the output was only 5500 tons of crude naphtha,
in 1904 it amounted to 9,833,600 tons; but business was much
injured by a serious fire in 1905. The oil-fields lie around the
town of Baku: the largest, that of Balakhany-Sabunchi-Romany
(6 sq. m.), is 85 m. north of the town; that of Bibi-Eybat, is
3^ m. south; the " black town " (Nobel's) is 2 m. south-east;
and beyond the last names is the " white town" (Rothschild's).
The lighter oil is conveyed to Batum on the Black Sea in pipes,
and is there shipped for export; the heavier oils reach the same
port and the ports of Novorossiysk and Poti, also on the Black
Sea, in tank railway-cars. At Surakhani, 13 m. east of the town,
is the now disused temple of the Parsee fire-worshippers, who
were attracted thither by the natural fountains of inflammable
gas.
The government is divided into six districts, the chief towns
of which are Baku (the capital of the government), Geok-chai
(pop. 2247 in 1897), Kuba (15,346), Lenkoran (8768), Salyany
( 1 0,1 68), in district of Jevat, and Shemakha (20,008). The
population numbered 828,511 in 1897, of whom the major part
were Tatars; other races were Russians, the Iranian tribes
of the Tales (89,519) and Talysh (34,994), Armenians (52,233)
and the Caucasian mountaineers known as Kurins.
BAKU, the chief town of the government of the same name,
in Russian Transcaucasia, on the south side of the peninsula
of Apsheron, in 40 21' N. and 49 50' E. It is connected by
rail with the south Russian railway system at Beslan, the junction
for Vladikavkaz (400 m.), via Derbent and Petrovsk, with Batum
(560 m.) and Poti (536 m.) on the Black Sea via Tiflis. A long
stone quay next the harbour is backed by the new town climbing
up the slopes behind. To the west is the old town, consisting of
steep, narrow, winding streets, and presenting a decidedly oriental
appearance. Here are the ruins of a palace of the native khans,
built in the i6th century; the mosques of the Persian shahs,
built in 1078 and now converted into an arsenal; nearer the sea
the " maidens' tower," transformed into a lighthouse; and not
far from it remains of ancient walls projecting above the sea,
and showing traces of Arabic architecture of the 9th and loth
centuries. Beside the harbour are engineering works, dry docks
and barracks, stores and workshops belonging to the Russian
Caspian fleet. Besides the petroleum refineries the town possesses
oil- works (for fuel) , flour-mills, sulphuric acid works and tobacco
factories. Owing to its excellent harbour Baku is a chief depot
for merchandise coming from Persia and Transcaspia raw
cotton, silk, rice, wine, fish, dried fruit and timber and for
Russian manufactured goods. The climate is extreme, the
mean temperature for the year being 58 F., for January 38,
for July 80; annual rainfall 9-4 in. A wind of exceptional
violence blows sometimes from the N.N.W. in winter. Pop.
(1860) 13,381; (1897) "2,253; (1900) I79,i33- The town is
mentioned by the Arab geographer, Masudi, in the loth century.
From 1 509 it was in the possession of the Persians. The Russians
captured it from them in 1723, but restored it in 1735; it was
incorporated in the Russian empire in 1806. In 1904-1905,
BAKUNIN BALAAM
231
in consequence of the general political anarchy, serious conflicts
took place here between the Tatars and the Armenians, and
two-thirds of the Balakhani and Bibi-Eybat oil-works were
burned.
See Marvin, The Region of the Eternal Fire (ed. 1891) and J. D.
Henry, Baku, an Eventful History (1906). (P. A. K.)
BAKUNIN, MIKHAIL (1814-1876), Russian anarchist, was
born of an aristocratic family at Torjok, in the government of
Tver, i n T <S 1 4 . As an officer of the Imperial Guard , he saw service
in Poland, but resigned his commission from a disgust of despotism
aroused by witnessing the repressive methods employed against
the Poles. He proceeded to Germany, studied Hegel, and soon
got into touch with the leaders of the young German movement
in Berlin. Thence he went to Paris, where he met Proudhon
and George Sand, and also made the acquaintance of the chief
Polish exiles. From Paris he journeyed to Switzerland, where
he resided for some time, taking an active share in all socialistic
movements. While in Switzerland he was ordered by the Russian
government to return to Russia, and on his refusal his property
was confiscated. In 1848, on his return to Paris, he published
a violent tirade against Russia, which caused his expulsion from
France. The revolutionary movement of 1848 gave him the
opportunity of entering upon a violent campaign of democratic
agitation, and for his participation in the Dresden insurrection
of 1849 he was arrested and condemned to death. The death
sentence, however, was commuted to imprisonment for life,
and he was eventually handed over to the Russian authorities,
by whom he was imprisoned and finally sent to eastern Siberia
in 1855. He received permission to remove to the Amur region,
whence he succeeded in escaping, making his way through Japan
and the United States to England in 1861. He spent the rest
of his life in exile in western Europe, principally in Switzerland.
In 1869 he founded the Social Democratic Alliance, which, how-
ever, dissolved in the same year, and joined the International
(q.v.). In 1870 he attempted a rising at Lyons on the principles
afterwards exemplified by the Paris Commune. At the Hague
congress of the International in 1872 he was outvoted and
expelled by the Marx party. He retired to Lugano in 1873
and died at Bern on the I3th of June 1876.
Nothing can be clearer or more frank and comprehensive in
its destructiveness than the revolutionary anarchism of Bakunin.
He rejects all the ideal systems in every name and shape,
from the idea of God downwards; and every form of external
authority, whether emanating from the will of a sovereign or from
universal suffrage. " The liberty of man," he says in his Dieu
et l'lat (published posthumously in 1882) " consists solely in
this, that he obeys the laws of nature, because he has himself
recognized them as such, and not because they have been imposed
upon him externally by any foreign will whatsoever, human
or divine, collective or individual." In this way will the whole
problem of freedom be solved, that natural laws be ascertained
by scientific discovery, and the knowledge of them be universally
diffused among the masses. Natural laws being thus recognized
by every man for himself, he cannot but obey them, for they are
the laws also of his own nature; and the need for political
organization, administration and legislation will at once disappear.
Nor will he admit of any privileged position or class, for " it is
the peculiarity of privilege and of every privileged position to
kill the intellect and heart of man. The privileged man, whether
he be privileged politically or economically, is a man depraved
in intellect and heart." " In a word, we object to all legislation,
all authority, and all influence, privileged, patented, official
and legal, even when it has proceeded from universal suffrage,
convinced that it must always turn to the profit of a dominating
and exploiting minority, against the interests of the immense
majority enslaved." Bakunin's methods of realizing his revolu-
tionary programme are not less frank and destructive than his
principles. The revolutionist, as he would recommend him
to be, is a consecrated man, who will allow no private interests
or feelings, and no scruples of religion, patriotism or morality, to
turn him aside from his mission, the aim of which is by all available
means to overturn the existing society. (See ANARCHISM.)
BA-KWIRI, a Bantu nation of German Cameroon, West
Africa. According to tradition they are migrants from the
eastward. The " Brushmen," for that is the meaning of their
name, are grouped in about sixty separate clans. They are a
lively intelligent people, brave fighters and daring hunters, and
in their love of songs, music and elocution are superior to many
negro races. Their domestic affections are strongly developed.
Their chief physical peculiarity is the great disparity between
the size and complexion of the sexes, most of the women being
much shorter and far lighter in colour than the men. The Ba-
Kwiri are generous and open-handed among themselves; but
the law of blood for blood is mercilessly fulfilled, even in cases of
accidental homicide. Their religion is ancestor-worship blended
with witchcraft and magic. They believe in good and evil
spirits, those of the forests and seas being especially feared. In
common with their neighbours the Dualla (q.v.) the Ba-Kwiri
possess a curious drum language. By drum-tapping news is
conveyed from clan to clan. Slaves and women are not allowed
to master this language, but all the initiated are bound to repeat
it so as to pass the messages on. The Ba-Kwiri have also a horn
language peculiar to themselves.
BALA, a market-town and urban district of Merionethshire,
N. Wales, at the north end of Bala Lake, 17 m. N.E. of Dolgelley
(Dolgellau). Pop. (1901) 1554. It is little more than one wide
street. Its manufactures are flannel, stockings, gloves and
hosiery (for which it was well known in the i8th century). The
Tower of Bala (some 30 ft. high by 50 diameter) is a tumulus
or " moat-hill," formerly thought to mark the site of a Roman
camp. The theological college of the Calvinistic Methodists
and the grammar school (endowed), which was founded in 1712,
are the chief features, together with the statue of the Rev.
Thomas Charles, the distinguished theological writer, to whom
was largely due the foundation of the British and Foreign Bible
Society. Bala Lake, the largest in Wales (4 m. long by some J m.
wide), is subject to sudden and dangerous floods, deep and clear,
and full of pike, perch, trout, eel and gwyniad. The gwyniad
(Caregonus) is peculiar to certain waters, as those of Bala Lake,
and is fully described by Thomas Pennant in his Zoology (1776).
The lake (Llyn Tegid) is crossed by the Dee, local tradition
having it that the waters of the two never mix, like those of
Alpheus and the sea.
BALAAM (03^3 Bil'am; BaXoA/u; Vg. Balaam; the ety-
mology of the name is uncertain), a prophet in the Bible.
Balaam, the son of Beor, was a Gentile seer; he appears in the
history of the Israelites during their sojourn in the plains of
Moab, east of Jordan, at the close of the Forty Years' wandering,
shortly before the death of Moses and the crossing of the Jordan.
Israel had conquered two kings of eastern Palestine Sihon, king
of the Amorites, and Og, king of Bashan. Balak, king of Moab,
became alarmed, and sent for Balaam to curse Israel; Balaam
came after some hesitation, but when he sought to curse Israel
Yahweh compelled him to bless them.
The main passage concerning Balaam in Num. xxii-xrv.; it
consists of a narrative which serves as a framework for seven
oracular poems, the first four being of some length and the last
three very brief. The story is doubtless based on ancient
traditions, current in various forms; the Old Testament references
are not wholly consistent.
The narrative in Num. xxii. ff. is held to be compiled with
editorial additions from the two ancient documents (900-700 B.C.)
commonly denoted by the symbols J and E. The distribution
of the material between the two documents is uncertain; but
some such scheme as the following is not improbable. The
references to portions the origin of which is especially uncertain
are placed in brackets ().
The present narrative, therefore, is not really a single continuous
story, but may be resolved into two older accounts. In combin-
ing these two and using them as a framework for the poems,
the compilers have altered, added and omitted. Naturally,
when both documents made statements which were nearly
identical, one might be omitted; so that neither account need
be given in full in the composite passage. The two older accounts,
BALAAM
as far as they are given here, may have run somewhat thus:
restorations of supposed omissions are given in square brackets [].
(i) J. xxii. 36-50 to " Beor " (sc to " to the land "7, n, 17,
18). Balak, king of Moab, alarmed at the Israelite conquests,
sends elders of Moab and Midian to Balaam, son of Beor, to the
land of Amman, to induce him to come and curse Israel. He
sends back word that he can only do what Yahweh commands.
The land of Amman. The current Hebrew Text has the land of
ammo,i.e. as EV, " his people," but Amman is read by the Samaritan
Pentateuch, the Syriac and Vulgate Versions and some Hebrew
MSS., and is accepted by many modern scholars.
xxii. 22-350 to " Balaam, " also " Go " and " So Balaam
went." Nevertheless Balaam sets out with two servants to go
to Balak, but the Angel of Yahweh meets him. At first the
Angel is seen only by the ass, which arouses Balaam's anger by
its efforts to avoid the Angel. The ass is miraculously enabled
to speak to Balaam. Yahweh at last enables Balaam to see the
Angel, who tells him that he would have slain him but for the ass.
Balaam offers to go back, but is told to go on. ^
Speaking animals are a common feature of folk-lore; the only
other case in the Old Testament is the serpent in Eden. Maimonides
suggested that the episode of the Angel and the conversation with
the ass is an account of a vision; similar views have been held
by E. W. Hengstenberg and other Christian scholars. Others, e.g.
Volck in Hauck's Realencyklopddie (s. " Bileam "), regard the state-
ments about the ass speaking as figurative; the ass brayed, and
Balaam translated the sound into words. The ordinary literal
interpretation is more probable; but it does not follow that the
authors of the Pentateuch intended the story to be taken as his-
torical in its details. It need hardly be said that the exact accuracy
of such narratives is not an essential part of the Christian faith;
no such doctrine is laid down by the creeds and confessions.
xxii- 36, 39, xxiv. i, 2, 10-14, 25. Balak meets Balaam and
they go together [and offer sacrifices] ; Balaam, however, blesses
Israel by divine inspiration; Balak remonstrates, but Balaam
reminds him of his message and again blesses Israel. Then
Balaam goes home. (For the relation of the poems to J's
narrative, see below.)
(ii.) E. xxii. 2, 30, 56 " to Pethor, which is by the river," 8-10,
12-16, 19-21, 370, to "unto me," 38. Balak, king of Moab,
alarmed at the conquests of Israel, sends the princes of Moab to
Balaam at Pethor on the Euphrates, that he may come and curse
Israel.
A. Jeremias, Das Alte Testament im Lichte des alien Orients,
p. 278, adopts Marquart's view that the " River " (nahar) is the so-
called " River " (better " Ravine " nahal) of Egypt or Musri, on
the southern frontier of Judea. So too Winckler, in the new edition
of E. Schrader's Die Ketlinschriften und das Alte Testament. It has
been usual to keep nahar and take it in its ordinary sense when used
absolutely, i.e. the Euphrates, and to identify Pethor with a Pitru
on a tributary of the Euphrates, mentioned in an inscription of
Shalmaneser II. Deut. xxiii. 4 places Pethor in Mesopotamia.
God appears to him in a dream and forbids him to go. The
princes return and report to Balak, who sends them back to
put further pressure on Balaam. God in another dream per-
mits him to go, on condition that he speaks what God tells him.
He goes with the princes of Moab. Balak meets them, and
Balaam warns him that he can only speak what God tells him.
xxii. 40, 41, xxiii. 1-6,11-17. Balak offers sacrifices, but
Yahweh inspires Balaam with a blessing on Israel. Balak
remonstrates and Balaam explains. They try to get a more
favourable result by sacrificing on a different spot, and by
placing Balaam on the top of Pisgah to view Israel, but he
is again compelled to bless Israel. After further remonstrances
and explanations [Balaam goes home]. (For the relation of the
poems to E's narrative, see below.)
Deut. xxiii. 3-6* summarizes E's account of this incident,
adding, however, the feature that the Ammonites were associated
with the Moabites, possibly an imperfect reminiscence of the
reference to Ammon in J. Joshua, in his farewell speech to the
Israelites, 2 also refers to this episode. The Priestly Code 8 has
a different story of Balaam, in which he advises the Midianites
how they may bring disaster on Israel by seducing the people
1 Quoted Neh. xiii. i f. * Josh. xxiv. 9, 10. E; cf. Micah vi. 5.
' Num. xxxi. 8 (quoted Josh. xiii. 22), 16. These references are
not necessarily inconsistent with JE; but they are probably based
on an independent tradition. The date of the Priestly Code is ca.
400 B.C.
from their loyalty to Yahweh. Later on he is slain in
battle, fighting in the ranks of Midian.
It is often supposed that the name of the king of Edom, 4
Bela, son of Beor, is a corruption of Balaam, and that, therefore,
one form of the tradition made him a king of Edom.
The Poems fall into two groups: the first four, in xxiii. i.-
xxiv. 19, are commonly regarded as ancient lyrics of the early
monarchy, perhaps in the time of David or Solomon, which J and
E inserted in their narrative. Some recent critics, 6 however,
are inclined to place them in the post-exilic period, in which case
a late editor has substituted them for earlier, probably less
edifying, oracles. But the features which are held to indicate
late date may be due to editorial revision.
The first two are found in an E setting, and therefore, if
ancient, formed part of E.
The First, xxiii. 7-10, prophesies the unique exaltation of
Israel, and its countless numbers.
The Second, xxiii. 18-24, celebrates the moral virtue of Israel,
the monarchy and its conquests.
Again the second couple are connected with J.
The Third, xxiv. 3-9, also celebrates the glory and conquests
of the monarchy.
A gag, in verse 7, can hardly be the Amalekite king of i Sam.
xv.; Amalek was too small and obscure. The Septuagint and
other Greek Versions and Sam. Pent, have Gog, which would
imply a post-exilic date, cf. Ezek. xxxix. Probably both Agag
and Gog are textual corruptions. Og has been suggested, but
does not seem a great improvement.
The Fourth, xxiv. 14-19, announces the coming of a king,
possibly David, who shall conquer Edom and Moab.
The remaining poems are usually regarded as later additions;
thus the Oxford Hexateuch on Num. xxiv. 20-24. " The three
concluding oracles seem irrelevant here, being concerned neither
with Israel nor Moab. It has been thought that they were added
to bring the cycle up to seven."
The Fifth, xxiv. 20, deals with the ruin of Amalek. It is of
uncertain date; if the historical Amalek is meant, it may be
early; but Amalek may be symbolical.
The Sixth, xxiv. 21 f., deals with the destruction of the Kenite
state by Assyria; also of uncertain date, Assyria being, according
to some, the ancient realm of Nineveh, according to others the
Seleucid kingdom of Syria, which was also called Assyria.
The Seventh, xxiv. 23 f., speaks of the coming of ships from
the West, to attack Assur and "Eber"; it may refer to the
conquest of Persia by Alexander the Great. An interesting,
but doubtful, emendation makes this poem describe the ruin
of Shamal, a state in N. W. Syria.
In the New Testament Balaam is cited as a type of avarice ; 6
in Rev. ii. 14 we read of false teachers at Pergamum who held
the " teaching of Balaam, who taught Balak to cast a stumbling-
block before the children of Israel, to eat things sacrificed to
idols, and to commit fornication."
Balaam has attracted much interest, alike from Jews, Christians
and Mahommedans. Josephus 7 paraphrases the story more suo,
and speaks of Balaam as the best prophet of his time, but with
a disposition ill adapted to resist temptation. Philo describes
him in the Life of Moses as a great magician; elsewhere 8 he
speaks of " the sophist Balaam, being," i.e. symbolizing, " a
vain crowd of contrary and warring opinions"; and again 9
as " a vain people "; both phrases being based on a mistaken
etymology of the name Balaam. The later Targums and the
Talmuds represent him as a typical sinner; and there are the
usual worthless Rabbinical fables, e.g. that he was blind of one
eye; that he was the Elihu of Job; that, as one of Pharaoh's
counsellors, he was governor of a city of Ethiopia, and rebelled
against Pharaoh; Moses was sent against him by Pharaoh at
the head of an army, and stormed the city and put Balaam to
flight, &c. &c.
4 Gen. xxxvi. 32.
' For names and reasons, see Gray, Numbers, 314.
' 2 Peter ii. 16, 17 (also refers to the ass speaking), Jude xi.
7 Ant. iv. 6. Quod. Del. Potiori, 20. De Cherub., 10.
BALADHURi BALAGUER
233
Curiously enough, the Rabbinical (Yalkut) identification of
Balaam with Laban, Jacob's father-in-law, has been revived,
from a very different standpoint, by a modern critic. 1
The Mahommedans, also, have various fables concerning
Balaam. He was one of the Anakim, or giants of Palestine ;
he read the books of Abraham, where he got the name Yahweh,
by virtue of which he predicted the future, and got from God
whatever he asked. It has been conjectured that the Arabic
wise man, commonly called Luqmtn (?..), is identical with
Balaam. The names of their fathers are alike, and "Luqman "
means devourer, swallmver, a meaning which might be got out of
Balaam by a popular etymology.
If we might accept the various theories mentioned above,
Balaam would appear in one source of J as an Edomite, in another
as an Ammonite ; in E as a native of the south of Judah or
possibly as an Aramaean ; in the tradition followed by the
Priestly Code probably as a Midianite. All these peoples either
belong to the Hebrew stock or are closely connected with it.
We may conclude that Balaam was an ancient figure of traditions
originally common to all the Hebrews and their allies, and after-
wards appropriated by individual tribes ; much as there are
various St Georges.
The chief significance of the Balaam narratives for the history
of the religion of Israel is the recognition by J and E of the genuine
inspiration of a non-Hebrew prophet. Yahweh is as much the
God of Balaam as he is of Moses. Probably the original tradition
goes back to a time when Yahweh was recognized as a deity of
a circle of connected tribes of which the Israelite tribes formed
a part. But the retention of the story without modification may
imply a continuous recognition through some centuries of the
idea that Yahweh revealed his will to nations other than Israel.
Apparently the Priestly Code ignored this feature of the story.
Taking the narratives as we now have them, Balaam is a
companion figure to Jonah, the prophet who wanted to go where
he was not sent, over against the prophet who ran away from
the mission to which he was called.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Ewald, Geschickte des Volkes Israel*, Bd. ii.
p. 298; Hengstenberg's Die Geschichte Bileams und seine Weis-
sagungen (1842) ; the commentaries on the scriptural passages,
especially G. B. Gray on Numbers xxii.-xxiv. ; and the articles
on " Balaam " (Bileam) in Hamburger's Realencyclopadie fur Bibel
und Talmud, Hastings' Bible Diet., Black and Cheyne's Encyclo-
paedia Biblica, Herozog-Hauck's Realencyklopadie. For the analysis
into earlier documents, see also the Oxford Hexateuch, Estlin Carpenter
and Harford-Battersby. (W. H. BE.)
BALADHURi (ABU-L-'ABBAS AHMAD IBN YAHYA IBN JABIR
AL-B ALADHURI) , Arabian historian, was a Persian by birth, though
his sympathies seem to have been strongly with the Arabs, for
Mas'udi refers to one of his works in which he refuted the
Shu'ubites (see ABU 'UBAIDA). He lived at the court of the
caliphs al-Mutawakkil and al-Musta'm and was tutor to the son
of al-Mu'tazz. He died in 892 as the result of a drug called
baladhur (hence his name) . The work by which he is best known
is the Futuh ul-Bulddn (Conquests of Lands), edited by M. J.
de Goeje as Liber expugnationis regionum (Leiden, 1870 ; Cairo,
1901). This work is a digest of a larger one, which is now lost.
It contains an account of the early conquests of Mahomet and
the early caliphs. Baladhuri is said to have spared no trouble in
collecting traditions, and to have visited various parts of north
Syria and Mesopotamia for this purpose. Another great historical
work of his was the Ansab ul-Ashraf (Genealogies of the Nobles),
of which he is said to have written forty parts when he died.
Of this work the eleventh book has been published by W.
Ahlwardt (Greifswald, 1883), and another part is known in
manuscript (see Journal of the German Oriental Society, vol.
xxxviii. pp. 382-406). He also made some translations from
Persian into Arabic. (G. W. T.)
BALAGHAT (i.e. " above the ghats or passes," the highlands),
a district of British India in the Nagpur division of the Central
Provinces. The administrative headquarters are at the town
ofBurha. The district con tains an area of 3i32sq. m. It forms
the eastern portion of the central plateau which divides the
'T. Steuernagel, Einwanderung der israeliiischen Stdmme (1901).
province from east to west. These highlands, formerly known
as the Raigarh Bichhia tract, remained desolate and neglected
until 1866, when the district of Balaghat was formed, and the
country opened to the industrious and enterprising peasantry
of the Wainganga valley. Geographically the district is divided
into three distinct parts : (i) The southern lowlands, a slightly
undulating plain, comparatively well cultivated and drained by
the Wainganga, Bagh, Deo, Ghisri and Son rivers. (2) The
long narrow valley known as the Mau Taluka, lying between the
hills and the Wainganga river, and comprising a long, narrow,
irregular-shaped lowland tract, intersected by hill ranges and
peaks covered with dense jungle, and running generally from
north to south. (3) The lofty plateau, in which is situated the
Raigarh Bichhia tract, comprising irregular ranges of hills,
broken into numerous valleys, and generally running from east
to west. The highest points in the hills of the district are as
follows: Peaks above Lanji, 2300 or 2500 feet; Tepagarh hill,
about 2600 ft. ; and Bhainsaghat range, about 3000 ft. above
the sea. The principal rivers in the district are the Wainganga,
and its tributaries, the Bagh, Nahra and Uskal ; a few smaller
streams, such as the Masmar, the Mahkara, &c. ; and the
Ban jar, Halon and Jamunia, tributaries of the Nerbudda, which
drain a portion of the upper plateau. In the middle of the ipth
century the upper part of the district was an impenetrable
waste. About that time one Lachhman Naik established the
first villages on the Paraswara plateau. But a handsome
Buddhist temple of cut stone, belonging to some remote period,
is suggestive of a civilization which had disappeared before
historic times. The population in 1901 was 326,521, showing a
decrease of 1 5 % in the decade, due to the effects of famine. A
large part of the area is still covered with forest, the most valuable
timber-tree being sal. There are few good roads. The Gondia-
Jubbulpore line of the Bengal-Nagpur railway traverses the
Wainganga valley in the west of the district. The district
suffered very severely from the famine of 1896-1897. It suffered
again in 1900, when in April the number of persons relieved rose
above 100,000.
BALAGUER, VICTOR (1824-1901), Spanish politician and
author, was born at Barcelona on the i ith of December 1824, and
was educated at the university of his native town. His precocity
was remarkable ; his first dramatic essay, Pepin el jorobado, was
placed on the Barcelona stage when he was fourteen years of age,
and at nineteen he was publicly " crowned " after the production
of his second play, Don Enrique el Dadiwso. From 1843 to 1868
he was the chief of the Liberal party in Barcelona, and as pro-
prietor and editor of El Conseller did much to promote the
growth of local patriotism in Catalonia. But it was not till 1857
that he wrote his first poem in Catalan a copy of verses to the
Virgin of Montserrat. Henceforward he frequently adopted the
pseudonym of " lo Trovador de Montserrat " ; in 1859 he helped to
restore the " Juegos Florales," and in 1861 was proclaimed mestre
de gay saber. He was removed to Madrid, took a prominent part
in political life, and in 1867 emigrated to Provence. On the
expulsion of Queen Isabella, he returned to Spain, represented
Manresa in the Cortes, and in 1871-1872 was successively
minister of the colonies and of finance. He resigned office at the
restoration, but finally followed his party in rallying to the
dynasty ; he was appointed vice-president of congress, and was
subsequently a senator. He died at Madrid on the i4th of
January 1901. Long before his death he had become alienated
from the advanced school of Catalan nationalists, and endeav-
oured to explain away the severe criticism of Castile in which
his Hisloria de Cataluna y de la Corona de Aragon (1860-1863)
abounds. This work, like his Historic politico, y literaria de los
Irovadores (1878-1879), is inaccurate, partial and unscientific;
but both books are attractively written and have done great
service to the cause which Balaguer once upheld. As a poet he
is imitative : reminiscences of Quintana are noticeable in his
patriotic songs, of Zorrilla in his historical ballads, of Byron in
his lyrical poems. He wrote too hastily to satisfy artistic canons ;
but if he has the faults he has also the merits of a pioneer, and in
Catalonia his name will endure.
234
BALAKIREV BALANCE
BALAKIREV, MILI ALEXEIVICH (1836- ), Russian
musical composer, was born at Nijni-Novgorod on the 3ist of
December 1836. He had the advantage as a boy of living with
Oulibichev, author of a Life of Mozart, who had a private band,
and from whom Balakirev obtained a valuable education in
music. At eighteen, after a university course in mathematics,
he went to St Petersburg, full of national ardour, and there made
the acquaintance of Glinka. Round him gathered Cesar Cui
(b. 1835), and others, and in 1862 the Free School of Music was
established, by which, and by Balakirev's personal zeal, the
modern school of Russian music was largely stimulated. In 1869
Balakirev was appointed director of the imperial chapel and
conductor of the Imperial Musical Society. His influence as a
conductor, and as an organizer of Russian music, give him the
place of a founder of a new movement, apart even from his own
compositions, which though few in number are remarkable in
themselves. His works consist largely of songs and collections
of folk-songs, but include a symphony (first played in England
in 1901), two symphonic poems (" Russia " and " Tamara "),
and four overtures, besides pianoforte pieces. His orchestral
works are of the " programme-music " order, but all are brilliant
examples of the highly coloured, elaborate style characteristic
of modern Russian composers, and developed by Balakirev's
disciples, such as Borodin and Rimsky-Korsakov.
BALAKLAVA, a village in the Crimea, east of Sevastopol,
famous for a battle in the Crimean War. The action of Balakla va
(October zsth, 1854) was brought about by the advance of a
Russian field army under General Liprandi to attack the allied
English, French and Turkish forces besieging Sevastopol. The
ground on which the engagement took place was the Vorontsov
ridge (see CRIMEAN WAR), and the valleys on either side of it.
Liprandi's corps formed near Traktir Bridge, and early on the
25th of October its advanced guard moved southward to attack
the ridge, which was weakly occupied by Turkish battalions
behind slight entrenchments. The two nearest British divisions
were put into motion as soon as the firing became serious, but were
prevented by their orders from descending at once into the plain,
and the Turks had to meet the assault of greatly superior numbers.
They made a gallant resistance, but the Russians quickly cleared
the ridge, capturing several guns, and their first line was followed
by a heavy mass of cavalry which crossed the ridge and descended
into the Balaklava plain. At this moment the British cavalry
division under the earl of Lucan was in the plain, but their com-
mander was prevented from engaging the Russians by the tenor of
his orders. One of his brigades, the Heavy (4th and sth Dragoon
Guards, ist, 2nd and 6th Dragoons) under Brigadier-General
J. Y. Scarlett, was in the Balaklava plain; the other, the Light
Brigade under Lord Cardigan (4th and I3th Light Dragoons
now Hussars, Sth and nth Hussars and i/th Lancers) in the
valley to the north of the Vorontsov ridge. All these regiments
were very weak in numbers. The Russian cavalry mass, after
crossing the ridge, moved towards Balaklava; a few shots were
fired into it by a Turkish battery and a moment later the Heavy
Brigade charged. The attack was impeded at first by obstacles
of ground, but in the melee the weight of the British troopers
gradually broke up the enemy, and the charge of the 4th Dragoon
Guards, delivered against the flank of the Russian mass, was
decisive. The whole of the Russian cavalry broke and fled to
the ridge. This famous charge occupied less than five minutes
from first to last, and at the same time some of the Russian
squadrons, attempting to charge the 93rd Highlanders (who were
near Balaklava) were met by the steady volleys of the " thin red
line," and fled with the rest. The defeated troops retreated past
the still inactive Light Brigade, on whose left a French cavalry
brigade was now posted. The Russians were at this juncture
reinforced by a mixed force on the Fedukhine heights; Liprandi's
infantry occupied the captured ridge, and manned the guns
taken from the Turks. The cavalry defeated by the Heavy
Brigade was re-formed in the northern valley behind the field
guns, and infantry, cavalry and artillery were on both the
Fedukhine and the Vorontsov heights. Thus, in front of the
Light Brigade was a valley over a mile long, at the end of which
was the enemy's cavalry and twelve guns, and on the ridges on
either side there were in all twenty-two guns, with cavalry and
infantry. It was under these circumstances that an order was
given by the British headquarters, which led to the charge for
which above all Balaklava is remembered. It was carried to
Lord Lucan by Captain L. E. Nolan, isth Hussars, and ran as
follows: " Lord Raglan wishes the cavalry to advance rapidly
to the front and try to prevent the enemy carrying away the guns
. . . French cavalry is on your left." Lucan, seeing no attempt
on the part of the enemy to move guns, questioned Nolan, who is
said to have pointed down the valley to the artillery on the plain;
whereupon Lucan rode to Lord Cardigan, the commander of the
Light Brigade, and repeated Lord Raglan's order and Nolan's
explanation. The Light Brigade then advanced straight to its
front, and soon came under fire from the guns on both flanks.
Nolan was killed as he rode across the front of the brigade,
perhaps with the intention of changing its direction to the
Vorontsov ridge. Five minutes later the guns in front began to
fire with telling effect. The pace was increased, though the
" charge " was not sounded, and Cardigan and those of his men
who remained mounted, rode up to and through the Russian line
of guns. Small parties even charged the Russian cavalry in rear
and on either flank. The French 4th Chasseurs d'Afrique made
a dashing charge which drove the Russians off the Fedukhine
heights, though at considerable loss. Lucan had meanwhile
called up the Heavy Brigade to support the Light, but it lost
many men and horses and was quickly withdrawn. Only two
formed bodiesoftheLightB rigade found their way back. The 1 3 th
Light Dragoons mustered but ten mounted men at the evening
parade ; the brigade as a whole had lost 247 men and 497 horses
out of a total strength of 673 engaged in the charge, which lasted
twenty minutes from first to last. The two infantry divisions
which now approached the field were again halted, and Liprandi
was left undisturbed on the Vorontsov ridge and in possession
of the captured guns. The result of the day was thus unfavour-
able to the allies, but the three chief incidents of the engagement
the two cavalry charges and the fight of the 93rd Highlanders
gave to it all the prestige of a victory. The impression created
by the conduct of the Light Brigade was forcibly expressed in
Tennyson's well-known ballad, and in spite of the equally cele-
brated remark of the French general Bosquet, C'est magnifique
mais ce n'est pas la guerre, it may be questioned whether the
moral effect of the charge did not outweigh the very serious loss
in trained men and horses involved.
BALALAIKA, a stringed instrument said to have retained its
primitive form unchanged, very popular in Russia among the
peasants, more especially in Ukraine. The instrument has a
triangular soundboard to which is glued a vaulted back, forming
a body having a triangular base, enabling it to stand upright. To
the body is added a fretted neck strung with two, three or four
strings, generally so tuned as to produce a minor chord when
sounded together. The strings are generally plucked with the
fingers, but the peasants obtain charming " glissando " effects
by sweeping the strings lightly one after the other with the
fingers or side of the hand. The Balalaika is common to the Slav
races, who use it to accompany their folk-songs and dances. It
is also to be seen in the hands of gipsies at rural festivities and
fairs.
BALANCE (derived through the Fr. from the Late Lat.
bilanlia, an apparatus for weighing, from hi, two, and lanx, a
dish or scale), a term originally used for the ordinary beam
balance or weighing machine with two scale pans, but extended
to include (with or without adjectival qualification) other
apparatus for measuring and comparing weights and forces. In
addition to beam and spring balances (see WEIGHING MACHINES),
apparatus termed " torsion balances," in which forces are
measured or compared by their twisting moment on a wire, are
used, especially in gravitational, electrostatic and magnetic
experiments (see GRAVITATION and ELECTROMETER). The term
also connotes the idea of equality or equalization; e.g. in the
following expressions: " balance," in bookkeeping, the amount
which equalizes the debit and credit accounts; " balance wheel,"
BALANCE OF POWER BALANCE OF TRADE
235
in horology, a device for equalizing the relaxing of a watch or
clock spring (see CLOCK); the " balancing of engines," the art
of minimizing the total vibrations of engines when running, and
consisting generally in the introduction of masses which induce
vibrations opposed to the vibrations of the essential parts of the
engine.
BALANCE OF POWER, a phrase in international law for
such a " just equilibrium " between the members of the family
of nations as should prevent any one of them from becoming
sufficiently strong to enforce its will upon the rest. The principle
involved in this, as Hume pointed out in his Essay on the Balance
of Power, is as old as history, and was perfectly familiar to the
ancients both as political theorists and as practical statesmen.
In its essence it is no more than a precept of commonsense born
of experience and the instinct of self-preservation; for, as
Polybius very clearly puts it (lib. i. cap. 83): " Nor is such a
principle to be despised, nor should so great a power be allowed
to any one as to make it impossible for you afterwards to dispute
with him on equal terms concerning your manifest rights."
It was not, however, till the beginning of the lyth century, when
the science of international law took shape at the hands of
Grotius and his successors, that the theory of the balance of
power was formulated as a fundamental principle of diplomacy.
According to this the European states formed a sort of federal
community, the fundamental condition of which was the pre-
servation of the balance of power, i.e. such a disposition of things
that no one state or potentate should be able absolutely to pre-
dominate and prescribe laws to the rest; and, since all were
equally interested in this settlement, it was held to be the interest,
the right and the duty of every power to interfere, even by force
of arms, when any of the conditions of this settlement were
infringed or assailed by any other member of the community. 1
This principle, once formulated, became an axiom of political
science. It was impressed as such by F6nelon, in his Instructions,
on the young duke of Burgundy; it was proclaimed to the world
by Frederick the Great in his Anti-Machiavel; it was re-stated
with admirable clearness in 1806 by Friedrich von Gentz in his
Fragments on the Balance of Power. It formed the basis of the
coalitions against Louis XIV. and Napoleon, and the occasion,
or the excuse, for most of the wars which desolated Europe
between the congress of Miinster in 1648 and that of Vienna
in 1814. During the greater part of the ipth century it was
obscured by the series of national upheavals which have re-
modelled the map of Europe; yet it underlay all the efforts
of diplomacy to stay or to direct the elemental forces let loose
by the Revolution, and with the restoration of comparative
calm it has once more emerged as the motive for the various
political alliances of which the ostensible object is the preserva-
tion of peace (see EUROPE: History).
An equilibrium between the various powers which form the
family of nations is, in fact, as Professor L. Oppenheim
(Internal. Law, i. 73) justly points out essential to the very
existence of any international law. In the absence of any
central authority, the only sanction behind the code of rules
established by custom or defined in treaties, known as " inter-
national law," is the capacity of the powers to hold each other
in check. Were this to fail, nothing could prevent any state
sufficiently powerful from ignoring the law and acting solely
according to its convenience and its interests.
See, besides the works quoted in the article, the standard books
on International Law (g..). (W. A. P.)
BALANCE OF TRADE, a term in economics belonging originally
to the period when the " mercantile theory" prevailed, but still
in use, though not quite perhaps in the same way as at its origin.
The " balance of trade " was then identified with the sum of
the precious metals which a country received in the course of
its trading with other countries or with particular countries.
There was no doubt an idea that somehow or other the amount
of the precious metals received represented profit on the trading,
and each country desired as much profit as possible. Princes
and sovereigns, however, with political aims in view, were not
1 Emerich de Vattel, Le Droit des gens (Leiden, 1758).
close students of mercantile profits, and would probably have
urged the acquisition of the precious metals as an object of trade
even if they had realized that the country as a whole was ex-
porting " money's worth " in order to buy the precious metals
which were desired for political objects. The " mercantile
theory " was exploded by Adam Smith's demonstration that
gold and silver were only commodities like others with no special
virtue in them, and that they would come into a country when
there was a demand for them, according to the amount, in pro-
portion to other demands, which the country could afford to pay;
but the ideas in which the theory itself has originated have not
died out, and the idea especially of a " balance of trade " to
which the rulers of a country should give attention is to be found
in popular discussions of business topics and in politics, the
general notion being that a nation is prosperous when its statistics
show a " trade balance " in its favour and unprosperous when
the reverse is shown. In modern times the excess of imports
over exports or of exports over imports, shown in the statistics of
foreign trade, has also come to be identified in popular speech with
the " balance of trade," and many minds are no doubt imbued
with the ideas (i) that an excess of imports over exports is
bad, and (2) an excess of exports over imports is the reverse,
because the former indicates an " unfavourable " and the latter
a " favourable " trade balance. In the former case it is urged
that a nation so circumstanced is living on its capital. Exact
remedies are not suggested, although the idea of preventing or
hampering foreign imports as a means of developing home trade
and of thus altering the supposed disastrous trade balance is
obviously the logical inference from the arguments. A con-
sideration of these ideas and of recent discussions about imports
and exports, appears accordingly to be needed, although the
" mercantile theory " is itself exploded.
The phrase " balance of trade," then, appears to be an applica-
tion of a trader's language in his own business to the larger affairs
of nations or rather of the aggregate of individuals in a nation
engaged in foreign trade. A trader in his own books sets his
sales against his purchases, and the amount by which the former
exceed the latter is his trade balance or profit. What is true of
the individual, it is assumed, must be true of a nation or of the
aggregate of individual traders in a nation engaged in the foreign
trade. If their collective sales amount to more than their
collective purchases the trade balance will be in their favour,
and they will have money to receive. Contrariwise, if their
purchases amount to more than their sales, they will have to
pay money, and they will presumably be living on their capital.
The argument fails, however, in many ways. Even as regards
the experience of the individual trader, it is to be observed that
he may or may not receive his profit, if any, in money. As a rule
he does not do so. As the profit accrues he may invest it either
by employing labour to add to his machinery or warehouses,
or by increasing his stock-in-trade, or by adding to his book
debts, or by a purchase of stocks or shares outside his regular
business. At the end of a given period he may or may not have
an increased cash balance to show as the result of his profitable
trading. Even if he has an increased cash balance, according to
the modern system of business, this might be a balance at his
bankers', and they in turn may have invested the amount so
that there is no stock of the precious metals, of " hard money,"
anywhere to represent it. And the argument fails still further
when applied to the transactions between nations, or rather,
to use the phrase already employed, between the aggregate of
individuals in nations engaged in the foreign trade. It is quite
clear that if a nation, or the individuals of a nation, do make
profit in their foreign trading, the amount may be invested as
it accrues in machinery, or warehouses, or stock-in-trade, or
book debts, or stocks and shares purchased abroad, so that there
may be no corresponding " balance of trade " to bring home.
There is no doubt also that what may be is in reality what largely
happens. A prosperous foreign trade carried on by any country
implies a continuous investment by that country either abroad
or at home, and there may or may not be a balance receivable
in actual gold and silver.
236
BALANCE OF TRADE
In another particular the argument also fails. In the aggregate
of individual trading with various countries, there may some-
times be purchases and sales as far as the individuals are
concerned, but not purchases and sales as between the nations.
For example, goods are exported from the United Kingdom,
ammunition and stores and ships, which appear in the British
returns as exports, and which have really been sold by individual
British traders to individuals abroad; but these sales are not set
off by any purchases on the other side which come into the
international account, as the set-off is a loan by the people of one
country to the people or government of another. The same with
the export of railway and other material when goods are exported
for the purpose of constructing railways or other works abroad.
The sales are made by individuals in the United Kingdom to
individuals abroad; but there is no set-off of purchases on the
other side. Mutatis mutandis the same explanation applies to
the remittance of goods by one country to another, or by indi-
viduals in one country to individuals in another to pay the
interest or repay the capital of loans which have been received in
former times. These are all cases of the movement of goods
irrespective of international sales and purchases, though the
movements themselves appear in the international records of
imports and exports, and therefore it seems to be assumed,
though without any warrant, in the international records of the
balance of trade. There is yet another failure in the comparison.
The individual trader would include in his sales and purchases
services such as repairs performed by him for others, and similar
services which others do for himself; but no similar accounts are
kept of the corresponding portions of international trade such as
the earning of freights and commissions, although in strictness,
it is obvious, they belong as much to international trade as the
imports and exports themselves, which cannot therefore show a
complete " balance of trade."
The illusions which may result then from the confusion of ideas
between a balance of trade or profit, and a balance of cash paid
or received, and from the identification of an excess of imports
over exports or of exports over imports with the balance of trade
itself, though they are not the same things, hardly need descrip-
tion. The believers in such illusions are not entitled to any
hearing as economists, however, much they may be accepted in
the market-place or among politicians.
The " balance of trade " and " the excess of imports over
exports " are thus simply pitfalls for the amateur and the
unwary. On the statistical side, moreover, there is a good deal
more to be urged in order to impress the student with care and
attention. The records of imports and exports themselves may
vary from the actual facts of international purchases and sales.
The actual values of the goods imported and paid for by the
nation may vary from the published returns of imports, which
are, by the necessity of the case, only estimated values. And so
with the exports. The actual purchases and sales may be some-
thing very different. A so-called sale may prove abortive
through its not being paid for at all, the debtor failing altogether.
In any case the purchases of a year may not be paid for by the
sales of the year, and the " squaring " of the account may take a
long time. Still more the estimates of value may be so taken as
not to give even an approximately correct account as far as the
records go. Thus in the plan followed in the United Kingdom
imports are valued as at the port where they arrive and exports
at the port where they are despatched from a plan which so far
places them on an equal footing for the purpose of striking a
balance of trade. But in the import and export records of the
United States a different plan is followed. The imports are no
longer valued as at the port of arrival with the freight and other
charges included, but as at the port of shipment. The results
on the balance of trade drawn out must accordingly be quite
different in the two cases. With other countries similar differ-
ences arise. To deduce then from records of imports and exports
any conclusions as to the excess of imports or exports at
different times is a work of enormous statistical difficulty.
Excellent illustrations will be found in J. Holt Schooling's
British Trade Book (1908).
The country which presents the most interesting questions in
connexion with the study is the United Kingdom, with its largely
preponderating foreign trade. Its annual imports and exports,
excluding bullion, exceed 800 millions sterling, and the bullion
one year with another is 100 millions'more. Its excess of imports,
moreover, between the middle and end of the igth century
gradually rose from a small figure to 180 millions sterling annually,
and occasioned the popular discussion referred to respecting an
" adverse " balance of trade, and particularly the belief existing
in many quarters that the nation is living on its capital. The
result has been a new investigation of the subject, so as to bring
out and present the credits to which the country is entitled in its
trade as a shipowner and commission merchant, and to exhibit
at the same time the magnitude of British foreign investments,
which cannot be less than 2000 millions sterling and must bring
in an enormous annual income. Other countries such as France,
Germany, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway and Sweden, are
in the same condition, though their foreign trade is not on the same
scale, and similar rules apply to the reading of their import and
export accounts. The United States is a conspicuous instance of
a country which in the first decade of the 2oth century was
still in the position of a borrower and had a large excess of
exports, though there were signs of a change in the opposite
direction. New countries generally, such as Canada, Australia
and the South American countries, resemble the United States.
Comparisons are made difficult by the want of uniformity in the
methods of stating the figures, but that different countries have
to be grouped according as they are indebted or creditor countries
is undeniable, and no study of the trade statistics is possible
without recognition of the underlying economic circumstances.
In conclusion it may be useful to repeat the main propositions
laid down as to the balance of trade, (i) A " balance of trade "
to the individual trader, from whose experience the phrase comes,
is not necessarily, as is supposed, a balance received or receivable
in the precious metals. It may be invested as it accrues in
machinery, or warehouses, or stock-in-trade, or in book debts, or
in stocks and shares or other property outside the trader's business,
as well as in cash. (2) What is true of the individual trader is
also true of the aggregate of individuals engaged in the foreign
trade of a country. Cash is only one of the forms in which they
may elect to be paid. (3) The imports and exports recorded
in the statistical returns of a country do not correspond with the
purchases and sales of individual traders, as the sales especially
may be set off by loans, while the so-called imports may include
remittances of interest and of capital repaid. (4) When capital
is repaid the country receiving it need not be living on it, but
may be investing it at home. (5) The foreign trading of countries
may also comprise many transactions, such as the earning of
freights and commissions, which ought to appear in a proper
account showing a balance of trade, as similar transactions
appear in an individual trader's account, but which are not
treated as imports or exports in the statistical returns of a
nation's foreign trade. (6) Import and export returns themselves
are not the same as accounts of purchases and sales; the values
are only estimates, and must not be relied on literally without
study of the actual facts. (7) Import and export returns in
different countries are not in all cases taken at the same point,
there being important variations, for instance, in this respect
between the returns of two great countries, the United Kingdom
and the United States, which are often compared, but are really
most difficult to compare. (8) The United Kingdom is a con-
spicuous instance of a country which has a great excess of imports
over exports in consequence of its large lending abroad in former
times; while its accounts are specially affected by the magnitude
of its services as a trading nation carrying passengers and goods
all over the world, which do not result, however, in so-called
"exports." The United States, on the other hand, is a con-
spicuous instance of an indebted nation, which has or had until
lately few or no sums to its credit in foreign trade except the
visible exports. (9) The various countries of the world naturally
fall into groups. The nations of western Europe, such as France,
Germany, Belgium, Holland, Sweden and Norway, fall into a
BALANOGLOSSUS
237
group with Great Britain as creditor nations, while Canada,
Australasia and the South American countries fall into a group
with the United States as undeveloped and indebted countries,
So also of other countries, each belongs naturally to one group
or another. (10) The excess of imports or exports may vary
indefinitely at different times according as a creditor country is
receiving or lending at the time, or according as a debtor country
is borrowing or paying off its debts at the time, but the permanent
characteristics are always to be considered. (R.GN.)
BALANOGLOSSUS, the general name given to certain peculiar,
opaque, worm-like animals which live an obscure life under
stones, and burrow in the sand from between tide-marks down
to the abyssal regions of the sea. Their colour is usually some
tone of yellow with dashes of red, brown and green, and they
frequently emit a pungent odour. The name has reference to
the tongue-shaped muscular proboscis by which the animal
works its way through the sand. The proboscis is not the only
organ of locomotion, being assisted by the succeeding segment
of the body, the buccal segment or
collar. By the waves of contrac-
tion executed by the proboscis
accompanied by inflation of the
collar, progression is effected, some-
times with marvellous rapidity.
The third body region or trunk
may attain a great length, one or
two feet, or even more, and is
also muscular, but the truncal
muscles are of subordinate import-
ance in locomotion, serving princi-
pally to promote the peristaltic
contractions of the body by which
the food is carried through the gut.
The function of alimentation is
closely associated with that of
locomotion, somewhat as in the
burrowing earthworm; in the ex-
cavation of its burrows the sand
is passed through the body, and
any nutrient matter that may ad-
here to it is extracted during its
passage through the intestine, the
exhausted sand being finally ejected
through the vent at the orifice of
the burrow and appearing at low
"de as a worm casting. In accord-
ance ih tlus manner of feeding,
the mouth is kept permanently
open and prevented from collapsing by a pair of skeletal
cornua belonging to a sustentacular apparatus (the nuchal
skeleton), the body of which lies within the narrow neck of the
proboscis; the latter is inserted into the collar and surrounded
by the anterior free flap of this segment of the body.
When first discovered by J. F. Eschscholtz at the Marshall
Islands in 1825, Balanoglossus was described as a worm-like
animal belonging to the Echinoderm order of Holothurians or
sea-cucumbers. In 1865 Kowalevsky discovered that the organs
of respiration consist of numerous pairs of gill-slits leading from
the digestive canal through the thickness of the body-wall to
the exterior. On this account the animal was subsequently
placed by Gegenbaur in a special class of Vermes, the Entero-
pneusta. In 1883-1886 Bateson showed by his embryological
researches that the Enteropneusta exhibit -chordate (vertebrate)
affinities in respect of the coelomic, skeletal and nervous systems
as well as in regard to the respiratory system, and, further, that
the gill-slits are formed upon a plan similar to that of the gill-
slits of Amphioxus, being subdivided by tongue-bars which
depend from the dorsal borders of the slits.
Coelom and Pore-canals. In correspondence with the tri-regional
differentiation of the body in its external configuration, the coelom
(body-cavity, perivisceral cavity) is divided into three portions com-
pletely separated from one another by septa: (l) proboscis-coelpm,
or first body-cavity; (2) the collar-coelom, or second body-cavity;
above; about life size.
(3) truncal coelom, or third body-cavity. Of these divisions of the
coelom the first two communicate with the exterior by means of a
pair of ciliated pore-canals placed at the posterior end of their re-
spective segments. The proboscis-pores are highly variable, and
frequently only one is present, that on the left side; sometimes the
pore-canals of the proboscis unite to open by a common median
orifice, and sometimes their communication with the proboscis-
coelom appears to be occluded, and finally the pore-canals may be
quite vestigial. The collar-pores are remarkable for their constancy ;
this is probably owing to the fact that they have become adapted to
a special function, the inhalation of water to render the collar turgid
during progression. There are reasons for supposing that the truncal
coelom was at one time provided with pore-canals, but supposed
vestiges of these structures have only been described for one genus,
Spengelia, in which they lie near the anterior end of the truncal coelom.
Enteron. Not only is the coelom thus subdivided, but the enteron
(gut, alimentary canal, digestive tube) itself shows indications of
three main subsections in continuity with one another: (l) pro-
boscis-gut (Eicheldarm, stomochord, vide infra) ; (2) collar-gut
(buccal cavity, throat) ; (3) truncal gut extending from the collar
to the vent.
Stomochord. The proboscis-gut occurs as an outgrowth from
the anterior dorsal wall of the collar-gut, and extends forward into
the basal (posterior) region of the proboscis, through the neck into
the proboscis-coelom, ending blindly in front. Although an integral
portion of the gut, it has ceased to assist in alimentation, its epithe-
lium undergoes vacuolar differentiation and hypertrophy, and its
lumen becomes more or less vestigial. It has, in fact, become
metamorphosed into a resistant supporting structure resembling in
some respects the notochord of the true Chordata, but probably not
directly comparable with the latter structure, being related to it
solely by way of substitution. On account of the presence and mode
of origin (from the gut-wall) of this organ Bateson introduced the
term nemichorda as a phyletic name for the class Enteropneusta.
As the proboscis-gut appears to have undoubtedly skeletal properties,
and as it also has topographical relations with the mouth, it has been
designated in English by the non-committal term stomochord. It
is not a simple diverticulum of the collar-gut, but a complex structure
possessing paired lateral pouches and a ventral convexity (ventral
caecum) which rests in a concavity at the front end of the body of
the nuchal skeleton (fig. 3). In some species (Spengelidae) there is
a long capillary vermiform extension of the stomochord in front.
The nuchal skeleton is a non-cellular laminated thickening of base-
ment-membrane underlying that portion of the stomochord which
lies between the above-mentioned pouches and the orifice into the
throat. At the point where the stomochord opens into the buccal
cavity the nuchal skeleton bifurcates, and the two cornua thus
produced pass obliquely backwards and downwards embedded in
the wall of the throat, often giving rise to projecting ridges that
bound a dorsal groove of the collar-gut which is in continuity with
the wall of the stomochord (fig. 3)
Nervous System. At the base of the epidermis (which is in general
ciliated) there is over the entire surface of the body a layer of nerve-
fibres, occurring immediately outside the basement-membrane which
separates the epidermis from the subjacent musculature. The
nervous system is thus essentially epidermal in position and diffuse
in distribution; but an interesting concentration of nerve-cells
and fibres has taken place in the collar-region, where a medullary
tube, closed in from the outside, opens in front and behind by
anterior and posterior neuropores. This is the collar nerve-tube.
Sometimes the central canal is wide and uninterrupted between the
two neuropores; in other cases it becomes broken up into a large
number of small closed medullary cavities, and in others again it is
obsolete. In one family, the Ptychoderidae, the medullary tube of
the collar is connected at intermediate points with the epidermis by
means of a variable number of unpaired outgrowths from its dorsal
wall, generally containing an axial lumen derived from and in con-
tinuity with the central canal. These hollow roots terminate blindly
in the dorsal epidermis of the collar, and place the nervous layer of
the latter in direct connexion with the fibres of the nerve-tube. The
exact significance of these roots is a matter for speculation, but it
seems possible that they are epiphysial structures remotely com-
parable with the epiphysial (pineal) complex of the craniate verte-
brates. In accordance with this view there would be also some
probability in favour of regarding the collar nerve-tube of the
Enteropneusta as the equivalent of the cerebral vesicle only of
Amphioxus and the Ascidian tadpole, and also of the primary fore-
brain of vertebrates.
Special thickenings of the diffuse nervous layer of the epidermis
occur in certain regions and along certain lines. In the neck of the
proboscis the fibrous layer is greatly thickened, and other intensi-
fications of this layer occur in the dorsal and ventral middle lines of
the trunk extending to the posterior end of the body. The doraal
epidermal nerve-tract is continued in front into the ventral wall of
the collar nerve-tube, and at the point of junction there is a circular
commissural thickening following the posterior rim of the collar and
affording a special connexion between the dorsal and ventral nerve-
tracts. From the ventral surface of the collar nerve-tube numerous
motor fibres may be seen passing to the subjacent musculature.
These fibres are not aggregated into roots.
2 3 8
BALANOGLOSSUS
Gill-slits. The possession of gill-slits is as interesting a feature
in the organization of Balanoglossus as is the presence of tracheae
in Peripatus. These gill-slits occupy a variable extent of the anterior
portion of the trunk, commencing immediately behind the collar-
trunk septum. The branchial bars which constitute the borders of
the clefts are of two kinds : ( I ) Septal bars between two contiguous
clefts, corresponding to the primary bars in Amphioxus; (2) Tongue-
bars. The chief resemblances
iP 1 * t> etwe ^ n Balanoglossus and
"+^!M* Amphioxus in respect of
"~~- ( *' y ' the gill-slits may be stated
briefly as follows: (a) the
Cresence of two kinds of
ranchial bars in all species
and also of small cross-
bars (synapticula) in many
species; (/3) numerous gill-
slits, from forty to more
than a hundred pairs; (7)
the addition of new gill-slits
by fresh perforation at the
posterior end of the pharynx
throughout life. The chief
differences are, that (a) the
-*"" tongue-bar is the essential
--"vjii organ of the gill-slit in
Balanoglossus, and exceeds
FIG. 2. Structure of branchial region, the septal bars in bulk,
be, coelom.
tb, tongue-bars.
ds, mesentery.
pr, ridge.
TO, vessel.
gp gill-pore while in Amphioxus the
dn, dorsal nerve, reverse is the. case; (6) the
dv, vessel.
ce, oesophagus.
vs, mesentery.
vn, ventral nerve.
tongue-bar contains a large
coelomic space in Balano-
glossus, but is solid in Am-
phioxus; (c) the skeletal
rods in the tongue-bars of
Balanoglossus are double ; (d) the tongue-bar in Balanoglossus does
not fuse with the ventral border of the cleft, but ends freely below,
thus producing a continuous U-shaped cleft. The meaning of this
singular contrast between the two animals may be that we have here
an instance of an interesting gradation in evolution. From serving
primitively as the essential organ of the cleft the tongue-bar may
have undergone reduction and modification, becoming a secondary
bar in Amphioxus, subordinate to the primary bars in size, vascu-
larity and development; finally, in the craniate vertebrates it
would then have completed its involution, the suggestion having
been made that the tongue-bars are represented by the thymus-
primordia.
Gill-pouches and Gill-pores. Only rarely do the gill-slits open
freely and directly to the exterior (fig. I ). In most species of Balano-
glossus each gill-slit may be said to open into its own atrial chamber
or gill-pouch; this in its turn opens to the exterior by a minute
gill-pore. There are, therefore, as many gill-pouches as there are
gill-slits and as many gill-pores as pouches. The gill-pores occur
on each side of the dorsal aspect of the worm in a longitudinal series
at the base of a shallow groove, the branchial groove. The respira-
tory current of water is therefore conducted to the exterior by
different means from that adopted by Amphioxus, and this difference
is so great that the theory which seeks to explain it has to postulate
radical changes of structure, function and topography.
Excretory and Vascular Systems. It seems likely that the coelomic
pore-canals were originally excretory organs, but in the existing
Enteropneusta the pore-canals (especially the collar canals) have,
as we have seen, acquired new functions or become vestigial, and
the function of excretion is now mainly accomplished by a structure
peculiar to the Enteropneusta called the glomerulus, a vascular
complex placed on either side of the anterior portion of the stomo-
chord, projecting into the proboscis-coelom. The vascular system
itself is quite peculiar, consisting of lacunae and channels destitute
of endothelium, situated within the thickness of the basement-
membrane of the body-wall, of the gut-wall and of the mesenteries.
The blood, which is a non-corpuscular fluid, is propelled forwards
by the contractile dorsal vessel and collected into the central blood-
sinus; this lies over the stomochord, and is surrounded on three
sides by a closed vesicle, with contractile walls, called the pericardium
(Herzblase). By the pulsation of the pericardial vesicle (best observed
in the larva) the blood is driven into the glomerulus, from which
it issues by efferent vessels which effect a junction with the ventral
(sub-intestinal) vessel in the trunk. The vascular system does not
readily lend itself to morphological comparison between such widely
different animals as Balanoglossus and Amphioxus, and the reader
is therefore referred to the memoirs cited at the end of this article
for further details.
Reproductive System. The sexes are separate, and when mature
are sometimes distinguished by small differences of colour in the
genital region. Both male and female gonads consist of more or
less lobulated hollow sacs connected with the epidermis by short
ducts. In their disposition they are either unisonal, biserial or
multiserial. They occur in the branchial region, and also extend
to a variable distance behind it. In exceptional cases they are
either confined to the branchial region or excluded from it. When
they are arranged in uniserial or biserial rows the genital ducts open
into or near the branchial grooves in the region of the pharynx and
in a corresponding position in the post-branchial region. An im-
portant feature is the occurrence in some species (Ptychoderidae) of
paired longitudinal pleural or lateral folds of the body which are
mobile, and can be approximated at their free edges so as to close
in the dorsal surface, embracing both the median dorsal nerve-tract
and the branchial grooves with the gill-pores, so as to form a tem-
porary peri-branchial and medullary tube, open behind where the
folds cease. On the other hand, they can be spread out horizontally
so as to expose their own upper side as well as the dorsal surface
--pe
FIG. 3. Structure of anterior end.
a, Arrow from proboscis-cavity els,
(pc) passing to left of pen- dv,
cardium (per) and out through
proboscis pore-canal. ev,
b l , arrow from central canal of
neurochord (cnc) passed out epr,
through anterior neuropore. st,
b*, ditto, through posterior neuro- vs,
pore. sk,
c, arrow intended to pass from m,
1st gill-pouch through collar th,
pore-canal into collar-coelom tb,
(cc). tc.
posterior limit of collar.
dorsal vessel passing into
central sinus (bs).
efferent vessel passing into
ventral vessel (w).
epiphysial tubes.
stomochord.
ventral septum of proboscis.
body of nuchal skeleton.
mouth.
throat.
tongue-bars.
trunk coelom.
of the body (fig. i). These folds are called the genital pleurae because
they contain the bulk of the gonads. Correlated with the presence
of the genital pleurae there is a pair of vascular folds of the basement
membrane proceeding from the dorsal wall of the gut in the post-
branchial portion of the branchio-genital region, and from the dorsal
angles made by the pleural folds with the body-wall in the pharyn-
geal region ; they pass, in their most fully developed condition, to the
free border of the genital pleurae. These vascular membranes are
called the lateral septa. Since there are many species which do not
possess these genital pleurae, the question arises as to whether their
presence or their absence is the more primitive condition. Without
attempting to answer this question categorically, it may be pointed
out that within the limits of the family (Ptychoderidae) which is
especially characterized by their presence there are some species in
BALARD BALASORE
239
which the genital pleurae are quite obsolete, and yet lateral septa
occur (e.g. Ptychodera ruficollis), seeming to indicate that the pleural
folds have in such cases been secondarily suppressed.
Development. The development of Balanoglossus takes place
according to two different schemes, known as direct and indirect,
correlated with the occurrence in the group of two kinds of ova, large
and small. Direct development, in which the adult form is achieved
without striking metamorphosis by a gradual succession of stages,
seems to be confined to the family Balanoglossidae. The remaining
two families of Enteropneusta, Ptychoderidae and Spengelidae, contain
species of which probably all pursue an indirect course of develop-
ment, culminating in a metamorphosis by which the adult form is
attained. In these cases the larva, called Tornaria, is pelagic and
transparent, and possesses a complicated ciliated seam, the longi-
tudinal ciliated band, often drawn out into convoluted bays and
lappets. In addition to this ciliated band the form of the Tornaria
is quite characteristic and unlike the adult. The Tornaria larva
offers a certain similarity to larvae of Echinoderms (sea-urchins,
star-fishes, and sea-cucumbers), and when first discovered was so
described. It is within the bounds of possibility that Tornaria
actually does indicate a remote affinity on the part of the Entero-
pneusta to the Echinoderms, not only on account of its external form,
but also by reason of the possession of a dorsal water-pore com-
municating with the anterior body-cavity. In the direct develop-
ment Bateson showed that the three divisions of the coelom arise
as pouches constricted off from the archenteron or primitive gut, thus
resembling the development of the mesoblastic somites olAmphioxus.
It would appear that while the direct development throws light upon
the special plan of organization of the Enteropneusta, the indirect
development affords a clue to their possible derivation. However
this may be, it is sufficiently remarkable that a small and circum-
scribed group like the Enteropneusta, which presents such a com-
paratively uniform plan of composition and of external form, should
follow two such diverse methods of development.
Distribution. Some thirty species of Balanoglossus are known,
distributed among all the principal marine provinces from Green-
land to New Zealand. The species which occurs in the English
Channel is Ptychodera samiensis. The Ptychoderidae and Spen-
gelidae are predominantly tropical and subtropical, while the
Balanoglossidae are predominantly arctic and temperate in their
distribution. One of the most singular facts concerning the geo-
graphical distribution of Enteropneusta has recently been brought
to fight by Benham, who found a species of Balanoglossus, sensu
stricto, on the coast of New Zealand hardly distinguishable from one
occurring off Japan. Finally, Glandiceps abyssicola (Spengelidae)
was dredged during the " Challenger " expedition in the Atlantic
Ocean off the coast of Africa at a depth of 2500 fathoms.
AUTHORITIES. W. Bateson, " Memoirs on the Direct Develop-
ment of Balanoglossus," Quart. Journ. Micr. Sci. (vols. xxiv.-xxvi.,
1884-1886); W. B. Benham, "Balanoglossus otagoensis, n. sp,"
Q. J. M. S. (vol. xlii. p. 407, 1899); Yves Delage and Ed. Herouard,
Traite de zoologie concrete (t. viii.), " Les Procordes " (1898) ;
S. F. Harmer, " Note on the Name Balanoglossus," Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. (x. p. 190, 1900) ; T. H. Morgan, Memoirs on the In-
direct Development of Balanoglossus," Journ. Morph. (vol. v., 1891,
and vol. ix., 1894); W. E. Ritter, " Harrimania maculosa, a new
Genus and Species of Enteropneusta from Alaska," Papers from the
Harriman Alaska Exhibition (ii.), Proc. Washington Ac. (ii. p. in,
1900); J. W. Spengel, " Die Enteropneusten," Eighteenth Monograph
on the Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel (1893); A. Willey,
" Enteropneusta from the South Pacific, with Notes on the West
Indian Species," Zool. Results (Willey), part iii., 1899; see also
Q. J. M. S. (vol. xlii. p. 223, 1899); J. P. Hill, " The Enteropneusta
of Funafuti," Mem. Austral. Mus. (iii., 1897-1898); M. Caullerj;
and F. Mesnil, " Balanoglossus Kochleri, n. sp. English Channel, '
C. R. Soc. Biol. Hi. p. 256 (1900). (A. W.*)
BALARD, ANTOINE JEROME (1802-1876), French chemist,
was born at Montpellier on the 3oth of September 1802. He
started as an apothecary, but taking up teaching he acted as
chemical assistant at the faculty of sciences of his native town,
and then became professor of chemistry at the royal college and
school of pharmacy and at the faculty of sciences. In 1826 he
discovered in sea-water a substance which he recognized as a
previously unknown element and named bromine. The reputa-
tion brought him by this achievement secured his election as
successor to L. J. Thenard in the chair of chemistry at the faculty
of sciences in Paris, and in 1851 he was appointed professor of
chemistry at the College de France, where he had M. P. E.
Berthelot first as pupil, then as assistant and finally as colleague.
He died in Paris on the 3oth of April 1876. While the discovery
of bromine and the preparation of many of its compounds was
his most conspicuous piece of work, Balard was an industrious
chemist on both the pure and applied sides. In his researches
on the bleaching compounds of chlorine he was the first to advance
the view that bleaching-powder is a double compound of calcium
chloride and hypochlorite; and he devoted much time to the
problem of economically obtaining soda and potash from sea-
water, though here his efforts were nullified by the discovery of
the much richer sources of supply afforded by the Stassfurt
deposits. In organic chemistry he published papers on the
decomposition of ammonium oxalate, with formation of oxamic
acid, on amyl alcohol, on the cyanides, and on the difference in
constitution between nitric and sulphuric ether.
BALA SERIES, in geology, a series of dark slates and sand-
stones with beds of limestone which occurs in the neighbourhood
of Bala, Merionethshire, North Wales. It was first described by
A. Sedgwick, who considered it to be the upper part of his Cambrian
System. The series is now placed at the top of the Ordovician
System, above the Llandeilo beds. The Bala limestone is from
20 to 40 ft. thick, and is recognizable over most of North Wales;
it is regarded as the equivalent of the Coniston limestone of the
Lake District. The series in the type area consists of the Hirnant
limestone, a thin inconstant bed, which is separated by 1400 ft.
of slates from the Bala limestone, below this are more slates and
volcanic rocks. The latter are represented by large contem-
poraneous deposits of tuff and felsitic lava which in the Snowdon
District are several thousand feet thick. In South Wales the
Bala Series contains the following beds in descending order: the
Trinuclews seticornis beds (Slade beds, Redhill shales and Sholes-
hook limestone), the Robeston Wathen beds, and the Dicrano-
graptus shales. The typical graptolites are, in the upper part,
Dicellograptus anceps and D. complanatus; in the lower part,
Pleurograptus linearis and Dicranograptus Clingani. In Shrop-
shire this series is represented by the Caradoc and Chirbury
Series; in southern Scotland by the Hartfell and Ardmillan
Series, and by similar rocks in Ireland. See CARADOC SERIES
and ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM.
BALASH (in the Greek authors, Balas; the later form of the
name Vologaeses) , Sassanian king in A.D. 484-488, was the brother
and successor of Peroz, who had died in a battle against the
Hephthalites (White Huns) who invaded Persia from the east.
He put down the rebellion of his brother Zareh, and is praised as
a mild and generous monarch, who made concessions to the
Christians. But as he did nothing against his enemies, he was,
after a reign of four years, deposed and blinded, and his nephew,
Kavadh I., raised to the throne. (Eo. M.)
BALASORE, a town and district of British India, in the Orissa
division of Bengal. The town is the principal one and the
administrative headquarters of the district, and is situated on
the right bank of the river Burabalang, about 7 m. from the
sea-coast as the crow flies and 16 m. by the river. There is a
station on the East Coast railway. The English settlement of
Balasore, formed in 1642, and that of Pippli in its neighbourhood
seven years earlier, became the basis of the future greatness of the
British in India. The servants of the East India Company here
fortified themselves in a strong position, and carried on a brisk
investment in country goods, chiefly cottons and muslins. They
flourished in spite of the oppressions of the Mahommedan
governors, and when needful asserted their claims to respect by
arms. In 1688, affairs having come to a crisis, Captain William
Heath, commander of the company's ships, bombarded the town.
In the i8th century Balasore rapidly declined in importance, on
account of a dangerous bar which formed across the mouth of
the river. At present the bar has 1 2 to 1 5 ft. of water at spring-
tides, but not more than 2 or 3 ft. at low water in the dry season.
Large ships have to anchor outside in the open roadstead. The
town still possesses a large maritime trade, despite the silting-up
of the river mouth. Pop. (1901) 20,880.
The district forms a strip of alluvial land between the hills and
the sea, varying from about 9 to 34 m. in breadth; area, 2085
sq. m. The hill country rises from the western boundary line.
The district naturally divides itself into three well-defined tracts
(i) The salt tract, along the coast; (2) The arable tract, or rice
country; and (3) The submontane tract, or jungle lands. The
salt tract runs the whole way down the coast, and forms a desolate
strip a few miles broad. Towards the beach it rises into sandy
ridges, from 50 to 80 ft. high, sloping inland and covered with a
240
BALASSA BALBI
vegetation of low scrub jungle. Sluggish brackish streams creep
along between banks of fetid black mud. The sandhills on the
verge of the ocean are carpeted with creepers and the wild con-
volvulus. Inland, it spreads out into prairies of coarse long grass
and scrub jungle, which harbour wild animals in plenty; but
throughout this vast region there is scarcely a hamlet, and only
patches of rice cultivation at long intervals. From any part of the
salt tract one may see the boundary of the inner arable part of the
district fringed with long lines of trees, from which every morning
the villagers drive their cattle out into the saliferous plains to
graze. The salt tract is purely alluvial, and appears to be of
recent date. Towards the coast the soil has a distinctly saline
taste.
Salt used to be largely manufactured in the district by evapora-
tion, but the industry is now extinct. The arable tract lies
beyond the salt lands, and embraces the chief part of the district.
It is a long dead-level of rich fields, with a soil lighter in colour
than that of Bengal or Behar; much more friable, and apt to
split up into small cubes with a rectangular cleavage. A peculiar
feature of the arable tract is the Pats (literally cups) or depressed
lands near the river-banks. They were probably marshes that
have partially silted up by the yearly overflow of the streams.
These pats bear the finest crops. As a whole, the arable tract
is a treeless region, except around the villages, which are en-
circled by fine mango, pipal, banyan and tamarind trees, and
intersected with green shady lanes of bamboo. A few palmyras,
date-palms and screw-pines (a sort of aloe, whose leaves are armed
with formidable triple rows of hook-shaped thorns) dot the
expanse or run hi straight lines between the fields. The sub-
montane tract is an undulating country with a red soil, much
broken up into ravines along the foot of the hills. Masses of
laterite, buried in hard ferruginous clay, crop up as rocks or
slabs. At Kopari, in Kila Ambohata, about 2 sq. m. are almost
paved with such slabs, dark-red in colour, perfectly flat and
polished like plates of iron. A thousand mountain torrents have
scooped out for themselves picturesque ravines, clothed with an
ever-fresh verdure of prickly thorns, stunted gnarled shrubs, and
here and there a noble forest tree. Large tracts are covered
with sal jungle, which nowhere, however, attains to any great
height.
Balasore district is watered by six distinct river systems:
those of the Subanrekha, the Burabalang, the Jamka, the
Kansbans and the Dhamra.
The climate greatly varies according to the seasons of the year.
The hot season lasts from March to June, but is tempered by cool
sea-breezes; from June to September the weather is close and
oppressive; and from October to February the cold season brings
the north-easterly winds, with cool mornings and evenings.
Almost the only crop grown is rice, which is largely exported
by sea. The country is exposed to destructive floods from the
hill-rivers and also from cyclonic storm-waves. The district is
traversed throughout its entire length by the navigable Orissa
coast canal, and also by the East Coast railway from Calcutta
to Madras. The seaports of Balasore, Chandbali and Dhamra
conduct a very large coasting trade. The exports are almost
confined to rice, which is sent to Ceylon, the Maldives and
Mauritius. The imports consist of cotton twist and piece
goods, mineral oils, metals, betel-nuts and salt. In 1901 the
population was 1,071,197, an increase of 9 % hi the decade.
BALASSA, BALINT, BARON OF KEKKO and GYARMAT (1551-
1594), Magyar lyric poet, was born at Kekko, and educated by
the reformer,-Peter Bornemissza, and by his mother, the highly
gifted Protestant zealot, Anna Sulyok. His first work was a
translation of Michael Bock's Wilrtzgertlein fur die krancken
Seelen, to comfort his father while in prison (1570-1572) for some
political offence. On his father's release, Balint accompanied
him to court, and was also present at the coronation diet of
Pressburg in 1 572. He then joined the army and led a merry life
at the fortress of Eger. Here he fell violently in love with Anna
Losonczi, the daughter of the hero of Temesvar, and evidently,
from his verses, his love -was not unrequited. But a new mis-
tress speedily dragged the ever mercurial youth away from her,
and deeply wounded, she gave her hand to Kriszt6f Ungnad.
Naturally Balassa only began to realize how much he loved Anna
when he had lost her. He pursued her with gifts and verses, but
she remained true to her pique and to her marriage vows, and h
could only enshrine her memory in immortal verse. In 1574
Balint was sent to the camp of Caspar Bekesy to assist him against
Stephen Bathory; but his troops were encountered and scattered
on the way thither, and he himself was severly wounded and
taken prisoner. His not very rigorous captivity lasted for two
years, and he then disappears from sight. We next hear of him
in 1 584 as the wooer and winner of Christina Dobo, the daughter
of the valiant commandant of Eger. What led him to this step
we know not, but it was the cause of all his subsequent mis-
fortunes. His wife's greedy relatives nearly ruined him by legal
processes, and when in 1586 he turned Catholic to escape their
persecutions they declared that he and his son had become
Turks. His simultaneous desertion of his wife led to his expulsion
from Hungary, and from 1589 to 1594 he led a vagabond life hi
Poland, sweetened by innumerable amours with damsels of every
degree from cithara players to princesses. The Turkish war of
1 594 recalled him to Hungary, and he died of his wounds at the
siege of Esztergom the same year. Balassa's poems fall into
four divisions: religious hymns, patriotic and martial songs,
original love poems, and adaptations from the Latin and
German. They are all most original, exceedingly objective and so
excellent in point of style that it is difficult even to imagine him
a contemporary of Sebastian Tinodi and Peter Ilosvay. But his
erotics are his best productions. They circulated in MS. for
generations and were never printed till 1874, when Farkas Deak
discovered a perfect copy of them in the Radvanyi library.
For beauty, feeling and transporting passion there is nothing
like them in Magyar literature till we come to the age of Michael
Csokonai and Alexander Petofi. Balassa was also the inventor
of the strophe which goes by his name. It consists of nine lines
aabccbddb, or three rhyming pairs alternating with the
rhyming third, sixth and ninth lines.
See Aron Szilady, Bdlint Balassa's Poems (Hung.) Budapest,
1879. (R. N. B.)
BALATON (PLATTENSEE), the largest lake of middle Europe,
in the south-west of Hungary, situated between the counties
of Veszprem, Zala and Somogy. Its length is 48 m., average
breadth 35 to 4j m., greatest breadth 73 m., least breadth a
little less than i m. It covers 266 sq. m. and has an extreme
depth of 149 ft. Its northern shores are bordered by the
beautiful basaltic cones of the Bakony mountains, the volcanic
soil of which produces grapes yielding excellent wine; the
southern consist partly of a marshy plain, partly of downs. The
most beautiful point of the lake is that where the peninsula
of Tihany projects in the waters. An ancient church of the
Benedictines is here situated on the top of a hill. In a tomb
therein is buried Andrew I. (d. 1061), a king of the Hungarian
Arpadian dynasty. The temperature of the lake varies greatly,
in a manner resembling that of the sea, and many connect its
origin with a sea of the Miocene period, the waters of which
are said to have covered the Hungarian plain. About fifty
streams flow into the lake, which drains into the Danube and is
well stocked with fish. It often freezes in winter. Lake Balaton
is of growing importance as a bathing resort.
BALAYAN, a town and port of entry of the province of
Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, at the head of the Gulf of
Balayan, about 55 m. S. by W. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 8493.
Subsequently hi October 1903, Calatagan (pop. 2654) and Tuy
(pop. 2430) were annexed. Balayan has a healthful climate,
and is in the midst of a fertile district (with a volcanic soil),
which produces rice, cane-sugar, cacao, coffee, pepper, cotton,
Indian corn, fruit (oranges, bananas, mangoes, &c.) and native
dyes. Horses and cattle are raised for market in considerable
numbers. The fisheries are important. The native language is
Tagalog.
BALBI, ADRIAN (1782-1848), Italian geographer, was born
at Venice on the 25th of April 1782. The publication of his
Prospetlo politico- geografico dello stato attuale del globo (Venice,
BALBO BALBOA
241
1808) obtained his election to the chair of professor of geography
at the college of San Michele at Omrano; in 1811-1813 he was
professor of physics at the Lyceum of Farino, and afterwards
became attached to the customs office at his native city. In
1820 he visited Portugal, and there collected materials for his
Essai statistigue sur le royaume de Portugal et d'Algarve, published
in 1822 at Paris, where the author resided from 1821 until 1832.
This was followed by Varitlts politiques et statistiques de la
monarchic portugaise, which contains some curious observations
respecting that country under the Roman sway. In 1826 he
published the first volume of his Atlas ethnographique du globe,
ou classification des peuples anciens et modernes d'apres lews
langues, a work of great erudition. In 1832 appeared the
Abrege de Giographie, which, in an enlarged form, was translated
into the principal languages of Europe. Balbi retired to Padua
and there died on the I4th of March 1848. His son, Eugenic
Balbi (1812-1884), followed a similar career, being professor of
geography at Pavia, and publishing his father's Scritti Geografici
(Turin, 1841), and original works in Gea, ossia la terra (Trieste,
1854-1867) and Saggio di geografia (Milan, 1868).
BALBO, CESARE, COUNT (1780-1853), Italian writer and
statesman, was born at Turin on the 2ist of November 1789.
His father, Prospero Balbo, who belonged to a noble Piedmontese
family, held a high position in the Sardinian court, and at the
time of Cesare's birth was mayor of the capital. His mother, a
member of the Azeglio family, died when he was three years old;
and he was brought up in the house of his great-grandmother,
the countess of Bugino. In 1798 he joined his father at Paris.
From 1808 to 1814 Balbo served in various capacities under the
Napoleonic empire at Florence, Rome, Paris and in Illyria. On
the fall of Napoleon he entered the service of his native country.
While his father was appointed minister of the interior, he
entered the army, and undertook political missions to Paris and
London. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1821, of which he
disapproved, although he was suspected of sympathizing with
it, he was forced into exile; and though not long after he was
allowed to return to Piedmont, all public service was denied
him. Reluctantly, and with frequent endeavours to obtain some
appointment, he gave himself up to literature as the only means
left him to influence the destinies of his country. This accounts
for the fitfulness and incompleteness of so much of his literary
work, and for the practical, and in many cases temporary,
element which runs through even his most elaborate productions.
The great object of his labours was to help in securing the inde-
pendence of Italy from foreign control. Of true Italian unity he
had no expectation and no desire, but he was devoted to the
house of Savoy, which he foresaw was destined to change the
fate of Italy. A confederation of separate states under the
supremacy of the pope was the genuine ideal of Balbo, as it was
the ostensible one of Gioberti. But Gioberti, in his Primato,
seemed to him to neglect the first essential of independence,
which he accordingly inculcated in his Speranze or Hopes of Italy,
in which he suggests that Austria should seek compensation in
the Balkans for the inevitable loss of her Italian provinces.
Preparation, both military and moral, alertness and patience
were his constant theme. He did not desire revolution, but
reform ; and thus he became the leader of a moderate party, and
the steady opponent not only of despotism but of democracy.
At last in 1848 his hopes were to some extent satisfied by
the constitution granted by the king. He was appointed a
member of the commission on the electoral law, and became
first constitutional prime-minister of Piedmont, but only held
office a few months. With the ministry of d" Azeglio, which soon
after got into power, he was on friendly terms, and his pen
continued the active defence of his political principles till his
death on the 3rd of June 1853. The most important of his
writings are historico-political, and derive at once their majesty
and their weakness from his theocratic theory of Christianity.
His style is clear and vigorous, and not unfrequently terse and
epigrammatic. He published Quatlro Novelle in 1829; Storia
d'ltalia solto i Barbari in 1830; Vita di Dante, 1839; Medita-
zioni Storiette, 1842-1845; Le Speranze d'ltalia, 1844; Pensieri
sulla Storia d'ltalia, 1858; Delia Monarchia rappresentativa in
Italia (Florence, 1857).
See E. Ricotti, Delia Vita e degli Scritti di Cesare Balbo (1856);
A. Vismara, Bibliografia di Cesare Balbo (Milan, 1882).
BALBOA, VASCO NUflEZ DE (c. 1475-1517), the discoverer
of the Pacific, a leading figure among the Spanish explorers and
conquerors of America, was born at Jerez de los Caballeros, in
Estremadura, about 1475. Though poor, he was by birth a
gentleman (hidalgo) . Little is known of his life till 1 501 , when he
followed Rodrigo de Bastidas in his voyage of discovery to the
western seas. He appears to have settled in Hispaniola, and
took to cultivating land in the neighbourhood of Salvatierra,
but with no great success, as his debts soon became oppressive.
In 1509 the famous Ojeda (Hojeda) sailed from San Domingo
with an expedition and founded the settlement of San Sebastian.
He had left orders with Enciso, an adventurous lawyer of the
town, to fit out two ships and convey provisions to the new
settlement. Enciso set sail in 1510, and Balboa, whose debts
made the town unpleasant to him, managed to accompany him
by concealing himself, it is said, in a cask of " victuals for the
voyage," which was conveyed from his farm to the ship. The
expedition reached San Sebastian to find Ojeda gone and the
settlement in ruins. While Enciso was undecided how to act,
Balboa proposed that they should sail for Darien, on the Gulf of
Uraba, where he had touched when with Bastidas. His proposal
was accepted and a new town was founded, named Sta Maria
de la Antigua del Darien; but quarrels soon broke out among
the adventurers, and Enciso was deposed, thrown into prison
and finally sent off to Spain with Balboa's ally, the alcalde
Zamudio. Being thus left in authority, Balboa began to conquer
the surrounding country, and by his bravery, courtesy, kindness
of heart and just dealing gained the friendship of several native
chiefs. On one of these excursions he heard for the first time,
from the cacique Comogre, of the ocean on the other side of the
mountains and of the gold of Peru. Soon after his return to
Darien he received letters from Zamudio, informing him that
Enciso had complained to the king, and had obtained a sentence
condemning Balboa and summoning him to Spain. In his
despair at this message Vasco Nunez resolved to attempt some
great enterprise, the success of which he trusted would conciliate
his sovereign. On the ist of September 1513 he set out with one
hundred and ninety Spaniards (Francisco Pizarro among them)
and one thousand natives; on the 25th or 26th of September he
reached the summit of the range, and sighted the Pacific.
Pizarro and two others were sent on to reconnoitre; one of these
scouts, Alonzo Martin, was the first European actually to embark
upon the new-found ocean, in St Michael's Gulf. On the 29th of
September Balboa himself arrived upon the shore, and formally
took possession of the " Great South Sea " in the name of the
Spanish monarch. He remained on the coast for some time,
heard again of Peru, visited the Pearl Islands, and thence
returned to Darien, which he entered in triumph with a great
booty on the i8th of January 1514. He at once sent messengers
to Spain bearing presents, to give an account of his discoveries;
and the king, Ferdinand the Catholic, partly reconciled to his
daring subject, named him Adelantado of the South Sea, or
admiral of the Pacific, and governor of Panama and Coyba.
None the less an expedition sailed from Spain under Don Pedro
Arias de Avila (generally called Pedrarias Davila) to replace
Balboa in the government of the Darien colony itself. Mean-
while the latter had crossed the isthmus and revisited the Pacific
several (some say more than twenty) times; plans of the con-
quest of Peru and of the exploration of the western ocean began
to shape themselves in his mind; and with a view to these
projects, materials for shipbuilding were gathered together upon
the Pacific coast, and two light brigantines were built, launched
and armed. With these Vasco Nunez now took possession of the
Pearl Islands, and, had it not been for the weather, would have
reached the coast of Peru. But his career was stopped by the
jealousy of Pedrarias, who pretended that Balboa proposed to
throw off his allegiance, and enticed him to Acla, near Darien, by
a crafty message. As soon as he had him in his power, he threw
242
BALBRIGGAN BALDERIC
him into prison, had him tried for treason, and forced the judge
to condemn him to death. The sentence was carried into
execution on the public square of Acla in 1517. From a reck-
less adventurer, Balboa had developed into an able general, an
excellent colonial administrator, and a statesman of mature
judgment and brilliant foresight.
See G. F. de Oviedo, Historia general ... de las Indtas (1526,
bk. xxxix. chs. 2, 3) ; D. M. T. Quintana, Vidas de Espanoles
celebres; M. F. de Navarrete, Coleccion de los Viajes y Descubri-
mientos (1825-1837); J. Acosta, Compendia historico de la Nueva
Granada (1848) ; O. Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde (1865, p. 237),
and Zeitalter der Entdeckungen, pp. 442-3 &c. ; Washington Irving's
Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus (1831), and
Varela's notes on the same in Biblioteca del Comercio del Plata (Monte
Video) ; Ferdinand Denis, art. " Vasco Nunez de Balboa," in
Nova. Biog. Gen.
BALBRIGGAN, a market-town and seaport of Co. Dublin,
Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, 2if m. N.N.E. of
Dublin by the Great Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 2236. The
harbour, though dry at low tides, has a depth of 14 ft. at high-
water springs, and affords a good refuge from the east or south-
east gales. There are two piers, and a railway viaduct of eleven
arches crosses the harbour. The town has considerable manu-
factures of cottons and hosiery, " Balbriggan hose " being well
known. The industry was founded by Baron Hamilton in 1761.
There is some coast trade in grain, &c., and sea-fishery is pro-
secuted. Balbriggan is much frequented as a watering-place in
summer.
BALBUS, literally " stammerer," the name of several Roman
families. Of the Acilii Balbi, one Manius Acilius Balbus was
consul in 150 B.C., another in 114. To another family belonged
T. Ampius Balbus, a supporter of Pompey, but afterwards
pardoned by Julius Caesar (cf. Cic. ad Fam. vi. 12 and xiii. 70).
We know also of Q. Antonius Balbus, praetor in Sicily in 82 B.C.,
and Marcus Atius Balbus, who married Julia, a sister of Caesar,
and had a daughter Atia, mother of Augustus. The most
important of the name were the two Cornelii Balbi, natives of
Cades (Cadiz).
1. Lucius CORNELIUS BALBUS (called Major to distinguish
him from his nephew) was born early in the last century B.C. He
is generally considered to have been of Phoenician origin. For
his services against Sertorius in Spain, the Roman citizenship
was conferred upon him and his family by Pompey. Becoming
friendly with all parties, he had much to do with the formation
of the First Triumvirate, and was one of the chief financiers
in Rome. He was careful to ingratiate himself with Caesar,
whom he accompanied when propraetor to Spain (61), and to
Gaul (58) as chief engineer (praejeclus fabrum). His position
as a naturalized foreigner, his influence and his wealth naturally
made Balbus many enemies, who in 56 put up a native of Gades
to prosecute him for illegally assuming the rights of a Roman
citizen, a charge directed against the triumvirs equally with
himself. Cicero, Pompey and Crassus all spoke on his behalf,
and he was acquitted. During the civil war he endeavoured
to get Cicero to mediate between Caesar and Pompey, with the
object of preventing him from definitely siding with the latter;
and Cicero admits that he was dissuaded from doing so, against
his better judgment. Subsequently, Balbus became Caesar's
private secretary, and Cicero was obliged to ask for his good
offices with Caesar. After Caesar's murder, Balbus seems to have
attached himself to Octaviah; in 43 or 42 he was praetor, and
in 40 consul an honour then for the first time conferred on an
alien. The year of his death is not known. Balbus kept a diary of
the chief events in his own and Caesar's life (Suetonius, Caesar,
Si). TheSthbookof the Bell. Gall., which was probably written
by his friend Hirtius at his instigation, was dedicated to him.
Cicero, Letters (ed. Tyrrell and Purser, iv. introd. p. 62) and Pro
Balbo; see also E. Jullien, De L. Cornelia Balbo Maiore (1886).
2. Lucius CORNELIUS BALBUS (called Minor), nephew of the
above, received the Roman citizenship _at the same time as his
uncle. During the civil war, he served under Caesar, by whom he
was entrusted with several important missions. He also took
part in the Alexandrian and Spanish wars. He was rewarded
for his services by being admitted into the college of pontiffs.
[n 43 he was quaestor in Further Spain, where he amassed a
large fortune by plundering the inhabitants. In the same year
tie crossed over to Bogud, king of Mauretania, and is not heard
of again until 21, when he appears as proconsul of Africa.
Mommsen thinks that he had incurred the displeasure of Augustus
by his conduct as praetor, and that his African appointment after
so many years was due to his exceptional fitness for the post.
In 19 Balbus defeated the Garamantes, and on the 27th of March
in that year received the honour of a triumph, which was then
[or the first time granted to one who was not a Roman citizen
by birth, and for the last time to a private individual. He
built a theatre in the capital, which was dedicated on the return
of Augustus from Gaul in 1 3 (Dio Cassius liv. 2 5 ; Pliny , Nat. Hist.
xxxvi. 12. 60). Balbus appears to have given some attention to
literature. He wrote a play of which the subject was his visit
to Lentulus in the camp of Pompey at Dyrrhachium, and,
according to Macrobius (Saturnalia, iii. 6), was the author of a
work called 'E^fryTp-t/cA, dealing with the gods and their worship.
See Velleius Paterculus ii. 51 ; Cicero, ad Alt. viii. 9 ; and on both
the above the exhaustive articles in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclo-
pddie, iv. pt. i. (1900).
BALCONY (Ital. balcone from balco, scaffold; cf. O. H. Ger.
balcho, beam, Mod. Ger. Balken, Eng. balk), a kind of platform
projecting from the wall of a building, supported by columns
or console brackets, and enclosed with a balustrade. Sometimes
balconies are adapted for ceremonial purposes, e.g. that of St
Peter's at Rome, whence the newly elected pope gives his
blessing urbi et orbi. Inside churches balconies are sometimes
provided for the singers, and in banqueting halls and the like
for the musicians. In theatres the " balcony " was formerly a
stage-box, but the name is now usually confined to the part of
the auditorium above the dress circle and below the gallery.
BALDE, JAKOB (1604-1668), German Latinist, was born at
Ensisheim in Alsace on the 4th of January 1604. Driven from
Alsace by the marauding bands of Count Mansfeld, he fled to
Ingolstadt where he began to study law. A love disappoint-
ment, however, turned his thoughts to the church, and in 1624
he entered the Society of Jesus. Continuing his study of the
humanities, he became in 1628 professor of rhetoric at Innsbruck,
and in 1635 at Ingolstadt, whither he had been transferred by
his superiors in order to study theology. In 1 633 he was ordained
priest. His lectures and poems had now made him famous,
and he was summoned to Munich where, in 1638, he became court
chaplain to the elector Maximilian I. He remained in Munich
till 1650, when he went to live at Landshut and afterwards at
Amberg. In 1654 he was transferred to Neuberg on the Danube,
as court preacher and confessor to the count palatine. In the
opinion of his contemporaries, Balde revived the glories of the
Augustan age, and Pope Alexander VII. and the scholars of
the Netherlands combined to do him honour; even Herder
regarded him as a greater poet than Horace. While such judg-
ments are naturally exaggerated, there is no doubt that he takes
a very high place among modern Latin poets. He died at Neuberg
on the gth of August 1668.
A collected edition of Balde's works in 4 vols. was published at
Cologne in 1650; a more complete edition in 8 vols. at Munich, 1729;
also a good selection by L. Spach (Paris and Strassburg, 1871). An
edition of his Latin lyrics appeared at Regensburg in 1884. There
are translations into German of his finer odes, by J. Schrott and M.
Schleich (Munich, 1870). See G. Westermayer, Jacobus Balde, sein
Leben und seine Werke (1868) ; J. Bach, Jakob Balde (Freiburg, 1904).
BALDER, a Scandinavian god, the son of Odin or Othin. The
story of his death is given in two widely different forms, by Saxo
in his Gesta Danorum (ed. Holder, pp. 69 ff.) and in the prose
Edda (Gylfaginning, cap. 49).
See F. Kauffmann, Balder: Mytnus und Sage (Strassburg, 1902).
For other works, see TEUTONIC PEOPLES, 7.
BALDERIC, the name given to the author of a chronicle of the
bishops of Cambrai, written in the nth century. This Gesta
episcoporum Cambracensium was for some time attributed to
Balderic, archbishop of Noyon, but it now seems tolerably certain
that the author was an anonymous canon of Cambrai. The work
is of considerable importance for the history of the north of
France during the nth century, and was first published in 1615.
BALDI BALDOVINETTI
243
The best edition is in the Monumenta Germaniae historica.
Scriplores, Bd. vii. (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1892), which
contains an introduction by L. C. Bethmann.
See Histoire litteraire de la France, tome viii. (Paris, 1865-1869).
BALDI, BERNARDINO (1533-1617), Italian mathematician
and miscellaneous writer, was descended of a noble family at
Urbino, in which city he was born on the 6th of June 1533. He
pursued his studies at Padua with extraordinary zeal and success,
and is said to have acquired, during the course of his life, no
fewer than sixteen languages, though according to Tiraboschi
the inscription on his tomb limits the number to twelve. The
appearance of the plague at Padua obliged him to retire to his
native city, whence he was, shortly afterwards, called to act as
tutor to Ferrante (Ferdinand) Gonzaga, from whom he received
the rich abbey of Guastalla. He held office as abbot for twenty-
five years, and then retired to his native town. In 1612 he was
employed by the duke as his envoy to Venice, where he dis-
tinguished himself by the congratulatory oration he delivered
before the Venetian senate on the election of the new doge, Andrea
Memmo. Baldi died at Urbino on the 1 2th of October 1617. He
was, perhaps, the most universal genius of his age, and is said to
have written upwards of a hundred different works, the chief part
of which have remained unpublished. His various works give
satisfactory evidence of his abilities as a theologian, mathema-
tician, geographer, antiquary, historian and poet. The Cronica del
Matematici (published at Urbino in 1707) is an abridgment of a
larger work, on which he had bestowed twelve years of labour,
and which was intended to contain the lives of more than two
hundred mathematicians. His life has been written by Affo,
Mazzuchelli and others.
BALDINGER, ERNST GOTTFRIED (1738-1804), German
physician, was born near Erfurt on the i3th of May 1738. He
studied medicine at Erfurt, Halle and Jena, and in 1761 was
entrusted with the superintendence of the military hospitals
connected with the Prussian encampment near Torgau. He
published in 1765 a treatise De Militum Morbis, which met with
a favourable reception. In 1 768 he became professor of medicine
at Jena, whence he removed in 1773 to Gottingen, and in 1785 to
Marburg, where he died of apoplexy on the 2ist of January 1804.
Among his pupils were S. T. Sommerring and J. F. Blumenbach.
Some eighty-four separate treatises are mentioned as having
proceeded from his pen, in addition to numerous papers scattered
through various collections and journals.
BALDINUCCI, FILIPPO (1624-1696), Italian writer on the
history of the arts, was born at Florence. His chief work is
entitled Notizie de' Professori del Disegno da Cimabue . . . (dal
1260 sino al 1670), and was first published in six vols. 4to, 1681-
1728. The capital defect of this work is the attempt to derive all
Italian art from the schools of Florence. A good edition is that
by Ranalli (5 vols. 8vo, Florence, 1845-1847). Baldinucci's whole
works were published in fourteen vols. at Milan, 1808-1812.
BALDNESS ' (technically alopecia, from a.\unrij^, a fox, foxes
often having bald patches on their coats), the result of loss
of hair, particularly on the human scalp. So far as remediable
alopecia is concerned, two forms may be distinguished: one the
premature baldness so commonly seen in young men, due to
alopecia seborrhoica, the other alopecia areata, now regarded as
an epidemic disease.
Alopecia seborrhoica is that premature baldness so constantly
seen, in which the condition steadily advances from the forehead
backwards, until only a fringe of hair is left on the head. It is
always due to the underlying disease seborrhoea, and though it
progresses steadily if neglected, is yet very amenable to treatment.
The two drugs of greatest value in this trouble are sulphur and
salicylic acid, some eighteen grains of each added to an ounce of
vaseline making a good application. This should be rubbed well
into the scalp daily for a prolonged period. Where the greasiness
is objected to, the following salicylic lotion may be substituted,
' The adjective " bald " M. E. " balled " is usually explained as
literally " round and smooth like a ball," but it may be connected
with a stem bal, white or shining. The Greek ^aXoxpit certainly
suggests some such derivation.
though the vaseline application has probably the greater value:
1$ Ac. salicyl. 3i iv; Ol. ricini 3 vi; Ol. ros. geran.
TTl x; Spt. vini ad 3vi. The head must be frequently cleansed,
and in very mild cases a daily washing with soap spirit will at
times effect a cure unaided.
Alopecia areata is characterized by the development of round
patches more or less completely denuded of hair. It is most
commonly observed on the scalp, though it may occur on any
part of the body where hair is naturally present. The patches
are rounded, smooth and somewhat depressed owing to the loss
of a large proportion of the follicles. At the margin of the patches
short broken hairs are usually to be seen. Clinical evidence is
steadily accumulating to show that this disease may be trans-
mitted. Organisms are invariably present, in some cases few in
number, but in others very abundant and forming a continuous
sheath round the hair. They were first described by Dr George
Thin, who gave them the name of Bacterium decalvens. The
disease must be distinguished from ringworm especially the
bald variety; but though this is at times somewhat difficult
clinically, the use of the microscope leaves no room for doubt. It
must be remembered that for patients under forty years of age,
time alone will generally bring about the desired end, though
treatment undoubtedly hastens recovery. After forty every year
added to the patient's age makes the prognosis less good. The
general hygiene and mode of life of the sufferer must be very
carefully attended to, and any weakness suitably treated. The
following lotion should be applied daily to the affected parts, at
first cautiously, later more vigorously, and in stronger solution:
If Acidi lactici 3i gi; Ol. ricini 3ii; Spt. vini ad Jiv.
The loss of hair following acute fevers must be treated by
keeping the hair short, applying stimulating lotions to the scalp,
and attending to the general hygiene of the patient.
BALDOVINETTI, ALESSIO (1427-1499), Florentine painter,
was born on the I4th of October 1427, and died on the 29th of
August 1499. He was a follower of the group of scientific
realists and naturalists in art which included Andrea del Castagno,
Paolo Uccello and Domenico Veneziano, the influence of the
last-named master being particularly manifest in his work.
Tradition, probable in itself though not attested by contemporary
records, says that he assisted in the decorations of the chapel of
S. Egidio in Santa Maria Nuova, carried out during the years
1441-1451 by Domenico Veneziano and in conjunction with
Andrea del Castagno. That he was commissioned to complete
the series at a later date (1460) is certain. In 1462 Alessio was
employed to paint the great fresco of the Annunciation in the
cloister of the Annunziata, which still exists in ruined condition.
The remains as we see them give evidence of the artist's power
both of imitating natural detail with minute fidelity and of
spacing his figures in a landscape with a large sense of air and
distance; and they amply verify two separate statements of
Vasari concerning him: that " he delighted in drawing landscapes
from nature exactly as they are, whence we see in his paintings
rivers, bridges, rocks, plants, fruits, roads, fields, cities, exercise-
grounds, and an infinity of other such things," and that he was
an inveterate experimentalist in technical matters. His favourite
method in wall-painting was to lay in his compositions in fresco
and finish them a secco with a mixture of yolk of egg and liquid
varnish. This, says Vasari, was with the view of protecting the
painting from damp; but in course of time the parts executed
with this vehicle scaled away, so that the great secret he hoped
to have discovered turned out a failure. In 1463 he furnished a
cartoon of the Nativity, which was executed in tarsia by Giuliano
de Maiano in the sacristy of the cathedral and still exists. From
1466 date the groups of four Evangelists and four Fathers of the
Church in fresco, together with the Annunciation on an oblong
panel, which still decorate the Portuguese chaptl in the church
of S. Miniato, and are given in error by Vasari to Pietro
Pollaiuolo. A fresco of the risen Christ between angels inside a
Holy Sepulchre in the chapel of the Rucellai family, also still
existing, belongs to 1467. In 1471 Alessio undertook important
works for the church of Sta Trinita on the commission of
Bongianni Gianfigliazzi. First, to paint an altar-piece of the
244
BALDRIC BALDWIN I.
Virgin and Child with six saints; this was finished in 1472 and is
now in the Academy at Florence : next, a series of frescoes from
the Old Testament which was to be completed according to
contract within five years, but actually remained on hand for
fully sixteen. In 1497 the finished series, which contained many
portraits of leading Florentine citizens, was valued at a thousand
gold florins by a committee consisting of Cosimo Rosselli,
Benozzo Gozzoli, Perugino and Filippino Lippi; only some
defaced fragments of it now remain. Meanwhile Alessio had been
much occupied with other technical pursuits and researches apart
from painting. He was regarded by his contemporaries as the
one craftsman who had rediscovered and fully understood the
long disused art of mosaic, and was employed accordingly
between 1481 and 1483 to repair the mosaics over the door of the
church of S. Miniato, as well as several of those both within and
without the baptistery of the cathedral.
These are the recorded and datable works of the master;
others attributed to him on good and sufficient internal evidences
are as follows: A small panel in the Florence Academy, with
the three subjects of the Baptism, the Marriage of Cana and the
Transfiguration; this was long attributed to Fra Angelico, but
is to all appearance early work of Baldovinetti: an Annunciation
in the Uffizi, formerly in the church of S. Giorgio; unmistakably
by the master's hand though given by Vasari to Peselino:
several Madonnas of peculiarly fine and characteristic quality;
one in the collection of Madame Andre at Paris acquired direct
from the descendants of the painter, a second, formerly in the
Duchatel collection and now in the Louvre, a third in the posses-
sion of Mr Berenson at Florence. All these are executed with
the determined patience and precision characteristic of Baldo-
vinetti; two, those at the Louvre and in the Andre collection,
are distinguished by beautiful landscape backgrounds; and all,
but especially the example in the Louvre, add a peculiar and
delicate charm to the quality of grave majesty which Alessio's
works share with those of Piero della Francesca and others of
Domenico Veneziano's following. They probably belong to the
years 1460-1465. In the later of his preserved works, while there
is no abatement of precise and laborious finish, we find beginning
to prevail a certain harshness and commonness of type, and a
lack of care for beauty in composition, the technical and scientific
searcher seeming more and more to predominate over the artist.
See also Vasari, ed. Milanesi, vol. ii. ; Crowe-Cavalcaselle, Hist,
of Painting in Italy, vol. ii. ; Bernhard Berenson, Study and Criticism
of Italian Art, 2nd series. (S. C.)
BALDRIC (from O. Fr. baudrei, O. Ger. balderich, of doubtful
origin; cognate with English " belt "), a belt worn over one
shoulder, passing diagonally across the body and under the other
arm, either as an ornament or a support for a sword, bugle, &c.
BALDUINUS, JACOBUS, Italian jurist of the I3th century,
was by birth a Bolognese, and is reputed to have been of a noble
family. He was a pupil of Azo, and the master of Odofredus, of
Hostiensis, and of Jacobus de Ravanis, the last of whom has the
reputation of having first applied dialectical forms to legal
science. His great fame as a professor of civil law at the university
of Bologna caused Balduinus to be elected podesta of the city of
Genoa, where he was entrusted with the reforms of the law of
the republic. He died at Bologna in 1225, and has left behind
him some treatises on procedure, the earliest of their kind.
BALDUS DE UBALDIS, PETRUS (1327-1406), Italian jurist,
a member of the noble family of the Ubaldi (Baldeschi), was born
at Perugia in 1327, and studied civil law there under Bartolus,
being admitted to the degree of doctor of civil law at the early age
of seventeen. Federicus Petrucius of Siena is said to have been
the master under whom he studied canon law. Upon his pro-
motion to the doctorate he at once proceeded to Bologna, where
he taught law for three years; after which he was advanced to a
professorship at Perugia, where he remained for thirty-three
years. He taught law subsequently at Pisa, at Florence, at
Padua and at Pavia, at a time when the schools of law in those
universities disputed the palm with the school of Bologna. He
died at Pavia on the 28th of April 1406. The extant works of
Baldus hardly bear out the great reputation which he acquired
amongst his contemporaries, due partly to the active part he
took in public affairs, and partly to the fame he acquired by his
consultations, of which five volumes have been published
(Frankfort, 1589). Baldus was the master of Pierre Roger de
Beaufort, who became pope under the title of Gregory XL, and
whose immediate successor, Urban VI., summoned Baldus to
Rome to assist him by his consultations in 1380 against the
anti-pope Clement VII. Cardinal de Zabarella and Paulus
Castrensis were also amongst his pupils. His Commentary on
the Liber Feudorum: is considered to be one of the best of his works,
which were unfortunately left by him for the most part in an
incomplete state. His brothers Angelus (1328-1407) and Petrus
(1335-1400) were of almost equal eminence with himself as
jurists.
BALDWIN I. (d. 1205), emperor of Romania, count of Flanders
and Hainaut, was one of the most prominent leaders of the
fourth crusade, which resulted in the capture of Constantinople,
the conquest of the greater part of the East Roman empire, and
the foundation of the Latin empire of Romania. The imperial
crown was offered to, and refused by, Henry Dandolo, doge of
Venice. The choice then lay between Baldwin and Boniface
of Montferrat. Baldwin was elected (gth of May 1204), and
crowned a week later. He was young, gallant, pious and virtuous,
one of the few who interpreted and observed his crusading vows
strictly; the most popular leader in the host. The empire of
Romania was organized on feudal principles; the emperor was
feudal superior of the princes who received portions of the
conquered territory. His own special portion consisted of
Constantinople, the adjacent regions both on the European
and the Asiatic side, along with some outlying districts, and
several islands including Lemnos, Lesbos, Chios and Tenos.
The territories had still to be conquered; and first of all it was
necessary to break the resistance of the Greeks in Thrace and
secure Thessalonica. In this enterprise (summer of 1204)
Baldwin came into collision with Boniface of Montferrat, the rival
candidate for the empire, who was to receive a large territory
in Macedonia with the title of king of Saloniki. He hoped to
make himself quite independent of the empire, to do no homage
for his kingdom, and he opposed Baldwin's proposal to march
to Thessalonica. The antagonism between Flemings and
Lombards aggravated the quarrel. Baldwin insisted on going to
Thessalonica; Boniface laid siege to Hadrianople, where Baldwin
had established a governor; civil war seemed inevitable. An
agreement was effected by the efforts of Dandolo and the count
of Blois. Boniface received Thessalonica as a fief from the
emperor, and was appointed commander of the forces which
were to march to the conquest of Greece.
During the following winter (1204-1205) the Franks prosecuted
conquests in Bithynia, in which Henry, Baldwin's brother,
took part. But in February the Greeks revolted in Thrace,
relying on the assistance of John (Kaloyan), king of Bulgaria,
whose overtures of alliance had been unwisely rejected by the
emperor. The garrison of Hadrianople was expelled. Baldwin
along with Dandolo, the count of Blois, and Marshal Villehardouin,
the historian, marched to besiege that city. The Bulgarian king
led to its relief an army which far outnumbered that of the
crusaders. The Frank knights fought desperately, but were
utterly defeated (i4th of April 1205); the count of Blois was
slain, and the emperor captured. For some time his fate was
uncertain, and in the meanwhile Henry, his brother, assumed
the regency. Not till the middle of July was it definitely ascer-
tained that he was dead. It seems that he was at first treated well
as a valuable hostage, but was sacrificed by the Bulgarian
monarch in a sudden outburst of rage, perhaps in consequence of
the revolt of Philippopolis, which passed into the hands of the
Franks. One contemporary writer says that his hands and feet
were cut off, and he was thrown into a valley where he died on
the third day; but the manner of his death is obscure. King
John himself wrote to Pope Innocent III. that he died in prison.
His brother Henry was crowned emperor in August.
AUTHORITIES. Villehardouin, La Conqutte de Constantinople (ed.
De Wailly, Paris, 1872; ed. Bouchet, 2 vols., Paris, 1891); Robert
BALDWIN I. BALDWIN II.
245
de Clari, La Prise de Constantinople (in Hopf's Chroniqves grico-
romaines); Ernoul, Chronique (ed. Mas Latrie, Paris, 1871); Nicetas
(ed. Bonn, 1835); George Acropolites, vol. i. (ed. Heisenberg,
Leipzig, 1903); Documents in Tafel and Thomas, Urkunden zur
alteren Handels- und Staatsgeschichte der Republik Venedig (Vienna,
1856).
MODERN WORKS. Ducange, Histoire de I'cmpire de Constan-
tinople sous les empereurs franfais (Paris, 1657) ; Gibbon, Decline
and Fall, vol. vi. (ed. Bury, 1898); G. Finlay, History cf Greece,
vol. iv. (Oxford, 1877); Pears, The Fall of Constantinople (London,
1885); Hopf, " Gnechische Geschichte, in Ersch and Gruber's
Encyklopddie, vol. Ixxxv. (Leipzig, 1870); Gerland, Geschichte des
lateinischen Kaiserreiches von Konstantinopel, part i. (Homburg v. d.
Hohe, 1905). (J. B. B.)
BALDWIN II. (1217-1273), emperor of Romania, was a younger
son of Yolande, sister of Baldwin I. Her husband, Peter of
Courtenay, was third emperor of Romania, and had been followed
by his son Robert, on whose death in 1228 the succession passed
to Baldwin, a boy of eleven years old. The barons chose John
of Brienne (titular king of Jerusalem) as emperor-regent for life;
Baldwin was to rule the Asiatic possessions of the empire when
he reached the age of twenty, was to marry John's daughter
Mary, and on John's death to enjoy the full imperial sovereignty.
The marriage contract was carried out in 1234. Since the death
of the emperor Henry in 1216, the Latin empire had declined
and the Greek power advanced; and the hopes that John of
Brienne might restore it were disappointed. He died in 1237.
The realm which Baldwin governed was little more than Con-
stantinople. His financial situation was desperate, and his life
was chiefly occupied in begging at European courts. He went to
the West in 1236, visited Rome, France and Flanders, trying to
raise money and men to recover the lost territory of his realm.
His efforts met with success, and in 1240 he returned to
Constantinople (through Germany and Hungary) at the head of
a considerable army. Circumstances hindered him from accom-
plishing anything with this help, and in 1245 he travelled again
to the West, first to Italy and then to France, where he spent two
years. The empress Maria and Philip of Toucy governed during
his absence. He was happy to be able to get money from King
Louis IX. in exchange for relics. In 1 249 he was with King Louis
at Damietta. The extremity of his financial straits reduced
him soon afterwards to handing over his only son Philip to
merchants as a pledge for loans of money. Louis IX. redeemed
the hostage. The rest of his inglorious reign was spent by Baldwin
in mendicant tours in western Europe. In 1261 Constantinople
was captured by Michael Palaeologus, and Baldwin's rule came
to an end. He escaped in a Venetian galley to Negropont,
and then proceeded to Athens, thence to Apulia, finally to France.
As titular emperor, his role was still the same, to beg help from
the western powers. In 1267 he went to Italy; his hopes were
centred in Charles of Anjou. Charles seriously entertained the
idea of conquering Constantinople, though various complications
hindered him from realizing it. He made a definite treaty with
Baldwin to this intent (May 1267). During the next year
Baldwin and his son Philip lived on pensions from Charles. In
October 1273 Philip married Beatrice, daughter of Charles, at
Foggia. A few days later Baldwin died.
See authorities for BALDWIN I. above; also Norden, Das Papsltum
und Byzanz (Berlin 1903). (J. B. B.)
BALDWIN I., prince of Edessa (1098-1100), and first king of
Jerusalem (1100-1118), was the brother of Godfrey of Bouillon
(q.v.). He was originally a clerk in orders, and held several
prebends; but in 1096 he joined the first crusade, and accom-
panied his brother Godfrey as far as Heraclea in Asia Minor.
When Tancred left the main body of the crusaders at Heraclea,
and marched into Cilicia, Baldwin followed, partly in jealousy,
partly from the same political motives which animated Tancred.
He wrested Tarsus from Tancred's grip (September 1097), and
left there a garrison of his own. After rejoining the main army
at Marash, he received an invitation from an Armenian named
Pakrad, and moved eastwards towards the Euphrates, where he
occupied Tell-bashir. Another invitation followed from Thoros
of Edessa; and to Edessa Baldwin came, first as protector, and
then, when Thoros was assassinated, as his successor (March
1098). For two years he ruled in Edessa (1098-1 100), marrying
an Armenian wife, and acting generally as the intermediary
between the crusaders and the Armenians. During these two
years he was successful in maintaining his ground, both against
the Mahommedan powers by which he was surrounded, and
from which he won Samosata and Seruj (Sarorgia), and against
a conspiracy of his own subjects in 1098. At the end of 1099 he
visited Jerusalem along with Bohemund I.; but he returned to
Edessa in January noo. On the death of Godfrey he was
summoned by a party in Jerusalem to succeed to his brother.
A lay reaction against the theocratic pretensions of Dagobert,
who was counting on Norman support, was responsible for the
summons; and in the strength of that reaction Baldwin was
able to become the first king of Jerusalem. He was crowned
on Christmas Day, noo, by the patriarch himself; but the
struggle of church and state was not yet over, and in the spring
of noi Baldwin had Dagobert suspended by a papal legate,
while later in the year the two disagreed on the question of the
contribution to be made by the patriarch towards the defence
of the Holy Land. The struggle ended in the deposition of
Dagobert and the triumph of Baldwin (1102).
As Baldwin had secured the supremacy of the lay power in
Jerusalem, so he extended into a compact kingdom the poor
and straggling territories to which he had succeeded. This he did
by an alliance with the Italian trading towns, especially Genoa,
which supplied in return for the concession of a quarter in the
conquered towns, the instruments and the skill for a war of sieges,
in which the coast towns of Palestine were successively reduced.
Arsuf and Caesarea were captured in not; Acre in 1104;
Beirut and Sidon in 1 1 10 (the latter with the aid of the Venetians
and Norwegians). Meanwhile Baldwin repelled in successive
years the attacks of the Egyptians (1102, 1103, 1105), and in
the latter years of his reign (1113-1118) he even pushed south-
ward at the expense of Egypt, penetrating as far as the Red Sea,
and planting an outpost at Monreal. In the north he had to
compose the dissensions of the Christian princes in Tripoli,
Antioch and Edessa (noo-iiio), and to help them to maintain
their ground against the Mahommedan princes of N.E. Syria,
especially Maudud and Aksunk-ur, amirs of Mosul. In this way
Baldwin was able to make himself into practical suzerain of the
three Christian principalities of the north, though the suzerainty
was, and always continued to be, somewhat nominal. In 1118
he died, after an expedition to -Egypt, during which he captured
Farama, and, as old Fuller says, " caught many fish, and his
death in eating them."
Baldwin was one of the " adventurer princes " of the first
crusade, and as such he stands alongside of Bohemund, Tancred
and Raymund. On the whole he was the most successful of his
class. By his defence of the lay power against a nascent theo-
cracy, and by his alliance with the Italian towns, he was the real
founder of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem. Events worked for
him: he might never have come to the throne, unless Bohemund
had fallen into the hands of Danishmend; and the dissensions
among the Mahommedans alone made possible the subsequent
consolidation of his kingdom. But he had virtit as well as
fortuna; and on his tombstone it was written that he was " a
second Judas Maccabaeus, whom Kedar and Egypt, Dan and
Damascus dreaded." As king, he still retained something of
the clerk in the habit of his dress; but he was at the same
time a warrior so impetuous, as to be sometimes foolhardy, and
his policy was on the whole anti-clerical. He may be accused of
greed: his life was not chaste; and the two defects met in his
rejection of his Armenian wife and his marriage to the rich
Sicilian widow Adelaide (1113). But "on the holiest soil of
history, he gave his people a fatherland "; and Fulcher of
Chartres, his chaplain, who paints at the beginning of Baldwin's
reign the terrors of the lonely band of Christians in the midst of
their foes, can celebrate at the end the formation of a new
nation in the East (qui fuimus occidentales, nunc facti sumus
orientates) an achievement which, so far as it was the work of
any one man, was the work of Baldwin I.
LITERATURE. The Historia Hierosolymitana of Fulcher, who had
accompanied Baldwin as chaplain to Edessa, and had lived in
246
BALDWIN II. BALDWIN III.
Jerusalefn during his reign, is the primary authority for Baldwin's
career. There is a monograph on Baldwin by Wolff (Konig Baldwin I.
von Jerusalem), and his reign is sketched in R. Rohricht's Geschichte
des Konigreichs Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898) C. i.-iv. (E. BR.)
BALDWIN II., count of Edessa (i 100-1 1 18), king of Jerusalem
(1118-1131), originally known as Baldwin de Burg, was a son of
Count Hugh of Rethel, and a nephew of Godfrey of Bouillon
and Baldwin I. He appears on the first crusade at Constanti-
nople as one of Godfrey's men; and he helped Tancred to
occupy Bethlehem in June 1099. After the capture of Jerusalem
he served for a time with Bohemund at Antioch; but when
Baldwin of Edessa became king of Jerusalem, he summoned
Baldwin de Burg, and left him as count in Edessa. From Edessa
Baldwin conducted continual forays against the Mahommedan
princes; and in the great foray of 1104, in which he was joined
by Bohemund, he was defeated and captured at Balich. Tancred
became guardian of Edessa during Baldwin's captivity, and did
not trouble himself greatly to procure his release. Baldwin,
however, recovered his liberty at the beginning of 1108, and at
once entered upon a struggle with Tancred for the recovery of
Edessa. In September 1108 he regained his principality; but
the struggle with Tancred continued, until it was composed by
Baldwin in 1109. For the next ten years Baldwin ruled his
principality with success, if not without severity. Planted in the
farthest Christian outpost in northern Syria, he had to meet
many attacks, especially from Mardin and Mosul, in revenge
for the provocation offered by his own forays and those of the
restless Tancred. In mo he was besieged in Edessa, and
relieved by Baldwin I.; in 1114 he repelled an attack by
Aksunkur of Mosul; in 1115 he helped to defeat Aksunkur at
Danith. At the same time, if Matthew of Edessa may be
trusted, he also carried his arms against the Armenians, and
plundered in his avarice every Armenian of wealth and position.
In 1118 he was on his way to spend Easter at Jerusalem, when
he received the news of the death of Baldwin I.; and when he
arrived at Jerusalem, he was made king, chiefly by the influence
of the patriarch Arnulf. In a reign of thirteen years, Baldwin
II. extended the kingdom of Jerusalem to its widest limits.
His reign is marked by almost incessant fighting in northern
Syria. In 1 1 19, after the defeat and death of Roger of Antioch,
he defeated the amirs of Mardin and Damascus at Danith; in
subsequent years he extended his sway to the very gates of
Aleppo. In 1123 he was captured by Balak of Mardin, and
confined in Kharput with Joscelin, his successor in the county
of Edessa, who had been captured in the previous year. During
his captivity Eustace Graverius became regent of Jerusalem,
and succeeded, with the aid of the Venetians, in repelling an
Egyptian attack, and even in capturing Tyre, 1124. In 1124
Baldwin II. succeeded in securing his liberty, under conditions
which he instantly broke; and he at once embarked on strenuous
and not unsuccessful hostilities against Aleppo and Damascus
(1124-1127), exacting tribute from both. During his reign he
twice acted as regent in Antioch (1119, 1130), and in 1126 he
married his daughter Alice to Bohemund II. In 1 1 28 he offered
the hand of his eldest daughter, Melisinda, to Fulk of Anjou,
who had been recommended to him by Honorius II. In 1129
Fulk came and married Melisinda, and in 1131, on the death of
Baldwin, he succeeded to the crown.
Baldwin II. had much of the churchmanship of Godfrey and
Baldwin I.; but he appears most decidedly as an incessant
warrior, under whom the Latin domination in the East stretched,
as Ibn al-Athir writes, in a long line from Mardin in the North
to el-Arish on the Red Sea a line only broken by the Mahom-
medan powers of Aleppo, Hamah, Horns and Damascus. The
Franks controlled the great routes of trade, and took tolls of the
traders; and in 1130 their power may be regarded as having
reached its height.
LITERATURE. Fulcher of Chartres narrates the reign of Baldwin
II. down to 1127; for the rest of the reign the authority is William
of Tyre. R. Rohricht, Geschichte des Konigreichs Jerusalem (Inns-
bruck, 1898), C. vii.-x., is the chief modern authority. (E. BR.)
BALDWIN III., king of Jerusalem (1143-1162), was the eldest
son of Fulk of Jerusalem by his wife Melisinda. He was born in
1 130, and became king in 1143, under the regency of his mother,
which lasted till 1152. He came to the throne at a time when
the attacks of the Greeks in Cilicia, and of Zengi on Edessa,
were fatally weakening the position of the Franks in northern
Syria; and from the beginning of his reign the power of the
Latin kingdom of Jerusalem may be said to be slowly declining,
though as yet there is little outward trace of its decay to be seen.
Edessa was lost, however, in the year after Baldwin's accession,
and the conquest by Zengi of this farthest and most important
outpost in northern Syria was already a serious blow to the
kingdom. Upon it in 1147 there followed the second crusade;
and in that crusade Baldwin III., now some eighteen years of
age, played his part by the side of Conrad III. and Louis VII.
He received them in Jerusalem in 1148; with them he planned
the attack on Damascus and with them he signally failed in the
attack. In 1149, after the failure of the crusade, Baldwin III.
appeared in Antioch, where the fall of Raymund, the husband
of the princess Constance, made his presence necessary. He
regulated affairs in Antioch, and tried to strengthen the north
of Palestine generally against the arm of Zengi's successor,
Nureddin, by renewing the old and politic alliance with Damascus
interrupted since 1 147, and by ceding Tellbashir, the one remnant
of the county of Edessa, to Manuel of Constantinople. In 1152
came the inevitable struggle between the young king and his
mother, who had ruled with wisdom and vigour during the regency
and was unwilling to lay down the reins of power. Baldwin
originally planned a solemn coronation, as the signal of his
emancipation. Dissuaded from that course, he nevertheless
wore his crown publicly in the church of the Sepulchre. A
struggle followed: in the issue, Baldwin agreed to leave his
mother in possession of Jerusalem and Nablus, while he retained
Acre and Tyre for himself. But he repented of the bargain;
and a new struggle began, in which Baldwin recovered, after
some fighting, the possession of his capital. From these internal
dissensions Baldwin was now summoned to the north, to regulate
anew the affairs of Antioch and also those of Tripoli, where the
death of Count Raymund had thrown on his shoulders the cares of
a second regency. On his return to Jerusalem he was successful
in repelling an attack by an army of Turcomans; and his success
encouraged him to attempt the siege of Ascalon in the spring
of 1153. He was successful: the "bride of Syria," which
had all but become the property of the crusaders in 1099, but
had since defied the arms of the Franks for half a century,
became part of the kingdom of Jerusalem. From 1156 to 1158
Baldwin was occupied in hostilities with Nureddin. In 1156
he had to submit to a treaty which cut short his territories; in
the winter of 1157-1158 he besieged and captured Harim, in the
territory once belonging to Antioch: in 1158 he defeated
Nureddin himself. In the same year Baldwin married Theodora,
a near relative of the East Roman emperor Manuel; while in
1159 he received a visit from Manuel himself at Antioch. The
Latin king rode behind the Greek emperor, without any of the
insignia of his dignity, at the entry into Antioch; but their re-
lations were of the friendliest, and Manuel as great a physician
as he was a hunter personally attended to Baldwin when the
king was thrown from his horse in attempting to equal the
emperor's feats of horsemanship. In the same year Baldwin
had to undertake the regency in Antioch once more, Raynald
of Chatillon, the second husband of Constance, being captured
in battle. Three years later he died (i 162), without male issue,
and was succeeded by his brother Amalric I.
Baldwin III. was the first of the kings of Jerusalem who was
a native of the soil of Palestine. His three predecessors had all
been emigrants from the West. His reign also marks a new
departure from another point of view. His predecessors had
been men of a type half military, half clerical at once hard
fighters and sound churchmen. Baldwin was a man of a subtler
type a man capable of dealing with the intrigues of a court
and with problems of law, and, as such, suited for guiding
the middle age of the kingdom, which the different qualities of
iis predecessors had been equally suited to found. Like his
brother, Amalric I., he was a clerkly and studious king versed
BALDWIN IV BALDWIN, ROBERT
247
in law, and ready to discuss points of dogma. In an excellent
sketch of Baldwin's character (xvi. cii.), William of Tyre tells
us that he spent his spare time in reading and had a particular
affection for history; that he was well skilled in the jus con-
sueludinarium of the kingdom (afterwards recorded by lawyers
like John of Ibelin and Philip of Novara as " the assizes of
Jerusalem "); and that he had the royal faculty for remembering
faces, and could generally be trusted to address by name anybody
whom he had once met, so that he was more popular with high
and low than any of his predecessors. He had, William also
reports, a gift of impromptu eloquence, and a faculty both for
saying witty things pleasantly at other people's expense and
for listening placidly to witticisms directed against himself;
while he was generous to excess without needing to make ex-
actions in order to support his generosity, and always respected
the Church. If in his youth he had been prone to gambling,
and before his marriage with Theodora had been somewhat lax
in his morals, when he became a man he put away childish things;
his married life was a shining example to his people and he was
abstemious both in food and drink, holding that " excess in
either was an incentive to the worst of crimes." Even his enemy,
Nureddin, said of him, when he died " the Franks have lost
such a prince that the world has not now his like."
LITERATURE. William of Tyre is the great primary authority
for his reign; Cinnamus and Ibn-al-athir (see Bibliography to the
article CRUSADES) give the Byzantine and Mahommedan point of
view. His reign is described by R. Rohrjcht, Geschichte des Konig-
reichs Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898), C. xiii.-xvi. (E. BR.)
BALDWIN IV., the son of Amalric I. by his first wife Agnes,
ruled in Jerusalem from 1174 to 1183, when he had his nephew
Baldwin crowned in his stead. Educated by William of Tyre,
Baldwin IV. came to the throne at the early age of thirteen;
and thus the kingdom came under the regency of Raymund II.
of Tripoli. Happily for the kingdom whose king was a child and
a leper, the attention of Saladin was distracted for several years
by an attempt to wrest from the sons of Nureddin the inheritance
of their father an attempt partially successful in 1174, but only
finally realized in 1 183. The problems of the reign of Baldwin IV.
may be said to have been two his sister Sibylla and the fiery
Raynald of Chatillon, once prince of Antioch through marriage
to Constance (1153-1159), then a captive for many years in the
hand of the Mahommedans, and since 1176 lord of Krak (Kerak),
to the east of the Dead Sea. Sibylla was the heiress of the
kingdom; the problem of her marriage was important. Married
first to William of Montferrat, to whom she bore a son, Baldwin,
she was again married in 1180 to Guy of Lusignan; and dissen-
sions between Sibylla and her husband on the one side, and
Baldwin IV. on the other, troubled the latter years of his reign.
Meanwhile Raynald of Krak took advantage of the position of
his fortress, which lay on the great route of trade from Damascus
and Egypt, to plunder the caravans (1182), and thus helped to
precipitate the inevitable attack by Saladin. When the attack
came, Guy of Lusignan was made regent by Baldwin IV., but
he declined battle and he was consequently deposed both from
his regency and from his righ't of succession, while Sibylla's
son by her first husband was crowned king as Baldwin V. in
1183. For a time Baldwin IV. still continued to be active;
but in 1184 he handed over the regency to Raymund of Tripoli,
and in 1185 he died.
LITERATURE. The narrative of William of Tyre concludes with
Baldwin IV. 's transfer of the regency to Raymund of Tripoli.
R. Rohricht describes the reign of Baldwin IV., Geschichte des
Konigreichs Jerusalem (Innsbruck, 1898), C. xix.-xxi. (E. BR.)
BALDWIN V., the son of Sibylla (daughter of Amalric I.)
by her first husband, William of Montferrat, was the nominal king
of Jerusalem from 1183 to 1186, under the regency of Raymund
of Tripoli. His reign is marked by the advance of Saladin and
by dissensions between the government and Guy of Lusignan.
BALDWIN, JAMES MARK (1861- ), American philosopher,
was born at Columbia, S.C., and educated at Princeton and
several German universities. He was professor of philosophy
in the university of Toronto (1889), of psychology at Princeton
(1893), and subsequently (1903) of philosophy and psychology in
Johns Hopkins University. Prominent among experimental
psychologists, he was one of the founders of the Psychological
Review. In 1892 he was vice-president of the International
Congress of Psychology held in London, and in 1897-1898
president of the American Psychological Association; he received
a gold medal from the Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences of
Denmark (1897), was honorary president of the International
Congress of Criminal Anthropology held in Geneva in 1896, and
was made an honorary D.Sc. of Oxford University. Apart
from articles in the Psychological Review, he has written:
Handbook of Psychology (1890); translation of Ribot's German
Psychology of To-day (1886); Elements of Psychology (1893);
Social and Ethical Interpretations in Mental Development (1898);
Story of the Mind (1898); Mental Development in the Child and
the Race (1896); Thought and Things (London and New York,
vol. i., 1906). He also contributed largely to the Dictionary of
Philosophy and Psychology (1901-1905), of which he was editor-
in-chief.
BALDWIN, ROBERT (1804-1858), Canadian statesman, was
born at York (now Toronto) on the i2th of May 1804. His
father, William Warren Baldwin (d. 1844), went to Canada from
Ireland in 1798; though a man of wealth and good family and
a devoted member of the Church of England, he opposed the
religious and political oligarchy which was then at the head of
Canadian affairs, and brought up his son in the same principles.
Robert Baldwin was called to the Bar in 1825, and entered into
partnership with his father. In 1829 he was elected a member of
the parliament of Upper Canada for the town of York, but was
defeated in the following year and retired for a time into private
life. During the next six years, he so constantly advocated a
responsible executive as the one cure for the political and
economic evils of the time that he was known as " the man of one
idea." In 1836 he was called by Sir Francis Bond Head (1793-
1875), the lieutenant-governor, to the executive council, but
finding himself without influence, and compelled to countenance
measures to which he was opposed, he resigned within a month.
Though a reformer, he strongly disapproved of the rebellion of
1837-1838. On the union of the two Canadas he became (1841)
a member of the executive council under Lord Sydenham, but
soon resigned on the question of responsible government. In 1842
he formed the first Liberal administration, in connexion with
Mr (afterwards Sir) L. H. Lafontaine, but resigned the next
year, after a quarrel with the governor-general, Sir Charles
Metcalfe, on a question of patronage, in which he felt that of
responsible government to be involved. At the general election
which followed, the governor-general was sustained by a narrow
majority, but in 1848 the Liberals were again returned to power,
and he and Mr Lafontaine formed their second administration
under Lord Elgin and carried numerous important reforms,
including the freeing from sectarian control of the Provincial
University and the introduction into Upper Canada of an
important municipal system.
Internal dissensions soon began to appear in the Liberal
party, and in 1851 Mr Baldwin resigned. The special struggle
leading to his resignation was an attempt to abolish the court
of chancery of Upper Canada, whose constitution was due to a
measure introduced by Baldwin in 1849. The attempt, though
defeated, had been supported by a majority of the representatives
from Upper Canada, and Baldwin's fastidious conscience took
it as a vote of want of confidence. A deeper reason was his
inability to approve of the advanced views of the Radicals, or
" Clear Grits," as they came to be called. On seeking re-election
in York, he declined to give any pledge on the burning question of
the Clergy Reserves and was defeated. In 1858 the Liberal-
Conservative party, formed in 1854 by a coalition, attempted
to bring him out as a candidate for the upper house, which was
at this date elective, but though he had broken with the advanced
reformers, he could not approve of the tactics of their opponents,
and refused to stand. He died on the 9th of December 1858.
Even those who most bitterly attacked his measures admitted
the purity and unselfishness of his motives. After the concession
of responsible government, he devoted himself to bringing about
248
BALE, JOHN
a good understanding between the English and French-speaking
inhabitants of Canada, and his memory is held as dear among the
French Canadians as in his native province of Ontario.
See J. C. Dent, Canadian Portrait Gallery (1880). His life, by
the Hon. Geo. W. Ross, is included in The Makers of Canada series
(Toronto).
BALE, JOHN (1495-1563), bishop of Ossory, English author,
was born at Cove, near Dunwich in Suffolk, on the 2ist of
November 1495. At the age of twelve he entered the Carmelite
monastery at Norwich, removing later to the house of " Holme,"
probably the abbey of the Whitefriars at Hulne near Alnwick.
Later he entered Jesus College, Cambridge, and took his degree
of B. D. in 1529. At Cambridge he came under the influence of
Cranmer and of Thomas Wentworth, ist Baron Wentworth,
and became an ardent partisan of the Reformers. He laid aside
his monastic habit, and, as he himself puts it with character-
istically brutal violence, " that I might never more serve so
execrable a beast, I took to wife the faithful Dorothy." He
obtained the living of Thornden, Suffolk, but in 1534 was
summoned before the archbishop of York for a sermon against
the invocation of saints preached at Doncaster, and afterwards
before Stokesley, bishop of London, but he escaped through the
powerful protection of Thomas Cromwell, whose notice he is
said to have attracted by bis miracle piays. He was an un-
scrupulous controversiah'st, and in these plays he allows no
considerations of decency to stand in the way of his denuncia-
tions of the monastic system and its supporters. The prayer
of Infidelitas which opens the second act of his Thre Laws
(quoted by T. Warton, Hist. Eng. Poetry, sect. 41) is an example
of the lengths to which he went in profane parody. These coarse
and violent productions were well calculated to impress popular
feeling, and no doubt Cromwell found in him an invaluable
instrument. But on his patron's fall in 1 540 Bale fled with his
wife and children to Germany. He returned on the accession
of Edward VI. He received the living of Bishopstoke, Hampshire,
being promoted in 1552 to the Irish see of Ossory. He refused
to be consecrated by the Roman rite, which still obtained in the
Irish church, and won his point, though the dean of Dublin
entered a protest against the revised office during the ceremony
(see his Vocacyon of John Bale to the Bishopperycke of Ossorie,
Harl. Misc. vol. vi.). He pushed his Protestant propaganda in
Ireland with no regard to expediency, and when the accession
of Mary inaugurated a reaction in matters of religion, it was
with difficulty that he was got safely out of the country. He
tried to escape to Scotland, but on the voyage was captured by
a Dutch man-of-war, which was driven by stress of weather to
St. Ives in Cornwall. Bale was arrested on suspicion of treason,
but soon released. At Dover he had another narrow escape,
but he eventually made his way to Holland and thence to
Frankfort and Basel. During his exile he devoted himself to
writing. After his return, on the accession of Elizabeth, he
received (1560) a prebendal stall at Canterbury. He died in
November 1 563 and was buried in the cathedral.
The scurrility and vehemence with which " foul-mouthed
Bale," as Wood calls him, attacked his enemies does not destroy
the value of his contributions to literature, though his strong
bias against Roman Catholic writers does detract from the
critical value of his works. Of his mysteries and miracle plays
only five have been preserved, but the titles of the others, quoted
by himself in his Catalogus, show that they were animated by the
same political and religious aims. The Thre Laws of Nature,
Moies and Christ, corrupted by the Sodomytes, Pharisees and
Papystes most wicked (pr. 1538 and again in 1562) was a morality
play. The direction for the dressing of the parts is instructive:
" Let Idolatry be decked like an old witch, Sodomy like a monk
of all sects, Ambition like a bishop, Covetousness like a Pharisee
or spiritual lawyer, False Doctrine like a popish doctor, and
Hypocrisy like a gray friar." A Tragedye; or enterlude many-
festing the chief promyses of God unto Man . . . (1538, printed
in Dodsley's Old Plays, vol. i), The Temptacyon of our Lorde
(ed. A. B. Grosart in Miscellanies of the Fuller Worthies Library,
vol. i., 1870), and A brefe Comedy or Enterlude of Johan Baptystes
preachynge in the Wyldernesse, &c. (Harl. Misc. vol. i.) were all
written in 1538. His plays are doggerel, but he is a figure of
some dramatic importance as the author of Kynge Johan (c.i 548),
which marks the transition between the old morality play and
the English historical drama. It does not appear to have
directly influenced the creators of the chronicle histories. To the
authors of the Troublesome Raigne of King John (1591) it was
apparently unknown, but it is noteworthy that an attempt,
however feeble, at historical drama was made fourteen years
before the production of Gorboduc. Kynge. Johan (ed. J. P.
Collier, Camden Soc. 1838) is itself a polemic against the Roman
Catholic Church. King John is represented as the champion of
English rites against the Roman see:
" This noble Kynge Johan, as a faythfull Moses
Withstode proude Pharao for his poore Israel."
But the English people remained in the bondage of Rome,
" Tyll that duke Josue, whych was our late Kynge Henrye,
Clerely brought us out in to the lande of mylke and honye."
Elsewhere John is called a Lollard and accused of " heretycall
langage," and he is finally poisoned by a monk of Swinestead.
Allegorical characters are mixed with the real persons. Ynglonde
vidua, represents the nation, and the jocular element is provided
by Sedwyson (sedition), who would have been the Vice in a pure
morality play. One actor was obviously intended to play many
parts, for stage directions such as " Go out Ynglond, and dress
for Clargy " are by no means uncommon. The MS. of Kynge
Johan was discovered between 1831 and 1838 among the corpora-
tion papers at Ipswich, where it was probably performed, for
there are references to charitable foundations by King John in
the town and neighbourhood. It is described at the end of the
MS. as two plays, but there is no obvious division, the end of the
first act alone being noted. The first part is corrected by Bale
and the latter half is in his handwriting, but his name nowhere
occurs. In the list of his works, however, he gives a play De
Joanne Anglorum Rege, written in idiomate materno.
But Bale's most important work is Illustrium majoris Britan-
niae scriptorum, hoc est, Angliae, Cambriae, ac Scotiae Summarium
. . . (Ipswich and Wesel, for John Overton, 1548, 1549). This
contained five centuries, but another edition, almost entirely
rewritten and containing fourteen centuries, was printed at Basel
with the title Scriptorum illustrium majoris Britatmiae . . .
Catalogus (1557-1559). The chronological catalogue of British
authors and their works was partly founded on the Collectanea
and Commentarii of John Leland, but Bale was an indefatigable
collector and worker, and himself examined many of the valuable
libraries of the Augustinian and Carmelite houses before their
dissolution. In his notebook he records as an instance of the
wholesale destruction in progress: " I have bene also at Nor-
wyche, our second citye of name, and there all the library
monuments are turned to the use of their grossers, candelmakers,
sopesellers, and other worldly occupyers ... As much have I
saved there and in certen other places in Northfolke and South-
folke concerning the authors names and titles of their workes, as
I could, and as much wold I ha~ve done through out the whole
realm, yf I had been able to have borne the charges, as I am not."
His work is therefore invaluable, in spite of the inaccuracies and
the abuse lavished on Catholic writers, for it contains much
information that would otherwise have been hopelessly lost.
A list of Bale's works is to be found in Athenae Cantabrigienses
(vol. i. pp. 227 et seq.). Beside the reprints already mentioned,
The Examinations of Lord Cobham, William Thorpe and Anne
Askewe, &c. were edited by the Rev. H. Christmas for the Parker
Society in 1849. Bale's autograph note-book is preserved in the
Selden Collection of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. It contains the
materials he collected for his two published catalogues arranged
alphabetically, with no attempt at ornament of any kind, and with-
out the personalities which deface his completed work. He also
gives in most cases the sources from which his information was
erived. This book was prepared for publication with notes by
Dr R. Lane Ppole, with the help of Miss Mary Bateson, as Index
Britanniae Scriptorum quos .... collegit loannes Baleus (Clarendon
Press, 1902), forming part ix. of Anecdota Oxoniensia.
John Pits or Pitseus (1560-1616), an English Catholic exile,
founded on Bale's work his Relationum*historicarum de rebus anglicis
tomus primus (Paris, 1619), better known by its running title of
BALE BALEARIC ISLANDS
249
De illustribus Angliae scriptoribus. This is really the fourth book
of a more extensive work. He omits the Wyclimte and Protestant
divines mentioned by Bale, and the most valuable section is the
lives of the Catholic exiles resident in Douai and other French towns.
He does not scruple to assert (Nota de Joanne Bale) that Bale's
Catalogus was a misrepresent? tlon of Leland's matter, though there
is every reason to believe that he was only acquainted with Leland's
work at second-hand, through Bale.
BALE, (i) (A word common to Teutonic languages, in 0.
Eng. balu, cf. Icelandic bol), evil, suffering, a word obsolete
except in poetry, and more common in the adjectival form
" baleful." In early alliterative poetry it is especially used
antithetically with " bliss." (2) (O. Eng. bael, a blazing fire,
a funeral pyre), a bonfire, a northern English use more common
in the tautological " bale-fire," with sometimes a confused
reference from (i) to evil. (3) (A word of doubtful origin,
possibly connected with " ball "), a bundle of merchandise,
especially of cotton, wool or hay, packed with a cover, or fastened
with bands of metal, &c. for transportation; the weight and
capacity varies with the goods. (4) (Properly " bail," from
Fr. bailie, possibly connected with Lat. bacula, a tub), to
empty water out of a boat by means of a bail or bucket.
BALEARIC ISLANDS (Baleares), an archipelago of four large
and eleven small islands in the Mediterranean Sea, off the east
coast of Spain, of which country it forms a province. Pop. ( 1 900)
311,649; area, 1935 sq. m. The archipelago, which lies between
38 40' and 40 5' N., and between i and 5 E., comprises two
distinct groups. The eastern and larger group, corresponding
with the ancient Insulae Baleares, comprises the two principal
members of the archipelago, Majorca (Spanish, Mallorca) and
Minorca (Spanish, Menorca), with seven islets: Aire, Aucanada,
Botafoch, Cabrera, Dragonera, Pinto and El Rey. The western
group, corresponding with the ancient Pityusae or Pine Islands,
also comprises two relatively large islands, Iviza (Spanish, Ibiza
or, formerly, Ivica) and Formentera, with the islets of
Ahorcados, Conejera, Pou and Espalmador. Majorca, Minorca
and Iviza are described in separate articles. Formentera is
described with Iviza. The total population of the eleven islets
only amounted to 171 in 1000, but all were inhabited. None
of them is of any importance except Cabrera, which is full of
caverns, and was formerly used as a place of banishment. In
1808 a large body of Frenchmen were landed here by their
Spanish captors, and allowed almost to perish of starvation.
The origin of the name Baleares is a mere matter of conjecture ;
it is obvious, however, that the modern Majorca and Minorca are
obtained from the Latin Major and Minor, through the Byzantine
forms Matopwcd and Mivopt/cd; while Iviza is plainly the older
Ebusus, a name probably of Carthaginian origin. The Ophiusa
of the Greeks (Colubraria of the Romans) is now known as
Formentera.
Geology. The strata which form the Balearic Isles fall naturally
into two divisions. There is an older series, ranging from the
Devonian to the Cretaceous, which is folded and faulted and
forms all the higher hills, and there is a newer series of Tertiary
age, which lies nearly horizontal and rests unconformably upon
the older beds. The direction of the folds in the older series is in
Iviza nearly west to east, in Majorca south-west to north-east,
and in Minorca south to north, thus forming an arc convex
towards the south-east. The Devonian is visible only in Minorca,
the Trias being the oldest system represented in the other
islands. The higher part of the Cretaceous is absent, and it
appears to have been during this period that the principal folding
of the older beds took place. The Eocene beds are nummulitic.
There is a lacustrine group which has usually been placed in the
Lower Eocene, but the discovery of Anthracolherium magnum in
the interbedded lignites proves it to be Oligocene, in part at
least. The Miocene included a limestone with Clypeaster.
Pliocene beds also occur.
Climate, Fauna, Flora. The climate of the archipelago,
though generally mild, healthy and favourable to plant life, is
by no means uniform, owing to the differences of altitude and
shelter from wind in different islands. The fauna and flora
resemble those of the Mediterranean coasts of Spain or France.
Inhabitants. The islanders are a Spanish race, very closely
akin to the Catalans; but the long period of Moorish rule has
left its mark on their physical type and customs. In character
they are industrious and hospitable, and pique themselves on
their loyalty and orthodoxy. Crime is rare. There are higher
schools in the principal towns, and the standard of primary
education is well up to the average of Spain. Vaccination is
common except in the cities, the women often performing the
operation themselves when medical assistance cannot be got.
Castilian is spoken by the upper and commercial classes; the
lower and agricultural employ a dialect resembling that of the
Catalans.
Commerce. Fruit, grain, wine and oil are produced in the
islands, and there is an active trade with Barcelona in fresh
fish, including large quantities of lobsters. Shoemaking is one
of the most prosperous industries. There is not a very active
trade direct with foreign countries, as the principal imports
cotton, leather, petroleum, sugar, coal and timber are intro-
duced through Barcelona. The export trade is chiefly with the
Peninsula, France, Italy, Algeria and with Cuba and Porto Rico.
Most of the agricultural products are sent to. the Peninsula;
wine, figs, marble, almonds, lemons and rice to Europe and
Africa.
Administration. The administration of the Balearic Islands
differs in no respect from that of the other Spanish provinces
on the mainland. There are five judicial districts (partidos
judiciales), named after their chief towns Inca, Iviza, Manacor,
Palma and Port Mahon.
History. Of the origin of the early inhabitants of the Balearic
Islands nothing is certainly known, though Greek and Roman
writers refer to the Boeotian and Rhodian settlements. There
are numerous sepulchral and other monuments, which are
generally believed to be of prehistoric origin. According to
general tradition the natives, from whatever quarter derived,
were a strange and savage people till they received some tincture
of civilization from the Carthaginians, who early took possession
of the islands and built themselves cities on their coasts. Of
these cities, Port Mahon, the most important, still retains the
name which is derived from the family of Mago. About twenty-
three years after the destruction of Carthage the Romans accused
the islanders of piracy, and sent against them Q. Caecilius
Metellus, who soon reduced them to obedience, settled amongst
them 3000 Roman and Spanish colonists, founded the cities of
Palma and Pollentia (Pollensa), and introduced the cultivation
of the olive. Besides valuable contingents of the celebrated
Balearic slingers, the Romans derived from their new conquest
mules (from Minorca), edible snails, sinope and pitch. Of their
occupation numerous traces still exist, the most remarkable
being the aqueduct at Pollensa. In A.D. 423 the islands were
seized by the Vandals and in 798 by the Moors. They became
a separate Moorish kingdom in 1009, which, becoming extremely
obnoxious for piracy, was the object of a crusade directed against
it by Pope Paschal II., in which the Catalans took the lead.
This expedition was frustrated at the time, but was resumed by
James I. of Aragon, and the Moors were expelled in 1232.
During their occupation the island was populous and productive,
and an active commerce was carried on with Spain and Africa.
King James conferred the sovereignty of the isles on his third
son, under whom and his successor they formed an independent
kingdom up to 1349, from which time their history merges in
that of Spain. In 1521 an insurrection of the peasantry against
the nobility, whom they massacred, took place in Majorca, and
was not suppressed without much bloodshed. In the War of the
Spanish Succession all the islands declared for Charles; the
duke of Anjou had no footing anywhere save in the citadel of
Mahon. Minorca was reduced by Count Villars in 1707; but
it was not till June 1715 that Majorca was subjugated, and
meanwhile Port Mahon was captured by the English under
General Stanhope in 1708. In 1713 the island was secured to
them by the peace of Utrecht; but in 1756 it was invaded by
a force of 12,000 French, who, after defeating the British under
Admiral Byng, captured Port Mahon. Restored to England in
250
1763, the island remained in possession of the British till 1782,
when it was retaken by the Spaniards. Again seized by the
British in 1798, it was finally ceded to Spain by the peace of
Amiens in 1803. When the French invaded Spain in 1808, the
Mallorquins did not remain indifferent; the governor, D. Juan
Miguel de Vives, announced, amid universal acclamation, his
resolution to support Ferdinand VII. At first the Junta would
take no active part in the war, retaining the corps of volunteers
that was formed for the defence of the island; but finding it
quite secure, they transferred a succession of them to the Penin-
sula to reinforce the allies. Such was the animosity excited
against the French when their excesses were known to the
Mallorquins, that some of the French prisoners, conducted
thither in 1810, had to be transferred with all speed to the island
of Cabrera, a transference which was not effected before some of
them had been killed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For a general account of the islands, the most
valuable books are Die Balearen geschildert in Wort und Bild, by
the archduke Ludwig Salvator of Austria (Leipzig, 1896); Les lies
oubliees, by G. Vuillier (Paris, I9p4). the first edition of which has
been translated under the title of The Forgotten Isles(London, 1896)
and Islas Baledres, an illustrated volume of 1423 pages, by P.
Pifferrer, in the series " Espana " (Barcelona, 1888). An article
by George Sand in the Revue des deux mondes (1841)
also deserves notice. The following are monographs on special
subjects : The Story of Majorca and Minorca, by Sir C. R. Markham
(London, 1908); Illustrationes florae insularum Balearium, by M.
Willkomm (Stuttgart, 1881-1892); Monuments primitifs des ties
baleares, by E. Cartailhac (Mission scientifique du ministere de
I'instruction publique, Toulouse, 1892). The British Foreign Office
Reports for the Consular District of Barcelona give some account
of the movement of commerce (London, annual). Much of the
material available for a scientific history will be found in La Historia
general del regno baledrico, by J. Dametoand V. Mut (Majorca, 1632-
1650). For the period of Moorish rule, see Bosquejo historico de la
dominacion islamita en las islas Baledres, by A. Campaner y Fuertes
(Palma, 1888). See also the elaborate treatise Les Relations de la
France avec le royaume de Majorque, by A. Lecoy de la Marche
(Paris, 1892).
BALES [BALESIUS], PETER (1547-1610?), English calli-
graphist, one of the inventors of shorthand writing, was born
in London in 1547, and is described by Anthony Wood as a
" most dexterous person in his profession, to the great wonder
of scholars and others." We are also informed that " he spent
several years in sciences among Oxonians, particularly, as it
seems, in Gloucester Hall; but that study, which he used for a
diversion only, proved at length an employment of profit."
He is mentioned for his skill in micrography in Holinshed's
Chronicle. " Hadrian Junius," says Evelyn, " speaking as a
miracle of somebody who wrote the Apostles' Creed and the
beginning of St John's Gospel within the compass of a farthing:
what would he have said of our famous Peter Bales, who, in the
year 1575, wrote the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, Decalogue, with
two short prayers in Latin, his own name, motto, day of the
month, year of the Lord, and reign of the queen, to whom he
presented it at Hampton Court, all of it written within the circle
of a single penny, inchased in a ring and borders of gold, and
covered with a crystal, so accurately wrought as to be very
plainly legible; to the great admiration of her majesty, the
whole privy council, and several ambassadors then at court?"
Bales was likewise very dexterous in imitating handwritings,
and between 1576 and 1590 was employed by Secretary Walsing-
ham in certain political manoeuvres. We find him at the head
of a school near the Old Bailey, London, in 1590, in which year
he published his Writing Schoolemaster , in three Parts. This
book included an Arte of Brachygraphie, which is one of the
earliest attempts to construct a system of shorthand. In 1595
he had a great trial of skill with one Daniel Johnson, for a golden
pen of 20 value, and won it; and a contemporary author
further relates that he had also the arms of calligraphy given
him, which are azure, a pen or. Bales died about the year 1610.
BALFE, MICHAEL WILLIAM (1808-1870), Irish musical com-
poser, was born on the i sth of May 1808, at Dublin. His musical
gifts became apparent at an early age. The only instruction
he received was from his father, who was a dancing master, and
from a musician, C. E. Horn (1786-1849). Between 1814 and
BALES BALFOUR, A. J.
1815 he played the violin for his father's dancing-classes, and at
the age of seven composed a polacca. In 1817 he appeared as a
violinist in public, and in this year composed a ballad, first called
" Young Fanny " and afterwards, when sung in Paid Pry by
Madame Vestris, " The Lovers' Mistake." On the death of his
father in 1823 he was engaged in the orchestra of Drury Lane, and
being in possession of a small but pleasant baritone voice, he
chose the career of an operatic singer. An unsuccessful debut
was made at Norwich in Der Freischiltz. In 1825 he was taken
to Rome by Count Mazzara, being introduced to Cherubini on
the way. In Italy he wrote his first dramatic work, a ballet, La
Perouse. At the close of 1827 he appeared as Figaro in Rossini's
Barbiere, at the Italian opera in Paris. Balfe soon returned to
Italy, where, during the next nine years, he remained, singing at
various theatres and composing a number of operas. During
this time he married Mdlle Luisa Roser, a Hungarian singer
whom he had met at Bergamo. Fetis says that the public indig-
nation roused by an attempt at " improving " Meyerbeer's opera
// Crociato by interpolated music of his own compelled Balfe to
throw up his engagement at the theatre La Fenice in Venice. By
this time he had produced his first complete opera, / Rivali di se
stessi, at Palermo in the carnival season of 1820-1830; the opera
Un Awertimento ai gelosi at Pavia; and Enrico Quarto at Milan,
where he had been engaged to sing with Malibran at the Scala.
He returned to England in the spring of 1833, and on the 29th of
October 1835 his Siege of Rochelle was produced and rapturously
received at Drury Lane. Encouraged by his success, he produced
The Maid of Artois on the 27th of May 1836 the success of the
opera being confirmed by the exquisite singing of Malibran.
Balfe was a prolific composer, as may be seen from the following
imperfect list of his English operas alone : Siege of Rochelle ( 1 83 5) ;
The Maid of Artois (1836); Catherine Grey (1837); Joan of Arc
(1837); Fahtajf (1838, Lablache in title-r61e); Amelia, or the
Love Test (1838); Keolanthe (1841); The Bohemian Girl, his best
known work (1844); The Daughter of St. Mark (1844); The
Enchantress (1845); The Bondman (1846); The Devil's in it
(1847); The Maid of Honour (1847); The Sicilian Bride (1852);
The Rose of Castile (1857); Satanella. (1858); Bianco. (1860);
The Puritan's Daughter (1861); The Armourer of Nantes (1863);
Blanche de Nevers (1863). Balfe also wrote several operas for the
Op6ra Comique and Grand Opera in Paris, where MM. Scribe and
St George provided him with the libretti for his LePuits d'amour
(1843) and his Les Qualre Fits Aymon (1844). His L' Etoile de
Seville was written in 1845 f r the Academic Royale. The fact
that Balfe was an Irishman, who produced operas in English,
French and Italian with conspicuous success, is in itself interest-
ing. When to this we add the record of his operatic impersona-
tions on the stage, the European success of his Bohemian Girl,
his picturesque retirement into Hertfordshire in 1864 as a
gentleman farmer, and above all the undeniable gift for creating
such pure melodies as his songs " When other Hearts " and " I
dreamt that I dwelt in marble halls," it is idle to refuse him a
prominent place in the history of music. He wrote much that
was trivial, but also much that was enduring. He died on the 2oth
of October 1870, and was buried at Kensal Green. In 1882 a
medallion portrait of him was unveiled in Westminster Abbey.
BALFOUR, ARTHUR JAMES (1848- ) British statesman,
eldestsonof JamesMaitland Balfourof Whittingehame,Hadding-
tonshire, and of Lady Blanche Gascoyne Cecil, a sister of the
third marquess of Salisbury, was born on the 25th of July 1848.
He was educated at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. In
i874hebecameM.P. intheConservativeinterestforHertford,and
represented that constituency until 1885. When, in the spring of
1878, Lord Salisbury became foreign minister on theresignationof
the fifteenth LordDerby,MrBalfourbecamehis private secretary.
In that capacity he accompanied his uncle to the Berlin congress,
and gained his first experience of international politics in con-
nexion with the settlement of the Russo-Turkish conflict. It was
at this time also that he became known in the world of letters, the
intellectual subtlety and literary capacity of his Defence of
Philosophic Doubt (1879) suggesting that he might make a
reputation as a speculative thinker. Belonging, however, to a
BALFOUR, A. J.
class in which the responsibilities of government are a traditional
duty, Mr Balfour divided his time between the political arena
and the study. Being released from his duties as private secretary
by the general election of 1880, he began to take a rather more
active part in parliamentary affairs. He was for a time politically
associated with Lord Randolph Churchill, Sir Henry Drummond
Wolff and Sir John (then Mr) Gorst, the quartette becoming
known as the " Fourth Party," and gaining notoriety by the
freedom of the criticisms directed by its leader, Lord Randolph
Churchill, against Sir Stafford Northcote, Lord Cross and other
prominent members of the " old gang." In these sallies, however,
Mr Balfour had no direct share. He was thought to be merely
amusing himself with politics. It was regarded as doubtful
whether his health could withstand the severity of English winters,
and the delicacy of his physique and the languor of his manner
helped to create the impression that, however great his intellecr
tual powers might be, he had neither the bodily strength nor the
energy of character requisite for a political career. He was the
" odd man " of the Fourth Party, apparently content to fetch and
carry for his colleagues, and was believed to have no definite
ambitions of his own. His reputation in the parliament of 1880-
1886 was that of a dilettante, who allied himself with the three
politicians already named from a feeling of irresponsibility rather
than of earnest purpose; he was regarded as one who, on the rare
occasions when he spoke, was more desirous to impart an academic
quality to his speeches than to make any solid contribution to
public questions. The House, indeed, did not take him quite
seriously. Members did not suspect the reserve of strength and
ability beneath what seemed to them to be the pose of a parlia-
mentary fl&neur; they looked upon him merely as a young
member of the governing classes who remained in the House
because it was the proper thing for a man of family to do. As a
member of the coterie known as the " Souls " he was, so to
speak, caviare to the general. Indolence was supposed to be
the keynote of his character a refined indolence, not, however,
without cleverness of a somewhat cynical and superior order.
That these views were not shared by Lord Salisbury was suffi-
ciently shown by the fact that in his first administration (June
1885- January 1886) he made Mr Balfour president of the Local
Government Board, and in forming his second administration
(July 1886) secretary for Scotland with a seat in the cabinet.
These offices gave few opportunities for distinction, and may be
regarded merely as Mr Balfour's apprenticeship to departmental
responsibilities. The accidents of political life suddenly opened
out to him a career which made him, next to Lord Salisbury, the
most prominent, the most admired and the most attacked Con-
servative politician of the day. Sir Michael Hicks-Beach, who
was chief secretary for Ireland, suffered from an affection of the
eyes and found it desirable to resign, and Lord Salisbury appointed
his nephew in his stead. The selection took the political world by
surprise, and was much criticized. By the Irish Nationalists it
was received with contemptuous ridicule, for none suspected Mr
Balfour's immense strength of will, his debating power, his ability
in attack and his still greater capacity to disregard criticism.
The debates on the Crimes Bill and the Irish Land Bill quickly
undeceived them, and the steady and even remorseless vigour
with which the government of Ireland was conducted speedily
convinced the House of Commons and the country that Mr.
Balfour was in his right place as chief secretary. His policy was
that of " coercion " the fearless administration of the Crimes
Act, coupled with remedial legislation; and he enforced the one
while he proceeded with the other, regardless of the risk of out-
rage outside the House and of insult within. Mr Balfour's work
in this office covered one of the most turbulent and most exciting
periods in modern parliamentary history and Irish administration.
With a courage that never faltered he broke down the Plan of
Campaign in Ireland, and in parliament he not only withstood
the assaults of the Irish Nationalists, but waged successful warfare
with the entire Home Rule party. He combined an obstinacy of
will with a mastery of facts unsurpassed by any of his predecessors
in the secretaryship. Events, it is true, were in his favour. The
disclosures before the Parnell Commission, the O'Shea divorce
25 1
proceedings, the downfall of Mr Parnell and the disruption of
the Irish party, assisted him in his task; but the fact remains
that by persistent courage and undeviating thoroughness he
reduced crime in Ireland to a vanishing point. His work was
also constructive, for he broadened the basis of material prosperity
and social progress by creating the Congested Districts Board in
1890. During this period, from 1886-1892, moreover, he
developed gifts of oratory which made him one of the most
effective of public speakers. Impressive in matter rather than
in manner of delivery, and seldom rising to the level of eloquence
in the sense in which that quality was understood in a House
which had listened to Bright and Gladstone, his speeches were
logical and convincing, and their attractive literary form delighted
a wider audience than that which listens to the mere politician.
In 1888 Mr Balfour served on the Gold and Silver Commission,
currency problems from the standpoint of bimetallism being
among the more academic subjects which had engaged his
attention. On the death of Mr W. H. Smith in 1891 he became
first lord of the treasury and leader of the House of Commons,
and in that capacity introduced in 1892 a Local Government Bill
for Ireland. The Conservative government was then at the end
of its tether, and the project fell through. For the next three
years Mr Balfour led the opposition with great skill and address.
On the return of the Unionists to power in 1895 he resumed
the leadership of the House, but not at first with the success
expected of him, his management of the abortive education
proposals of '96 being thought, even by his own supporters,
to show a disinclination for the continuous drudgery of parlia-
mentary management under modern conditions. But after the
opening session matters proceeded more smoothly, and Mr
Balfour regained his old position in the estimation of the House
and the country. He had the satisfaction of seeing a bill pass
for providing Ireland with an improved system of local govern-
ment, and took an active share in the debates on the various
foreign and domestic questions that came before parliament
during 1895-1900. His championship of the voluntary schools,
his adroit parliamentary handling of the problems opened up
by the so-called " crisis in the Church " caused by the Protestant
movement against ritualistic practices, and his pronouncement
in favour of a Roman Catholic university for Ireland for which
he outlined a scheme that met with much adverse criticism both
from his colleagues and his party, were the most important
aspects of Mr Balfour's activity during these years. His speeches
and work throughout this period took a wider range than before
his accession to the leadership of the Commons. During the
illness of Lord Salisbury in 1898, and again in Lord Salisbury's
absence abroad, he was in charge of the foreign office, and it fell
to his lot to conduct the very critical negotiations with Russia on
the question of railways in North China. To his firmness, and at
the same time to the conciliatory readiness with which he accepted
and elaborated the principles of a modus vivendi, the two powers
owed the avoidance of what threatened to be a dangerous quarrel.
As a member of the cabinet responsible for the Transvaal
negotiations in 1899 he bore his full share of controversy, and
when the war opened so disastrously he was the first to realize
the necessity for putting the full military strength of the country
into the field. At the general election of 1900 he was returned
for East Manchester (which he had represented since 1885)
by a majority of 2453, and continued in office as first lord of the
treasury. His leadership of the House of Commons in the first
session of the new parliament was marked by considerable
firmness in the suppression of obstruction, but there was a slight
revival of the criticisms which had been current in 1896. Mr
Balfour's inability to get the maximum amount of work out of
the House was largely due to the situation in South Africa,
which absorbed the intellectual energies of the House and of the
country and impeded the progress of legislation.
The principal achievements of the long session of 1902 (which
extended to the autumn) were the passing of the Education Act,
entirely reorganizing the system of primary education,
abolishing the school boards and making the county councils
the local authority; new rules of procedure; and the creation
252
BALFOUR, A. J.
of the Metropolitan Water Board; and on all these questions,
and particularly the two first, Mr Balfour's powers as a debater
were brilliantly exhibited.
On Lord Salisbury's resignation on the nth of July 1902, Mr
Balfour succeeded him as prime minister, with the cordial
approval of all sections of the Unionist party. For the next three
and a half years his premiership involves the political history of
England, at a peculiarly interesting period both for foreign and
domestic affairs. Within a few weeks Mr Balfour had recon-
stituted the cabinet. He himself became first lord of the treasury
and lord privy seal, with the duke of Devonshire (remaining
lord president of the council) as leader of the House of Lords;
Lord Lansdowne remained foreign secretary, Mr (afterwards
Lord) Ritchie took the place of^Sir Michael Hicks-Beach (after-
wards Lord St Aldwyn) as chancellor of the exchequer, Mr J.
Chamberlain remained colonial secretary, his son Austen being
postmaster-general with a seat in the cabinet. Mr G. Wyndham
as chief secretary for Ireland was included in the cabinet; Lord
Selborne remained at the admiralty, Mr St John Brodrick
(afterwards Lord Midleton) war minister, Lord George Hamilton
secretary for India, and Mr Akers-Douglas, who had been first
commissioner of works, became home secretary; Lord Balfour
of Burleigh remained secretary for Scotland, Lord Dudley suc-
ceeded Lord Cadogan as lord lieutenant of Ireland, and Lord
Londonderry became president of the Board of Education (with
Sir William Anson as parliamentary secretary in the House of
Commons). Mr Balfour's brother Gerald (b. 1853), who had
entered public life as his private secretary when at the Local
Government Board, and had been chief secretary for Ireland
from 1895-1900, retained his position (since 1900) as president
of the Board of Trade.
The new prime minister came into power practically at the
same moment as the king's coronation (see EDWARD VII.) and
the end of the South African War (see TRANSVAAL). The task
of clearing up after the war, both in South Africa and at home,
lay before him; but his cordial relations with Mr Chamberlain
(q.v.), and the enthusiastic support of a large parliamentary
majority, made the prospects fair. For a while no cloud appeared
on the horizon: and the Liberal party were still disorganized
(see CAMPBELL-BANNERMAN and ROSEBERY) over their attitude
towards the Boers. Mr Chamberlain went to South Africa in
the late autumn, with the hope that his personality would in-
fluence the settlement there; and the session of 1903 opened
in February with no hint of troubles to come. A difficulty with
Venezuela, resulting in British and German co-operation to
coerce that refractory republic, caused an explosion of anti-
German feeling in England and some restlessness in the United
States, but the government brought the crisis to an end by
tactful handling and by an ultimate recourse to arbitration.
The two chief items of the ministerial parliamentary programme
were the extension of the new Education Act to London and
Mr Wyndham's Irish Land Purchase Act, by which the British
exchequer should advance the capital for enabling the tenants in
Ireland to buy out the landlords. Moreover, the budget was
certain to show a surplus and taxation could be remitted. As
events proved, it was the budget which was to provide a cause
of dissension, bringing a new political movement into being,
and an issue overriding all the legislative interest of the session.
Mr Ritchie's remission of the shilling import-duty on corn led
to MrChamberlain's crusade in favour of tariff reform and colonial
preference, and as the session proceeded the rift grew in the
Unionist ranks.
In the separate article on Mr Chamberlain the progress of
this movement is sufficiently narrated. From this moment it
is only necessary here to realize Mr Balfour's position. He had
always admitted the onesidedness of the English free-trade
system, and had supported the desirability of retaliating against
unfair competition and " dumping " by foreign countries. But
Mr Chamberlain's new programme for a general tariff, with new
taxes on food arranged so as to give a preference to colonial
products, involved a radical alteration of the established fiscal
system, and such out-and-out Unionist free-traders in the cabinet
as Mr Ritchie and Lord George Hamilton, and outside it, like
Lord Hugh Cecil and Mr Arthur Elliot (secretary to the treasury),
were entirely opposed to this. Mr Balfour was anxious to avoid
a rupture, doubtful of the feeling of the country, uncertain of the
details by which Mr Chamberlain's scheme could be worked out.
As leader of the party and responsible for the maintenance of
so great a political engine, he was anxious not to be precipitate.
He was neither for nor against the new movement, and professed
to hold " no settled convictions " on the subject. Mr Chamberlain
rested his case largely on the alleged diminution in British
trade, and the statistics therefore required investigation before
the government could adopt any such programme. From the
middle of May, when Mr Chamberlain began to press the matter,
Mr Balfour had a difficult hand to play, so long as it was uncertain
how the party would follow the new lead. The Board of Trade
was asked to supply full figures, and while its report was awaited
the uncertainty of attitude on the part of the government
afforded grateful opportunity for opposition mischief-making,
since the Liberal party had now the chance of acting as the
conservative champions of orthodox economics. Another
opportunity for making political capital was provided by the
publication of the report of the royal commission on the Boer War
under Lord Elgin's chairmanship, which horrified the country
by its disclosures (August 26th) as to the political and military
muddling which had gone on, and the want of any efficient
system of organization.
The session ended in August without any definite action on
the fiscal question, but in the cabinet the discussions continued.
On the i6th of September Mr Balfour published a pamphlet on
" Insular Free Trade," and on the i8th it was announced that
Lord George Hamilton and Mr Ritchie had resigned, Lord
Balfour of Burleigh and Mr Arthur Elliot following a day or two
later. These were the strait free-traders, but at the same time
Mr Chamberlain resigned also. The correspondence between
Mr Chamberlain and Mr Balfour (September gth and i6th) was
published, and presented the latter in the light of a sympathizer
with some form of fiscal union with the colonies, if practicable,
and in favour of retaliatory duties, but unable to believe that the
country was yet ready to agree to the taxation of food required
for a preferential tariff, and therefore unwilling to support that
scheme; at the same time he encouraged Mr Chamberlain to
test the feeling of the public and to convert them by his missionary
efforts outside the government. Mr Chamberlain on his side
emphasized his own parliamentary loyalty to Mr Balfour. In
his pamphlet on " Insular Free Trade " the prime minister
reviewed the economic history since Cobden's time, pointed to
the falsification of the promises of the early free-traders, and to
the fact that England was still the only free-importing country,
and insisted that he was " in harmony with the true spirit of
free-trade " when he pleaded for " freedom to negotiate that
freedom of exchange may be increased." This manifesto was at
first taken, not only as the platform of the government, but also
as that from which its resigning free-trade members had dis-
sented; and the country was puzzled by a statement from Lord
George Hamilton that Mr Balfour had circulated among his
colleagues a second and different document, in fuller agreement
with Mr Chamberlain. The situation was confused by personal
suspicion and distrust as well as by economic difficulties. But the
public noted that the duke of Devonshire, whose orthodoxy was
considered typical, remained in the cabinet.
The crisis, however, soon developed further, owing to explana-
tions between the free-trade Unionists. On October ist Mr
Balfour spoke at Sheffield, reiterating his views as to free-trade
and retaliation, insisting that he " intended to lead," and
declaring that he was prepared at all events to reverse the
traditional fiscal policy by doing away with the axiom that im-
port duties should only be levied for revenue purposes. The
speech was enthusiastically received by the National Union of
Conservative Associations, who had year by year flirted with
protectionist resolutions, and who were known to be predomin-
antly in sympathy with Mr Chamberlain. But the free-traders
did not like Mr Balfour's formula as to reversing the traditional
BALFOUR, A. J.
fiscal policy of import taxes for revenue only. Next day the duke
of Devonshire resigned, a step somewhat bitterly resented by
Mr Balfour, who clearly thought that his sacrifices in order to
conciliate the duke had now been made in vain. During this
critical fortnight the duke had apparently acquiesced in Mr
Balfour's compromise, and had co-operated in reconstituting
the ministry; his nephew and heir had been made financial
secretary to the treasury, while Mr Alfred Lyttelton was
appointed colonial secretary, Mr Austen Chamberlain chancellor
of the exchequer, Mr Brodrick secretary for India, Mr H. O.
Arnold-Forster war minister, Lord Stanley postmaster-general
and Mr Graham Murray secretary for Scotland. Lord London-
derry now became president of the council, Lord Lansdowne
leader of the House of Lords, and Lord Salisbury, son of the
late premier, who as Lord Cranborne had for three years been
under-secretary for foreign affairs, was included in the cabinet
as lord privy seal.
During the remainder of 1903 the struggle within the Unionist
party continued. Mr Chamberlain spoke all over the country,
advocating a definite scheme for reorganizing the budget, so as
to have more taxes on imports, including food, but proposing to
adjust the taxation so as to improve the position of the working-
classes and to stimulate employment. The free-trade Unionists,
with the duke of Devonshire, Lord Goschen, Lord James and
Lord Hugh Cecil, as their chief representatives, started a Free
Food league in opposition to Mr Chamberlain's Tariff Reform
league; and at a great meeting at Queen's Hall, London, on the
24th of November their attitude was made plain. They rejected
Mr Chamberlain's food-taxes, discredited his statistics, and,
while admitting the theoretical orthodoxy of retaliation,
criticized Mr Balfour's attitude and repudiated his assumption
that retaliation would be desirable. Finally in December came
the appointment of Mr Chamberlain's Tariff Commission. There
was no doubt about the obstinacy and persistency of both sections,
and both were fighting, not only to persuade the public, but for
the capture of the party and of its prime minister. Both sides
were inclined to claim him; neither could do so without qualifica-
tion. His dialectical dexterity in evading the necessity of
expressing his fiscal opinions further than he had already done
became a daily subject for contemptuous criticism in the Liberal
press; but he insisted that in any case no definite action could
be taken till the next parliament; and while he declined to go
the " whole hog " as the phrase went with Mr Chamberlain,
he did nothing to discourage Mr Chamberlain's campaign.
Whether he would eventually follow in the same direction, or
would come back to the straiter free-trade side, continued to be
the political conundrum for month after month. Minor changes
were made in the ministry in 1903, Mr Brodrick going to the
India office and Mr Arnold-Forster becoming minister for war;
but Mr Balfour's personal influence remained potent, the govern-
ment held together, and in 1904 the Licensing Bill was success-
fully carried. Though a few Unionists transferred their allegiance,
notably Mr. Winston Churchill, and by-elections went badly,
Mr Balfour still commanded a considerable though a dwindling
majority, and the various contrivances of the opposition for
combining all free-traders against the governmentwereobstructed
by the fact that anything tantamount to a vote of censure would
not be supported by the " wobblers " in the ministerial party,
while the government could always manage to draft some " safe "
amendment acceptable to most of them. This was notably
shown in the debate on Mr Black's motion on the i8th of May.
On the 3rd of October Mr Balfour spoke at Edinburgh on the
fiscal question. The more aggressive protectionists among
Mr Chamberlain's supporters had lately become very confident,
and Mr Balfour plainly repudiated " protection " in so far as it
meant a policy aiming at supporting or creating home industries
by raising home prices; but he introduced a new point by
declaring that an Imperial Conference would be called to discuss
with the colonies the question of preferential tariffs if the
Unionist government obtained a majority at the next general
election. The Edinburgh speech was again received with con-
flicting interpretations, and much discussion prevailed as to the
253
conditions of the proposed conference, and as to whether it was
or was not an advance, as the Chamberlainites claimed, towards
Mr Chamberlain. Meanwhile the party was getting more and
more disorganized, and the public were getting tired of the
apparent mystification. The opposition used the situation to
make capital in the country, and loudly called for a dissolution.
It was plain indeed that the fiscal question itself was ripe for
the polls; Board of Trade statistics had been issued in profusion,
and the whole case was before the country. But, though Mr
Chamberlain declared his desire for an early appeal to the
electors, he maintained his parliamentary loyalty to Mr Balfour.
There were, moreover, public reasons why a change of government
was undesirable. From 1003 onwards the question of army
reform had been under discussion, and the government was
anxious to get this settled, though in fact Mr Brodrick's and
Mr Arnold-Forster's schemes for reorganization failed to obtain
any general support. And while foreign affairs were being
admirably conducted by Lord Lansdowne, they were critical
enough to make it dangerous to contemplate a " swopping of
horses." The Russo-Japanese War might at any moment lead
to complications. The exercise by Russian warships of the right
of search over British ships was causing great irritation in English
commercial circles during 1004; after several incidents had
occurred, the stopping of the P. & O. steamer " Malacca " on
July 1 3th in the Red Sea by the Russian volunteer cruiser
" Peterburg " led to a storm of indignation, and the sinking of
the " Knight Commander " (July 24th) by the Vladivostok
squadron intensified the feeling. On the 23rd of October the
outrageous firing by the Russian Baltic fleet on the English
fishing-fleet off the Dogger Bank in the North Sea was within an
ace of causing war. It was not till the 28th that Mr Balfour,
speaking at Southampton, was able to announce that the Russian
government had expressed regret, and that an international
commission would inquire into the facts with a view to the
responsible persons being punished. Apart from the importance
of seeing the Russo-Japanese War through, there were important
negotiations on foot for a renewal or revision of the treaty with
Japan; and it was felt that on these grounds it would be a
mistake for the government to allow itself to be driven into a
premature dissolution, unless it found itself unable to maintain
a majority in parliament. At the same time the government's
tenure of office was obviously drawing to its close; the usual
interpretation of the Septennial Act involved a dissolution either
in 1905 or 1906, and the government whips found increased
difficulty in keeping a majority at Westminster, since neither
the pronounced Chamberlainites nor the convinced free-trade
Unionists showed any zeal, and a large number of the uncertain
Unionists did not intend to stand again for parliament.
The events of the session of 1905 soon foreshadowed the end.
The opposition were determined to raise debates in the House of
Commons on the fiscal question, and Mr Balfour was no less
determined not to be caught in their trap. These tactics of
avoidance reached their culminating point when on one occasion
Mr Balfour and his. supporters left the House and allowed a
motion hostile to tariff reform to be passed nem. con. Though
the Scottish Churches Bill, the Unemployed Bill and the Aliens
Bill were passed, a complete fiasco occurred over the redistribu-
tion proposals, which pleased nobody and had to be withdrawn
owing to a blunder as to procedure; and though on the i;th of
July a meeting of the party at the foreign office resulted in
verbal assurances of loyalty, only two days later the government
was caught in a minority of four on the estimates for the Irish
Land Commission. For a few days it was uncertain whether
they would resign or dissolve, but it was decided to hold on.
The real causes, however, which kept the government in office,
were gradually losing their validity. The Russo-Japanese War
came to an end; the new offensive and defensive alliance with
Japan was signed on the izth of August; the successful Anglo-
French agreement, concluded in April 1904, had brought out a
vigorous expression of cordiality between England and France,
shown in an enthusiastic exchange of naval visits; and the
danger, which threatened in the early summer, of complications
254
BALFOUR, F. M.
with France and Gemany over Morocco, was in a fair way of
being dispelled by the support given to France by Great Britain.
The Liberal leaders had given public pledges of their adhesion
to Lord Lansdowne's foreign policy, and the fear of their being
unable to carry it on was no longer a factor in the public mind.
The end came in November 1905, precipitated by a speech
made by Mr Balfour at Newcastle on the i4th, appealing for
unity in the party and the sinking of differences, an appeal
plainly addressed to Mr Chamberlain, whose supporters the
vast majority of the Unionists were clamouring for a fighting
policy. But Mr Chamberlain was no longer prepared to wait.
On the 2ist of November at Bristol he insisted on his programme
being adopted, and Mr Balfour was compelled to abandon the
position he had held with so much tactical dexterity for two
years past. Amid Liberal protests in favour of immediate
dissolution, he resigned on the 4th of December; and Sir
Henry Campbell-Bannerman, being entrusted by the king with
the formation of a government, filled his cabinet with a view
to a general election in January. The Unionists went to the
polls with divided counsels, and sustained a crushing defeat,
remarkable nevertheless for the comparative success of the
tariff reformers. While Mr Chamberlain had a signal personal
triumph in all the divisions of Birmingham, Mr Balfour himself
was defeated by a large majority in Manchester.
Being in a miserable minority in parliament (157 Unionists
against 379 Liberals, 51 Labour "members, and 83 Nationalists),
some fornvof consolidation among the Unionists was immediately
necessary, and negotiations took place between Mr Balfour and
Mr Chamberlain which resulted in the patching up of an agree-
ment (expressed in a correspondence dated February I4th), and
its confirmation at a meeting of the party at Lansdowne House a
few days later. The new compact was indicated in Mr Balfour's
letter, in which he declared that " fiscal reform is, and must
remain, the first constructive work of the Unionist party; its
objects are to secure more equal terms of competition for British
trade and closer commercial union with the colonies; and while
it is at present unnecessary to prescribe the exact methods by
which these objects are to be attained, and inexpedient to permit
differences of opinion as to these methods to divide the party,
though other means are possible, the establishment of a moderate
general tariff on manufactured goods, not imposed for the purpose
of raising prices, or giving artificial protection against legitimate
competition, and the imposition of a small duty on foreign corn,
are not in principle objectionable, and should be adopted if
shown to be necessary for the attainment of the ends in view or
for purposes of revenue." Mr Balfour's leadership of the whole
party was now confirmed ; and a seat was found for him in theCity
of London by the retirement of Mr Gibbs.
The downfall of Mr Balfour's administration, and the necessity
of reorganizing the Unionist forces on the basis of the common
platform now adopted, naturally represented a fresh departure
under his leadership, the conditions of which to some extent
depended on the opportunities given to the new opposition by
the proceedings of the Radical government (see CAMPBELL-
BANNERMAN, SIR H. ; and ASQUITH, H. H.). His own adminis-
tration had been wrecked, through no initiative of his, by the
dissensions over the fiscal question. But his wide range of know-
ledge and interests, his intellectual finesse, his personal hold over
his supporters, his statesmanlike grasp upon imperial problems
and his oratorical ability, had been proved to a remarkable
degree; and in foreign affairs his tenure of power had been
conspicuously successful. He left his country indeed in a posi-
tion of strength abroad, which it had not held since the Crimean
War. His institution of the permanent Committee of Imperial
Defence, and of the new Army Council (1904), were reforms of
the highest importance, resulting from the report of a " trium-
virate " consisting of Lord Esher, Sir John Fisher and Sir
George Clarke, appointed in November 1903. The Unionist
r6gime as a whole, however, had collapsed. Its ministers had
become " stale." The heavy taxation of the war years was still
retained, to the disgust especially of the income-tax payers;
and new issues arose over the Education Act, labour questions,
and the introduction of Chinese labour into South Africa (in
1904), which were successfully used against the government
in the constituencies. The result was an electoral defeat which
indicated, no doubt, a pronounced weakening of Mr Balfour's
position in public confidence. This verdict, however, was one
based mainly on temporary reasons, which were soon to be over-
shadowed by the new issues involved in the change of ministry.
As a matter of fact, a year of opposition had not passed before
his power in the House of Commons, even with so small a party
behind him, was once more realized. The immense Radical
majority started with a feeling of contempt for the leader who
had been rejected at Manchester, but by 1907 he had completely
reasserted his individual pre-eminence among parliamentarians.
Mr Balfour had never spoken more brilliantly, nor shone more as a
debater, than in these years when he had to confront a House of
Commons three-fourths of which was hostile. His speech at
Birmingham (November 14, 1907), fully accepting the principles
of Mr Chamberlain's fiscal policy, proved epoch-making in
consolidating the Unionist party except for a small number of
free-traders, like Lord Robert Cecil, who continued to hold out
in favour of tariff reform; and during 1908 the process of
recuperation went on, the by-elections showing toamarked degree
the increased popular support given to the Unionist candidates.
This recovery was due also to the forcible-feeble character of the
Radical campaign against the House of Lords, the unpopularity
of the Licensing Bill, the failure of the government to arrive
at an education settlement, the incapacity of its Irish administra-
tion, its apparent domination by the " little navy " section,
and its dallying with Socialism in the budget of 1909.
The rejection of this budget in December by the House of
Lords led to a" desperate struggle at the polls in January
1910, but the confident hopes of the Unionists were
doomed to disappointment. They won back over a hundred
seats, returning 273 strong, but were still in a minority,
the Liberals numbering 275, Labour members 40, and Irish
Nationalists 82. Mr Balfour himself was elected for
the City of London by an enormous majority.
Mr Balfour's other publications, not yet mentioned, include
Essays and Addresses (1893) and The Foundations of Belief,
being Notes introductory to the Study of Theology (1895). He was
made LL.D. of Edinburgh University in 1881; of St Andrews
University in 1885; of Cambridge University in 1888 ; of
Dublin and Glasgow Universities in 1891; lord rector of St
Andrews University in 1886; of Glasgow University in 1890;
chancellor of Edinburgh University in 1891; member of the
senate London University in 1888; and D C.L. of Oxford
University in 1891. He was president of the British Association
in 1904, and became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1888. He
was known from early life as a cultured musician, and became an
enthusiastic golf player, having been captain of the Royal and
Antient Golf Club of St Andrews in 1894-1895. (H. CH.)
BALFOUR, FRANCIS MAITLAND (1851-1882), British biolo-
gist, younger brother of Arthur James Balfour, was born
at Edinburgh on the loth of November 1851. At Harrow school
he showed but little interest in the ordinary routine, but in one
of the masters, Mr George Griffith, he fortunately found a man
who encouraged and aided him in the pursuit of natural science,
a taste for which, and especially for geology, had been cultivated
in him by his mother from an early age. Going into residence
at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1870, he was elected a natural
science scholar of his college in the following year, and although
his reading was not ordered on the lines usual for the Schools,
he obtained the second place in the Natural Science Tripos of
December 1873. A course of lectures on embryology, delivered
by Sir Michael Foster in 1871, definitely turned his attention to
animal morphology, and, after his tripos, he was selected to
occupy one of the two seats allocated to the university of
Cambridge at the Naples zoological station. The research work
which he began there contributed in an important degree to his
election as a fellow of Trinity in 1874, and also afforded him
material for a series of papers (published as a monograph in
1878) on the Elasmobranch fishes, which threw new light on
BALFOUR, SIR J. BALGUY
255
the development of several organs in the Vertebrates, in particular
of the uro-genital and nervous systems. His next work was to
write a large treatise, Comparative Embryology, in two volumes;
the first, published in 1880, dealing with the Invertebrates, and
the second (1881) with the Vertebrates. This book displayed a
vigorous scientific imagination, always controlled by a logical
sense that rigidly distinguished between proved fact and mere
hypothesis, and it at once won wide recognition, not only as an
admirable digest of the numberless observations made with
regard to the development of animals during the quarter of a
century preceding its publication, but also on account of the
large amount of original research incorporated in its pages.
Balfour's reputation was now such that other universities became
anxious to secure his services, and he was invited to succeed
Professor George Rolleston at Oxford and Sir Wyville Thomson
at Edinburgh. But although he was only a college lecturer,
holding no official post in his university, he declined to leave
Cambridge, and in the spring of 1882 the university recognized
his merits by instituting a special professorship of animal
morphology for his benefit. Unhappily he did not deliver a
single professorial lecture. During the first term after his
appointment he was incapacitated from work by an attack of
typhoid fever. Going to the Alps to recruit his health, he
perished, probably on the igth of July 1882, in attempting the
ascent of the Aiguille Blanche, Mont Blanc, at that time unsealed.
Besides being a brilliant morphologist, Balfour was an accom-
plished naturalist, and had he lived would probably have
taken a high place among British taxonomists.
BALFOUR, SIR JAMES, BART, (of Denmylne and Kinnaird)
(c. 1600-1657), Scottish annalist and antiquary. He was well
acquainted with Sir William Segar and with Dugdale, to whose
Monasticon he contributed. He was knighted by Charles I. in
1630, was made Lyon king-at-arms in the same year, and in
1633 baronet of Kinnaird. He was removed from his office of
king-at-arms by Cromwell and died in 1657. Some of his
numerous works are preserved in the Advocates' library at
Edinburgh, together with his correspondence from which rich
collection Haig published Balfour's Annales of Scotland in 4 vols.
8vo (1824-1825).
See Sibbald, Memoria Balfouriana (1699).
BALFOUR, SIR JAMES (of Pittendreich) (d. 1583 or 1584),
Scottish judge and politician, son of Sir Michael Balfour of
Montquhanny, was educated for the legal branch of the church
of Scotland. In June 1547, together with Knox and others taken
at St Andrews, he was condemned to the French galleys, but was
released in 1549, abjured the reformers, entered the service of
Mary of Guise, and was rewarded with some considerable legal
appointments. Subsequently he went over to the lords of the
congregation and then betrayed their plans. After Mary's
arrival in Scotland he became one of her secretaries, in 1565
being reported as her greatest favourite after Rizzio. 1 He
obtained the parsonage of Flisk in Fife in 1561, was nominated
a lord of session, and in 1563 one of the commissaries of the
court which now took the place of the former ecclesiastical
tribunal; in 1565 he was made a privy -councillor, and in 1566
lord-clerk-register, and was knighted. According to Mary his
murder was intended together with Rizzio's in 1566. An
adherent of Bothwell, he was deeply implicated in Darnley's
murder, though not present at the commission of the crime. By
his means Darnley was lodged at Kirk o' Field, his brothers'
house. He was supposed to have drawn up the bond at Craig-
millar for the murder; he signed it, was made under Bothwell
deputy-governor of Edinburgh Castle, and is said to have drawn
up the marriage-contract between Bothwell and Mary. When,
however, the fall of Bothwell was seen to be impending he
rapidly changed sides and surrendered the castle to Murray,
stipulating for hispardon for Darnley's murder,the retention of the
priory of Pittenweem, and pecuniary rewards. He was appointed
president of the court of session on resigning the office of lord-
clerk-register. He was present at the battle of Langside with
the regent in 1568, and was accused of having advised Mary to
1 Cat. of Slate Pap. (Scottish), ii. 218, 250.
leave Dunbar to her ruin, and of having betrayed to her
enemies the casket letters. The same year, however, in con-
sequence of renewed intrigues with Mary's faction, he was
dismissed, and next year was imprisoned on the charge of
complicity in Darnley's murder. He succeeded in effecting his
escape by means of bribery, the expenses of which he is said to
have paid by intercepting the money sent from France to Mary's
aid. In August 1571, during the regency of Lennox, an act of
forfeiture was passed against him, but next year he was again
playing traitor and discovering the secrets of his party to Morton,
and he obtained a pardon from the latter in 1573 and negotiated
the pacification of Perth the same year. Distrusted by all parties,
he fled to France, where he seems to have remained till 1580.
In 1579 his forfeiture was renewed by act of parliament. In
January 1 580 he wrote to Mary offering her his services, and in
June protested his desire to be useful to Elizabeth, lamented the
influence of the Jesuits, and intended a journey to Dieppe to hear
some good Protestant preaching. 2 On the 27 th of December of the
same year he returned to Scotland and effected the downfall and
execution of Morton by producing a bond, probably that in
defence of Bothwell and to promote his marriage with Mary, and
giving evidence of the latter's knowledge of Bothwell's intention
to murder Darnley. In July 1581 his cause was reheard; he was
acquitted of murder by assize, and shortly afterwards in 1581 or
1582 he was restored to his estates and received at court. His
career, one of the blackest in the annals of political perfidy
and crime, closed shortly before the 24th of January 1584. He
was the greatest lawyer of his day, and part-author at least of
Balfour's Practicks, the earliest text-book of Scottish law, not
published, however, till 1754. He married Margaret, daughter
and heir of Michael Balfour of Burleigh, by whom, besides three
daughters, he had six sons, the eldest of whom was created
Baron Balfour of Burleigh in 1607.* >
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See article in the Diet, of Nat. Biog. and authori-
ties there quoted; Balfour's Practicks (1754) and introductory
preface; A. Lang's Hist, of Scotland, vol. ii. and authorities (1902);
Sir J. Melville's Memoirs (Bannatyne Club, 1827); Col. of State
Papers Register of Privy Council of Scotland, i.-iii.; Scottish
Series (Thorpe), i. and ii. (Bain), ii.-iv. ; The Border Papers, i. ;
Hamilton Papers, ii. (Foreign). (P. C. Y.)
BALFOUR, ROBERT (known also as BALFOREUS) (1550?-
1625?), Scottish philosopher, was educated at St Andrews
and the university of Paris. He was for many years principal
of the Guienne College at Bordeaux. His great work is his
Commentarii in Organum Logicum Aristotelis (Bordeaux, 1618);
the copy in the British Museum contains a number of highly-
eulogistic poems in honour of Balfour, who is described as
Graium aemultts acer. Balfour was one of the scholars who
contributed to spread over Europe the fame of the prae-
fervidum ingenium Scotorum. His contemporary, Dempster,
called him the " phoenix of his age, a philosopher profoundly
skilled in the Greek and Latin languages, and a mathematician
worthy of being compared with the ancients." His Cleomedis
meteora, with notes and Latin translation, was reprinted at
Leiden as late as 1820.
See Dempster, Historia, Ecclesiastica Gent. Scotorum', Irving's
Lives of the Scottish Writers; Anderson's Scottish Nation, i. 217.
BALGUY, JOHN (1686-1748), English divine and philosopher,
was born at Sheffield on the I2th of August 1686. He was
educated at the Sheffield grammar school and at St John's
College, Cambridge, graduated B.A. in 1706, was ordained in
1710, and in 1711 obtained the small living of Lamesley and
Tanfield in Durham. He married in 1715. It was the year in
which Bishop Hoadley preached the famous sermon on " The
Kingdom of Christ," which gave rise to the " Bangorian con-
troversy "; and Balguy, under the nom de plume of Silvius,
began his career of authorship by taking the side of Hoadley
in this controversy against some of his High Church opponents.
1 Col. of State Pap. (Foreign), 1579-1580, p. 294.
'The title was attainted in 1716, through the 5th baron's com-
plicity in the Jacobite rising of 1715. In 1869 it was restored to
Alexander Hugh Bruce (b. 1849), as 6th baron; he became one of
the most influential of contemporary Scottish noblemen, on the
Conservative side in politics, and was secretary for Scotland from
1895 to 1903.
256
BALI BALIKISRI
In 1726 he published A letter to a Deist concerning the Beauty
and Excellency of Moral Virtue, and the Support and Improve-
ment which it receives from the Christian Religion, chiefly
designed to show that, while a love of virtue for its own sake is
the highest principle of morality, religious rewards and punish-
ments are most valuable, and in some cases absolutely indis-
pensable, as sanctions of conduct. In 1727 he was made a
prebendary of Salisbury by his friend Hoadley. He published in
the same year the first part of a tractate entitled The Founda-
tion of Moral Goodness, and in the following year a second
part, Illustrating and enforcing the Principles contained in the
former. The aim of the work is two-fold to refute the
theory of Hutcheson regarding the basis of rectitude, and to
establish the theory of Cudworth and Clarke, that virtue is
conformity to reason the acting according to fitnesses which
arise out of the eternal and immutable relations of agents to
objects. In 1 7 29 he became vicar of Northallerton, in the county
of York. His next work was an essay on Divine Rectitude: or,
a Brief Inquiry concerning the Moral Perfections of the Deity,
particularly in respect of Creation and Providence. It is an attempt
to show that the same moral principle which ought to direct
human life may be perceived to underlie the works and ways of
God: goodness in the Deity not being a mere disposition to
benevolence, but a regard to an order, beauty and harmony,
which are not merely relative to our faculties and capacities,
but real and absolute; claiming for their own sakes the reverence
of all intelligent beings, and alone answering to the perfection of
the divine ideas. Balguy wrote several other terse and readable
tracts of the same nature, which he collected and published in
a single volume in 1734. In 1741 he published an Essay on
Redemption, containing somewhat advanced views. Redemption
as taught in Scripture means, according to him, " the deliverance
or release of mankind from the power and punishment of sin, by
the meritorious sufferings of Jesus Christ," but involves no
translation of guilt, substitution of persons or vicarious punishment.
Freed from these ideas, which have arisen from interpreting
literally expressions which are properly figurative, the doctrine,
he argues, satisfies deep and urgent human wants, and is hi perfect
consistence and agreement with reason and rectitude. His last
publication was a volume of sermons, pervaded by good sense
and good feeling, and clear, natural and direct in style. He
died at Harrogate on the 2ist of September 1748. A second
volume of sermons appeared in 1750 (3rd ed. in 2 vols., 1760).
BALI, an island of the East Indies, E. of Java, from which
it is separated by Bali Strait, which is shallow, and scarcely over
a mile in width at its narrowest point. Bali is 93 m. in length,
and its greatest breadth is 50 m. The area is 2095 sq. m. In
1882, for administrative purposes, Bali was separated from Java
and combined with the island of Lombok to form the Dutch
residency of Lombok and Bali. Politically its divisions are two:
(i) the two districts, Buleleng and Jembrana, on Dutch territory;
and (2) the autonomous states of Klung Lung, Bangli, Mengui,
Badung and Tabanan. Buleleng, on the north-west, is the chief
town. The population on Dutch territory in the whole residency
in the year 1905 was 523,535. Bali belongs physically to
Java; the climate and soil are the same and it has mountains
of proportionate height. There are several lakes of great depth
and streams well fitted for the purposes of irrigation, of which
full advantage is taken by the natives. The geological formation
includes (like that of Java) three regions the central volcanic,
the southern peninsula of Tertiary limestone, and alluvial plains
between the older formations. The highest volcanoes, Tabanan,
Batur and Gunung Agung (Bali Beak), have respectively heights
f 7545 ft-, 7383 ft., and 10,497 ft., the central chain having an
average altitude of 3282 ft. As regards flora and fauna Bali is
associated with Java. The deep strait which separates it on
the east from Lombok was taken by A. R. Wallace (<?..) as
representing the so-called Wallace's Line, whereby he demarcated
the Asiatic from the Australian fauna.
The natives of Bali, though of the same stock as the Javanese,
and resembling them in general appearance, exceed them in
stature and muscular power, as well as in activity and enterprise.
They are skilful agriculturists and artisans, especially hi textile
fabrics and the manufacture of arms. Though native rule is
tyrannical and arbitrary, especially in the principalities of
Badung and Tabanan, trade and industry could not flourish
if insecurity of persons and property existed to any great extent.
The natives have also a remedy against the aggression of their
rulers hi their own hands; it is called Metilas, consists in a general
rising and renunciation of allegiance, and proves mostly successful.
Justice is administered from a written civil and criminal code.
Slavery is abolished. Hinduism, which was once the religion of
Java, but has been extinct there for four centuries, is still in
vogue hi the islands of Bali and Lombok, where the cruel
custom of widow-burning (suttee) is still practised, and the
Hindu system of the four castes, with a fifth or Pariah caste
(called Chandala), adhered to. It appears partly blended with
Buddhism, partly overgrown with a belie/ hi Kalas, or evil
spirits. To appease these, offerings are made to them either
direct or through the mediation of the Devas (domestic or
agrarian deities); and if these avail not, the Menyepi or Great
Sacrifice is resorted to. In the course of this ceremony, after the
sacrifice, men rush in all directions carrying torches; the women
also carry fire-brands, or knock on the houses with rice-crushers
and other heavy implements, and thus the evil spirits are con-
sidered to be driven away. The Mahommedan religion occurs
among the coastal population. The Balinese language belongs to
the same group of the Malayan class as the Javanese, Sundanese,
Madurese, &c., but is as distinct from each of these as French is
from Italian. It is most nearly akin to the Sasak language spoken
in Lombok and on the east coast of Bali. The literary language
has embodied many of its ingredients from the Old Javanese,
as spoken in Java at the time of the fall of Majapahit (isth
century), while the vulgar dialect has kept free from such
admixture. Javanese influence is also traceable in the use of
three varieties of speech, as hi the Javanese language, according
to the rank of the people addressed. The alphabet is with some
modifications the same as the Javanese, but more complicated.
The material universally used for writing on is the prepared leaf
of the lontar palm. The sacred literature of the Balinese is
written in the ancient Javanese or Kauri language, which appears
to be better understood here than it is in Java. A general decline
in culture is manifest in the Balinese. Of the early history of
their island the Balinese know nothing. The oldest tradition
they possess refers to a time shortly after the overthrow of the
Majapahit dynasty in Java, about the middle of the i sth century;
but it has been supposed that there must have been Indian
settlers here before the middle of the ist century, by whom the
present name, probably cognate with the Sanskrit balin, strong,
was in all likelihood imposed. It was not till 1633 that the Dutch
attempted to enter into alliance with the native princes, and their
earliest permanent settlement at Port Badung only dates from
1845. Their influence was extended by the results of the war
which they waged with the natives about 1847-49.
The only roadstead safe all the year round is Temukus on the
north coast. The rivers are not navigable. Agriculture is the chief
means of subsistence; rice being a crop of particular importance.
Other crops grown for export are coffee, tobacco, cocoa and
indigo. Gold-working, the making of arms and musical instru-
ments, wood-carving, cotton, silk and gold thread weaving are
of importance. There are numerous Arab and Chinese traders.
See R. Van Eck, Schetsen van het eiland Bali, Tijdsch. van Nederl.
Indie (1878-1879) ; I. Jacobs, Eeenigen tijd onder de Bolters
(Batavia, 1883); H. Tonkes, Volkskunde von Bali (Halle, 1888);
Liefrinck, De rijst cultuur op Bali, Indische Gids. (1886).
BALIKISRI (Balukiser), a town of Asia Minor, capital of the
Karasi sanjak in the vilayet of Brusa, altitude 575 ft., situated-
on rising ground above a fertile plain which drains to the
Sea of Marmora. Pop. 20,000 (Moslems, 15,000; Christians,
5000). It is a centre of trade in opium, silk and cereals, com-
municating by carriage roads with Panderma. The sanjak is
rich in mineral wealth; silver mines are worked at Balk and
boracite mines at Susurlu. At or near Balikisri was the Roman
town of Hadrianutherae, founded, as its name commemorates,
by the emperor Hadrian.
BALIOL
257
BALIOL, the name of a family which played an important
part in the history of Scotland. The founder of the family in
England was a Norman baron, Guy or Guido de Baliol, who
held the fiefs of Bailleul, Dampierre, Harcourt and Vinoy in
Normandy. Coming to England with William the Conqueror,
he received lands in the north of England from William II., and
his son, or grandson, Bernard or Barnard de Baliol, built a
fortress in Durham called Castle Barnard, around which the town
of Barnard Castle grew. The first burgesses probably obtained
their privileges from him. Bernard fought for King Stephen
during the civil war, was present at the battle of the Standard
in August 1138, and was taken prisoner at the battle of Lincoln
in February 1141. The date of his death is uncertain. Dugdale
only believes in the existence of one Bernard de Baliol, but it
seems more probable that the Bernard de Baliol referred to after
1 167 was a son of the elder Bernard, and not the same individual.
If so the younger Bernard was one of the northern barons who
raised the siege of Alnwick; and took William the Lion, king of
Scotland, prisoner in July 1174. He also confirmed the privileges
granted by his father to the burgesses of Barnard Castle, and was
succeeded by his son Eustace. Practically nothing is known of
Eustace, or of his son Hugh who succeeded about 1215. Hugh's
son and successor, John de Baliol, who increased his wealth and
position by a marriage with Dervorguila (d. 1290), daughter of
Alan, earl of Galloway, is said to have possessed thirty knights'
fees in England and one half of the lands in Galloway. He was
one of the regents of Scotland during the minority of Alexander
III., but in 1255 was deprived of this office and his lands forfeited
for treason. He then appeared in England fighting for Henry III.
against Simon de Montfort, and was taken prisoner at the battle
of Lewes in 1 264. About 1 263 he established several scholarships
at Oxford, and after his death in 1269 his widow founded the
college which bears the name of the family. He left four sons,
three of whom died without issue, and in 1278 his lands came to
his son, John de Baliol (g.v.), who was king of Scotland from
1292 to 1296, and who died in Normandy in 1315. John's eldest
son by his marriage with Isabel, daughter of John de Warenne,
earl of Surrey, was Edward de Baliol who shared his father's
captivity in England in 1296. Subsequently crossing over to
France, he appears to have lived mainly on his lands in Normandy
until 1324, when he was invited to England by King Edward II.,
who hoped to bring him forward as a candidate for the Scottish
crown. A favourable opportunity, however, did not arise until
after the death of King Robert the Bruce in 1329, when Edward
III. had succeeded his father on the English throne. Although
Edward did not give Baliol any active assistance, the claimant
placed himself at the head of some disinherited Scottish nobles,
raised a small army and sailed from Ravenspur. Landing at
Kinghorn in Fifesbire in August 1332, he gained a complete
victory over the Scots under Donald, earl of Mar, at Dupplin
Moor, took Perth, and on the 24th of September was crowned
king of Scotland at Scone. He then acknowledged Edward III.
as his superior, but soon afterwards was defeated at Annan
(where his brother, Henry de Baliol, was slain) and compelled to
fly to England. Regaining his kingdom aftdr the defeat of the
Scots at Halidon Hill in July 1333, Baliol surrendered the whole
of the district formerly known as Lothian to Edward, and did
homage for Scotland to the English king. His party, however,
was weakened by disunion, and he won no serious support in
Scotland. Entirely dependent on Edward, he again sought
refuge in England, and took a very slight part in the war waged
on his behalf. He returned to Scotland after the defeat of King
David II. at Neville's Cross in 1346. After making an absolute
surrender of Scotland to Edward III. in 1356 at Roxburgh in
return for a pension, Edward de Baliol died at Wheatley near
Doncaster in 1367.
A cadet branch of the Baliol family was descended from
Ingelram, or Engelram, a son of the younger Bernard de Baliol.
Ingelram's wife was the daughter and heiress of William de
Berkeley, lord of Reidcastle in Forfarshire, and chamberlain of
Scotland, and by her he had a son Henry, who became chamber-
lain about 1223. Henry married Lora or Lauretta, a daughter
in. 9
of Philip de Valoines (Valsques), lord of Panmure, and in 1234
inherited part of the rich English fiefs of the Valoines family.
He sided with the English barons against John in 1215, and
accompanied Henry III. to France in 1 242. He died in 1246. It
is probable but not certain that Henry's son was Alexander de
Baliol, lord of Cavers in Teviotdale, and chamberlain of Scotland.
Alexander took a leading part in Scottish affairs during the latter
part of the I3th century, and Is first mentioned as chamberlain in
1 287. He shared in the negotiations between the Scottish nobles
and Edward I. of England which culminated in the treaty of
Salisbury in 1289, and the treaty of Brigham in 1200. Probably
deprived of his office as chamberlainabout 1 296 he may have shared
the imprisonment of his kinsman, John de Baliol the king. He
then fought in Scotland for Edward, and was summoned to several
English parliaments. His wife was Isabella de Chilham, through
whom he obtained lands in Kent. He died about 1309, leaving
a son, Alexander, whose son, Thomas, sold the estate of Cavers
to William, earl of Douglas, in 1368. Thomas is the last of the
Baliols mentioned in the Scottish records.
A late and dubious tradition asserts that the family name
became so discredited owing to the pusillanimous conduct of
John and Edward Baliol that it was abandoned by its owners in
favour of the form Baillie.
See John of Fordun, Chronica gentis Scotorum, edited by W. F.
Skene (Edinburgh, 1871-1872); Andrew of Wyntoun, The Orygynale
Cronykil of Scotland, edited by David Laing (Edinburgh, 1872-1879) ;
Gesta Edwardi de Carnarvon, by a canon of Bridlington, edited by
W. Stubbs (London, 1883) ; W. Dugdale, The Baronage of England
(London, 1675-1676) ; R. Surtees, The History of Durham (London,
1816-1840); Documents and Records illustrating the History of
Scotland, edited by F. T. Palgrave (London, 1837); Documents
illustrative of the History of Scotland (1286-1306), edited by J. Steven-
son (Edinburgh, 1870); Calendar of Documents relating to Scotland,
edited by J. Bain (Edinburgh, 1881-1888).
BALIOL, JOHN DE (1249-1315), king of Scotland, was a son
of John de Baliol (d. 1269) of Barnard Castle, Durham, by his
wife Dervorguila, daughter of Alan, earl of Galloway, and
became head of the Baliol family (see above) and lord of extensive
lands in England, France -and Scotland on his elder brother's
death in 1278. Little else, however, is known of his early life.
He came into prominence when the Scottish throne became
vacant in 1290 owing to the death of Margaret, the " maid of
Norway," a granddaughter of King Alexander III., and was
one of the three candidates for the crown whose pretensions
were seriously considered. Claiming through his maternal
grandmother, Margaret, the eldest daughter of David, earl of
Huntingdon (d. 1219), who was a grandson of King David I.,
Baliol's principal rival was Robert Bruce, earl of Annandale,
and the dispute was the somewhat familiar one of the eldest by
descent against the nearest of kin. Meanwhile the English king,
Edward I., was closely watching the trend of affairs in Scotland
and was invited to settle this dispute. It is doubtful what
rights, if any, the English kings had over Scotland, but when
Edward met the Scottish nobles at Norham in May 1291, he
demanded a formal recognition of his position as overlord of
Scotland. After some delay this was tacitly admitted by the
nobles, and acknowledged by Baliol and the other competitors,
who all agreed to abide by his decision. A court of eighty
Scotsmen and twenty-four Englishmen was then appointed
to try the question. Traversing the statements made in favour
of Bruce, Baliol claimed by the principles of feudal law for an
indivisible inheritance, and on the advice of the court Edward
decided in his favour. Having sworn fealty to the English king,
Baliol was crowned king of Scotland at Scone on the 3oth of
November 1292; in his new capacity he did homage to Edward
at Newcastle, and in January 1293 released the English king
from all promises and obligations made while the kingdom of
Scotland was in his hands. These amicable relations were soon
disturbed. A Scottish vassal carried his case to Edward as
Baliol's overlord, and Baliol himself was soon summoned to the
English court to answer a suit brought against him. After a
short struggle he admitted Edward's right, and in May 1294
attended a parliament in London. He soon quarrelled with his
overlord, the exact point at issue being doubtful, and returned
25 8
BALIUAG BALKAN PENINSULA
to Scotland. Consequent on the dispute which had broken out
between England and France, a council of twelve was appointed
to assist him, and it was decided to defy Edward. Englishmen
were dismissed from the Scottish court, their fiefs were con-
fiscated, and an alliance was concluded with Philip IV., king
of France. War broke out, but Baliol did not take the field in
person. Invading Scotland, Edward met with a feeble resistance,
and at Brechin in July 1296 Baliol surrendered his kingdom to
Antony Bek, bishop of Durham, as the representative of the
English king. About the same time he appeared before Edward
at Montrose, and deh'vered to him a white rod, the feudal token
of resignation. With his son, Edward, he was taken a prisoner
to England, remaining in captivity until July 1299, when he was
released at the request of Pope Boniface VIII. He lived for
some time under the pope's supervision, and seems to have
passed his remaining days quietly on his French estates. He
died in Normandy early in 1315, leaving several children by his
wife, Isabel, a daughter of John de Warenne, earl of Surrey
(d. 1304).
See Documents andRecords illustrating the History pfScotland,edited
by F. T. Palgrave (London, 1837) ; Documents illustrative of the
History of Scotland, 1286-1306, edited by J. Stevenson (Edinburgh,
1870) ; J. H. Burton, History of Scotland, vol. ii. (Edinburgh, 1905) ;
A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1904) ; Sir H.
Maxwell, Robert the Bruce (London, 1897); Calendar of Documents
relating to Scotland, edited by J. Bain (Edinburgh, 1881-1888).
Also SCOTLAND : History.
BALIUAG, a town of the province of Bulacan, Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands, on the Quingua river, 29 m. (by rail) N.N.W. of
Manila. Pop. (1903) 21,008, including the population (7072)
of Bustos, which was annexed to Baliuag in that year after the
census was taken. Baliuag is served by an extension of the
railway between Manila and Dagupan. It is the trade centre
of a fertile agricultural district, and manufactures bamboo hats,
silk and native fibre goods.
BALKAN PENINSULA, the most easterly of the three large
peninsulas which form the southern extremities of the European
continent. Its area, 184,779 S Q- m -> is about 35,000 sq. m. less
than that of the Iberian Peninsula, but more than twice that of
the Italian. Its northern boundary stretches from the Kilia
mouth of the Danube to the Adriatic Sea near Fiume, and is
generally regarded as marked by the courses of the rivers Danube,
Save and Kulpa. On the E. it is bounded by the Black Sea,
the Sea of Marmora, and the Aegean; on the S. by the
Mediterranean; on the W. by the Ionian Sea and the Adriatic.
With the exception of the Black Sea coast and the Albanian
littoral, its shores are considerably indented and flanked by
groups of islands. The Peninsula in its general contour resembles
an inverted pyramid or triangle, terminating at its apex in a
subsidiary peninsula, the Peloponnesus or Morea. Its surface
is almost entirely mountainous, the only extensive plains being
those formed by the valleys of the Danube and Maritza, and the
basin of Thessaly drained by the Salambria (ancient Peneus).
The Danubian plain, lying, for the most part, outside the Penin-
sula, is enclosed, on the north, by the Carpathians; and on the
south by the Balkans, from which the Peninsula derives its
name. These ranges form together the great semicircular
mountain-chain, known as the anti-Dacian system, through
which the Danube finds a passage at the Iron Gates. The other
mountain-systems display great complexity of formation;
beginning with the Dinaric Alps and the parallel ranges of
Bosnia, they run, as a rule, from north-west to south-east; the
great chain of Rhodope traverses the centre of the Peninsula,
throwing out spurs towards the Black Sea and the Aegean;
farther west are the lofty Shar Dagh and the mountains of
Montenegro and Albania, continued by the Pindus range and
the heights of Acarnania and Aetolia. The principal summits
are Olympus (9794 ft.), overlooking-the Gulf of Salonica; Musalla
(9631) and Popova Shapka (8855), both in the Rhodope system;
Liubotrn in the Shar Dagh (8989); Elin, in the Perin Planina
(8794); Belmeken in southern Bulgaria (chain of Dospat, 8562);
Smolika in the Pindus range (8445); Dormitor in northern
Montenegro (8294) ; Kaimakchalan in central Macedonia (8255) ;
and Kiona in Aetolia (8235). Owing to the distribution of the
mountain-chains, the principal rivers flow in an easterly or south-
easterly direction; the Danube falls into the Black Sea; the
Maritza, Mesta, Struma (Slrymon), Vardar and Salambria into
the Aegean. The only considerable rivers flowing into the
Adriatic are the Narenta, Drin and Viossa. The principal
lakes are those of Ochrida, Prespa, Scutari and lannina. The
climate is more severe than that of the sister peninsulas, and
the temperature is liable to sudden changes. The winter,
though short, is often intensely cold, especially in the Danubian
plain and in Thrace, the rigorous climate of which is frequently
alluded to by the Latin poets. Bitter north-easterly winds
prevail in the spring, and snow is not uncommon even in the
low-lying districts of Greece. The autumn weather is generally
fine and clear.
Geology. Broadly speaking, the Balkan Peninsula may be divided
into four areas which geologically are distinct. There is a central
region, roughly triangular in shape, with its base resting upon the
MEDITERRANEAN
Quaternary
\ Tertiary
1 Crttacepus. includn Trlasitc I
] 4- Jara.-^i: not y*t uparetfly
'Hj Tr lassie
H Carboniferous
Archaean A Metainoiphic
emery Wtkcr*
ii] Plutonic Koctii
H Volcanic Rocks
o Active Volcanoes
Jurassic
Aegean Sea and its apex in Servia. On two sides this area is bordered
by belts of folded beds which form on the west the mountain ranges
of the Adriatic and Ionian coasts, and on the north the chain of
the Balkans. Finally, beyond the Balkans lies the great Rumanian
depression, occupied chiefly by undisturbed Cretaceous and Tertiary
strata. The central region, although wedged in between two belts of
folding, is not affec.ted by the folds of either, excepting near its
margins. It consists largely of crystalline and schistose rocks. The
core is formed by the mountain masses of Rhodope, Belasitza, Perin
and Rila: and here Palaeozoic and Mesozoic beds are absent, and
the earliest sedimentary deposits belong to the Tertiary period and
lie flat upon the crystalline rocks. Upon the margins, however,
Cretaceous beds are found. The eastern parts of Greece are com-
posed almost entirely of Cretaceous beds, but nevertheless they
must be considered to belong to the central area, for the folds which
affect them are nearly at right angles to those of the western chains.
In general, however, the central area is one of faulting rather than
of folding, and the sedimentary beds sometimes lie in troughs formed
by faults. Extensive volcanic outbursts occurred in this region during
the Tertiary period. In the western folded belt the strike of the folds is
N.W.-S.E., or N.N.W.-S.S.E. There are many local irregularities, but
the general direction is maintained as far as the southern extremity of
Greece, where the folds show a tendency to curve towards Crete.
In the north, Carboniferous beds are present, and the Trias and the
Jura take a considerable part in the formation of the chain. The
Sarmatian beds are also involved in the folds, indicating that the
folding was not completed till Pliocene times. In the south, the
older beds disappear and the whole chain is formed chiefly of Cre-
taceous beds, though Eocene and probably Jurassic rocks, are
BALKAN PENINSULA
259
present. The Eocene beds are folded, but the marginal Pliocene
beds are not, and the final folding seems to have taken place during
the Miocene period. (For the Balkans, see BULGARIA.)
Area and Population. The following figures show the area and
population of the various political divisions of the Balkan Peninsula
in 1909; see also the articles on the separate countries.
Pop. per
Political Divisions.
Area in sq. in.
Pop. in 1909.
sq. m.
Croatia-Slavonia (south of the Save
and Kulpa) ....
(about) 8,200
(about) 1,200,000
146-3
Servia .....
18,782
2.493.770
132-2
Bulgaria (with Eastern Rumclia) .
37-240
4,028,239
88-
The Dobrudja (Rumania)
5-896
258,242
43-9
Dalmatia (Austria)
4.923
59 1 -597
1 20- 1
Montenegro . . .
3-255
3".564
94
Bosnia and Herzegovina (Austria-
Hungary)
19,696
1,568,092
70-9
San jak of Novibazar (Turkish)
2,840;
153,000
53-5
Albania, Macedonia and other
Turkish possessions .
62,744
5,812,300
92-6
Greece ....
24,400
2,631,952
107-8
187,976
19.048,756
101-3
For full details as to the physical features, natural products,
population, customs, trade, finance, government, religion, education,
language, literature, antiquities, history, politics, &c., of the Balkan
lands, see ALBANIA, BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA, BULGARIA,
CROATIA-SLAVONIA, DALMATIA, DOBRUDJA, GREECE, ILLYRIA,
MACEDONIA, MONTENEGRO, NOVIBAZAR, SERVIA and TURKEY.
Races. The Peninsula is inhabited by a great variety of races,
whose ethnological limits are far from corresponding with the
existing political boundaries. The Turkish population, descended
in part from the Ottoman invaders of the I4th and 1 5th centuries,
fSffboCroats
< Bulgarian* ..
1 Russians
Magyars
Albanian*..
Vlachi
Grttkt.
Ctrmom
EmcryWitKcr v.
in part from colonists introduced at various epochs from Asia by
the Turkish government, declined considerably during the igth
century, especially in the countries withdrawn from the sultan's
authority. It is diminishing in Thessaly; it has entirely dis-
appeared in the rest of Greece, almost entirely in Servia; and it
continues to decrease in Bulgaria notwithstanding the efforts of
the authorities to check emigration. It is nowhere found in
compact masses except in north-eastern Bulgaria and the region
between Adrianople, the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmora.
Elsewhere it appears in separate villages and
isolated districts, or in the larger towns and their
immediate neighbourhood. The total Turkish
population of the Peninsula scarcely exceeds
1,800,000. The Slavonic population, including
the Serbo- Croats and Bulgars, is by far the
most numerous; its total aggregate exceeds
10,000,000. The majority of the Serbo-Croats left
their homes among the Carpathians and settled
in the Balkan Peninsula in the 7th century.
The distinction between the Serbs of the more
central region and the Croats of the north-west,
was first drawn by the early Byzantine chroni-
clers, and was well established by the i2th cen-
tury. It does not correspond with any valid
linguistic or racial difference ; but in the course of
time a strong religious difference arose. Along the Croatian and
Dalmatian coast there existed a well-developed Latin civiliza-
tion, which was sustained by constant intercourse with Italy;
and, under its influence, the Serbo-Croatian immigrants were
converted to the Roman Catholic Church. In the wild and
mountainous interior, however, the Byzantine Church had few
or no rivals and the Orthodox creed prevailed. The Orthodox
Serbs inhabit the kingdom of Servia, Old Servia (or Novibazar
and north-western Macedonia), Montenegro, Herzegovina and
parts of Bosnia. The Roman Catholic Croats predominate in
Dalmatia, north-western Bosnia and Croatia-Slavonia. Monte-
negro, like the other mountainous regions, adhered to the Greek
Church; it received a number of Orthodox Servian refugees at
the beginning of the isth century, when the Turks occupied
Servia. The numbers of the Serbo-Croats may be estimated at
about 5,600,000. The Bulgars, who descend from a fusion of the
Slavonic element with a later Ugro-Finnish immigration, inhabit
the kingdom of Bulgaria (including Eastern Rumelia), parts
of the Dobrudja and the greater part of Macedonia, except Old
Servia and the Aegean littoral. Apart from their colonies in
Bessarabia and elsewhere, they may be reckoned at 4,400,000.
Only a portion of the widely-spread Human or Vlach race, which
extends over a great part of Transylvania, south Hungary and
Bessarabia, as well as the Rumanian kingdom, falls within the
limits of the Peninsula. It is found in numerous detached
settlements in Macedonia, Albania and northern Greece, and in
colonies of recent date in Servia and Bulgaria. The nomad
Vlachs or Tzintzars of these countries call themselves Arumani
or " Romans "; they are a remnant of the native Latinized
population which received an increase from the immigration
of Daco-Roman refugees, who fled southwards during the 3rd
century, after the abandonment of Dacia by Aurelian. (See
VLACHS.) The entire Ruman population of the Balkan countries
may be set down approximately at 600,000. The Albanians, who
call themselves Shkiipetar or Arber, are the representatives of
the primitive Illyrian population; they inhabit the Adriatic lit-
toral from the southern frontier of Montenegro to the northern
boundary of Greece, in which country they are found in consider-
able numbers. They have shown a tendency to advance in a
north-easterly direction towards the Servian frontier, and the
movement has been encouraged for political reasons by the
Turkish government. The whole Albanian nation possibly
numbers from 1,500,000 to 1,600,000. The Greeks, whose
immigration from Asia Minor took place in pre-historic times, are,
next to the Albanians, the oldest race in the Peninsula. Their
maritime and commercial instincts have led them from the
earliest times to found settlements on the sea-coast and the
islands. They inhabit the Black Sea littoral from Varna to
the Bosporus, the shores of the Sea of Marmora and the Aegean,
the Aegean archipelago, the mainland of Greece, Epirus and the
western islands as far north as Corfu. In Constantinople they
260
BALKAN PENINSULA
probably exceed 300,000. They are seldom found in large
numbers at any great distance from the sea, and usually con-
gregate in the principal towns and commercial centres, such as
Adrianople, Constantza, Varna and Philippopolis; there are
also detached colonies at Melnik, Stanimaka, Kavakly, Niegush
and elsewhere. The Greek inhabitants of the Peninsula and
adjacent islands probably number 4,500,000. The remainder
of the population is for the most part composed of Armenians,
Jews and gipsies. The Armenians, like the Greeks, congregate
in the principal centres of trade, especially at Constantinople;
their numbers were greatly reduced by the massacres of 1896.
The Jews are most numerous at Salonica where they form half
the population. The gipsies are scattered widely throughout the
Peninsula; they are found not only in wandering troops, as
elsewhere in Europe, but in settlements or cantonments in the
neighbourhood of towns and villages.
Religions. Owing to the numerous conversions to Islam which
followed the Turkish conquest, the Mahommedan population of the
Peninsula is largely in excess of the purely Turkish element. More
than half the Albanian nation and 35 % of the inhabitants of Bosnia
and Herzegovina adopted the creed of the conquering race. Among
the Bulgars and Greeks the conversions were less numerous. The
Bulgarian Mahommedans, or Poniaks, who inhabit the valleys of
Rhodope and certain districts in northern Bulgaria, are numerically
insignificant; the Greek followers of Islam are almost confined to
Crete. The whole Moslem population of the Peninsula is about
3,300,000. The great bulk of the Christian population belongs to
the Orthodox Church, of which the oecumenical patriarch at Con-
stantinople is the nominal head, having precedence over all other
ecclesiastical dignitaries. The Bulgarian, Servian, Montenegrin
and Greek churches are, however, in reality autocephalous. The
Bulgarian church enjoys an exceptional position, inasmuch as its
spiritual chief, the exarch, who resides at Constantinople, controls
the Bulgarian prelates in European Turkey as well as those in the
kingdom of Bulgaria. On the other hand, the Greek prelates in
Bulgaria are subject to the patriarch. Religious and political
questions are intimately connected in eastern Europe. The heads
of the various religious communities are the only representatives
of the Christian population recognized by the Turkish government ;
they possess a seat in the local administrative councils and supervise
the Christian schools. The efforts of the several branches of the
Orthodox Church to obtain a separate organization in the Turkish
dominions are to be attributed exclusively to political motives, as no
difference of dogma divides them. The Serbo-Croats of Dalmatia,
and Croatia-Slavonia, some of the Gheg tribes in Albania, about
21 % of the Bosnians, a still smaller number of Bulgarians in the
kingdom and in Macedonia and a few Greeks in the islands belong
to the Roman Catholic Church. A certain number of Bulgars at
Kukush in Macedonia and elsewhere form a " uniate " church, which
accepts the authority and dogma of Rome, but preserves the Ortho-
dox rite and discipline. The Armenians are divided between the
Gregorian and Umate-Armenian churches, each under a patriarch.
The other Christian confessions are numerically inconsiderable. The
Gagaiizi in Eastern Bulgaria, a Turanian and Turkish-speaking race,
profess Christianity.
Languages. Until comparatively recent times Turkish and Greek
were the only languages systematically taught or officially recog-
nized in the Balkan lands subject to Turkish rule. The first, the
speech of the conquering race, was the official language; the second,
owing to the intellectual and literary superiority of the Greeks, their
educational zeal and the privileges acquired by their church, became
the language of the upper classes among the Christians. The
Slavonic masses, however, both Servian and Bulgarian, preserved
their language, which saved these nationalities from extinction.
The Servian dialect extending into regions which escaped the
Turkish yoke, enjoyed certain advantages denied to the Bulgarian :
in free Montenegro the first Slavonic printing-press was founded in
1493; at Ragusa, a century later, Servian literature attained a high
degree of excellence. Bulgarian, for nearly four centuries, ceased
to be a written language except in a few monasteries; a literary
revival, which began about the middle of the i8th century, was
the first symptom of returning national consciousness. The Servian,
Bulgarian and Rumanian languages have borrowed largely from
the Turkish in their vocabularies, but not in their structural forms,
and have adopted many words from the Greek. Moctern Greek has
also a large number of Turkish words which are rejected in the
artificial literary language. The revival of the various Balkan
nationalities was in every case accompanied or preceded by a literary
movement; in Servian literature, under the influence of Obradovich
and Vuk Karajich, the popular idiom, notwithstanding the opposi-
tion of the priesthood, superseded the ecclesiastical Russian-
Slavonic; in Bulgaria the eastern dialect, that of the Sredna Gora,
prevailed. Among the Greeks, whose literature never suffered a
complete eclipse, a similar effort to restore the classical tongue re-
sulted in a kind of compromise; the conventional literary language,
which is neither ancient nor modern, differs widely from the ver-
nacular. Albanian, the only surviving remnant of the ancient
Thraco-Illyrian speech, affords an interesting study to philologists.
It undoubtedly belongs to the Indo-European family, but its earlier
forms cannot, unfortunately, be ascertained owing to the absence
of literary monuments. Certain remarkable analogies between
Albanian and the other languages of the Peninsula, especially
Bulgarian and Rumanian, have been supposed to point to the
influence exercised by the primitive speech upon the idioms of the
immigrant races.
History. The great Slavonic immigration, which changed
the ethnographic face of the Peninsula, began in the 3rd century
A.D. and continued at intervals throughout the following four
centuries. At the beginning of this movement the Byzantine
empire was in actual or nominal possession of all the regions
south of the Danube; the greater part of the native Thraco-
Illyrian population of the interior had been romanized and
spoke Latin. The Thracians, the progenitors of the Vlachs,
took refuge in the mountainous districts and for some centuries
disappeared from history: originally an agricultural people,
they became nomad shepherds. In Albania the aboriginal
Illyrian element, which preserved its ancient language, main-
tained itself in the mountains and eventually forced back the
immigrant race. The Greeks, who occupied the maritime and
southern regions, were driven to the sea-coast, the islands and
the fortified towns. Slavonic place-names, still existing in every
portion of the Peninsula, bear witness to the multitude of the
invaders and the permanency of their settlements. In the 6th
century the Slavs penetrated to the Morea, where a Slavonic
dialect was spoken down to the middle of the isth century.
In the 7th the Serbo-Croats invaded the north-western regions
(Croatia, Servia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and northern
Albania); they expelled or assimilated the Illyrian population,
now represented in Dalmatia by the slavonized Morlachs or
Mavro- Vlachs, and appropriated the old Roman colonies on the
Adriatic coast. At the end of the 7th century the Bulgars, a
Turanian race, crossed the Danube and subjected the Slavonic
inhabitants of Moesia and Thrace, but were soon assimilated by
the conquered population, which had already become partly
civilized. Under their tsar Krum (802-815) the Bulgars
invaded the districts of Adrianople and central Macedonia;
under Simeon (893-927), who fixed his capital at Preslav, their
empire extended from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. In 971
" the first Bulgarian empire " was overthrown by the emperor
John Zimisces, but Bulgarian power was soon revived under the
Shishman dynasty at Ochrida. In 1014 Tsar Samuel of Ochrida,
who had conquered the greater part of the Peninsula, was
defeated at Belasitza by the Greek emperor Basil II., and the
" western Bulgarian empire " came to an end. In the loth
century the Vlachs reappear as an independent power in Southern
Macedonia and the Pindus district, which were known as Great
Walachia (MeyiXjj BXaxta). The Serbs, who owing to the dis-
sensions of their zhupans or chiefs, had hitherto failed to take a
prominent part in the history of the Peninsula, attained unity
under Stephen Nemanya (1160-1195), the founder of the Nema-
nyich dynasty. A new Bulgarian power, known as the " second "
or " Bulgaro-Vlach empire," was founded at Trnovo in 1186
under the brothers Ivan and Peter AsSn, who led a revolt of
Vlachs and Bulgars against the Greeks. In 1204 Constantinople
was captured by the Latins of the Fourth Crusade, and Baldwin
of Flanders was crowned emperor; the Venetians acquired
several maritime towns and islands, and Prankish feudal dynasties
were established in Salonica, Athens, Achaea and elsewhere.
Greek rule, however, survived in the despotate of Epirus under
princes of the imperial house of the Angeli. The Latin tenure of
Constantinople lasted only 57 years; the imperial city was
recaptured in 1261 by Michael VIII. Palaeologus, but most of
the feudal Latin states continued to exist till the Turkish con-
quest; the Venetians retained their possessions for several
centuries later and waged continual wars with the Turks. In
1230 Theodore of Epirus, who had conquered Albania, Great
Walachia and Macedonia, was overthrown at Klokotnitza by
Ivan Asfin II., the greatest of Bulgarian monarchs (1218-1241),
who defeated Baldwin at Adrianople and extended his sway
over most of the Peninsula. The Bulgarian po\ver declined after
BALKAN PENINSULA
261
his death and was extinguished at the battle of Velbuzhd (1330)
by the Servians under Stephen Urosh III. A short period of
Servian predominance followed under Stephen Dushan (1331-
J3SS) whose realm included Albania, Macedonia, Epirus,
Thessaly and northern Greece. The Servian incursion was
followed by a great Albanian emigration to the southern regions
of the Peninsula. After Dushan's death his empire disappeared,
and Servia fell a prey to anarchy. For a short time the Bosnians,
under their king Stephen Tvrtko (1353-1391), became the
principal power in the west of the Peninsula. The disorganiza-
tion and internecine feuds of the various states prepared the
way for the Ottoman invasion. In 1356 the Turks seized
Gallipoli; in 1361 the sultan Murad I. established his capital
at Adrianople; in 1389 the fate of the Slavonic states was
decided by the rout of the Servians and their allies at Kossovo.
The last remnant of Bulgarian national existence disappeared
with the fall of Trnovo in 1393, and Great Walachia was con-
quered in the same year. Under Mahommed II. (1451-1481)
the Turks completed the conquest of the Peninsula. The
despotate of Epirus succumbed in 1449, the duchy of Athens
in 1456; in 1453 Constantinople was taken and the decrepit
Byzantine empire perished; the greater part of Bosnia submitted
in 1463; the heroic resistance of the Albanians under Scanderbeg
collapsed with the fall of Croia (1466), and Venetian supremacy
in Upper Albania ended with the capture of Scutari (1478).
Only the mountain stronghold of Montenegro and the Italian
city-states on the Adriatic coast escaped subjection. In the
i6th century under Solyman the Magnificent (1520-1566) the
Ottoman power attained its greatest height; after the un-
successful siege of Vienna (1683) it began to decline. The period
of decadence was marked in the latter half of the i8th century
by the formation of practically independent pashaliks or fiefs,
such as those of Scutari under Mahommed of Bushat, lannina
under Ali of Tepelen, and Viden under Pasvan-oglu. The
detachment of the outlying portions of the empire followed.
Owing to the uncompromising character of the Mahommedan
religion and the contemptuous attitude of the dominant race,
the subject nationalities underwent no process of assimilation
during the four centuries of Turkish rule; they retained not
only their language but their religion, manners and peculiar
characteristics, and when the power of the central authority
waned they still possessed the germs of a national existence.
The independence of Greece was acknowledged in 1829, that of
Servia (as a tributary principality) in 1830. No territorial
changes within the Peninsula followed the Crimean War; but
the continuance of the weakened authority of the Porte tended
indirectly to the independent development of the various
nationalities. The Ionian Islands were ceded by Great Britain
to Greece in 1864. The great break-up came in 1878. The
abortive treaty of San Stefano, concluded in that year, reduced
the Turkish possessions in the Peninsula to Albania, Epirus,
Thessaly and a portion of southern Thrace. A large Bulgarian
principality was created extending from the Danube to the
Aegean and from the Black Sea to the river Drin in Albania;
it received a considerable coast-line on the Aegean and abutted
on the Gulf of Salonica under the walls of that town. At the
same time the frontiers of Servia and Montenegro were enlarged
so as to become almost contiguous, and Montenegro received
the ports of Antivari and Dulcigno on the Adriatic. From a
strategical point of view the Bulgaria of the San Stefano treaty
threatened Salonica, Adrianople and Constantinople itself;
and the great powers, anticipating that the new state would
become a Russian dependency, refused their sanction to its
provisions. The treaty of Berlin followed, which limited the
principality to the country between the Danube and the Balkans,
created the autonomous province of Eastern Rumelia south of
the Balkans, and left the remainder of the proposed Bulgarian
state under Turkish rule. The Montenegrin frontier laid down
at San Stefano was considerably curtailed, Dulcigno, the district
north-east of the Tara, and other territories being restored to
Turkey; in addition to Nish, Servia received the districts of
Pirot and Vranya on the east instead of the Ibar valley on the
.-..
west; the Dobrudja, somewhat enlarged, was Ceded to Rumania'
which surrendered southern Bessarabia to Russia. Bosnia and
Herzegovina were handed over to Austrian administration;
under a subsequent convention with Turkey, Austria sent troops
into the sanjak of Novibazar. The complete independence of the
principalities of Servia, Rumania and Montenegro was recognized.
The claims of Greece, ignored at San Stefano, were admitted at
Berlin; an extension of frontier, including Epirus as well as
Thessaly, was finally sanctioned by the powers in 1880, but
owing to the tenacious resistance of Turkey only Thessaly and
the district of Arta were acquired by Greece in 1881. Rumania
was proclaimed a kingdom in that year, Servia in 1882. In
1880, after a naval demonstration by the powers, Dulcigno was
surrendered to Montenegro in compensation for the districts of
Plava and Gusinye restored to Turkey. In 1886 the informal
union of Eastern Rumelia with Bulgaria was sanctioned by
Europe, the districts of Tumrush (Rhodope) and Krjali being
given back to the sultan. In 1897 Crete was withdrawn from
Turkish administration, and the Greco-Turkish War of that year
was followed by the cession to Turkey of a few strategical points
on the Thessalian frontier. In 1908 Bosnia and Herzegovina
were annexed to the Dual Monarchy, and Bulgaria (including
Eastern Rumelia) was proclaimed an independent kingdom.
The growth and development of the Balkan nations have, to
a great extent, been retarded by the international jealousies
arising from the Eastern Question. The possibility of
the young states entering into a combination which
would enable them to offer a united resistance to tioa.
foreign interference while simultaneously effecting a
compromise in regard to their national aims, has at various times
occupied the attention of Balkan politicians. Among the earliest
advocates of this idea was Ristich, the Servian statesman.
During the reaction against Russia which followed the war of
1877 informal discussions were conducted with this object, and
it was even suggested that a reformed or constitutional Turkey
might find a place in the confederation. The movement was
favourably regarded by King Charles of Rumania and Prince
Alexander of Bulgaria. But the revolt of Eastern Rumelia,
followed by the Servo-Bulgarian War and the coercion of Greece
by the powers, embittered the rivalry of the various races, and
the project was laid aside. It was revived in a somewhat
modified form in 1891 by Tricoupis, who suggested an offensive
alliance of the Balkan states, directed against Turkey and
aiming at a partition of the Sultan's possessions in Europe.
The scheme, which found favour in Servia, was frustrated by
the opposition of Stamboloff, who denounced it to the Porte.
In 1897 a Bulgarian proposal for joint pacific action with a
view to obtaining reforms in Macedonia was rejected by Greece.
AUTHORITIES. Special bibliographies are appended to the
separate articles which deal with the various political divisions of
the Peninsula. For a general description of the whole region, its
inhabitants, political problems, &c., see " Odysseus," Turkey in
Europe (London, 1900), a work of exceptional interest and value.
See also The Balkan Question, ed. L. Villari (London, 1905) ; W.
Miller, Travels and Politics in the Near East (London, 1898); L.
Lamouche, La Peninsule balkanique (Paris, 1899) ; H. C. Thomson,
The Outgoing Turk (London, 1897) ; T. Joanne, Etats du Danube et
des Balkans (Paris, 1895); R. Millet, Souvenirs des Balkans (Paris,
1891) ; V. Cambon, Aulour des Balkans (Paris, 1890) ; P. J. Hamard,
Par add, I'Adriatique et les Balkans (Paris, 1890); E. de Laveleye,
La Peninsule des Balkans (Brussels, 1886). For geology see F. Toula,
" Materialien zu einer Geologic der Balkan-halbinsel," Jahr. k.-k.
geol. Reichsanst. (Vienna, vol. xxxiii. 1883), pp. 61-114; A. Bittnel.
M. Neumayr, &c., Denks. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, math.-nat. Cl., vol. xl.
(1880); A. Philippson, Der Peloponnes (Berlin, 1892); J. Cviji6,
" Die Tektonik der Balkanhalbinsel," C. R. IX. Cong. geol. inter.
Vienne, pp. 347-370 (1904). For the condition of the Peninsula
before the Treaty of Berlin, see E. Rtiffer, Die Balkanhalbinsel und
ihre Volker (Bautzen, 1869); Mackenzie and Irby, Travels in the
Slavonic Provinces of Turkey (London, 1866); and A. Bouc, La
Turquie d' Europe (Paris, 1840). W. Miller, The Balkans (London,
1896}, sketches the history of Bulgaria, Montenegro, Rumania and
Servia. See also Sir E. Hertslet, The Map of Europe by Treaty, esp.
vol. iv. (London, 1875-1891); J. D. Bourchier, '* A Balkan Con-
federation," in the Fortnightly Review (London, September 1891);
the Austrian and Russian staff maps, and the ethnographical maps
of Kiepert and Peucker. (J. D. B.)
262
BALKASH BALL, SIR A. J.
BALKASH, or BALKHASH (called by the Kirghiz Ak-denghiz
or Ala-denghiz and by the Chinese Si-hai), a lake of Asiatic
Russia, in the Kirghiz steppes, between the governments of
Semipalatinsk and Semiryechensk, in 45 to 47 N. and 73 30'
to 79 E., about 600 m. to the east of Lake Aral. It is fourth in
size of the lakes in Eurasia, having an area of 7115 sq. m., and
lies at an altitude of 900 ft. It has the shape of a broad crescent,
about 430 m. long from W.S.W. to E.N.E., having its concave
side turned southwards; its width varies from 36 to 53 m. Its
north-western shore is bordered by a dreary plateau, known as
the Famine Steppe (Bek-pak-dala) . The south-east shore, on
the contrary, is low, and bears traces of having extended
formerly as far as the Sasyk-kul and the Ala-kul. The Kirghiz
in 1903 declared that its surface had been rising steadily during
the preceding ten years, though prior to that it was dropping.
The chief feeder of the lake is the Ili, which rises in the Khan-
tengri group of the Tian-shan Mountains. The Karatal, the
Aksu and the Lepsa also enter from the south-east, and the
Ayaguz from the north-east. The first three rivers make their
way with difficulty through the sands and reeds, which at a
quite recent time were covered by the lake. Although it has
no outlet, its waters are relatively fresh. It freezes generally
from November to April. Its greatest depth, 35 ft., is along
the north-west shore. The fauna of the lake and of its tributaries
explored by Nikolsky is more akin to the fauna of the rivers
of the Tarim basin than to that of the Aral; it also does not
contain the common frog. It seems, therefore, probable that
Lake Balkash stood formerly in communication through lakes
Ebi-nor and Ayar (Telli-nor) with the lake that formerly filled
the Lukchun depression (in 89^ E. long, and 42^ N. lat.), but
researches show that a connexion with Lake Aral at least in
recent times was improbable. The lake has been investigated
by L. S. Berg (see Petermanns Mitteilungen, 1903).
BALKH, a city of Afghanistan, about 100 m. E. of Andkhui
and some 46 m. S. of the Oxus. The city, which is identical
with the ancient Bactra or Zainaspa, is now for the most part a
mass of ruins, situated on the right bank of the Balkh river,
1 200 ft. above the sea. It comprises about 500 houses of Afghan
settlers, a colony of Jews and a small bazaar, set in the midst
of a waste of ruins and many acres of d6bris. Entering by the
west (or Akcha) gate, one passes under three arches, which are
probably the remnants of a former Jama Masjid. The outer
walls (mostly in utter disrepair) are about 6J to 7 m. in
perimeter, and on the south-eastern borders are set high on a
mound or rampart, indicating a Mongol origin. The fort and
citadel to the north-east are built well above the town on a barren
mound and are walled and moated. There is, however, little
left but the remains of a few pillars. The Masjid Sabz, with
its green-tiled dome, is said to be the tomb of a Khwaja, Abul
Narsi Parsar. Nothing but the arched entrance remains of the
Madrasa, which is traditionally not very old. The earlier
Buddhist constructions have proved more durable than the
Mahommedan buildings. The Top-i-Rustam is 50 yds. in
diameter at the base and 30 yds. at the top, circular and about
50 ft. high. Four circular vaults are sunk in the interior and
f-our passages have been pierced below from the outside, which
probably lead to them. The base of the building is constructed
of sun-dried bricks about 2 ft. square and 4 or 5 in. thick.
The Takht-i-Rustam is wedge-shaped in plan, with uneven sides.
It is apparently built of pisfe mud (i.e. mud mixed with straw and
puddled). It is possible that in these ruins we may recognize
the Nan Vihara of the Chinese traveller Hsiian Tsang. There
are the remains of many other topes (or stupas) in the neigh-
bourhood. The mounds of ruins on the road to Mazar-i-
Sharif probably represent the site of a city yet older than
those on which stands the modern Balkh. The town is gar-
risoned by a few hundred kasidars, the regular troops of
Afghan Turkestan being cantoned at Takhtapul, near Mazar-
i-Sharif. The gardens to the north-east contain a caravanserai,
which is fairly well kept and comfortable. It forms one side
of a courtyard, which is shaded by a group of magnificent
chenar trees.
The antiquity and greatness of the place are recognized by the
native populations, who speak of it as the Mother of Cities. Its
foundation is mythically ascribed to Kaiomurs, the Persian
Romulus ; and it is at least certain that, at a very early date, it
was the rival of Ecbataha, Nineveh and Babylon. For a long
time the city and country was the central seat of the Zoroastrian
religion, the founder of which is said to have died within the
walls. From the Memoirs of Hsiian Tsang, we learn that, at the
time of his visit in the 7th century, there were in the city, or its
vicinity, about a hundred Buddhist convents, with 3000 devotees,
and that there was a large number of stupas, and other religious
monuments. The most remarkable was the Nau Behar, Nava
Bihara or New Convent, which possessed a very costly statue
of Buddha. A curious notice of this building is found in the
Arabian geographer YSqut. Ibn-Haukal, an Arabian traveller
of the loth century, describes Balkh as built of clay, with
ramparts and six gates, and extending half a parasang. He also
mentions a castle and a mosque. Idrisi, in the I2th century,
speaks of its possessing a variety of educational establishments,
and carrying on an active trade. There were several important
commercial routes from the city, stretching as far east as India
and China. In 1220 Jenghiz Khan sacked Balkh, butchered its
inhabitants and levelled all the buildings capable of defence,
treatment to which it was again subjected in the I4th century by
Timur. Notwithstanding this, however, Marco Polo can still, in
the following century, describe it as " a noble city and a great."
Balkh formed the government of Aurangzeb in his youth. In
1736 it was conquered by Nadir Shah. Under the Durani
monarchy it fell into the hands of the Afghans; it was conquered
by Shah Murad of Kunduz in 1820, and for some time was
subject to the khan of Bokhara. In 1850 Mahommed Akram
Khan, Barakzai, captured Balkh, and from that time it remained
under Afghan rule. _-j^
See Hsuan Tsang, tr. by Julien, vol. i. pp. 29-32 ; Burnes's
Travels in Bokhara (1831-1833); Ferrier's Travels; Vambery's
Bokhara (1873) ; Report of the Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission
of 1884-1885.
(T. H. H.*)
BALL, SIR ALEXANDER JOHN, BART. (1759-1809), British
rear-admiral and governor of Malta, came of a Gloucestershire
family. He entered the navy, and in 1778 was promoted
lieutenant. Three years later began a close association with
Rodney, and, Cwo days after his chief's crowning victory of
April 12, 1782, Ball was promoted commander, and in 1783 he
became captain. At this time he spent a year in France with the
double purpose of learning the language and living economically.
Nelson, then a captain, was at this time by no means favourably
impressed by his future friend and comrade, and spoke of him as
a " great coxcomb." It was not until 1790 that Ball received a
command. From that year, however, he was continuously
employed. In 1798, assistance rendered by him to Nelson's ship
in heavy weather caused the latter to forget his former animosity,
and from that time the two were close friends. Under Nelson's
command Ball took part in the battle of the Nile, and his ship,
the " Alexander," was the particular opponent of Brueys' flagship,
" L'Orient," which blew up. Two months later he was ordered
to the blockade of Malta, which was kept up without a break for
the next two years. Ball committed the blockade to his first
lieutenant, and himself led the marines and local militia, which
made the siege on the land side. His care for his men laid the
foundations of his popularity with the Maltese which continued
till his death. After the fall of Malta, Ball practically retired from
the service, in spite of Nelson's urgent entreaty that he should
continue afloat, and from 1801 (when he was made a baronet) to
1809 he was governor of Malta, where he endeared himself to the
people by his regard for their interests, and his opposition to the
policy of treating the island as a conquered dependency. His
friendship with Lord Nelson, whose letters prove his high regard
for him, was only broken by death. Ball died on the 2oth of
October 1809 and was buried in Malta. Sir Alexander Ball was
kind to Coleridge and is highly praised by him in The Friend,
" The Third Landing Place." There are numerous mentions of
Ball in Nelson's Despatches, in Sir H. Nicolas' edition.
BALL
263
BALL, JOHN (d. 1381), an English priest who took a prominent
part in the peasant revolt in 1381. Little is known of his early
years, but he lived probably at York and afterwards at Colchester.
He gained considerable fame as a preacher by expounding the
doctrines of John Wydiffe, but especially by his insistence on
the principle of social equality. These utterances brought him
into collision with the archbishop of Canterbury, and on three
occasions he was committed to prison. He appears also to have
been excommunicated, and in 1366 all persons were forbidden
to hear him preach. His opinions, however, were not moderated,
nor his popularity diminished by these measures, and his words
had a considerable effect in stirring up the rising which broke
out in June 1381. Ball was then in prison at Maidstone; but
he was quickly released by the Kentish rebels, to whom he
preached at Blackheath from the text, "When Adam delved
and Eve span, Who was then a gentleman?" He urged his
hearers to kill the principal lords of the kingdom and the lawyers;
and he was afterwards among those who rushed into the Tower
of London to seize Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of Canterbury.
When the rebels dispersed Ball fled to the midland counties,
but was taken prisoner at Coventry and executed in the presence
of Richard II. on the isth of July 1381. Ball, who was called
by Froissart " the mad priest of Kent," seems to have possessed
the gift of rhyme. He undoubtedly voiced the feelings of the
lower orders of society at that time.
See Thomas Walsingham, Historia Anglicana, edited by H. T.
Riley (London, 1863-1864); Henry Knighton, Chronicon, edited
by J. R. Lumby (London, 1889-1895); Jean Froissart, Chroniques,
edited by S. Luce and G. Raynaud (Paris, 1869-1897); C. E.
Maurice, Livesof English Popular Leaders in the Middle Ages (London,
1875) ; C. Oman, The Great Revolt of 1381 (Oxford, 1906).
BALL, JOHN (1585-1640), English puritan divine, was born
at Cassington, Oxfordshire, in October 1585. After taking his
B.A. degree from St Mary's Hall, Oxford, in 1608, he went into
Cheshire to act as tutor to the children of Lady Cholmondeley.
He adopted Puritan views, and after being ordained without
subscription, was appointed to the small curacy of Whitmore
in Staffordshire. He was soon deprived by John Bridgeman,
the high church bishop of Chester, who put him to much suffering.
He became a schoolmaster and earned a wide and high reputation
for his scholarship and piety. He died on the 2oth of October
1640. The most popular of his numerous works was A Short
Catechisme, containing all the Principal Grounds of Religion
(14 editions before 1632). His Treatise of Faith (1632), and
Friendly Trial of the Grounds tending to Separation (1640), the
latter of which defines his position with regard to the church,
are also valuable.
BALL, JOHN (1818-1889), Irish politician, naturalist and
Alpine traveller, eldest son of an Irish judge, Nicholas Ball, was
born at Dublin on the 2oth of August 1818. He was educated
at the Roman Catholic College at Oscott near Birmingham,
and at Christ's College, Cambridge. He showed in early years
a taste for natural science, particularly botany; and after
leaving Cambridge he travelled in Switzerland and elsewhere
in Europe, studying his favourite pursuits, and contributing
papers on botany and the Swiss glaciers to scientific periodicals.
In 1846 he was made an assistant poor-law commissioner, but
resigned in 1847, and in 1848 stood unsuccessfully as a parlia-
mentary candidate for Sligo. In 1849 he was appointed second
poor-law commissioner, but resigned in 1852 and successfully
contested the county of Carlow in the Liberal interest. In the
House of Commons he attracted Lord Palmerston's attention
by his abilities, and in 1885 was made under-secretary for the
colonies, a post which he held for two years. At the colonial
office he had great influence in furthering the cause of natural
science, particularly in connexion with equipment of the Palliser
expedition in Canada, and with Sir W. Hooker's efforts to obtain
a systematic knowledge of the colonial floras. In 1858 he stood
for Limerick, but was beaten, and he then gave up politics and
devoted himself to natural history. He was first president of
the Alpine Club (founded 1857), and it is for his work as an
Alpinist that he is chiefly remembered, his well-known Alpine
Guide (London, 1863-1868) being the result of innumerable
climbs and journeys and of careful observation recorded in a
dear and often entertaining style. He also travelled in Morocco
(1871) and South America (1882), and recorded his observations
in books which were recognized as having a scientific value. He
died in London on the 2ist of October 1889.
BALL, THOMAS (1819- ), American sculptor, was born
at Charlestown, Massachusetts, on the 3rd of June 1819. He
was the son of a house-and-sign-painter, and after starting,
self-taught, as a portrait painter he turned his attention in 1851 to
sculpture, his earliest work being a bust of Jenny Lind. At
thirty-five he went to Florence for study; there, with an interval
of work in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1857-1865, he remained
for more than thirty years, being one of the artistic colony which
included the Brownings and Hiram Powers. He returned to
America in 1897, and lived in Montdair, New Jersey, with a
studio in New York City. His work includes many early cabinet
busts of musicians (he was an accomplished musician himself,
and was the first in America to sing " Elijah "), and later the
equestrian statue of Washington in the Boston public gardens,
probably his best work; Josiah Quincy in City Hall Square,
Boston; Charles Sumner in the public gardens of Boston;
Daniel Webster in Central Park, New York City; the Lincoln
Emancipation group at Washington; Edwin Forrest as " Coriol-
anus," in the Actors' Home, Philadelphia, and the Washington
monument in Methuen, Massachusetts. His work has had a
marked influence on monumental art in the United States and
especially in New England. In 1891 he published an auto-
biographical volume, My Three Score Years and Ten.
BALL (in Mid. Eng. but; the word is probably cognate with
" bale," Teutonic in origin, cf. also Lat. fottis, and Gr. TraXXa),
any rounded body, particularly one with a smooth surface,
whether used for games, as a missile, or applied to such rounded
bodies as the protuberance at the root of the thumb or the big
toe, to an enarthrosis, or " ball socket " joint, such as that of the
hip or shoulder, and the like. A ball, as the essential feature in
nearly every form of game requiring physical exertion, must date
from the very earliest times. A rolling object appeals not only
to a human baby but to a kitten and a puppy. Some form of
game with a ball is found portrayed on Egyptian monuments, and
is played among the least advanced of savage tribes at the present
day. In Homer, Nausicaa was playing at ball with her maidens
when Odysseus first saw her in the land of the Fhaeacians (Od. vi.
100). And Halios and Laodamas performed before Alcinous and
Odysseus with ball play, accompanied with dancing (Od. viii. 370).
The Hebrews, the least athletic of races, have no mention of the
ball in their scriptures. Among the Greeks games with balls
(a<t>aipai) were regarded as a useful subsidiary to the more
violent athletic exercises, as a means of keeping the body supple,
and rendering it graceful, but were generally left to boys and
girls. Similarly at Rome they were looked upon as an adjunct to
the bath, and were graduated to the age and health of the bathers,
and usually a place (sphaeristerium) was set apart for them in the
baths (thermae) . Of regular rules for the playing of ball games,
little trace remains, if there were any such. The names in Greek
for various forms, which have come down to us in such works as
the 'Oj>oficumKov of Pollux of Naucratis, imply little of
nothing of such; thus, &ir6ppais only means the putting
of the ball on the ground with the open hand, ovpavia the
flinging of the ball in the air to be caught by two or more players;
(fxuvivda would seem to be a game of catch played by two
or more, where feinting is used as a test of quickness and skill.
Pollux (i. x. 104) mentions a game called 'eiriaKvpix,
which has often been looked on as the origin of football. It seems
to have been played by two sides, arranged in lines; how far
there was any form of " goal " seems uncertain. Among the
Romans there appear to have been three types or sizes of ball,
the pila, or small ball, used in catching games, the paganica, a
heavy ball stuffed with feathers, and the fottis, a leather ball
filled with air, the largest of the three. This was struck from
player to player, who wore a kind of gauntlet on the arm. There
was a game known as trigon, played by three players standing in
264
BALLADE BALLADS
the form of a triangle, and played with the foliis, and also one
known as harpastum, which seems to imply a " scrimmage "
among several players for the ball. 1 These games are known to
us through the Romans, though the names are Greek. The
various modern games played with a ball or balls and subject to
rules are treated under their various names, such as polo, cricket,
football, &c.
From Fr. bal, bailer, to dance (late Lat. ballare, and hence
connected with " ballad," " ballet ") comes " ball," meaning a
dance, and especially a social gathering of people for the purpose
of dancing.
BALLADE, the technical name of a complicated and fixed form
of verse, arranged on a precise system, and having nothing in
common with the word ballad, except its derivation from the
same Low Latin verb, ballare, to dance. In the i4th and isth
centuries it was spelt balade. In its regular conditions a ballade
consists of three stanzas and an envoi; there is a refrain which
is repeated at the close of each stanza and of the envoi. The
entire poem should contain but three or four rhymes, as the case
may be, and these must be reproduced with exactitude in each
section. These rules were laid down by Henri de Croi, whose
L'Art et science de rhttorique was first printed in 1493, and he
added that if the refrain consists of eight syllables, the ballade
must be written in huitains (eight-line stanzas), if of ten syllables
in dizains (ten-line), and so on. The form can best be studied
in an example, and we quote, as absolutely faultless in execution,
the famous " Ballade aux Enfants Perdus," composed by
Theodore de Banville in 1861 :
" Je le sais bien que Cythere est en deuil!
Que son jurdin, soufflete par 1'crage,
O mes amis, n'est plus qu'un sombre ecueil
Agonisant sous te soleil sauvage.
La solitude habile son rivage.
Qu'importe! allons vers les pays ficlifs!
Chercnons la plage od nos desirs oisifs
S'abreuveront dans le sacre myslere
Fail pour un choeur d'esprits contemplatifs:
Embarquons-nous pour la belle Cylhere.
" La grande mer sera notre cercueil ;
Nous servirons de proie au noir naufrage,
Le feu du del punira noire orgueil
Et I'aiguillon nous garde son outrage.
Qu'importe! allons vers le clair paysage!
Malgre ta mer jalouse et les recifs,
Venez, portons comme des fugitifs,
Loin de ce monde au souffle delelere.
Nous donl les cceurs sont des ramiers plainlifs,
Embarquons-nous pour la belle Cythere.
" Des serpenls gris se tralnent sur le seuil
Ou souriait Cypris, la chere image
Aux Iresses d'or, la vierge au doux accueil!
Mais les Amours sur le plus haul cordage
Nous chantent 1'hymne adore du voyage.
Heros caches dans ces corps maladifs,
Fuyons, partons sur nos legers esquifs,
Vers le divin bocage ou la panlhre
Pleure d'amour sous les rosiers lascifs:
Embarquons-nous pour la belle Cythere.
Envoi.
" Rassasions d'azur nos yeux pensifs!
Oiseaux chanleurs, dans la brise expansifs,
Ne souillons pas nos ailes sur la terre.
Volons, charmes, vers les dieux primilifs!
Embarquons-nous pour la belle Cythere."
This is the type of the ballade in its most elaborate and highly-
finished form, which it cannot be said to have reached until the
I4th century. It arose from the canzone de ballo of the Italians,
but it is in Provencal literature that the ballade first takes a
modern form. It was in France, however, and not until the
reign of Charles V., that the ballade as we understand it began to
flourish; instantly it became popular, and in a few years the
out-put of these poems was incalculable. Machault, Froissart,
Eustachc Deschamps and Christine de Pisan were among the
poets who cultivated the ballade most abundantly. Later, those
1 Martial (iv. 19. 6) calls the harpastum, pulverulentum, implying
that it involves a considerable amount of exertion.
of Alain Chartier and Henri Baude were famous, while the form
was chosen by Francois Villon for some of the most admirable
and extraordinary poems which the middle ages have handed
down to us. Somewhat later, Clement Marot composed ballades
of great precision of form, and the fashion culminated in the lyth
century with those of Madame Deshoulieres, Sarrazin, Voiture
and La Fontaine. Attacked by Moliere, and by Boileau, who
wrote
" La ballade asservie a ses vieilles maximes,
Souvent doit tout son lustre au caprice des rimes,"
the ballade went entirely out of fashion for two hundred years,
when it was resuscitated in the middle of the ipth century by
Theodore de Banville, who published in 1873 a volume of Trente-
six ballades joyeuses, which has found many imitators. The
ballade, a typically French form, has been extensively employed
in no other language, except in English. In the isth and i6th
centuries many ballades were written, with more or less close
attention to the French rules, by the leading English poets, and
in particular by Chaucer, by Gower (whose surviving ballades,
however, are all in French) and by Lydgate. An example from
Chaucer will show that the type of strophe and rhyme arrange-
ment was in medieval English:
" Madame, ye been of all beauty shrine
As far as circled is Ihe mappemound ;
For, as Ihe crystal, glorious ye shine,
And like ruby been your cheekes round.
Therewith ye been so merry and so jocund
That at a revel when that I see you dance,
It is an oinemenl unto my wound,
Though ye to me ne do no daliance.
" For though I weep of teares full'a tine [cask] ,
Yet may that woe my hearte not confound ;
Your seemly voice, that ye so small put-twine,
Makelh my thought in joy and bliss abound.
So courteously I go, with love bound,
That to myself I say, in my penance,
Sufficeth me to love you, Rosamound,
Though ye to me ne do no daliance.
" Was never pike wallowed in galantine,
As I in love am wallowed and y-wound;
For which full oft I of myself divine
That I am true Tristram the second.
My love may not refrayed [cooled down] be nor afound
I burn ay in an amorous pleasance. [foundered] ;
Do what you list, I will your thrall be found,
Though ye lo me ne do no daliance."
The absence of an envoi will be noticed in Chaucer's, as in most
of the medieval English ballades. This points to a relation with
the earliest French form, in its imperfect condition, rather than
with that which afterwards became accepted. But a ballade
without an envoi lacks that section whose function is to tie
together the rest, and complete the whole as a work of art. After
the 1 6th century original ballades were no more written in Eng-
lish until the latter part of the ipth, when they were re-intro-
duced, almost simultaneously, by Algernon Charles Swinburne,
Austin Dobson, Andrew Lang, Edmund Gosse and W.E.Henley;
but D. G. Rossetti's popular translation of Villon's " Ballade of
Fair Ladies " may almost be considered an original poem,
especially as it entirely disregards the metrical rules of the
ballades. Mr. Dobson's " The Prodigals " (1876) was one of the
earliest examples of a correct English specimen. In 1880 Mr
Lang published a volume of Ballades in Blue China, which found
innumerable imitators. The modern English ballades have been,
as a rule, closely modelled on the lines laid down in the isth
century by Henri de Croi. With the exception of the sonnet, the
ballade is the noblest of the artificial forms of verse cultivated
in English literature. It lends itself equally well to pathos and
to mockery, and in the hands of a competent poet produces an
effect which is rich in melody without seeming fantastic or
artificial. (E. G.)
BALLADS. The word " ballad " is derived from the O. Fr.
bailer, to dance, and originally meant a song sung to the rhythmic
movement of a dancing chorus. Later, the word, in the form of
ballade (<?..), became the technical term for a particular form of
old-fashioned French poetry, remarkable for its involved and
BALLADS
265
recurring rhymes. " Laisse moi aux Jeux Floraux de Toulouse
toutes ces vieux poSsies Francoises comme ballades," says
Joachim du Bellay in 1550; and Philaminte, the lady pedant of
Moliere's Femmes Savantes, observes
" La ballade, i mon goflt, est une chose fade,
Ce n'en est plus la mode, elle sent son vieux temps."
In England the term has usually been applied to any simple
tale told in simple verse, though attempts have been made to
confine it to the subject of this article, namely, the literary form
of popular songs, the folk-tunes associated with them being
treated in the article SONG. By popular songs we understand
what the Germans call Volkslieder, that is, songs with words
composed by members of the people, for the people, handed
down by oral tradition, and in style, taste and even incident,
common to the people in all European countries. The beauty
of these purely popular ballads, their directness and freshness,
has made them admired even by the artificial critics of the most
artificial periods in literature. Thus Sir Philip Sydney confesses
that the ballad of Chevy Chase, when chanted by " a blind
crowder," stirred his blood like the sound of trumpet. Addison
devoted two articles in the Spectator to a critique of the same
poem. Montaigne praised the naivete of the village carols; and
Malherbe preferred a rustic chansonnette to all the poems of
Ronsard. These, however, are rare instances of the taste for
popular poetry, and though the Danish ballads were collected
and printed in the middle of the i6th century, and some Scottish
collections date from the beginning of the i8th, it was not till the
publication of Allan Ramsay's Evergreen and Tea Table Mis-
cellany, and of Bishop Percy's Reliques (1765), that a serious
effort was made to recover Scottish and English folk-songs from
the recitation of the old people who still knew them by heart.
At the time when Percy was editing the Reliques, Madame de
Chenier, the mother of the celebrated French poet of that name,
composed an essay on the' ballads of her native land, modem
Greece; and later, Herder and Grimm and Goethe, in Germany,
did for the songs of their country what Scott did for those of
Liddesdale and the Forest. It was fortunate, perhaps, for
poetry, though unlucky for the scientific study of the ballads,
that they were mainly regarded from the literary point of view.
The influence of their artless melody and straightforward diction
may be felt in the lyrics of Goethe and of Coleridge, of Words-
worth, of Heine and of Andr Ch6nier. Chenier, in the most
affected age even of French poetry, translated some of the
Romaic ballads; one, as it chanced, being almost identical with
that which Shakespeare borrowed from some English reciter, and
put into the mouth of the mad Ophelia. The beauty of the
ballads and the interest they excited led to numerous forgeries
and modern interpolations, which it is seldom difficult to detect
with certainty. Editors could not resist the temptation to
interpolate, to restore, and to improve the fragments that came
in their way. The marquis de la Villemarqu6, who first drew
attention to the ballads of Brittany, is not wholly free from this
fault. Thus a very general scepticism was awakened, and when
questions came to be asked as to the date and authorship of the
Scottish traditional ballads, it is scarcely to be wondered at that
Dr Chambers attributed most of them to the accomplished Lady
Wardlaw, who lived in the middle of the i8th century.
The vexed and dull controversy as to the origin of Scottish
folk-songs was due to ignorance of the comparative method, and
of the ballad literature of Europe in general. The result of the
discussion was to leave a vague impression that the Scottish
ballads were perhaps as old as the time of Dunbar, and were
the production of a class of professional minstrels. These
minstrels are a stumbling-block in the way of the student of the
growth of ballads. The domestic annals of Scotland show that
her kings used to keep court-bards, and also that strollers,
jongleurs, as they were called, went about singing at the doors of
farm-houses and in the streets of towns. Here were two sets of
minstrels who had apparently left no poetry ; and, on the other
side, there was a number of ballads that claimed no author. It
was the easiest and most satisfactory inference that the courtly
minstrels made the verses, which the wandering crowders
imitated or corrupted. But this theory fails to account, among
other things, for the universal sameness of tone, of incident, of
legend, of primitive poetical formulae, which the Scottish ballad
possesses, in common with the ballads of Greece, of France, of
Provence, of Portugal, of Denmark and of Italy. The object,
therefore, of this article is to prove that what has long been
acknowledged of nursery tales, <jf what the Germans call Miirchen,
namely, that they are the immemorial inheritance at least of all
European peoples, is true also of some ballads. Their present
form, of course, is relatively recent: in centuries of oral recitation
the language altered automatically, but the stock situations and
ideas of many romantic ballads are of dateless age and world-wide
diffusion. The main incidents and plots of the fairy tales of
Celts and Germans and Slavonic and Indian peoples, their
unknown antiquity and mysterious origin, are universally recog-
nized. No one any longer attributes them to this or that author,
or to this or that date. The attempt to find date or author for
a genuine popular song is as futile as a similar search in the case of
a Miirchen. It is to be asked, then, whether what is confessedly
true of folk-tales, of such stories as the Sleeping Beauty and
Cinderella, is true also of folk-songs. Are* they, or bAve thy
been, as universally sung as the fairy: tales have been narrated?
Do they, too, bear traces of the survival of primitive creeds, and
primitive forms of consciousness and o{ imagination? Are they,
like Miirchen, for the most part, little influenced by the higher
religions, Christian or polytheistic? Do< they; turn, as Miirchen
do, on the same incidents, repeat the same stories, employ the
same machinery of talking birds and beasts? Lastly, are any
specimens of ballad literature capable of being traced back to
extreme antiquity? It- appears that all these questions may ;be
answered in the affirmative; that the great age and universal
diffusion of the ballad may be proved; 'and that its birth; froffl
the lips and heart of the people, may be contrasted with the
origin of an artistic poetry in the demand of an aristocracy < for
a separate epic literature destined to be its own possession, and
to be the first development of a poetry of personality, a record
of individual passions- and emotions. ; After bringing forward,
examples of the identity of features in European ballad poetry,
we shall proceed to show that the earlier, genre of ballads with
refrain sprang from the same primitive custom of dance, accom-
panied by improvised song, which . still exists in Greece and
Russia, and even in valleys of the Pyrenees. / :
There can scarcely be a better guide in: the .examination of
the notes or marks of popular poetry than, the instructions which
M. Ampere gave to the committee appointed in 1852-1853 to
search for the remains of ballads in France.. M. Ampere bade
the collectors look for the following characteristics: " The use
of assonance in place of rhyme, the brusque character of the
recital, the textual repetition, as in Homer, of the speeches, <rf
the persons, the constant use of certain numbers, as three and
seven, and the representation of the commonest objects of
every-day life as being made of gold and silver." M. Ampere
might have added that French ballads would probably employ a
" bird chorus," the use of talking-birds as messengers; that they
would repeat the plots current hi other countries, and display
the same non-Christian idea of death and of the future world
(see " The Lyke-wake Dirge "), the same ghostly superstitions
and stories of metamorphosis, and the same belief in elves and
fairies, as are found in the ballads of Greece, of Provence, of
Brittany, Denmark and Scotland. We shall now examine these
supposed common notes of all genuine popular song, supplying
a few out of the many instances of curious identity. As to
brusqueness of recital, and the use of assonance instead of
rhyme, as well as the aid to memory given by reproducing
speeches verbally, these are almost unavoidable in all simple
poetry preserved by oral tradition. In the matter of recur-
ring numbers, we have the eternal
" Trois belles filles
L'y en a'z une plus belle que le jour,"
who appear in old French ballads, as well as the " Three Sailors,"
whose adventures are related in the Lithuanian and Provencal
originals of Thackeray's Little Billet. Then there is " the league,
266
BALLADS
the league, the league, but barely three," of Scottish ballads;
and the rpid. iroyXtuctd, three golden birds, which sing the
prelude to Greek folk-songs, and so on. A more curious note of
primitive poetry is the lavish and reckless use of gold and silver.
H. F. Tozer, in his account of ballads in the Highlands of Turkey,
remarks on this fact, and attributes it to Eastern influences.
But the horses' shoes of silver, th.e knives of fine gold, the talking
" birds with gold on their wings," as in Aristophanes, are common
to all folk-song. Everything almost is gold in the Kalewala
(q.v.), a so-called epic formed by putting into juxtaposition all
the popular songs of Finland. Gold is used as freely in the ballads,
real or spurious, which M. Verkovitch has had collected in the
wilds of Mount Rhodope. The Captain in the French song is as
lavish in his treatment of his runaway bride,
" Son amant 1'habille,
Tout en or et argent ";
and the rustic in a song from Poitou talks of his faucille A' or,
just as a variant of Hugh of Lincoln introduces gold chairs and
tables. Again, when the lover, in a ballad common to France
and to Scotland, cuts the winding-sheet from about his living
bride " il tira ses ciseaux d'or fin." If the horses of the Klephts
in Romaic ballads are gold shod, the steed in Willie's Lady is
no less splendidly accoutred,
" Silver shod before,
And gowden shod behind."
Readers of Homer, and of the Chanson de Roland, must have
observed the same primitive luxury of gold in these early epics,
in Homer reflecting perhaps the radiance of the actual " golden
Mycenae."
Next as to talking-birds. These are not so common as in
Mdrchen, but still are very general, and cause no surprise to
their human listeners. The omniscient popinjay, who " up and
spoke " in the Border minstrelsy, is of the same family of birds
as those that, according to Talvj, pervade Servian song; as
the T/xd irouXtucta which introduce the story in the Romaic
ballads; as the wise birds whose speech is still understood by
exceptionally gifted Zulus; as the wicked dove that whispers
temptation in the sweet French folk-song; as the " bird that
came out of a bush, on water for to dine," in the Water o' Wearies
Well.
In the matter of identity of plot and incident in the ballads
of various lands, it is to be regretted that no such comparative
tables exist as Von Hahn tried, not very exhaustively, to make
of the " story-roots " of Mitrchen. Such tables might be com-
piled from the learned notes and introductions of Prof. Child
to his English and Scottish Popular Ballads (1898). A common
plot is the story of the faithful leman, whose lord brings home
" a braw new bride," and who recovers his affection at the eleventh
hour. In Scotland this is the ballad of Lord Thomas and Fair
Annie; in Danish it is .Skiaen Anna. It occurs twice in M.
Fauriel's collection of Romaic songs. Again, there is the
familiar ballad about a girl who pretends to be dead, that she
may be borne on a bier to meet her lover. This occurs not only
in Scotland, but in the popular songs of Provence (collected by
Damase Arbaud) and in those of Metz (Puymaigre), and in both
countries an incongruous sequel tells how the lover tried to murder
his bride, and how she was too cunning, and drowned him.
Another familiar feature is the bush and briar, or the two rose
trees, which meet and plait over the graves of unhappy lovers,
so that all passers-by see them, and say in the Provencal,
" Diou ague 1'amo
Des paures amourous."
Another example of a very widespread theme brings us to the
ideas of the state of the dead revealed in folk-songs. The Night
Journey, in M. Fauriel's Romaic collection, tells how a dead
brother, wakened from his sleep of death by the longing of love,
bore his living sister on his saddle-bow, in one night, from
Bagdad to Constantinople. In Scotland this is the story of
Proud Lady Margaret; in Germany it is the song which Burger
converted into Lenore; in Denmark it is Aag6 und Els6; in
Brittany the dead foster-brother carries his sister to the apple
close of the Celtic paradise (Barzaz Breig). Only in Brittany
do the sad-hearted people think of the land of death as an island
of Avalon, with the eternal sunset lingering behind the flowering
apple trees, and gleaming on the fountain of forgetfulness. In
Scotland the channeling worm doth chide even the souls that
come from where, " beside the gate of Paradise, the birk grows
fair enough." The Romaic idea of the place of the dead, the
garden of Charon, whence " neither in spring or summer, nor
when grapes are gleaned in autumn, can warrior or maiden
escape," is likewise pre-Christian. In Provencal and Danish
folk-song, the cries of children ill-treated by a cruel step-mother
awaken the departed mother,
" Twas cold at night and the bairnies grat,
The mother below the inouls heard that."
She reappears in her old home, and henceforth, " when dogs
howl in the night, the step-mother trembles, and is kind to the
children." To this identity of superstition we may add the
less tangible fact of identity of tone. The ballads of Klephtic
exploits in Greece match the Border songs of Dick of the Cow
and Kinmont Willie. The same simple delight of living animates
the short Greek Scolia and their counterparts in France.
Everywhere in these happier climes, as in southern Italy, there
are snatches of popular verse that make but one song of rose trees,
and apple blossom, and the nightingale that sings for maidens
loverless,
" II ne chante pas pour moi,
J'en ai un, Dieu merci,"
says the gay French refrain.
It would not be difficult to multiply instances of resemblance
between the different folk-songs of Europe; but enough has,
perhaps, been said to support the position that some of them
are popular and primitive in the same sense as Marchen. They
are composed by peoples of an early stage who find, in a
natural improvisation, a natural utterance of modulated and
rhythmic speech, the appropriate relief of their emotions, in
moments of high-wrought feeling or on solemn occasions.
" Poesie " (as Puttenham well says in his Art of English Poesie,
1589) " is more ancient than the artificial! of the Greeks and
Latines, and used of the savage and uncivill, who were before
all science and civilitie. This is proved by certificate of mer-
chants and travellers, who by late navigations have surveyed
the whole world, and discovered large countries, and wild people
strange and savage, affirming that the American, the Perusine,
and the very Canniball do sing and also say their highest and
holiest matters in certain riming versicles." In the same way
Aristotle, discoursing of the origin of poetry, says (Poet. c. iv.),
eytwrjaav r^v iroirjcrtv TUV abTOo~x.t6iosrn6.Ttov. M. de la
Villemarque in Brittany, M. Pitr6 in Italy, Herr Ulrich in
Greece, have described the process of improvisation, how it
grows out of the custom of dancing in large bands and accom-
panying the figure of the dance with song. " If the people,"
says M. Pitr6, " find out who is the composer of a canzone, they
will not sing it." Now in those lands where a blithe peasant life
still exists with its dances, like the kolos of Russia, we find
ballads identical in many respects with those which have died
out of oral tradition in these islands. It is natural to conclude
that originally some of the British ballads too were first impro-
vised, and circulated in rustic dances. We learn from M.
Bujeaud and M. de Puymaigre in France, that all ballads there
have their air or tune, and that every dance has its own words,
for if a new dance comes in, perhaps a fashionable one from
Paris, words are fitted to it. Is there any trace of such an
operatic, lyrical, dancing peasantry in austere Scotland ? We
find it in Gawin Douglas's account of
" Sic as we clepe wenches and damosels,
In gersy greens, wandering by spring wells,
Of bloomed branches, and flowers white and red,
Plettand their lusty chaplets for their head,
Some sang ring-sangs, dances, ledes, and rounds."
Now, ring-sangs are ballads, dancing songs; and Young Tamlane,
for instance, was doubtless once danced to, as we know it
possessed an appropriate air. Again, Fabyan, the chronicler
(quoted by Ritson) says that the song of triumph over Edward
II., " was after many days sung in dances, to the carols of the
BALLANCE
267
maidens and minstrels of Scotland." We might quote the
Complaynt of Scotland to the same effect. " The shepherds,
and their wyvis sang mony other melodi sangs, . . . than efter
this sueit celestial harmony, tha began to dance in ane ring."
It is natural to conjecture that, if we find identical ballads in
Scotland, and in Greece and Italy, and traces of identical
customs customs crushed by the Reformation, by Puritanism,
by modern so-called civilization, the ballads sprang out of the
institution of dances, as they still do in warmer and pleasanter
climates. It may be supposed that legends on which the ballads
are composed, being found as they are from the White Sea to
Cape Matapan, are part of the stock of primitive folk-lore.
Thus we have an immemorial antiquity for the legends, and for
the lyrical choruses in which their musical rendering was impro-
vised. We are still at a loss to discover the possibly mythological
germs of the legends; but, at all events, some ballads may be
claimed as distinctly popular, and, so to speak, impersonal in
matter and in origin. It would be easy to show that survivals
out of this stage of inartistic lyric poetry linger in the early epic
poetry of Homer and in the French epopies, and that the Greek
drama sprang from the sacred choruses of village vintagers.
In the great early epics, as in popular ballads, there is the same
directness and simplicity, the same use of recurring epithets,
the " green grass," the " salt sea," the " shadowy hills," the
same repetition of speeches and something of the same barbaric
profusion in the use of gold and silver. But these resemblances
must not lead us into the mistake of supposing Homer to be a
collection of ballads, or that he can be properly translated into
ballad metre. The Iliad and the Odyssey are the highest form
of an artistic epic, not composed by piecing together ballads,
but developed by a long series of noble boiSol, for the benefit
of the great houses which entertain them, out of the method and
materials of popular song.
We have here spoken mainly of romantic ballads, which retain
in the refrain a vestige of the custom of singing and dancing;
of a period when " dance, song and poetry itself began with a
communal consent " (Gummere, The Beginnings of Poetry,
p. 93, 1901). The custom by which a singer in a dancing-circle
chants a few words, the dancers chiming in with the refrain, is
found by M. Junod among the tribes of Delagoa Bay (Junod,
Chantes et conies des Ba Ronga, 1897). Other instances are the
Australian song-dances (Siebert, in Hewitt's Native Tribes of
South-East Australia, Appendix 1904; and Dennett, Folk-Lore
of the Fiort). We must not infer that even among the aborigines
of Australia song is entirely " communal." Known men,
inspired, they say, in dreams, or by the All Father, devise new
forms of song with dance, which are carried all over the country;
and Mr Howitt gives a few examples of individual lyric. The
history of the much exaggerated opinion that a whole people,
as a people, composed its own ballads is traced by Prof. Gummere
in The Beginnings of Poetry, pp. 116-163. Some British ballads
retain traces of the early dance-song, and most are so far " com-
munal " in that, as they stand, they have been modified and
interpolated by many reciters in various ages, and finally (in
The Border Minstrelsy) by Sir Walter Scott, and by hands
much weaker than his (see The Young Tamlane). There are cases
in which the matter of a ballad has been derived by a popular
singer from medieval literary romance (as in the Arthurian
ballads), while the author of the romance again usually borrowed,
like Homer in the Odyssey, from popular MUrchen of dateless
antiquity. It would be an error to suppose that most romantic
folk-songs are vulgarizations of literary romance a view to
which Mr Courthope, in his History of English Poetry, and
Mr Henderson in The Border Minstrelsy (1902), incline and the
opposite error would be to hold that this process of borrowing
from and vulgarization of literary medieval romance never
occurred. A good illustration of the true state of the case will
be found in Child's introduction to the ballad of Young Beichan.
Gaston Paris, a great authority, holds that early popular
poetry is " improvised and contemporary with its facts "
(Histoire poitique de Charlemagne). If this dictum be applied
to such ballads as " The Bonny Earl o' Murray," " Kinmont
Willie," " Jamie Telfer " and " Jock o' the Side," it must appear
that the contemporary poets often knew little of the events
and knew that little wrong. We gather the true facts from
contemporary letters' and despatches. In the ballads the facts
are confused and distorted to such a degree that we must suppose
them to have been composed in a later generation on the basis
of erroneous oral tradition; or, as in the case of The Queen's
Marie, to have been later defaced by the fantastic interpolations
of reciters. To prove this it is only necessary to compare the
historical Border ballads (especially those of 1595-1600) with
Bain's Border Papers (1894-1896). Even down to 1750, the
ballads on Rob Roy's sons are more or less mythopoeic. It
seems probable that the existing form of most of our border
ballads is not earlier than the generation of 1603-1633, after the
union of the crowns. Even when the ballads have been taken
from recitation, the reciter has sometimes been inspired by a
" stall copy," or printed broadsheet.
AUTHORITIES. The indispensable book for the student of ballads
is Child's English and Scottish Popular Ballads, published in 1897-
1898 (Boston, U.S.A.). Professor Child unfortunately died without
summing up his ideas in a separate essay, and they must be Bought
in his introductions, which have never been analysed. He did not
give much attention to such materials for the study of ancient poetry
as exist copiously in anthropological treatises. In knowledge of the
ballads of all European peoples he was unrivalled, and his biblio-
graphy of collections of ballads contains some four hundred titles,
(Child, vol. v.. pp. 455-468). The most copious ballad makers have
been the Scots and English, the German, Slavic, Danish, French
and Italian peoples; for the Gaelic there is but one entry, Campbell
of Islay's Lea, har na Feinne (London, 1872). The general biblio-
graphy occupies over sixty pages, and to this the reader must be
referred, while Prof. Gummere's book, The Beginnings of Poetry,
is an adequate introduction to the literature, mainly continental,
of the ballad question, which has received but scanty attention in
England. For the relation of ballad to epic there is no better guide
than Comparetti's The Kaiewala, of which there is an English
translation. For purely literary purposes the best collection of
ballads is Scott's Border Minstrelsy in any complete edition. The
best critical modern edition is that of Mr T. F. Henderson; his
theory of ballad origins is not that which may be gathered from
Professor Child's introductions. (A. L.)
BALLANCE, JOHN (1839-1893), New Zealand statesman,
eldest son of Samuel Ballance, farmer, of Glenavy, Antrim,
Ulster, was born on the 2 7th of March 1839. He was educated
at a national school, and, on leaving, was apprenticed to an
ironmonger at Belfast. He became a clerk in a wholesale
ironmonger's house in Birmingham, and migrated to New
Zealand, intending to start in business there as a small jeweller.
After settling at Wanganui, however, he took an opportunity,
soon offered, of founding a newspaper, the Wanganui Herald, of
which he became editor and remained chief owner for the rest of
his life. During the fighting with the Maori chief Titokowaru, in
1867, Ballance was concerned in the raising of a troop of volunteer
horse, in which he received a commission. Of this he was
deprived owing to the appearance in his newspaper of articles
criticizing the management of the campaign. He had, however,
behaved well in the field, and, in spite of his dismissal, was
awarded the New Zealand war medal. He entered the colony's
parliament in 1875 and, with one interval (1881-1884), sat there
till his death. Ballance was a member of three ministries, that
of Sir George Grey (1877-1879) ; that of Sir Robert Stout (1884-
1887); and that of which he himself was premier (1891-1893).
His alliance with Grey ended with a notorious and very painful
quarrel. In the Stout government his portfolios were those of
lands and native affairs; but it was at the treasury that his
prudent and successful finance made the chief mark. As native
minister his policy was pacific and humane, and in his last years
he contrived to adjust equitably certain long-standing difficulties
relating to reserved lands on the west coast of the North Island.
He was resolutely opposed to the sale of crown lands for cash,
and advocated with effect their disposal by perpetual lease. His
system of state-aided " village settlements," by which small
farms were allotted to peasants holding by lease from the crown,
and money lent them to make a beginning of building and
cultivation, has been on the whole successful. To Ballance, also,
was due the law reducing the life-tenure of legislative councillors
268
BALLANCHE BALLARAT
to one of seven years. He was actively concerned in the advocacy
of woman suffrage. But his best known achievement was the
imposition, in 1891, of the progressive land-tax and progressive
income-tax still levied in tie colony. As premier he brought
together the strong experimental and progressive party which
long held office in New Zealand. In office he showed debating
power, constructive skill and tact in managing men; but in
1893, at the height of his success and popularity, he died at
. Wellington of an intestinal disease after a severe surgical opera-
tion. Quiet and unassuming in manner, Ballance, who was a
well-read man, always seemed fonder of his books and his chess-
board than of public bustle; yet his loss to New Zealand political
life was great. A statue was erected to his memory in front
of Parliament House, Wellington. (W. P. R.)
BALLANCHE, PIERRE SIMON (1776-1847), French philo-
sopher of the theocratic school, was born at Lyons. Naturally
delicate and highly-strung, he was profoundly stirred by the
horrors of the siege of Lyons. His sensitiveness received a
second blow in an unsuccessful love affair, which, however, he
bore with fortitude. He devoted himself to an examination of
the nature of society and his work brought him into connexion
with the literary circle of Chateaubriand and Madame R6camier.
His great work is the Palingtnesie, which is divided into three
parts, L'orphee, La formule, La ville des expiations. The first
deals with the prehistoric period of the world, before the rise of
religion ; the second was to be an endeavour to deduce a universal
law from known historical facts; the third to sketch the
ultimate state of perfection to which humanity is moving. Of
these the first alone was completed, but fragments of the other
parts exist. Perhaps the most valuable part of the work is the
general introduction. His last work, Vision d'Hebal, intended as
part of the Ville des expiations, describes the chief of a Scottish
clan, who, gifted with second sight, gives semi-prophetic utter-
ances as to the course of world-history. In 1841 Ballanche was
elected a member of the French Academy. He died in 1847.
A collected edition of his works in nine volumes was begun in
1830. Four only appeared. In 1833 a second edition in six
volumes was published. As a man, Ballanche was warm-hearted
and enthusiastic, but he was endowed with a too-vivid imagina-
tion and his strange thoughts are expressed in equally bizarre
language. To give a connected account of his views is difficult;
their full development should be studied in relation with his
life-history, the stages of which are curiously parallel to his
theory of the progress of man, the fall, the trial, the perfection.
As has been said, he belonged to the theocratic school, who, in
opposition to the rationalism of the preceding age, emphasized the
principle of authority, placing revelation above individual reason,
order above freedom and progress. But Ballanche made a sincere
endeavour to unite in one system what was valuable in the opposed
modes of thinking. He held with the theocratists that individualism
was an impracticable view; man, according to him, exists only jn
and through society. He agreed further with them that the origin
of society was to be explained, not by human desire and efforts, but
by a direct revelation from God. Lastly, with De Bonald, he reduced
the problem of the origin of society to that of the origin of language,
and held that language was a divine gift. But at this point he parts
company with the 'theocratists, and in this very revelation of lan-
guage finds a germ of progress. Originally, in the primitive state
of man, speech and thougnt are identical; but gradually the two
separate; language is no longer only spoken, it is also written and
finally is printed. Thus the primitive unity is broken up; the
original social order which co-existed with, and was dependent on
it, breaks up also. New institutions spring up, upon which thought
acts, and in and through which it even draws nearer to a final unity,
a palingenesis. The volition of primitive man was one wjth that of
God but it becomes broken up into separate volitions which oppose
themselves to the divine will, and through the oppositions and trials
of this world work onward to a second and completer harmony.
Humanity, therefore, passes through three stages, the fall from
perfection, the period of trial and the final re-birth or return to
perfection. In the dim records of mythical times may be traced
the obscure outlines of primitive society and of its fall. Actual
history exhibits the conflict of two great principles, which may be
said to be realized in the patricians and plebeians of Rome. Such
a distinction of caste is regarded by Ballanche as the original state
of historical society ; and history, as a whole, he considers to have
followed the same course as that taken by the Roman plebs in its
attempts to attain equality with the patriciate. On the events
.through which the human race is to achieve its destiny Ballanche
gives few intelligible hints. The sudden flash which disclosed to the
eyes of Hebal the whole epic of humanity cannot be reproduced in
language trammelled by time and space. Scattered throughout the
works of Ballanche are many valuable ideas on the connexion of
events which makes possible a philosophy of history; but his own
theory does not seem likely to find more favour than it has already
received. Besides the Palingenesie, Ballanche wrote a poem on the
siege at Lyons (unpublished) ; Du sentiment considere dans la
litlerature et dans les arts (1801); Antigone, a prose poem (1814);
Essai sur les institutions sociales (1818), intended as a prelude to
his great work; Le Vieillard et le jeune homme, a philosophical
dialogue (1819); L'Homme sans nont, a novel (1820).
See Ampere, Ballanche (Paris, 1848); Ste Beuve, Portraits
contemporains, vol. ii. ; Damiron, Philosophie de XIX' siecle;
Eugene Blum, " Essai sur Ballanche " (in Critique Philos., 3Oth
June 1887); Gaston Frainnet, Essai sur la philos. de P. S. Ballanche
(Paris, 1903, containing unpublished letters, portraits and full
bibliography); C. Huit, La Vie et les ceuvres de Ballanche (1904).
An admirable analysis of the works composing the Palingenesie is
given by Barchou, Revue des deux mondes (1831), t. 2. pp. 410-456.
BALLANTINE, WILLIAM (1812-1887), English serjeant-at-
law, was born in London on the 3rd of January 1812, being the
son of a London police-magistrate. He was educated at St Paul's
school, and called to the bar in 1834. He began in early life a
varied acquaintance with dramatic and literary society, and his
experience, combined with his own pushing character and acute
intellect, helped to obtain for him very soon a large practice,
particularly in criminal cases. He became known as a formidable
cross-examiner, his great rival being Serjeant Parry (1816-1880).
The three great cases of his career were his successful prosecution
of the murderer Franz Miiller in 1864, his skilful defence of
the Tichborne claimant in 1871 and his defence of the
gaekwar of Baroda in 1875, his fee in this last case being one of
the largest ever known. Ballantine became a serjeant-at-law
in 1856. He died at Margate on the gth of January 1887, having
previously published more than one volume of reminiscences.
Serjeant Ballan tine's private life was decidedly Bohemian; and
though he earned large sums, he died very poor.
BALLANTYNE, ROBERT MICHAEL (1825-1894), Scottish
writer of fiction, was born at Edinburgh on the 24th of April 1825,
and came of the same family as the famous printers and publishers.
When sixteen years of age he went to Canada and was for six
years in the service of the Hudson's Bay Company. He returned
to Scotland in 1847, and next year published his first book,
Hudson's Bay: or, Life in the Wilds of North America. For
some time he was employed by Messrs Constable, the publishers,
but in 1856 he gave up business for the profession of literature,
and began the series of excellent stories of adventure for the
young with which his name is popularly associated. The Young
Fur-Traders (1856), The Coral Island (1857), The World of Ice
(1859), Ungava: a Tale of Eskimo Land (1857), The Dog Crusoe
(1860), The Lighthouse (1865), Deep Down (1868), The Pirate City
(1874), Erling the Bold (1869), The Settler and the Savage (1877),
and other books, to the number of upwards of a hundred, followed
in regular succession, his rule being in every case to write as far
as possible from personal knowledge of the scenes he described.
His stories had the merit of being thoroughly healthy in tone
and possessed considerable graphic force. Ballantyne was also
no mean artist, and exhibited some of his water-colours at the
Royal Scottish Academy. He lived in later years at Harrow,
and died on the 8th of February 1894, at Rome, where he had
gone to attempt to shake off the results of overwork. He wrote
a volume of Personal Reminiscences of Book-making (1893).
BALLARAT [BALLAARAT] and BALLARAT EAST, a city and
a town of Grenville county, Victoria, Australia, 74 m. by rail
W.N.W. of Melbourne. The city and Ballarat East, separated
only by the Yarrowee Creek, are distinct municipalities. Pop.
of Ballarat (1901) 25,448, of Ballarat East, 18,262. Ballarat
is the second city and the chief gold-mining centre of the state.
The alluvial gold-fields were the richest ever opened up, but as
these deposits have become exhausted the quartz reefs at deep
levels have been exploited, and several mines are worked at depths
exceeding 2000 ft. The city is the seat of Anglican and Roman
Catholic bishops. It has a number of admirable public buildings,
while, among several parks and recreation grounds, mention
must be made of the fine botanical garden, 750 acres in extent,
BALLAST BALLET
269
where, in Lake Wendouree, pisciculture is carried on with great
success. The school of mines is the most important in Australia
and is affiliated to the university of Melbourne. Ballarat is an
important railway centre and its industries include woollen-
milling, brewing, iron-founding, flour-milling and distilling.
Owing to its elevation of 1438 ft. it has an exceptionally cool
and healthy climate. Although the district is principally devoted
to mining it is well adapted for sheep-farming, and some of the
finest wool in the world is produced near Ballarat. The existence
of the towns is due to the heavy immigration which followed
upon the discovery of the gold-fields in 1851. In 1854, in their
resistance of an arbitrary tax, the miners came into armed conflict
with the authorities; but a. commission was appointed to in-
vestigate their grievances; and a charter was granted to the
town in 1855. In 1870 Ballarat was raised to the rank of a city.
BALLAST (O. Swed. barlast, perhaps from bar, bare or
mere, and last, load), heavy material, such as gravel, stone
or metal, placed in the hold of a ship in order to immerse her
sufficiently to give adequate stability. In botany " ballast-
plants " are so-called because they have been introduced into
countries in which they are not indigenous through their seeds
being carried in such ballast. A ship " in ballast " is one which
carries no paying cargo. In modern vessels the place of ballast
is taken by water-tanks which are filled more or less as required
to trim the ship. The term is also applied to materials like gravel,
broken slag, burnt day, &c., used to form the bed in which the
sleepers or ties of a railway track are laid, and also to the sand
which a balloonist takes up with him, in order that, by throwing
portions of it out of the car from time to time, he may lighten
his balloon when he desires to rise to a higher level.
BALLATER (Gaelic for " the town on a sloping hill "), a
village in the parish of Glenmuick, Aberdeenshire, Scotland,
670 ft. above the sea, on the left bank of the Dee, here crossed
by a fine bridge, 43$ m. by rail W. by S. of Aberdeen. It is
the terminus of the Deeside railway and the station for Balmoral,
9 m. to the W. Founded in 1770 to provide accommodation
for the visitors to the mineral wells of Pannanich, i^ m. to the E.,
it has since become a popular summer resort. It contains the
Albert Memorial Hall and the barracks for the sovereign's body-
guard, used when the king is in residence at Balmoral. Red granite
is the chief building material of the houses. Ballatrich farm,
where Byron spent part of his boyhood, lies some 4 m. to the E.
Ballater has a mean temperature of 44-6 F., and an average
annual rainfall of 33-4 in.
BALLENSTEDT, a town of Germany, in the duchy of Anhalt,
on the river Getel, 20 m. E. of Quedlinburg by rail. Pop. (1900)
5423. It is pleasantly situated under the north-eastern declivity
of the Harz mountains. The inhabitants are mostly engaged
in agriculture and there is practically no other industry. The
palace of the dukes of Anhalt, standing on an eminence, contains
a library and collections of various kinds, including a good
picture gallery. It is approached by a fine avenue of trees and
is surrounded by a well-wooded park. In the Schlosskirche
the grave of Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg (noo-
1170) has been discovered.
BALLET, a performance in which dancing, music and panto-
mime are involved. Originally derived from the (Sicilian) Gr.
/SaXXtfeti', to dance, the word has passed through the
Med. Lat. ballare (with battator as synonymous with sallalor)
to the Ital. ballare and ballala, to the Fr. ballet, to the O.
Eng. word balletic, and to ballad. In O. Fr., according to
Rousseau, ballet signifies " to dance, to sing, to rejoice "; and
thus it incorporates three distinct modern words, " ballet, ball
and ballad." Through the gradual changes in the amusements
of different ages, the meaning of the first two words has at length
become limited to dancing, and the third is now confined to
singing. But, although ballads are no longer the vocal accom-
paniments to dances round the maypole, old ballads are still sung
to dance tunes. The present acceptation of the word ballet is a
theatrical representation in which a story is told only by gesture,
accompanied by music, which should be characterized by stronger
emphasis than would be employed with the voice. The dancing
should be connected with the story but is more commonly inci-
dental. The French word was found to be so comprehensive as
to require further definition, and thus the above-described would
be distinguished as the ballet d 'action or pantomime ballet, while
a single scene, such as that of a village festival with its dances,
would now be termed a divertissement.
The ballet d'aclion, to which the changed meaning of the word
is to be ascribed, and therewith the introduction of modern ballet,
has been generally attributed to the i$th century. Novelty of
entertainment was then sought for in the splendid courts of Italy,
in order to celebrate events which were thought great in their
time, such as the marriages of princes, or the triumphs of their
arms. Invention was on the rack for novelty, and the skill of the
machinist was taxed to the utmost. It has been supposed that
the art of the old Roman panlomimi was then revived, to add to
the attractions of court-dances. Under the Roman empire the
pantomimi had represented either a mythological story, or perhaps
a scene from a Greek tragedy, by mute gestures, while a chorus,
placed in the background, sang cantica to narrate the fable, or to
describe the action of the scene. The question is whether mute
pantomimic action, which is the essence of modern ballet, was
carried through those court entertainments, in which kings,
queens, princes and princesses, took parts with the courtiers; or
whether it is of later growth, and derived from professional dances
upon the stage. The former is the general opinion, but the court
entertainments of Italy and France were masques or masks
which included declamation and song, like those of Ben Jonson
with Inigo Jones for the court of James I.
The earliest modern ballet on record was that given by
Bergonzio di Botta at Tortona to celebrate the marriage of the
duke of Milan in 1489. The ballet, like other forms of dancing,
was developed and perfected in France; it is closely associated
with the history of the opera; but in England it came much later
than the opera, for it was not introduced until the i8th century,
and in the first Italian operas given in London there was no ballet.
During the regency of Lord Middlesex a ballet-master was
appointed and a corps of dancers formed. The ballet has had
three distinct stages in its development. For a long time it was
to be found only at the court, when princely entertainments were
given to celebrate great occasions. At that time ladies of the
highest rank performed in the ballet and spent much time in
practising and perfecting themselves for it. Catherine de'Medici
introduced these entertainments into France and spent large sums
of money on devising performances to distract her son's attention
from the affairs of the state. Baltasarini, otherwise known as
Beaujoyeulx, was the composer of a famous entertainment given
by Catherine in 1581 called the " Ballet Comique de la Reyne."
This marks an era in the history of the opera and ballet, for we
find here for the first time dance and music arranged for the
display of coherent dramatic ideas. Henry IV., Louis XIII. and
XIV. were all lovers of the ballet and performed various
characters in them, and Richelieu used the ballet as an instrument
for the expression of political purposes. Lully was the first to
make an art of the composition of ballet music and he was the
first to insist on the admission of women as ballet dancers,
feminine characters having hitherto been assumed by men
dressed as women. When Louis XIV. became too fat to dance,
the ballet at court became unpopular and thus was ended the
first stage of its development. It was then adopted in the
colleges at prize distributions and other occasions, when the
ballets of Lully and Quinault were commonly performed. The
third period in the history of the ballet was marked by its appear-
ance on the stage, where it has remained ever since. It should be
added that up till the third period dramatic poems had accom-
panied the ballet and the dramatic meaning was helped out with
speech and song; but with the advent of the third period speech
disappeared and the purely pantomime performance, or ballet
d' action, was instituted.
The father of ballet dancing as we know it at the present day
was Jean Georges Noverre (g.v.). The ballet d' action was really
invented by him; in fact, the ballet has never advanced beyond
the stage to which he brought it; it has rather gone back. The
270
BALL-FLOWERBALLISTICS
essence of Noverre's theory was that mere display was not enough
to ensure interest and life for the ballet; and some years ago Sir
Augustus Harris expressed a similar opinion when he was asked
wherein lay the reason of the decadence of the modern ballet.
Noverre brought to a high degree of perfection the art of present-
ing a story by means of pantomime, and he never allowed dancing
which was not the direct expression of a particular attitude of
mind. Apart from Noverre, the greatest ballet-master was
undoubtedly Gaetano Apolline Balthazare Vestris (?..), who
modestly called himself le dieu de la danse, and was, indeed, the
finest male dancer that Europe ever produced. Gluck composed
Iphigtnie en Aidide in conjunction with Vestris. In 1750 the
two greatest dancers of the day performed together in Paris in a
ballet-opera called Ltandre et Hero; the dancers were Vestris and
Madame Camargo (q.v.), who introduced short skirts in the ballet.
The word " balette " was first used in the English language
by Dryden in 1667, and the first descriptive ballet seen in
London was The Tavern Bilkers, which was played at Drury
Lane in 1702. Since then the ballet in England has been purely
exotic and has merely followed on the lines of French develop-
ments. The palmy days of the ballet in England were in the
first half of the igth century, when a royal revenue was spent
on the maintenance of this fashionable attraction. Some famous
dancers of this period were Carlotta Grisi, Mdlle Taglioni (who
is said to have turned the heads of an entire generation), Fanny
Elssler, Mdlle Cento, Miss P. Horton, Miss Lucile Grahn and
Mdlle Carolina Rosati. In later years Kate Vaughan was a
remarkably graceful dancer of a new type in England, and, in
Sir Augustus Harris's opinion, she did much to elevate the
modern art. She was the first to make skirt-dancing popular,
although that achievement will not be regarded as an unmixed
benefit by every student of the art. Skirt-dancing, in itself a
beautiful exhibition, is a departure from true dancing in the
sense that the steps are of little importance in it; and we have
seen its development extend to a mere exhibition of whirling
draperies under many-coloured lime-lights. The best known
of Miss Vaughan's disciples and imitators (each of whom has
contributed something to the art on her own account) were Miss
Sylvia Grey and Miss Letty Lind. Of the older and classical
school of ballet-dancing Adeline Genee became in London the
finest exponent. But ballet-dancing, affected by a tendency in
modern entertainment to make less and less demands on the in-
telligence and intellectual appreciation of the public, and more
and more demands on the eye the sense most easily affected has
gradually developed into a spectacle, the chief interest of which
is quite independent of dancing. Thousands of pounds are spent
on dressing a small army of women who do little but march
about the stage and group themselves in accordance with some
design of colour and mass; and no more is asked of the intelli-
gence than to believe that a ballet dressed, for example, in
military uniform is a compliment to or glorification of the army.
Only a few out of hundreds of members of the corps de ballet are
really dancers and they perform against a background of colour
afforded by the majority. It seems unlikely that we shall see
any revival of the best period and styles of dancing until a
higher standard of grace and manners becomes fashionable in
society. With the constantly increasing abolition of ceremony,
courtliness of manner is bound to diminish; and only in an
atmosphere of ceremony, courtesy and chivalry can the dance
maintain itself in perfection.
LITERATURE. One of the most complete books on the ballet is
by the Jesuit, Claude Francois Menestrier, Des ballets anciens et
modernes, I2mo (1682). He was the inventor of a ballet for
Louis XIV. in 1658 ; and in his book he analyses about fifty of the
early Italian and French ballets. See also Noverre, Lettres sur la
danse (1760; new ed. 1804); Castel-Blaze, La Danse et les ballets
(1832), and Les Ori&nes de I'opera (1869).
BALL-FLOWER, an architectural ornament in the form of a
ball inserted in the cup of a flower, which came into use in the
latter part of the I3th, and was in great vogue in the early part
of the 1 4th century. It is generally placed in rows at equal
distances in the hollow of a moulding, frequently by the sides of
mullions. The earliest known is said to be in the west part of
Salisbury cathedral, where it is mixed with the tooth ornament.
It seems to have been used more and more frequently, till at
Gloucester cathedral, in the south side, it is in profusion.
BALLIA, a town and district of British India, in the Benares
division of the United Provinces. The town is situated on the
left bank of the Ganges, below the confluence of the lesser Sarju.
It is really an aggregation of rural villages. Pop. (1901) 15,278.
The district of Ballia, constituted in 1879, occupies an angle
at the junction of the Gogra with the Ganges, being bordered
by two districts of Behar. It contains an area of 1245 sq. m.
Owing to the great pressure on the soil from the density of the
population, to the reluctance to part with land characteristic
of small proprietors, to the generally great productiveness of
land and to the very light assessment of government revenue,
land in Ballia, for agricultural purposes merely, has a market
value higher than in almost any other district. It commonly
brings in Rs. 200 per bigha, or 20 per acre, and sometimes
double that figure. In 1901 the population was 987,768, showing
a decrease of 5% in the decade. The principal crops are rice,
barley, other food-grains, pulse, sugar-cane and opium. There
are practically no manufactures, except that of sugar. Trade
is carried on largely by way of the two bordering rivers.
BALLINA, a seaport and market-town of county Mayo,
Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, on the left bank
of the river Moy, -with a station on the Killala branch of the
Midland Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
4505. Across the river, and therefore in county Sligo, is the
suburb of Ardnaree, connected with Ballina by two bridges.
In Ardnaree is the Roman Catholic cathedral (diocese of Killala),
with an east window of Munich glass, and the ruins of an Augus-
tinian abbey (1427) adjoining. There is a Roman Catholic
diocesan college and the Protestant parish church is also in
Ardnaree. A convent was erected in 1867. In trade and
population Ballina is the first town in the county. The salmon-
fishery and fish-curing are important branches of its trade;
and it has also breweries and flour-mills and manufactures snuff
and coarse linen. On the 25th of August 1798, Ballina was
entered by the French under General Humbert, marching from
their landing-place at Killala. In the neighbourhood there is
the interesting cromlech of the four Maels, which, if actually
erected over the criminals whose name it bears, is proved by
the early annals of Ireland to belong to the 7th century A.D.
Their story relates that these men, foster-brothers of Cellach,
bishop of KUmore-Moy, murdered him at the instigation of
Guaire Aidhne, king of Connaught, but were themselves executed
at Ardnare (Ard-na-riaghadh, the hill of the executions) by the
bishop's brother. The Moy is a notable salmon river for rod-
fishing and its tributaries and the neighbouring lakes contain
trout.
BALLINASLOE, a market town of county Galway, Ireland,
in the east parliamentary division, 91 m. W. of Dublin, on the
Midland Great Western main line. Pop. of urban district (1901)
4904. The river Suck, an affluent of the Shannon, divides it
into two parts, of which the eastern was in county Roscommon
until 1898. The town contains remains of a castle of Elizabethan
date. Industries include brewing, flour-milling, tanning, hat-
making and carriage-building. Trade is assisted by water-
communication through the Grand canal to the Shannon. The
town is widely celebrated for its great annual cattle-fair held in
Dctober, at which vast numbers of cattle and sheep are offered
'or sale. Adjoining the town is Garbally Castle, the seat of the
earl of Clancarty, into the demesne of which the great fair
extends from the town.
BALLISTICS (from the Gr. fia\\ttv, to throw), the science of
throwing warlike missiles or projectiles. It is now divided into
two parts: Exterior Ballistics, in which the motion of the
jrojectile is considered after it has received its initial impulse,
when the projectile is moving freely under the influence of
gravity and the resistance of the air, and it is required to de-
ermine the circumstances so as to hit a certain object, with a
view to its destruction or perforation; and Interior Ballistics,
n which the pressure of the powder-gas is analysed in the bore
BALLISTICS
271
of the gun, and the investigation is carried out of the requisite
charge of powder to secure the initial velocity of the projectile,
without straining the gun unduly. The calculation of the stress
in the various parts of the gun due to the powder pressure is
dealt with in the article ORDNANCE.
I. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS.
In the ancient theory due to Galileo, the resistance of the air is
ignored, and, as shown in the article on MECHANICS ( 13), the
trajectory is now a parabola. But this theory is very far from
being of practical value for most purposes of gunnery; so that
a first requirement is an accurate experimental knowledge of the
resistance of the air to the projectiles employed, at all velocities
useful in artillery. The theoretical assumptions of Newton and
Euler (hypotheses magis mathemalicoe quant naturales) of a
resistance varying as some simple power of the velocity, for
instance, as the square or cube of the velocity (the quadratic
or cubic law), lead to results of great analytical complexity,
and are useful only for provisional extrapolation at high or low
velocity, pending further experiment.
The foundation of our knowledge of the resistance of the air,
as employed in the construction of ballistic tables, is the series of
experiments carried out between 1864 and 1880 by the Rev. F.
Bashforth, B.D. (Report on the Experiments made with the Bash-
forth Chronograph, &c., 1865-1870; Final Report, &c., 1878-1880;
The Bashforth Chronograph, Cambridge, 1800). According to
these experiments, the resistance of the air can be represented
by no simple algebraical law over a large range of velocity.
Abandoning therefore all a priori theoretical assumption,
Bashforth set to work to measure experimentally the velocity of
shot and the resistance of the air by means of equidistant electric
screens furnished with vertical threads or wire, and by a chrono-
graph which measured the instants of time at which the screens
were cut by a shot flying nearly horizontally. Formulae of the
calculus of finite differences enable us from the chronograph
records to infer the velocity and retardation of the shot, and
thence the resistance of the air.
As a first result of experiment it was found that the resistance of
similar shot was proportional, at the same velocity, to the surface
or cross section, or square of the diameter. The resistance R can
thus be divided into two factors, one of which is d?, where d denotes
the diameter of the shot in inches, and the other factor is denoted
by p, where p is the resistance in pounds at the same velocity to
a similar l-in. projectile; thus R=d*p, and the value of p, for
velocity ranging from 1600 to 2150 ft. per second (f/s) is given in the
second column of the extract from the abridged ballistic table below.
These values of p refer to a standard density of the air, of 534-22
grains per cubic foot, which is the density of dry air at sea-level in the
latitude of Greenwich, at a temperature of 62 F. and a barometric
height of 30 in.
But in consequence of the humidity of the climate of England
it is better to suppose the air to be (on the average) two-thirds
saturated with aqueous vapour, and then the standard temperature
will be reduced to 60* F., so as to secure the same standard density ;
the density of the air being reduced perceptibly by the presence of
the aqueous vapour.
It is further assumed, as the result of experiment, that the re-
sistance is proportional to the density of the air; so that if the
standard density changes from unity to any other relative dgnsity
denoted by r, then R = rd?p, and r is called the coefficient 0} tenuity.
The factor r becomes of importance in long range high angle
fire, where the shot reaches the higher attenuated strata of the
atmosphere; on the other hand, we must take r about 800 in a
calculation of shooting under water.
The resistance of the air is reduced considerably in modern pro-
jectiles by giving them a greater length and a sharper point, and
by the omission of projecting studs, a factor K, called the coefficient
of shape, being introduced to allow for this change.
For a projectile in which the ogival head is struck with a radius
of 2 diameters, Bashforth puts K = 0-975; on the other hand, for
a flat-headed projectile, as required at proof-butts, ic=l-8, say 2 on
the average.
For spherical shot K it not constant, and a separate ballistic table
must be constructed ; but K may be taken as 1-7 on the average.
Lastly, to allow for the superior centering of the shot obtainable
with the breech-loading system, Bashforth introduces a factor a,
called the coefficient of steadiness.
This steadiness may vary during the flight of the projectile, as
the shot may be unsteady for some distance after leaving the muzzle,
afterwards steadying down, like a spinning-top. Again, a may
increase as the gun wears out, after firing a number of rounds.
Collecting all the coefficients, r, , a, into one, we put
(1) R-iMPp-mPftp), where
(2) nKOT,
and n is called the coefficient of reduction.
By means of a well-chosen value of , determined by a few ex-
periments, it is possible, pending further experiment, with the most
recent design, to utilize Bashforth's experimental results carried out
with old-fashioned projectiles fired from muzzle-loading guns. For
instance, n = o-K or even less is considered a good average for the
modern rifle bullet.
Starting with the experimental values of p, for a standard pro-
jectile, fired under standard conditions in air of standard density,
we proceed to the construction of the ballistic table. We first
determine the time / in seconds required for the velocity of a shot,
d inches in diameter and weighing w Ib, to fall from any initial
velocity V(fys) to any final velocity r(f/s). The shot ts_ supposed
to move horizontally, and the curving effect of gravity is ignored.
If A/ seconds is the time during which the resistance of the air,
R to, causes the velocity of the shot to fall Af (f/s), so that the
velocity drops from p+jAP to p JAP in passing through the mean
velocity v, then
(3) RA/ = loss of momentum in second-pounds,
so that with the value of R in (i),
(4)
We put
(5)
and call C the ballistic coefficient (driving power) of the shot, so
that
(6) A- CAT, where
and AT is the time in seconds for the velocity to drop AP of the
standard shot for which C' = i, and for which the ballistic table is
calculated.
Since p is determined experimentally and tabulated as a function
of P, the velocity is taken as the argument of the ballistic table;
and taking AP = 10, the average value of p in the interval is used to
determine AT.
Denoting the value of T at any velocity p by T (p), then
(8) T(p)=sum of all the preceding values of AT plus an arbi-
trary constant, expressed by the notation
(9) T(p) = 2(Ap)/g/>+ a constant, or Jdvjgp-\- a constant, in which
p is supposed known as a function of P.
The constant may be any arbitrary number, as in using the table
the difference only is required of two tabular values for an initial
velocity V and final velocity P ; and thus
and for a shot whose ballistic coefficient is C
(n) < = C[T(V)-T(p)].
To save the trouble of proportional parts the value of T(p) for
unit increment of P is interpolated in a full-length extended ballistic
table for T.
Next, if the shot advances a distance As ft. in the time A/, during
which the velocity falls from P+JAP to p |Ap, we have
(12) RAs = Ioss of kinetic energy in foot-pounds
=af(p+iAp) I /g w(v |Ap)V? = w<'Ap/g, so that
(13) As=tt>pAp/W/>2 = CAS, where
and AS is the advance in feet of a shot for which C = i, while the
velocity falls Ao in passing through the average velocity P.
Denoting by S(p) the sum of all the values of AS up to any assigned
velocity P,
(15) S(p) = S(AS) + a constant, by which S() is calculated from
AS, and then between two assigned velocities V and P,
(16)
and if s feet is the advance of a shot whose ballistic coefficient is C,
In an extended table of S, the value is interpolated for unit incre-
ment of velocity.
A third table, due to Sir W.D. Niven, F.R.S., called the degree
table, determines the change of direction of motion of the shot
while the velocity changes from V to v, the shot flying nearly
horizontally.
To explain the theory of this table, suppose the tangent at the
point of the trajectory, where the velocity is v, to make an angle
radians with the horizon.
Resolving normally in the trajectory, and supposing the resistance
of the air to act tangentially,
(18) p(<f '/(&) = cos ',
where di denotes the infinitesimal decrement of i in the infinitesimal
increment of time dt.
272
BALLISTICS
In a problem of direct fire, where the trajectory is flat enough
for cos i to be undistinguishable from unity, equation (16) becomes
(19) v(di/dt) = e> or di/dt = gfv ;
so that we can put
(20) A/A<= ? /t>,
if v denotes the mean velocity during the small finite interval of
time A/, during which the direction of motion of the shot changes
through At radians.
If the inclination or change of inclination in degrees is denoted
by i or A4,
(21) /i8o = 7r, so that
: ' . , :.:-!
. . l8o A . l8og A/
(22) A= A = -^ T ;
and if 6 and * change to D and I for the standard projectile,
AT^ Af -r^ I OOP AT^
(23) AI = =f^' AD= -^ ' and
, N ._.. : .; .
,. (24) I(V)r-I() =
The differences AD and Al are thus calculated, while the values
of D() and I(r) are obtained by summation with the arithmometer,
and entered in their respective columns.
For some purposes it is preferable to retain the circular measure,
i radians, as being undistinguishable from sin t and tan when is
small as in direct fire.
The last function A, called the altitude function, will be explained
when high angle fire is considered.
These functions, T, S, D, 1 , A, are shown numericajly in the follow-
ing extract from an abridged ballistic table, in which the velocity
is taken as the argument and proceeds by an increment of 10 f/s;
the column for p is the one determined by experiment, and the
remaining columns follow by calculation in the manner explained
above. The initial values of T, S, D, I, A must be accepted as
belonging to the anterior portion of the table.
In any region of velocity where it is possible to represent p with
sufficient accuracy by an empirical formula composed of a single
power of v, say if, the integration can be effected which replaces
the summation in (10), (16), and (24) ; and from an analysis of the
Krupp experiments Colonel Zabudski found the most appropriate
index m in a region of velocity as given in the following table, and
the corresponding value of gp, denoted by/ ()or tf"/kor its equivalent
Cr, where r is the retardation.
ABRIDGED BALLISTIC TABLE.
.
P-
AT.
T.
AS.
S.
AD.
D.
AI.
I.
AA.
A.
f/s
i6oo
II-4I6
0271
27-5457
4.V47
18587-00
0311
49-7729
000543
868675
37-77
8470-36
1610
11-540
0268
43-27
18630-47
0306
49-8040
000534
869218
37-63
8508-13
1620
11-662
0265
27-5096
43-08
18673-74
0301
49-8346
000525
869752
37-48
8545-76
1630
II-784
0262
27-6261
42-90
18716-82
0296
49-8647
000517
870277
37-35
8583-24
1640
II-909
0260
27-6523
42-72
18759-72
0291
49-8943
000508
870794
37-21
8620-59
'; :.'hii
1650
I2-030
0257
27-6783'
42-55
18802-44
0287
49-9234
000500
871302
37-09
8657-80
1660
I2-I50
0255
27-7040
42-39
18844-99
0282
49-9521
000492
871802
36-96
8694-89
1670
12-268
0252
37-7295
42-18
18887-38
0277
49-9803
000484
872294
36-80
.8731-85
1680
I2-404
0249
27'754/ )
41-98
18929-56
0273
50-0080
000476
872778
36-65
8768-65
.
16oo
12-536
0247
27-7796
41-78
18971-54
0268
50-0353
000468
873254
36-50
8805-30
1700
12-666
0244
27-8043
41-60
19013-32
0264
50-0621
000461
873722
36-35
8841-80
1710
12-801
0242
27-8287;
41-41
19054-92
0260
50-0885
000453
874183
36-21
8878-15
.
1726
12-900
0239
27-8529
4 I>2 3
I9096-33
0256
5- ' 1 45
000446
874636
36-07
8914-36
1730
13-059
0237
27-18768'
41-06
I9I37-56
0252
50-1401
000439
875082
35-94
8950-43
1740
13-191
0234
27-9005 .
40-90
19178-62
0248
50-1653
000432
875521
35-81
8986-37
1750 ,
I3-3I8
0232
27-9239
40-69
19219-52
0244
50-1901
000425
875953
35-65
9022-18
1760
13-466
0230
27-9471
40-53
19260-21
0240
50-2145
000419
876378
35-53
9057-83
1770
I3-59I
-0227
27-9701
40-33
19300-74
0236
50-2385
000412
876797
35-37
9093-36
1780
13-733
0225
27-9928
40-19
19341-07
0233
50-2621
000406
877209
35-26
9128-73
1790
13-862
0223
28-0153
40-00
19381-26
0229
50-2854
000400
877615
35-n
9163-99
1800
14-002
0221
28-0376
39-81
19421-26
0225
50-3083
000393
878015
34-96
9199-10
1810
14-149
O2I9
28-0597
39-68
19461-07
0222
50-3308
000388
878408
34-86
9234-06
,,; I , >
:-l820 ,
1.4:269
O2I7
28-0816
39-51
I9500-75
O2I9
50-353
000382
878796
34-73
9268-92
tl ! I-';
. I8 3
I4-4I4
O2I4
28-I033 ;
39-34
19540-26
O2I6
50-3749
000376
879178
34-59
9303-65
1840
I4-552
O2 1 2
28-I247'
39-17
19579-60
O2 1 2
50-3965
000370
879554
34-46
9338-24
. ! ..'
1850
14-696
O2IO
28-I459v^
39-01
19618-77
0209
50-4I77
000365
879924
34-33
9372-70
i860
14-832
0209
28;l669
38-90
19657-78
0206
50-4386
000360
880289
34-25
9407-03
1870
14-949
O2O7
2,8-1878
38-75
19696-68
0203
50-4592
000355
880649
34-14
9441-28
1880
15-090
0205
28-2085 :
38-61
19735-43
O2OO
50-4795
000350
881004
34-02
9475-42
1890
15-224
0203
28/2290
38-46
19774-04
0198
50-4995
000345
881354
33-91
9509-44
1900
I5-364
O2OI
28-2493
38-32
19812-50
0195
50-5I93
000340
881699
33-8o
9543-35
1910
15-496
0199
, 28-2:694
38-19
19850-82
OI92
50-5388
000335
882039
33-69
9577-15
1920
15-656
0197
28^2893
38-01
19889-01
OI89
50-5580
000330
882374
33-55
9610-84
1930
15*809
OI96
'28*3090
37-83
19927-02
0186
50-5769
000325
882704
33-40
9644-39
1940
15-968
0194
28-3286
. 37-66
19964-85
0184
50-5955
000320
883029
33-26
9677-79
1 '
1950
16-127
0192
28-3480
37-48
20002-51
0181
50-6139
000316
883349
33-12
97II-05
1960
16-302
OIOX)
28-367'2
37-26
20039-99
0178
50-6320
000311
883665
32-94
9744-17
1970
16-484
0187
28-3862
20077-25
0175
50-6498
000305
883976
32-71
9777-n
1980
16-689
0185
28-4049
36-73
20114-24
0172
50-6673
000300
884281
32-48
9809-82
1990
16-888
0183
28-4234
36-47
20150-97
0169
50-6845
000295
884581
32-26
9842-30
20OO
17-096
0181
28-4417
36-21
20187-44
0166
50-7014
000290
884876
32-05
9874-56
2010
I7-305
0178
28-4598
35-95
20223-65
0163
50-7180
000285
885166
31-83
9906-61
2O20
I7-5I5
0176
28-4776
35-65
20259-60
0160
50-7343
000280
885451
31-57
9938-44
2030
I7-752
0174
28-4952
35-35
20295-25
0158
50-7503
000275
885731
3I-32
9970-01
2O4O
17-990
0171
28-5126
35-o6
20330-60
0155
50-7661
000270
886006
31-07
10001-33
2050
18-229
0169
28-5297
34-77
20365-66
0152
50-7816
000265
886276
30-82
10032-40
2060
18-463
0167
28-5466
34-49
20400-43
0149
50-7968
000260
886541
30-58
10063-33
2O7O
18-706
0165
28-5633
34-21
20434-92
0147
50-8117
000256
886801
30-34
10093-80
2080
18-978
0163
28-5798
33-93
20469-13
0144
50-8264
000251
887057
30-10
10124-14
2O9O
19-227
0160
28-5961
33-6o
20503-06
0141
50-8408
000247
887308
29-82
10154-24
2IOO
19-504
0158
28-6121
33-34
20536-66
0139
50-8549
000242
887555
29-59
10184-06
2110
19-755
0156
28-6279
33-02
20570-00
0136
50-8688
000238
887797
29-32
10213-65
2I2O
2O-OIO
0154
28-6435
32-76
20603-02
0134
50-8824
000234
888035
29-10
10242-97
2130
2O-294
0152
28-6589
32-50
206^5-78
0132
50-8958
000230
888269
28-88
10272-07
2140
20-551
0150
28-6741
32-25
20688-28
0129
50-9090
000226
888499
28-66
10300-95
2150
20-811
0149
28-6891
32-00
20700-53
0127
50-9219
OOO222
888725
28-44
10329-61
BALLISTICS
V.
m.
log*.
- g p-!(v)-flk.
3600
i
i-55
2-3909520
[/"xiog- 1 3-6090480
2600
i-7
2-9038022
o 1 -' Xlog-' 3-0961978
1800
2
3-8807404
p* Xlog- 1 4-1192596
1370
_
3
7-OI90977
v 1 Xlog" 1 8-9809023
1230
5
I3-I98I288
f* Xlog- l i4-8oi87i2
970
_
3
7-2265570
v* Xlog- 1 8-7734430
J79
_
!
2
4-330I086
t>* xiogr 1 5-6698914
The numbers have been changed from kilogramme-metre to pound-
foot units by Colonel Ingalls, and employed by him in the calcula-
tion of an extended ballistic table, which can be compared with
the result of the abridged table. The calculation can be carried
out in each region of velocity from the formulae:
(25)
and the corresponding integration.
The following exercises will show the application of the
ballistic table. A slide rule should be used for the arithmetical
operations, as it works to the accuracy obtainable in practice.
Example i. Determine the time / sec. and distance s ft. in which
the velocity falls from 2150 to 1600 f/s
(a) of a 6-in. shot weighing loolb, taking 71=0-96,
(b) of a rifle bullet, o-3O3-in. calibre, weighing half an ounce, taking
n = o-8.
The first equation leads, as before, to
(28) <-C|T(V)-
273
(29) *-C|S(V)-S(tO).
The integration of (24) gives
V.
V.
T(V).
T().
tic.
S(V).
S(P).
slC.
2150
1600
28-6891
27-5457
I-I434
20700-53
18587-00
2H3-53
if T denotes the whole time of flight from O to the point B (fig. i),
where the trajectory cuts the line of sight ; so that JT is the time to
the vertex A, where the shot is flying parallel to OB.
Integrating (27) again,
(31) y-g(JT/-J<)-Jg/(T-0;
and denoting T-/ by /', and taking g= 32f/s,
(32) y=lC',
which is Colonel Sladen's formula, employed in plotting ordinates
of a trajectory.
At the vertex A, where y-H, we have / = /'- JT, so that
(33) H = |gT,
which for practical purposes, taking 2 = 32, is replaced by
(34) H=4T, or (2T)'.
Thus, if the time of flight of a shell is 5 sec., the height of the vertex
of the trajectory is about loo ft. ; and if the fuse is set to burst die
shell one-tenth of a second short of its impact at B, the height of the
burst is 7-84, say 8 ft.
The line of sight O*, considered horizontal in range table results,
may be inclined slightly to the horizon, as in shooting up or down
a moderate slope, without appreciable modification of (28) and (29).
and y or PM is still drawn vertically to meet OB in M.
Given the ballistic coefficient C, the initial velocity V, and a range
of R yds. or X = 3R ft., the final velocity v is first calculated from
(29) by
(35) S(o)=S(V)-X/C,
and then the time of flight T by
(36) T = C(T(V)-T()|.
Denoting the angle of departure and descent, measured in degrees
and from the line of sight OB by <t> and ft, the total
deviation in the range OB is (fig. i)
(37) =+/S = C|D(V)-D(t>)|.
To share the S between <t> and ft, the vertex A is
d.
w.
C.
tic.
t.
*/c.
i.
half-ranee, because of the continual diminution of the
velocity), and the velocity v, at A is calculated from the
formula
(38) T(*)-T(V)-iJ-4[T(V)+TMI;
(a)
(b)
6
0-303
IOO
1/32
2-894
0-426
I-H34
I-I434
3-307
0-486
2113-53
2113-53
6114 (2038yds.)
900 (300 yds.)
Example 2. Determine the remaining velocity v and time of flight
t over a range of 1000 yds. of the same two shot, fired with the same
muzzle velocity V = 2i5of/s.
and now the degree table for D(p) gives
(39)
(40)
S.
s/C.
S(V).
sw.
9.
T(V).
T().
tic.
/.
(a)
(b)
3000
3000
1037
7050
20700-53
20700-53
19663-53
13650-53
1861
920*
28-6891
28-6891
28-1690
23-0803
0-5201
5-6088
1-505
2-387
In the calculation of range tables for direct fire, defined
officially as " fire from guns with full charge at elevation not
exceeding 15," the vertical component of the resistance of the
This value of <t> is the tangent elevation (T.E) ;
the quadrant elevation (Q.E.) is S, where S
is the angular depression of the line of sight OB ;
and if O is A ft. vertical above B, the angle S at a
range of R yds. is given by
FIG. i.
air may be ignored as insensible, and the actual velocity and its
horizontal component, or component parallel to the line of sight,
are undistinguishable.
The equations of motion are now, the co-ordinates * and y being
measured in feet,
(26) **--rr--tf,
* These numbers are taken from a part omitted here of the abridged
ballistic table.
(41) sinS
or, for a small angle, expressed in minutes, taking the radian as
3438',
(42) S = li46A/R.
So also the angle ft must be increased by S to obtain
the angle at which the shot strikes a horizontal plane the
water, for instance.
A systematic exercise is given here of the compilation
of a range table by calculation with the ballistic table;
and it is to be compared with the published official range
table which follows.
A discrepancy between a calculated and tabulated
result will serve to show the influence of a slight change
in the coefficient of reduction n, and the muzzle velocity
V.
Example 3. Determine by calculation with the abridged
ballistic table the remaining velocity v, the time of flight /, angle of
elevation <t>, and descent ft of this 6-in. gun at ranges 500, 1000, 1500,
2000 yds., taking the muzzle velocity V = 2iso f/s, and a coefficient
of reduction n=o-96. [For Table see p. 594.]
An important problem is to determine the alteration of elevation
for firing up and down a slope. It is found that the alteration of
the tangent elevation is almost insensible, but the quadrant elevation
requires the addition or subtraction of the angle of sight.
Example. Find the alteration of elevation required at a range of
3000 yds. in the exchange of fire between a ship and a fort 1200 ft.
high, a 12-in. gun being employed on each side, firing a shot weighing
850 ft with velocity 2150 f/s. The complete ballistic table, and the
method of high angle fire (see below) must be employed.
274
BALLISTICS
Range.
i.
tic.
S().
V.
T().
(1C.
t.
Tfo).
tfc-
Dfa,).
tic.
*-
PIC.
p.
o
500
1000
1500
2OOO
1500
3000
4500
6000
o
518
1036
1554
2072
20700-53
20182-53
19664-53
19 H6- 53
18628-53
2150
1999
1862
1732
IOIO
28-6891
28-4399
28-1711
27-8815
27-5728
o-oooo
0-2492
0-5180
0-8076
1-1163
0-000
0-720
1-497
2-330
3-225
28-6891
28-5645
28-4301
28-2853
28-1310
2150
2071
1994
1918
1843
50-9219
50-8132
50-6913
50-5542
50-4029
o-oooo
0-1087
0-2306
0-3677
0-5190
0-000
0-315
0-666
1-062
1-500
o-oooo
0-1135
0-2486
0-4085
0-5989
o-ooo
0-328
0-718
1-181
1-734
RANGE TABLE FOR &-INCH GUN .
i weight, 13 ft 4 or.
gravimetric density,
nature, cordite, size 30.
p ..-..M-
Projectile
Palliser shot, Shrapnel shell.
Weight> Joo ft-
Muzzle velocity, 2154 f/s.
Nature of mounting, pedestal.
Jump, nil.
Remain-
ing
Velocity.
To strike
an object
10 ft.
high
range
must be
Slope of
De-
scent.
5' elevation or
depression alters
point of impact.
Eleva-
tion.
Range.
Fuse
scale for
T. and P.
middle
No. 54
Marks I.,
50% of rounds
should fall in.
Time
of
Flight.
Penetra-
tion into
Wrought
Iron.
Range.
Later-
ally or
Verti-
Length.
Breadth.
Height.
known to
cally.
II., or III.
f/s.
yds.
I in.
yds.
yds.
/
yds.
yds.
yds.
yds.
sees.
in.
2154
0-00
O
o
0-00
13-6
2122
"45
687
125
0-14
o 4
IOO
0-4
0-16
13-4
2091
635
38l
"5
0-29
o 9
200
0-4
0-31
13-2
2O6l
2032
408
316
245
190
125
125
o-43
0-58
o 13
o 17
300
400
I
ii
0-4
0-4
0-47
0-62
I3'0
12-8
2003
260
156
125
0-72
O 21
500
if
o-5
O-2
0-78
12-6
1974
211
127
125
0-87
o 26
600
2
o-5
O-2
o-95
12-4
1946
183
no
125
01
o 30
700
2}
o-5
O-2
i-n
12-2
1909
163
98
125
16
o 34
800
2}
o-5
O-2
1-28
12-0
I88 3
143
85
125
31
o 39
900
3
0-6
o-3
1-44
II-8
1857
130
78
125
45
o 43
1000
3i
0-6
o-3
I-6l
11-6
1830
III
71
125
60
o 47
IIOO
31
0-6
o-3
1-78
11-4
1803
HO
66
125
74
o 51
I2OO
4
0-6
o-3
1-95
II-2
1776
IOI
61
125
89
o 55
1300
4f
0-7
0-4
2-12
II-O
1749
93
56
125
2-03
o 59
1400
4i
0-7
0-4
2-30
10-8
1722
86
52
"25
2-18
3
1500
5
0-7
0-4
2-47
10-6
1695
80
48
125
2-32
7
1600
5l
25
1 0-8
o-5
2-65
10-5
1669
71
43
125
2-47
ii
1700
5i
25
0-9
o-5
2-84
10-3
1642
67
40
100
2-61
16
1800
6{
25
I-O
o-5
3-03
10- 1
1616
61
37
100
2-76
22
1900
6J
25
i-i
0-6
3-23
9-9
1591
57
34
IOO
2-91
27
2000
7
25
1-2
0-6
3-41
9-7
The last column in the Range Table giving the inches of penetration into wrought iron is calculated from the remaining velocity by
an empirical formula, as explained in the article ARMOUR PLATES.
and now
(53)
High Angle and Curved Fire. " High angle fire," as defined
officially, " is fire at elevations greater than 15," and "curved
fire is fire from howitzers at all angles of elevation not exceeding
15." In these cases the curvature of the trajectory becomes
considerable, and the formulae employed in direct fire must be
modified; the method generally employed is due to Colonel
Siacci of the Italian artillery.
Starting with the exact equations of motion in a resisting medium,
(43) d*x ._ . dx
,= r cos t = t
(44)
and eliminating r,
(45)
dy d'x
dx
and this, in conjunction with
(46)
tan ,-
(47)
reduces to
(48)
, di
'3T
(dx d'y
(dtWt
dyldx
-Tt/Tt
dyd*x'
dx
di
gj=-cosi, or
. d tan i _ g
Tt v cos i '
the equation obtained, as in (18), by resolving normally in the
trajectory, but di now denoting the increment of i in the increment
of time at.
Denoting dx/dt, the horizontal component of the velocity, by q,
so that
(49) cost = q,
equation (43) becomes
(50) dq/dt = r cos i,
ther
dqdt_rv
and therefore by '(48)
(51)
It is convenient to express r as a function of v in the previous
notation
(52) Cr-f(),
dq =
an equation connecting q and i.
Now, since v = q sec
(54)
dq
and multiplying by dx/dt or q,
(55) dx = _
dq
and multiplying by dy'dx or tan i,
(56) dy_ _ C q sec i tan '.
dq~ J (q sec ) '
also
(57) di = Cg
dq g sec t./ (2 sec *')'
(58) d tan i _ C g sec i
di ~3 /(? sec ')'
from which the values of /, x, y, i, and tan are given by integration
with respect toq, when sec i is given as a function of q by means of (5 1 ) .
Now these integrations are quite intractable, even for a very
simple mathematical assumption of the function /(), say the quad-
ratic or cubic law, /() = v'/k or v*/k.
But, as originally pointed out by Euler, the difficulty can be
turned if we notice that in the ordinary trajectory of practice the
quantities i, cos i, and sec i vary so slowly that they may be replaced
by their mean values, ), cos 17, and sec 17, especially if the trajectory,
when considerable, is divided up in the calculation into arcs of small
curvature, the curvature of an arc being defined as the angle between
the tangents or normals at the ends of the arc.
Replacing then the angle i on the right-hand side of equations
(54) (56) by some mean value i), we introduce Siacci's pseudo-
velocity u denned by
(59) w = gsecij,
so that u is a quasi-component parallel to the mean direction of
the tangent, say the direction of the chord of the arc.
BALLISTICS
275
Integrating from any initial pseudo-velocity U,
(60) v du
(61)
(62)
udu
and supposing the inclination t to change from <t> to 8 radians over
the arr.
the arc.
(63)
(64)
tan <t> tan0 =
But according to the definition of the functions T, S, I and
D of the ballistic table, employed for direct fire, with written
for v,
(65)
(66)
(67)
and therefore
(68)
(69)
(70)
(71) *-9 = C cos ij [I(U) -!()],
(72) tan0-tan0 = C
while, expressed in degrees,
(73) * 8 -0 = Ccos,[D(U)-D(u)].
The equations (66)-(7i) are Siacci's, slightly modified by General
Mayevski; and now in the numerical applications to high angle fire
we can still employ the ballistic table for direct fire.
It will be noticed that ij cannot be exactly the same mean angle
in all these equations; but if 17 is the same in (69) and (70),
Now calculate the pseudo-velocity % from
(8l) tt^=t' # COS SCC 7J,
and then, from the given values of <t> and 8, calculate , from either
of the formulae of (72) or (73) :
Then with the suffix notation to denote the beginning and end
of the arc $8,
;8 4 )
A now denoting any finite tabular difference of the function between
the initial and final (pseudo-) velocity.
Ccos,[S(U)-S()].
(74)
tan ij,
so that >j is the inclination of the chord of the arc of the trajectory,
as in Niven's method of calculating trajectories (Proc. R. S., 1877):
but this method requires 77 to be known with accuracy, as I %
variation in 17 causes more than I % variation in tan TJ.
The difficulty is avoided by the use of Siacci's altitude-function
A or A(), by which y/x can be calculated without introducing
sin_i| or tan ij, but in which ij occurs only in the form cos j; or sec ij,
which varies very slowly for moderate values of ij, so that y need
not be calculated with any great regard for accuracy, the arithmetic
mean i(<+0) of <t> and 8 being near enough for ij over any arc <f>8
of moderate extent.
Now taking equation (72), and replacing tan 8, as a variable final
tangent of an angle, by tan ' or dy/dx.
(75)
tan <6
= C sec
and integrating with respect to x over the arc considered,
(7<S) *tan*-y=Csec7, [xl (U)- J*I(a)(tel.
But
(77)
=Ccosi,[A(U)-A(tt)l
in Siacci's notation ; so that the altitude-function A must be calcu-
lated by summation from the finite difference AA, where
(78) AA = I()^ = I()AS,
or else by an integration when it is legitimate to assume that
f(v) =/* in an interval of velocity in which m may be supposed
constant.
Dividing again by x, as given in (76),
(79)
from which y/x can be calculated, and thence y.
In the application of Siacci's method to the calculation of a tra-
jectory in high angle fire by successive arcs of small curvature,
starting at the beginning of an arc at an angle <t> with velocity vj>,
the curvature of the arc <t> 8 is first settled upon, and now
(80) >j
i a good first approximation for
v*
(fi
FIG. 2.
Also the velocity v t at the end of the arc is given by
(87) v e = u e sec 8 cos ij.
Treating this final velocity t>, and angle as the initial velocity
Iand angle <f of the next arc, the calculation proceeds as before
2).
In the long range high angle fire the shot ascends to such a height
that the correction for the tenuity of the air becomes important,
and the curvature 00 of an arc should be so chosen that $y t , the
height ascended, should be limited to about loco ft., equivalent
to a fall of i inch in the barometer or 3 % diminution in the tenuity
factor T.
A convenient rule has been given by Captain James M. Ingalls,
U.S.A., for approximating to a high angle trajectory in single
arc, which assumes that the mean density of the air may be taken
as the density at two-thirds of the estimated height of the vertex ;
the rule is founded on the fact that in an unresisted parabolic
trajectory the average height of the shot is two-thirds the height
of the vertex, as illustrated in a jet of water, or in a stream of bullets
from a Maxim gun.
The longest recorded range is that given in 1888 by the 9-2-in.
gun to a shot weighing 380 Ib fired with velocity 2375 f/s at elevation
40; the range was about 12 m., with a time for flight of about
64 sec., shown in fig. 2.
A calculation of this trajectory is given by Lieutenant A. H.
Wolley-Dod, R.A., in the Proceedings R.A. Institution, 1888, employ-
ing Siacci'_s method and about twenty arcs; and Captain Ingalls,
by assuming a mean tenuity-factor T=o-68, corresponding to a
height of about 2 m., on the estimate that the shot would reach a
height of 3 m., was able to obtain a very accurate result, working
in two arcs over the whole trajectory, up to the vertex and down
again (Ingalls, Handbook of Ballistic Problems).
Siacci's altitude-function is useful in direct fire, for giving im-
mediately the angle of elevation <t> required for a given range of
R yds. or X ft., between limits V and of the velocity, and also the
angle of descent ft.
In direct fire the pseudo-velocities U and , and the real velocities
V and v, are undistinguishable, and sec ij may be replaced by unity
so that, putting y = o in (79),
< 88 > tan,=c[l(V)-ft].
Also
(89) tan*-tan/3=C[I(V)-L()]
so that
(90)
or, as (88) and (90) may be written for small angles,
(91)
(92)
sin2/3
FA A
LA*'
To simplify the work, so as to look out the value of sin 2<t> without
the intermediate calculation of the remaining velocity , a double-
entry table has been devised by Captain Braccialini Scipione
276
BALLISTICS
(Problemi del Tiro, Roma, 1883), and adapted to yd., ft., in. and lb
units by A. G. Hadcock, late R.A., and published in the Proc. R.A.
Institution, 1898, and in Gunnery Tables, 1898.
In this table
(93) sin 2(j> = Ca,
where a is a function tabulated for the two arguments, V the initial
velocity, and R/C the reduced range in yards.
The table is too long for insertion here. The results for <t> and
0, as calculated for the range tables above, are also given there for
comparison.
Drift. An elongated shot fired from a rifled gun does not
move in a vertical plane, but as if the mean plane of the tra-
jectory was inclined to the true vertical at a small angle, 2 or 3;
so that the shot will hit the mark aimed at if the back sight is
tilted to the vertical at this angle 5, called the permanent angle
of deflection (see SIGHTS).
This effect is called drift and the reason of it is not yet
understood very clearly.
It is evidently a gyroscopic effect, being reversed in direction
by a change from a right to a left-handed twist of rifling, and
being increased by an increase of rotation of the shot.
The axis of an elongated shot would move parallel to itself
only if fired in a vacuum; but in air the couple due to a sidelong
motion tends to place the axis at right angles to the tangent of
the trajectory, and acting on a rotating body causes the axis to
precess about the tangent. At the same time the frictional drag
damps the nutation and causes the axis of the shot to follow the
tangent of the trajectory very closely, the point of the shot
being seen to be slightly above and to the right of the tangent,
with a right-handed twist. The effect is as if there was a mean
sidelong thrust w tan 5 on the shot from left to right in order to
deflect the plane of the trajectory at angle 5 to the vertical.
But no formula has yet been invented, derived on theoretical
principles from the physical data, which will assign by calculation
a definite magnitude to 5.
An effect similar to drift is observable at tennis, golf, base-ball
and cricket; but this effect is explainable by the inequality of
pressure due to a vortex of air carried along by the rotating
ball, and the deviation is in the opposite direction of thfc 'drift
observed in artillery practice, so artillerists are still awaiting
theory and crucial experiment.
After all care has been taken in laying and pointing, in accord-
ance with the rules of theory and practice, absolute certainty of
hitting the same spot every time is unattainable, as causes of
error exist which cannot be eliminated, such as variations in the
air and in the muzzle-velocity, and also in the steadiness of the
shot in flight.
To obtain an estimate of the accuracy of a gun, as much actual
practice as is available must be utilized for the calculation in accord-
ance with the laws of probability of the 50% zones shown
in the range table (see PROBABILITY.)
II. INTERIOR BALLISTICS
The investigation of the relations connecting the pressure,
volume and temperature of the powder-gas inside the bore of the
gun, of the work realized by the expansion of the powder, of the
FIG. 3.
dynamics of the movement of the shot up the bore, and of the
stress set up in the material of the gun, constitutes the branch <xf
interior ballistics.
A gun may be considered a simple thermo-dynamic machine or
heat-engine which does its work in a single stroke, and does not act
in a series of periodic cycles as an ordinary steam or gas-engine.
An indicator diagram can be drawn for a gun (fig. 3) as for a
Observed Pressures.
;,n-2O-1 TONS
:o
r-Q-18-6 TONS R.L.C,
5
,'AMIOE
P f\ 'CO
('/Ac iC #16-6 TONS EXE.
15-6 TONS
IS- 2 TONS
List of Explosives.
0-3 Balliatite 20 Ibs
18
French B.N ...25
..20
Amide Lot 232. 32
R.L.G, 23
EXE 42
024 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44
Travel in feet Pressure Curves, from Chronoscope experiments in 6 inch gun of 100 calibres, with various Explosives.
FIG. 4.
46
BALLISTICS
277
steam-engine, representing graphically by a curve CPD the relation
between the volume and pressure of the powder-gas; and in addition
the curves AQE of energy e, AV of velocity v, and A/T of time /
can be plotted or derived, the velocity and energy at the muzzle
B being denoted by V and E.
After a certain discount for friction and the recoil of the gun, the
net work realized by the powder-gas as the shot advances AM is
represented by the area ACPM, and this is equated to the kinetic
energy e of the shot, in foot-tons,
"> -35s ('+
in which the factor 4(4V<^)tan*4 represents the fraction due to the
rotation of the shot, of diameter d and axial radius of gyration k,
and 4 represents the angle of the rifling; this factor may be ignored
in the subsequent calculations as small, less than I %.
The mean effective pressure (M.E.P.) in tons per sq. in. is repre-
sented in fig. 3 by the height AH, such that the rectangle AHKB is
equal to the area APDB; and the M.E.P. multiplied by ixd 7 , the
cross-section of the bore in square inches, gives in tons the mean
effective thrust of the powder on the base of the shot ; and multi-
plied again by /, the length in inches of the travel AB of the shot
up the bore, gives the work realized in inch-tons; which work is thus
equal to the M.E.P. multiplied by Jf*/ = B C, the volume in cubic
inches of the rifled part AB of the bore, the difference between B the
total volume of the bore and C the volume of the powder-chamber.,
30OO
2500-|
2000 -&
15OO
1000
Equating the muzzle-energy and the work in foot-tons
(2)
(3)
,_ v> V.
'"2240 2g
M.E.P. .
B-C
12
X M.E.P.
W V* 12
2240 2g B C
Working this out for the 6-in. gun of the range table, taking
L = 2i6 in., we find B C=6loo CUD. in., and the M.E.P. is about
6-4 tons per sq. in.
But the maximum pressure may exceed the mean in the ratio
of 2 or 3 to i, as shown in fig. 4, representing graphically the result
of Sir Andrew Noble's experiments with a 6-in. gun, capable of being
lengthened to 100 calibres or so ft. (Proc. R.S., June 1894).
On the assumption of uniform pressure up the bore, practically
realizable in a Zalinski pneumatic dynamite gun, the pressure-curve
would be the straight line HK of fig. 3 parallel to AM ; the energy-
curve AQE would be another straight line through A; the velocity-
curve AflV, of which the ordinal c is as the square root of the energy,
would be a parabola ; and the acceleration of the shot being constant,
the time-curve A/T will also be a similar parabola.
If the pressure falls off uniformly, so that the pressure-curve is a
straight line PDF sloping downwards and cutting AM in F, then
the energy-curve will be a parabola curving downwards, and the
velocity-curve can be represented by an ellipse, or circle with centre
F and radius FA; while the time-curve will be a sinusoid.
"* 2 * 6 8 10 12 14 IS 18 20 22 24 28 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46
Travel in feet Velocity Curves, from Chronoscope experiments in 6 inch gun of 100 calibres, with Cordite.
FIG. 5.
But if the pressure-curve is a straight line F'CP sloping upwards,
cutting AM behind A in F', the energy-curve will be a parabola
curving upwards, and the velocity-curve a hyperbola with center
at F'.
These theorems may prove useful in preliminary calculations
where the pressure-curve is nearly straight; but, in the absence of
any observable law, the area of the pressure-curve must be read off
by a planimeter, or calculated by Simpson's rule, as an indicator
diagram.
To measure the pressure experimentally in the bore of a gun, the
crusher-gauge is used as shown in fig. 6, nearly full size; it records
the maximum pressure by the compression of a copper cylinder in
its interior; it may be placed in the powder-chamber, or fastened
in the base of the shot.
In Sir Andrew Noble's researches a number of plugs were inserted
in the side of the experimental gun, reaching to the bore and carry-
ing crusher-gauges, and also chronographic appliances which regis-
tered the passage of the shot in the same manner as the electric
screens in Bashforth's experiments; thence the velocity and energy
of the shot was inferred, to serve as an independent control of the
crusher-gauge records (figs. 4 and 5).
As a preliminary step to the determination of the pressure in the
bore of a gun, it is desirable to measure the pressure obtained by
exploding a charge of pov/der in a closed vessel, varying the weight
of the charge and thereby the density of the powder-gas.
The earliest experiments of this nature are due to Benjamin
Robins in 1743 and Count Rumford in 1792; and their method
has been revived by Dr Kellner, War Department chemist, who
(F) Ouchack.
employed the steel spheres of bicycle ball-bearings as safety-
valves, loaded to register the pressure at which the powder-
gas will blow off, and thereby check the indications of the
crusher-gauge (Proc. R.S., March 1895).
Chevalier d'Arcy, 1760.
also experimented on the
pressure of powder and
the velocity of the bullet
in a musket barrel; this
he accomplished by short-
ening the barrel succes-
sively, and measuring the
velocity obtained by the
ballistic pendulum; thus
reversing Noble's pro-
cedure of gradually leng-
thening the gun.
But the most modern
results employed with
gunpowder are based
on the experiments of
Noble and Abel (Phil.
Trans., 1875-1880-1892-
1894 and following years).
(A) Cylinder.
FlG. 6.
A charge of powder, or other explosive, of varying weight P R),
is fired in an explosion-chamber (fig. 7, scale about J) of which the
volume C, cub. in., is known accurately, and the pressure p, tons per
sq. in., was recorded by a crusher-gauge (fig. 6).
278
BALLISTICS
The result is plotted in figs. 8 and 9, in a curve showing the re-
lation between p and D the gravimetric density, which is the specific
gravity of the P Ib of powder when filling the volume C, cub. in., in
EXPLOSION VESSEL
FIG. 7.
a state of gas; or between p and v, the reciprocal of D, which may
be called the gravimetric volume (G. V.), being the ratio of the
volume of the gas to the volume of an equal weight of water.
The results are also embodied in the following Table :
TABLE i.
G.D.
G.V.
Pressure in Tons per sq. in.
Pebble Powder.
Cordite.
0-05
20-00
0-855
3-00
6
16-66
I -00
3-80
8
12-50
1-36
5-40
O-IO
IO-OO
1-76
7-10
12
8-33
2-06
8-70
14
7-14
2-53
10-50
15
6-66
2-73
11-36
16
6-25
2-96
12-30
18
5-55
3-33
14-20
20
5-oo
3-77
16-00
22
4-54
4-26
17-90
24
4-17
4-66
19-80
25
4-00
4-88
20-63
26
3-84
5-io
21-75
3<>
3-33
6-07
26-00
35
2-85
7-35
31-00
40
2-50
8-73
36-53
45
2-22
10-23
42-20
50
2-OO
11-25
48-66
55
I-8I
13-62
55-86
60
1-66
15-55
63-33
The term gravimetric density (G.D.) is peculiar to artillerists;
it is required to distinguish between the specific gravity (S. G.) of
the powder filling a given volume in a state of gas, and the specific
gravity of the separate solid grain or cord of powder.
Thus, for instance, a lump of solid lead of given S. G., when
formed into a charge of lead shot composed of equal spherules
closely packed, will have a G.D. such that
(4) G.D. of charge of lead shot i
S.G. of lump of solid lead = 6* V 2 = '74O3 1
while in the case of a bundle of cylindrical sticks of cordite,
(5) G.D. of charge of cordite I
S.G. of stick of cordite ~ 6* v 3 = o "*'-
At the standard temperature of 62 F. the volume of the gallon
of 10 ft of water is 277-3 cub. in. ; or otherwise, i cub. ft. or 1728 cub.
PRESSURES OBSERVED IN A CLOSED VESSEL WITH
VARIOUS EXPLOSIVES
S..
* rn
/
*
/
7
TII
/
/
*Afl
/
/
5
,<v
^
n* k
^H
i^f
^
^
"
"Sn
^
>'
^
^
fl
_
,---'
^^
n*-
-
P^
ii--^
* 15
^ < -
.y-
. 1
-"
M i
^**
<*
, -- '
-"
, ' ^
*
$
zz
05 ! -It -t -21 -M i -40 *9 55 -70 -75 -10
GRAVIMETRIC DENSITY OF PRODUCTS OF EXPLOSION
FIG. 8.
in. of water at this temperature weighs 62-35
water bulks 1728-5-62-35 = 27-73 cub. in.
>, and therefore i ft of
Thus if a charge of P ft of powder is placed in a chamber of volume
C cub. in., the
(6) G.D.=27-7 3 P/C, G.V.=C/2 7 -7 3 P.
Sometimes the factor 27-68 is employed, corresponding to a density
of water of about 62-4 ft per cub. ft., and a temperature 12 C., or
54 F.
With metric units, measuring P in kg., and C in litres, the
G.D. = P/C, G.V. = C/P, no factor being required.
From the Table I., or by quadrature of the curve in fig. 9, the
work E in foot-tons realized by the expansion of i ft of the powder
from one gravimetric volume to another is inferred; for if the
average pressure is p tons per sq. in., while the gravimetric volume
changes from jAti to +jA, a change of volume of 27-73 A"
cub. in., the work done is 27-73 P A inch-tons, or
(7) AE = 2-3i pAv foot-tons;
and the differences AE being calculated from the observed values
of p, a summation, as in the ballistic tables, would give E in a tabular
form, and conversely from a table of E in terms of v, we can infer
the value of p.
On drawing off a little of the gas from the explosion vessel it
was found that a gramme of cordite-gas at o C. and standard atmo-
spheric pressure occupied 700 ccs., while the same gas compressed
into 5 ccs. at the temperature of explosion had a pressure of 16 tons
per_sq. in., or 16X2240-:- 14-7 =2440 atmospheres, of 14-7 ft per
sq. in. ; one ton per sq. in. being in round numbers 150 atmospheres.
The absolute centigrade temperature T is thence inferred from
the gas equation
(8) R = />p/T = of 0/273,
which, with = 2440, = 5, p a = i, v a = joo, makes T = 4758, a tem-
perature of 4485 C. or 8105 F.
PRESSURE IN A CLOSED VESSEL OBSERVED AND CALCULATED
wn
1
1
5"
\
\
\
lf!J
\
12
\\
Sj
'.
* i
X,
8
S '
a o
I
1
i
i i
i
i i
i
* i
5 1
i 1
f 1
) 1
2
GRAVIMETRIC VOLUME
FIG 9.
In the heading of the 6-in. range table we find the description
of the charge.
Charge: weight 13 Ib 4 oz. ; gravimetric density 55-01/0-504;
nature, cordite, size 30.
So that P = 13-25, the G. D. =0-504, the upper figure 55-oi de-
noting the specific volume of the charge measured in cubic inches
per Ib, filling the chamber in a state of gas, the product of the two
numbers 55-01 and 0-504 being 27-73; ano " tne chamber capacity
C = 13-25X55-01 =730 cub. in., equivalent to 25-8 in. or 2-15 ft.
length of bore, now called the equivalent length of the chamber
(E.L.C.).
If the shot was not free to move, the closed chamber pressure
due to the explosion of the charge at this G.D. ( = 0-5) would be
nearly 49 tons per sq. in., much too great to be safe.
But the shot advances during the combustion of the cordite, and
the chief problem in interior ballistics is to adjust the G.D. of the
charge to the weight of the shot so that the advance of the shot
during the combustion of the charge should prevent the maximum
pressure from exceeding a safe limit, as shown by the maximum
ordinate of the pressure curve CPD in fig. 3.
Suppose this limit is fixed at 16 tons per sq. in., corresponding
in Table I. to a G.D., 0-2 ; the powder-gas will now occupy a volume
6 = |C = i825 cub. in., corresponding to an advance of the shot
5X2-15=3-225 ft.
Assuming an average pressure of 8 tons per sq. in., the shot will
have acquired energy 8X}irrf ! X3-225 = 73O foot-tons, and a velocity
about = 1020 f/s, so that the time over the 3-225 ft. at an average
velocity 510 f/s is about 0-0063 sec.
Comparing this time with the experimental value of the time
occupied by the cordite in burning, a start is made for a fresh esti-
mate and a closer approximation.
Assuming, however, that the agreement is close enough for
practical requirement, the combustion of the cordite may be con-
sidered complete at this stage P, and in the subsequent expansion
it is assumed that the gas obeys an adiabatic law in which the
pressure varies inversely as some m* power of the volume.
The work done in expanding to infinity from p tons per sq. in.
BALLOON BALLOT
279
at volume b cub. in. is then pb/(m l) inch-tons, or to any volume
B cub. in. is
(9) PI
It is found experimentally that m = i-2 is a good average value
to take for cordite ; so now supposing the combustion of the charge
of the 6-in. is complete in 0-0063 sec., when p = 16 tons per sq. in.,
6 = 1825 cub. in., and that the gas expands adiabatically up to the
muzzle, where
(10) B 216+25-8
6 2-5X25-8 '
we find the work realized by expansion is 2826 foot-tons, sufficient
to increase the velocity from 1020 to 2250 f/s at the muzzle.
This muzzle velocity is about 5 % greater than the 2150 f/s of
the range table, so on these considerations we may suppose about
10 % of work is lost by friction in the bore; this is expressed by
saying that the factor of effect isf = o-<).
The experimental determination of the time of burning under
the influence of the varying pressure and density, and the size of
the grain, is thus of great practical importance, as thereby it is
possible to estimate close limits to the maximum pressure that will
be reached in the bore of a gun, and to design the chamber so that
the G.D. of the charge may be suitable for the weight and accelera-
tion of the shot. Empirical formulas based on practical experience
are employed for an approximation to the result.
A great change has come over interior ballistics in recent
years, as the old black gunpowder has been abandoned in artillery
after holding the field for six hundred years. It is replaced by
modern explosives such as those indicated on fig. 4, capable of
giving off a very much larger volume of gas at a greater tem-
perature and pressure, more than threefold as seen on fig. 8, so
that the charge may be reduced in proportion, and possessing
the military advantage of being nearly smokeless. (See EX-
PLOSIVES.)
The explosive cordite is adopted in the British service; it
derives the name from its appearance as cord in short lengths,
the composition being squeezed in a viscous state through the
hole in a die, and the cordite is designated in size by the number
of hundredths of an inch in the diameter of the hole. Thus the
cordite, size 30, of the range table has been squeezed through
a hole 0-30 in. diameter.
The thermochemical properties of the constituents of an
explosive will assign an upper limit to the volume, temperature
and pressure of the gas produced by the combustion; but much
experiment is required in addition. Sir Andrew Noble has
published some of his results in the Phil. Trans., 1905-1906
and following years.
AUTHORITIES. Tartaglia, Nova Scientia (1537) ; Galileo (1638) ;
Robins, New Principles of Gunnery (1743); Euler (trans, by Hugh
Brown), The True Principles of Gunnery (1777); Didion, Hehe,
Hugoniot, Vallier, Baills, &c., Balistique (French); Siacci, Balistica
(Italian); Mayevski, Zabudski, Balistique (Russian); La Llave,
Ollero, Mata, &c., Balistica (Spanish) ; Bashforth, The Motion of
Projectiles (1872); The Bashforth Chronograph (1890); Ingalls,
Exterior and Interior Ballistics, Handbook of Problems in Direct and
Indirect Fire; Bruff, Ordnance and Gunnery; Cranz, Compendium
der Ballistik (1898); The Official Text-Book of Gunnery (1902);
Charbonnier, Balistique (1905) ; Lissak, Ordnance and Gunnery
(1907)- (A. G. G.)
BALLOON, a globular bag of varnished silk or other material
impermeable to air, which, when inflated with gas lighter than
common air, can be used in aeronautics, or, according to its
size, &c., for any purpose for which its ability to rise and float in
the atmosphere adapts such a mechanism. " Balloon " in this
sense was first used in 1783 in connexion with the invention
of the brothers Montgolfier, but the word was in earlier use
(derived from Ital. ballone, a large ball) as meaning an actual
ball or ball-game, a primitive explosive bomb or firework, a
form of chemical retort or receiver, and an ornamental globe in
architecture; and from the appearance and shape of an air
balloon the word is also given by analogy to other things, such
as a "balloon skirt" in dress, "balloon training" in horti-
culture. (See AERONAUTICS, and FLIGHT AND FLYING).
BALLOT (from Ital. ballotta, dim. of balla, a ball), the modern
method of secret-voting employed in political, legislative and
judicial assemblies, and also in the proceedings of private clubs
and corporations. The name comes from the use of a little ball
dropped according to choice into the right receptacle ; but
nowadays it is used for any system of secret-voting, even though
no such ball is employed. In ancient Athens, the dicasts, in
giving their verdict, generally used balls of stone (psepfti) or of
metal (sponduli) . Those pierced in the centre, or black in colour,
signified condemnation; those unpierced, or white, signified
acquittal. The boxes were variously arranged ; but generally
a brass box received both classes of votes, and a wooden box
received the unused balls. In the assembly, cases of primlegia,
such as ostracism, the naturalization of foreigners or the release
of state-debtors, were decided by secret-voting. The petalism,
or voting by words on olive-leaves, practised at Syracuse, may
also be mentioned. At Rome the ballot was introduced to the
comitia by the Leges Tabellariae, of which the Lex Gabiana
(139 B.C.) relates to the election of magistrates, the Lex Cassia
(137 B.C.) to judicia populi, and the Lex Papiria (131 B.C.) to
the enactment and repeal of laws. The wooden tabellae, placed
in the cista or wicker box, were marked U. R. (uti rogas) and A.
(antique) in the case of a proposed law; L. (libero) and D.
(damno) in the case of a public trial; in the case of an election,
puncta were made opposite the names or initials of the candi-
dates. Tabellae were also used by the Roman judices, who
expressed their verdict or judgment by the letters A. (absolve/),
C. (condemno), and N. L. (non liquet). In modern times voting
by ballot is usually by some form of writing, but the use of the
ball still persists (especially in clubs), and a " black ball " is the
regular term for a hostile vote.
Great Britain. In Great Britain the ballot was suggested for
use in parliament by a political tract of the time of Charles II.
It was actually used by the Scots parliament of 1662 in proceed-
ing on the Billeting Act, a measure proposed by Middleton to
secure the ostracism of Lauderdale and other political opponents
who were by secret-vote declared incapable of public office.
The plan followed was this: each member of parliament wrote,
in a disguised hand, on a piece of paper, the names of twelve
suspected persons; the billets were put in a bag held by the
registrar; the bag was then sealed, and was afterwards opened
and its contents ascertained in the exchequer chamber, where
the billets were immediately burned and the names of the
ostracised concealed on oath. The Billeting Act was repudiated
by the king, and the ballot was not again heard of till 1705,
when Fletcher of Saltoun, in his measure for a provisional
government of Scotland by annual parliaments in the event of
Queen Anne's death, proposed secret-voting to protect members
from court influence. The gradual emancipation of the British
parliament from the power of the crown, and the adoption of a
strictly representative system of election, not only destroyed
whatever reason may once have existed for the ballot in delibera-
tive voting, but rendered it essential that such voting should be
open. It was in the agitations for parliamentary reform at the
beginning of the I9th century that the demand for the ballot in
parliamentary elections was first seriously made. The Bentha-
mites advocated the system in 1817. At the so-called Peterloo
Massacre (1819) several banners were inscribed with the ballot.
O'Connell introduced a bill on the subject in 1830 ; and the
original draft of Lord John Russell's Reform Bill, probably on
the suggestion of Lords Durham and Duncannon, provided for
its introduction. Later on the historian Grote became its chief
supporter in the House of Commons; and from 1833 to '839,
in spite of the ridicule cast by Sydney Smith on the " mouse-
trap," and on Grote's " dagger-box, in which you stab the card
of your favourite candidate with a dagger," l the minority for
the ballot increased from 106 to 217. In 1838 the ballot was the
fourth point of the People's Charter. In the same year the
abolition of the land qualification introduced rich commercial
candidates to the constituencies. Lord Melbourne's cabinet
declared the question open. The cause, upheld by Macaulay.
Ward, Hume (in his resolutions, 1848) and Berkeley, was streng-
thened by the report of Lord Harrington's Select Committee
1 For a description of Grote's card-frame, in which the card was
punctured through a hole, and was thus never in the voter's hands,
see Spectator, 25th February 1837.
280
BALLOT
(i5th March 1870), to the effect that corruption, treating and
intimidation by priests and landlords took place to a large extent
at both parliamentary and municipal elections in England
and Ireland; and that the ballot, if adopted, would probably
not only promote tranquillity at elections, but protect voters
from undue influence, and introduce greater freedom and purity
in voting, provided secrecy was made inviolable except in cases
where a voter was found guilty of bribery, or where an invalid
vote had been given.
Meanwhile in Australia the ballot had been introduced by the
Constitution Act of South Australia (1856), and in other colonies
at the same date. In South Australia (Electoral Act of 1858)
the returning-officer put his initials on the voting-card, which the
voter was directed, under pain of nullity, to fold so that the officer
might not see the vote which was indicated by a cross. In
Victoria, under the Electoral Act of 1865, the officer added to his
initials a number corresponding to the voter's number on the
register. In Tasmania the chief peculiarity was that (as in South
Australia) the card was not put directly by the voter into the box,
but handed to the officer, who put it there(this being thought a
security against double-voting or voting with a non-official card,
and also against the voter carrying away his card). In 1869, at
Manchester and Stafford in England, test-ballots were taken on
the' Australian system as practised in Victoria the voting-card
containing the names of all the candidates, printed in different
colours (for the benefit of illiterate voters), and the voter being
directed to score out the names of those he did not support, and
then to place the card (covered by an official envelope) in the box.
It was found at Manchester that the voting was considerably
more rapid, and therefore less expensive, than under the old
system; that only 80 cards out of 11,475 wef e rejected as
informal; and that, the representatives of candidates being
present to check false statements of identity, and the public
outside being debarred from receiving information what voters
had voted, the ballot rather decreased the risk of personation.
At Manchester the cards were not numbered consecutively, as
in Victoria, so that (assuming the officials to be free from corrup-
tion) no scrutiny could have detected by whom particular votes
were given. At Stafford the returning-officer stamped each card
before giving it to the voter, the die of the stamp having been
finished only on the morning of the election. By this means the
possibility was excluded of what was known as " the Tasmanian
Dodge," by which a corrupt voter gave to the returning-officer,
or placed in the box, a blank non-official ticket, and carried out
from the booth his official card, which a corrupt agent then
marked for his candidate, and gave so-marked to corrupt voter
No. 2 (before he entered the booth) on condition that he also
would bring out his official card, and so on ad libitum; the agent
thus obtaining a security for his bribe, unless the corrupt voter
chose to disfranchise himself by making further marks on the
card. At the close of 1870 the ballot was employed in the election
of members for the London School Board under the Education
Act of that year.
In 1872 W. E. Forster's Ballot Act introduced the ballot in all
parliamentary and municipal elections, except parliamentary
elections for universities; and the code of procedure prescribed
by the act was adopted by the Scottish Education Board in
the first School Board election (1873) under the Education
(Scotland) Act 1872. The Ballot Act not only abolished public
nominations of candidates, but dealt with the offence of persona-
tion and the expenses of elections.
As practised in the United Kingdom, a white paper is used on
which the names of the candidates are printed in alphabetical
order, the voter filling up with a X the blank on the right-hand
opposite the name he votes for. The paper, before being given
out, is marked by the presiding-officer on both sides with an
official stamp, which is kept secret, and cannot be used for a
second election within seven years. The paper is marked on the
back with the same number as the counterfoil of the paper which
remains with the officer. This counterfoil is also marked with
the voter's number on the register, so that the vote may be
identified on a scrutiny; and a mark on the register shows that
the voter has received a ballot-paper. The voter folds up the
paper so as to conceal his mark, but to show the stamp to the
officer, and deposits it in the box, which is locked and sealed,
and so constructed that papers cannot be withdrawn without
unlocking it. Papers inadvertently spoiled by the voters may
be exchanged, the officer preserving separately the spoiled
papers. If a voter is incapacitated from blindness, or other
physical cause, or makes before the officer a declaration of
inability to read, or when the poll is on a Saturday declares
himself a Jew, the officer causes the paper to be marked as the
voter directs, and keeps a record of the transaction. A voter who
claims to vote after another has voted in respect of the same
qualification, obtains a (green) paper which is not placed in the
box, but preserved apart as a " tendered " paper. He must,
however, declare his identity and that he has not already voted.
The presiding-officer at the close of the poll has to account to
the returning-officer for the papers entrusted to him, the number
being made up by (i) papers in the box, (2) spoiled papers, (3)
unused papers and (4) tendered papers. During the voting (for
which schoolrooms and other public rooms are available, and for
which a separate compartment must be provided for every 150
electors entitled to vote at a station) agents of candidates are
allowed to be present in the polling-station, but they, as well as
the officials, are sworn to secrecy as regards who have voted, and
for whom; and they are prohibited from interfering with the
voter, inducing him to show his vote, or attempting to ascertain
the number on the back of the paper. These agents are also
present with the returring-officer when he counts the papers and
the votes, rejecting those papers (i) which want the official
mark on the back; (2) on which votes are given for more candi-
dates than the voter is entitled to vote for; (3) on which any-
thing except the number on the back is marked or written by
which the voter can be identified; (4) which are unmarked, or
so marked that it is uncertain for whom the vote is given. The
counted and rejected papers, and also the " tendered " papers,
counterfoils and marked register (which have not been opened),
are, in parliamentary elections, transmitted by the returning
officer to the clerk of the crown in chancery in England, or the
sheriff-clerk in Scotland, who destroys them at the en'd of one
year, unless otherwise directed by an order of the House of
Commons, or of some court having jurisdiction in election
petitions. Such petitions either simply dispute the accuracy
of the return on the ground of miscounting, or wrongous rejection
or wrongous admission of papers, in which case the court examines
the counted and rejected papers; or make allegations of cor-
ruption, &c. on which it may be necessary to refer to the marked
counterfoils and ascertain how bribed voters have voted. Since
the elections of 1874 much discontent has been expressed,
because judges have rejected papers with trifling (perhaps
accidental) marks other than the X upon them, and because
elections have been lost through the failure of the officer to
stamp the papers. For this purpose the use has been suggested
of a perforating instead of an embossing stamp, while a dark-
ground paper with white voting-spaces would make misplaced
votes impossible.
The Ballot Act introduced several new off ences, such as forgingof
papers or fraudulently defacing or destroying a paper or the official
mark; supplying a paper without due authority; fraudulently
putting into the box a non-official paper; fraudulently taking
a paper out of the station without due authority; destroying,
taking, opening or otherwise interfering with a box or packet
of papers then in use for election purposes. These offences and
attempts to commit them are punishable in the case of officers
and clerks with imprisonment for two years, with or without
hard labour. In other cases the term of imprisonment is six
months.
The ballot was long criticized as leading to universal hypocrisy
and deception; and Sydney Smith spoke of "voters, in dominos,
going to the poll in sedan-chairs with closely-drawn curtains."
The observed effect of a secret ballot has been, however, gradually
to exterminate undue influence. The alarm of " the confessional "
seems to be unfounded, as a Catholic penitent is not bound to
BALLOT
281
confess his vote, and if he did so, it would be a crime in the
confessor to divulge it.
Continental Europe. The ballot is largely employed in
European countries. In France, where from 1840 to 1845 the
ballot, or scrutin, had been used for deliberative voting in the
chamber of deputies, its use in elections to the Corps L6gislatif
was carefully regulated at the beginning of the Second Empire
by the Organic Decree of the 2nd of February 1852. Under this
law the voting was superintended by a bureau consisting of the
deputy returning-officer (called president of the section), four
unpaid assessors selected from the constituency and a secretary.
Each voter presents a polling-card, with his designation, date of
birth and signature (to secure identity), which he had previously
got at the Mairie. This the president mutilates, and the vote
is then recorded by a " bulletin," which is not official, but is
generally printed with a candidate's name, and given to the
voter by an agent outside, the only conditions being that the
bulletin shall Tae " sur papier blanc, sans signes exlerieurs, et
prepare en dehors de I'assemblfie." The total number of votes
given (there being only one member in each electoral district)
is checked by reference to " la feuille d'appel et inscription des
volants," the law still supposing that each voter is publicly
called on to vote. If the voter, when challenged, cannot sign
his polling-card, he may call a witness to sign for him. The
following classes of bulletins are rejected: " illisibles, Wanes,
ne con tenant pas une designation suffisante; sur lesquels les
volants se sent fait connallre; contenant le nom d'une personne
n'ayant pas prfitS le serment prescrit" (i.e. of a person nol
nominaled). Only the votes pronounced bad by the bureau
in presence of representative scrutineers are preserved, in case
these should be called for during the " Session pour verification
des Pouvoirs." Praclically Ihe French ballol did nol afford
secrecy, for you mighl observe whal bullelin Ihe voter look from
Ihe agenl, and follow him up Ihe queue inlo Ihe polling-place;
bul Ihe determined voter might conceal his vote even from the
undue influence of government by scratching out the printed
matler and writing his vole. This was always a good vote and
scrutiny of good voles was impossible. The ballol is slill used
in Ihe elections lo Ihe National Assembly, bul in the Assembly
itself only in special cases, as e.g. in the election of a " rapporteur."
Under the law of loth Augusl 1871 the conseils gen6raux
(departmenlal councils) are elecled by ballol.
In Piedmonl Ihe ballol formed parl of Ihe free conslilulional
governmenl inlroduced by Charles Albert in March 1848; il was
exlended lo Ilaly in 1861. Voting for Ihe Ilalian chamber of
deputies takes place under Ihe law of 2olh November 1859,
and in public halls (nol booths), to which admission is gained by
showing a cerlificale of inscription, issued by Ihe mayor lo each
qualified voler. A slamped blue official paper, with a memoran-
dum of Ihe law prinled on Ihe back (bolletino spiegato), is Ihen
issued lo Ihe eleclor; on Ihis he wriles Ihe name of a candidate
(Ihere being equal electoral colleges) or, in certain exceptional
cases, gels a confidential friend lo do so, and hands the paper
folded-up lo Ihe president of the bureau, who puls il in Ihe box
(urna), and who afterwards presides at the public "squiltinio
dei suffragi." Greece is Ihe only European counlry in which
Ihe ball-ballot is used. The voting lakes place in Ihe churches,
each candidate has a box on which his name is inscribed, one
half (while) being also marked " yes," Ihe olher half (black)
" no." The voler, his citizenship or righl lo vote in the eparchy
being verified, receives one ball or leaden bullel for each candidate
from a wooden bowl, which a clerk carries from box lo box. The
voler slrelches his arm down a funnel, and drops Ihe ball inlo
the " yes " or " no " division. The vole is secrel, bul Ihere is
apparently no check on " yes " voles being given for all the
candidates, and Ihe ball or bullet is imitable.
The earlier hislory of Ihe ballol in Hungary is remarkable.
Before 1848 secrel voling was unknown Ihere. The electoral
law of lhal year lefl the regulation of parliamentary elections lo
Ihe counly and town councils, very few of which adopted
the ballol. The mode of voling was perhaps Ihe mosl primi-
tive on record. Each candidate had a large box wilh his name
superscribed and painled in a distinguishing colour. On
entering the room alone the voter received a rod from 4/06 fett
in length (to prevent concealment of non-official rods on the
voter's person), which he placed in the box through a slit in the
lid. By the electoral law of 1874 the ballot in parliamentary
elections in Hungary was abolished, but was made obligatory
in Ihe elections of town and county councils, the voling being
for several persons al once.
In Prussia, Slein, by his Stddleordnung, or municipal
corporation act of 1808, introduced the ballot in the election of
the municipal assembly (Stadtverordnetenversammlung). Under
the German constitution of 1867, and the new constitution of
the ist of January 1871, the elections of Ihe Reichslag were to
be conducted by universal suffrage under the ballot in con-
formity with the electoral law of the 3ist of May 1869.
America. At the first elections in America voting was viva
voce; but several of the colonies early provided for the use of
written or printed ballots. By 1 77 5 ballols were used in the New
England states, in Pennsylvania, Delaware, North Carolina and
Soulh Carolina; they were inlroduced in New Jersey in 1776,
and in New York in 1778, so that, at the time the constilution
of the United Slates was adopted, viva voce voting prevailed at
public elections only in Maryland, Virginia and Georgia. Of the
new stales which later entered the Union, only Illinois, Kentucky,
Missouri and Arkansas did not have a ballot system when Ihey
became states. During the first half of the igth century,
Maryland, Georgia, Arkansas (1846) and Illinois (1848) adopted
the ballot. In Missouri ballot-voting was introduced lo some
localities in 1845, but not until 1863 was it generally adopted in
that state. Virginia did not provide for voting by ballot unlil
1869, and in Kenlucky viva voce voting continued unlil 1819,
but while the use of ballots was thus required in voting, and
mosl of Ihe slates had laws prescribing Ihe form of ballols and
providing for Ihe count of the vole, Ihere was no provision
making il the duty of any one to print and distribute the ballots
at the polling-places on election day. In the primitive town
meetings ballols had been wrilten by the voters, or, if printed,
were furnished by the candidates. With the development
of elections, the task of preparing and distributing ballots fell
to political committees for the various parties. The ballot-
lickels were Ihus prepared for parly-lists of candidates, and it
was not easy for any one to vote a mixed lickel, while, as the
voter received the ballot within a few feet of the polls, secrecy
was almosl impossible, and intimidation and bribery became
bolh easy and frequenl.
Soon after the adoption of Ihe Australian ballot in Great
Britain, it was inlroduced in Canada, bul no serious agitation
was begun for a similar system in the United Slates until 1885.
In 1887 bills for the Austrah'an ballot were actively urged in the
legislatures of New York and Michigan, although neither became
law. A Wisconsin law of that year, regulating elections in cities
of over 50,000 population, incorporated some fealures of the
Australian system, but the first complete law was enacted by
Massachusetts in 1888. This Massachusells slalute provided for
the printing and dislribution of ballols by the state to contain the
names of all candidates arranged alphabetically for each office,
the electors to vote by marking the name of each candidate for
whom Ihey wished lo vole. At the presidential election of 1888
it was freely alleged thai large sums of money had been raised on
an unprecedented scale for the purchase of voles, and Ihis situa-
lion created a feeling of deep alarm which gave a powerful impetus
to Ihe movemenl for ballol reform. In 1 889 new ballot laws were
enacted in nine slates: Iwo slates bordering on Massachusetts,
Connecticut and Rhode Island; four states in the middle- west,
Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota; two southern
stales, Tennessee and Missouri; and Montana, in the far west.
The Connecticut law, however, marked but lillle improvement
over former conditions, since it provided only for official envelopes
in which the unofficial party ballots should be voted. The
Indiana law provided for a single or "blanket" ballot, but with
the names of candidates arranged in parly-groups, and a melhod
of voting for all of Ihe candidates in a parly-group by a single
282
BALLOU BALLYCASTLE
mark. Michigan and Missouri also adopted the party-group
system. The other states followed the Massachusetts law provid-
ing for a blanket ballot with the candidates arranged by offices.
The new ballot system had its first practical demonstration at
the Massachusetts election of 1889, and its success led to its
rapid adoption in many other states. In 1890 ballot laws were
passed in seven states: Vermont, Mississippi, Wyoming and
Washington provided for the Massachusetts plan, although
Vermont afterwards adopted the system of party-groups, which
Maryland used from the first. The New York and New Jersey
laws of 1890, however, only provided for official ballots for each
party, and allowed ballots obtained outside of the polling-booths
to be used. In 1891 seventeen additional states and two terri-
tories adopted the Australian ballot system. All of these pro-
vided for a blanket ballot; but while the Massachusetts arrange-
ment was adopted in Arkansas, Nebraska, New Hampshire,
North and South Dakota, Kentucky, Texas and Oregon, the
system of party groups was followed in Colorado, Delaware,
Illinois, Maine, Ohio, Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Cali-
fornia had the Massachusetts arrangement of names, but added
on the ballot a list of party names, by marking one of which a
voter would cast his vote for all of the candidates of that party.
Pennsylvania placed all the candidates not in a party-group in
alphabetical order.
Iowa adopted the Australian ballot system in 1892; Alabama
and Kansas in 1893; Virginia in 1894; Florida in 1895; and
Louisiana and Utah in 1896. In 1895, too, New York adopted
the blanket ballot in place of separate party ballots, but arranged
the names of candidates in party columns. The only state to
abandon the blanket ballot after once adopting it was Miss-
ouri which in 1897 returned to the system of separate ballots,
with no provision for booths where the ballot might be marked
in secret. (See the article," Present Status of the Ballot Laws,"
by Arthur Ludington, in Amer. Pol. Science Rev. for May 1909.)
Owing to the large number of officials chosen at one time in
American elections, the form and appearance of the ballot used
is very different from that in Great Britain. At the quadrennial
presidential election in New York state, for example, the officers
to be voted for by each elector are thirty-six presidential electors,
one congressman, state-governor, lieutenant-governor and five
otherstate officers, a member for each house of the state legislature,
several judges, a sheriff, county-clerk and other county officers.
The column with the list of the candidates of each party for all of
these offices is 2 to 3 ft. in length; and as there are often
eight to ten party-tickets in the field, the ballot-paper is usually
from 18 to 20 in. in width. Each voter receives one of these
" blanket " ballots on entering the polling-place, and retires to
a booth to mark either a party column or the individual candidates
in different columns for whom he wishes to vote. Where, as in
Massachusetts, the names of candidates are arranged by offices
instead of in party-lists, every voter must mark the name of each
individual candidate for whom he wishes to vote. Connecticut,
New Jersey, Missouri, North and South Carolina, Georgia and
New Mexico use the system of separate party ballots. (See also
VOTING, VOTING MACHINES, ELECTION, REPRESENTATION.)
BALLOU, HOSEA (1771-1852), American Universalist clergy-
man, was bom in Richmond, New Hampshire, on the 30th of
April 1771. He was a son of Maturin Ballou, a Baptist minister,
was self-educated, early devoted himself to the ministry, became
a convert to UniversaLism in 1789, and in 1794 became a pastor
of a congregation at Dana, Massachusetts. He preached at
Barnard, Vermont, and the surrounding towns in 1801-1807; at
Portsmouth, New Hampshire, in 1807-1815; at Salem, Massa-
chusetts, in 1815-1817; and as pastor of the Second Universalist
Church in Boston from December 1817 until his death thereon
the 7th of June 1852. He founded and edited The Universalist
Magazine (1819; later called The Trumpet) and The Universalist
Expositor (1831; later The Universalist Quarterly Review);
wrote about 10,000 sermons, many hymns, essays and polemic
theological works; and is best known for Notes on the Parables
(1804), A Treatise on Atonement (1805) and Examination of the
Doctrine of a Future Retribution (1834); in these, especially
the second, he showed himself the principal American expositor of
Universalism. His great contribution to his Church was the
body of denominational literature he left. From the theology
of John Murray, who like Ballou has been called " the father of
American Universalism," he differed in that he divested Uni-
versalism of every trace of Calvinism and opposed legalism and
trinitarian views.
Consult the biography by Thomas Whittemore (4 vols., Boston,
1854-1855) and that by Oscar F. Safford (Boston, 1889); and
J. C. Adams, Hosea Ballou and the Gospel Renaissance (Boston, 1904).
His grand-nephew, HOSEA BALLOU (1796-1861), born in
Halifax, Vermont, on the i8th of October 1796, preached to
Universalists in Stafford, Connecticut (1815-1821); and in
Massachusetts, in Roxbury (1821-1838) and in Medford (1838-
1853); and in 1853 was elected first president of Tufts College at
Medford, serving in that office until shortly before his death,
which took place at Somerville, Massachusetts, on the 27th of
May 1861. He was the first (1847) to urge the necessity of a
Universalist denominational college, and this did much towards
the establishment of Tufts. He was associated with the elder
Hosea Ballou in editing The Universalist Quarterly Review,
edited an edition of Sismondi's History of the Crusades (1833);
and wrote the Ancient History of Universalism, down to A.D. 553
(1829; 2nd ed., 1842).
MATURIN MURRAY BALLOU (1820-1895), son of the first Hosea,
was a pioneer in American illustrated journalism, edited Gleason's
Pictorial and Ballou's Monthly and many collections of quota-
tions, and in 1872 became editor-in-chief of the Boston Daily
Globe, of which he was one of the founders. He wrote a life of
his father (1860), and a History of Cuba (1854).
BALLSTON SPA, a village and the county-seat of Saratoga
county, New York, U.S.A., about 7 m. S. of Saratoga Springs.
Pop. (1890) 3527; (1900) 3923; (1910 U. S. Census) 4138.
It is served by the Delaware & Hudson railway, and is con-
nected with Saratoga Springs, Albany, and Schenectady by
electric lines. There are several manufacturing establishments,
among which are one of the largest manufactories of paper-bags
in the United States and a large tannery. It is, however, as a
popular summer resort that Ballston Spa is best known. Many
fine chalybeate and other springs rising through solid rock from
a depth of about 650 ft. furnish a highly effervescent water of
considerable medicinal and commercial value. The village has
the Ballston Spa public library, the Saratoga county law
library and the Saratoga county court house. Ballston Spa,
which was named in honour of the Rev. Eliphalet Ball, an early
settler, was settled about 1787 by the grandfather of Stephen
A. Douglas, and was incorporated in 1855.
See E. F. Prose, Centennial Hist, of Ballston Spa, 1908.
BALLYCASTLE, a seaport and watering-place on the north
coast of Co. Antrim, Ireland, in the north parliamentary
division, situated on a bay of the same name opposite Rathlin
Island. Pop. (1901) 1481. It is connected with the Northern
Counties (Midland) railway at Ballymoney by the Ballycastle
light railway. The town consists of two divisions, about a
quarter of a mile apart and connected by a fine avenue. Towards
the close of the i8th century Mr Hugh Boyd, obtaining the
estate, devoted himself to the extension and improvement of
the town, establishing manufactures, endowing charities and
building churches; and succeeded in producing a temporary
vitality. Upwards of 150,000, including a large government
grant, is said to have been expended upon the pier and harbour;
but the violence of the sea overthrew the one and the other
became filled with sand. To the east of the town are the remains
of Bonamargy Abbey, the burial-place of many of the Mac-
Donnell family. The Carey brook, by the side of which the
abbey stands, was formerly called the Margy, and on its waters
according to tradition dwelt the four children of Lir, changed
to swans by their step-mother until St Columba released them
from enchantment. (See P. W. Joyce, Old Celtic Romances.)
With this well-known romance is connected the wide-spread
belief in Ireland of ill-fortune following the killing of a swan.
Coal-seams, formerly extensively worked,! and from an unknown
BALLYMENA BALMERINO
283
period of antiquity, appear in the cliffs towards Fair Head, and
the fisheries are important. The coast-scenery and the view
from the hill of Knocklayd are notable.
BALLYMENA, a town of Co. Antrim, Ireland, in the mid
parliamentary division, on the Braid, an affluent of the Maine,
2 m. above their junction. Pop. of urban district (1001) 10,886.
It is 33 m. N.N.W. of Belfast on the Northern Counties (Midland)
railway. Branch lines run to Lame and to Parkmore on the
east coast. The town owes its prosperity chiefly to its linen
trade, introduced in 1733, which gives employment to the greater
part of the inhabitants. Brown linen is a specialty. Iron ore
is raised in the neighbourhood. Antiquities in the neighbour-
hood are few and the present buildings of Ballymena Castle
and Galgorm Castle are modern. Gracehill, however, a Moravian
settlement, was founded in 1 746.
BALLYMONEY, a market town of Co. Antrim, Ireland,
in the north parliamentary division, 53 m. N.N.W. from Belfast
by the Northern Counties (Midland) railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 2952. The Ballycastle railway joins the main
line here. The trade of the town is prosperous, brewing, distil-
ling and tanning being carried on, besides the linen manufacture
common to the whole county. Soap, candles and tobacco are
also manufactured, and the town is a centre for local agricultural
trade. Near the neighbouring village of Dervock (4$ m. N.) is
a cottage shown by an inscription to have been the home of the
ancestors of William McKinley, president of the United States.
BALLYMOTE, a market town of Co. Sligo, Ireland, in
the south parliamentary division, 14 m. S. of Sligo by the Midland
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 997. It is a centre for
some agricultural trade and has carriage-building works. There
are remains of a strong castle, built by the powerful earl of Ulster,
Richard de Burgh, in 1300, and the scene of hostilities in 1641
and 1652. Ruins are also seen of a Franciscan foundation
attributed to the i3th century; it was a celebrated seat of
learning and an extant memorial of the work of its monks is
the Book of Ballymote (c. 1391) in the possession of the Royal
Irish Academy, a miscellaneous collection in prose and verse of
historical, genealogical and romantic writings. There are also,
near the town, ruins of a house of the Knights of St John (1303).
BALLYSHANNON, a seaport and market-town of Co.
Donegal, Ireland, in the south parliamentary division, at the
mouth of the Erne; on the Bundoran branch of the Great
Northern railway. Pop. (1901) 2359. The river is here crossed
by a bridge of twelve arches, which connects the town with the
suburb of The Port. Below the bridge the river forms a beautiful
cascade, 150 yds. wide, with a fall at low water of 16 ft. Here
is the salmon leap, where the fish are trapped in large numbers,
but also assisted to mount the fall by salmon-ladders. The
fisheries are of great value, and there is an export trade to England
in salmon, which are despatched in ice. The harbour is a small
exposed creek of Donegal Bay, and is only accessible to small
vessels owing to a bar. Previous to the Union Ballyshannon
returned two members to the Irish parliament and it was in-
corporated by James I. There are slight remains of a castle of
the O'Donnells, earls of Tyrconnell, where the English, on
attempting to besiege it, were defeated and lost heavily in their
retreat across the river, in 1597. There are numerous raths or
encampments in the vicinity and other remains. Coolmore,
3 m. N.W., is a bathing-resort.
BALM, a fragrant herb, Melissa officinalis, of the Deadnettle
order (Labiatae) with opposite, ovate, crenulated leaves, which
are wrinkled above, and small white or rose-spotted flowers.
It is a native of central and southern Europe; it is often
grown in gardens and has become naturalized in the south of
England and grows apparently wild as a garden escape in North
America. The name is from the Greek /itXw<ro, the plant being
visited by bees. Bastard Balm is an allied plant, Melitlis
Melissophyllum, a southern European species, found in the south
and south-west of England.
BALMACEDA, JOSE MANUEL (1838-1891), president of the
republic of Chile, was born in Santiago in 1838. His parents
were wealthy, and in his early days he was chiefly concerned in
industrial and agricultural enterprise. In 1865 he was one of
the representatives of the Chilean government at the general
South American congress at Lima, and after his return obtained
great distinction as an orator in the national assembly. After
discharging some diplomatic missions abroad, he became succes-
sively minister of foreign affairs and of the interior under the
presidency of Senor Santa Maria, and in the latter capacity
carried compulsory civil marriage and several other laws highly
obnoxious to the clergy. In 1886 he was elected president;
but, in spite of his great capacity, his imperious temper little
fitted him for the post. He was soon irreconcilably at variance
with the majority of the national representatives, and on the
ist of January 1891 he sought to terminate an intolerable
situation by refusing to convoke the assembly and ordering the
continued collection of the taxes on his own authority. This led
to the Chilean Civil War of 1891, which ended in the overthrow
of Balmaceda, who committed suicide on the iSth of September,
the anniversary of his elevation to the presidency.
6ALMAIN, a town of Cumberland county, N.S.W., Australia,
on the western shore of Darling Harbour, Port Jackson,
2 m. by water from Sydney and suburban to it. Pop. (1901)
30,881. It is the home of great numbers of the working classes
of Sydney and some of the largest factories and most important
docks are situated here. Saw-mills, iron foundries, chemicals,
glass and soap works, shipbuilding yards and a cocoanut-oil
factory in connexion with the soap-manufacture at Port Sunlight,
England , arc among the chief industrial establishments. Balmain
became a municipality in 1860.
BALMERINO, JAMES ELPHINSTONE, ist BARON (c. 1553-
1612), Scottish politician, was the third son of Robert, 3rd Lord
Elphinstone (d. 1602). Rising to power under James VI. he
became a judge and a royal secretary; he accompanied the king
to London in 1603 and was made Lord Balmerino, or Balmerinoch,
in 1604. In 1605 he became president of the court of session, but
his ardour for the Roman Catholic religion brought about his
overthrow. In 1599 on the king's behalf, but without the king's
knowledge, he had sent a letter to Clement VIII. in which he
addressed the pope in very cordial terms. A copy of this letter
having been seen by Elizabeth, the English queen asked James
for an explanation, whereupon both the king and the secretary
declared it was a forgery. There the matter rested until 1608,
when the existence of the letter was again referred to during
some controversy between James and Cardinal Bellarmine.
Interrogated afresh Balmerino admitted that he had written the
compromising letter, that he had surreptitiously obtained the
king's signature, and that afterwards he had added the full titles
of the pope. In March 1609 he was tried, attainted and sentenced
to death, but after a brief imprisonment he was released and he
died at Balmerino in July 1612.
Balmerino's elder son JOHN (d. 1649) was permitted to take
his father's title in 1613. In 1634 he was imprisoned for his
opposition to Charles I. in Scotland, and by a bare majority of
the jury he was found guilty of " leasing-making " and was
sentenced to death. But popular sympathy was strongly in his
favour; the poet Drummond of Hawthornden and others
interceded for him, and after much hesitation Charles pardoned
him. Balmerino, however, did not desist from his opposition
to the king. A chief among the Covenanters and a trusted
counsellor of the marquess of Argyll, he presided over the cele-
brated parliament which met in Edinburgh in August 1641, and
was one of the Scottish commissioners who visited England in
1644. He died in February 1649 and was succeeded as 3rd lord
by his son JOHN (1623-1704), who in 1669 inherited from his
uncle James the title of Lord Coupar. John's son JOHN, 4th
Lord Balmerino (1652-1736), was a lawyer of some repute and,
although a sturdy opponent of the Union, was a Scottish repre-
sentative peer in 1710:11111 1713. John's son ARTHUR (1688-1746)
who became 6th Lord Balmerino on the death of his half-brother
John in January 1746, is famous as a Jacobite. He joined the
partisans of James Edward, the Old Pretender, after the battle
of Sheriffmuir in November 1715, and then lived for some time
in exile, returning to Scotland in 1733 when his father had
284
BALMfeS BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS
secured for him a pardon. He was one of the first to join Charles
Edward in 1745; he marched with the Jacobites to Derby,
fought at Falkirk and was captured at Culloden. Tried for
treason in Westminster Hall he was found guilty, and was
beheaded on the nth of August 1746, behaving both at his trial
and at his execution with great constancy and courage. On his
death without issue his titles became extinct.
BALMES, JAIME LUCIANO (1810-1848), Spanish ecclesiastic,
eminent as a political writer and a philosopher, was born at Vich
in Catalonia, on the 28th of August 1810, and died there on the
0th of July 1848. Having attacked the regent Espartero and
been exiled he founded and edited on his return the El Pensa-
miento de la. Nation, a Catholic and Conservative weekly; but
his fame rests principally on El Protestantismo comparado con el
Catolicismo en sus relaciones con la Civilisation Europea (3 vols.,
1842-1844, 6th edition, 1879; Eng. trans. London, 1849), an
able defence of Catholicism on the ground that it represents the
spirit of obedience or order, as opposed to Protestantism, the
spirit of revolt or anarchy. From the historical standpoint it is
of little value. The best of his philosophical works, which are
dear expositions of the scholastic system of thought, are the
Filosofia Fundamental (4 vols., 1846, Eng. trans, by H. F.
Brownson, 2 vols. New York, 1856), and the Curso de Filosofia
Elemental (4 vols., 1847), which he translated into Latin for use
in seminaries.
'' See A. de Blanche-Raffin, Jacques Balmes, sa vie et ses ouvrages
(Paris, 1849) ; and E. Bullon Fernindez, Jaime Balmis y sus oberas
(Madrid, 1903).
BALMORAL CASTLE (Gaelic, " the majestic dwelling "), a
private residence of the British sovereign, in the parish of Crathie
arid Braemar, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, on the right bank of the
Dee (here spanned by a fine suspension bridge), 9 m. W. of
Ballater and at a height of 900 ft. above the sea. The property
formerly belonged to the Farquharsons of Inverey, from whom
it was acquired by Sir Robert Gordon, whose trustees disposed
of the lease in 1848 to the prince consort, by whom the whole
estate was purchased in 1852 and bequeathed to Queen Victoria.
The castle is built of granite in the Scots baronial style, with
an eastern tower 100 ft. high commanding a superb view
Ballochbuie and Braemar to the W., Glen Gairn to the N.,
Lochnagar and the beautiful valley of the Dee to the S. On
Craig Gowan (1319 ft.), a hill i m. to the south, have been
erected memorial cairns to Queen Victoria, the prince consort,
Princess Alice and other members of the royal family of Great
Britain. The parish church of Crathie (1903), replacing the kirk
of 1806, is ij m. to the W., and about 2 m. farther west stands
Abergeldie Castle, another Highland royal residence, an ancient
building to which modern additions have been made, inhabited
by King Edward VII. when prince of Wales, and after his acces-
sion to the throne used as a shooting-lodge.
BALNAVES, HENRY (isi2?-iS79), Scottish politician and
reformer, born at Kirkcaldy about 1512, was educated at St
Andrews and on the continent, where he adopted Protestant
views. Returning to Scotland, he continued his legal studies
and in 1538 was appointed a lord of session. He married about
the same time Christian Scheves, and in 1539 was granted the
estate of Halhill in Fife, after which he is generally named.
Before 1540 he was sworn of James Vs. privy council, and was
known as one of the party in favour of the English alliance and
of an ecclesiastical reformation. He is also described as treasurer
to James (Letters and Papers, 1543, i. 64), but the regent Arran
appointed him secretary in the new government of the infant
Queen Mary (January 1543). He promoted the act permitting
the reading of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue, and was one
of the commissioners appointed to arrange a marriage treaty
between the little queen and the future Edward VI. In London
he was not considered so complaisant as some of the other
commissioners, and was not made privy to all the engagements
taken by his colleagues (ib. i. 834). But Beton " loved him
worst of all," and, when Arran went over to the priestly party,
Balnaves was, in November 1543, deprived of his offices and
imprisoned in Blackness Castle.
Thence he was released by the arrival of Hertford's fleet in
the following May, and from this time he became a paid agent of
the English cause in Scotland. He took no part in the murder
of Beton, but was one of the most active defenders of the castle
of St Andrews. He received 100 from Henry VIII. in December
1546, was granted an annuity of 125 by Protector Somerset
in 1547 and was made English paymaster of the forces in St
Andrews. When that castle surrendered to the French in July
Balnaves was taken prisoner to Rouen. Somerset made vain
efforts to procure his release and continued his pension. He
made himself useful by giving information to the English govern-
ment, and even Mary Tudor sent him 50 as reward in June 1 554.
Balnaves also busied himself in writing what Knox calls " a
comfortable treatise of justification," which was found in MS.
with a preface by Knox, among the reformer's papers, and was
published at Edinburgh in 1584 under the title The Confession
of Faith.
In IS57 Balnaves was permitted to return to Scotland and
regain his property; probably it was thought that Mary Tudor's
burnings would have cooled the ardour of his English affections,
and that in the war threatening between two Catholic countries,
Balnaves would serve his own. The accession of Queen Elizabeth
changed the situation, and Mary of Guise had reasons for accusing
him of "practices out of England" (Salisbury MSS. i. 155).
He took, in fact, an active part in the rising of 1559 and was
commissioned by the Congregation to solicit the help of the
English government through Sir Ralph Sadleir at Berwick. He
was also selected one of the Scots representatives to negotiate
with the duke of Norfolk in February 1560. In 1563 he was
restored to his office as lord of session, and was one of those
appointed by the General Assembly to revise the Book of Discip-
line. He was one of Bothwell's judges for the murder of Darnley
in 1567, and in 1568 he accompanied Moray to the York inquiry
into Queen Mary's guilt. He resigned his judicial office in 1574,
and died in 1579 at Edinburgh. He has been claimed as a Scots
bard on the strength of one ballad, " O gallandis all, I cry and
call," which is printed in Allan Ramsay's Evergreen (2 vols.
1724-1727).
See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (1540-1545); Bain's and
Thorp's Col. of Scottish State-Papers ; English Domestic and Foreign
Cols.; Acts of Engl. Privy Council; Reg. P.C., Scotland; Reg.
Great Seal of Scotland; Hamilton Papers; Border Papers; Knox,
Works; Burnet, Reformation; Froude, Hist. (A. F. P.)
BALNEOTHERAPEUTICS (Lat. balneum, a bath, and Gr.
Oepaireveiv, to treat medically). The medical treatment of
disease by internal and external use of mineral waters is quite
distinct from " hydrotherapy," or the therapeutic uses of pure
water. But the term " balneotherapeutics " has gradually
come to be applied to everything relating to spa treatment,
including the drinking of waters and the use of hot baths and
natural vapour baths, as well as of the various kinds of mud
and sand used for hot applications. The principal constituents
found in mineral waters are sodium, magnesium, calcium and
iron, in combination with the acids to form chlorides, sulphates,
sulphides and carbonates. Other substances occasionally present
in sufficient quantity to exert a therapeutic influence are arsenic,
lithium, potassium, manganese, bromine, iodine, &c. The
chief gases in solution are oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid and
sulphuretted hydrogen. Argon and helium occur in some of
the " simple thermal " and " thermal sulphur waters." There
are few doctors who would deny the great value of special bathing
and drinking cures in certain morbid conditions. In the employ-
ment of the various mineral waters, many of the spas adopt
special means by which they increase or modify their influence,
e.g. the so-called "-aromatic " or " medicated " baths, in which
substances are mixed to exert a special influence on the skin
and peripheral nerves. Of these the " pine-needle " bath has
the greatest repute; it is made by adding a decoction of the
needles or young shoots of firs and pines. Fir wood oil (a
mixture of ethereal oils) or the tincture of an alcoholic extract
acts equally well. The volatile ethereal constituents are sup-
posed to penetrate the skin and to stimulate the cutaneous
BALQUHIDDER BALSAM
285
circulation and peripheral nerves, being eliminated later by the
ordinary channels. Similar effects follow the addition to the
bath of aromatic herbs, such as camomile, thyme, &c. For a
full-sized bath ij to a tt> of herbs are tied in a muslin bag and
infused in a gallon of boiling water; the juices are then ex-
pressed and the infusion added to the bath. Astringent baths
are prepared in a similar way from decoctions of oak bark,
walnut leaves, &c. In many spas on the European continent
baths are prepared from peat or mud mixed with hot mineral
water. Mineral peat consists of decomposing vegetable soil
that has been so long in the neighbourhood of the medicinal
spring that it has undergone peculiar and variable chemical
changes. This is mixed with the hot mineral water until the
bath has the desired consistency, the effect on the patient being
in almost direct proportion to the density. These baths vary
greatly in composition. Mud baths are chiefly prepared from
muddy deposits found in the neighbourhood of the springs,
as at St Amand. They act like a large poultice applied to the
surface of the body, and in addition to the influence of the
temperature, they exert a considerable mechanical effect. The
pulse is accelerated some 6 to 1 2 beats a minute, the respiration
number rises, and the patient is thrown into a profuse perspira-
tion. They have very great value in gouty and rheumatic
conditions and in some of the special troubles of women.
There are certain conditions in which mineral water treatment
is distinctly contra-indicated. Advanced cardiac disease and
cardiac cases with failure of compensation must pre-eminently
be treated at home, not at a spa. Advanced arterio-sclerosis,
any form of serious organic visceral disease, advanced cirrhosis,
pulmonary tuberculosis with a tendency to haemoptysis, much
elevation of temperature or emaciation, are all entirely unsuited
for this form of treatment. Serious organic nervous diseases,
great nervous depression and old cases of paralysis are all
contra-indicated. Any trouble, however suited in itself for spa
treatment, must be considered inapplicable if complicated with
pregnancy.
In advising balneotherapeutic treatment in any case, all the
conditions and habits of the patient pecuniary, physical and
psychical must be considered, as the spa must be fitted to
the patient, not the patient to the spa. Besides the particular
disease, the idiosyncrasy of the patient must be considered, the
same morbid condition in different people requiring very different
treatment. Retarded convalescence is a condition often treated
at the spas, although hygienic surroundings, both mental and
physical, are usually all that is necessary to ensure complete
recovery. After rheumatic fever, however, if the joints remain
painful and the heart is dilated, the thermal gaseous saline water
of Nauheim, augmented by Schott's resistance movements, will
often appear to work wonders. Chronic rheumatism, where
there is much exudation round a joint or incipient stiffness of a
joint, may be relieved by hot thermal treatment, especially when
combined with various forms of massage and exercises. Simple
thermal waters, hot sulphur springs and hot muriated waters
are all successful in different cases. Chronic muscular rheuma-
tism can also be benefited in a similar manner. Diseases of the
nervous system are on the whole treated by these means with
small success. Mental diseases other than very mild cases of
depression should be considered inapplicable. Neurasthenics
are sometimes treated at chalybeate or thermal muriated saline
spas; but such treatment is entirely secondary to the general
management of the case. Neuralgic affections and the later
stages of neuritis, especially when dependent on gout or rheuma-
tism, are often relieved or cured. Abdominal venosity (ab-
dominal plethora), a feature of obesity, glycosuria, &c., are
extremely well fitted for this form of treatment. The alkaline
sulphated waters, the bitter waters and the common salt waters
can all be prescribed, and after a short course can be supple-
mented with various forms of active and passive exercises.
Diseases of the respiratory organs are far more suited for climatic
treatment than for treatment by baths. Anaemia can usually
be better or equally well treated at home, or by seaside residence
or a sea voyage, though many physicians prescribe chloride of
sodium waters, followed by a course of iron waters at some
suitably situated spa. In the anaemia dependent on malarial
infection, the muriated or alkaline sulphated waters at spas of
considerable elevation and combined with iron and arsenic are
often very beneficial. Gravel and stone, if of the uric acid
variety, can be treated with the alkaline waters, but the case
must be under constant observation lest the urine become too
alkaline and a deposition of phosphates take place on the already
formed uric acid stone. Gout is so variable both in cause and
effect that much discrimination is required in its treatment.
Where the patient is of " full habit," with portal stagnation,
the sulphated alkaline or mild bitter waters are indicated,
especially those of Carlsbad and Marienbad; but the use of
these strong waters must be followed by a long rest under strict
hygienic conditions. Where this is impossible, a milder course
must be advised, as at Homburg, Kissingen, Harrogate, Wies-
baden, Baden-Baden, &c. For very delicate patients, and
where time is limited, the simple thermal waters are preferable.
For radiant heat and light baths and electric baths of all
kinds, see ELECTROTHERAPEUTICS; and for compressed air
baths, AEROTHERAPEUTICS. (See also BATHS, THERAPEUTICS,
and the articles on diseases.)
BALQUHIDDER (Gaelic, "the farm in the back-lying
country "), a village and parish of Perthshire, Scotland. Pop.
of parish (1901) 665. The village lies 2 m. W. of the station of
the same name on the Caledonian railway from Callander to
Oban, and 27} m. N.W. of Stirling. It is situated at the east
end of Loch Voil, a lake at the foot of the Braes of Balquhidder.
The Maclaurins acquired the district as early as the pth century
and occupied it for several hundred years until ousted by the
Macgregors, a neighbouring clan, who had repeatedly raided
their lands, and in 1558 slew the chief and many of his followers.
Balquhidder was the scene of some of the exploits of Rob Roy,
who died there in 1 734. His grave in the old kirkyard is marked
by a stone ornamented with rude carving, executed probably
centuries before his time. Another ancient stone is said tradi-
tionally to cover the grave of Angus, the Columban missionary,
who was the first to carry on Christian work in this part of the
Highlands.
BALRAMPUR, a town of British India near the river Rapti,
28 m. from Gonda, in the Gonda district of the United Provinces.
Pop. (1901) 16,723. It gives its name to one of the largest
tolukdari estates in the province. The raja, Sir Drigbijai Singh
K.C.S.I., was conspicuously loyal during the Mutiny, and was
rewarded with accessions of territory and hereditary privileges.
His death in 1882 gave rise to prolonged Litigation and the estate
was thrown into chancery. The income is estimated at i 20,000,
paying a revenue of 46,000. Numerous schools and hospitals
are supported. Balrampur contains a large palace, a handsome
modern temple and an Anglo-vernacular school.
BALSAM (from Gr. fta\ffafiov, through Lat. balsamum, con-
tracted by popular use to O. Fr. basme, mod. Fr. bdme; Eng.
balm), a term properly limited to such resins or oleo-resins as
contain benzoic acid or cinnamic acid or both. Those balsams
which conform to this definition make up a distinct class, allied
to each other by their composition, properties and uses. Those
found in commerce are the balsam of Peru, balsam of Tolu,
liquid storax and liquidambar. Balsam of Peru is the produce
of a lofty leguminous tree, Myroxylon Pereirae, growing within
a limited area in San Salvador, Central America and introduced
into Ceylon. It is a thick, viscid oleo-resin of a deep brown or
black colour and a fragrant balsamic odour. It is used in per-
fumery. Though contained in the pharmacopeias it has no
special medicinal virtues. Balsam of Tolu is produced from
Myroxylon loluiferum. It is of a brown colour, thicker than
Peru balsam, and attains a considerable degree of solidity on
keeping. It also is a product of equatorial America, but is found
over a much wider area than is the balsam of Peru. It is used
in perfumery and as a constituent in cough syrups and lozenges.
Liquid storax or slyrax preparalus, is a balsam yielded by Liquid-
ambar orientalis, a native of Asia Minor. It is a soft resinous
substance, with a pleasing balsamic odour, especially after it
286
BALSHAM BALTIC SEA
has been kept for some time. It is used in medicine as an external
application in some parasitic skin diseases, and internally as
an expectorant. An analogous substance is derived from
Liquidambar Altingia in Java. Liquidambar balsam is derived
from Liquidambar styraciflua, a tree found in the United
States and Mexico. It contains cinnamic acid, but not
benzoic acid.
Of so-called balsams, entirely destitute of cinnamic and benzoic
constituents, the following are found in commerce: Mecca
balsam or Balm of Gilead, from Commiphora opobalsamum, a tree
growing in Arabia and Abyssinia, is supposed to be the balm
of Scripture and the /SdXffo/ioK of Theophrastus. When fresh
it is a viscid fluid, with a penetrating odour, but it solidifies with
age. It was regarded with the utmost esteem among the nations
of antiquity and to the present day it is peculiarly prized among
the people of the East. For balsam of copaiba see COPAIBA.
Under the name of wood oil, or Gurjun balsam, an oleo-resin is
procured in India and the Eastern Archipelago from several
species of Dipterocarpus, chiefly D. turbinatus, which has the
odour and properties of copaiba and has been used for the same
purposes. Wood oil is also used as a varnish in India and forms
an effective protection against the attacks of white ants. Canada
balsam or Canada turpentine is the oleo-resin yielded by Abies
balsamea, a tree that grows in Canada and the northern parts
of the United States. It is a very transparent substance, some-
what fluid when first run, but thickening considerably with age,
possessed of a delicate yellow colour and a mild terebinthous
odour. It contains 24 % of essential oil, 60 % of resin
soluble in alcohol, and 16 % of resin soluble only in ether. Its
chief uses are for mounting preparations for the microscope and
as a cement for glass in optical work.
The garden balsam is an annual plant, Impatiens balsamina,
and the balsam apple is the fruit of Momordica balsamina, nat.
order Cucurbitaceae.
BALSHAM, HUGH DE (d. 1286), English churchman, appears
first as sub-prior of the monastery of Ely. On the death of
William of Kilkenny in 1256 the monks elected him bishop of
Ely, to the annoyance of Henry III. who had handed over the
temporalities of the see to John de Waleran. The election was
confirmed by the pope in 1257 and Hugh set to work to repair
the harm done to the diocese by the intruder. In 1 280 the bishop
obtained a charter allowing him to replace the secular brethren
residing in his hospital of St John at Cambridge by " studious
scholars " ; a second charter four years later entirely differentiated
these scholars from the brethren of the hospital, and for
them Hugh de Balsham founded and endowed the college of
Peterhouse.
BALTA, a town in the Russian government of Podolia,
between the Dniester and the Bug, 131 m. by rail N.N.W. of
Odessa. It carries on a large trade in cattle, horses and grain,
and has two annual fairs, held at Whitsuntide and in June.
A variety of industries, such as tallow-melting, soap-boiling,
tile-making and brewing, are carried on. The Jews form a very
considerable part of the population, which in 1867 numbered
14,528, and in 1897, 23,393. Balta was in great part destroyed
by the Russians in 1780.
BALTARD, LOUIS PIERRE (1764-1846), French architect
and engraver, was born in Paris on the 9th of July 1764. He
was originally a landscape painter, but in his travels through
Italy was so much struck with the beauty of the Italian buildings,
that he changed his profession and devoted himself to architec-
ture. In his new occupation he achieved great success, and was
selected to prepare the plans for some of the largest public
edifices in Paris. His reputation, however, is chiefly based on
his great skill in engraving . Among the best known of his plates
are the drawings of Paris (Paris et ses monuments, 2 vols. fol.,
1803), the engravings for Denon's gypte, the illustrations of
Napoleon's wars (La Colonne de la grande armee), and those
contained in the series entitled the Grand prix de I' architecture,
which for some time he carried on alone. He also gained dis-
tinction as an engraver of portraits. Baltard died in Paris on
the 22nd of January 1846.
Two of his children were also architects. Of these the more
important was VICTOR BALTARD (1805-1874), who was born in
Paris on the igth of June 1805. In 1803 he gained the prix de
Rome at the Ecole des beaux-arts for designing a military school.
He was largely instrumental in introducing a regular scheme
of fresco decoration by modern artists in the churches of Paris,
to take the place of the heterogeneous collections of pictures
of all kinds with which their walls had been promiscuously
decorated. He built many additions to existing churches,
and also the church of St Augustin, in which he united
the structural values of stone and steel. His most popular
achievement was, however, the building of the central market
in Paris. Victor Baltard also built the slaughter houses
and the cattle market of La Villette. He died in Paris on
the i3th of January 1874, after a life of great activity in his
profession.
BALTIC SEA (Scand. and Ger. Ostsee; 'Russ. Baltiyskoe
More), a sea extending between 54 and 66 N. lat., and 9 and
30 E. long., surrounded by the territories of Sweden, Russia,
Germany and Denmark. Its greatest length is about 960 m.;
greatest breadth about 400 m.; and length of coast-line, 5000
m. ; the central axis runs approximately from south-west to
north-east. The Baltic is connected with North Sea by the
winding channel between the south of Scandinavia and the
Cimbrian peninsula. This channel is usually included in the
Baltic. The part of it west of a line joining the Skaw with
Christiania fjord receives the name of Skagerrak; the part
east of this line is called the Kattegat. At its southern end the
Kattegat is blocked by the Danish islands, and it communicates
with the Baltic proper by narrow channels called the Sound,
the Great Belt and the Little Belt. The real physical boundary
between the North Sea and the Baltic is formed by the plateau
on which the islands Zealand, Fiinen and Laaland are situated,
and its prolongation from the islands Falster and Moen to the
coasts of Mecklenburg and Rugen.
East of this plateau the Baltic proper forms a series of hollows
or troughs. The first, or Bornholm deep, lies east of the island of
Bornholm, and is separated from the next, or Gotland deep, by
the Middelbank. Beyond the Middelbank the Danziger Tiefe,
an isolated depression, lies to the south-east, while to the north-
east the Gotland basin, the largest and deepest of all, extends
north-eastwards to the Gulf of Finland. Along the Swedish
coast a deep channel runs northward from outside the island of
Oland; this is entirely cut off to the south and east by a bank
which sweeps eastward and northward from near Karlskrona,
and on which' the island of Gotland stands, but it communicates
at its northern end with the Gotland deep, and near the junction
opposite Landsort is the deepest hole in the Baltic (420 metres
= 230 fathoms).
An unbroken ridge, extending from Stockholm to Hango in
Finland, separates the Baltic basin proper from the depression
between Sweden and the Aland Isles, to which the name Aland
Haf has been given. North of the Aland Haf a ridge defines the
southern edge of another depression, the Bothnian Sea, which in
turn is separated from the most northerly division, the Gulf of
Bothnia, by a ridge across the narrow Quarken or Kvarken
Strait. The Gotland deep may be said to extend directly into
the Gulf of Finland, an arm of the Baltic, running eastwards for
about 250 m., and separating Finland from Esthonia. Between
Esthonia and Courland is the Gulf of Riga, a shallow inlet of
roughly circular form, about 100 m. in diameter, and nowhere
more than 27 fathoms deep.
According to recent computations the total area of the Baltic,
including the Skagerrak and Kattegat, is 166,397 sq. m., and
its volume 6907 cub. m., giving a mean depth of 36 fathoms,
which is markedly less than that of any other arm of the sea of
similar area.
In the deeper hollows in the south part of the Baltic the bottom
consists almost invariably of either soft brown or grey mud or
hard clay, while on the shallow banks and near the low coasts
fine sand, of white, yellow or brown colour with small pebbles,
is usually found.
BALTIC SEA
287
co.i--.rs
change*
and
character.
At the time of the last great subsidence, in glacial times, an arm
of the sea extended across Sweden, submerging a great part of the
littoral up to the Gulf of Bothnia, and including the
present lakes Vener, Hjelmar and Malar. During
this period the waters of the northern Baltic were suf-
ficiently salt for oysters to flourish. The subsequent
upheaval restricted direct communication with the open
sea to the Danish channels, and the Baltic waters became fresher:
the oyster disappeared, but a number of cold salt-water fishes and
crustaceans, and even seals, became acclimatized. It has been
suggested that the presence of the remains of these animals indicates
a communication to the north with the Arctic Ocean; but in view
of the severe climatic conditions still prevailing at the time, this
seems an unnecessary assumption. In the next stage of its history
the Baltic is transformed by further elevation into a vast freshwater
lake, the Ancylus lake of G. de Geer (named from the remains of the
mollusc Ancylus fluviatilis), which is supposed to have covered
an area of about 220,000 sq. m., including the whole of the present
Baltic area and a large part of Finland, with Lake Ladoga. Then
followed a subsidence, which not only re-established communication
through the Danish channels, but allowed the Baltic to become
sufficiently salt for such forms as Cardium edule and Littorina littorea.
At this time the Gulf of Bothnia must have suffered greater depres-
sion than the Baltic proper, for the deposits of that epoch show a
thickness of ioo metres (328 ft.) near Hernosand, but of only
25 metres (82 ft.) in the neighbourhood of Gotland. After this
period of subsidence the process of elevation set in which gave the
Baltic its present form and physical condition, and appears to be
still in progress. Dr R. Sieger has traced a series of isobasic lines,
or lines of equal rate of elevation, for portions of Sweden and
Finland ; these indicate that the movement is now almost nil along
the axial lines of the Baltic and the Gulf of Finland, but increases
in amplitude northwards to the Gulf of Bothnia and in the direction
of the main ridge of the massif of southern Sweden. At Stockholm
the rate of elevation is approximately 0-47 metre (=1-54 ft.) in
a century.
The coast of the Baltic is rocky only in the island-studded region
at the head of the Baltic basin proper a submerged lake-district
and the littoral generally is a typical morainic land, the work of the
last great Baltic glacier. The southern margin of the Baltic is of
peculiar interest. From Schleswig eastwards to Liibeck Bay the
coast is pierced by a number of narrow openings or Fohrden, the result
of encroachment of the sea caused by subsidence. East of Lttbeck,
as far as the mouth of the Oder, these give place to Sodden, ramified
openings studded with islands: the structure here resembles that
of Scania in southern Sweden, a region once joined to both Denmark
and Pomerania by an isthmus which was severed by tectonic move-
ments. Beyond the Oder the coast-line is unbroken as far as the
Gulf of Danzig. It is then cut into by the estuaries of the Vistula,
the Pregel and the Memel. Here the westerly winds have full play,
and the coast is rimmed by a continuous line of dunes, which cut
off the two great lagoons of the Frisches Haff and Kurisches Haff by
sandspits or Nehrungcn.
The drainage area of the Baltic is relatively large. According to
the measurements of Sir J. Murray it extends to 461,450 sq. sea m.
(=611,700 sq. English m.) The largest river-basin included in it
is that of the Neva in the east, and next in size come the Vistula
and the Oder in the south. The narrow parallel troughs, at right
angles to the coast, which form the drainage-system of Sweden and
western Finland, are a remarkable feature.
Levellings from Swinemiinde show that the mean level of the
surface of the Baltic at that point is 0-093 metres ( = -305 ft.) below
Level t ' ic sur f ace f tne North Sea at Amsterdam, and 0-066
metres ( = -216 ft.) below its level at Ostend. A line of
levels from Swinemiinde through Eger to the Adriatic showed the
mean level of the surface of the Baltic to be 0-499 metres (1-6 ft.)
above that of the Adriatic Sea. The mean level of the surface of the
Baltic rises about 0-5 metres (1-6 ft.) from the coast of Hplstein to
Memel, ^probably as a result of the prevailing westerly winds; this
mean difference is exceeded with strong westerly winds, and dis-
appears or is reversed with easterly winds. The waves of the Baltic
are usually short and irregular, often dangerous to navigation.
Destructive waves, probably caused by distant earthquakes, called
Seebaren (cf. English " bores ") have been recorded.
The range of the tides is about one foot at Copenhagen; within
the Baltic proper ordinary tides are scarcely perceptible. There
is, however, a distinctly marked annual rise and fall due to
meteorological influences having a mean range of about 11-4 cm.
(0-37 ft.), at Travemunde, and 13-9 cm. (0-46 ft.) at Swinemunde,
the maximum occurring at the end of the summer rainy period in
August.
The circulation of water in the Baltic proper must be considered
apart from the circulation in the channels connecting it with the
North Sea; and in this relation the plateau connecting
the islands Falster and Moen with the coast of Mecklen-
burg and Riigen must be taken as the dividing line. In
the great basins and hollows from Riigen to the Gulfs of Bothnia
and Finland the upper layers of water, from 30 to 70 metres (16 to
38 fathoms) in thickness, have almost the same salinity throughout.
In these waters a vertical circulation is kept up by convection
Circula-
tion.
currents. Beneath these layers are masses of salter water, through
which a thermal wave of small amplitude is slowly propagated to
the bottom by conduction. These strata are practically stagnant,
deficient in oxygen and surcharged with carbonic acid. Their
salter waters must have been originally derived from outside, and
must therefore have passed over the plateau between Falster and
Mecklenburg, but their horizontal extension is checked by the ridges
separating the deep hollows in the Baltic from each other. The in-
flow to the deep basins is intermittent, probably with a long period
of flux and reflux.
_The circulation in the channels connecting the Baltic proper
with the North Sea is of a complex character. It is necessary in the
first place to distinguish clearly between outflowing and inflowing
waters; in practice this is easily done, as the outflowing water
always contains less than 30 parts pro mille of salt, and the inflowing
water_more than 32 pro mille. The Baltic receives much more water
by rainfall, discharge of rivers, &c., than it loses by evaporation;
hence a surplus must be got rid of by an outflowing current which
may be named the " Baltic Stream. ' The following general laws
may be laid down with regard to this :
l._ That the Baltic Stream must be a surface current, because it
originates from a redundancy of fresh water.
2._That, on account of the earth's rotation, the main part of the
Baltic Stream must keep close to the coast of the Scandinavian
peninsula.
3. That it must be a periodic stream, because the discharge of
the rivers into the Baltic varies with the season of the year. In
spring and summer the water from the Baltic is sufficiently abun-
dant to inundate the whole surface of the Kattegat and Skagerrak,
but in winter the sources of the Baltic current are for the most part
dried up by the freezing of the land water.
All the waters which enter the Skagerrak or Kattegat as under-
currents can be found at the surface of the North Sea (9.11.). They
may be divided according to their origin and salinity as follows:
(a) Ocean water of 35 pro mille salinity or more.
(b) North Sea water, the predominant water in the North Sea area,
of 34 to 35 pro mille salinity.
(c) Bank water, 32 to 34 pro mille, which forms a broad edging"
covering the coast banks of Holland, Germany, Denmark and
Norway.
The deepest water stratum in the Skagerrak is certainly of oceanic
origin ; it has been found to suffer changes of long period, and it is
probably not always composed of water derived from the same part
or the same depth of the North Atlantic; this water is, as a rule,
deficient in oxygen. The " North Sea " water, of 34 to 35 pro mille
salinity, does not appear at the surface in the Skagerrak, except as
a strip along part of the coast of Jutland, but it is always found as
an undercurrent overlying the oceanic water. It enters into all the
deep coast channels, and into the Christiania fjord, but it is not
always found in the deep channels of the Kattegat. The principal
time of inflow of North Sea water is during spring and summer.
The bank-water of 32 to 34 pro mille salinity is found all along the
continental coast of the North Sea and North Atlantic, and it may
therefore enter the Skagerrak either from the North Sea or from the
north along the coast of Norway. It is probable indeed that an
influx of this water occurs from both directions in August and
September from the south, and in the late winter and early spring
from the north. The seasonal changes in the distribution of the
bank-waters in different parts of the coast are too complex to be
briefly explained; their relations to the times of occurrence of
various fisheries of the region present many remarkable features,
which have been investigated in recent years by the Swedish Com-
mission.
On the west and south coasts of Sweden, and in the Skagerrak
south-east of Norway, navigation is interfered with by ice only in
severe winters, and then the ice is usually drifting, compact sea-ice
being very rare. Between Stockholm and Visby navigation usually
ceases at the end of December and begins again about the loth of
April. During very severe winters the Aland Sea is covered with
thick ice available for traffic. The south part of the Gulf of Bothnia
js covered with ice every winter along the coasts, but rarely, if ever,
in its central part. Navigation is interrupted by drifting ice from
about the middle of November to the beginning of May, though
the port of Hernosand has been known to remain open during a
whole winter. The northern Quarken is covered with traversable
ice every third or fourth year. The northern part of the Gulf of
Bothnia is frozen every winter. In the Gulf of Finland the sea
is closed to navigation by ice for about 150 days in the year; but
navigation is rendered possible throughout the winter by the use
of ice-breakers.
See references to different parts of the subject in the standard
books of A. Penck, A. de Lapparent, E. Suess and others. Also
Credner, Die Entstehung der Ostsee (Leipzig, 1895); G. de Geer. Om
Skandinaviens nivdforrindringar under quartarperioden (Stockholm,
1888); R. Sieger, Seeenschwankungen und Strandverschiebungen in
Skandinavien (Berlin, 1893) ; O. Pettersson, " Review of Swedish
Hydrographic Research, Scottish Geographical Magazine (1894);
N. Ekholm, Om klimatets andringar i geologist: och historisk tid. Ymer
(Stockholm, 1899); Publications of the International Council for the
Study of the Sea (Copenhagen, since 1902). (H. N. D.)
288
BALTIMORE
BALTIMORE, GEORGE CALVERT, IST BARON (c. 1580-1632),
English statesman, son of Leonard Calvert, and Alice, daughter
of John Crosland of Crosland, was born at Kipling in Yorkshire
and educated at Trinity College, Oxford. After travelling on the
continent, he entered the public service as secretary to Robert
Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury. In 1606 he was appointed
clerk of the crown in Connaught and Clare, in 1608 a clerk of
the council, and was returned to parliament for Bossiney in 1609.
He assisted James I. in his discourse against Vorstius, the
Arminian theological professor of Leiden, and in 1613 took
charge of the Spanish and Italian correspondence. The same
year he was sent on a mission to Ireland to investigate grievances.
For these services he was rewarded by knighthood in 1617,
followed by a secretaryship of state in 1619 and a pension of
2000 a year in 1620. He represented successively Yorkshire
(1621) and Oxford University (1624) in the House of Commons,
where it fell to him in his official capacity to communicate the
king's policy and to obtain supplies. He was distrusted by the
parliament, and was in favour of the unpopular alliance with
Spain and the Spanish marriage. Shortly after the failure of
the scheme he declared himself a Roman Catholic, and on the
i zth of February 1625 threw up his office, when he was created
Baron Baltimore of Baltimore and received a grant of large
estates in Ireland. Henceforth he was seen little in public life
and his attention was directed to colonial enterprise, with which
his name will be always associated. He had established a small
settlement in Newfoundland in 1621, for which under the name
of Avalon he procured a charter hi 1623, and which he himself
visited in 1627. In consequence of disputes and the unsuitable
nature of the climate he sailed thence for Virginia, but was
forbidden to settle there unless he took the oaths of allegiance
and supremacy. He returned home, and died on the isth of
April 1632 before a new concession was secured, the charter of
Maryland passing the great seal on the 2oth of June 1632 hi
favour of his son Cecilius, second Lord Baltimore, who founded
the colony. Baltimore married Anne, daughter of George
Mynne of Hurlingfordbury, Hertfordshire, by whom he had
six sons and five daughters. He wrote Carmen funebre in D. Hen.
Untonum (1596); The Answer to Tom Tell-Troth . . . (1642) is
also attributed to him, and Wood mentions Baltimore as having
composed " something concerning Maryland." His letters are
to be found in various publications, including Strafford's Letters,
Clarendon State Papers and the Calendars' of State Papers.
BiBLlOGRAPHY.-^-George and Cecilius Calvert by William Hand
Browne (1890) ; article by C. H. Firth in the Diet, of Nat. Bio$. with
references there given; Wood's Athenae Oxonienses (Bliss) ii. 522;
Doyle's, The English in America; Discourse on the Life and Character
The Nation, vol. 70, p. 95 ; American Historical Review, vol. 5, p. 577.
BALTIMORE, a city and seaport, and the metropolis of
Maryland, U.S.A., the sixth city in population in the United
States. It is at the head of tide-water on the Patapsco river and
its middle and north-west branches where they form an estuary
12 m. from the entrance of their waters into Chesapeake Bay, in
lat. 39 if N. and long. 76 37' W., about 172 m. by water from
the Atlantic Ocean, 40 m. by rail N.W. from Washington, 26 m. N.
by W. from Annapolis, 97 m. S.W. from Philadelphia, and 184 m.
from New York. Pop. (1890) 434,439; (1900) 508,957 of whom
79,258 were negroes, and 68,600 foreign-born (of these 33,208
were natives of Germany, 10,493 of Russia, 9690 of Ireland,
2841 of England, 2811 of Poland, 2321 of Bohemia and 2042 of
Italy); (1910, census) 558,485.. It is served by the Baltimore
& Ohio, the Philadelphia, Baltimore & Washington (the Pennsyl-
vania system), the Baltimore & Annapolis Short Line, the
Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic; the Northern Central; the
Western Maryland and the Maryland & Pennsylvania railways;
and by steamship lines running directly to all the more important
ports on the Atlantic coast of the United States, to ports in the
West Indies and Brazil, to London, Liverpool, Southampton,
Bristol, Leith, Glasgow, Dublin, Belfast, Havre, Antwerp,
Rotterdam, Bremen, Hamburg and other European ports.
The city extends nearly 6J m. from E. to W., and except on
the W. side a little more than 5 m. from N. to S., covering an
area of about 3 2 sq. m. The ground on which it is built is for the
most part gently rolling; originally some portions were swampy
and others were marked by precipitous heights, but the swamps
have been drained and filled and the heights rounded off. Jones's
Falls, a small stream shut in between granite walls several feet in
height, crosses the N. boundary line a short distance W. of its
middle, flows S. E. to the S.E. corner of the main business quarter,
and there meets the north-west branch of the Patapsco, in
which lies the harbour, defended at its entrance by the historic
Fort McHenry, built at the S.E. extremity of Locust Point, an
irregular peninsula extending S.E., on which are grain-elevators
and a number of wharves, including those of the Baltimore &
Ohio railway.
That part of the city which lies E. of Jones's Falls is known as
East Baltimore, and is in turn nominally divided into Fells'
Point to the S. and E., now a shipbuilding and manufacturing
quarter, and Old Town to the N. and W. In the Old Town still
remain a few specimens of eighteenth century architecture,
including several old-fashioned post-houses, which used to
furnish entertainment for travellers starting for the Middle West
by way of the old Cumberland Road beginning at Fort Cumber-
land, and from Baltimore to Fort Cumberland by a much older
turnpike. The more inviting portion of the modern city lies on
the western side of Jones's Falls, and the principal residential
districts are in the northern half of the city. A little S. from the
centre of the city, Baltimore Street, running E. and W., and
Charles Street, running N. and S., intersect; from this point
buildings on these two streets are numbered N., S., E. and W.,
while buildings on other streets are numbered N. and S. frpm
Baltimore Street and E. and W. from Charles Street. Baltimore
Street is the chief business thoroughfare; S. of it as well as a
little to the N. is the wholesale, financial and shipping district;
while West Lexington Street, a short distance to the N., and
North Howard and North Eutaw Streets, between Fayette and
Franklin Streets, have numerous department and other retail
stores. In North Gay Street also, which- runs N.E. thrbugh
East Baltimore, there are many small but busy retail shops.
North Charles Street, running through the district hi which the
more wealthy citizens live, is itself lined with many of the most
substantial and imposing residences in the city. Mount Vernon
Place and Washington Place, intersecting near the centre of the
city, Eutaw Place farther N.W. , and Broadway running N.
and S. through the middle of East Baltimore, are good examples
of wide streets, having squares in the middle, adorned with
lawns, flower-beds and fountains.
The buildings of the principal business quarter have been
erected since 1904, when a fire which broke out on Sunday the
7th of February destroyed all the old ones within an area of 150
acres. Within a year after the fire, however, 225 places of
business were again occupied and 170 more were building. A
city ordinance prohibited the erection of any building more than
185 ft. in height, and prescribed a uniform height for those in
the same neighbourhood; a large portion of the new buildings
are of either three or four storeys, but a few tall ones range from
ten to sixteen. The principal materials of which they are built
are limestone, granite, marble and bricks, and terra-cotta of
various colours. , ; ., . >
The city hall, the post-office and the court-house, standing in
a row, and each occupying a separate block along E. Fayette
Street in almost the exact centre of the city, are three of Balti-
more's most imposing buildings, and all of them narrowly escaped
destruction by the great fire. The city hall, completed in 1875,
in the Renaissance style, consists of a centre structure of four
storeys surmounted by an iron dome 260 ft. high, and two connect-
ing wings of three storeys surmounted by a mansard roof; the
entire outer facing is of white Maryland marble. The post-office,
completed in 1890, is built of Maine granite. The court-house,
completed in 1899, is of white marble, with mural paintings
by La Farge, E. H. Blashfield and C. Y. Turner. Two of the
principal library buildings the Peabody and the Enoch Pratt
BALTIMORE
289
are faced with white marble. Among the churches may be
mentioned the Roman Catholic cathedral, surmounted by a dome
125 ft. high Baltimore being the seat of a Roman Catholic
archbishopric, the highest in rank in the United States; the First
Presbyterian church (decorated Gothic), with a spire 250 ft.
high; the Grace Episcopal church Baltimore being the seat of
a Protestant Episcopal bishopric; the First Methodist Episcopal
church; and the synagogues of the Baltimore Hebrew Congrega-
tion and the Oheb Shalom Congregation. Other notable buildings
are the custom-house, the Masonic Temple, the Maryland Club-
house, the Mount Royal station of the Baltimore & Ohio railway,
and the buildings of the Johns Hopkins hospital. There are
several good bridges across Jones's Falls.
On an elevated site at the intersection of Washington Place
a continuation of N. Charles Street with Mount Vernon Place
standsawhite marble monumentinhonourof George Washington,
the oldest of the monuments in his honour in the United States.
The corner-stone was laid in 1815 and the monument was
completed in 1829. The base is 50 ft. sq. and 24 ft. high; on
this stands a Doric column, 25 ft. in diameter at the base and
130 ft. high, which is surmounted by a statue of Washington 16 ft.
high. A winding stairway in the interior leads to a parapet at
the top. In the square by which the monument is surrounded
are also statues of George Peabody by W. W. Story (a replica
of the one in London), Roger Brooke Taney by W. H. Rinehart,
and John Eager Howard by Emmanuel Fremiet; and bronze
pieces representing Peace, War, Force and Order, and a figure
of a lion by Antoine L. Barye. The Henry Walters collection
of paintings, mostly by modern French artists, and of Chinese
and Japanese bronzes, ivory carvings, enamels, porcelain and
paintings is housed in the Walters Art Gallery at the S. end of
Washington Place; at the south-east corner of the square is
the Peabody Institute with its conservatory of music and
collection of rare books, of American paintings, and of casts,
including the Rinehart collection of the works of William
H. Rinehart who was a native of Maryland. In Monu-
ment Square near the post-office and the court-house is the
white marble Battle Monument, erected in 1815 to the memory
of those who had fallen in defence of the city in the previous year;
it is 52 ft. high, the column being in the form of a bundle of
Roman fasces, upon the bands of which are inscribed the names
of those whom it commemorates; and the whole is surmounted
by a female figure, the emblematical genius of the city. To this
monument and the one in honour of Washington, Baltimore
owes the name " The Monumental City," frequently applied to
it. A small monument erected to the memory of Edgar Allan Poe
stands in the Westminster Presbyterian churchyard, where he
is buried; there is another monument to his memory in Druid
Hill Park. In Greenmount Cemetery in the north central part
of the city are the graves of Junius Brutus Booth, Mme Elizabeth
Patterson Bonaparte (1785-1879), the wife of Jerome Bonaparte,
Johns Hopkins, John McDonogh and Sidney Lanier.
In 1908 there were in the city under the jurisdiction of the
department of public parks and squares 13 parks of 10 acres
or more each and 33 squares, and the total acreage of parks was
2188 acres and of squares 86-53 acres. Chief among the parks
is 1 Druid Hill Park in the N.W. containing 672-78 acres and
famous for its natural beauty. Clifton Park, of 311-26 acres,
2 m. E. of Druid Hill and formerly a part of the Johns
Hopkins estate, passed into the possession of the city in 1895.
Patterson Park in the extreme S.E., of 125-79 acres, is a favourite
resort for the inhabitants of East Baltimore.
Education. Baltimore ranks high as an educational centre.
Johns Hopkins University (q.v.) is a leading institution of the
United States for graduate study. The Peabody Institute,
founded in 1859 by George Peabody, who was for some years
a resident of Baltimore, is an important factor in the promotion
of science, literature and the fine arts. Goucher College (Meth-
odist, 1888) for women, is one of the best institutions of the
kind in southern United States. The older of the two state
normal schools, opened in 1867, is located here. Morgan
College (Methodist), opened in 1876, offers the advantages of a
m. 10
college education to the coloured young people. Loyola College,
founded in 1852, and various other institutions are for the
training of the Catholics.
The McDonogh farm school, about 12 m. N.W., with a farm
of 835 acres, a printing-office, and carpenter and machine shops
prepares poor boys to enter any college in the country. ' The
institution owes its origin to a bequest left by John McDonogh.
Among the professional schools are the university of Maryland
and Baltimore University each of which offers courses in law,
medicine and dentistry the Baltimore Medical College, the
College of Physicians and Surgeons, the Woman's Medical
College, the Baltimore College of Dental Surgery, the Maryland
College of Pharmacy (since 1904 part of the university of Mary-
land), the Baltimore Law School, St Joseph's Seminary and
St Mary's Seminary, which, established by the Society of St
Sulpice in 1791, is said to be the oldest Catholic theological
seminary in the United States. The city also has a Polytechnic
Institute, as well as high schools for white and for coloured
pupils. The principal libraries are those of Johns Hopkins
University, Peabody Institute, Maryland Historical Society, and
the Bar Association; and the Enoch Pratt, the New Mercantile,
and Maryland Diocesan (Protestant Episcopal).
The charitable institutions of Baltimore are numerous.
Several such institutions supported wholly or in part by the
state of Maryland (q.v.) are located here, and besides these
there are scores of others. A representative list includes:
the Charity Organization Society, the primary object of which is
to organize the work of the others; the Baltimore Association
for the Improvement of the Condition of the Poor, which seeks
to discourage indiscriminate alms-giving; the Bay View asylum
or city poorhouse; the Children's Aid Society; the Thomas
Wilson Fuel-Saving Society, for furnishing coal at low rates;
the Woman's Industrial Exchange, for assisting women in need
to support themselves; Johns Hopkins hospital, noted for the
excellence of its equipment especially for heating and ventilating;
Saint Joseph's general hospital; hospital for the women of
Maryland of Baltimore city; nursery and child's hospital;
Baltimore eye, ear and throat charity hospital; Maryland
hospital for the insane; the Sheppard asylum, intended especi-
ally for the cure of the insane; the Sheppard and Enoch
Pratt hospital; the Baltimore orphan asylum; Saint Vincent's
infant asylum; the Thomas Wilson sanatorium for children,
intended for children under three years of age, who are suffering
from disease, during the warm summer months; the Free
Summer Excursion Society, for affording a change of air to the
indigent sick; home for the incurables; homes for the aged;
homes for friendless children; institutions for the blind; and
institutions for the deaf and dumb.
Water for the city taken from Jones's Falls and Gunpowder
river a few miles N. of the city limits, is brought through tunnels,
and is stored in eight reservoirs having an aggregate capacity of
2275 million gallons. The whole system is owned by the munici-
pality and can furnish about 300 million gallons daily. After
the fire $10,000,000 was appropriated for a new sewage system
(begun 1906). In 1900 the Maryland legislature empowered the
city to borrow $1,350,000 to establish a municipal lighting plant,
but in 1909 private concerns still supplied the streets with light.
Commerce. The harbour, which consists of three parts, is
excellent. Its entrance at Fort McHenry is a channel 600 ft.
wide, with a minimum draft (1907) of 31 ft. of water. The
depth is continued with an increased width for a mile and a
quarter to near Fells' Point, where the width is contracted to
one-fourth of a mile with a depth of 16 ft. Above this entrance
it widens into an ellipse a mile long, half a mile broad and 1 5 ft.
deep. The third or inner harbour has a depth of 14 ft. and pene-
trates far into the city. Vessels of the largest class can lie at the
Locust Point wharves and Canton, and vessels of 4000 tons can
use the inner harbour W. of the mouth of Jones's Falls. By 1905
$5,000,000 had been appropriated since the great fire for new
docks. In 1908 the city ranked fourth among the Atlantic ports
of the United States in the amount of its exports ($82,113,496),
and fourth in the amount of its imports ($23,722,045).
290
BALTIMORE
That Baltimore has grown rapidly as a manufacturing city
since 1880 is seen from the fact that in that year there were but
3683 manufacturing establishments, with a total annual product
valued at $78,417,304, as compared with 6359 establishments
(of which 2274 were under the factory system) in 1900 producing
commodities valued at $161,249,240 ($135,107,626 under the
factory system); in 1905 there were 2163 establishments under
the factory system with a total annual product valued at
$151,546,580, an increase of 12-2 % in the five years. The city
ranked eighth among the manufacturing centres of the United
States, as regards the value of products, in the three successive
censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900. In 1905 it was ninth. Balti-
more is noted particularly as the most important centre in the
United States of the canning and preserving industry.
The output in 1905 ($5,981,541) of the city's establishments for
the canning and preserving of fruits and vegetables was 7-7 %
of that of the whole United States; in 1900 it had been 15 %
of the country's total. What seems to have been the first
oyster-canning establishment in America was built in Baltimore
(by a Thomas Kensett) in 1820, and oyster-canning as a distinct
industry on a permanent footing was begun here in 1850.
The term " cove oysters," now applied to canned oysters every-
where, was originally applied to the oysters found in the coves
on the W. side of the Chesapeake Bay, above the mouth of the
Potomac. Up to 1900, after which year oyster canneries began
to be built in the southern states, especially in Mississippi,
Baltimore was the centre of the oyster-canning industry.
Baltimore is also a well-known centre for the manufacture of
clothing, in which in 1905 ($22,684,656) it ranked fourth among
the cities of the United States; for cigar and cigarette-making
(1905, $4,360,366); for the manufacture of foundry and machine
shop products (1905, $6,572,925), of tinware (1905, $5,705,980),
of shirts (1905, $5,710,783), of cotton-duck (the output of sail-
duck being about three-fourths of the total for the United States),
bricks (about 150,000,000 annually), and fertilizers; it also
manufactures furniture,malt liquors,and confectionery, and many
other commodities in smaller amounts. The markets, especially
the Lexington market, are noted for the abundance and great
variety of their produce. The proximity of coal-mines, the
abundance and variety of food supplies furnished by the state,
the great quantity and variety of the city's manufactured goods,
the excellent shipping facilities, and the consequent low cost
of living, are prominent features of the physical life of the city.
Government. Although the charter under which Baltimore is
governed came into effect as late as 1898, it is only the second
one for the city, the first one having been in force for 101 years.
The mayor is now elected for a term of four years; he must be
at least twenty-five years of age and must have property in the
city valued at $2000 or more, on which he shall have paid taxes
for two years preceding his election. Great responsibility is
centred upon him by giving him power to appoint the heads of
departments and sub-departments, subject to the approval of
the second branch of the council, and permitting him to remove
at pleasure for six months after an appointment; in appointing
a board or commission, however, he is required to choose the
members from more than one political party. He has five days
in which to veto an ordinance, and an affirmative vote of three-
fourths of the members of each branch of the council is required
to pass an ordinance over his veto. The council, constituting
the legislative department, consists of two branches. The
first branch is composed of one member from each ward, elected
for a term of four years; the second branch of two members
from each of four districts, and a president elected by the city
at large, all for a term of four years; a property qualification
is prescribed for members of each branch. All municipal officers
are elected in May in order to separate municipal from state
and national elections. No street franchise can be granted for a
longer term than twenty-five years, and the right to regulate
the exercise of each and every franchise is reserved to the mayor
and council. A board of estimate, composed of the mayor, the
city solicitor, the comptroller, the president of the second
branch of the city council, and the president of the board of
public improvements, has control over appropriations, the
council having power to decrease the amount of any item but
not to enlarge it. To create a debt for any purpose other than
to meet a temporary deficiency, the mayor and council must
first obtain the consent of both the state legislature and the city
electorate. The department of education is intrusted to an
unsalaried board of nine commissioners, appointed by the mayor
with the approval of the second branch of the council for a term
of six years, three retiring every two years. This board appoints
a superintendent, six or more assistant superintendents, and the
teachers of the high schools and the Polytechnic Institute, also
the other teachers, but only according to the superintendent's
recommendation on the basis of merit.
History. Baltimore was named in honour of the Lords
Baltimore, the founders of the province of Maryland, but
no settlement was made here until nearly 100 years after
the planting of the colony; meanwhile at least two other town-
sites, on which it was hoped permanent towns might be estab-
lished, had received the same name, but nothing came of either.
Finally, however, while the provincial legislature was still
engaged in the practice of directing places to be laid out for
towns, where, as events proved there was nothing to give these
towns more than a mere paper existence, that body in 1729
directed seven commissioners to purchase 60 acres of land on
the N. side of the Patapsco and lay it out in sixty equal lots as
the town of Baltimore. Three years later, at the instance of
the same body, Jones-Town (Old Town) was laid out on the
opposite side of Jones's Falls, and in 1745 these two towns were
consolidated. About the same time the resources of the interior,
for which Baltimore was to become a trade centre, were being
rapidly developed by the Germans. Prior to 1752, in which
year there were only twenty-five houses with two hundred
inhabitants, the growth of the city had indeed been slow; but
only a year or two later wheat loaded in its harbour was for the
first time shipped to Scotland; during the war between the
French and the English at this time some of the unfortunate
Acadians found new homes here; in 1767 Baltimore was made
the county seat; by the beginning of the War of Independence
its population had grown to 6755; and in 1780 it was made a
port of entry. The city early became an important shipping
centre; during both the War of Independence and the War of
1812 many privateers were sent out from it, and in the interval
between these wars, the ship-owners of Baltimore had their
share in the world's carrying trade, the " Baltimore clippers "
becoming famous. In 1797 Baltimore received its first charter,
having been governed until then from Annapolis and through
commissions with very limited powers; at the same time the
Fells' Point settlement, founded about 1730 by William Fells,
a ship carpenter, was annexed. During the War of Independence,
the Continental Congress, frightened from Philadelphia in 1776,
sat for several weeks in a hall in W. Baltimore Street near
Liberty Street; during the same war also fortifications were
first erected on the site of the present Fort M'Henry. This fort
effectively protected the city in 1814 when attacked by the
British, and it was during the attack that Francis Scott Key,
detained on one of the British attacking vessels, composed the
" Star Spangled Banner." In 1860 all three of the candidates
opposed to Lincoln Douglas, Breckinridge and Bell were
nominated here, and here in 1864 President Lincoln was nomi-
nated for a second term. The city has been the meeting-place of
other important conventions, and is sometimes called "The
Convention City." At the outbreak of the Civil War on the
igth of April 1861, the Sixth Massachusetts regiment, while
passing through Baltimore, was attacked by a mob and several
men were killed on both sides; in the following month the city
was subjected to military rule and so continued until the close
of the war. From 1856 to 1860 Baltimore was under the control
of the American or Know-Nothing party, and suffered greatly
from election riots and other disorders, until as a remedy the
control of the police system was taken from the mayor and
council and exercised by the state government. Soon after the
Civil War a Democratic " machine " got firm control of the city,
BALTZAR BALUCHISTAN
291
and although a struggle to overthrow the machine was begun
in earnest in 1875 by a coalition of the reform element of the
Democratic party with the Republican party, it was not till
1895 that the coalition won its first decisive victory at the polls.
Even then the efforts of the Republican mayor were at first
thwarted by the council, which passed an ordinance over his
veto, taking from him the power of appointment and vesting it
in themselves; the Maryland court of appeals, however, soon
decided that the council had exceeded its powers, and an im-
portant outcome of the reform movement was the new charter
of 1898. Annexations of suburban territory in 1888 and 1890
greatly increased the area of the city.
AUTHORITIES. J. H. Hollander, Guide to the City of Baltimore
(Baltimore, 1893); T. P. Thomas, "The City Government of
Baltimore " (in Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical and
Political Science, Baltimore, 1896) ; St G. L. Sioussat, "Baltimore, the
Monumental City " (in L. P. Powell, Historic Towns of the Southern
States, New York, 1900); J. T. Scharf, Chronicles of Baltimore
(Baltimore, 1874).
BALTZAR, THOMAS (c. 1630-1663), German violinist, was
born at Liibeck. He visited England in 1656 and made a great
impression on Evelyn and Anthony Wood. In 1661 he was
appointed leader of the king's famous band of twenty-four
violins, but his intemperate habits cut short his career within
two years. Nothing like his violin-playing had ever been heard
in England before, and in all probability the instrumental music
of Henry Purcell owes much to its influence.
BA-LUBA, a Bantu negroid race with several subdivisions;
one of the most important and cultivated peoples of Central
Africa. They are distributed over eight degrees of longitude
between Lakes Tanganyika, Mweru and Bangweulu in the east,
and the Kasai in the west. In the east, where they are found
in the greatest racial purity, they founded the states of Katanga,
Urua and Uguha; in the west they have intermixed to some
extent with the Ba-Kete aborigines, whom they have partially
dispossessed, dividing them into two portions, one to the north,
the other to the south. To the western Ba-Luba the name
Ba-Shilange has been given. With the Ba-Luba are connected
the founders of the great Lunda empire now divided between
Belgian Congo and Angola ruled by a monarch entitled Muata
Yanvo (Jamvo). The westward movement of the Ba-Luba
took place in comparatively recent times, the end of the i8th
century or the beginning of the igth. Shortly afterwards a chief
named Kalamba Mukenge founded a large state. There followed
in 1870 a remarkable politico-religious revolution, the result
of which was the establishment of a cult of hemp-smoking,
connected with a secret society termed Bena Riamba; the
members of this abandoned their old fetish worship and adopted
a form of communism of which the central idea was the blood-
brotherhood of all the members. Towards the east hemp-
smoking becomes less common.
The Ba-Luba practise circumcision and scar-tattooing is
common; tooth-filing is very frequent in the east, though in the
west it is comparatively rare; the fashion of dressing the hair
is very varied and often extremely fantastic. Their houses,
which are built by the women, are rectangular; on the Lulua,
however, pile-houses, square in shape, are found. They are an
agricultural people, but work in the fields is relegated to the
women and slaves; the men are admirable craftsmen and are
renowned for their wood-carving, cloth-weaving and iron-work.
In the west, bows and arrows are the chief weapons, in the east
spears principally are used. The old form of religion still obtains
in the east, which was untouched by the communistic movement
mentioned, and charms of all sorts, as well as carved anthropo-
morphic figures, are extremely common. The Ba-Luba are a fine
race physically and seem very prosperous, though in the extreme
west considerable deterioration, physical, moral and cultural,
has taken place.
BALUCHISTAN, a country within the borders of British India
which, like Afghanistan, derives its name from its dominant
race of inhabitants. It extends from the Gomal river to the
Arabian Sea, and from the borders of Persia and Afghanistan
to those of the Punjab and Sind. It is divided into two main
divisions, British Baluchistan, which is a portion of British India
under the chief commissioner, and the foreign territories under
the administration or superintendence of the same officer as
agent to the governor-general. The former portion, with an area
of 9403 sq. m., consists principally of tracts ceded to the British
government by Afghanistan under the treaty of Gandamak
(1879), and formally declared to be part of British India in 1887.
The second class comprises three subdivisions, namely areas
directly administered, native states and tribal areas. The
directly-administered districts include areas acquired in various
ways. Some portions are held on lease from the khan of Kalat;
while others are tribal areas in which it has been decided for
various reasons that revenue shall be taken. They include the
whole of the Zhob and Chagai political agencies, the eastern
portion of the Quetta tahsil and other tracts, among which may
be mentioned the Bolan Pass, comprising 36,401 sq. m. in all.
The whole of the northern boundary, with the north-eastern
corner and the railway which traverses Baluchistan through
Quetta up to New Chaman on the Afghan-Baluch frontier, is
therefore in one form or other under direct British control.
The remainder of the territory (79,382 sq. m.) belongs to the
native states of Kalat (including Makran and Kharan) and
Las Bela. Tribal areas, in the possession of the Marri and Bugti
tribes, cover 7129 sq. m.
Baluchistan as a whole is a sparsely populated tract covering
a larger area than any Indian province save Burma, Madras
and Bengal. Three hundred miles of its mountain walls facing
the Indus are south of the railway from the Indus to Quetta,
and about 250 north of it. The railway with the passes and
plains about it, and the dominant hills which surround Quetta,
divide Baluchistan into two distinct parts. North of the railway
line, hedged in between Afghanistan and the plains of the Indus,
stretch the long ridges of rough but picturesque highlands, which
embrace the central ranges of the Suliman system (the prehistoric
home of thePathanhighlander), where vegetation is of ten alpine,
and the climate clear and bracing and subject to no great extremes
of temperature. The average breadth of this northern Pa than
district is 150 m., but it narrows to less than 100 m. on the line
of the Gomal, and expands to more than 200 m. on the line of
the railway. Here all the main drainage either runs northwards
to the Gomal, passing through the uplands that lie west of the
Suliman Range; or it gathers locally in narrow lateral valleys
at the back of these mountains and then bursts directly eastwards
through the limestone axis of the hills, making for the Indus by
the shortest transverse route. South of the railway lies a square
block of territory, measuring rcughly 300 m. by 300, primarily
the home of the Brahui and the Baluch; but within that block
are included almost, every conceivable phase of climate and
representatives of half the great races of Asia. Here, throughout
the elevated highlands of the Kalat plateau which are called
Jala wan, the drainage gathers into channels which -cut deep
gorges in the hills, and passes eastwards into the plains of Sind.
Beyond and south of the hydrographical area of the Jalawan
highlands the rivers and streams of the hills either run in long
straight lines to the Arabian Sea, north of Karachi, or, curving
gradually westwards, they disappear in the inland swamps whkh
form so prominent a feature in this part of south-west Asia.
A narrow width of the coast districts collects its waters for dis-
charge into the Arabian Sea direct. This section includes
Makran. Baluchistan thus becomes naturally divided into two
districts, north and south, by an intervening space which contains
the Sind-Pishin railway. This intervening space comprises the
wedge-shaped desert of Kach Gandava (Gandava), which
is thrust westwards from the Indus as a deep indentation into
the mountains, and, above it, the central uplands which figure
on the map as " British Baluchistan " where lies Quetta. All
Baluchistan has now been surveyed. From the great Indus
series of triangles bases have been selected at intervals which
have supported minor chains of triangulation reaching into
the heart of the country. These again have been con-
nected by links of more or less regularity, so that, if the
Baluchistan triangulation lacks the rigid accuracy of a " first
BALUCHISTAN
class" system, it at least supports good topography on geo-
graphical scales.
From Domandi, at the junction of the Gomal and Kundar rivers,
the boundary between Baluchistan and Afghanistan follows the
Northern. Kundar stream for about 40 m. to the south-west. It
then leaves the river and diverges northwards, so as to
include a section of the plain country stretching away towards
Lake Ab-i-lstada, before returning to the skirts of the hills. After
about 100 m. of this divergence it strikes the Kadanai river, turning
the northern spurs of the Toba plateau (the base of the Kwaja
Amran (Kojak) Range, and winds through the open plains west of
the Kojak. Here, however, the boundary does not follow the river.
It deserts it for the western edge of the Toba plateau (8000 ft. high
at this point), till it nears the little railway station of New Chaman.
It then descends to the plains, returns again to the hills 40 m. south
of Chaman, and thenceforward is denned by hill ranges southwards
to Nushki. The eastern boundary of this northern section of
Baluchistan is the " red line " at the foot of the frontier hills, which
defines the border of British India. This part of Baluchistan thus
presents a buffer system of independent tribes between the British
frontier and Afghanistan. But the independence of the Pathan
people south of the Gomal is not as the independence of the
Fathans (Waziris, Afridis, &c.) who live north of it. It is true
that the Indian government interferes as little with the internal
jurisdiction of the tribal chiefs amongst the Pathans of the Suli-
man Range as it does with that of the northern chiefs; but the
occupation of a line of posts on the Zhob river, which flanks that
range almost from end to end on the west, places the doors of
communication with Afghanistan in British hands, and gives com-
mand of their hills. It thus tends to the maintenance of peace
and order on the southern frontier to a degree that does not exist
in the north.
The central range of the Suliman hills is the dominant feature in
the geography of northern Baluchistan. The central line or axis of
the range lies a little east of the meridian of 70 E., and it is geo-
logically composed of one or more great folds of the Cretaceous
series. Towards the northern extremity of the range occur a group
of peaks, which together form an oblong block or " massif '' amongst
the neighbouring ridges known as " Kaisargarh " amongst the
Sherani clansmen who occupy it; and as the " Takht-i-Sufiman "
(Solomon's throne), generally, on the frontier, from the fact of a
celebrated shrine of that name existing near its southern abutment.
The massif of the Takht is a high tableland (about 8000 ft. above
sea-level), bounded on its eastern and western edges by high, rugged
and steep parallel ridges. The western ridge culminates on the north
in the peak of Kaisargarh (l 1,300 ft.), and the eastern in a block, or
detached headland, on the south, where rests the immortal " zirat "
or shrine (11,070 ft.). This tableland is formed by a huge cap of
coral limestone, estimated by Griesbach at from 4000 to 5000 ft. in
thickness. At each end the tableland is rent by gorges which deepen,
amidst stupendous precipices, to the channel of the Draband or
" Gat " on the north, and of the Dhana on the south. These two
channels carry the rush of mountain streams from the western
slopes of the massif right across the axis of the mountains and
through the intervening barrier of minor ridges to the plains of
the Indus. The plateau is covered with a fairly thick growth
of the chilghosa or " edible " pine, and a sprinkling of juniper, on the
higher slopes. It was ascended and surveyed for the first time in 1883.
From the summit of the Kaisargarh peak a magnificent view is
obtained which practically embraces the whole width of northern
Baluchistan. Westwards, looking towards Afghanistan, line upon
line of broken jagged ridges and ranges, folds in the Cretaceous
series overlaid by coarse sandstones and shales, follow each other
in order, preserving their approximate parallelism until they touch
the borders of Baluchistan. Immediately on the west of the Kaisar-
garh there towers the Shingarh Mountain, a geological repetition
of the Kaisargarh ridge, black with pines towards the summit and
crowned with crags of coral limestone. Beyond it are the grey out-
lines of the close-packed ridges which enclose the lower reaches of
the Zhob and the Kundar. As they pass away southwards this grid-
iron formation strikes with a gentle curve westwards, the narrow
enclosed valleys widening out towards the sources of the rivers,
where ages of denudation nave worn down the folds and filled up the
hollows with fruitful soil, until at last they touch the central water-
divide, the key of the whole system, on the Quetta plateau. Thus
the upper parts of the Zhob valley are comparatively open and
fertile, with flourishing villages, and a cultivation which has been
greatly developed under British rule, and are bounded by long,
sweeping, gentle spurs clothed with wild olive woods containing trees
of immense size. The lower reaches of the Zhob and Kundar are
hemmed in by rugged limestone walls, serrated and banded with
deep clefts and gorges, a wilderness of stony desolation. Looking
eastwards from the Kaisargarh, one can again count the backs of
innumerable minor ridges, smaller wrinkles or folds formed during
a process of upheaval of the Suliman Mountains, at the close of a
great volcanic epoch which has hardly yet ceased to give evidence
of its existence. On the outside edge, facing the Indus plains, is a
more strictly regular, but higher and more rugged, ridge of hills
which marks the Siwaliks. The Balucli Siwaliks afford us strange
glimpses into a recent geological past, when the same gigantic mam-
mals roamed along the foot of these wild hills as once inhabited the
tangled forests below the Himalaya. Between the Takht Mountain
and the Siwaliks, the intervening belt of ridge and furrow has been
greatly denuded by transverse drainage a system of drainage
which we now know to have existed before the formation of the hills,
and to have continued to cut through them as they gradually rose
above the plain level. Where this intervening band is not covered
by recent gravel deposits, it exhibits beds of limestone, clays and
sandstone with fossils, which, in age, range from the Lower Eocene
to the Miocene. Beyond the Siwaliks, still looking eastwards, are
the sand waves of the Indus plain; a yellow sea broken here and
there with the shadow of village orchards and the sheen of cultivation,
extending to the long black sinuous line which denotes the fringe
of trees bordering the Indus. Such is the scene which Solomon is
said to have invited his Indian bride to gaze upon for the last time,
as they rested on the crags of the southern buttress of the Takht
where his shrine exists to this day. To that shrine thousands of
pilgrims, Mahommedans and Hindus alike, resort on their yearly
pilgrimages, in spite of its dangerous approach. All this country,
so far, is independent Baluchistan within the jurisdiction of the
Baluchistan Agency, with the exception of certain clans of the
Sheranis on the eastern slopes of the Takht-i-Suliman, north of the
Vihowa, who are under the North-West Frontier Province adminis-
tration. Wedged in between the railway and the Indus, but still
north of the railway, is a curious mass of rough mountain country,
which forms the southern abutment of the Suliman system. The
strike of the main ridges forming that system is almost due north
and south till it touches 30 N. lat. Here it assumes a westerly
curve, till it points north-west, and finally merges into the broad
band of mountains which hedge in Jhe Quetta and Pishin uplands
on the north and east.
At this point, as might be expected, are some of the grandest peaks
and precipices in Baluchistan. Khalifat on the east of Quetta,
flanking the Harnai loop of the Sind-Pishin railway ; Takatu to the
north; Chahiltan (Chiltan) on the south-west; and the great square-
headed Murdar to the south all overlook the pretty cantonment
from heights which range from 10,500 to 11,500 ft. Lying in the
midst of them, on an open plain formed by the high-level tributaries
of the Lora (which have also raised the Pishin valley to the north),
5500 ft. above the sea, is Quetta. The mass of twisted flexures, the
curved wrinkles that end the Suliman system, is occupied by true
Baluchis, the Marri and Bugti sections of the great Rind confedera-
tion of tribes owning an Arabic origin. There are no Pathans here.
To the north of them are the Bozdars, another Rind clan ; and these
Rind tribes form the exception to the general rule of Pathan occupa-
tion of northern Baluchistan. Amongst the Pathans, the Kakars
and Dumars of Pishin, with the Mando Khel of Zhob, are the most
prominent tribal divisions.
The curved recession of the Suliman Ranges to the north-west
leaves a space of flat alluvial desert to the south, which forms a sort
of inlet or bay striking into the Baluchistan mountain Central.
system. The point of this desert inlet receives the
drainage of two local basins, the Bolan and the Nari. Both drain
south-eastwards from the central Quetta-Pishin plateau and both
have served for railway alignment. Being fed by tributaries which
for the most part drain narrow valleys where gradual denudation
has washed bare the flat-backed slopes of limestone ridges, and
which consequently send down torrents of rapidly accumulating
rainfall, both these central lines of water-course are liable to terrific
floods. The drainage of the Bolan and Nari finally disappears in
the irrigated flats of the alluvial bay (Kach Gandava), which extends
130 m. from the Indus to Sibi at the foot of the hills, and which offers
(in spite of periodic Indus floods) an opportunity for railway approach
to Baluchistan such as occurs nowhere else on the frontier. Kach
Gandava, whilst its agricultural development has in no way receded,
is now rivalled by many of the valleys of the highlands. Its climate
debars it from European occupation. It is a land of dust-storms
and poisonous winds; a land where the thermometer never sinks
below 100 F. in summer, and drops below freezing-point in winter;
where there is a deadly monotony of dust-coloured scenery for the
greater part of the year, with the minimum of rain and the maximum
of heat. The Quetta and Pishin plateau to which it leads is the
central dominant water-divide of Baluchistan and the base of the
Kandahar highway.
An irregularly-shaped block of upland territory, which includes alt
the upper Lora tributaries, and the Toba plateau beyond them;
resting on the Kwaja Amran (Kojak) Range (with an British.
advanced loop to include the Chaman railway terminus)
on the west; reaching south through Shorarud to Nushki; includ-
ing the basins of the Bolan and Nan as far as Sibi to the south-east ;
stretching out an arm to embrace the Thai Chotiali valley on the east,
and following the main water-divide between the Zhob and Lora
on the north, is called British Baluchistan. It is leased from Kalat,
and forms a distinctive province, being brought under the ordinary
forms of civil administration in British India. Beyond it, north and
south, lies independent Baluchistan, which is under British political
control. Its administrative staff is usually composed of military
officers. The degree of independence enjoyed by the various districts
of Baluchistan may be said to vary in direct proportion to their
BALUCHISTAN
293
distance from Quetta. No part of Baluchistan is beyond the reach
of the political officer, but there are many parts where he is not often
seen. The climate of British Baluchistan is dry and bracing even
exhilarating but the extremes of temperature lead to the develop-
ment of fever in very severe forms. On the whole it is favourable to
European existence.
South-west of the dividing railway lies the great block of Southern
Baluchistan. Within this area the drainage generally trends south
Southern. anc ^ west > either to the Arabian Sea or to the central
swamps of Lora and Mashkel. The Hab river, which forms
the boundary west of Karachi; the Purali (the ancient Arabus),
which drains the low-lying flats of Las Bela; the Hingol (the ancient
Tomerus) and the Dasht, which drain Makran, are all considerable
streams, draining into the Arabian Sea and forming important
arteries in the network of internal communication. An exception
to the general rule is found in the Mulla, which carries the floods of
the Kalat highlands into the Gandava basin and forms one of the
most important of the ancient highways from the Indus plains to
Kandahar. The fortress of Kalat is situated about midway between
the sources of the Bplan and the Mulla, near a small tributary of the
Lora (the river of Pishin and Quetta), about 6800 ft. above sea-level,
on the western edge of a cultivated plain in the very midst of hills.
(See KALAT.) To the north are the long sweeping lines of the Sara wan
ridges, enclosing narrow fertile valleys, and passing away to the
south-west to the edge of the Kharan desert. East and south are the
rugged bands of Jala wan, amongst which the Mulla rises, and through
which it breaks m a series of magnificent defiles in order to reach the
Gandava plain. Routes which converge on Kalat from the south pass
for the most part through narrow wooded valleys, enclosed between
steep ridges of denuded hills, and, following the general strike of
these ridges, they run from valley to valley with easy grades.
Kalat is the " hub " or centre, from which radiate the Bolan, the
Mulla and the southern Lora affluents; but the Lora drains also
the Pishin valley on the north ; the two systems uniting in Shorawak,
to lose themselves in the desert and swamps to the west of Nushki,
on the road to Seistan. Sixty miles south of Kalat, and beyond
the Mulla sources, commences another remarkable hydrographic
system which includes all southern and south-western Baluchistan.
To the west lies the Kharan desert, with intermittent river channels
enclosed and often lost in sand-waves ere they reach the Mashkel
swamps on the far borders of Persia. To the south-west are the
long sweeping valleys of Rakshan and Panjgur, which, curving
northwards, likewise discharge their drainage into the MashkeL
Directly south are the beginnings of the meridional arteries, the
Hab, the Purali and the Hingol, which end in the Arabian Sea,
leaving a space of mountainous seaboard (Makran) south of the
Panjgur and west of the Hingol, which is watered (so far as it is
watered at all) by the long lateral Kej river and several smaller
mountain streams. Thus southern Baluchistan comprises four
hydrographical sectjons. First is the long extension from Kalat,
southwards, of that inconceivably wild highland country which faces
the desert of Sind, the foot of which forms the Indian frontier.
This is the land of the Brahui, and the flat wall of its frontier lime-
stone barrier is one of the most remarkable features in the configura-
tion of the whole line of Indian borderland. For the first 60 m. from
the sea near Karachi the Hab river is the boundary of Sind, and
here, across the enclosing desolation of outcropping ridges and
intervening sand, a road may be found into Makran. But from the
point where the boundary leaves the Hab to follow the Kirthar
range not a break occurs (save one) in 150 m. of solid rock wall, rising
many thousands of feet straight from the sandy plain. The one
break, or gorge, which allows the Kej waters to pass, only forms a
local gateway into a mass of impracticable hills. Secondly, to the
west of this mountain wilderness, stretching upwards from the sea
in a wedge form between the Brahui highlands and the group of
towering peaks which enclose the Hingol river and abut on the sea
at Malan, are the alluvial flats and delta of the Purali, forming the
little province of Las Bela, the home of the Las Rajput. In this hot
and thirsty corner of Baluchistan, ruled by the Jam or Cham, there
is a fairly wide stretch of cultivation, nourished by the alluvial
detritus of the Purali and well irrigated. In a little garden to the
south of the modern town of Bela (the ancient Armabel) is the tomb
of Sir Robert Sandeman, who spent the best part of an energetic and
active life in the making of Baluchistan.
The boundary between Baluchistan and Afghanistan, starting
from Nushki, cuts across the Lora hamun, leaving the frontier post
of Chagai to Baluchistan, and from this point to the
boundary. Malik Siah Koh it is based partly on the central moun-
tainous water-divide already referred to, and partly runs
in straight lines through the desert south of the salt swamps of the
Gaud-i-Zirreh. It thus passes 50 m. to the south of the Helmund,
entirely shutting off that valley and the approach to Seistan between
the Helmund and the Gaud-i-Zirreh (the only approach from the
east in seasons of flood) from Baluchistan. But it leaves a connected
line of desert route between Nushki and Seistan, which is open in all
ordinary seasons, to the south, and this route has been largely de-
veloped, posts or serais having been established at intervals and
wells having been dug. There is already a promising khafila traffic
along it and the railway has been extended from Quetta to
Nushki.
Geology.* The mountain ranges of Baluchistan consist chiefly
of Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, which are thrown into a series of
folds running approximately parallel to the mountain ridges. The
folds are part of an extensive system arranged as if in a festoon
hanging southwards between Peshawar and Mount Ararat, but with
the outer folds looped up at Sibi so as to form the subsidiary festoon
of the Suliman and Bugti Hills. Outside the folds lie the horizontal
deposits of the Makran coast, and within them lies the stony desert
of north-western Baluchistan. In the broader depressions between
the mountain ridges the beds are said to be but little disturbed.
Besides the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds, Jurassic rocks are known
to take a considerable part in the formation of the hills of British
Baluchistan. Triassic beds lie along the south side of the upper
Zhob, and Fusulina limestone has also been found there. With the
exception of the later Tertiary beds the deposits are mostly marine.
But in the upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary, especially in
north-western Baluchistan, there is an extensive development of
volcanic tuffs and conglomerates, which are probably contem-
poraneous with the Deccan Traps of India. Great masses of syenite
and diorite were intruded during the Tertiary period, and within the
curve of the folded belt a line of recent volcanic cones stretches
from western Baluchistan into eastern Persia. In Baluchistan
these volcanoes appear to be extinct; though the Koh-i-Tafdan,
beyond the Persian frontier, still emits vapours at frequent intervals.
The lavas and ashes which form these cones are mostly andesitic.
Mud " volcanoes " occur upon the Makran coast, but it is doubtful
whether these are in any way connected with true volcanic agencies.
So far as is known, the mineral wealth of Baluchistan is incon-
siderable. Coal has been worked in the Tertiary beds along the
Harnai route to puetta, but the seams are thin and the quality poor.
A somewhat thick and viscid /orm of mineral oil is met with at
Khattan in the Marri country; and petroleum of excellent quality
has been found in the Sherani hills and probably occurs in other
portions of the Suliman Range. Sulphur has long been worked on
a small scale in the Koh-i-Sultan, the largest of the volcanoes of
western Baluchistan.
Races. Within the Baluchistan half of the desert are to be
found scattered tribes of nomads, called Rekis (or desert people),
the Mohamadani being the most numerous. They are probably
of Arab origin. This central desert is the Kir, Kej, Katz or Kash
Kaian of Arabic medieval geography and a part of the ancient
Kaiani kingdom; the prefix Kej or Kach always denoting low-
level flats or valleys, in contradistinction to mountains or hills.
The Mohamadani nomads occupy the central mountain region,
to the south of which lie the Mashkel and Kharan deserts, in-
habited by a people of quite different origin, who possess some-
thing approaching to historical records. These are the Naushir-
wanis, a purely Persian race, who passed into Baluchistan within
historic times, although the exact date is uncertain. The
Naushirwanis appear to be identical with the Tahuki or Tahukani
who are found in Perso-Baluchistan. (A place Taoce is mentioned
by Nearchus, by Strabo and by Ptolemy.) They are a fine manly
race of people, in many respects superior to their modern com-
patriots of Iran. Between the Naushirwanis of the Kharan desert
and Mashkel, and the fish-eating population of the coast, enclosed
in the narrow valleys of the Rakshan and Kej tributaries, or about
the sources of the Hingol, are tribes innumerable, remnants of
races which may be recognized in the works of Herodotus, or may
be traced in the records of recent immigration. Equally scattered
through the whole country, and almost everywhere recognizable,
is the underlying Persian population (Tajik) , which is sometimes
represented by a locally dominant tribe, but more frequently by
the agricultural slave and bondsman of the general community.
Such are the Dehwars orDehkans, and the Durzadas (Derusiafi of
Herod. {.125), who extend all through Makran, and, as slaves, are
called Nakibs. The Arabs have naturally left their mark most
strongly impre$sed on the ethnography of Baluchistan. All Rind
tribes claim to be of Arab origin and of Koraish extraction. As
the Arabs occupied all southern Baluchistan and Seistan from a
very early date, and finally spread through the Sind valley, where
they remained till the iath century, their genealogical records
have become much obscured and it is probable that there is not
\ See W. T. Blanford, " Geological Notes on the Hills in the
neighbourhood of the Sind and Punjab Frontier between Quetta
and Dera Ghazi Khan," Mem. Geol. Surv. India, vol. xx. pt. 2 (1883) ;
E. Vredenburg, " A Geological Sketch of the Baluchistan Desert,
and part of Eastern Persia, Mem. Geol. Sun. India, vol. xxxi. pt. 2
(1901) ; E. Vredenburg, " On the Occurrence of a Species of Halor-
ites in the Trias of Baluchistan," Rec. Geol. Sura. India, vol. xxxi.
(1904), pp. 162-166, pis. 17, 18.
294
BALUCHISTAN
now a pure Arab in the country. It is as builders or engineers
that they have established their most permanent records, Makran
being full of the relics of their irrigation works constructed in
times when the climatic conditions of Baluchistan must have
been very different from what they are now. Lower Sind also
contains a great wealth of architectural remains, which may be
found to the west of the Indus as well as in the delta. One
particular tribe (the Kalmats) , who left their name on the Makran
coast and subsequently dominated Bela and Sind, west of the
Indus, for a considerable period, exhibit great power of artistic
design in their sepulchral monuments. The Dravidian races
(Brahuis), who are chiefly represented by the Kambaranis and
Mingals or Mongals (the latter are doubtless of Tatar origin),
spread through southern Baluchistan as well as the eastern hills,
and are scattered irregularly through the mountain tracts south
of Kharan. The ancient Oreitae mentioned by Arrian are
probably represented by the tribe of Hot, who, as original masters
of the soil, are exempt from taxation. The name Brahui is
(according to Bellew) but a corruption of Ba-rohi (or " hillmen ")
in a language derived from Sanskrit which would represent the
same term by Parva-ka. So that the HaptKaviM (Herod, iii. 92)
may be recognized as surviving in the Brahui, and in the name
(Parkan) of a mountain-bred stream which is a tributary of the
Hingol. Amongst other aboriginal tribes to whom reference is
made by very early writers are the Boledi, who give their name
to the Bolida valley, a tributary of the Kej. The Boledi were
once the ruling race of southern Baluchistan, which was originally
called Boledistan, and it seems possible that this may be the real
origin of the much-disputed name of the country generally. Bola
was an Assyrian term for Bael or Bel, the god of the Phoenicians
and Druids. The Boledi riding family were in 1906 represented
by but one living member, a lady, who was agovernment pensioner.
The fast-diminishing Sajidis (Sajittae) and Saka (Sacae) are others
of the more ancient races of Baluchistan easily recognizable in
classical geography. Most recent of all are the Gitchkis. The
Gitchkis derive from a Rajput adventurer who flourished in the
early part of the I7th century. They are now the dominant race
in Panjgur and Kej, from whence they ousted the Boledis. For
three generations they remained Hindus; since then there has
arisen amongst them a strange new sect called Zikari, with
exceedingly loose notions of morality. The sect, however,
appears to be fast merging into orthodox Mahommedanism. A
Baluch (or rather Makran) race which deserves attention is that
of the Gadaras, who once gave the name Gadrosia to Southern
Baluchistan. According to Tate the Gadaras are now repre-
sented by Sidi half-castes those Makrani " boys " who are so
well known in the mercantile marine as stokers and firemen. It
seems unlikely that this modern admixture of Asiatic and African
blood represents the " Asiatic Ethiopian " of Herodotus, which
was more probably a direct connexion of the Himyaritic Arab
builders of " bunds " and revetments who spread eastwards from
Arabia. Bellew finds in the Gadara the Garuda (eagles) of San-
skrit, who were ever in opposition to the Naga (snakes) of Scythic
origin. Southern Baluchistan affords a most interesting field for
the ethnographer. It has never yet been thoroughly explored in
the interests of ethnographical science.
The Baluch character is influenced by its environment as much
as by its origin, so that it is impossible to select any one section of
the general community as affording a satisfactory sample of
popular Baluch idiosyncrasies. They are not a homogeneous
race. Peoples of Arab extraction intermixed with people of
Dravidian and Persian stock are all lumped together under the
name of Baluch. The Marri and Bugti tribes, who occupy the
most southern buttresses of the Suliman Mountains, are Rind
Baluchis, almost certainly of Arab extraction. They came to
Sind either with the Arab conquerors or after them, and remained
there mixed up with the original Hindu inhabitants. The Arab
type of Baluch extends through the whole country at intervals,
and includes all the finest and best of Baluch humanity. Taking
the Rind Baluch as the type opposed to the Afridi Pathan, the
Baluch is easier to deal with and to control than the Pathan,
owing to his tribal organization and his freedom from bigoted
fanaticism or blind allegiance to his priest. The Baluch is less
turbulent, less treacherous, less bloodthirsty and less fanatical
than the Pathan. His frame is shorter and more spare and wiry
than that of his neighbour to the north, though generations have
given to him too a bold and manly bearing. It would be difficult
to match the stately dignity and imposing presence of a Baluch
chief of the Marri or Bugti clans. His Semitic features are those
of the Bedouin and he carries himself as straight and as loftily as
any Arab gentleman. Frank and open in his manners, fairly
truthful, faithful to his word, temperate and enduring, and look-
ing upon courage as the highest virtue, the true Baluch of the
Derajat is a pleasant man to have dealings with. As a revenue
payer he is not so satisfactory, his want of industry and the pride
which looks upon manual labour as degrading making him but a
poor husbandman. He is an expert rider; horse-racing is his
national amusement, and the Baluch breed of horses is celebrated
throughout northern India. Like the Pathan he is a bandit by
tradition and descent and makes a first-rate fighting man, but he
rarely enlists in the Indian army. He is nominally a Mahomme-
dan, but is neglectful of the practices of his religion. The
relations of the modern Baluch with the government of India
were entirely transformed by the life work of Sir Robert
Sandeman. (q.v.).
The strategical position of Great Britain in Baluchistan is a
very important factor in the problem of maintaining order and
good administration in the country. The ever-restless
Pathan tribes of the Suliman hills are held in check
by the occupation of the Zhob valley; whilst the central
dominant position at Quetta safeguards the peace and security of
Kalat, and of the wildest of the Baluch hills occupied by the
Marris and Bugtis, no less than it bars the way to an advance
upon India by way of Kandahar. Nominally all the provinces
and districts of Baluchistan, with the exception of the ceded
territory which we call British Baluchistan, are under the khan
of Kalat, and all chiefs acknowledge him as their suzerain. But
it may be doubted if this suzerainty was ever complete, or could
be maintained at all but for the assistance of the British govern-
ment. The Baluch is still essentially a robber and a raider (a
trait which is common to all tribes), and the history of Baluch-
istan is nothing but a story of successful robberies, of lawless
rapine and bloodshed, for which plunder and devastation were
accounted a worthy and honourable return.
Extensive changes have taken place in the climatic condition of
the country changes which are some of them so recent as to be
noted by surveyors who have found the remains of forests climate
in districts now entirely desiccated. Possibly the
ordinary processes of denudation and erosion, acting on those recent
deposits which overlie the harder beds of the older series, may have
much to say to these climatic changes, and the wanton destruction
of forests may have assisted the efforts of nature; but it is difficult
to understand the widespread desiccation of large areas of the Baluch
highlands, where evidences of Arab irrigation works and of culti-
vation still attest to a once flourishing agricultural condition, without
appealing to more rapidly destructive principles for the change. There
is ample proof throughout the country of alterations of level within
recent geologic periods; and there nave even been compressions,
resulting in a relative rise of the ground, over the crests of anticlinal
folds, within historic record. " Proof that this compression is still
going on was given on 2Oth December 1892, when a severe earth-
quake resulted from the sudden yielding of the earth's crust along
what appears to be an old line of fault, west of the Kawaja Amran
range, whereby an adjustment took place indicated by a shortening
of some 2\ ft. on the railway line which crossed the fault." Nor
should the evidences of active volcanic agency afforded by the mud
volcanoes of the coast be overlooked. It is probably to climatic
changes (whatever their origin may have been), rather than to the
effects of tribal disturbances, that the Arab's disappearance from
the field of trade and agriculture must be attributed.
The total area of Baluchistan is 152,315 sq. m. and its population
in 1901 was 914,551. The population is largely nomadic. The fact
that so many as 15,000 camels have been counted in the Popul*-
Bolan Pass during one month of the annual Brahui i]onf
migration indicates thp dimensions which the movement
assumes. The religion of the country is so overwhelmingly Mahom-
medan that out of every 100,000 inhabitants 94,403 are Mussulman,
and only 4706 Hindus, while the balance is made up by Christians,
Sikhs and other denominations. Out of the total number 280 in
the thousand are literates. The chief languages spoken are ver-
naculars of Baluchistan, Pushtu, Panjabi, Urdu and Sindhi. The
BALUCHISTAN
295
Baluchi language belongs to the Iranian branch of the Aryan sub-
family of the Indo-European family. It is divided into two main
dialects which are so different that speakers of the one are almost
unintelligible to speakers of the other. These two dialects are
separated by the belt of Brahui and Sindhi speakers who occupy
the Sarawan and Jalawan hills, and Las Bela. Owing probably to
the fact that Makran was for many generations under the rule of
the Persian kings, the Baluchi spoken on the west of the province,
which is also called Makrani, is more largely impregnated with
Persian words and expressions than the Eastern dialect. In the
latter the words in use for common objects and acts are nearly all
pure Baluchi, the remainder of the language being borrowed from
Persian, Sindhi and Panjabi. There is no indigenous literature,
but many specimens of poetry exist in which heroes and brave deeds
are commemorated, and a good many of these have been collected
from time to time. The philological classification of the Brahui
dialect has been much disputed, but the latest enquiries, conducted
by Dr G. A. Grierson, have resulted in his placing it among the
Dravidian languages. It is remarkable to find in Baluchistan a
Dravidian tongue, surrounded on all sides by Aryan languages,
and with the next nearest branch of the same family located so far
away as the Gond hills of central India. Brahui has no literature
of its own, and such knowledge as we possess of it is due to European
scholars, such as Bellew, Trumpp and Caldwell. Numerically the
Brahuis are the strongest race in Baluchistan. They number nearly
300,000 souls. Next to them and numbering nearly 200,000 are
Pathans. After this there is a drop to 80,000 mixed Baluchis
and less than 40,000 Lasis (Lumris) of Las Bela. There are thirteen
indigenous tribes of Pathan origin, of which the Kakars (q.v.) are
by far the most important, numbering more than 100,000 souls.
They are to be found in the largest numbers in Zhob, Quetta, Pishin
and Thal-ChotiaJi, but there are a few of them in Kalat and Chagai
also. The most important Baluch tribes are the Marris, the Bughtis,
the Boledis, the Domkis, the Magassis and the Rinds. Owing partly
to the tribal system, and partly to the levelling effect of Islam,
nothing similar to the Brahmanical system of social precedent is to
be found in Baluchistan.*
History Of the early history of this portion of the Asiatic
continent little or nothing is known. The poverty and natural
strength of the country, combined with the ferocious habits of
the natives, seem to have equally repelled the friendly visits of
inquisitive strangers and the hostile incursions of invading
armies. The first distinct account which we have is from
Arrian, who, with his usual brevity and severe veracity, narrates
the march of Alexander through this region, which he calls the
country of the Oreitae and Gadrosii. 1 He gives a very accurate
account of this forlorn tract, its general aridity and the necessity
of obtaining water by digging in the beds of torrents; describes
the food of the inhabitants as dates and fish; and adverts to
the occasional occurrence of fertile spots, the abundance of
aromatic and thorny shrubs and fragrant plants, and the violence
of the monsoon in the western part of Makran. He notices also
the impossibility of supporting a large army, and the consequent
destruction of the greater part of the men and beasts which
accompanied the expedition of Alexander. In the 8th century
this country was traversed by an army of the Caliphate.
The precise period at which the Brahuis gained the mastery
cannot be accurately ascertained; but it was probably about
two and a half centuries ago. The last raja of the Hindu dynasty
found himself compelled to call for the assistance of the mountain
shepherds, with their leader, Kambar, in order to check the
encroachments of a horde of depredators, headed by an Afghan
chief, who infested the country and even threatened to attack
the seat of government. Kambar successfully performed the
service for which he had been engaged; but having in a few
years quelled the robbers against whom he had been called
in, and finding himself at the head cf the only military tribe
in the country, he formally deposed the raja and assumed the
government.
The history of the country after the accession of Kambar is
as obscure as during the Hindu dynasty. It would appear,
however, that the sceptre was quietly transmitted to Abdulla
Khan, the fourth in descent from Kambar, who, being an
intrepid and ambitious soldier, turned his thoughts towards
the conquest of Kach Gandava, then held by different petty
chiefs under the authority of the nawabs of Sind.
After various success, the Kambaranis at length possessed
themselves of the sovereignty of a considerable portion of that
1 See V. A. Smith, Early Hist, of India (ed. 1908), p. 103 seq.
fruitful plain, including the chief town, Gandava. It was during
this contest that the famous Nadir Shah advanced from Persia
to the invasion of Hindustan; and while at Kandahar he
despatched several detachments into Baluchistan and estab-
lished his authority in that province. Abdulla Khan, however,
was continued in the government of the country by Nadir's
orders; but he was soon after killed in a battle with the forces
of the nawabs of Sind. He was succeeded by his eldest son,
Haji Mahommed Khan, who abandoned himself to the most
tyrannical and licentious way of life and alienated his subjects
by oppressive taxation. In these circumstances Nasir Khan,
the second son of Abdulla Khan, who had accompanied the
victorious Nadir to Delhi, and acquired the favour and confidence
of that monarch, returned to Kalat and was hailed by the whole
population as their deliverer. Finding that expostulation had no
effect upon his brother, he one day entered his apartment and
stabbed him to the heart. As soon as the tyrant was dead,
Nasir Khan mounted the musnud amidst the universal joy of
his subjects; and immediately transmitted a report of the
events which had taken place to Nadir Shah, who was then
encamped near Kandahar. The shah received the intelligence
with satisfaction, and despatched a firman, by return of the
messenger, appointing Nasir Khan beglar begi (prince of princes)
of all Baluchistan. This event took place in the year 1739.
Nasir Khan proved an active, politic and warlike prince.
He took great pains to re-establish the internal government of
all the provinces in his dominions, and improved and fortified
the city of Kalat. On the death of Nadir Shah in 1747, he
acknowledged the title of the king of Kabul, Ahmad Shah
(Durani). In 1758 he declared himself entirely independent;
upon which Ahmad Shah despatched a force against him under
one of his ministers. The khan, however, raised an army and
totally routed the Afghan army. On receiving intelligence of
this discomfiture, the king himself marched with strong rein-
forcements, and a pitched battle was fought in which Nasir
Khan was worsted. He retired in good order to Kalat, whither
he was followed by the victor, who invested the place with his
whole army. The khan made a vigorous defence; and, after
the royal troops had been foiled in their attempts to take the
city by storm or surprise, a negotiation was proposed by the
king which terminated in a treaty of peace. By this treaty it
was stipulated that the king was to receive the cousin of Nasir
Khan in marriage; and that the khan was to pay no tribute,
but only, when called upon, to furnish troops to assist the
armies, for which he was to receive an allowance in cash equal
to half their pay. The khan frequently distinguished himself in
the subsequent wars of Kabul; and, as a reward for his services,
the king bestowed upon him several districts in perpetual and
entire sovereignty. Having succeeded in quelling a dangerous
rebellion headed by his cousin Behram Khan, this able prince
at length died in extreme old age in the month of June 1795,
leaving three sons and five daughters. He was succeeded by
his eldest son, Mahmud Khan, then a boy of about fourteen
years. During the reign of this prince, who has been described
as a very humane and indolent man, the country was distracted
by sanguinary broils; the governors of several provinces and
districts withdrew their allegiance; and the dominions of the
khans of Kalat gradually so diminished that they now com-
prehend only a small portion of the provinces formerly subject
to Nasir Khan.
In 1839, when the British army advanced through the Bolan
Pass towards Afghanistan, the conduct of Mehrab Khan, the
ruler of Baluchistan, was considered so treacherous and dangerous
as to require " the exaction of retribution from that chieftain,"
and " the execution of such arrangements as would establish
future security in that quarter." General Willshire was accord-
ingly detached from the army of the Indus with 1050 men to
assault Kalat. A gate was knocked in by the field-pieces, and
the town and citadel were stormed in a few minutes. Above
400 Baluchcs were slain, among them Mehrab Khan himself;
and 2000 prisoners were taken. Subsequent inquiries have,
however, proved that the treachery towards the British was not
296
BALUCHISTAN
on the part of Mehrab Khan, but on that of his vizier, Mahommed
Hussein, and certain chiefs with whom he was in league, and at
whose instigation the British convoys were plundered in their
passage through Kach Gandava and in the Bolan Pass. The
treacherous vizier, however, made our too credulous political
officers believe that Mehrab Khan was to blame; his object
being to bring his master to ruin and to obtain for himself all
power in the state, knowing that Mehrab's successor was only a
child. How far he succeeded in his object history has shown.
In the following year Kalat changed hands, the governor estab-
lished by the British, together with a feeble garrison, being
overpowered. At the close of the same year it was reoccupied
by the British under General Nott. In 1841 Nasir Khan II., the
youthful son of the slain Mehrab Khan, was recognized by the
British, who soon after evacuated the country.
From the conquest of Sind by the British troops under the
command of General Sir Charles Napier in 1843 up to 1854 no
diplomatic intercourse occurred worthy of note between the
British and Baluch states. In the latter year, however, under
the governor-generalship of the marquess of Dalhousie, General
John Jacob, C.B., at the time political superintendent and
commandant on the Sind frontier, was deputed to arrange and
conclude a treaty between the Kalat state, then under the
chieftainship of Nasir Khan and the British government. This
treaty was executed on the i4th of May 1854 and was to the
following effect:
" That the former offensive and defensive treaty, concluded in
1841 by Major Outram between the British government and Nasir
Khan II., chief of Kalat, was to be annulled.
" That Nasir Khan II., his heirs and successors, bound themselves
to oppose to the utmost all the enemies of the British government,
and in all cases to act in subordinate co-operation with that govern-
ment, and to enter into no negotiations with other states without
its consent.
" That should it be deemed necessary to station British troops
in any part of the territory of Kalat, they shall occupy such positions
as may be thought advisable by the British authorities.
" That the Baluch chief was to prevent all plundering on the part
of his subjects within or in the neighbourhood of British territory.
" That he was further to protect all merchants passing through
his territory, and only to exact from them a transit duty, fixed by
schedule attached to the treaty; and that, on condition of a faithful
performance of these duties, he was to receive from the British
government an annual subsidy of RS.SO,OOO (5000)."
The provisions of the above treaty were most loyally performed
by Nasir Khan up to the time of his death in 1856. He was
succeeded by his brother, Mir Khodadad Khan, when a youth
of twelve years of age, who, however,'did not obtain his position
before he had put down by force a rebellion on the part of his
turbulent chiefs, who had first elected him, but, not receiving
what they considered an adequate reward from his treasury,
sought to depose him in favour of his cousin Sher dil Khan. In
the latter part of 1857, the Indian rebellion being at its height
and the city of Delhi still in the hands of the rebels, a British
officer (Major Henry Green) was deputed, on the part of the
British government, to reside as political agent with the Khan
at Kalat and to assist him by his advice in maintaining control
over his turbulent tribes. This duty was successfully performed
until 1863, when, during the temporary absence of Major Malcolm
Green, the^then political agent, Khodadad Khan was, at the
instigation of some of his principal chiefs, attacked while out
riding by his cousin, Sher dil Khan, and severely wounded.
Khodadad fled in safety to a residence close to the British border,
and Sher dil Khan was elected and proclaimed Khan. His rule
was, however, a short one, for early in 1864, when proceeding
to Kalat, he was murdered in the Gandava Pass; and Khodadad
was again elected chief by the very men who had only the
previous year caused his overthrow, and who had lately been
accomplices to the murder of his cousin. After the above
events Khodadad maintained his precarious position with
great difficulty; but owing to his inability to govern his un-
ruly subjects without material assistance from the British
government, which they were not disposed to give, his country
gradually fell into the greatest anarchy; and, consequently,
some of the provisions of the treaty of 1854 having been
broken, diplomatic relations were discontinued with the Kalat
state after the end of 1874.
After this the chiefs of Las and Wad, the Mams and Bugtis,
Kej and Makran all threw off their allegiance, and anarchy
became so widespread that the British government again inter-
fered. The treaty of 1854 was renewed in 1876 by Lord Lytton
(under Sandeman's advice) , and the khan received substantial aid
from the government hi the form of an annual subsidy of a lakh
of rupees, instead of the Rs. 50,000 previously assigned to him.
The treaty of 1854 was a treaty of alliance offensive and defensive.
The treaty of 1876 renewed these terms, but utterly changed the
policy of non-intervention which was maintained by the former,
by the recognition of the sirdars as well as the khan, and by the
appointment of the British government as referee in cases of
dispute between them. British troops were to be located in the
khan's country; Quetta was founded; telegraphs and railways
were projected; roads were made; and the reign of law and
order established. The nebulous claims of Afghanistan to Sibi
and Pishin were disposed of by the treaty of Gandamak in the
spring of 1879, and the final consolidation of the existing form of
Kalat administration was effected by Sandeman's expedition to
Kharan in 1883, and the reconciliation of Azad Khan, the great
Naushirwani chief, with the khan of Kalat. British Baluchistan
was incorporated with British India by the resolution of ist
November 1887, and divided into two districts Quetta-Pishin
and Thai Chotiali to be administered by a deputy -commissioner
and a regular staff.
In 1890 and 1891 were carried out that series of politico-
military expeditions which resulted in the occupation of the
Zhob valley, the foundation of the central cantonment of Fort
Sandeman, and the extension of a line of outposts which, com-
mencing at Quetta, may be said to rest on Wana north of the
Gomal. The effect of these expeditions, and of this extension of
military occupation, has been to reduce the independent Pathan
tribes of the Suliman mountains to effective order, and to put a
stop to border raiding on the Indus plains south of the Gomal.
In 1893 serious differences arose between the khan of Kalat and
Sir James Browne, who succeeded Sir Robert Sandeman as agent
to the governor-general in Baluchistan, arising out of Mir
Khodadad Khan's outrageous conduct in the management of his
own court, and the treatment of his officials. Finally, the khan
was deposed, and his son Mir Mahmud Khan succeeded in
November 1893. Since then the most important change in
Baluch administration has been the perpetual lease and transfer
of management to British agency of the Nushki district and
Niabat, with all rights, jurisdiction and administrative power, in
lieu of a perpetual rent of Rs.9Ooo per annum. This was effected
in July 1899. This secures the direct control of the great, highway
to Seistan which has been opened to khafila and railway traffic.
The revenues of the khan of Kalat consist partly of subsidies
and partly of agricultural revenue, the total value being about
Rs. 500,000 per annum. Since 1882 he has received Rs.25,ooo
as government rent for the Quetta district, besides Rs.3o,ooo
in lieu of transit duties in the Bolan; this has been in-
creased lately by Rs.9cxx> as already stated. In 1899 the total
imports of Kalat were valued at Rs. 700,000, and the exports
at Rs. 505,000.
AUTHORITIES. The Seistan Boundary Report of 1873 by Sir
F. Goldsmid; Floyer, Unexplored Baluchistan (London, 1882);
T. Thornton, Life of Sandeman (London, 1896); G. P. Tate, Xato,
a Memoir (Calcutta, 1896); Sir T. Holdich, " Ethnographic and
Historical Notes on Makran," Calcutta, 1892 (Survey Report);
" Antiquities, Ethnography, &c., of Las Bela and Makran," Calcutta,
1894 (Survey Report); " Ancient and Medieval Makran," vol. vii.
R.G.S. Journal (1896); " Perso-Baluch Boundary," vol. ix. R.G.S.
Journal (1897); M'Mahon, " The Southern Borderland of Afghan-
istan," vol. x. Journal R.G.S. (1897). Notes on Sir R. Sandeman's
tours in Baluchistan will be found in vols. v., xii., xiii. and xiv.
of the R.G.S. Proceedings; Popular Poetry of the Baloches, by
M. Longworth-Dames (2 vols., Roy. As. Soc. 1907). (T. H. H.*)
BALUCHISTAN, a province of Persia consisting of the western
part of Baluchistan (q.v.) in a wider sense. Persian Baluchistan
has an area of about 60,000 sq. m., and lying along the nor-
thern shore of the Arabian Sea, is bounded E. by British and
BALUE BALUZE
297
independent Baluchistan, N. by Seistan and the central Persian
desert, and W. by Kerman. The country has little water and
only a small part of it is under cultivation, the remainder being
composed of arid, waterless plains, deserts some stony, others
with moving sands barren hills and mountains. The principal
rivers are the Mashkid and that of Bampur which flow away
from the sea and are lost in depressions called hamuns. The
rivers which flow into the sea are unimportant and dry during
the greater part of the year. Persian Baluchistan forms an
administrative division of the province of Kerman and is sub-
divided into the following twenty districts: (i) Bampur;
(2) Serhad; (3) Dizek; (4) Jalk; (5) Sib; (6) Irafshan;
(7) Magas; (8) Serbaz; (9) Lashar; (10) Champ; (n) Fannuj;
(12) Bazman; (13) Aptar; (14) Daman; (15) Aprandagan;
(16) Asfehgeh; (17) Surmij; (18) Meskutan; (19) Pushteh;
(20) Makran, the country of the Ichthyophagi, with the sub-
districts Kasrkand, Geh, Bint, Dasht, Kucheh and Bahu. The
total population of Baluchistan is under 200,000. The province
was practically independent until the occupation of Bampur
by Persian troops in 1849, and over some of the extreme eastern
districts Persian supremacy was not recognized until 1872.
BALUE, JEAN (c. 1421-1491), French cardinal and minister
of Louis XI., was born of very humble parentage at Angle in
Poitou, and was first patronized by the bishop of Poitiers. In
1461 he became vicar-general of the bishop of Angers. His
activity, cunning and mastery of intrigue gained him the
appreciation of Louis XL, who made him his almoner. In a
short time Balue became a considerable personage. In 1465 he
received the bishopric of Evreux; the king made him le premier
du grant conseil, and, in spite of his dissolute life, obtained for
him a cardinalate (1468). But in that year Balue was com-
promised in the king's humiliation by Charles the Bold at
Peronne and excluded from the council. He then intrigued
with Charles against his master: their secret correspondence
was intercepted, and on the 23rd of April 1469 Balue was thrown
in to prison, where he remained eleven years, but not, as has been
alleged, in an iron cage. In 1480, through the intervention of
Pope Sixtus IV., he was set at liberty, and from that time
lived in high favour at the court of Rome. He received the
bishopric of Albano and afterwards that of Palestrina. In
1484 he was even sent to France as legate a latere. He died at
Ancona in 1491.
See Henri Forgeot, " Jean Balue, cardinal d'Angers " (1895), in
the BiblioMque de I'ecole des hautes eludes.
BALUSTER (through the Fr. from the Ital. balaustro, so-
called from a supposed likeness to the flower of the ^a\a.wriov,
or wild pomegranate; the word has been corrupted in English
into " banister "), a small moulded shaft, square or circular, in
stone or wood and sometimes in metal, supporting the coping
of a parapet or the rail of a staircase, an assemblage of them
being known as a balustrade. The earliest examples are those
shown in the bas-reliefs representing the Assyrian palaces,
where they were employed as window balustrades and apparently
had Ionic capitals. They do not seem to have been known to
either the Greeks or the Romans, but early examples are found in
the balconies in the palaces at Venice and Verona. In the hands
of the Italian revivalists they became features of the greatest
importance, and were largely employed for window balconies and
roof parapets.
The term " baluster shaft " is given to the shaft dividing a
window in Saxon architecture. In the south transept of the
abbey at St Albans, England, are some of these shafts, supposed
to have been taken from the old Saxon church. Norman bases
and capitals have been added, together with plain cylindrical
Norman shafts.
BALUSTRADE, a parapet or low screen consisting of a coping
or rail supported on balusters (q.v.). Sometimes it is employed
purely as a decorative feature beneath the sill of a window
which was not carried down to'the ground. Sometimes flowing
foliage takes the place of the parapet, and sometimes so-called
balustrades are formed of vertical slabs of stone, pierced as in the
Ca' d'oro at Venice and the balconies of the minarets at Cairo.
BALUZE. BTIENNE (1630-1718), French scholar, was bom
at Tulle on the 24th of November 1630. He was educated at his
native town and took minor orders. As secretary to Pierre
de Marca, archbishop of Toulouse, he won. the appreciation of
that learned prelate to such a degree that at his death Marca
left him all his papers. Thus it came about that Baluze produced
the first complete edition of Marca's treatise De libertatibus
Ecclesiae Gallicanae (1663), and brought out his Marca hispanica
(1688 f.). About 1667 Baluze entered Colbert's service, and
until 1700 was in charge of the invaluable library belonging
to that minister and to his son the marquis de Seignelai. He
enriched it prodigiously (see the history of the Colbertine library
in the Cabinet des Manuscrits by M. Leopold Delisle, vol. i.), and
Colbert rewarded him by obtaining various benefices for him,
and the post of king's almoner (1679). Subsequently Baluze
was appointed professor of Canon law at the College de France
on the 3ist of December 1689, and directed that great institution
from 1707 to 1710.
The works which place him in the first rank of the scholars of
his time are the Capilularia Regum Francorum (1674; new edition
enlarged and corrected in 1780); the Nova Collectio Conciliorum
(4 vols., 1677); the Miscellanea (7 vols., 1678-1715; new edition
revised by Mansi, 4 vols. f., 1761-1764); the Letters of Pope
Innocent III. (1682); and, finally, the Vitae Paparum Avenio-
nensium, 1305-1394 (1693). But he was unfortunate enough to
take up the history of Auvergne just at the time when the
cardinal de Bouillon, inheritor of the rights, and above all of the
ambitious pretensions of the La Tour family, was endeavouring
to prove the descent of that house in the direct line from the
ancient hereditary counts of Auvergne of the 9th century.
As authentic documents in support of these pretensions could
not be found, false ones were fabricated. The production of
spurious genealogies had already been begun in the Histoire de la
maison d' Auvergne published by Christophe Justel in 1645;
and Chorier, the historian of Dauphiny, had included in the
second volume of his history (167 2) a forged deed which connected
the La Tours of Dauphiny with the La Tours of Auvergne. Next
a regular manufactory of forged documents was organized by
a certain Jean de Bar, an intimate companion of the cardinal.
These rogues were skilful enough, for they succeeded in duping
the most illustrious scholars; Dom Jean Mabillon, the founder
of Diplomatics, Dom Thierry Ruinart and Baluze himself,
called as experts, made a unanimously favourable report on the
23rd of July 1695. But cardinal de Bouillon had many enemies,
and a war of pamphlets began. In March 1698 Baluze in reply
wrote a Letter which proved nothing. Two years later, in 1700,
Jean de Bar and his accomplices were arrested, and after a long
and searching inquiry were declared guilty in 1704. Baluze,
nevertheless, was obstinate in his opinion. He was convinced
that the incriminated documents were genuine and proposed
to do Justel's work anew. Encouraged and financially supported
by the cardinal de Bouillon, he first produced a Table genealogique
in I75> an d then in 1709 a Histoire genfalogique de la maison
d' Auvergne, with "Proofs," among which, unfortunately, we
find all the deeds which had been pronounced spurious. In the
following year he was suddenly engulfed in the disgrace which
overtook his intriguing patron: deprived of his appointments,
pensions and benefices, he was exiled far from Paris. None
the less he continued to work, and in 1717 published a history
of his native town, Historiae Tutelensis libri tres. Before his
death he succeeded in 'returning to Paris, where he died uncon-
vinced of his errors on the 28th of July 1718. Was he dupe or
accomplice? The study of his correspondence with the cardinal
gives the impression that he was the victim of clever cheats.
The history of the forgeries committed in the interests of the
house of Bouillon forms a curious and instructive episode in the
history of French scholarship in the time of Louis XIV. It is to
be found in the Manuel de diplomatique by A. Giry ; and above all
in a note to the CEuvres de Saint-Simon by M. de Boislisle (vol. xiv.
PP- 533-55 8 )- The bibliography of Baluze's researches has been
made by M. Rene Page (1882, 1884) and his Life told by M. fimile
Page (1899). To these we must add an amusing book by G. Ctement-
Simon, La Caiete de Baluze; documents biographiques et litterairet
298
BALZAC
(1888). Baluze's will has been published by M. Leopold Delisle
(BMiothique de l'cole de Charles, 1872); his papers are now in the
Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris, and in the Bibliotheque de 1'Arsenal
(Revue historique, t. xcviii. p. 309). See also the article by Arthur
de Boislisle in the Revue des questions historiques for October
1908. (C. B.*)
BALZAC, HONORS DE (1790-1850), French novelist, was
born at Tours on the zoth of May 1799. His father, Bernard
Francois, never called himself de Balzac and Honor6 only
assumed the particle after 1830. But the father had equally
little right to the name of Balzac at all, for his birth-certificate
has been recently discovered. The true name was " Balssa,"
and this in various forms (" Balsa," " Balsas ") has been traced
for more than a century before the novelist's birth as that of a
family of day-labourers or very small peasant proprietors in the
parish of Canezac, department of the Tarn. It is probable that
the novelist himself was not aware of this, and his father appears
to have practised some mystification as to his own professional
career. In and after the Revolution, however, he actually
attained positions of some importance in the commissariat and
hospital departments of the army, and he married in 1797
Anne Charlotte Laure Sallambier, who was a beauty, an heiress,
and a woman of considerable faculty. She survived her son;
the father died in 1829. There were two sisters (the elder, Laure,
afterwards Madame Surville, was her brother's favourite and
later his biographer), and a younger brother, Henri, of whom
we hear little and that little not very favourable.
Honore was put out to nurse till he was four years old, and in
1806, when he was seven, was sent to the college (grammar school)
of Vend6me, where he remained till April 1813 as a strict boarder
without any holidays. From this he passed as a day-boy to the
college of Tours. His father's official work was transferred to
Pans the year after, and Balzac came under the teaching of a
royalist private schoolmaster, M. Lepitre, and others. He left
school altogether in 1816, being then between seventeen and
eighteen. His experiences at Vend6me served as base for much
of Louis Lambert, and he seems to have been frequently in
disgrace. Later, his teachers appear to have found him remark-
able neither for good nor for evil. He was indeed never a scholar ;
but he must have read a good deal, and as he certainly had no
time for it later, much of this reading must have been done early.
The profession which Balzac's father chose for him was the
law; and he not only passed through the schools thereof, and
duly obtained his licence, but had three years' practical experience
in the offices of a notary and a solicitor (avouf), for the latter of
whom, M. Guillonnet-Merville, he seems to have had a sincere
respect. But though no man of letters has ever had, in some ways,
such a fancy for business, no man of business could ever come out
of such a born man of letters. And when in 1820 (the licence
having been obtained and M. Balzac, senior, having had some
losses) the father wished the son to become a practising lawyer
in one or another branch, Honore revolted. His family had left
Paris, and they tried to starve him into submission by establishing
him in a garret with a very small allowance. Here he began to
write tragedies, corresponded (in letters which have fortunately
been preserved) with his sister Laure, and, most important of all,
attempted something in prose fiction. The tragedy Cromwell
was actually completed and read to friends if not to others;
nay more, the manuscript exists in the hands of M. Spoelberch
de Lovenjoul, the great authority on Balzac's life and biblio-
graphy; but it has never been published. The novels, Cocqsigrue
and Stella, proved abortions, but were only the first of many
attempts at his true way until he found it. Drama he never
abandoned; but for him it was always an error.
The garret-period from 1820 to 1822 was succeeded by another
of equal length at home, but before it had finished (1821) he
found his way into print with the first of the singular productions
which (and that not entirely or finally) have taken a sort of
outside place in his works under the title of (Euvres de jeunesse.
The incunabula of Balzac were Les Deux Hector, ou Les Deux
Families bretonnes, and Charles Pointel, ou Man Cousin de la main
gauche. They were followed next year by six others : L'Heritiere
de Birague; Jean Louis, ou La Fille trouvte; Clolilde deLusignan,
ou Le Beau Juif; Le Centenaire, ou Les Deux Beringheld; Le
Vicaire des Ardennes; Le Tartare, ou Le Retour de I' exile. And
these were again followed up in 1823 by three more: La Derniere
Fee, ou La Nouvelle Lampe merveilleuse; Michel et Christine et la
suite; L'Anonyme, ou Ni pere ni mere. In 1824 came Annette el
le criminel, a continuation of the Vicaire; in 1825, Wann-Chlore,
which afterwards took the less extravagant title of Jane la pdle.
These novels, which filled some two score volumes originally,
were published under divers pseudonyms (" Lord R'hoone," an
anagram of " Honore," " Horace de Saint Aubin," &c.), and in
actual collaboration with two or three other writers. But
though there is not yet in them anything more than the faintest
dawn of the true Balzac, though no one of them is good as a whole,
and very few parts deserve that word except with much qualifica-
tion, they deserve far more study than they have usually
received, and it is difficult to apprehend the true Balzac until
they have been studied. They ceased for a time, not because of
the author's conviction of their badness (though he entertained
no serious delusions on this subject) , nor because they failed of a
certain success in actual money return, but because he had taken
to the earliest, the most prolonged, and the most disastrous of his
dabblings in business this time as a publisher to some extent
and still more as a printer and type-founder. Not very much
was known about his experiences in this way (except their
general failure, and the result in hampering him with a load of
debt directly for some ten years and indirectly for the whole of
his life) till in 1903 MM. Hanotaux and Vicaire published the
results of their inquiries into the actual accounts of the concern.
There seems to have been no reason why it should not have
succeeded, and there has been claimed for it first, that it pro-
vided Balzac with a great amount of actual detail which he
utilized directly in the novels, and secondly, that it gave him at
whatever cost a still more valuable experience of practical life
the experience which has so often been wanting to men of letters.
Anyhow, from 1825 to 1828, the future author of the Comedie
humaine was a publisher, printer and type-founder; and in the
last year he had to abscond, or something like it, under pressure
of debts which were never fully settled till 1838, and then by a
further obligation of ninety thousand francs, chiefly furnished
by his mother and never repaid to her.
It was Balzac's habit throughout his life to relieve the double
pressure of debt and of work by frequent excursions into the
country and abroad. On this occasion he fled to Brittany with
an introduction to a M. and Mme. de Pommereul, who received
him hospitably in their chateau near Fougeres. Here he obtained
some of the direct material, and most of the scenery and atmo-
sphere, for what he himself recognized as his first serious attempt
in novel-writing, Les Chouans, or, as it was at first called, Le
Dernier Chouan. This book (obviously written in direct following
of Scott, of whom Balzac was a lifelong admirer) has been very
variously judged those who lay most stress on his realism
thinking little of it, while those who maintain that he was always
a romantic " with a difference " place it higher. It has at any
rate brilliant colouring, some very vivid scenes, and almost more
passion as well as " curtain " at its ending than any other of his
books. Though not without a touch of melodrama it differs
utterly from the confused and tedious imitations of Mrs Radcliffe,
M. G. Lewis and C. R. Maturin which fill most of the (Euvres de
jeunesse. At the same time Balzac was engaged on a very
different work, the analytic-satirical sketches which compose
the Physiologie du mariage, and which illustrate his other and
non-romantic side, again with some crudity, but again also with
a vast advance on his earlier productions. Both were published
in the year 1829, from which his real literary career unquestion-
ably starts. It had exactly twenty-one years to run.
The history of these twenty-one years, though (in consequence
mainly of the diligence and luck as a collector of the above-
named M. de Lovenjoul) the materials for it are large and con-
stantly accumulating, has never been arranged in a really standard
biography, and there seems to be an increasing habit of con-
centrating the attention on parts of it. It divides itself under
three heads mainly, the history of Balzac's business affairs, that
BALZAC
299
of his loves and friendships and that of his actual work. The
first has some small resemblance to Scott's similar experiences,
though in Balzac's case there was no great crash but a lifelong
pressure; on the other hand, his debts were brought upon him
by a long course not so much of extravagance in actual expendi-
ture (though there was something of this) as of financial irregu-
larities of almost every description, anticipations of earnings,
costly methods of production (he practically wrote his novels
on a succession of printed revises), speculations, travel, and
lastly the collection of curiosities. As regards the second,
although his fashion of life made him by turns a hermit and a
vagrant, he was on good terms with most of the famous men of
letters of his day from Hugo downwards, and seems never to have
quarrelled with any man, except with some of his editors and pub-
lishers, by his own fault. Balzac was indeed, in no belittling sense
of the word, one of the most good-natured of men of genius. But
his friendships with the other sex are of much more importance,
and not in the least matters of mere gossip. His sister Laure, as
has been said, and a school-friend of hers, Mme Zulma Carraud,
playedimportant and not questionable parts as his correspondents.
But at least three ladies, all of a rank higher than his own, figure
as his " Egerias " to such an extent that it is hardly extravagant
to say that Balzac would not have been Balzac without them.
These are Madame de Berny, a lady connected with the court of
the ancien regime, much older than himself and the mother of nine
children, to whom he was introduced in 1821, who became to him
La dilecta, who was the original of Mme de Mortsauf in Le Lys
dans la vallie, and who seems to have exercised an excellent
influence on him in matters of taste till her death in 1836; the
marquise de Castries, who took him up for a time and dropped
him, and who has been supposed to have been his model for his
less impeccable ladies of fashion; and lastly, the Polish-Russian
countess Evelina Hanska, who after addressing, as VEtrangere, a
letter to him as early as 1832, became his idol, rarely seen but
constantly corresponded with, for the last eighteen years, and his
wife for the last few months of his life. Some of his letters to her
have long been known, but the bulk of them constituted the
greatest recent addition to our knowledge of him as given in the
two volumes of Lettres a I'etrangere. Of hers we have practically
none and it is exceedingly hard to form any clear idea of her,
but his devotion is absolutely beyond question.
Business, friendship and love, however, much more other
things, were in Balzac's case always connected with and on the
whole quite secondary to work. He would even sometimes
resist the commands by which at long intervals Mme Hanska
would summon him to see her, and abstract the greater part of
his actual visits to her in order to serve this still more absorbing
mistress. He had, as we have seen, worked pretty hard, even
before 1829, and his work had partly taken forms not yet
mentioned political pamphlets and miscellaneous articles
which are now accessible in the Edition definitive of his works,
and hardly one of which is irrelevant to a just conception
of him. Nor did he by any means abandon these by-works after
1829; indeed, he at one time started and almost entirely
wrote, a periodical called the Revue parisienne. He wrote
some dramas and planned many more, though the few which
reached the stage left it again promptly. Balzac's dramas, as
they appear in his works, consist of Vautrin, Les Ressources de
Quinola, Pamela Giraud (arranged for the stage by others), La
Maralre and Mercadet le faiseur, the last of which has, since his
death, been not unsuccessful. But on the whole he did devote
himself to his true vocation, with a furious energy beside which
even Scott's, except in his sadder and later days, becomes
leisurely. Balzac generally wrote (dining early and lightly, and
sleeping for some hours immediately after dinner) from midnight
till any hour in the following day stretches of sixteen hours
being not unknown, and the process being often continued for
days and weeks. Besides his habit of correcting a small printed
original into a long novel on the proofs, he was always altering
and re-shaping his work, even before, in 1842, he carried out the
idea of building it all into one huge structure the Comtdie
humaine with its subdivisions of Scenes de la vie parisienne,
Etudes pftilosophiques, ffc. Much pains have been spent upon
this title and Balzac's intentions in selecting it. But the
" Human Comedy," as a description for mere studies of life as
his, will explain itself at once or else can never be explained.
Of its constituents, however, some account must be given,
and this can be best done through an exact and complete list
of the whole work by years, with such abbreviated notes on
the chief constituents as may lead up to a general critical sum-
mary. Of the two capital works of 1829, we have spoken.
1830, the epoch year, saw part (it was not fully published till
the next) of La Peau de chagrin, one of the crudest, but according
to some estimates, one of the greatest of the works, full of
romantic extravagance and surplusage, but with an engrossing
central idea the Nemesis of accomplished desire powerfully
worked out; La Maison du chat qui pelote, a triumph of observa-
tion and nature, together with a crowd of things less in bulk
but sometimes of the first excellence El Verdugo, Etude de
fentme, La Pcix du menage, Le Baldesceaux, La Vendetta, Gobseck,
Une Double Famille, Les Deux Rives, Adieu, L' Elixir de tongue vie,
Sarrazine, Une Passion dans le desert and Un Episode sous la
Terreur. In 1831, La Peau de chagrin appeared complete,
accompanied by Le Rfquisitionnaire, Les Proscrits, Le Chef-d'teuvre
inconnu (a masterpiece fortunately not unrecognized), Jesus
Christ en Flandre and Maltre Cornelius. 1832 gave Madame
Firmiani, Le Message, Le Colonel Chabert and Le Cure de Tours
(two stories of contrasted but extraordinary excellence), La
Bourse, La Femme abandonnee, Louis Lambert (autobiographical
and philosophic) , La Grenaditre and Les Marana (a great favourite
with the author). In 1833 appeared Ferragus, chef des devoranls.
the first part of L'Histoire des treize (a collection in the more
extravagant romantic manner, very popular at the time, and
since a favourite with some, but few, good judges), Le Midecin
de campagne (another pet of the author's, and a kind of intended
document of his ability to support the cause of virtue, but,
despite certain great things, especially a wonderful popular
" legend of Napoleon," a little heavy as a whole), the universally
admitted masterpiece of Eugenie Grandet, and L'lllustre Gaudis-
sart (very amusing). 1833 also saw the beginning of a remarkable
and never finished work out of his usual scope but exceedingly
powerful in parts the Conies drolatiques, a series of tales of
Old France in Old (or at least Rabelaisian) French, which were
to have been a hundred in number but never got beyond the
third batch of ten. They often borrow the licence of their isth
and 1 6th century models; but in La Succube and others there is
undoubted genius and not a little art. 1834 continued the
Treize with La Duchesse de Langeais and added La Recherche de
I'absolu (one of Balzac's great studies of monomania, and thought
by some to be the greatest, though others prefer Le Chef-d'oeuvre
inconnu), La Femme de trente ans (the chief example of the
author's caprice for re-handling, and very differently judged
as a whole), with yet another of the acknowledged triumphs, Le
Pere Goriot. On the whole, this year's work, though not the
author's largest, is perhaps his most unique. Next year (1835)
followed Melmoth reconcilii (a tribute to the great influence
which Maturin exercised, not over Balzac only, at this time in
France), Un Drame au borddela mer, the brilliant, if questionable,
conclusion of Les Treize, La Fille aux yeux d'or, Le Control de
mariage and Seraphita. This last, a Swedenborgian rhapsody
of great beauty in parts, has divided critics almost more than
anything else of its writer's, some seeing in it (with excuse,
nothing but the short description given above in three words,
the others (with justice) reckoning it his greatest triumph of
style and his nearest attempt to reach poetry through prose.
1836 furnished La Messe de I'athee, Interdiction, Facino Cane,
Le Lys dans la vallee (already referred to and of a somewhat
sickly sweetness), L' Enfant maitd.il, La. Vieille Fille and Le Secret
des Ruggieri (connected with the earlier Les deux Rives under
the general title, Sur Catherine de Mtdicis, and said to have
been turned out by Balzac in a single night, which is hardly
possible). In 1837 were published Les Deux Poetes, destined to
form part of Illusions perdues, Les Employes, Gambara and
another capital work, Hisloire de la grandeur et de la decadence
300
BALZAC
de Cksar Birotteau, where Balzac's own unlucky experiences in
trade are made thoroughly matter of art. 1838 was less fruitful,
contributing only Le Cabinet des antiques, which had made an
earlier partial appearance, La Maison Nucingen and Une Fille
d'Eve. But 1839 made amends with the second part of Illusions
perdues, Un Grand Homme de province d Paris (one of Balzac's
minor diploma-pieces), Le Cure de village (a very considerable
thing), and two smaller stories, Les Secrets de la princesse de
Cadignan and Massimilla Doni. Pierrette, Z. Marcos, Un Prince
de la Boheme and Pierre Grassou followed in 1840, and in 1841
Une Tenebreuse Affaire (one of his most remarkable workings-
up of the minor facts of actual history), Le Martyr Calviniste
(the conclusion of Sur Catherine de Midicis), Ursule Mirouet (an
admirable story), La Fausse Maitresse and Memoires de deux
jeunes mariees, on which again there have been very different
opinions. 184? supplied Albert Savarus (autobiographical
largely), Un Debut dans la vie, the very variously named and
often rehandled Rabouilleuse (which, since Taine's exaltation
of it, has often been taken as a Balzacian quintessence), and
Autre dude de femme, yet another rehandling of earlier work.
In 1843 came the introduction of the completed Sur Catherine
de Midicis, Honorine and La Muse du departement (almost as
often reconstructed as La Femme de trente ans), with Comment
aiment les jeunes filles (a similar rehandling intended to start
the collected Splendeurs el miseres des courtisanes) , and a further
instalment of Illusions perdues, Les Souffrances d'un inventeur.
Three out of the next four years were astonishingly fruitful.
1844 gave Modeste Mignon (a book with a place to itself, and
said to be founded on a story actually written by Madame
Hanska), Gaudissart II., A combien I' amour revient aux vieillards
(a second part of the Splendeurs), Beatrix (one of the most
powerful if not of the most agreeable), and the first and very
promising part of Les Paysans. Only Un Homme d'affaires
came out in 1845, but this was made up in 1846 by Les Comediens
sans le savoir (sketched earlier), another part of the Splendeurs,
Ou menent les mauvais chemins, the first part of Les Parents
pauvres, La Cousine Bette (sometimes considered the topmost
achievement of Balzac's genius), and the final form of a work
first issued fifteen years earlier and often retouched, Petites
miseres de la vie conjugale. 1847 was even richer, with Le Cousin
Pans (the second part of Les Parents pauvres, and again a master-
piece), the conclusion of the Splendeurs, La Derniere Incarnation
de Vautrin, L'Envers de I'histoire contemporaine (which had been
on and off the stocks for five years), and the unfinished Depute
d'Arcis. This was the last scene of the comedy that appeared
in the life of its author. The conclusion of the Depute d'Arcis,
published in 1853, and those of Les Paysans and Les Petits
Bourgeois which appeared, the first in this year, the second
wholly hi 1855, are believed or known to be by Balzac's friend,
Charles Rabou (1803-1871).
This immense and varied total stands to its author in a
somewhat different relation from that of any other work to
any other writer. It has been well said that the whole of Balzac's
production was always in his head together; and this is the
main justification for his syllabus of it as the " Comedy." Some
part never came out of his head into print; we have numerous
titles of work (sometimes spoken of in his letters as more or less
finished) of which no trace remains, or only fragmentary MS.
sketches. One apparently considerable book, La Bataille, which
was to be devoted to the battle of Essling, and for which he
actually visited the ground, is frequently referred to as in pro-
gress from the time of his early letters to Madame Hanska
onwards; but it has never been found. Another result of this
relation was the constant altering, re-shaping, re-connecting of
the different parts. That if Balzac had lived as long as Hugo,
and had preserved his faculties as well, he could never have
finished the Comfdie,is of course obvious: the life of Methuselah,
with the powers of Shakespeare, would not suffice for that.
But that he never would even if by some impossibility he
could is almost equally certain. Whether there is any mark of
decline in his latest work has been disputed, but there could
hardly have been farther advance, and the character of the
whole, not easy to define, is much less hard to comprehend, if
prejudice be kept out of the way. That character was put early,
but finally, by Victor Hugo in his funeral discourse on Balzac,
whose work he declared, with unusual terseness, among other
phrases of more or less gorgeous rhetoric, to be " observation
and imagination." It may be doubted whether all the volumes
written on Balzac (a reasoned catalogue of the best of which
will be found below) have ever said more than these three
words, or have ever said it more truly if the due stress be laid
upon the " and." On the other side, most of the mistakes
about him have arisen from laying undue stress on one of the
two qualities, or from considering them separately rather than
as inextricably mixed and blended. It is this blending which
gives him his unique position. He is an observer of the most
exact, the most minute, the most elaborate;- but he suffuses
this observation with so strange and constant an imaginative
quality that he is, to some careful and experienced critics, never
quite " real " or almost always something more than real.
He seems accustomed to create hi a fashion which is not so much
of the actual world as of some other, possible but not actual no
matter whether he deals with money or with love, with Paris
or with the provinces, with old times or with new. A further
puzzle has arisen from the fact that though Balzac has virtuous
characters, he sees humanity on the whole " in black ": and
that, whether he actually prefers the delineation of vice, mis-
fortune, failure, or not, he produces as a rule in his readers
the sensation familiarly described as "uncomfortable." His
morality has been fiercely attacked and valiantly defended, but
it is absolutely certain that he wrote with no immoral intention,
and with no indifference to morality. In the same way there
has been much discussion of his style, which seldom achieves
beauty, and sometimes falls short of correctness, but which
still more seldom lacks force and adequacy to his own purpose.
On the whole, to write with the shorthand necessary here, it is
idle to claim for Balzac an absolute supremacy in the novel,
while it may be questioned whether any single book of his, or
any scene of a book, or even any single character or situation, is
among the very greatest books, scenes, characters, situations in
literature. But no novelist has created on the same scale, with
the same range; none has such a cosmos of his own, pervaded
with such a sense of the originality and power of its creator.
Balzac's life during these twenty years of strenuous production
has, as regards the production itself, been already outlined, but
its outward events, its distractions or avocations apart from
that almost weekly process of "raising the wind," of settling old
debts by contracting new ones, which seems to have taken up no
small part of it must now be shortly dealt with. Besides con-
stant visits to the Margonne family at Sache hi Touraine, and to
the Carrauds at Frapesle hi Berry, he travelled frequently hi
France. He went in 1833 to Neuchitel for his first meeting with
Madame Hanska, to Geneva later for his second, and to Vienna in
1835 for his third. He took at least two flights to Italy, in more
or less curious circumstances. In 1838, he went on a journey to
Sardinia to make his fortune by melting the silver out of the
slag-heaps of Roman mines, a project, it seems, actually feasible
and actually accomplished, but hi which he was anticipated. The
year before, tired of Paris apartments, he had bought ground at
Ville d' Avray, and there constructed, certainly at great, though
perhaps exaggerated expense, his villa of Les Jardies, which
figures largely hi the Balzacian legend. His rash and complicated
literary engagements, and (it must be added) his disregard of
them when the whim took him, brought him into frequent legal
difficulties, the most serious of which was a law-suit with the
Revue de Paris in 1836. In 1831, and again in 1834, he had
thought of standing for election as Deputy, and hi the latter year
he actually did so both at Cambrai and Angoule'me; but it is not
certain that he received any votes. He also more than once took
steps to become a candidate for the Academy, but retired on
several occasions before the voting, and when at last, hi 1849, he
actually stood, he only obtained two votes.
As early as the Genevan meeting of 1833, Madame Hanska had
formally promised to marry Balzac in the case of her husband's
BALZAC BAMBERG
301
death, and this occurred at the end of 1841. She would not,
however, allow him even to visit her till the next year had expired,
and then, though he travelled to St Petersburg and the engage-
ment was renewed after a fashion, its fulfilment was indefinitely
postponed. For some years Balzac met his beloved at Baden,
Wiesbaden, Brussels, Paris, Rome and elsewhere. Only in
September 1847 was he invited on the definite footing of her
future husband to her estate of Wierzschovnia in the Ukraine;
and even then the visit, interrupted by one excursion to Paris and
back, was prolonged for more than two years before (on the I4th
of March 1850) the wedding actually took place. But Balzac's
own Peau de chagrin was now reduced to its last morsel. His
health, weakened by his enormous labours, had been ruined by
the Russian cold and his journeyings across Europe. The pair
reached the house at Paris in the rue Fortunee, which Balzac
had bought for his wife and filled with his collections, at the end of
May. On Sunday, the 1 7th of August, Victor Hugo found Balzac
dying, attended by his mother, but not by his wife. He actually
died at half-past eleven that night and was buried on the 2oth, the
pall-bearers being Hugo himself, Dumas, Sainte-Beuve (an enemy,
but in this case a generous one) and the statesman Baroche, in
Pere La Chaise, where Hugo delivered the speech cited above.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The extraordinarily complicated bibliography
of Balzac will be found all but complete in the Histoire des asuvres
(1875 and later), attached by M. Spoelberch de Lovewjoul to the
Edition definitive, and supplemented by him in numerous smaller
works, A utour de Balzac, Une Page perdue de Balzac, &c. Summaries
of it will be found appended to the introductory critical notices of
each volume of the English translation edited by Saintsbury (London,
1 895-1 898) , which also contains a short Memoir and general criticism.
Before the Edition definitive (1869 onwards), the works had been
issued during the author's life in various forms and instalments,
the earliest Comedie humaine being of 1842 to 1846 in sixteen volumes.
For many years, however, the edition best known was that referred
to in Browning as " all Balzac's novels fifty volumes long,"
really fifty-five small and closely printed 240103 kept stereotyped
with varying dates by Michel (Calmann) Levy, which did not
contain the miscellaneous works and was not arranged according
to the author's last disposition, but did include the (Euvres de
jeunesse. These were not reprinted in the Edition definitive, but this
gives the miscellaneous works in four volumes, an invaluable
volume of correspondence, and the Histoire des ceuvres as cited.
To this was added, in 1893, another volume, Repertoire des ceuvres
de Balzac, in which the history of the various personages of the
Comedie is tracked throughout and ranged under separate articles by
MM. Cerfbeer and Christophe with extraordinary pains, and with a
result of usefulness which should have protected it from some critical
sneers. In 1899 appeared, as the first volume oiCEuvres posthumes,
an instalment of the Lettres a I'etraneere, and in 1906 a second (up
to 1844) with a portrait of Madame Hanska, and other illustrations.
Works on Balzac are very numerous, and some of them are of much
importance. Sainte-Beuve and Balzac fell out, and a furious dia-
tribe by the novelist on the critic is preserved ; but the latter's post-
mortem examination in Causeries du lundi, vol. ii., is not unfair,
though it could hardly be cordial. Gautier, who was a very intimate
and trusty friend of Balzac, has left an excellent study, mainly
personal, reprinted in his Portraits contemporains. Lamartine
produced a volume, not of much value, on Balzac in 1866; and
minor contemporaries Gozlan, Lemer, Champfleury supplied some-
thing. But the series of important studies of Balzac, based on the
whole of his work and not biased by friendship or enmity, begins
with Taine's Essay of 1858, reprinted in volume form, 1865. Even
then the CEuvres diverses were accessible only by immense labour
in the scattered originals, and the invaluable Correspondance not at
all. It was not till the reunion of all in the Edition definitive was
completed, that full study of man and work was possible. To this
edition itself was attached a sort of official critical introduction,
L'QLuvre de Balzac, by M. Marcel Barriere (1890). But this is largely
occupied by elaborate analyses of the different books, and the purely
critical part is small, and not of the first value. Better are M. Paul
Flat's Essais sur Balzac (2 vols., 1893-1894), which busy themselves
especially with tracing types of character. Important and new
biographical details (including the proper spelling of the name) were
jjiven in M. Edmond Eire's Honore de Balzac (1897). The Balzac
ignore of A. Cabanes (1899) is chiefly remarkable for its investiga-
tions of Balzac's fancy for occult studies, and the first part (Balzac
imprimeur) of MM. Hanotaux and Vicaire's La Jeunesse de Balzac
(1903) mentioned above, for its dealing with the printing business and
the intimacy with Madame de Berny. Two most important studies
of Balzac in French, are those of M. A. Le Breton, Balzac, I'homme
et VosHvre (1905), a somewhat severe, but critical and very well-
informed examination, and M. Ferdinand Brunetiere's Honore de
Balzac (1906), a brilliant but rather one-sided panegyric on the
subject as the evolver of the modern novel proper, and a realist and
observer par excellence. In English, translations of separate books
are innumerable; of the whole, besides that mentioned above, but
containing a few things there omitted, an American version by
Miss Wormeley and others may be mentioned. The most elaborate
monograph in English, till recently, was F. Wedmore's Balzac
(1887), with a useful bibliography up to the time. The recent
additions to our knowledge are utilized in Miss Mary F. Sandars'
Balzac (1904), a rather popular, but full and readable summary,
chiefly of the life, from all but the latest documents, and W. H.
Helm s Aspects of Balzac (1905), which is critical as well as anec-
dotic. The present writer, besides the critical and biographical
essays referred to above, prefixed a shorter one to a translation of
Les Chouans executed by himself in 1890. (G. SA.)
BALZAC, JEAN LOUIS GUEZ DE (1504-1654), French author,
was born at Angoule'me in 1594. At the age of eighteen he
travelled in Holland with Th6ophile de Viaud, with whom he later
exchanged bitter recriminations. He was early befriended by
the due d'Epernon and his son Louis, Cardinal de la Valette,
who took him to Rome. His letters written to his acquaintances
and to many who held a high position at the French court
gained for him a great reputation. Compliments were showered
upon him, he became an habitu6 of the H6tel de Rambouillet,
and his head appears to have been turned a little by his success.
Richelieu was lavish of praise and promises, but never offered
Balzac the preferment he expected. In 1624 a collection of his
Lettres was published, and was received with great favour.
From the chateau of Balzac, whither he had retired, he continued
to correspond with Jean Chapelain, Valentin Conrart and others.
In 1634 he was elected to the Academy. He died at Angouleme
on the 1 8th of February 1654. His fame rests chiefly upon the
Lettres, a second collection of which appeared in 1636. Recueil
de nomelles lettres was printed in the next year. His letters,
though empty and affected in matter, show a real mastery of
style, introducing a new clearness and precision into French
prose and encouraging the development of the language on
national lines by emphasizing its most idiomatic elements.
Balzac has thus the credit of executing in French prose a reform
parallel to Malherbe's in verse. In 1631 he published an eulogy
of Louis XIII. entitled Le Prince; in 1652 the Socrate chretien,
the best of his longer works; Arislippe ou de la Cour in 1658;
and several dissertations on style.
His CEuvres were collected (2 vols.) in 1665 by Valentine Conrart.
There are numerous English translations from Balzac, dating from
the I7th century.
BAM, a town of Persia in the province of Kerman, situated
115 m. S.E. of the city of Kerman at an elevation of 3600 ft.
on both banks of the river Bam. Pop. about 13,000. It is the
capital of the Bam-Narmashir district and has extensive groves
of date-palms and gardens. Outside the town stands the famous
citadel with walls 40 ft. in height. This citadel was, even as late
as the beginning of the igth century, the strongest fortified place
in Persia, and owed its strength to the Afghans who took Bam
in 1719 and were not finally expelled until 1801. Post and
telegraph offices have been established there since 1903.
BAMBERG, a town and archiepiscopal see of Germany, in
the kingdom of Bavaria. Pop. (1885) 31,521; (1005) 45,308.
It lies on an open plain on the river Regnitz, 2 m. above its
junction with the Main, and 39 m. north of Nuremberg by rail-
way. The upper town is built on seven hills, each crowned by
a church, while the lower, still partially surrounded by walls
and ditches, is divided by the river and Ludwigskanal into three
districts. The cathedral is a noble late Romanesque building
with four imposing towers. It was founded in 1004 by the
emperor Henry II., finished in 1012, afterwards partially burnt,
and rebuilt in the I3th century. Of its many works of art may
be mentioned the magnificent marble tomb of the founder and
his wife, the empress Cunigunde, carved by Tilman Riemen-
schneider between 1499 and 1513, and an equestrian statue of
the emperor Conrad III. Other noteworthy churches are the
Jakobskirche, an nth-century Romanesque basilica; the
St Martinskirche; the Marienkirche or Obere Pfarrkirche
(1320-1387), which has now been restored to its original pure
Gothic style. The Michaelskirche, 12th-century Romanesque
(restored), on the Michaelsberg, was formerly the church of a
Benedictine monastery secularized in 1803, which now contains
302
BAMBERGER BAMBOO
the Biirgerspital, or aims-house, and the museum and municipal
art collections. Of the bridges connecting the sections of the
lower town the most interesting is the Obere Briicke, completed
in 1455. Halfway across this, on an artificial island, is the
Rathaus (rebuilt 1744-1756). The royal lyceum, formerly a
Jesuit college, contains notable collections and the royal library
of over 300,000 volumes. The picturesque Old Palace (Alte
Residenz) was built in 1591 on the site of an old residence of
the counts of Babenberg. The New Palace (1698-1704) was
formerly occupied by the prince-bishops, and from 1864 to 1867
by the deposed King Otto of Greece. Noteworthy among the
monuments of the town is the Maximilian fountain (1880), with
statues of Maximilian I. of Bavaria, the emperor Henry II. and
his wife, Conrad III. and St Otto, bishop of Bamberg. At a
short distance from the town is the Altenburg (1266 ft.), a
castle occupied from 1251 onwards by the bishops of Bamberg.
It was destroyed in 1553 by Albert, margrave of Brandenburg,
but has been partly restored. The schools include the lyceum
for philosophy and Catholic theology (a survival of the university
suppressed in 1803), a seminary, two gymnasia, a Realschule,
and several technical schools, including one for porcelain-
painting. The industries of the town include cotton spinning
and weaving, silk spinning, the manufacture of tobacco, ropes,
metal-ware, furniture, &c. The market gardens of the neigh-
bourhood are famous, and there is a considerable shipping trade
by the river and the Ludwigskanal.
Bamberg, first mentioned in 902, grew up by the castle
(Babenberch) which gave its name to the Babenberg family
(q.v.). On their extinction it passed to the Saxon house, and in
1007 the emperor Henry II. founded the see. From the middle
of the I3th century onward the bishops were princes of the
Empire. The see was secularized in 1802 and in 1803 assigned
to Bavaria.
A brief history of the bishopric is given in the Catholic Encyclo-
paedia (London and New York, 1909), with bibliography. For
general and special works on the town see Ulysse Chevalier, Topo-
bibliographie (Montbeliard, 1894-1899), s. v.
BAMBERGER, LUDWI6 (1823-1899), German economist and
politician, was born of Jewish parents on the 22nd of July 1823
at Mainz. After studying at Giessen, Heidelberg and Gottingen,
he entered on the practice of the law. When the revolution of
1848 broke out he took an active part as one of the leaders of the
republican party in his native city, both as popular orator and as
editor of one of the local papers. In 1849 he took part in the
republican rising in the Palatinate and Baden; on the restoration
of order he was condemned to death, but he had escaped to
Switzerland. The next years he spent in exile, at first in London,
then in Holland; in 1852 he went to Paris, where, by means of
private connexions, he received an appointment in the bank of
Bischoffheim & Goldschmidt, of which he became managing
director, a post which he held till 1866. During these years he
saved a competence and gained a thorough acquaintance with
the theory and practice of finance. This he put to account when
the amnesty of 1866 enabled him to return to Germany. He was
elected a member of the Reichstag, where he joined the National
Liberal party, for like many other exiles he was willing to accept
the results of Bismarck's work. In 1868 he published a short life
of Bismarck in French, with the object of producing a better
understanding of German affairs, and in 1870, owing to his
intimate acquaintance with France and with finance, he was
summoned by Bismarck to Versailles to help in the discussion of
terms of peace. In the German Reichstag he was the leading
authority on matters of finance and economics, as well as a clear
and persuasive speaker, and it was chiefly owing to him that a
gold currency was adopted and that the German Imperial Bank
took its present form; in his later years he wrote and spoke
strongly against bimetallism. He was the leader of the free
traders, and after 1878 refused to follow Bismarck in his new
policy of protection, state socialism and colonial development ;
in a celebrated speech he declared that the day on which it was
introduced was a dies nefaslus for Germany. True to his free
trade principles he and a number of followers left the National
Liberal party and formed the so-called " Secession " in 1880. He
was one of the few prominent politicians who consistently main-
tained the struggle against state socialism on the one hand and
democratic socialism on the other. In 1892 he retired from poli-
tical life and died in 1899. Bamberger was a clear and attractive
writer and was a frequent contributor on political and economic
questions to the Nation and other periodicals. His most important
works are those on the currency, on the French war-indemnity,
his criticism of socialism and his apology for the Secession.
An edition of his collected works (including the French life of
Bismarck) was published in 1894 in five volumes. After his death
in 1899 appeared a volume of reminiscences, which, though it does
not extend beyond 1866, gives an interesting picture of his share in
the revolution of 1848, and of his life in Paris. (J. W. HE.)
BAMBINO, IL (Ital. for " the Babe "), the name given in art
to the image of the infant Jesus in swaddling clothes common
in Roman Catholic churches. The most famous is the miracle-
working Santissimo Bambino in the church of Ara Coeli at
Rome, the festival of which is celebrated on the feast of the
Epiphany (January 6).
BAMBOO, the popular name for a tribe of grasses, Bambuseae,
which are large, often tree-like, with woody stems. The stems
spring from an underground root-stock and are often crowded
to form dense clumps; the largest species reach 120 ft. in
FIG. I. Bambusa arundinacea, an Indian bamboo, i, Leafy
shoot. 2, Branch of inflorescence, i nat. size. 3, Spikelet. 4, Flower.
height. The slender stem is hollow, and, as generally in grasses,
has well-marked joints or nodes, at which the cavity is closed by
a strong diaphragm. The branches are numerous and in some
species spiny; the narrow, often short, leaf -blade is usually
jointed at the base and has a short stalk, by which it is attached to
the long sheath. The spikelets are usually many-flowered and
variously arranged in racemes or panicles. The flower differs
from that of the majority of grasses in having usually three
lodicules and six stamens. Many species bloom annually, but
others only at intervals sometimes of many years, when the
individuals of one and the same species are found in bloom over
large areas. Thus on the west coast of India the simultaneous
blooming of Bambusa arundinacea (fig. i), one of the largest
species, has been observed at intervals of thirty -two years. After
ripening of the seed, the leafless flowering culms always die down.
The Bambuseae contain twenty-three genera and occur through-
out the tropical zone, but very unevenly distributed; they also
extend into the sub-tropical and even into the temperate zone.
Tropical Asia is richest in species; in Africa there are very few.
In Asia they extend into Japan and to 10,000 ft. or more on the
BAMBURGH
303
Himalayas; and in the Andes of South America they reach the
snow-line.
The fruit in Bambusa, Arundinaria and other genera resembles
the grain generally characteristic of grasses, but in Dendrocalamus
and others it is a nut, while rarely, as in Melocanna, it is fleshy and
suggests an apple in size and appearance. The uses to which all
the parts and products of the bamboo are applied in Oriental
countries are almost endless. The soft and succulent shoots, when
just beginning to spring, are cut off and served up at table like
asparagus. Like that vegetable, also, they are earthed over to
keep them longer fit for consumption; and they afford a con-
tinuous supply during the whole year, though it is more abundant
in autumn. They are also salted and eaten with rice, prepared
in the form of pickles or candied and preserved in sugar. As the
plant grows older, a species of fluid is secreted in the hollow joints,
in which a concrete substance once highly valued in the East for
its medicinal qualities, called tabaxir or tabascheer, is gradually
developed. This substance, which has been found to be a purely
siliceous concretion, is possessed of peculiar optical properties.
As a medicinal agent the bamboo is entirely inert, and it has
never been received into the European materia medica.
The grains of the
bamboo are available
for food, and the
Chinese have a proverb
that it produces seed
more abundantly in
years when the rice
crop fails, which means,
probably, that in times
of dearth the natives
look more after such a
source of food. The
Hindus eat it mixed
with honey as a deli-
cacy, equal quantities
being put into a hollow
joint, coated externally
with clay, and thus
roasted over a fire.
The fleshly fruit of
Melocanna is baked
and eaten. The plant
is a native of India, but
is sometimes cultivated
as in Mauritius. It is,
however, the stem of
the bamboo which is
applied to the greatest
variety of uses. Joints of sufficient size form water buckets;
smaller ones are used as bottles, and among the Dyaks of
Borneo they are employed as cooking vessels. Bamboo is
extensively used as a timber wood, and houses are frequently
made entirely out of the products of the plant; complete
sections of the stem form posts or columns; split up, it serves for
floors or rafters; and, interwoven in lattice- work, it is employed
for the sides of rooms, admitting light and air. The roof is
sometimes of bamboo solely, and when split, which is accom-
plished with the greatest ease, it can be formed into laths or
planks. It is employed in shipping of all kinds; some of the
strongest plants are selected for masts of boats of moderate
size, and the masts of larger vessels are sometimes formed by
the union of several bamboos built up and joined together.
The bamboo is employed in the construction of all kinds of
agricultural and domestic implements and in the materials
and implements required in fishery. Bows are made of it
by the union of two pieces with many bands; and, the
septa being bored out and the lengths joined together, it
is employed, as we use leaden pipes, in transmitting water to
reservoirs or gardens. From the light and slender stalks shafts
for arrows are obtained; and in the south-west of Asia there is
a certain species of equally slender growth, from which writing-
FIG. 2. Bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris),
very much reduced. Grows 20 to 50 ft
high.
pens or reeds are made. A joint forms a holder for papers or
pens, and it was in a joint of bamboo that silk-worm eggs were
carried from China to Constantinople during the reign of
Justinian. The outer cuticle of Oriental species is so hard that
it forms a sharp and durable cutting edge, and it is so siliceous
that it can be used as a whetstone. This outer cuticle, cut into
thin strips, is one of the most durable and beautiful materials
for basket-making, and both in China and Japan it is largely so
employed. Strips are also woven into cages, chairs, beds and
other articles of furniture, Oriental wicker-work in bamboo being
unequalled for beauty and neatness of workmanship. In China
the interior portions of the stem are beaten into a pulp and used
for the manufacture of the finer varieties of paper. Bamboos
are imported to a considerable extent into Europe for the use of
basket-makers, and for umbrella and walking-sticks. In short,
the purposes to which the bamboo is applicable are almost
endless, and well justify the opinion that " it is one of the most
wonderful and most beautiful productions of the tropics, and
one of Nature's most valuable gifts to uncivilized man " (A. R.
Wallace, The Malay Archipelago).
A number of species of bamboo are hardy under cultivation in
the British Isles. A useful and interesting account of these
and their cultivation will be found in the Bamboo Garden, by
A. B. Freeman-Mitford. They are mostly natives of China and
Japan and belong to the genera Arundinaria, Bambusa and
Phyttostachys; but include a few Himalayan species of Arundi-
naria. They may be propagated by seed (though owing to the
rare occurrence of fruit, this method is seldom applicable), by
division and by cuttings. They are described as hungry plants
which well repay generous treatment, and will flourish in a rich,
not too stiff loam, and for the first year or two should be well
mulched. They should be sheltered- from winds and well watered
during the growing period. When being transplanted the roots
must be disturbed as little as possible. The following may be
mentioned; Arundinaria simoni, a fine plant which in the
bamboo garden at Kew has reached 18 ft. in height, and not
infrequently flowers and fruits in Britain; A. japonica, a tall
and handsome plant generally grown in gardens under the name
Bambusa metake; A. nitida, " by far the daintiest and most
attractive of all its genus, and remarkably hardy "; Bambusa
palmata, with leaves a foot or more long and three inches
broad; B. tesselata; B. quadrangularis, remarkable for its
square stems; Phylloslachys mitis, growing to 60 ft. high in
its native home, China and Japan; and P. nigra, so called from
the black stem, a handsome species.
BAMBURGH, or BAMBOROUGH, a village in the Berwick-upon-
Tweed parliamentary division of Northumberland, England, on
the sea-coast, 25 m. E. of Belford station on the North Eastern
railway, and 54 m. N. of Newcastle. It was a royal borough
previous to the Norman Conquest and returned two members to
parliament in the reign of Edward I. Its ancient castle occupies
a magnificent position close to the sea on an almost perpendicular
rock, 150 ft. in height, accessible only on the south-east side.
The first erection is ascribed by the Saxon chronicles to King
Ida of Northumberland. The castle buildings are of various
dates from the Norman period and are of great strength and
dignity. They include a massive keep and the remains of an
apsidal chapel dedicated to St Peter. In the village, the church
is dedicated to St Aidan, who was bishop of Lindisfarne or Holy
Island, which lies off the coast to the north, about 634. It is
a fine cruciform building, mainly of Early English date, with a
crypt beneath the chancel. In the churchyard is a monument
to Grace Darling (1815-1842), the brave rescuer of some of the
crew of the ship " Forfarshire " in 1838. The Longstone
Lighthouse, where her father was keeper, stands on an outer
rock of the Fame Islands, which stretch north-eastward for 6 m.
from the coast at Bamburgh.
The town of Bamburgh (Bebbanburgh) sprang up round the
ancient castle. During the struggle for the crown between
William Rufus and Robert of Normandy, Bamburgh was
besieged by William, who, rinding the defence too strong,
erected and garrisoned a new castle before Bamburgh called
304
BAMBUTE BAMIAN
" Malveisin " or " Evil neighbour." Earl Robert of North-
umberland, who was in command of Bamburgh, having been
defeated in a sally, the castle surrendered to William in November
1095. The first mention of Bamburgh as a borough does not
occur until 1169, when the men paid i\ marks to an aid. Henry
III. by charter of 1254-1255 granted the burgesses their town
at an annual fee farm rent of 26 marks, of which they were
acquitted in 1318 and 1327 " on account of the robberies and
fires inflicted on them by the Scots." Edward III. in 1332
confirmed the charter of Henry III., and granted further that
the town should be a free borough governed by four bailiffs,
that it should be enclosed by a wall and that the burgesses
should have a gild merchant. He also altered the market-day
from Sunday to Wednesday, and gave licence for the fairs,
which had been held " from time immemorial " on the feasts of
SS. Oswald and Aidan, to continue for three extra days. During
the Scottish wars of the reign of Henry V., Bamburgh again
suffered severely, so much so that in 1439 the burgesses had
decreased in number from 120 to 13. These again petitioned
for a remission of their farm, which in 1446 was reduced to 10
yearly. Bamburgh was twice taken by the Yorkists in the
Wars of the Roses and twice recovered by Queen Margaret.
In 1463, after it had been recovered a second time by the queen,
Henry VI. stayed there for a year, but after the battle of Hexham
it was again taken by the Yorkists, and the castle and town
were then so much injured that from that time there is no
mention of the burgesses or their privileges. Bamburgh returned
two members to parliament in 1295 and again in Edward III.'s
reign, but since then has never been represented. In 1384
Lord Neville received licence to dig for sea-coal in Bamburgh,
and mines of coal and lead existed there as late as 1681.
BAMBUTE (sometimes incorrectly called BATWA), a race of
pygmies of the Semliki Forest, on the western borders of the
Uganda Protectorate between Albert Nyanza and Albert
Edward Nyanza. They probably form merely a branch of the
pygmy race of Equatorial Africa, represented farther west by
H. von Wissmann's Batwa (q.v.). Their complexion varies
from reddish-yellow to brownish-black, with head-hair often of
a russet-brown, and body-hair, black and bristly on upper lip,
chin, chest, axillae and pubes, yellowish and fleecy on cheeks,
back and limbs. Their average height is 4 ft. 9 in. Even when
forced to keep clean, their skins give out a rancid odour, some-
thing (Sir H. H. Johnston says) between the smell of a monkey
and a negro. Their faces are remarkable for the long upper lip,
and the bridgeless nose with enormous alae (the cartilage of
the nose above the nostrils). Like the Batwa they are nomad
hunters, building only huts of sticks and leaves, and living in
the forest, where they hunt the largest game with no weapon
but a tiny bow from which they shoot poisoned arrows. Sir
H. H. Johnston states that the Bambute have a good idea of
drawing, and with a sharpened stick can sketch in sand or mud
the beasts and birds known to them. The Bambute do not
tattoo or scar, nor have they any love of ornament, wearing no
ear-rings, necklets, anklets, &c. The upper incisors and canines
are sharpened to a point. In the forests they go quite naked.
They speak a corrupted form of the dialects of their negro
neighbours. They have a peculiar way of singing their words.
Their voices are low and musical and the pronunciation is
singularly staccato, every syllable being separately uttered.
They show no trace of spirit or ancestor worship, but have some
idea that thunder, lightning and rain are manifestations of an
Evil Power, and that the dead are reincarnated in the red
bush-pig. They have no tribal government, accepting as
temporary lawgiver some adept hunter. Marriage is by pur-
chase; polygamy seems to exist, but the domestic affections
are strong. The dead are buried in dug graves, and food,
tobacco and weapons are often placed with the corpse. The
Bambute are very musical, though they are uninventive as
regards instruments. They have many songs which they sing
well and they dance with spirit.
See A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies (Eng. edit. 1895) ; Sir H. H.
Johnston, Uganda Protectorate (1902).
BAMFORD, SAMUEL (1788-1872), English labour politician,
was born at Miston, near Middleton, Lancashire, on the 28th
of February 1788. Himself a stalwart weaver, he was opposed
to physical force movements and did all he could to restrain
the violent resistance to trade oppression which was so common ;
yet through attending and speaking at the meeting (1819) at
Peterloo, Manchester (q.v.), which was intended to be a peaceful
gathering to petition for Parliamentary reform and a repeal of
the Corn Law but ended in a massacre, he was arrested for a
breach of the law, convicted and sentenced to twelve months'
imprisonment. He was the author of several widely popular
poems (principally in the Lancashire dialect) showing sympathy
with the conditions of his class, and his Passages in the Life of a
Radical (1840-1844) is an authoritative history of the condition
of the working classes in the years succeeding the battle of
Waterloo. He died at Harpurhey on the I3th of April 1872.
and was accorded a public funeral, attended by thousands.
BAMIAN, a once renowned city of Afghanistan, situated about
80 m. N.W. of Kabul. Its remains lie in a valley of the Hazara
country, on the chief road from Kabul towards Turkestan, and
immediately at the northern foot of that prolongation of the
Indian Caucasus now called Koh-i-Baba. The passes on the
Kabul side are not less than 11,000 and 12,000 ft. in absolute
height, and those immediately to the north but little inferior.
The height of the valley was fixed at about 8500 ft., and the
surrounding country carefully surveyed by Major Pelham J.
Maitland and the Hon. M. G. Talbot, during the progress of the
Russo-Afghan Boundary Commission in November 1885. The
river draining the valley is one of the chief sources of the Sarkhab
(Surkhab) or Aksarai, an important tributary of the Upper Oxus.
The prominences of the cliffs which line the valley are crowned
by the remains of numerous massive towers, whilst their pre-
cipitous faces are for 6 or 7 m. pierced by an infinity of ancient
cave-dwellings, some of which are still occupied. The actual
site of the old city is marked by mounds and remains of walls,
and on an isolated rock in the middle of the valley are consider-
able ruins of what appears to have been the acropolis, now known
to the people as Ghulgulah. But the most famous remains at
Bamian are two colossal standing idols, carved in the cliffs on the
north side of the valley. They are 173 ft. and 120 ft. high
respectively. These images, which have been much injured,
apparently by cannon-shot, are cut in niches in the rock, and both
images and niches have been coated with stucco. There is an
inscription, not yet interpreted, over the greater idol, and on each
side of its niche are staircases leading to a chamber near the head,
which shows traces of elaborate ornamentation in azure and
gilding. These chambers are used by the amir as store-houses for
grain. The surface of the niches also has been painted with
figures. In one of the branch valleys is a similar colossus, some-
what inferior in size to the second of these two; and there are
indications of other niches and idols. Chahilburj, 28 m. from
Zari, on the road to Balkh by the Balkhab, at the east end of the
Sokhtagi valley; Shahr-i-Babar, about 45 m. above Chahil-
burj; and Gawargin, 6 m. above Shahr-i-Babar, are all
fortified sites of about the same age as the relics at Bamian. At
Haibak there is a very perfect excavation called the Takht-i-
Rustam (a general name for all incomprehensible constructions
amongst the modern inhabitants of Afghan Turkestan), which
consists of an annular ditch enclosing a platform, with a small
house about 21 ft. square above it, all cut out of the solid rock.
There are hundreds of caves in this neighbourhood, all pointing
to a line of Buddhist occupation connecting Balkh with Kabul.
As seen from the rock of Ghulgulah, Bamian, with its ruined
towers, its colossi, its innumerable grottos, and with the singular
red colour of its barren soil, presents an impressive aspect of
desolation and mystery.
That the idols of Bamian, about which so many conjectures
have been uttered, were Buddhist figures, is ascertained from
the narrative of the Chinese pilgrim, Hsiian-Tsang, who saw
them in their splendour in A.D. 630, and was verified by the
officers above named, who discovered other Buddhist caves and
excavations in the valleys of the Balkhab and Sarikol.
BAMPTON BAN
305
Still vaster than these was a recumbent figure, 2 m. east of
Bamian, representing Sakya Buddha entering Nirvana, i.e. in
act of death. This was " about 1000 ft. in length." No traces
of this are alluded to by modern travellers, but in all likelihood
it was only formed of rubble plastered (as is the case still with
such Nirvana figures in Indo-China) and of no durability. For
a city so notable Bamian has a very obscure history. It does not
seem possible to identify it with any city in classical geography:
Alexandria ad Caucasum it certainly was not. The first known
mention of it seems to be that by Hsuan-Tsang, at a time when
apparently it had already passed its meridian, and was the head
of one of the small states into which the empire of the White
Huns had broken up. At a later period Bamian was for half a
century, ending A.D. 1214, the seat of a branch of the Ghori
dynasty, ruling over Tokharistan, or the basin of the Upper Oxus.
The place was long besieged, and finally annihilated (1222) by
Jenghiz Khan, whose wrath was exasperated at the death of a
favourite grandson by an arrow from its walls. There appears
to be no further record of Bamian as a city; but the character
of ruins at Ghulgulah agrees with traditions on the spot in
indicating that the city must have been rebuilt after the time of
the Mongols and again perished. In 1840, during the British
occupation of Kabul, Bamian was the scene of an action in which
Colonel William H. Dennie with a small force routed Dost
Mahommed Khan, accompanied by a number of Uzbeg chiefs.
See Hon. M. G. Talbot, " The Rock-cut Caves and Statues of
Bamian," Journal R. Austral. Soc. vol. xviii. part 3 ; and J. A. Gray,
At the Court of the Amir (1895). (T. H. H.*)
BAMPTON, JOHN (c. 1690-1751), English divine, was a member
of Trinity College, Oxford, where he graduated M.A. in 1712,
and for some time canon of Salisbury. He died on the 2nd of
June 1751, aged 61. His will directs that eight lectures shall
be delivered annually at Oxford in the University Church on as
many Sunday mornings in full term, " between the commence-
ment of the last month in Lent term and the end of the third
week in Act term, upon either of the following subjects: to
confirm and establish the Christian faith, and to confute all
heretics and schismatics; upon the divine authority of the Holy
Scriptures; upon the authority of the writings of the primitive
fathers, as to the faith and practice of the primitive Church;
upon the divinity of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ; upon
the divinity of the Holy Ghost; upon the articles of the Christian
faith as comprehended in the Apostles' and Nicene Creeds."
The lecturer, who must be at least a Master of Arts of Oxford or
Cambridge, was formerly chosen yearly by the heads of colleges,
on the fourth Tuesday in Easter term, and no one can be chosen
a second time. The series of lectures began in 1 780, and is still
continued, though since 1895 elections are only made in alternate
years through a depreciation of the revenue of the fund. The
endowment provides 120 for each lecturer, and the lectures
have to be published within two months of their delivery.
Among the lecturers have been Heber in 1815 (The Personality
and Office of the Christian Comforter); R. Whately in 1822 (Party
Feeling in Religion); R. D. Hampden in 1832 (The Scholastic
Philosophy in relation to Christian Theology) ; E. M. Goulburn in
1850 (The Resurrection of the Body); H. L. Mansel in 1858 (The
Limits of Religious Thought) ; H. P. Liddon in 1866 (The Divinity
of our Lord); E. Hatch in 1880 (The Organization of the Early
Christian Churches); C. Bigg in 1886 (Christian Platonisls of
Alexandria); C. Gore in 1891 (The Incarnation); W. Sanday in
1893 (Inspiration) ; J. R. Illingworth in 1894 (Personality, Human
and Divine); W. R. Inge in 1899 (Christian Mysticism), &c. A
complete list is given in the Oxford Historical Register. The
institution has done much to preserve a high standard in English
theology; and the lectures as a whole form a historically interest-
ing collection of apologetic literature.
BAM PUR, a town of Persia, in the province of Baluchistan,
330 m. S.E. of Kerman, in 27 12' N., 60 24' E., at an elevation
of 1720 ft. Pop. about 2000. It is the capital of the province
and situated on the banks of the Bampur river which flows from
east to west and empties itself about 70 m. W. into a hamun,
or depression, 50 m. in length, and called Jaz-morian. The old
citadel of Bampur which crowned an elevation about 100 ft.
in height, 3 m. north of the river, having completely fallen in
ruins, a new fort called Kalah Nasseri, was built at Fahraj,
15 m. further east, in the eighties; and Fahraj, which now has a
population of about 2500, has become more important than
BampQr. Fahraj, which is also known as Pahura, Paharu,
Puhra, is by some identified as the Poura where Alexander the
Great halted on his march from India, but others are more in
favour of another Fahraj near Bam, or even of Bampur itself.
BAMRA, a feudatory state of India, in the province of Bengal.
Area 1988 sq. m.; pop. (1001) 123,378; estimated revenue
5000; tribute 100. Most of the country is forest, producing
only timber and lac but said to be rich in iron ore. The northern
border is touched by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, with a station
at Bamra town. The state is one of the five Uriya feudatories,
which were transferred from the Central Provinces to Bengal,
on the reconstitution of that province in October 1905. The
capital is Deogarh.
BAN, a word taken from the root of a verb common to many
Teutonic languages and meaning originally " to proclaim " or
" to announce." The Late Lat. form of the word is bannum.
In the laws of the Franks and kindred tribes the word had
three main uses: first in the general sense of a proclamation,
secondly, for the fine incurred for disobeying such proclamation,
and thirdly for the district over which proclamations were issued.
It was the frequent use of proclamations or bans, commanding
or forbidding certain actions under a threat of punishment,
which caused the second of these uses to arise out of the first,
as the idea of wrong-doing became associated with the proclama-
tion or ban. This bannum dominicum, as it was called, was
employed by all feudal lords, from the king downwards, against
offenders, and played an important part in the administration
of justice in feudal times. It usually took the form of an order
to make some amend for wrong-doing, which, if not complied
with, was followed by the withdrawal of all protection from the
offender, i.e. by outlawry.
After the break-up of the Carolingian empire another use of
the word arose in France. " Ban " had occasionally been used in
a restricted sense referring only to the summons calling out the
host; and as France became separated from the Empire, French
law and custom seized upon this use, and soon the men liable
to military service were known as " the ban." A variant form
of this word was heriban or ariban, and it is possible that some
confusion between the early syllables of this word and the word
arriere led to a distinction between the ban and the arriere-ban
or retro-bannum. At all events this distinction arose; the ban
referring to the vassals called out by the king, and the arriere-ban
to the sub-vassals called upon by the vassals in their turn. As
in England, the liability to military service was often commuted
for a monetary payment, and there were various exemptions. In
the i7th and i8th centuries the ban and arriere-ban were lacking
in discipline when called out, and were last summoned in 1758.
Local levies, however, called out between this date and the
Revolution were sometimes referred to by these names.
In the medieval Empire and in Germany the word ' 'ban" retained
the special sense of punishment. The German equivalent of ban
is Acht, and the sentence soon became practically one of outlawry.
Connected possibly with the power enjoyed in earlier times by
the assemblies of freemen of outlawing an offender, it was fre-
quently used by the emperor, or German king, and the phrase
" under the ban " is very common in medieval history. The
execution of this sentence of placing an offender under the
imperial ban, or Reichsacht, was usually entrusted to some prince
or noble, who was often rewarded with a portion of the outlaw's
lands. It was, however, only a serious punishment when the
king or his supporters were strong enough to enforce its execu-
tion. Employed not only against individuals but also against
towns and districts, it was sometimes divided into the Acht and
the Oberacht, i.e. partial or complete outlawry. Documents
of the time show that the person placed under the imperial ban
drew down absolute destitution upon his relatives and frequently
death upon himself. At first this sentence was the act of the
306
BANANA BANAT
emperor or king himself, but as the Empire became more German,
and its administration less personal, it was entrusted to the
imperial aulic council (Reichshofrat), and to the imperial court of
justice or imperial chamber (Reichskammergericht). These courts
were deprived of this power in 1711, retaining only the right of
suggesting its use. The imperial ban had, however, been used
for the last time in 1706, when Maximilian Emanuel, elector
of Bavaria, was placed under it.
There are many other uses of the word in the sense of a pro-
hibition. In earlier French law the ban of wine or bannum vini,
was the exclusive right of a lord to sell wine during a stated
number of days, and the ban of March and April forbade the
pasturing of cattle in certain fields during these months. There
were also other similar uses dating from feudal times. In modern
French law the phrase rupture de ban described, previous to 1885,
the departure without notice of any released criminal living
under the special surveillance of the police. The French govern-
ment still retains the rights of appointing an obligatory place
of residence for any criminal, and any escape from this place
is a rupture de ban. A Scandinavian use of the word gives it the
sense of a curse. This usage mingling with the use which
spiritual lords shared with temporal lords of issuing the ban over
their dependents, has become in a special sense ecclesiastical,
and the sentence of excommunication is frequently referred to
as " under the papal ban." The word is also used in this way by
Shakespeare and Milton. The modern English use of the phrase
" under the ban " refers to any line of conduct condemned by
custom or public opinion. In its earlier and general sense as
a proclamation, the ban may be said to have been suspended
by the writ. The word, however, survives in the sense of a
proclamation in the " banns of marriage " (q.v.).
The Persian word ban, meaning lord or master, was brought
into Europe by the Avars. It was long used in many parts of
south-eastern Europe, especially in southern Hungary, to denote
the governors of military districts called banats, and is almost
equivalent to the German margrave. After enjoying very ex-
tensive powers the bans were gradually reduced, both in numbers
and importance. Since 1868, however, the governor of Croatia
and Slavonia has been known as the ban of Croatia, Slavonia
and Dalmatia, but his duties are civil and not military. He is
appointed by the emperor of Austria, as king of Hungary, and
has a seat in the upper house of the Hungarian parliament.
See Du Cange, Glossarium, tome i. (Niort, 1883); H. Brunner,
Grundzuge der deulschen Rechtsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1901); E. P.
Boutaric, Institutions militaires de la France (Paris, 1863); Pere G.
Daniel, Histoire de la milice fran^aise (Paris, 1721).
BANANA, a gigantic herbaceous plant belonging to the genus
Musa (nat. ord. Musaceae): It is perennial, sending up from an
'underground root-stock an apparent stem 15 or 20 ft. high,
consisting of the closely-enveloped leaf-sheaths, the correspond-
ing blades, each sometimes 10 ft. in length, forming a spreading
crown. A true stem develops at the flowering period; it grows
up through the hollow tube formed by the sheaths, emerges above
and bears a large number of inconspicuous tubular flowers closely
crowded in the axils of large, often brightly-coloured, protecting
bracts. The fruits form dense clusters.
The genus Musa contains about 40 species, widely distributed
throughout the tropics of the Old World, and in some cases
introduced into the New World. In many parts of the tropics they
are as important to the inhabitants as are the grain plants to
those living in cooler regions. They are most successfully culti-
vated in a hot, damp, tropical climate. The northern limit of
their cultivation (usually Musa Cavendishii) is reached in Florida,
south of 29 lat, the Canary Islands, Egypt and south Japan, the
southern limit in Natal and south Brazil. There has been con-
siderable discussion as to whether the banana was growing in
America before the discovery of the New World. It has been
suggested that it may have been carried by ocean currents or in
some earlier intercourse between the Old and New Worlds. The
evidence, however, of its existence in America at the time of the
discovery of the new continent is not very definite. The unripe
fruit is rich in starch, which in ripening changes into sugar. The
Banana (Musa sapientum}.
most generally used fruits are derived from Musa paradisiaca, of
which an enormous number of varieties and forms exist in
cultivation. The sub-species sapientum (formerly regarded as a
distinct species M . sapientum) is the source of the fruits generally
known in England as bananas, and eaten raw, while the name
plantain is given to forms of
the species itself M. para-
disiaca, which require cooking.
The species is probably a native
of India and southern Asia.
Other species which are used
as fruits are M. acuminala in
the Malay Archipelago, M. Fehi
in Tahiti, and M. Cavendishii,
the so-called Chinese banana, in
cooler countries; the fruit of
the last-named has a thinner
rind and a delicate, fragrant
flesh. The species, the fruits of
which require cooking, are of
much greater importance as an
article of food. These often
reach a considerable size ;
forms are known in East
Africa which attain nearly 2 ft.
in length with the thickness of
a man's arm. A form of M.
corniculata, from Cochin China and the Malay Archipelago, pro-
duces only a single fruit, which, however, affords an adequate
meal for three men. The hardly-ripe fruit is stewed whole or
cut in slices and roasted or baked.
Banana-meal is ah important food-stuff; the fruit is peeled
and cut in strips, which are then dried and pounded in a mortar.
In East Africa and 'elsewhere, an intoxicating drink is prepared
from the fruit. The root-stock which bears the leaves is, just
before the flowering period, soft and full of starch, and is some-
times used as food, as in the case of the Abyssinian species,
M. Ensete.
The leaves cut in strips are plaited to form mats and bags;
they are also largely used for packing a"nd the finer ones for
cigarette papers. Several species yield a valuable fibre, the best
of which is " Manila hemp " (q.v.) from M. textilis.
The following is the composition of the flour, according to
Hutchison: water, 13%; proteid, 4%; fat, 0-5%; carbo-
hydrates, 80%; salts, 2-5%. It would require about eighty
bananas of average size to yield the amount of energy required
daily, and about double that number to yield the necessary
amount of proteid. Hence the undue abdominal development
of those who live mainly on this article of diet (Hutchison). In
recent years the cultivation of the banana in Jamaica for the
American and also for the English market has been greatly
developed.
BAN AS, or BUNAS, the name of three rivers of India, (i) A
river of Rajputana, which rises in the Aravalli range in Udaipur,
drains the Udaipur valley, and after a course of 300 m. flows into
the Chambal. (2) A river of the Shahabad district of Bengal,
which forms the drainage channel between the Arrah canal and
the Sone canals system, and finally falls into the Gangi nadi.
(3) A river of Chota Nagpur in Bengal, which rises in the state
of Chang Bhakar and falls into the Sone near Rampur.
BANAT (Hungarian Bdnsdg), a district in the south-east of
Hungary, consisting of the counties of Torontal, Temes and
Krasso-Szoreny. The term, in Hungarian, means generally a
frontier province governed by a ban and is equivalent to the
German term Mark. There were in Hungary several banats,
which disappeared during the Turkish wars, as the banat of
Dalmatia, of Slavonia, of Bosnia and of Croatia. But when the
word is used without any other qualification, it indicates the
Temesvar banat, which strangely acquired this title after the
peace of Passarowitz (1718), though it was never governed by a
ban. The Banat is bounded E. by the Transylvanian Alps, S. by
the Danube, W. by the Theiss and N. by the Maros, and has an
BANATE BANCROFT, G.
307
area of 1 1,260 sq. m. It is mountainous in the south and south-
east, while in the north, west and south-west it is flat and in
some places marshy. The climate, except in the marshy parts,
is generally healthy. It is well-watered, and forms one of the
most fertile districts of Hungary. Wheat, barley, .oats, rye,
maize, flax, hemp and tobacco are grown in large quantities, and
the products of the vineyards are of a good quality. Game is
plentiful and the rivers swarm with fish. The mineral wealth is
great, including copper, tin, lead, zinc, iron and especially coal.
Amongst its numerous mineral springs, the most important are
those of Mehadia, with sulphurous waters, which were already
known in the Roman period as the Thermae Herculis. The
Banat had in 1900 a population of 1,431,329 inhabitants.
According to nationality there were 578,789 Rumanians, 362,487
Germans, 251,938 Servians and 170,124 Magyars. The chief
town is Temesvar (pop. 53,033), and other places of importance
are Versecz (25,199), Lugos (16,126), Nagybecskerek (26,407),
Nagykikinda (24,843) and Pancsova (19,044).
The Banat was conquered by the Turks in 1552, and remained
a Turkish sanjak (province) till 1716, when Prince Eugene of
Savoy liberated it from the Turkish yoke. It received the title
of Banat after the peace of Passarowitz (1718), and remained
under a military administration until 1751, when Maria Theresa
introduced a civil administration. During the Turkish occupa-
tion the district was nearly depopulated, and allowed to lie almost
desolate in marsh and heath and forest. Count Claudius Mercy
(1666-1734), who was appointed governor of Temesvar in 1720,
took numerous measures for the regeneration of the Banat. The
marshes near the Danube and Theiss were cleared, roads and
canals were built at great expense of labour, German artisans and
other settlers were attracted to colonize the district, and agricul-
ture and trade encouraged. Maria Theresa also took a great
interest in the Banat, colonized the land belonging to the crown
with German peasants, founded many villages, encouraged the
exploitation of the mineral wealth of the country, and generally
developed the measures introduced by Mercy. In 1779 the Banat
was again incorporated with Hungary. After the revolution of
1848-1849, the Banat together with another county (Bacs) was
separated from Hungary, and created into a distinctive Austrian
crown land, but in 1860 it was definitely incorporated with
Hungary.
See Leonhard Bohm, Geschichte des Temeser Banats (2 vols.,Leipzig,
1861); Johann Heinrich Schwicker, Geschichte des Temeser Banats
(Pest, 1872).
BANATE (a corruption of Panaiti, their real name), or BAN-
NOCK, as they are now usually called, a tribe of North American
Indians of Shoshonean stock. They were sometimes known
as " Robber Indians." Their former range was southern Idaho
and eastern Oregon. They are now divided between the Fort
Hall and Lemhi reservations, Idaho. They were generally
friendly with the whites, but in 1866 and in 1877-78 there
were serious outbreaks. They number about 500.
BANBRIDGE, a town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the west
parliamentary division, on the Bann, 23 m. S.W. of Belfast on a
branch of the Great Northern railway, standing on an eminence.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 5006. To mitigate a steep ascent,
a central carriage-way, 200 yds, long, is cut along the main
street to a depth of 15 ft., the opposite terraces being connected
by a bridge. Banbridge is an entirely modern town. It is the
principal seat of the linen trade in the county, and has extensive
cloth and thread factories, bleachfields and chemical works. A
memorial in Church Square commemorates the Franklin
expedition to the discovery of the North-West Passage, and in
particular Captain Francis Crozier, who was born at Banbridge
in 1796 and served on the expedition.
BANBURY, a market-town and municipal borough in the
Banbury parliamentary division of Oxfordshire, England, on
the river Cherwell and the Oxford canal, 86 m. N.W. of London
by the northern line of the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901
12,968. The canal communicates northward with the Grand
Junction and Warwick canals, and there are branch lines of the
Great Central railway to the main line at Woodford, and of the
London & North-Western railway to Bletchley. The town is
the centre of a rich agricultural district, and there is a large
manufacture of agricultural implements; while other industries
include rope and leather works and brewing. Banbury cakes,
consisting of a case of pastry containing a mixture of currants,
have a reputation of three centuries' standing. A magnificent
Gothic parish church was destroyed by fire and gunpowder in 1 700
to make way for a building of little merit in Italian style. The
ancient Banbury Cross, celebrated in a familiar nursery rhyme,
was destroyed by Puritans in 1610. During the I7th century the
inhabitants of Banbury seem to have been zealous Puritans,
and are frequently satirized by contemporary dramatists. At
a somewhat earlier period the grammar school, now extinct, was
of such repute as to be chosen as the model for the constitution
of the school of St Paul's. A school of science was erected in
1861, and there is a municipal secondary and technical school.
Some fine old timbered houses remain in the streets. Of the
castle built in 1125 there are only the barest traces. Wroxton
Abbey, 2 m. N.W., shows slight remains of the original Augustinian
priory; but the present beautiful gabled building, picturesquely
situated, dates mainly from 1618. Broughton Castle, 2$m. S.W.,
is the most noteworthy house in the county. The oblong block
of buildings, fronted by lawns, is surrounded by a moat and
protected by a gate-house, part of which dates from 1301, at
which date the chapel and a part of the house were also built.
There is also work of the isth century and the Elizabethan
period. The house is the seat of Lord Saye and Sele, having
been in the Fiennes family since the reign of Henry VII. (1485-
1509). Here Pym and Hampden and other leaders of the
Parliamentarians were wont to meet in 1640. Without the gate
is a fine Decorated church. Banbury is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 4633 acres.
In the year 556 Banbury (Beranbyrig, Banesberie) was the scene
of a battle between Cynric and Ceawlin and Britons. It was
assessed at 50 hides in the Domesday survey and was then held
by the bishop of Lincoln. Allusions to the market occur as
early as 1138, and Henry II. by charter confirmed a market on
Thursday and granted a fair at Whitsun. The first charter of
incorporation was granted by Queen Mary in 1 553, and instituted
a common council consisting of a bailiff, 1 2 aldermen and 1 2 chief
burgesses; a court of record, one justice of the peace, a Thursday
market and two annual fairs. James I. confirmed this charter
in 1608. with some additions, including a weekly wool-market,
a horse-market and two additional annual fairs. Both these
charters were surrendered in 1683 in favour of a new charter,
but were resumed in 1688. In 1718 George I. granted a new
charter, which held until the Municipal Corporations Act of
1835. From the date of Queen Mary's charter until the Re-
distribution of Seats Act of 1885 the borough was represented
by one member in parliament.
See Alfred Beesley, History of Banbury (London, 1841).
BANCHIERI, ADRIANO (c. 1557-1634), Bolognese composer
for church and stage, organist, writer on music and poet. He
founded the Accademia Florida of Bologna. Like Orazio Vecchi he
was interested in converting the madrigal to dramatic purposes.
He disapproved of the monodists with all their revolutionary
harmonic tendencies, about which he expressed himself vigorously
in his Moderna Practica Musicale (Venice, 1613), while systema-
tizing the legitimate use of the monodic art of thorough-bass.
BANCROFT, GEORGE (1800-1891), American historian and
statesman, was born in Worcester, Mass., on the 3rd of October
1 800. His family had been in America since 1 63 2 , and his father,
Aaron Bancroft, was distinguished as a revolutionary soldier,
clergyman and author. The son was educated at Phillips
Academy, Exeter, at Harvard University, at Heidelberg,
Gottingen and Berlin. At Gottingen he studied Plato with
Heeren, New Testament Greek with Eichhom and natural science
with Blumenbach. His heart was in the work of Heeren, easily
the greatest of historical critics then living, and the forerunner
of the modern school; it was from this master that Bancroft
caught his enthusiasm for minute pains-taking erudition. He
concluded his years of preparation by a European tour, in the
3 o8
BANCROFT, G.
course of which he received kind attention from almost every
distinguished man in the world of letters, science and art;
among others, from Goethe, Humboldt, Schleiermacher, Hegel,
Byron, Niebuhr, Bunsen, Savigny, Cousin, Constant and Manzoni.
Bancroft's father was a Unitarian, and he had devoted his son
to the work of the ministry; but the young mart's first experi-
ments at preaching, shortly after his return from Europe in 1822,
were unsatisfactory, the theological teaching of the time having
substituted criticism and literature for faith. His first position
was that of tutor in Harvard. Instinctively a humanist, he had
little patience with the narrow curriculum of Harvard in his day
and the rather pedantic spirit with which classical studies were
there pursued. Moreover, he had brought from Europe a new
manner, full of the affections of ardent youth, and this he wore
without ease in a society highly satisfied with itself; the young
knight-errant was therefore subjected to considerable ridicule.
A little volume of poetry, translations and original pieces, pub-
lished in 1823 gave its author no fame. As time passed, and
custom created familiarity, his style, personal and literary,
was seen to be the outward symbol of a firm resolve to preserve
a philosophic calm, and of an enormous underlying energy which
spent itself in labour, " ohne Hast, aber auch ohne Rast." He
found the conventional atmosphere of Cambridge uncongenial,
and with a friend he established the Round Hill school at Nor-
thampton, Mass. This was the first serious effort made in the
United States to elevate secondary education to the plane on
which it belonged.
Although born into a Whig family, yet Bancroft's studies carried
him irresistibly into the Democratic party. While a teacher
in his own school he was elected to the state legislature as a
Democrat, but under pressure from the family of his first wife,
who were ardent Whigs, he refused to serve. In 1831 he likewise
declined the nomination of the Massachusetts Democrats for
secretary of state. By this time he was influential in the councils
of his party, and President Van Buren appointed him collector
of the port of Boston, a position which he filled with success.
Two of his appointees were Orestes Brownson and Nathaniel
Hawthorne. In 1844 he was the Democratic candidate for the
governorship, but he was defeated. In 1845 he entered Folk's
cabinet as secretary of the navy, serving until 1846, when for a
month he was acting secretary of war. During this short period in
the cabinet he established the naval academy at Annapolis, gave
the orders which led to the occupation of California, and sent
Zachary Taylor into the debatable land between Texas and
Mexico. He also continued his pleadings for the annexation of
Texas, as extending " the area of freedom," and though a
Democrat, took high moral ground as to slavery; he likewise
made himself the authority on the North-Western Boundary
question. In 1846 he was sent as minister to London, where he
lived hi constant companionship with Macaulay and Hallam.
On his return in 1849 he withdrew from public life, residing in
New York. In 1866 he was chosen by Congress to deliver the
special eulogy on Lincoln; and in 1867 he was appointed minister
to Berlin, where he remained until his resignation in 1874.
Thenceforward he lived in Washington and Newport, dying
at Washington on the I7th of January 1891. His latest official
achievements were the greatest. In the San Juan arbitration
he displayed great versatility and skill, winning his case before
the emperor with brilliant ease. The naturalization treaties
which he negotiated successively with Prussia and the other
north German states were the first international recognition of
the right of expatriation, a principle since incorporated in the
law of nations.
In spite of the exacting and severe routine of the Round Hill
school, Bancroft contributed frequently to the North American
Review and to Walsh's American Quarterly; he also made a
translation of Heeren's work on The Politics of Ancient Greece.
In 1834 appeared the first volume of the History of the United
States. The second followed in 1837, and others as the exigencies
of public life permitted Supplementary to the first volume was
an article published by him in the North American Review for
1835 on " The Documentary History of the Revolution." This
article not merely brought the new method to the notice of the
reading public, but revealed to it the wealth of material available.
The nature and extent of his studies, the solidity of his work,
and the philosophic spirit which animates both, explain the
enthusiasm with which the earlier volumes of Bancroft were
received. Their sale at home was very large; they were re-
printed in England and translated immediately into Danish,
Italian, German and French. The latest volumes were con-
sidered by all competent judges quite as important as their
predecessors. When the author was preparing to return from
Berlin, the Royal Academy made him their guest at a public
dinner, an unprecedented honour; and the universities of Berlin,
Heidelberg and Munich united hi a testimonial of regard. At
Washington he was the confidential advisor of statesmen to the
end of his life and the unofficial dean of the best society.
Bancroft's historical creed is best set forth in the address he
delivered on the semi-centennial of the New York Historical
Society in 1854. In philosophy he found the basis for positing a
collective human will, revealing in its activities the materials for
determining ethical laws. Since there must be the same con-
servation of energy in morals as elsewhere, the eternal reason is
the divine Logos. History, therefore, is God working in examples.
It must be a unit, its forces constant and its totality an organic
whole. Within this the individual moves and acts with liberty
and responsibility; for each, in will, affection and intellect is
consubstantial with the rest. Truth, morals and justice are
subject to no evolution; but the collective man evolves better
forms of knowledge and behaviour. The organization of society,
therefore, produces successive states, in each of which the
principle of freedom is better established than in the antecedent.
Permanency in republican government is, therefore, based upon
corresponding experience and culture, and its possibilities grow
ever stronger. The relation of American democracy to the
systems which have preceded it forms the latest proof of these
contentions. As Heeren's pupil, he laid enormous stress on the
importance of original authorities. In dealing with documentary
evidence he sought to apply very stringent rules: (i) Carefully
distinguish between original authority and historical memorials
or aids; for example, between a fact recorded at first- or second-
hand knowledge, and a decision of principle by authority. (2)
Represent every man from his own standpoint; judge him from
your own. His collections of original materials were vast;
beginning with his residence in England, he brought together at
enormous pains and expense the authenticated copies of archives,
family papers, and personal journals written by historic per-
sonages, which now constitute an invaluable treasure in the New
York public library. They are from every land and from every
people with which American origins are connected. His use of
this material was not always according to accepted standards:
To avoid dryness and prolixity he condensed quotations, and
occasionally employed the Thucydidean method of abridgment
or representation in place of fact catalogues. During his long
life enormous strides were made by others hi collecting the
materials of American history, and while hi the main he kept
pace with them by ruthless revision, yet even the latest edition
of his work disregards some minor facts which others knew for
the insertion of much which the author alone knew.
Bancroft's imagination and enthusiasm were alike exuberant.
His pages abound in fine and acute insight. His generalizations
are vivid and enlightening. He spared no pains to acquire true
style, frequently rewriting his chapters, and sometimes testing
passages of philosophy and description in eight different forms.
Yet to a certain extent he lacked the representative power and
often failed to conceal his art, many pages ringing with artificial
tones. But, after making all allowances, it remains true that he
had a pefect sense of proportion, sound maxims and thorough
common-sense. He was of that greatest human type: a man of
the present, valuing justly the past and no dreamer. In the
nature and extent of his studies, in the solidity of his work, and
in the philosophic spirit which animated his life he ranks as the
foremost historian of the United States, and as an American
historian second to none of his European contemporaries in
BANCROFT, H. H. BAND
309
the same line. He displayed the heroic, epic value of American
history, its unity with the great central stream, and dispelled
for ever the extravagant conceptions of a sentimental world just
emerging from the visionary philosophy of the i8th century.
See M. A. de Wolfe Howe, The Life and Letters of George Bancroft
(New York, 1908). (W. M. S.)
BANCROFT, HUBERT HOWE (1832- ), American his-
torical writer, was born at Granville, Ohio, on the 5th of May
1832. From 1852 to 1868 he was a bookseller in San Francisco.
During this period he accumulated a great library of historical
material, and at last gave up business in order to devote himself
to the publication of his Native Races of the Pacific States (5 vols.
1874-1876), History of the Pacific States of North America (21 vols.
1882-1890), and other works. For the collection of data he
necessarily relied upon the labours of a corps of assistants, and
the publications named represent, properly speaking, an encyclo-
paedia rather than a unified history; but as a storehouse of
material their value is great and is likely to be enduring. In
1905 Bancroft's vast collection was acquired by the university
of California. An account of his methods of work is given in
his Literary Industries ^iSgo).
BANCROFT, RICHARD (i 544-1610) .archbishopof Canterbury,
was born at Farn worth in Lancashire in 1 544. He was educated
at Cambridge, first at Christ's College and afterwards at Jesus
College. He took his degree of B.A. in 1567 and that of M. A. in
1570. Ordained about that time, he was named chaplain to
Richard Cox, then bishop of Ely, and in 1575 was presented to
the rectory of Teversham in Cambridgeshire. The next year he
was one of the preachers to the university, and in 1584 was pre-
sented to the rectory of St Andrew's, Holborn. His abilities,
and his zeal as a champion of the church, secured him rapid
promotion. He graduated B.D. in 1580 and D.D. five years
later. In 1585 he was appointed treasurer of St Paul's cathedral,
London, and in 1586 was made a member of the ecclesiastical
commission. On the 9th of February 1589 he preached at
Paul's Cross a sermon on i John iv. i, the substance of which
was a passionate attack on the Puritans. He described their
speeches and proceedings, caricatured their motives, denounced
the exercise of the right of private judgment, and set forth the
divine right of bishops in such strong language that one of the
queen's councillors held it to amount to a threat against the
supremacy of the crown. In the following year Bancroft was
made a prebendary of St Paul's; he had been canon of West-
minster since 1587. He was chaplain successively to Lord
Chancellor Hatton and Archbishop Whitgift. In June 1597 he
was consecrated bishop of London; and from this time, in
consequence of the age and incapacity for business of Archbishop
Whitgift, he was virtually invested with the power of primate,
and had the sole management of ecclesiastical affairs. Among
the more noteworthy cases which fell under his direction were
the proceedings against " Martin Mar-Prelate," Thomas Cart-
wright and his friends, and John Penry, whose "seditious
writings " he caused to be intercepted and given up to the lord
keeper. In 1600 he was sent on an embassy, with others, to
Embden, for the purpose of settling certain matters in dispute
between the English and the Danes. This mission, however,
failed. Bancroft was present at the death of Queen Elizabeth.
He took a prominent and truculent part in the famous conference
of prelates and Presbyterian divines held at Hampton Court in
1604. By the king's desire he undertook the vindication of the
practices of confirmation, absolution, private baptism and lay
excommunication; he urged, but in vain, the reinforcement of
an ancient canon, " that schismatics are not to be heard against
bishops"; and in opposition to the Puritans' demand for certain
alterations in doctrine and discipline, he besought the king that
care might be taken for a praying clergy; and that, till men of
learning and sufficiency could be found, godly homilies might be
read and their number increased. In March 1604 Bancroft, on
Whitgift's death, was appointed by royal writ president of con-
vocation then assembled; and he there presented a book of
canons collected by himself. It was adopted and received the
royal approval, but was strongly opposed and set aside by
parliament two months afterwards. In the following November
he was elected successor to Whitgift in the see of Canterbury.
He continued to show the same zeal and severity as before, and
with so much success that Lord Clarendon, writing in his praise,
expressed the opinion that " if Bancroft had lived, he would
quickly have extinguished all that fire in England which had
been kindled at Geneva." He was as lenient with the offences
of the orthodox as he was rigid in suppressing heresy and schism.
In 1605 he was sworn a member of the privy council. The same'
year he engaged in a contest with the judges, and exhibited
articles of complaint against them before the lords of the
council ; but these complaints were overruled. His aim was really
to make the ecclesiastical courts independent of the law by
speciously magnifying the royal authority over them. He
enforced discipline and exact conformity within the church with
an iron hand; and over 200 clergymen were deprived of their
livings for disobedience to the ex animo form of subscription. In
1608 he was chosen chancellor of the university of Oxford. One
of his latest public acts was a proposal laid before parliament for
improving the revenues of the church, and a project for a college
of controversial divinity at Chelsea. In the last few months of
his life he took part in the discussion about the consecration of
certain Scottish bishops, and it was in pursuance of his advice
that they were consecrated by several bishops of the English
church. By this act were laid the foundations of the Scottish
Episcopal church. Bancroft was "the chief overseer" of the
authorized version of the Bible. He died at Lambeth Palace
on the 2nd of November 1610. His literary remains are not
extensive, but show him to have been an able writer.
BANCROFT, SIR SQUIRE (1841- ), English actor and
manager, was born near London on the I4th of May 1841. His
first appearance on the stage was in 1861 at Birmingham, and he
played in the provinces with success for several years. His first
London appearance was in 1865 in Wooler's A Winning Hazard
at the Prince of Wales's theatre off Tottenham Court Road,
then under the management of Effie Marie Wilton (b. 1840),
whom he married.in 1868. Mr and Mrs Bancroft were associated
in the production of all the Robertson comedies: Society (1865),
Ours (1866), Caste (1867), Play (1868), School (1869) and M.P.
(1870), and, after Robertson's death, in revivals of the old
comedies, for which they surrounded themselves with an ad-
mirable company. Lytton's Money (1872), Boucicault's London
Assurance (1877), and Diplomacy an adaptation of Sardou's
Dora were among their premieres, which helped to make the
little playhouse famous. The Bancroft management at the
Prince of Wales's constituted a new era in the development of
the English stage, and had the effect of reviving the London
interest in modern drama. In 1879 they moved to the Hay-
market, where Sardou's Odette (for which they engaged Madame
Modjeska) and Ftdora, W. S. Gilbert's Sweethearts and Pinero's
Lords and Commons, with revivals of previous successes, were
among their productions. Having made a considerable fortune,
they retired in 1885, but Mr Bancroft (who was knighted in 1897)
joined Sir Henry Irving in 1889 to play the abbe Latour in a
revival of Watts Phillips's Dead Heart.
See Mr and Mrs Bancroft, on and off the Stage (1888),- and The
Bancrofts: Recollections of Sixty Years (1909), by themselves.
BAND, something which " binds " or fastens one thing to
another, hence a cord, rope or tie, e.g. the straps fastening the
sheets to the back in book-binding. The word is a variant of
" bond," and is from the stem of the Teutonic bindan, to bind.
From the same source comes " bend," properly to fasten the
string to the bow, so as to constrain and curve it, hence to make
into the shape of a "bent" bow, to curve. In the sense of
" strap," a flat strip of material, properly for fastening anything,
the word is ultimately of the same origin but comes directly
into English from the French bande. In architecture the term
is applied to a sort of flat frieze or fascia running horizontally
round a tower or other parts of a building, particularly the base
tables in perpendicular work, commonly used with the long
shafts characteristic of the I3th century. It generally has a
bold, projecting moulding above and below, and is carved
310
BANDA BANDA ISLANDS
sometimes with foliages, but in general with cusped circles or
quatrefoils, in which frequently are shields of arms.
The two small strips of linen, worn at the neck as part of legal,
clerical and academic dress, are known as "bands"; they are
the survival of the falling collar of the i7th century. These
bands are usually of white linen, but the secular clergy of the
Roman Church wear black bands edged with white. The light
cardboard or chip boxes now used to carry millinery were
formerly made to carry the neck-bands, whence the name of
"band-box."
In the sense of company or troop, " band " is probably also
connected with bindan, to bind. It came into English from the
French. The meaning seems to have originated in Romanic,
cf. Italian, Spanish and Portuguese banda, and thence came
into Teutonic. It has usually been taken (see Ducange, Gloss.
s.v. banda) to be due to the " band " or sash of a particular
colour worn as a distinctive mark by a troop of soldiers. Others
refer it to the medieval Latin bandum, banner, a strip or " band "
of cloth fastened to a pole. In this sense the chief application
is to a company of musicians (see ORCHESTRA), particularly
when used in armies or navies, a military band.
Military Bands. In all countries bands are organized and
maintained in each infantiy regiment or battalion if the latter
is the unit. The strength of these bands and the number and
nature of their instruments vary considerably, as also do the
rank and status of the bandmaster. The buglers and drummers
belonging to the companies are generally massed under the
sergeant-drummer and on the march play alternately with the
band. In action the British custom is to use the bandsmen as
stretcher-bearers, but on the continent of Europe the bands are
as far as possible kept in hand under the regimental commanders
and play the troops into action; and in all countries the available
bands, drums and bugles are ordered to play during the final
assault. The training of bandmasters for the British service
is carried out at Kneller Hall, Hounslow, an institution founded
in 1857 and placed under direct control of the war office in
1867. The average strength of the various classes of instrument
in the band of a British line regiment has been stated as
twenty flutes, oboes, clarinets and bassoons, four horns, eight
saxhorns, six trumpets and cornets, three trombones, two
drums. The buglers and drummers are in the proportion of one
of each per company. The saxophone, which is the character-
istic instrument of military bands in other countries, has not
found favour with the British authorities. Another specially
military instrument, universal in the Russian army and more
or less common to others, is the so-called " Jingling Johnny," a
frame of small bells that is sharply shaken in the accented parts
of the music. The " glockenspiel " is also fairly common. The
peculiar instrument of Scottish regiments is the bagpipes.
Cavalry, and more rarely artillery corps in the various armies,
have small bands. The mounted arms, however, have little
need of music as compared with the infantry, the order and
ease of whose marching powers are immensely enhanced by the
music of a good regimental band. In the navies of various
countries bands are maintained on board flag-ships and sometimes
on board other large ships.
BANDA, a town and district of British India, in the Allahabad
division of the United Provinces. The town is near the right
bank of the river Ken, 95 m. S. W. of Allahabad. The population
in 1901 was 22,565. The town possesses 65 mosques and 168
Hindu temples. It was formerly, but is no longer, a military
cantonment.
The district is the most barren and backward portion of the
province. It contains an area of 3061 sq. m. In some parts it
rises into irregular uplands and elevated plains, interspersed
with detached rocks of granite; in others it sinks into marshy
lowlands, which frequently remain under water during the rainy
season. The sloping country on the bank of the Jumna is full
of ravines. To the S.E. the Vindhya chain of hills takes its
origin in a low range not exceeding 500 ft. in height, and forming
a natural boundary of the district in that direction. The
principal river of the district is the Jumna, which flows from
north-west to south-east, along the N.E. boundary of the district,
for 125 m. In 1901 the population was 631,058, showing a
decrease of n % in the decade, due to the effects of famine.
The black soil of the district yields crops of which the principal
are millet, other food-grains, pulse, rice, cotton and oil-seeds.
Banda cotton enjoys a high repute in the market. A branch
railway from Manikpur to Jhansi traverses the length of the
district, which is also crossed by the East Indian main line to
Jubbulpore.
Banda, which forms one of the districts included under the
general name of Bundelkhand, has formed an arena of contention
for the successive races who have struggled for the sovereignty
of India. Kalinjar town, then the capital, was unsuccessfully
besieged by Mahmud of Ghazni in A.D. 1023; in 1196 it was
taken by Kutab-ud-din, the general of Muhammad Ghori; in
J545 by Sherc Shah, who, however, fell mortally wounded in
the assault. About the year 1735 the raja of Kalinjar's territory,
including the present district of Banda, was bequeathed to
Baji Rao, the Mahratta peshwa; and from the Mahrattas it
passed by the treaties of 1802-1803 to the Company. At the time
of the Mutiny the district, which was poverty-stricken and
over-taxed, joined the rebels. The town of Banda was recovered
by General Whitlock on the 2oth of April 1858. The fiscal
system was remodelled, and the district has since enjoyed a
greater degree of prosperity only interrupted by famine.
BANDA ISLANDS, a group of the Dutch East Indies, consisting
of three chief and several lesser islands in the Banda Sea, south
of Ceram, belonging to the residency of Amboyna. The main
islands are Great Banda or Lontor; Banda Neira to its north;
Gunong Api, west of Banda Neira; Wai or Ai still farther west,
with Run on its south-west; Pisang, north of Gunong Api;
and Suwangi, north-west again. The total land area is about
16 sq. m. A volcanic formation is apparent in Lontor, a sickle-
shaped island which, with Neira and Gunong Api, forms part
of the circle of a crater. The arrangement is comparable with
Santorin in the Aegean Sea. Gunong Api (Fire Mountain), 2200
ft. high, is an active volcano, and its eruptions and earthquakes
have frequently brought destruction, as notably in 1852, when
the damage was chiefly due to a huge wave of the sea. Banda,
the chief town, on Neira, is a pleasant settlement, commanded
by two Dutch forts of the early I7th century, Nassau and Belgica.
The largest island, Lontor, was found too unhealthy to be the site
of the principal settlement; but the climate of the islands
generally, though hot, is not unhealthy. In the space between
Lontor, Neira and Gunong Api there is a good harbour, with
entrances on either side, which enable vessels to enter on either
of the monsoons. Between Gunong Api and Neira there is a
third channel, but it is navigable for small vessels only. The
principal articles of commerce in the Banda group are nutmegs
and mace. The nutmeg is indigenous. The native population
having been cleared off by the Dutch, the plantations were worked
by slaves and convicts till the emancipation of 1860. The intro-
duction of Malay and Chinese labourers subsequently took place.
The plantations (perken) were originally held by the conquerors of
the natives, the government monopolizing the produce at a fixed
rate; but in 1873 the government monopoly was abolished.
The production amounts annually to nearly 1,500,000 Ib of
nutmegs, and 350,000 Ib of mace. The nutmegs are grown,
in accordance with natural conditions, under the shade of
other trees, usually the canari. Jalti or jatti wood is cultivated
on the small island of Rosingen. The total population of the
islands is about 9500, of which some 7000 are descendants of
the natives introduced as slaves from neighbouring islands, and
are Christians or Mahommedans.
The Banda Islands were discovered and annexed by the
Portuguese Antonio D'Abreu in 1512; but in the beginning of
the 1 7th century his countrymen were expelled by the Dutch.
In 1608 the British built a factory on Wai, which was demolished
by the Dutch as soon as the English vessel left. Shortly after,
however, Banda Neira and Lontor were resigned by the natives
to the British, and in 1620 Run and Wai were added to their
dominions; but in spite of treaties into which they had entered
BANDANA BANDER ABBASI
the Dutch attacked and expelled their British rivals. In 1654
they were compelled by Cromwell to restore Run, and to make
satisfaction for the massacre of Amboyna; but the English
settlers not being adequately supported from home, the island
was retaken by the Dutch in 1664. They remained in undis-
turbed possession until 1796, when the Banda Islands were taken
by the British. They were restored by the treaty of Amiens
in the year 1800, again captured, and finally restored by the
treaty of Paris concluded in 1814.
BANDANA, or BANDANNA, a word probably derived through
the Portuguese from the Hindustani bandhnu, which signified
a primitive method of obtaining an effect in dyeing by tying
up cloth in different places to prevent the particular parts from
receiving the dye. The name was given to richly coloured silk
handkerchiefs produced by this process, of which bright colours
were characteristic. Bandanas are now commonly made of cotton
and produced in Lancashire, whence they are exported. The
effect is also produced by a regular process in calico printing,
in which the pattern is made by discharging the colour.
BANDELIER, ADOLPH FRANCIS ALPHONSE (1840- ),
American archaeologist, was born in Bern, Switzerland, on the
6th of August 1840. When a youth he emigrated to the United
States. After 1880 he devoted himself to archaeological and
ethnological work among the Indians of the south-western United
States, Mexico and South America. Beginning his studies in
Sonora (Mexico), Arizona and New Mexico, he made himself
the leading authority on the history of this region, and with
F. H. Gushing and his successors one of the leading authorities
on its prehistoric civilization. In 1892 he abandoned this field for
Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru, where he continued ethnological,
archaeological and historical investigations. In the first field
he was in a part of his work connected with the Hemenway
Archaeological Expedition and in the second worked for Henry
Villard of New York, and for the American Museum of Natural
History of the same city. Bandelier has shown the falsity of
various historical myths, notably in his conclusions respecting
the Inca civilization of Peru. His publications include: three
studies " On the Art of War and Mode of Warfare of the Ancient
Mexicans," " On the Distribution and Tenure of Lands and the
Customs with respect to Inheritance among the Ancient
Mexicans," and " On the Social Organization and Mode of
Government of the Ancient Mexicans " (Harvard University,
Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology,
Annual Reports, 1877, 1878, 1879); Historical Introduction to
Studies among the Sedentary Indians of New Mexico, and Report
on the Ruins of the Pueblo of Pecos (1881); Report of an Archaeo-
logical Tour in Mexico in 1881 (1884); Final Report of Investiga-
tions among the Indians of the South-western United States (1890-
1892, 2 vols.); Contributions to the History of the South-western
Portion of the United States carried on mainly in the years from
1880 to 1885 (1890) , all these in the Papers of the Archaeological
Institute of America, American Series, constituting vols. i.-v.;
" The Romantic School of American Archaeologists " (New
York Historical Society, 1885); The Gilded Man (El Dorado)
and other Pictures of the Spanish Occupancy of America (1893);
and a report On the Relative Antiquity of Ancient Peruvian
Burials (American Museum of Natural History, Bulletin, v. 30,
1 904) . He also edited Tlte Journey of A har Nunez Cabeza de Vaca
. . . from Florida to the Pacific, 1528-1536 (1905), translated
into English by his wife.
BANDELLO, MATTED (1480-1562), Italian novelist, was born
at Castelnuovo, near Tortona, about the year 1480. He received
a very careful education, and entered the church, though he does
not seem to have prosecuted his theological course with great
zeal. For many years he resided at Mantua, and superintended
the education of the celebrated Lucrezia Gonzaga, in whose
honour he composed a long poem. The decisive battle of Pavia,
which gave Lombardy into the hands of the emperor, compelled
Bandello to fly; his house at Milan was burnt and his property
confiscated. He took refuge with Cesare Fregoso, an Italian
general in the French service, whom he accompanied into France.
In 1550 he was raised to the bishopric of Agen, a town in which
he resided for many years before his death in 1561. Bandello
wrote a number of poems, but his fame rests entirely upon his
extensive collection of Novclle, or tales (1554, 1573), which have
been extremely popular. They belong to that species of literature
of which Boccaccio's Decameron and the queen of Navarre's
Heptameron are, perhaps, the best known examples. The
common origin of them all is to be found in the old French
fabliaux, though some well-known tales are evidently Eastern,
and others classical. Bandello's novels are esteemed the best
of those written in imitation of the Decameron, though Italian
critics find fault with them for negligence and inelegance of style.
They have little value from a purely literary point of view, and
many of them are disfigured by the grossest obscenity. Histori-
cally, however, they are of no little interest, not only from the
insight into the social life of the period which they afford, but
from the important influence they exercised on the Elizabethan
drama. The stories on which Shakespeare based several of his
plays were supplied by Bandello, probably through Belleforest
or Paynter.
BANDER ABBASI (also BENDER ABBAS, and other forms),
a town of Persia, on the northern shore of the Perisan Gulf in
27 n' N., and 56 17' E., forming part of the administrative
division of the " Persian Gulf ports," whose governor resides at
Bushire. It has a population of about 10,000, an insalubrious
climate and bad water.
Bander Abbasi was called Gombrun (Gombroon, Gamaroon;
Cambarao, Comorao of Portuguese writers) until 1622, when
it received its present name (the "port of Abbas") in
honour of the reigning shah, Abbas I., who had expelled the
Portuguese in 1614, and destroyed the fort built by them in
1612. The English, however, were permitted to build a factory
there, and about 1620 the Dutch obtained the same privilege. On
the capture of the island of Hormuz (Ormus) in 1622 by the
English and Persians a large portion of its trade was transferred
to Bander Abbasi. During the remainder of the i7th century
the traffic was considerable, but in the i8th prosperity declined
and most of the trade was removed to Bushire. In 1759 the
English factory was destroyed by the French, and though
afterwards re-established it has long been abandoned. The
ruins of the factory and other buildings lie west of the present
town. About 1740 Nadir Shah granted the town and district
with the fort of Shamil and the town of Minab, together with the
islands of Kishm, Hormuz (Ormus) and Larak, to the Arab tribe
of the Beni Ma'Ini in return for a payment of a yearly rent or
tribute. About 40 years later Sultan bin Ahmad, the ruler of
Muscat, having been appealed to for aid by the Arab inhabit-
ants of the place against Persian misrule, occupied the town,
and obtained a firman from the Persian government confirming
him in his possession on the condition of his paying a yearly
rent of a few thousand tomans. The islands were considered
to be the property of Muscat. In 1852 the Persians expelled
the Muscat authorities from Bander Abbasi and its district,
but retired when Muscat agreed to pay an increased rent. By
a treaty concluded between Persia and Muscat in 1856 it was
stipulated that Bander Abbasi town and district and the islands
were to be considered Persian territory and leased to Muscat
at an annual rent of 14,000 tomans (6000). The treaty was
to have been in force for twenty years, but in 1866 the Persians
took advantage of the assassination of Seyed Thuweini, the
sultan of Muscat, to instal as governor of Bander Abbasi and
district a nominee of their own who agreed to pay a rent of
20,000 tomans per annum. Further difficulties arising between
Persia and Muscat, and the ruler of the latter, then in possession
of a powerful fleet, threatening to blockade Bander AbbSsi, the
Persian government solicited the good offices of the British
government, and the lease was renewed for another eight years
upon payment of 30,000 tomans per annum (then about 12,000).
This was in 1868. In the same year, however, the sultan of
Muscat was expelled by a successful revolt, and the Persian
government, in virtue of a clause in the lease allowing them
to cancel the contract if a conqueror obtained possession of
Muscat, installed their own governor at Bander Abbasi and
312
BANDER LINGAH BANDINI
have retained possession of the place ever since (see Curzon,
Persia, ii. 424).
Bander Abbasi has a lively trade, exporting much of the
produce of central and south-eastern Persia and supplying
imports to those districts and Khorasan. It has telegraph and
post offices, and the mail steamers of the British India Steam
Navigation Company call at the port weekly. Great Britain
and Russia are represented there by consuls. From 1890-
1905 the total value of the exports and imports from and into
Bander Abbasi averaged about 660,000 per annum, 260,000
(155,000 British) being for exports, 400,000 (340,000 British)
imports. Of the 255,000 tons of shipping which in 1905 entered
Bander Abbasi 237,000 were British. (A. H.-S.)
BANDER LINGAH, or LINGA, a town of Persia on the northern
shore of the Persian Gulf and about 300 m. by sea from Bushire,
in 26 33' N., 54 54' E. Pop. about 10,000. It forms part of
the administrative divisions of the " Persian Gulf ports," whose
governor resides at Bushire. The annual value of the exports
and imports from and into Bander Lingah from 1890 to 1905
averaged about 800,000, but nearly half of that amount is
represented by pearls which pass in transit from the fisheries
on the Arab coast to Bombay. Like many other Persian Gulf
ports, Bander Lingah was for many generations a hereditary
patrimony of the Sheikh of an Arab tribe, in this case the
Juvasmi tribe, and it was only in 1898 that the Arabs were
expelled from the place by a Persian force. It is the chief port
for the Persian province of Laristan (under Fars), and has a
thriving trade with Bahrein and the Arab coast. It has a British
post office, and the steamers of the British India Company call
there weekly. Of the 133,000 tons of shipping which in 1905
entered the port 104,500 were British.
BANDEROLE (Fr. for a " little banner "), a small flag or
streamer carried on the lance of a knight, or flying from the
mast-head of a ship in battle, &c.; in heraldry, a streamer
hanging from beneath the crook of a bishop's crosier and folding
over the staff; in architecture, a band used in decorative sculp-
ture of the Renaissance period for bearing an inscription, &c.
Bannerol, in its main uses the same as banderole, is the term
especially applied to the square banners carried at the funerals
of great men and placed over the tomb.
BANDICOOT, any animal of the marsupial genus Perameles,
which is the type of a family Peramelidae. The species, about
a dozen in number, are widely distributed over Australia,
Tasmania, New Guinea and several of the adjacent islands.
They are of small size and live entirely on the ground, making
nests of dried leaves, grass and sticks in holiow places and
forming burrows in which they pass a great part of the day.
Though feeding largely on worms and insects they ravage
gardens and fields, on which account they are detested by the
colonists. The name is often extended to the family.
BANDICOOT-RAT, the Anglo-Indian name for a large rat
(Nesocia bandicota), inhabiting India and Ceylon, which measures
from 12 to 15 in. to the root of the tail, while the tail itself
measures from n to 13 in. The name is said to be a corruption
of the Telegu pandi-koku. It differs from typical rats of the genus
Mus by its broader incisors, and the less distinct cusps on the
molars. Other species of the genus are found from Palestine
to Formosa, as well as in central Asia. The typical species
frequents villages, towns and cultivated grounds all over India
and Ceylon, but is specially common in the south of the
peninsula. (See RODENTIA.)
BANDIERA, ATTILIO (1811-1844) and EMILIO (1819-1844),
Italian patriots. The brothers Bandiera, sons of Baron Bandiera,
an admiral in the Austrian navy, were themselves members of
that service, but at an early age they were won over to the ideas
of Italian freedom and unity, and corresponded with Giuseppe
Mazzini and other members of the Giovane Italia (Young Italy),
a patriotic and revolutionary secret society. During the year
1843 the air was full of conspiracies, and various ill-starred
attempts at rising, against the Italian despots were made. The
Bandieras began to make propaganda among the officers and men
of the Austrian navy, nearly all Italians, and actually planned to
seize a warship and bombard Messina. But having been betrayed
they fled to Corfu early in 1844. Rumours reached them there of
agitation in the Neapolitan kingdom, where the people were
represented as ready to rise en masse at the first appearance of a
leader; the Bandieras, encouraged by Mazzini, consequently
determined to make a raid on the Calabrian coast. They got
together a band of about twenty men ready to sacrifice their lives
for an idea, and set sail on their desperate venture on the 1 2th of
June 1844. Four days later they landed near Cotrone, intending
to go to Cosenza, liberate the political prisoners and issue their
proclamations. But they did not find the insurgent band which
they had been told awaited them, and were betrayed by one of
their party, the Corsican Boccheciampe, and by some peasants
who believed them to be Turkish pirates. A detachment of
gendarmes and volunteers was sent against them, and after a
short fight the whole band were taken prisoners and escorted to
Cosenza, where a number of Calabrians who had taken part in a
previous rising were also under arrest. First the Calabrians were
tried by court-martial, and a large number condemned to death
or the galleys. The raiders' turn came next, and the whole party,
save the traitor Boccheciampe, were condemned to be shot, but
in the case of eight of them the sentence was commuted to the
galleys. On the 23rd of July the two Bandieras and their nine
companions were executed; they cried Viva I' Italia I as they
fell.
The Neapolitan government was undoubtedly within its right
in executing the Bandieras, and the material results of this heroic
but unpractical attempt were nil. But the moral effect was
enormous throughout Italy, the action of the authorities was
universally condemned, and the martyrdom of the Bandieras bore
fruit in subsequent revolutions. It also'created a great'impression
in England, where it was believed that the Bandieras' correspond-
ence with Mazzini (q.v.) had been tampered with, and that
information as to the proposed expedition had been forwarded
to the Austrian and Neapolitan governments by the British
foreign office; recent publications, however, especially the
biography of Sir James Graham, tend to exculpate the British
government.
See G. Ricciardi, Sloria dei Fratelli Bandiera (Florence, 1863) ;
F. Venosta, / Fratelli Bandiera (Milan, 1863) ; and Carlo Tivaroni's
L' Italia durante il dominio-austriaco, vol. iii. p. 140 (Turin, 1894).
(L. V.*)
BANDINELLI, BARTOLOMMEO or BACCIO (1493-1560),
Florentine sculptor, was the son of an eminent goldsmith, and
from him Bandinelli obtained the first elements of drawing. Show-
ing a strong inclination for the fine arts, he was early placed under
Rustici, a sculptor, and a friend of Leonardo da Vinci, with whom
he made rapid progress. The ruling motive in his life seems to
have been jealousy both of Benvenuto Cellini and of Michel-
angelo, one of whose cartoons he is said to have torn up and
destroyed. He is regarded by some as inferior in sculpture
only to Michelangelo, with whom a comparison unfavourable to
Bandinelli is tempted in such works as the marble colossal group
of Hercules and Cacus in the Piazza del Gran Duco, and the group
of Adam and Eve in the Bargello. Among his best works must
be reckoned the bassi-rilievi in the choir of the cathedral of
Florence; his copy of the Laocoon; and the figures of Christ and
Nicodemus on his own tomb.
BANDINI, ANGELO MARIA (1726-1800), Italian author, was
born at Florence on the 25th of September 1726. Having been
left an orphan in his infancy, he was supported by his uncle,
Giuseppe Bandini, a lawyer of some note. He received his educa-
tion among the Jesuits, and showed a special inclination for the
study of antiquities. His first work was a dissertation, De
Veterum Saltationibus (1749). In 1747 he undertook a journey
to Vienna, in company with the bishop of Volterra, to whom he
acted in the capacity of secretary. He was introduced to the
emperor'and took the opportunity of dedicating to that monarch
his Specimen Litteraturae Florentinae, which was then printing at
Florence. On his return he took orders, and settled at Rome,
passing the whole of his time in the library of the Vatican, and in
those of the cardinals Passionei and Corsini. The famous obelisk
BANDOLIER BANFFSHIRE
313
of Augustus, at that time disinterred from the ruins of the Campus
Martius, was described by Bandini in a learned folio volume De
Obelisco Augusti. Shortly after he was compelled to leave Rome
on account of his health and returned to Florence, where he was
appointed librarian to the valuable library bequeathed to the
public by the abbe Marucelli. In 1756 he was preferred by the
emperor to a prebend at Florence, and appointed principal
librarian to the Laurentian library. During forty-four years he
continued to discharge the duties of this situation, and died in
1800, generally esteemed and regretted. On his deathbed he
founded a public school, and bequeathed the remainder of his
fortune to other charitable purposes. The most important of his
numerous works are the Catalogus Codd. MSS. Graec., Lat., Ital.,
Bib., Laurent., 8 vols (1767-1778), and theVitae Lettered' Amerigo
Vespucci, 1745.
BANDOLIER, or BANDOLEER (from Fr. bandouliere,
Ital. bandoliera, a little band), a belt worn over the shoulder,
particularly by soldiers to carry cartridges. In the I7th century
wooden cases were hung to the belt to contain powder charges.
The modern bandolier carries the cartridges either in loops sewn
to the belt, or in small pouches, similarly attached, containing
strips of several cartridges. It has been extensively adopted in
the British army, especially for mounted troops.
BANDON, or BANDONBRIDGE, a market-town of county Cork,
Ireland, in the south-east parliamentary division, picturesquely
situated in a broad open valley on both sides of the river Bandon.
Pop. (1901) 2830. It is 20 m. S.W. of the city of Cork by
the Cork, Bandon & South Coast railway. It is an important
agricultural centre and there are distilleries, breweries and
flour-mills. The open park of Castle Bernard (earl of Bandon),
on the riverside, is attractive, and 2 m. below Bandon on the
river is Innishannon, the head of navigation. Bandon was founded
early in the i7th century by Richard Boyle, earl of Cork, and was
incorporated by James I. It returned two members to the Irish
parliament and thereafter one to the Imperial parliament until
1885. After the destruction of the walls by the Irish in 1689,
Bandon long resisted the admission of Catholic inhabitants.
BANEBERRY, or HERB CHRISTOPHER, popular names for
Actaea spicaia (nat. ord. Ranunculaceae) , a poisonous herb with
long-stalked compound leaves, small white flowers and black
berries, found wild in copses in limestone districts in the north
of England. It is widely distributed in the north temperate
zone.
BANER (BANNER, BANTER), JOHAN (1596-1641), Swedish
soldier in the Thirty Years' War, was born at Djursholm Castle
on the 23rd of June 1596. Entering the Swedish army, he
served with distinction in the wars with Russia and Poland,
and had reached high rank when, in 1630, Gustavus Adolphus
landed in Germany. As one of the king's chief subordinates,
Baner served in the campaign of north Germany, and at the
first battle of Breitenfeld he led the right wing of Swedish horse.
He was present at the taking of Augsburg and of Munich, and
rendered conspicuous service at the Lech and at Donauworth.
At the unsuccessful assault on Wallenstein's camp at the Alte
Veste Baner received a wound, and, soon afterwards, when
Gustavus marched towards Lutzen, his general was left in com-
mand in the west, where he was opposed to the imperial general
Aldringer. Two years later, as Swedish field-marshal, Baner,
with 16,000 men, entered Bohemia, and, combined with the
Saxon army, marched on Prague. But the complete defeat of
Bernhard of Saxe- Weimar in the first battle of Nordlingen stopped
his victorious advance. After this event the peace of Prague
placed the Swedish army in a very precarious position, but the
victories won by the united forces of Baner, Wrangel and
Torstensson, at Kyritz and Wittstock (4th Oct. 1636), restored
the paramount influence of Sweden in central Germany. Even
the three combined armies, however, were decidedly inferior
in force to those they defeated, and in 1637 Baner was completely
unable to make headway against the enemy. Rescuing with
great difficulty the beleaguered garrison of Torgau, he retreated
beyond the Oder into Pomerania. In 1639, however, he again
overran northern Germany, defeated the Saxons at Chemnitz
and invaded Bohemia itself. The winter of 1640-1641 Baner
spent in the west. His last achievement was an audacious
coup-de-main on the Danube. Breaking camp in mid-winter (a
very rare event in the I7th century) he united with the French
under the comte de Gufebriant and surprised Regensburg,
where the diet was sitting. Only the break-up of the ice pre-
vented the capture of the place. Baner thereupon had to
retreat to Halberstadt. Here, on the loth of May 1641, he
died, after designating Torstensson as his successor. He was
much beloved by his men, who bore his body with them on the
field of Wolfenbuttel. Ban6r was regarded as the best of
Gustavus's generals, and tempting offers (which he refused)
were made him by the emperor to induce him to enter his
service. His son received the dignity of count.
See Banirs Bref till Axel Oxenstjerna (Stockholm, 1893) ; B. P. von
Chemnitz, Koniglichen Schwedscher in Deutschland gefuhrten Kriegs;
Martin Veibull, Sveriges Storhedsted (Stockholm, 1881); Lundblad,
Johan Baner (Stockholm, 1823) ; Ardwisson, Tritiioariga Krigets
maerkvaerdigaste personer (Stockholm, 1861).
BANFF, a royal, municipal and police burgh, seaport and
capital of Banffshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 7161. It is
beautifully situated on high ground, on the left bank of the
mouth of the Deveron, 50 m. N.W. of Aberdeen by the Great
North of Scotland railway. It is a place of great antiquity, its
first charter having been granted by Malcolm IV. in 1163, and
further privileges were conferred by Robert Bruce in 1324 and
Robert II. in 1372. Of the old castle on the hill by the sea, in
which Archbishop Sharp was born, scarcely a trace remains;
but upon its site was erected the modern Banff Castle, belonging
to the earl of Seafield. The chief public edifices include the
county buildings; town hall, surmounted by a spire 100 ft.
high; Chalmers hospital (founded by Alexander Chalmers of
Clunie, a merchant and shipowner of the town) ; a masonic hall
of tasteful design; and the academy, a modern structure in
the Grecian style, to which there is attached an extensive
museum, containing examples of the early mechanical genius
of James Ferguson, the astronomer. Of the museum, which
originally belonged to the defunct Banff Institution and was
afterwards taken over by the town council, Thomas Edward
the " working naturalist," whose life was so sympathetically
written by Samuel Smiles was curator for a few years. The
principal manufactures comprise woollens, leather, rope and
sails, and there are also breweries, distilleries, iron foundries,
brick-yards and timber-yards, besides some ship-building. The
fishing trade is also important. The exports mainly consist of
grain, cattle, fish, dairy produce and potatoes; the imports of
coal and timber. There is a railway station at Bridge of Banff
communicating, via Inveramsay, with Aberdeen, and another
at the harbour, communicating with Portsoy and Keith. The
burgh is under the jurisdiction of a provost and council, and
unites with Macduff, Elgin, Cullen, Inverurie, Kintore and
Peterhead in returning one member to parliament. The Cassie
Gift arose out of a bequest by Alexander Cassie of London, a
native of Banff, who left 20,000 to the poor of the town the
interest being divided twice a year. Duff House, immediately
adjoining the town, is a seat of the duke of Fife. It was built
in 1740-1745, after designs by Robert Adam, at a cost of 70,000.
The duke of Cumberland rested here on the way to Culloden.
The house contains a fine collection of pictures and an interesting
armoury. The park is nearly ten miles in circumference. The
house, together with that portion of the park immediately
surrounding it (about 140 acres), was presented to the towns of
Banff and Macduff by the duke of Fife in November 1906.
BANFFSHIRE, a north-eastern county of Scotland, bounded
N. by the Moray Firth, E. and S. by Aberdeenshire, and W. by
Elgin and Inverness. It has an area of 403,364 acres, or 633$
sq. m. The surface is diversified. The northern half is mostly
a fine, open, undulating country of rich, highly-cultivated soil.
The southern is mountainous, but extensive farms are found in
its fertile glens. Some of the mountains are thick with forests,
some present a beautiful intermixture of rock and copse, while
others are covered with brown heath. The principal mountains
are all in the south; among them are Cairngorm, on the confines
BANFFSHIRE
of the shires of Banff and Inverness (4084 ft.), famous for its
amber-coloured quartz crystals, the " cairngorms " of Scots
jewelry; Ben Rinnes (2775 ft.); Corryhabbie (2563); Cook's
Cairn (2478) ; Carn an t-Saidhe (2401) ; and the Buck of Cabrach
(2368). No great rivers belong wholly to Banffshire. For a
considerable part of their courses the Spey forms the western
and the Deveron the eastern boundary of the county. But
Banffshire streams are comparatively short, the chief being the
Avon, Fiddich, Isla, Buckie, Deskford with a series of cascades
and Livet. Most of them are stocked with trout and the Spey
and Deveron are famous for their salmon. The great glens are
distinguished for their romantic scenery, the chief being Glen
Avon, Glen Bafry, Glen Fiddich, Glen Isla, Glen Livet, and Glen
Rinnes. The largest lochs are in the extreme south: Loch
Avon (2500 ft. above the sea), Loch Builg (1586) and Loch
Etchachan (3100).
Geology. The geology of Banffshire is closely connected with that
of the neighbouring counties of Aberdeen and Elgin, from which it
is divided by no natural boundaries. The greater portion is occupied
by crystalline schists of sedimentary origin belonging to the Eastern
Highland sequence. The groups which are typically developed
comprise (l) slates, black schists and phyllites with thin black
limestone, sometimes containing tremolite, (2) the main limestone,
(3) the quartzite (Schiehallion). These form subparallel belts
trending north-east and south-west from the seacoast between
Cullen and Portsoy southwards by Keith and Dufftown to the head
waters of the Avon beyond Tomintoul. Some excellent sections
of the phyllites are to be seen on the shore between Sandend, near
Portsoy, and Findlater Castle, near Cullen, and in the railway cutting
near Mulben, west of Keith. The main limestone has been worked
at Fordyce, near Grange east of Keith, and at Keith and Dufftown.
The quartzite, which is regarded as probably the highest member
of the series, forms prominent ridges due to the more rapid erosion
of the phyllites, mica-schists and limestones occupying the inter-
vening hollows. It appears on the coast between Cullen and Buckie,
it forms the Dura Hill near Portsoy, the Binn of Cuilen, the Knock
Hill, Ben Aigan and various ridges trending southwards from Grange
by Glen Fiddich towards Tomintoul. In the north-east part of the
county there is a large development of slate with interbedded grey-
wackes and pebbly grits, which occupies the coast section between
Macduff and Troup Head except a small part at Gamrie. The slate
has been quarried for roofing purposes. No fossils have been found
in these strata and their age is uncertain. The metamorphic sedi-
ments have been pierced by acid and basic igneous intrusions, partly
before and partly after the folding and metamorphism of the strata.
The older acid and basic materials appear as sheets injected along
the lines of bedding of the sediments and are traceable for consider-
able distances. They are foliated in places, the planes of schistosity
being more or less parallel with the planes of bedding in the schists.
The older acid rocks are represented by the sills of granite and augen-
gneiss occurring west of Portsoy, south of Fordyce and near Keith,
while the older basic rocks are illustrated by the belt of gabbro,
epidiorite and hornblende-schist which stretches southwards from
the coast at Portsoy, by Rothiemay to Huntly in Aberdeenshire.
Veins and bosses of serpentine are associated* with these basic in-
trusions at Portsoy and near Grange, one of the veins being traceable
at intervals from the shore southwards in the direction of Knock
Hill. The later intrusions are represented by the Ben Rinnes mass
of granite and its basic modification, the Netherly diorite, east of
Rothes. Various mineral localities occur throughout the county,
of which some of the most important occur on the shore at Portsoy,
as for example the gabbro masses in Portsoy Bay with enstatite,
hypersthene and labradorite, the graphic granite with microcline,
muscovite and tourmaline at East Head, the chiastolite-schist west
of the marble quarry, the mottled serpentine with strings of chryso-
tile. Resting unconformably on these metamorphic rocks, Old
Red sandstone strata are met with in a few places. Thus, they
cross the Spey and appear in the Tynet Burn east of Fochabers,
and extend eastwards to Buckie. Outliers of these beds appear on
the shore near Cullen and south of Fordyce, while the largest area
extends from Gamrie east by Pennan on the north coast of Aberdeen-
shire to Aberdeen. The strata consist mainly of conglomerates and
red sandstones, which, at Gamrie and at Tynet, are associated with
a band of limestone nodules embedded in a clayey matrix, contain-
ing fish remains. The more abundant species occurring at Gamrie,
as determined by Dr R. H. Traquair, are Diplacanthus striatus,
Rhadinacanthus, Cheiracanthus Murchisoni, Pterichthys Milleri,
Coccosteus decipiens. In view of the fossil evidence these beds have
been referred to the middle or Orcadian division of this formation.
In the interior near Tomintoul, another large deposit, composed of
conglomerate and sandstone, occurs, which may be of the same age,
though no fossils have as yet been obtained from these beds. There
is a widespread covering of boulder clay especially in the northern
part bordering the shore, where it contains fragments of shells and
includes numerous boulders which have been carried eastwards
from the high grounds west of the Moray Firth. In the brickclays
at Blackpots to the north-west of Banff, fragments of shells also
occur together with Jurassic fossils. Shelly sands have been re-
corded near the Ord south of Tillynaught near Portsoy, and shells
have been found in stratified deposits on the shore near Gamrie.
Agriculture. The soil is in genferal rich and productive, yielding
fair crops of wheat, and excellent crops of barley, oats, &c. ; and
the grass and green crops are equally abundant. Oats is the pre-
dominant crop, but the demands of distillers keep up the acreage
of barley. The cattle and stock hold a high character and form the
staple agricultural industry. There is also a considerable amount
of dairy farming. Among landlords who did much to encourage
agricultural enterprise and to plant and reclaim lands, were the earls
of Fife and the earls of Findlater, afterwards earls of Seafield. It
was a Seafield who, in 1846, received the honorary gold medal of
the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, for his immense
and thriving plantations of useful timber-trees, in the counties of
Banff, Moray and Nairn. From the year 1811 to 1845, he had
planted 18,938,224 Scots firs, 11,904,798 larches, 843,450 hard-
woods; making the enormous aggregate of 31,686,472 forest trees,
planted in 8223 acres of enclosed ground. The Banffshire Agri-
cultural Association holds shows periodically for all sorts of stock
and produce and agricultural implements.
Manufactures and Trade. Woollen factories are found in Duff-
town, Rothiemay and Gollachy, and engineering works in Banff,
Portsoy and Keith. Distilleries are numerous and their product
has a high repute. A fishing and miscellaneous trade is done at the
harbours of Banff, Macduff, Buckie, Gardenstown, Portsoy, Cullen
and Port Gordon; but fishing is also carried on at numerous creeks
or harbours along the coast. The herring season lasts from June
to September, white fishing all the year round. The fishery districts
centre in Banff and Buckie. Banffshire contains large limestone
deposits, and granite is also quarried.
The systems of the Great North of Scotland and the Highland
railways serve the chief towns of the county and provide com-
munication in one direction with Aberdeen, and in another with
Elgin, Nairn and Inverness.
The population of Banffshire in 1891 was 61,684, and in 1901
61,488, or 97 to the square mile. In 1901 there were 499 persons
speaking Gaelic and English. The chief towns are Banff (pop. in
1901, 7161), Buckie (6549), and Keith (4753), with Cullen (1936),
Portsoy (1878) and Dufftown (1823). The county returns one
member to parliament; the royal burghs, Banff and Cullen, belong-
ing to the Elgin group of parliamentary burghs. Banffshire, with
Aberdeen and Kincardine shires, forms a sheriffdom, and there is a
resident sheriff-substitute at Banff, who sits also at Keith, Buckie
and Dufftown. Most of the schools are under school-board juris-
diction. Several of them earn grants for higher education, and the
county council, out of the " residue grant," subsidizes classes in
agriculture, navigation, veterinary science and cookery and laundry
work. The teachers of the county, with those of the shires of
Aberdeen and Elgin, benefit by the bequest of James Dick (1743-
1828), a West India merchant, who left over 110,000 to promote
the higher learning of the schoolmasters of these shires. The
annual income of 4000 is distributed among the dominies who have
qualified by examination to become beneficiaries.
History. Of the northern Picts who originally possessed the
land few remains now exist beyond the cairns that are found in
the districts of Rothiemay, Ballindalloch, Boharm, Glen Livet
and elsewhere. " Cairn " also occurs in many place names. The
advance of the Romans was practically prevented by the
mountains in the south, but what is believed to have been a
Roman camp may still be made out in Glen Barry. Danish
invaders were more persevering and more successful. Many
bloody conflicts took place between them and the Scots. Near
Cullen a fierce encounter occurred in 960, and a sculptured stone
at Mortlach is said to commemorate a signal victory gained by
Malcolm II. over the Norsemen in 1010. The shire was the scene
of much strife after the Reformation. In Glen Livet the Roman
Catholics, under the marquess of Huntly, worsted the Protestants
under the earl of Argyll. From 1624 to 1645 was a period of
almost incessant struggle, and the Covenanting troubles, com-
bined with the frequent conflicts of the clans, were productive
of serious evils. But the Jacobite risings of 1715 and 1745 left
the county comparatively untouched, and thereafter it became
settled.
See W. Cramond, Annals of Banff (New Spalding Club) (Aberdeen,
1891); Dr Gordon, Chronicles of Keith, Grange, &c. (Glasgow, 1880);
Banffshire V ear-Book (Banff); Professor Dickie, Botanist's Guide
to Aberdeen, Banff, &c. (Aberdeen, 1860); Inventory of Charters of
Cullen (Banff, 1887); and Inventory of Charters of Banff (Banff);
Robertson's Collections for a History of the Shires of Aberdeen and
Banff (Spalding Club); W. Watt, Aberdeenshire and Banff
(Edinburgh, 1000).
BANFFY BANGANAPALLE
BANFFY, DEZSO [DESIDERIUS], BARON (1843- ), Hunga-
rian statesman, the son of Baron Daniel Banffy and Anna
Gy&rfas, was born at Klausenburg on the z8th of October 1843,
and educated at the Berlin and Leipzig universities. As
lord lieutenant of the county of Belso-Szolnok, chief captain of
Kovar and curator of the Calvinistic church of Transylvania,
Banffy exercised considerable political influence outside parlia-
ment from 1875 onwards, but his public career may be said to
have begun in 1892, when he became speaker of the house of
deputies. As speaker he continued, however, to be a party-man
(he had always been a member of the left-centre or government
party) and materially assisted the government by his rulings.
He was a stringent adversary of the radicals, and caused some
sensation by absenting himself from the capital on the occasion
of Kossuth's funeral on the ist of April 1894. On the I4th of
January 1895, the king, after the fall of the Szell ministry,
entrusted him with the formation of a cabinet. His programme,
in brief, was the carrying through of the church reform laws
with all due regard to clerical susceptibilities, and the mainten-
ance of the Composition of 1867, whilst fully guaranteeing the
predominance of Hungary. He succeeded in carrying the
remaining ecclesiastical bills through the Upper House, despite
the vehement opposition of the papal nuncio Agliardi, a triumph
which brought about the fall of Kaln6ky, the minister for foreign
affairs, but greatly strengthened the ministry in Hungary. In
the ensuing elections of 1896 the government won a gigantic
majority. The drastic electoral methods of Banffy had, however,
contributed somewhat to this result, and the corrupt practices
were the pretext for the fierce opposition in the House which he
henceforth had to encounter, though the measures which he
now introduced (the Honved Officers' Schools Bill) would, in
normal circumstances, have been received with general enthusi-
asm. Banffy's resoluteness enabled him to weather all these
storms, and his subsequent negotiations with Austria as to the
quota and commercial treaties, to the considerable political
advantage of Hungary, even enabled him for a time to live at
peace with the opposition. But in 1898 the opposition, now
animated by personal hatred, took advantage of the ever-
increasing difficulties of the government in the negotiations
with Austria, and refused to pass the budget till a definite
understanding had been arrived at. They refused to be
satisfied with anything short of the dismissal of Banffy, and
passion ran so high that on the 3rd of January 1899 Banffy
fought a duel with his most bitter opponent, Horanszky. On
the a6th of February Banffy resigned, to save the country
from its "ex-lex," or unconstitutional situation; he was
decorated by the king and received the freedom of the city
of Buda. Subsequently he contributed to overthrow the
Stephen Tisza administration, and in May 1905 joined the
Kossuth ministry.
See article " Banffy," by Marczall, in Pallas Nagy Lexikona,
Kot 17. (R. N. B.)
BANG, HERMANN JOACHIM (1858- ), Danish author, was
born of a noble family in the island of Zealand. When he was
twenty he published two volumes of critical essays on the realistic
movement. In 1880 he published his novel Haablose Slaegter
(" Families without hope "), which at once aroused attention.
After some time spent in travel and a successful lecturing tour
in Norway and Sweden, he settled in Copenhagen, and produced
a series of novels and collections of short stories, which placed
him in the front rank of Scandinavian novelists. Among his
more famous stories are Faedra (1883) and Tine (1889). The
latter won for its author the friendship of Ibsen and the enthusi-
astic admiration of Jonas Lie. Among his other works are:
Del, hvide Hus (The White House, 1898), Excentriske Noveller
(1885), StUle Eksistenzer (1886), Lit og Dod (Life and Death,
1899), Englen Michael (1902), a volume of poems (1889) and of
recollections (Ti Aar, 1891).
BANGALORE, a city of India, the capital of the native state
of Mysore, and the largest British cantonment in the south of
India. It is 3113 ft. above the sea, and 219 m. W. of Madras by
rail. Pop. (1901) 69,447. The foundation of the present fort
was laid by a descendant of Kempe-Goude, a husbandman of the
neighbouring country, who, probably in the i6th century, had
left his native village to avoid the tyranny of the wadeyar of that
place, and settled on a spot a few miles to the north of Bangalore.
To the peaceful occupation of a farmer he added that of a warrior,
and his first exploit was the conquest of this place, where, and at
Savendrug, his family subsequently erected fortresses. Banga-
lore, with other possessions, was, however, wrested from them by
Bijapur. Somewhat later we find it enumerated among the
jagirs of Shahji, father of Sivaji, the founder of the Mahratta
sway; and at an early period of his career in the service of the
Bijapur state, that adventurer seemed to have fixed his residence
there. It appears to have passed into the possession of Venkaji,
one of the sons of Shahji; but he having occupied Tanjore,
deemed Bangalore too distant, especially under the circumstances
of the times, to be safe. He accordingly, in 1687, entered into a
bargain for its sale to Chikka Deva, raja of Mysore, for three
lakhs of rupees; but before it could be completed, Kasim Khan,
commander of the forces of Aurangzeb, marched upon the place
and entered it almost without resistance. This event, however,
had no other result than to transfer the stipulated price from one
vendor to another; for that general, not coveting the possession,
immediately delivered it over to Chikka Deva on payment of the
three lakhs. In 1758, Nanjiraj, the powerful minister of the
raja, caused Bangalore to be granted, as zjagir or fief, to Hyder
AH, afterwards usurper of Mysore,' who greatly enlarged and
strengthened the fort, which, in 1760, on his expulsion from
Seringapatam, served as his refuge from destruction. The fort
formed the traditional scene of the first captivity of Sir David
Baird after Baillie's defeat at Perambakam in 1780. The prison
cell of Sir David and his fellow-captive is from 1 2 to 1 5 ft. square,
with so low a roof that a man can scarcely stand upright in it.
In 1791 it was stormed by a British army commanded by Lord
Cornwallis. In 1799 the district was included by the treaty of
Seringapatam within the territory of the restored raja of Mysore.
It formed the headquarters of the British administration of
Mysore from 1831 to 1881. When the state of Mysore was
restored to its raja in 1881, the civil and military station of
Bangalore was permanently reserved under British jurisdiction
as an " assigned tract." It has an area of 13 sq. m., and had in
1901 a population of 89,599, showing a decrease of 10% in the
decade, due to plague. Bangalore is the headquarters of a
military district, its elevation rendering it healthy for British
troops, with accommodation for a strong force of all arms and
an arsenal in the old fort. It is the headquarters of a brigade in
the 9th division of the Indian army. A considerable number of
European pensioners reside here. There is a modern palace for
the maharaja. There is an aided Roman Catholic college,
besides many schools for Europeans. A permanent water-supply
has been introduced and there is a complete system of drainage.
Bangalore is an important railway centre. There are several
cotton mills. The city suffered severely from plague in 1899
and 1900.
The district of Bangalore borders on the Madras district of
Salem. The main portion consists of the valley of the Arkavati
river, which joins the Cauvery on the southern frontier. Its
area is 3079 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 789,664, showing
an increase of 15 % in the decade. The district is crossed by
several lines of railway. Outside Bangalore city there is a
woollen mill, which turns out blankets, cloth for greatcoats, and
woollen stuffs.
BANGANAPALLE, a state of southern India, surrounded by
the Madras district of Kurnool. Area, 255 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
32,264, showing a decrease of 9% in the decade; estimated
revenue 6400, of which a large portion is alienated in grants
to junior branches of the family; no tribute. The excessive
expenditure of the nawab, Syed Fateh Ali Khan, and the general
inefficiency of the administration caused much anxiety to the
government, and in February 1905 he was temporarily removed
from the administration of the state. The town of Banganapalle
is not far from the branch of the Southern Mahratta railway
from Guntakal to Bezwada.
316
BANGASH BANGOR
BANGASH, a small tribe of Pathans in the Kohat district of
the North- West Frontier Province of India. They occupy the
hills between Thai and Kohat, and number 3000 fighting men.
Formerly they owned the whole of Kurram, but owing to the
encroachments of the Turis, they moved eastwards, dispossessed
the Orakzais, drove them north and took their territory in the
Kohat district, which they now occupy to the west of the
Khattak country. The Khattaks and Bangashes are of excep-
tionally good physique and make excellent soldiers.
BANGKOK, the capital of Siam, on the river Me Nam, about
20 m. from its mouth, in 100 30' E., 13 45' N. Until modern
times the city was built largely on floating pontoons or on piles
at the edges of the innumerable canals and water-courses which
formed the thoroughfares, but to meet the requirements of
modern life, well-planned roads and streets have been constructed
in all directions, crossing the old canals at many points and
lined with well-built houses, for the most part of brick, in which
the greater part of the erstwhile riparian population now resides.
The centre of the city is the royal palace (see SIAM), situated in a
bend of the river and enclosed by walls. At a radius of nearly a
mile is another wall within which lies the closely-packed city
proper, and beyond which the town stretches away to the royal
parks on the north and to the business quarter, the warehouses,
rice-mills, harbour and docks on the south. The whole town
covers an area of over 10 sq. m. Two companies provide
Bangkok with a complete system of electric tramways, and the
streets are lined with shade-trees and lit by electricity. All over
the town are scattered beautiful Buddhist temples, which with
their coloured tile roofs and gilded spires give it a peculiar and
notable appearance. Many fine buildings are to be seen the
various public offices, the arsenal, the mint, the palaces of
various princes and, in addition to these, schools, hospitals,
markets and Christian churches of many denominations, chiefly
Roman Catholic. There are four railway stations in Bangkok, the
termini of the lines which connect the provinces with the capital.
The climate of Bangkok has without doubt recently changed.
It has become hotter and less humid. Though a minimum
temperature below 60 F. is still recorded in January and
December, a maximum of over 100 is reached during the hot
weather months and at the beginning of the rains, whereas up
to the year 1900 a maximum of 93 was considered unusually
high. The cause of this change is not known, but it is attributed
to extensive drainage and removal of vegetation in the immediate
neighbourhood of the town. The annual rainfall amounts to
rather over 50 in.
A four-mile reach of the Me Nam, immediately below the city
proper, forms the port of Bangkok. From 250 to 400 yds.
broad and of good depth right up to the banks, the river offers
every convenience for the berthing and loading of ships, though
a bar at its mouth, which prevents the passage of vessels drawing
more than 12 ft., necessitates in the case of large ships a partial
loading and unloading from lighters outside. The banks of the
port are closely lined with the offices, warehouses and wharves
of commercial houses, with timber yards and innumerable rice-
mills, while the custom house, the harbour master's office and
many of the foreign legations and consulates are also situated
here. Of the 750 steamships which cleared the port in 1904,
three out of every seven were German, two were Norwegian
and one was British, but in 1005 two new companies, one British
and the other Japanese, arranged for regular services to Bangkok,
thereby altering these proportions. It is notable that the heavy
trade with Singapore shows a tendency to decrease in favour of
direct trade with Europe. A fleet of small steamers, schooners
and junks, carries on trade with the towns and districts on the
east and west coasts of the Gulf of Siam. The trade of Bangkok
is almost entirely in the hands of Europeans and Chinese. The
principal exports are rice and teak, and the principal imports,
cotton and silk goods and gold-leaf. The value of trade, which
more than doubled between the years 1900 and 1907, amounted
in the latter year to 5,600,000 imports and 7,100,000 exports.
Of the total trade, 75% is with the British empire. Many of
the best known mercantile firms and banks of the Far East have
branches in Bangkok. The unit of currency is the tical (see
SIAM).
The government of Bangkok is entrusted to the minister of
the capital, a member of the cabinet. Under this minister are
the police, sanitary, harbour master's and revenue offices. The
police force is an efficient and well-organized body of 3000 men
headed by a European commissioner of police. The sanitary
department consists of a board of health, a bacteriological
laboratory and an engineer's office, all managed with expert
European assistance. Under the act of 1905, the want of which
was long felt, the port and the city water-ways are controlled by
the harbour master. Local revenues are collected by the revenue
office. The ordinary law courts are under the control of the
ministry of justice, but in accordance with the extra-territorial
rights enjoyed by foreign powers in Siam, each consulate has
attached to it a court, having jurisdiction in all cases in which a
subject of the power represented by such consulate is defendant.
The population, which is estimated at 450,000, is mixed.
Mingling with Siamese and Chinese, who form the major part,
may be seen persons of almost every race to.be found between
Bombay and Japan, while Europeans of different nationalities
number over 1000. The death-rate is high, especially among
children, owing to the prevalence of cholera, smallpox and fevers
during the dry weather. Sanitation, however, is improving and
much good has resulted from the boring of numerous artesian
wells which yield good water.
Before 1769 Bangkok was nothing but an agricultural village
with a fort on the river bank. In that year, however, it was
seized by the warrior, Paya Tak, as a convenient point from which
to attack the Burmese army then in occupation of Siam, and
upon his becoming king it was chosen as the capital of the country.
(See SIAM.) (W.A.G.)
BANGOR, a seaport and market-town of Co. Down, Ireland,
in the north parliamentary division, on the south side of Belfast
Lough, 1 2m. E.N.E. of Belfast, on a branch of the Belfast &
County Down railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5903. It
carries on a considerable trade in cotton and linen and embroidered
muslin. It is greatly frequented as a watering-place, especially by
the people of Belfast, and there are golf links and important
regattas held by the Royal Ulster Yacht Club. Slight remains are
to be seen of an abbey of Canons Regular, founded in the middle
of the 6th century by St Comgall, and rebuilt, on a scale of magni-
ficence which astonished the Irish, by St Malachy O'Morgair in
the first half of the 1 2th century. Bangor was incorporated by
James I. and returned two members to the Irish parliament.
BANGOR, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of
Penobscot county, Maine, U.S.A., at the confluence of the
Kenduskeag stream with the Penobscot river, and at the head
of navigation on the Penobscot, about 60 m. from the ocean, and
about 75 m. N.E. of Augusta. Pop. (1890) 19,103; (1900)
21,850, of whom 3726 were foreign-born and 176 were negroes;
(1910, census) 24,803. A bridge (about 1300 ft. long) across
the Penobscct connects Bangor with Brewer (pop. in 1910, 5667).
Bangor is served directly by the Maine Central railway, several
important branches radiating from the city, and by the Eastern
Steamship line; the Maine Central connects near the city with
the Bangor & Aroostook railway (whose general offices are here)
and with the Washington County railway. The business portion
of the city lies on both sides of the Kenduskeag and for about 3 m.
along the W. bank of the Penobscot, which is here quite low,
while many fine residences are on the hillsides farther back.
Bangor is the seat of three state institutions the Eastern Maine
general hospital, the Eastern Maine insane hospital and the
law school of the University of Maine and of the Bangor
Theological Seminary (Congregational), incorporated in 1814,
opened at Hampden in 1816, removed to Bangor in 1819, and
empowered in 1905 to confer degrees in divinity. The city has
several public parks, a public library and various charitable
institutions, among which are a children's home, a home for
aged men, a home for aged women and a deaconesses' home.
Among the principal buildings are the county court house, the
Federal building, the city hall and the opera house. The Eastern
BANGOR BANGWEULU
Maine Music Festival is held in Bangor in October of each year.
The rise of the tide here to a height of 1 7 ft. makes the Penobscot
navigable for large vessels; the Kenduskeag furnishes good
water-power; and the city is the trade centre for an extensive
agricultural district. The Eastern Maine State Fair is held here
annually. Bangor is one of the largest lumber depots in the
United States, and also ships considerable quantities of ice. The
city's foreign trade is of some importance; in 1907 the imports
were valued at $2,720,594, and the exports at $1,272,247. Bangor
has various manufactures, the most important of which (other
than those dependent upon lumber) are boots and shoes (including
moccasins); among others are trunks, valises, saws, stoves,
ranges and furnaces, edge tools and cant dogs, saw-mill machinery,
brick, clothing, cigars, flour and dairy products. In 1905 the
city's factory products were valued at $3,408,355. The muni-
cipality owns and operates the water-works (the water-supply
being drawn from the Penobscot by the Holly system) and an
electric-lighting plant; there is also a large electric plant for
generation of electricity for power and for commercial lighting,
and in Bangor and the vicinity there were in 1908 about 60 m.
of electric street-railway.
Bangor has been identified by some antiquarians as the site
of the mythical city of Norumbega, and it was reported in 1656
that Fort Norombega, built by the French, was standing here;
but the authentic history of Bangor begins in 1769 when the
first settlers came. The settlement was at first called Conduskeag
and for a short time was locally known as Sunbury. In 1791 the
town was incorporated, and through the influence of the Rev.
Seth Noble, the first pastor, the name was changed to Bangor,
the name of one of his favourite hymn-tunes. During the war
of 1812 a British force occupied Bangor for several days (in
September 1814), destroying vessels and cargoes. Bangor was
chartered as a city in 1834. In 1836 a railway from Bangor to
Old Town was completed ; this was the first railway in the state ;
Bangor had, also, the first electric street-railway in Maine (1889),
and one of the first iron steamships built in America ran to this
port and was named " Bangor."
BANGOR (formerly BANGOR FAWR, as distinguished from
several other towns of this name in Wales, Ireland, Brittany,
&c.), a city, municipal (1883) and contributory parliamentary
borough (Carnarvon district), seaport and market-town of
Carnarvonshire, N. Wales, 240 m. N.W. of London by the London
& North Western railway. Pop. (1901) 11,269. It consists of
Upper and Lower, the Lower practically one street. Lying near
the northern entrance of the Menai Straits, it attracts many
visitors. Buildings include the small cathedral, disused bishop's
palace, deanery ,'small Roman Catholic church and other churches,
the University College of N. Wales (1883), with female students'
hall, Independent, Baptist, Normal and N. Wales Training
Colleges. The cruciform cathedral, with a low pinnacled tower,
stands on the site of a church which the English destroyed in
1071 (dedicated to, and perhaps founded, about 525, by St
Deiniol). Sir G. Scott restored the present cathedral, 1866-1875,
after it had been burned in the time of Owen Glendower, destroyed
in 1211, and, in 1102 and 1212, severely handled. Bishop Dean
(temp. Henry VII.) rebuilt the choir, Bishop Skevyngton (1532)
added tower and nave. Lord Penrhyn's slate-quarries, at
Bethesda, 6 m. off, supply the staple export from Port Penrhyn,
at the mouth of the stream Cegid.
The Myvyrian Archaeology (408-484) gives the three principal
bangor (college) institutions as follows: the bangor of Illtud
Farchawg at Caer Worgorn (Wroxeter) ; that of Emrys (Ambro-
sius) at Caer Caradawg; bangor wydrin (glass) in the glass isle,
Afallach; bangor Illtud, or Llanilltud, or Llantwit major (by
corruption), being a fourth. In each of the first three were
420 saints, succeeding each other (by hundreds), day and night,
in their pious offices.
BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY, a theological dispute in the
early i8th century which originated in 1716 with the posthumous
publication of George Hickes's (bishop of Thetford) Constitution
of the Christian Church, and the Nature and Consequences of
Schism, in which he excommunicated all but the non-juring
churchmen. Benjamin Hoadly (?..), the newly-appointed
bishop of Bangor, scented the opportunity and wrote a speedy
and able reply, Preservative against the Principles and Practices
of Non-Jurors, in which his own Erastian position was recom-
mended and sincerity proposed as the only test of truth. This
was followed by his famous sermon, preached before George I.
on the 3 ist of March 1 7 1 7, on The Nature of the Kingdom or Church
of Christ. In this discourse " he impugned the idea of the
existence of any visible church at all, ridiculed the value of any
tests of orthodoxy, and poured contempt upon the claims of the
church to govern itself by means of the state." He identified
the church with the kingdom of Heaven it was therefore " not
of this world," and Christ had not delegated His authority to
any representatives. Both book and sermon were reported on
by a committee appointed by the Lower House of Convocation
in May, and steps would have been taken by the archbishop and
bishops had not the government stepped in (Hoadly denied that
this was at his request) and prorogued Convocation till November.
Hoadly himself wrote A Reply to the Representations of Convoca-
tion and also answered his principal critics, among whom were
Thomas Sherlock (q.v.), then dean of Chichester, Andrew Snape,
provost of Eton, and Francis Hare, then dean of Worcester.
These three men, and another opponent, Robert Moss, dean of
Ely, were deprived of their royal chaplaincies. Hoadly was
shrewd enough not to answer the most brilliant, though com-
paratively unknown, of his antagonists, William Law. Though
the controversy went on, its most important result had already
been achieved in the silencing of Convocation, for that body,
though it had just " seemed to be settling down to its proper
work in dealing with the real exigencies of the church" when
the Hoadly dispute arose, did not meet again for the despatch
of business for nearly a century and a half. (See CONVOCATION.)
BANGWEULU, a shallow lake of British Central Africa,
formed by the head streams of the Congo. It lies between 10 38'
and 11 31' S. and is cut by 30 E. Bangweulu occupies the
north-west part of a central basin in an extensive plateau, and
is about 3700 ft. above the sea. The land slopes gently to the
depression from the south, east and north, and into it drain a
considerable number of streams, turning the greater part into
a morass of reeds and papyrus. The term Bangweulu is some-
times applied to the whole depression, but is properly confined
to the area of clear water. Only on its south-west and western
sides are the banks of the lake clearly defined. The greatest
extent of open water is about 60 m. N. to S. and 40 m. E. to W.
Long narrow sandbanks almost separate Chif unawuli, the western
part of the lake, from the main body of water, while the water
surface is further diminished by a number of islands. The largest
of these islands, Kirui (Chiru), lies on the east side of the lake
close to the swamp. Kisi (Chishi) is a small island occupying
a central position just south of 11 S., and Mbawali, 20 m. long
by 3 broad, lies south of Kisi. South of Bangweulu the swamp
extends to 1 2 10' S. Into this swamp on its east side flows the
Chambezi, the most remote head stream of the Congo. Without
entering the lake the Chambezi mingles its waters in the swamp
with those of the Luapula. The Luapula, which leaves Bang-
weulu at its most southern point, is about a mile wide at the out-
flow, but soon narrows to 300 or so yds. West of the Luapulu
and near its outflow lies Lake Kampolombo, 20 m. long and 8
broad at its southern end. A sandy track separates Bangweulu
from Kampolombo, and a narrow forest-clad tongue of land
called Kapata intervenes between the Luapula and Kampolombo.
Various channels lead, however, from the river to the lake. The
Luapula flows south through the swamp some 50 m. and then
turns west and afterwards north (see CONGO). The flood waters
of the Chambezi and other streams, which deposit large quantities
of alluvium, are gradually solidifying the swamp, while the
Luapula is believed to be, though very slowly, draining Bang-
weulu. The waters of the lake do not appear to be anywhere
more than 15 ft. deep.
Though heard of by the Portuguese traveller, Francisco de
Lacerda, in 1798, Bangweulu was first reached in 1868 by David
Livingstone, who died six years later among the swamps to the
BANIM BANJO
south. It was partially surveyed in 1883 by the French traveller,
Victor Giraud, and first circumnavigated by Poulett Weatherley
in 1896.
See P. Weatherley in Geog. Journ. vol. xii. (1898) and vol. xiv.
C. 561 (1899) ; L.A.Wallace in Geog. Journ. vol. xxix. (l9O7),with map
y O.L. Beringer. Giraud's Les Lacsde I'Afrique equatoriale (Paris,
1890) and Livingstone's Last Journals (1874) may also be consulted.
BANIM, JOHN (1798-1842), Irish novelist, sometimes called
the " Scott of Ireland," was born at Kilkenny on the 3rd of April
1798. In his thirteenth year he entered Kilkenny College
and devoted himself specially to drawing and painting. He
pursued his artistic education for two years in the schools con-
nected with the Royal Society at Dublin, and afterwards taught
drawing in Kilkenny, where he fell in love with one of his pupils.
His affection was returned, but the parents of the young lady
interfered and removed her from Kilkenny. She pined away
and died in two months. Her death made a deep impression on
Banim, whose health suffered severely and permanently. In
1 8 20 he went to Dublin and settled finally to the work of literature.
He published a poem, The Celts' Paradise, and his Damon and
Pythias was performed at Covent Garden in 1821. During a
short visit to Kilkenny he married, and in 1822 planned in
conjunction with his elder brother MICHAEL (1796-1874), a
series of tales illustrative of Irish life, which should be for Ireland
what the Waverley Novels were for Scotland. He then set out
for London, and supported himself by writing for magazines and
for the stage. A volume of miscellaneous essays was published
anonymously in 1824, called Revelations of the Dead Alive. In
April 1825 appeared the first series of Tales of the O'Hara Family,
which achieved immediate and decided success. One of the
most powerful of them, Crohoore of the Bill Hook, was by Michael
Banim. In 1826 a second series was published, containing that
excellent Irish novel, The Nowlans. John's health had given way,
and the next effort of the " O'Hara family " was almost entirely
the production of his brother Michael. The Croppy, a Tale of
1798 (1828) is hardly equal to the earlier tales, though it con-
tains some wonderfully vigorous passages. The Denounced, The
Mayor of Windgap, The Ghost Hunter (by Michael Banim) , and
The Smuggler followed in quick succession, and were received
with considerable favour. John Banim, meanwhile, had become
much straitened in circumstances. In 1829 he went to France,
and while he was abroad a movement to relieve his wants was
set on foot by the English press, headed by John Sterling in The
Times. A sufficient sum was obtained to remove him from any
danger of actual want, and to this government added in 1836 a
pension of 130- He returned to Ireland in 1835, and settled in
Windgap Cottage, a short distance from Kilkenny; and there,
a complete invalid, he passed the remainder of his life, dying on
the i3th of August 1842. Michael Banim had acquired a con-
siderable fortune which he lost in 1840 through the bankruptcy
of a firm with which he had business relations. After this disaster
he wrote Father Connell (1842), Clough Fionn (1852), The Town
of the Cascades (1862). Michael Banim died at Booterstown on
the 3oth of August 1874.
The true place of the Banims in literature is to be estimated
from the merits of the O'Hara Tales; their later works, though of
considerable ability, are sometimes prolix and are marked by too
evident an imitation of the Waverley Novels. The Tales, how-
ever, are masterpieces of faithful delinea tion. The strong passions,
the lights and shadows of Irish peasant character, have rarely
been so ably and truly depicted- The incidents are striking,
sometimes even horrible, and the authors have been accused
of straining after melodramatic effect. The lighter, more
joyous side of Irish character, which appears so strongly in
Samuel Lover, receives little attention from the Banims.
See P. J. Murray, Life of John Banim (1857).
BANJALUKA (sometimes written BANIALUKA, or BAINALUKA),
the capital of a district bearing the same name, in Bosnia. Pop.
(1895) 13,666, of whom about 7000 were Moslems. Banjaluka
lies on the river Vrbas, and at the terminus of a military railway
which meets the Hungarian state line at Jasenovac, 30 m. N.N.W.
Banjaluka is the seat of Roman Catholic and Orthodox bishops,
a district court, and an Austrian garrison. It is at the head of a
narrow defile, shut in by steep hills on the east and west but ex-
panding on the north to meet the valley of the Save. A small
stream called the Crkvina enters the Vrbas from the north-east and
in the angle thus formed stand the citadel and barracks, with the
16th-century Ferhadiya Jamia, largest and most beautiful of more
than 40 mosques in the city. The celebrated Roman baths are
all in ruins, except one massive, domed building, dating from the
6th century and still in use, although modern baths are also
open, for the development of the hot springs. Other noteworthy
buildings are the Franciscan and Trappist monasteries, a girls'
school, belonging to the Sisterhood of the Sacred Blood of
Nazareth, a real-school and a Turkish bazaar. Coal, iron, silver
and other minerals are found in the adjoining hills; and the city
possesses a government tobacco factory, a brewery, cloth-mills,
gunpowder-mills, a model farm and many corn-mills, worked by
the two rapid rivers.
Banjaluka is probably the Roman fort, marked, in the Tabula
Peutingeriana, as Castra, on the river Urbanus and the road from
Salona on the Adriatic to Servitium in Pannonia. The origin
of its later name, meaning the " Baths of St Luke," is uncertain.
In the isth century, the fall of Jajce, a rival stronghold 22 m.
S., led to the rapid rise of Banjaluka, which was thenceforward
the scene of many encounters between Austrians and Turks;
notably in 1527, 1688 and 1737. No Bosnian city had greater
prosperity or importance in the last half of the i8th century.
In 1831, Hussein Aga Borberli, called the " Dragon of Bosnia,"
or Zmaj Bosanski, set forth from Banjaluka on his holy war
against the sultan Mahmud II. (See BOSNIA.)
BANJERMASIN (Dutch Bandjermasin), the chief town in the
Dutch portion of the island of Borneo, East Indies, on the river
Martapura, near its junction with the Barito, 24 m. from the
mouth of the Barito in a bay of the south coast. The town is the
seat of the Dutch resident of South and East Borneo. Its
buildings stand on either bank of the river, but many of the
inhabitants (who number nearly 50,000) occupy houses either
floating on, or built on piles in the river. As large vessels can
sail up to the town, it is a trade centre for the products of the
districts along the banks of the Barito and Martapura, such as
benzoin, rattans, wax, gold, diamonds, iron and weapons. In
1700 the East Indian Company established a factory here; but
the place was found to be unhealthy, and the Company's servants
were finally attacked by the natives, whom they repulsed with
great difficulty. The settlement was abandoned. The English
again seized Banjermasin in 1811, but restored it in 1817. Of the
commercial community the Chinese are a very important portion,
and there is also a considerable number of Arabs. The district of
Banjermasin was incorporated by the Dutch in consequence of
the war of 1860, in regard to the succession in the sultanate,
which had been under their protection since 1787. The town of
Martapura was the seat of the sultan from 1771. The inland
portion of the district is covered with forest, while the flat
and swampy seaboard is largely occupied by rice-fields. The
inhabitants are mostly Dyaks.
BANJO, a musical instrument with strings plucked by fingers
or plectrum, popular among the American negroes and introduced
by them into Europe. The word is either a corruption of
"bandore" or "pandura" (q.v.), an instrument of the guitar
type, or is derived from " bania," the name of a similar primitive
Senegambian instrument.
The banjo consists of a body composed of a single piece of
vellum stretched like a drum-head over a wooden or metal hoop
to ensure the requisite degree of resonance; the parchment may
be tightened or slackened by means of a series of screws disposed
round the circumference of the hoop. Attached to the body,
which has no back, is a long neck, terminating in a flat head
acting as a peg-box and bent back slightly at an obtuse angle
Erom the neck. There are five, six or nine strings to the banjo;
they are fastened to a tail-piece as in the violin, pass over a low
bridge, on the body, and are strained over the nut or ridge at the
end of the neck, where they are threaded through holes and
wound round the tuning-pegs fixed in the back of the head in
Oriental fashion, as in the lute (?..). The strings are stopped
BANK BANKER-MARKS
by the pressure of the fingers against the finger-board which lies
over the front of the neck; the correct positions for the formation
of the intervals of the scale are indicated in some banjos by frets
consisting of metal or wooden bands inlaid in the finger-board.
The vibrating length of the strings from bridge to nut is 24 in.
for all except the highest in pitch, known as the " chanterelle,"
" melody " or " thumb string, " which is only 1 6 in. long ; its tuning
peg is inserted half-way up the neck. The chanterelle is not, as in
other stringed instruments, in its position as the highest in pitch,
but is placed next the lowest string for convenience in playing it
with the thumb. In the tables of accordance here given, the chan-
terelle is indicated by a X . The five-stringed banjo is tuned either
6
543*1
The six-stringed is tuned
X
or
---
p
9 =-*-
6543*1
The nine-stringed banjo has three thumb strings thus
X X
>
The G clef is used in notation, but the notes sound an octave lower
than they are written. The banjo is usually a transposing instru-
ment in the sense that, when playing with other instruments, the
A corresponds to the C of the piano or violin ; the key of A major
is therefore the first to be mastered. The chanterelle does not lie
over the finger-board and is always played open by the thumb.
The banjo is held so that the neck is even with the left shoulder
and the body rests on the right thigh; the front of the instrument
is held inclined at an angle, allowing the performer to see all the
strings. When played as a solo instrument, a plectrum may be
used with good effect to produce rapid scale and arpeggio passages,
or to produce the tremolo or sustained notes as on the mandoline
(q.v.). The best results are obtained by means of a tortoise-shell
plectrum about the size of a shilling, 1 having the contact-edges
highly polished, bevelled and terminating in a point. The tone
of the banjo is louder and harder than that of the guitar.
Chords of two, three and four notes can be played on it.
The banjo or bania of the African negro having grass strings
is still in use on the coast of Guinea. The banjo was made known
in England through companies of coloured minstrels from the
United States, one of which came over to London as early as
1846. (K. S.)
BANK, 2 known also as " POLISH BANK " and " RUSSIAN
BANK " a card-game. An ordinary pack is used. Five or six
players is a convenient number. Each contributes an arranged
stake to the pool. The dealer gives three ca'rds to each player
and turns up another; if this is not lower than an eight (ace is
lowest) he goes on till such a card is exposed. The player on the
dealer's left, without touching or looking at his cards, can bet the
amount of the pool, or any part of it, that among his cards is one
that is higher (of the same suit) than the turn-up. If he wins, he
takes the amount from the pool; if he loses, he pays it to the pool.
Each player does the same in turn, the dealer last. Whenever
the pool is exhausted, a fresh stake is put into the pool. After a
round is over the deal passes. No playpr may touch his cards
until he has made his bet; the penalty is a fine to the pool of
twice the stake, and the loss of his right to bet during that round.
BANKA (BANCA, BANGKA), an island of the Dutch East Indies,
off the east coast of Sumatra, from which it is separated by Banka
Strait, which is about 9 m. wide at its narrowest point. On the
east, the broader, island-studded Caspar Strait separates Banka
from Billiton. Banka is 138 m. in length; its extreme breadth
is 62 m., and its area, including a few small adjacent islands, 4460
1 See A. H. Nassau-Kennedy, I.S.M., Banjo-Plectring.
1 For the commercial " bank " see BANKS AND BANKING.
sq. m. The soil is generally dry and stony, and the greater part
of the surface is covered with forests, in which the logwood tree
especially abounds. The hills, of which Maras in the north is the
highest (2760 ft.), are covered with vegetation to their summits.
Geologically, Banka resembles the Malay Peninsula, its forma-
tions being mainly granite, Silurian and Devonian slate, fre-
quently covered with sandstone, laterite (red ironstone clay) of
small fertility, and alluvium. The granite extends from W.N.W.
to S.S.E., forming the short, irregular hill-chains. As these lie
generally near the east coast, it follows that the rivers of the west
coast are the longer. There are no volcanoes. The chief rivers
(Jering, Kotta and Waringin) are navigable for some 19 m. from
their mouths and are used for the transport of tin. Banka is
principally noted for the production of this mineral, which was
discovered here in 1710 and is a government monopoly. It
occurs in lodes and as stream-tin, and is worked by Chinese in
large numbers who inhabit villages of their own. The island is
divided into nine mining districts, including about 120 mines,
under government control, with 12,000 workmen, which have
produced as much as 1 2,000 tons of tin in a year. From May to
August, the period of the south-east monsoon, the climate of
Banka is dry and hot; but the mean annual rainfall reaches 120
in. annually, rain occurring on an average on 168 days each year.
The wet, cool season proper is from November to February,
accompanying the north-west monsoon. The heavy rainfall is
of great importance to the tin-streaming industry. The total
population of the island (1905) is 1 15, 189, including4O,ooo Chinese
and 70,000 natives. These last are mainly composed of immigrant
Malayan peoples. The aborigines are represented by a few rude
hill-tribes, who resemble in physique the Battas of Sumatra.
Rice, pepper, gambier, coffee and palms are cultivated, and
fishing and the collection of forest produce are further industries,
but none of these is of importance. The chief town is Muntok
at the north end of Banka Strait.
See H. Zondervan, Banka en Zijne bewoners (Amsterdam, 1895),
with bibliography; T. Posewitz, Die Zinn-inseln im Indischtn
Ocean. For geology and the tin-mines, Jaarboek vor het Mijnwezen
in Ned. Ind. (Amsterdam, 1877-1884).
BANKER-MARKS, or MASONS' MARKS. The "banker" is
the stone bed or bench upon which a mason works, hence the
term (so well known to the trade) of banker-marks, which, as
Mr Whitley has pointed out, is more appropriate than that of
masons' marks, since the setters, who are usually selected from
amongst the best workmen, make no marks upon the stone
(Leamington Spa Courier, nth of August 1888). These must
not be confused with other marks sometimes cut on stones as
directions to the setters, and so used and employed to the present
time. Banker-marks are met with throughout the civilized
world, and in fact are to be found on all old buildings of conse-
quence, ecclesiastical or otherwise. Professor T. Hayter Lewis
well observed, " Go where you will, in England, France, Sicily,
Palestine, you will find all through the buildings of the I2th
century the same carefully worked masonry, the same masons'
tool-marks, the same way of making them." Such masons'
marks are to be traced graved on all the chief stones of what is
known as Norman work. Norman tooling, so far as Hayter
Lewis could discover, came from the north and west of Europe.
Since then we get marks made with a " toothed chisel," but
however or wherever chiselled the intention was the same. The
system followed provided an infallible means of connecting the
individual craftsman with his work, an evidence of identity that
could not be gainsaid.
Naturally, because of their simplicity, certain designs were
followed much more frequently than others, while occasionally
some of a very elaborate character are to be detected. Un-
doubtedly not a few were suggestive of the initials of the names
of the masons, and others were reminiscent of certain animals,
objects, &c., but no proof has yet been offered of their being
alphabetical in design, or arranged so as to distinguish the
members of different lodges or companies; the journeymen
selected any design they cared to adopt.
Singular to state, marks were chosen by gentlemen and others
320
BANKET BANK-NOTES
who joined the operative masonic lodges of the i6th and later
centuries, and they were as carefully registered in the mark-
books as those selected by operatives for trade purposes. The
same marks are to be seen in the registers used by fathers and
sons, and not always with a slight difference, as some have stated,
to secure identification. What should be noted also is that other
trades used precisely similar marks and for a like object, so that
the idea of their having a mystical meaning, or being utilized
for any other object but the one named, seems groundless.
The late George Godwin, F.R.S., F.S.A., &c., drew attention
to the subject of " masons' marks in various countries " in a
communication to the Society of Antiquaries in 1841, and also
at a little later period (vide Archaeologia, vol. xxx. p. 113). To
him is the credit due of first drawing attention to " these signs "
in England. It is noteworthy how little such marks are noticed,
even in buildings which are visited by archaeologists quite
frequently, until a few are pointe'd out, and then they meet the
eye to an astonishing number. In the Sessional Papers, 1868-
1869, of the Royal Institute of British Architects, No. 9, may
be found numerous samples of the marks from various parts of
Europe in illustration of the paper by Godwin.
No better plan has been followed in modern times to connect
the work done with the worker in stone, and it is probable that a
second mark, observable on some blocks, may serve to indicate
the overseer. There are even three or more sometimes.
The same system was adopted at the building of Truro cathe-
dral, only the marks were inserted on the bed of each stone
instead of at the side as usual, the result being that they ceased
to be seen after being placed in situ. Mr Hughan obtained
copies of these marks from Mr James Bubb, the first clerk of the
works, and from his successor, Mr Robert Swain, and had them
published in the Freemason, I3th of November 1886. He re-
marked at the same time that " many of these designs will be
familiar to students of ancient ecclesiastical and other buildings
at home and abroad." Some are interesting specimens.
A Historical Treatise on Early Builders' Marks (Philadelphia,
U.S.A., 1885) by Mr G. F. Fort, and Masons' Marks from Buildings
intheCountieso} Lancaster andChester, with NotesontheCeneralHistpry
of Masons' Marks (Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire,
vol. v5. N.S.), by W. Harry Rylands, F.S.A., may be consulted
with advantage. The latter declares that " the Runic theory is as
unlikely and as untenable as that which places the origin of these
marks in the absurd alphabets given by Cornelius Agrippa, who
died early in the l6th century." Victor Didron copied some 4000
during a tour in France in 1836 and pointed out their value (Ann.
Arch., 1845). (W. J. H.*)
BANKET, a South African mining term, applied to the beds of
auriferous conglomerate, chiefly occurring in the Witwatersrand
gold-fields (see GOLD). The name was given to these beds from
their resemblance to a sweetmeat, known in Dutch as " banket,"
resembling almond hard-bake. The word is the same as " ban-
quet," and is derived ultimately from " bank " or " bench,"
meaning table-feast, hence applied to any delicacy or to various
kinds of confectionery, a use now obsolete in English.
BANK HOLIDAYS, in the United Kingdom, those days which
by the Bank Holidays Act 1871 are kept as close holidays in all
banks in England and Ireland and Scotland respectively. Before
the year 1834, the Bank of England was closed on certain saints'
days and anniversaries, about thirty-three days in all. In 1834
these were reduced to four Good Friday, ist of May, ist of
November and Christmas Day. By the act of 1871, carried
through the House of Commons by Sir J. Lubbock (afterwards
Lord Avebury), the following were constituted bank holidays
in England and Ireland Easter Monday, the Monday in Whitsun
week, the first Monday of August, the 26th of December if a
week-day; and by the Bank Holiday (Ireland) Act 1903, March
1 7th as a special bank holiday for Ireland (see FEASTS AND
FESTIVALS). In Scotland New Year's Day, Christmas Day,
Good Friday, the ist Monday of May, the ist Monday of
August. If Christmas Day and New Year's Day fall on a
Sunday, the next Monday following is the bank holiday. No
person is compelled to make any payment or to do any act upon
a bank holiday which he would not be compelled to do or make
on Christmas Day or Good Friday, and the making of a payment
or the doing of an act on the following day is equivalent to
doing it on the holiday. By the same act it was made lawful
for the sovereign from time to time, as it should seem fit, to
appoint by proclamation, in the same manner as public fasts
or days of public thanksgiving, any day to be observed as a
bank holiday throughout the United Kingdom or any part of it,
or to substitute another day when in any special case it appears
inexpedient to the sovereign in council to keep the usual bank
holiday. (See further HOLIDAY.)
BANKIPUR, an ancient village on the Hugli river in the
Bengal Presidency, near the modern Palta above Barrackpore.
It has disappeared from the map, but is famous as the principal
settlement of the ill-fated Ostend Company, the one great effort
made by Germany to secure a foothold in India. The Ostend
Company was formed in 1722-1723, and with a capital of less
than a million sterling founded two settlements, one at Coblom
(Covelong) on the Madras coast between the English Madras
and the Dutch Sadras, and the other on the Hugli between the
English Calcutta and the Dutch Chinsura. Both English and
Dutch were offended and in 1 7 27, in order to obtain the European
guarantee for the Pragmatic Sanction, the court of Vienna resolved
to sacrifice the Company and suspended its charter. It became
bankrupt in 1784 and ceased to exist in 1793. But in the mean-
time in 1733 the English and Dutch stirred up the Mahommedan
general at Hugli to pick a quarrel. He attacked Bankipur and
the garrison of only fourteen persons set sail for Europe. Thus
German interests disappeared from India.
BANK-NOTES. For our present purpose we include in this
description all paper substitutes for metallic currency whether
issued by banks, governments or other financial institutes.
Early bank-notes were simply printed forms in which the
amounts were written by hand. They were usually for large
amounts (40 and upwards) and were printed upon water-marked
paper; and, although no precautions were taken in the engraving
to prevent fraudulent imitation, forgeries were comparatively
rare. But, when at the end of the i8th century small notes for
i and 2 were put in circulation, forgery became rife, as many as
352 persons being convicted of this crime in England in a single
year; and from that time to the present a constant trial of skill
has been going on between the makers of bank-notes and the
counterfeiters. Engine-turned ornaments and emblematical
figures or views introduced in the engraving, in conjunction with
special water-marks in the paper, held the forgers somewhat in
check until the discovery of photography put into the hands of
the counterfeiter a most dangerous weapon, by the aid of which
complicated patterns and vignettes could be perfectly reproduced.
To prevent such reproduction Henry Bradbury in 1856 intro-
duced anti-photographic bank-note printing, in which the
essential portions of the note were printed in one colour and over
this another protective colour was placed. A photograph of a
note printed in this way presented a confused mingling of the
two colours; but with the advance of photographic knowledge
means were found of obtaining a photograph of either colour
separate from the other, and it consequently became necessary
to introduce a third colour and to secure a special photographic
relation between the three colours to prevent their separation.
Photography, however, although the most dangerous weapon
of the counterfeiter, is not the only means of imitation available,
a fact which is sometimes overlooked. A note may be perfectly
secure against photographic reproduction, but from the absence
of other necessary features may be easily copied by an engraver
of ordinary skill. There are two systems of engraving employed
in bank-notes: (i) line-engraving in which the lines are cut
into the steel or copper plates; and (2) relief-engraving in which
the lines stand up above the plate as in wood-engraving. In the
former, adapted to the process called plate-printing, the ink is
delivered from the lines in the plate to the paper pressed upon it;
in the latter, adapted to surface-printing, the ink is spread upon
the face of the lines and printed as in typography. Plate-printing
gives by far the finer and sharper impression, but as there is a
perceptible body of ink transferred to the paper from the cut
lines, it has been supposed that an impression from plate would
BANK RATE BANKRUPTCY
321
be more easily photographed than one from surface where only
a film of ink is spread upon the top of the raised lines. But
surface-printing being much less sharp and distinct than plate-
printing, imperfect copies of notes for which that process is used
are the more likely to escape detection. The plates upon which
the early notes were engraved being of copper quickly wore out
and had to be constantly replaced. The result was great differ-
ence in the appearance of the notes, those printed from new
plates being sharp and clear, while others, printed from old plates,
were pale and blurred. These differences were a great assistance
to the forger, as the public, being accustomed to variations of
appearance between different genuine notes, were less apt to
remark the difference between these and counterfeits.
In the early part of the ipth century, Jacob Perkins (1766-
1849) introduced into England from America what is known as
the transfer-process, in which the original engraving on steel is
hardened and an impression taken from it on a soft steel cylinder,
which in its turn is hardened and pressed into a soft printing-
plate. By this means as many absolutely identical plates can
be produced as may be required, and being hardened they will
yield a very large number of prints without any appreciable
deterioration. Another method of securing uniformity is the
multiplication of plates by electro-deposition, the surface of the
copper-electrotype plates being protected by the deposit of a film
of steel which effectually prevents the wearing of the copper and
can be renewed at will.
The water-mark of the paper, on which formerly reliance was
placed almost exclusively, puts a difficulty in the way of the
counterfeiter, but experience has shown that in ordinary circum-
stances it does not in itself afford adequate protection. The
means by which it can be imitated are well known, and, since a
distinct water-mark is incompatible with strong paper, the life of
a water-marked note is much shorter than that of one printed
upon plain paper. The best bank-note paper is made from pure
linen rags and was formerly made by hand. Machine-made
paper is however now largely used, as it possesses all the strength
of hand-made and is much more uniform in thickness and
texture.
In documents which pass current as money it is obviously the
duty of the bank or government issuing them to take all reason-
able means to prevent the public from being defrauded by the
substitution of counterfeits; and a bank whose circulation
depends upon the confidence of the public must do so in its own
interests to insure the acceptance of its notes. This principle
is now recognized by all issuing institutions, but in practice there
is room for improvement in the issues of many important estab-
lishments, partly because of the disinclination of the directors of
a bank to change the form of an issue to which the public is
accustomed, partly because of the difficulty of deciding what is
really a secure note, and in certain cases because, owing to
exceptional circumstances, an issue may be practically immune
from forgery although the notes themselves present little or no
difficulty in imitation. The features essential to the security
of an issue are (i) absolute identity in appearance of all notes of
the issu,e; (2) adequate protection by properly-selected colours
against photographic reproduction; and (3) high-class engraving
comprising geometric lathe work and well-executed vignettes.
In addition it is important that the design of the note should be
striking and pleasing to the eye, and the inscription legible.
The notes of the Bank of England are printed in the bank
from surface-plates in black without colour or special protection
except the water-mark in the paper. They are never reissued
after being once returned to the bank, and their average life is
very short, about six weeks, so that a dirty or worn Bank of
England note is practically never seen. This arrangement,
coupled with the difficulty of negotiating forged notes in England,
the lowest denomination being 5, accounts for the comparative
immunity from forgery of the bank's issues.
BANK RATE, a term used in financial circles to designate the
rate of discount charged in the chief monetary centres by tHe
state or leading bank, as opposed to the open-market rate. (See
MARKET: Money market.)
in. ii
BANKRUPTCY (from Lat. bancus or Fr. banque, table or
counter, and Lat. ruptus, broken), the status of a debtor who
has been declared by judicial process to be unable to D9nattloa
pay his debts. Although the terms " bankruptcy "
and " insolvency " are sometimes used indiscriminately, they
have in legal and commercial usage distinct significations.
When a person's financial liabilities arc greater than his means
of meeting them, he is said to be " insolvent "; but he may
nevertheless be able to carry on his business affairs by means of
credit, paying old debts by incurring new ones, and he may
even, if fortunate, regain a position of solvency without his
creditors ever being aware of his true condition. And even
when his insolvency becomes public and default occurs, a debtor
may still avert bankruptcy if he is able to effect a voluntary
arrangement with his creditors. A debtor may thus be insolvent
without becoming bankrupt, but he cannot be a bankrupt
without being insolvent, for bankruptcy is a legal declaration
of his insolvency and operates as a statutory system for the
administration of his property, which is thereby taken out of
his personal control.
In primitive communities bankruptcy systems were unknown.
Individual creditors were left to pursue their remedies by such
means as the law or practice of the community might
sanction, and these were generally of a very drastic mt u\od*.
character. Under the Roman law of the Twelve
Tables, the creditors might, as a last resort, cut the debtor's
body into pieces, each of them taking his proportionate share;
and although Blackstone in quoting this law appears to cast
some doubt upon its too literal interpretation, there can be no
doubt that the power of selling the debtor and his family into
slavery was one which was habitually exercised in Gr3ece, Rome,
and generally among the nations of antiquity. Even among
the Jews, whose legislation was of a comparatively humane
character, this practice is illustrated by the Old Testament
story of the woman who sought the help of Elisha, saying,
" Thy servant my husband is dead . . . and the creditor is
come to take unto him my two children to be bondmen." The
savage severity of these earlier laws was, however, found to be
inconsistent with the development of more humane ideas and
the growth of popular rights; and tended, as in the case of
Greece and Rome, to create serious disturbance in political
relations between the patricians, who generally composed the
wealthier or creditor class, and the plebeians, in whose ranks
the majority of debtors were to be found. Later legislation
consequently substituted imprisonment in a public prison for
the right of selling the person of the debtor. Under the feudal
systems of Europe the state generally insisted on its subjects
being left free for military service, and debts could not therefore
be enforced against the person of the debtor; but as trade began
to develop it was found necessary to provide some means of
bringing personal pressure to bear upon debtors for the purpose
of compelling them to meet their obligations, and under the
practice of the English courts of law the right of a creditor to
enforce his claims by the imprisonment of his debtor was
gradually evolved (although no express legal enactment to that
effect appears at any time to have existed), and this practice
continued until comparatively recent times.
Without some system of enforcing payment of debts it would
have been impossible for the commerce of the world to have
attained its present proportions; for modern com-
merce is necessarily founded largely on credit, and ^,"/ a /
credit could not have existed without the power of o*/./s.
enforcing the fulfilment of financial contracts. On
the other hand remedies against a debtor's person, and still
more against the persons of his family, are not only inconsistent
with the growth of opinion among civilized communities, but
are in themselves worse than futile, inasmuch as they strike
at the root of all personal effort on the part of a debtor to retrieve
his position and render a return to solvency impossible. Hence
the necessity of devising some system which is just to creditors
while not unduly harsh upon debtors, which discriminates
between involuntary inability to meet obligations and wilful
322
BANKRUPTCY
refusal or neglect, and which secures to creditors as between
themselves an equitable share of such of the debtor's assets as
mc.y be available for the payment of his liabilites. These are
the objects which the bankruptcy laws have primarily in view.
Another object, which has not always been so fully recognized
as it might appear to deserve, has marked the most recent
legislation, namely, the fostering of a higher tone of commercial
morality and the protection of the trading community at large
from the evils arising through the reckless abuse of credit and
the unnatural trade competition thereby engendered. It must
be admitted that these objects are of a somewhat conflicting
character, and wherever the state has interfered with the view
of securing an efficient system of bankruptcy legislation the
task has been found to be extremely difficult. Not only have
the conflicting interests of the debtor and his creditors to be
taken into account, but the method to be adopted in dealing
with his property has also given rise to much conflict of opinion,
and to a lack of uniformity and consistency in the legislation
which dealt with it. The debtor's property was naturally
regarded as belonging to the creditors, but it could not be
distributed among them until it was realized, and until their
respective right and interests were determined by competent
authority. In some cases claims to rank as creditors are of
doubtful validity. In others the creditor holds securities, the
value of which requires investigation, or he claims a preference
to which he may or may not be legally entitled. Creditors have
thus conflicting interests as between themselves, and are there-
fore incapable of acting together as a homogeneous body.
Hence the necessity for calling in the aid of professional assignees
or trustees, solicitors and other agents, who* made it their
special business to deal with such matters, exercising both
administrative and quasi-judicial functions, in return for the
remuneration which they receive out of the property for their
services. Professional interests, which are not always identical
with the interests of the debtor or the creditors, are thus called
into existence, and these interests have from time to time
exercised a powerful influence in shaping the course of legislation.
While the law of bankruptcy has therefore been largely the
product of commercial development, it has necessarily been of
slow and gradual growth, tentative in its character, and subject
to oscillation between the extremes of conflicting interests
according to the temporary and varying predominance of each
of these interests from time to time. No intelligible grasp of the
principles which underlie the history of bankruptcy legislation
in England, and no satisfactory explanation of the fluctuating
tendencies which have marked its progress, are possible without
bearing these considerations in view.
Bankruptcy in England.
The subject was originally dealt with in the sole interest of
creditors; it was considered fraudulent for a debtor to procure
History. ^is own bankruptcy. Thus the earliest English statute
on the subject, 34 & 35 Henry VIII. c. 4 (A.D. 1542),
was directed against fraudulent debtors, and gave power to
the lord chancellor and other high officers to seize their estates
and divide them among the creditors, but afforded no relief to
the debtor from his liabilities. Subsequent legislation modified
this attitude and introduced the principle of granting relief to
the bankrupt with or without the consent of the creditors,
where he conformed to the provisions of the bankruptcy law,
and under the act of 1825 the debtor was allowed himself to
initiate proceedings. Since 1542 about forty acts of parliament
have been passed, dealing with the many aspects of tie subject,
and slowly expanding, modifying and building up the highly
complex system of administration which now exists.
The courts exercising jurisdiction originally consisted of
commissioners appointed by the lord chancellor. But in 1831
Court of a . s P ecia l court of bankruptcy was established, con-
1831. sisting of six commissioners with four judges as a
court of review, and official assignees attached to the
court for the purpose of getting in the distributing the bank-
rupt's assets. Non-traders were originally excluded from the
bankruptcy court, and a special court called the " court for
relief of insolvent debtors " was instituted for their benefit, in
which relief from the liability to imprisonment could be obtained
on surrender of their property, but they were not discharged
from their debts, subsequently-acquired property remaining
liable. Both of these courts were subsequently abolished, non-
traders were permitted to obtain the benefit of the bankruptcy
laws, including a discharge, and in 1869 the system of official
assignees was swept away, and a new court of bankruptcy
created with one of the vice-chancellors at its head as chief
judge, and a number of subordinate registrars or inferior judges
under him. This court has also now been abolished, and the
business is administered by a judge of the high court specially
appointed for the purpose by the lord chancellor, with registrars
of the high court, who deal with the ordinary judicial routine of
bankruptcy procedure in the London district, while similar
duties are performed by the county -court judges throughout the
country.
But the questions which have proved the most difficult to
deal with, and which more than any others have been the cause
of fluctuating and inconsistent legislation, have un-
doubtedly been those relating to the share which the mditon.
creditors ought to have in the administration of the
proceedings, and to special arrangements effected between a
debtor and his creditors under conditions more or less beyond
the control of the court. These two questions are largely
intermixed, and the history of English legislation on these
points and its results throw much light on the causes of the
failure of the many attempts which have been made by the most
eminent legal authorities to bring the law into a satisfactory
condition. The right of creditors to exercise some control in
bankruptcy over the realization of the debtor's property through
an assignee chosen by themselves was recognized at an early
date, but this right was exercised subject to the supervision of
the court which investigated the claims of creditors and deter-
mined who were entitled to take part in the proceedings. Pro-
vision was also made for the interim protection of the debtor's
property by official assignees attached to the court, who took
possession until the creditors could be consulted, and under the
supervision of the court audited the accounts of the creditor's
assignee. So long as this system continued substantial justice
was generally secured; the claims of creditors were strictly
investigated and only those who clearly proved their right before
a competent court were entitled to take part in the proceedings.
The bankrupt was released from his obligations, but only after
strict inquiries into his conduct and under the exercise of
judicial discretion. The accounts of assignees were also strictly
investigated, and the costs of solicitors and other agents were
taxed by officers of the court. But the system was found to
be cumbrous, to lead to delay and too often to the absorption
of a large part of Jjie estate in costs, over the incurring of
which there was a very ineffective control. Hence arose a
demand for larger powers on the part of creditors, and the
introduction into the bankruptcy procedure of the system of
" arrangements " between the debtor and his creditors, either
for the payment of a composition, or for the liquidation of the
estate free from the control of the court. At first these arrange-
ments were carefully guarded. Under the act of 1825 a
proposal for payment of a composition might be
adopted only after the debtor had passed his examina- ig2si83i,
tion in court, and with the consent of nine-tenths in 1342, 1849.
number and value of his creditors assembled at a
meeting. Upon such adoption the bankruptcy proceedings were
superseded. Dissenting creditors, however, were not bound by
the resolution, but could still take action against the debtor's
subsequently-acquired property. These powers were not found
to be sufficiently elastic and the act failed to give public satisfac-
tion. Attempts were made by the acts of 1831 and 1842 to
remedy the defects complained of by a reconstitution of the
bankruptcy court and its official system. But these measures
also failed because they were based on the assumption that
judicial bodies could exercise effective control over administrative
BANKRUPTCY
323
action, a control for which they are naturally unsuited, and
which they could only carry out by cumbrous and expensive
methods of procedure. Under the act of 1849 a totally new
principle was introduced by the provision that a deed of arrange-
ment executed by six-sevenths in number and value of the creditors
for 10 and upwards should be binding upon all the creditors
without any proceedings in or supervision by the court. But the
determination of the question who were or were not creditors was
practically left to the debtor himself, without any opportunity
for testing by independent investigation the claims of those who
signed the deed to control the administration of the estate. It is
not' difficult to see, in the light of subsequent experience, how
likely this provision was to encourage fraudulent arrangements,
and to introduce laxity in the administration of debtors' estates.
A modification of the too stringent conditions of the act of 1825,
which would have enabled a bankrupt to pay a composition on
his debts, with the consent of a large proportion of his bona-fide
creditors, and subject to the approval of the court, after hearing
the objections of dissenting creditors, would doubtless have
proved a beneficial reform, but the act of 1849 proceeded on a
very different principle. Instead of reforming, it practically
abolished judicial control. By avoiding Scylla it fell into
Charybdis. To give any majority of creditors the power to
release a debtor from his obligations to non-assenting creditors
without full disclosure of his affairs, and without any exercise
of judicial discretion or any investigation into the causes of the
failure, or the conduct of the debtor, would in any circumstances
have been to introduce a new and mischievous principle into
legislation, for it would necessarily destroy the essential feature
of such arrangements, that they are voluntary contracts, the
responsibility for which lies solely with the parties entering into
them. But to give such a power to creditors whose claims were
subject to no independent investigation was to invite inevitable
confusion and failure.
Yet this was the dominating principle of English bankruptcy
legislation for nearly thirty-five years. Its effect under the act
1861 ^ J ^ 4 9 was > however, to some extent modified by
subsequent decisions of the courts that to make a
composition arrangement binding it must be accompanied by a
complete cessio bonorum; but this qualification was removed
by the act of 1861 which made such arrangements binding
without a cessio and reduced the majority required to make a
deed of arrangement binding on all the creditors, to a majority
in number and three-fourths in value of those whose claims
amounted to 10 and upwards. The result was an enormous
increase in fraudulent arrangements. The then attorney-
general, Sir Robert Collier, in introducing an amending act in
1869, described the abuses which had grown up under the 1849
and 1861 acts, as having the effect of enabling a bankrupt to
" defraud those to whom he was indebted and to set them at
defiance"; while Lord Cairns, the lord chancellor, in the
House of Lords expressed the opinion that the large increase
which had taken place in the annual insolvency of the country
during the preceding years could not " be attributed to depression
of trade but must be traced to the enormous facilities which are
given to debtors who wish to be released from their debts on
easy terms." And yet in th# legislation which ensued these
facts were entirely ignored or lost sight of.
It is indeed a curious illustration of the difficulties which have
attended bankruptcy legislation in England that the very measure
1869. ^hc act of 1869) which was introduced to remedy this
deplorable condition of affairs, was twelve years after-
wards denounced in parliament by the president of the Board of
Trade (Mr Joseph Chamberlain) as "the most unsatisfactory and
most unfortunate of the many attempts which had been made to
deal with the subject" and as " the object of the almost unanimous
condemnation of all classes." How was this? Under the act of
1869, the procedure under a bankruptcy petition was certainly
rendered effective. Meetings of creditors were presided over and
creditors' claims were, for voting purposes, adjudicated upon by
the registrar of the court; the bankrupt had to pass a public
examination in court, which although chiefly left to the trustee
appointed by the creditors, afforded some opportunity for
investigation; and the bankrupt could not obtain his discharge
without the approval of the court and in certain circumstances
the consent of the creditors. An independent official, the comp-
troller in bankruptcy, was appointed, whose duty it was to
examine the accounts of trustees, call them to account for any
misfeasance, neglect or omission, and refer the matter to the
court for the exercise of disciplinary powers where necessary.
These provisions were well calculated to promote sound adminis-
tration, but they were, unfortunately, rendered nugatory by
provisions relating to what were practically private arrangements
on similar lines to those which had rendered previous legislation
ineffective. In some respects the evil was aggravated. Deeds
of arrangements were nominally abolished, but under sections 125
and 126 of the act a debtor was empowered to present a petition
to the court for liquidation of his affairs by " arrangement," or
for payment of a composition, whereupon a meeting of creditors
was summoned from a list furnished by the debtor, and without
any judicial investigation of claims, a majority in number and
three-fourths in value of those who lodged proofs of debt, and
who were present in person or by proxy at the meeting, might by
resolution agree to liquidation by arrangement or to the accept-
ance of the composition. Such resolution thereupon became
binding upon all the creditors, without any act of approval by the
court, any judicial examination of the debtor, or any official
supervision over the trustee's accounts. The debtor was not
permitted to present a bankruptcy petition against himself, and
consequently his only method of procedure was that which thus
removed the matter from the supervision and control of the court,
and as about nine-tenths of all the proceedings under the act of
1869 were initiated by debtors, it followed that only about one-
tenth was submitted to proper investigation. It is true that the
creditors might refuse to assent to the debtor's proposal, and that
any creditor for 50 or upwards could present a petition in bank-
ruptcy, but even where this course was adopted, the proceedings
under the petition were, as a rule, stayed by the court if the debtor
subsequently presented a proposal for liquidation or composition ,
and the creditor was left to pay the expenses of his petition if the
requisite majority voted for the debtor's proposal. So far, there-
fore, as the act was concerned, every inducement was held out to
the adoption of a course which took the examination of the debtor,
the conditions of his discharge and the audit of the trustee's
accounts, out of the control of the court.
The establishment of a bankruptcy court, with its searching
powers of investigation and its power of enforcing penalties on
misconduct, can only be defended on the ground that
the administration of justice is a matter affecting the
interests of the community at large. But apart from Acts.
the injury done to these interests by reducing the
administration of justice to a question of barter and arrangement
between the individuals immediately concerned, one of the chief
reasons why the acts of 1849, 1861 and 1869 proved failures, lies
in the obvious fact that the creditors of a particular estate are not,
as appears to have been assumed, a homogeneous or organized
body capable of acting together in the administration of a bank-
rupt estate. In the case of a few special and highly organized
trades it may be otherwise, but in the great majority of cases the
creditors have but little knowledge of each other or means of
organized action, while they have neither the time nor the inclina-
tion to investigate the complicated questions which frequently
arise, and which are therefore left in the hands of professional
trustees or legal agents. But the appointment of trustees under
these acts, instead of being the spontaneous act of the creditors,
was frequently due to touting on the part of such agents them-
selves, or to individual creditors whose interests were not always
identical with those of the general body. According to G. Y.
Robson, the author of a standard work on the subject, the
arbitrary powers conferred by the act of 1861 " led to great
abuses, and in many cases creditors were forced to accept a
composition, the approval of which had been obtained by a secret
understanding between the debtor and favoured creditors, and
not unfrequently by the creation of fictitious debts." These evils
BANKRUPTCY
were greatly aggravated by the decisions of the court relating to
proofs on bills of exchange, under which it was held that the
holder of a current bill could prove on the bankrupt estate of an
indorser, although the bill was not yet due, and the acceptor was
perfectly solvent and able to meet it at maturity. Thus in large
mercantile failures, bankers and other holders of first-class bills
could prove and vote on the estates of their customers, for whom
the bills had been discounted, and thus control the entire pro-
ceedings, although they had no ultimate interest in the estate.
But probably the greatest source of the abuses which arose under
the act of 1869 was the proxy system established by the act and
by the rules which were subsequently made to carry it out. The
introduction of proxies was no doubt intended to give absent
creditors an opportunity of expressing their opinions upon any
question which might arise. But the system was too often used
for the purpose of stifling the views of those who took an indepen-
dent part in the proceedings. The form of proxy prescribed by
the rules contained no limitation of the powers of the proxy -holder
and no impression of the opinion of the creditor. It simply
appointed the person named in it as " my proxy," and these magic
words gave the holder power to act in the creditor's name on all
questions that might be raised at any time during the bankruptcy.
Hence arose a practice of canvassing for proxies, which were
readily given under the influence of plausible representations,
such as the holding out of the prospect of a large composition, but
which, when once obtained, could be used for any purpose what-
soever except the receipt of a dividend. Thus it frequently
happened that the entire proceedings were controlled by pro-
fessional proxy -holders, in whose hands these documents acquired
a marketable value. They were not only used to vote for liquida-
tion by arrangement instead of bankruptcy proceedings, but not
infrequently the matter took the form of a bargain between an
accountant and a solicitor, under which the former became
trustee and the latter the solicitor in the liquidation, without
any provision for control over expenditure or for any audit of the
accounts. Even where a committee of inspection was appointed
to exercise functions of control and audit, they too were often
appointed by the proxy-holders, and not infrequently shared in
the benefits. On the other hand, where the amount of debts
represented by the proxy-holder was insufficient to carry the
appointment of a trustee and committee, the votes could be sold
to swell the chances of some other candidate. Hence ensued a
system of trafficking in these instruments, the cost of which had
in the long run to come out of the estate. The result was that
undesirable persons were too frequently appointed, whose main
object was to extract from the estate as much as possible in the
shape of costs of administration. The debtor was practically
powerless to prevent this result. If he attempted to do so he
sometimes became a target for the exercise of revenge. His
discharge, which under liquidation by arrangement was entirely
a matter for the creditors, might be refused indefinitely; and so
largely and harshly was this power exercised under the proxy
system, especially where it was supposed that the debtor had
friends who could be induced to come to his aid, that a special act
of parliament was passed in 1887, authorizing the court to deal
with cases where, under the act of 1869, a debtor had not been
able to obtain a release from his creditors. On the other hand,
the complaisant debtor, although he had incurred large obligations
in the most reckless manner, often succeeded in stifling investiga-
tion and obtaining his release without difficulty as a return for
his aid in carrying out the arrangement.
The result of such a system could not be other than a failure.
After the act of 1869 had been in operation for ten years, the
comptroller in bankruptcy reported that out of 13,000 annual
failures in England and Wales, there were only 1000 cases (or
about 8%) " to which the more important provisions of the act
for preventing abuses by insolvent debtors and professional
agents applied; the other 12,000 cases (or 92%) escaping the
provisions which refer to the examination and discharge of bank-
rupts, and to the accounts, charges and conduct of the agents
employed." It is not to be supposed that all the cases in the latter
class were marked by the abuses which have been here described.
Act
of 1883.
In a large number the proceedings were conducted by agents of
high character and standing, and with a due regard to the interests
of the creditors. But the facilities for fraudulent and collusive
arrangements afforded by the act,and the want of effective control
over administration, inevitably tended to lower the morale of
the latter, and to throw it into the hands of the less scrupulous
members of the profession. The demand for reform, therefore,
came from all classes of the business community. No fewer than
thirteen bills dealing with the subject were introduced into the
House of Commons during the ten years succeeding 1869. At
length in 1879 a memorial, which was authoritatively described
as " one of the most influential memorials ever presented to any
government," was forwarded to the prime minister by a large
body of bankers and merchants in the city of London. The
matter was then referred to the president of the Board of Trade
(Mr Chamberlain), who made exhaustive inquiries, and in 1881
introduced a measure which, with some amendments, finally
became law under the title of the Bankruptcy Act 1883.
Hitherto the question had been dealt with as one of legal
procedure ; it was now treated as an act of commercial legislation ,
the main object of which, while providing by carefully
framed regulations for the equitable distribution of a
debtor's assets, was to promote and enforce the prin-
ciples of commercial morality in the general interests of the
trading community. One of the chief features of the act of 1883
is the separation which it has effected between the judicial and
the administrative functions which had previously been exercised
by the court, and the transfer of the latter to the Board of Trade
as a public department of the state directly responsible to
parliamen t. Under the powers conferred by the act a new depart-
ment was subsequently created under the title of the bank-
ruptcy department of the Board of Trade, with an officer at its
head called the inspector-general in bankruptcy. This depart-
ment exercises, under the direction of the Board of Trade, a
general supervision over all the administrative work arising under
the act. It has extensive powers of control over the appointment
of trustees, and conducts an audit of their accounts ; and it may,
subject to appeal to the court, remove them from office for
misconduct, neglect or unfitness. A report upon the proceedings
under the act is annually presented to parliament by the Board
of Trade, and although the department is practically self-
supporting, a nominal vote is each year placed upon the public
estimates, thus bringing the administration under direct parlia-
mentary criticism and control. The act also provides for the
appointment and removal by the Board of Trade of a body of
officers entitled official receivers, with certain prescribed duties
having relation both to the. conduct of bankrupts and to
administration of their estates, including the interim manage-
ment of the latter until the creditors can be consulted. These
officers act in their respective districts under the general authority
and directions of the Board of Trade, being also clothed with the
status of officers of the courts to which they are attached. While
effecting this supervision and control by a public department
directly responsible to parliament, the main objects of the measure
were to secure (i) An independent and public investigation
of the debtor's conduct; (2) The punishment of commercial mis-
conduct and fraud in the interests of public morality; (3) The
summary and inexpensive administration of small estates where
the assets do not exceed 300 by the official receiver, unless
a majority in number and three-fourths in value of the creditors
voting resolve to appoint a trustee ; (4) Full control in other
cases by a majority in value, over the appointment of a trustee
and a committee of inspection; (5) Strict investigation of proofs
of debt, with regulations as to proxies and votes of creditors;
(6) An independent audit and general supervision of the pro-
ceedings and control of the funds in all cases. Besides amending
and consolidating previous bankruptcy legislation, the measure
also contains special provisions for the administration under
bankruptcy law of the estates of persons dying insolvent (125);
and for enabling county courts to make administration orders for
payment by instalments in lieu of immediate committal to prison,
in the case of judgment debtors whose total indebtedness does
BANKRUPTCY
325
Act of
1890.
Special
Acts.
not exceed 50 ( 122). It ako provides for the getting in and
administration by the Board of Trade of unclaimed dividends
and undistributed balances on estates wound up under previous
bankruptcy acts ( 162). Lastly, it amends the procedure under
the Debtors Act of 1869, dealing with criminal offences committed
by bankrupts (which, prior to 1869, had been treated as part
of the bankruptcy law), by enacting that when the court orders
a prosecution of any person for an offence under that act, it
shall be the duty of the director of public prosecutions to institute
and carry on the prosecution.
An amending act, under the title of the Bankruptcy Act
:8oo was passed in that year, mainly with the view of supple-
menting and strengthening some of the provisions
of the act of 1883, more particularly .with regard to the
conditions under whichabankrupt shouldbedischarged
or schemes of arrangement or composition be approved by the
court. It also dealt with a variety of matters of detail which
experience had shown to require amendment, with the view of
more fully carrying out the intentions of the legislature as
embodied in the principal act. These two acts are to be construed
as one and may be cited collectively as the Bankruptcy Acts
1883 and 1890. They are further supplemented by a large body
of general rules made by the lord chancellor with the concurrence
of the president of the Board of Trade, which may be added to,
revoked or altered from time to time by the same authority.
These rules are laid before parliament and have the force of law.
Besides these general acts, various measures dealing with
special interests connected with bankruptcy procedure have
from time to time been passed since 1883, the chief of
which are as follows, viz., the Bankruptcy Appeals
(County Courts) Act 1884; the Preferential Payments
in Bankruptcy Act 1888, regulating the priority of the claims of
workmen and clerks, &c. for wages and salaries; and the Bank-
ruptcy (Discharge and Closure) Act 1887, dealing with unclosed
bankruptcies under previous acts.
It would be out of place in this article to attempt to answer
the question how far later legislation has solved the difficult
problems which prior to 1883 were found so intractable,
but '* ma y be mentioned that in 1906 the Board of
Trade appointed a committee to inquire into and
report upon the effect of the provisions of the laws in force at the
time in the United Kingdom in relation to bankruptcy, deeds of
arrangement and composition by insolvent debtors with their
creditors, and the prevention and punishment of frauds by
debtors on their creditors, and any points and matters upon which
the existing laws seemed to require amendment. The committee
received a vast amount of evidence as well as documents and
memoranda from chambers of commerce, trade protection
societies and influential public bodies. The scope of the inquiry
was not limited to English law and procedure, but also embraced
that of Germany, France, Australia, Scotland and Ireland. The
report of the committee was issued in 1908 (Cd. 4068), and
reference may be made to it for much valuable information.
The committee reported that the result of their inquiry did not
disclose any dissatisfaction on the part of the commercial com-
munity with the main features of the existing law and procedure.
But there were certain special incidents of the law and branches
of its administration upon which the committee made recom-
mendations. One was the prosecution and punishment of
debtors who had committed fraud on their creditors or caused
loss to them by improper and reckless trading. The existing
procedure was complained of as being dilatory, cumbersome and
expensive, and the committee were of an opinion that where a
debtor had committed an offence for which he could and ought
to be prosecuted, prosecution and conviction, with adequate
punishment, ought to follow speedily and decisively, and the
chief recommendation of the committee was that, while the
existing procedure should be left untouched, offences ought also
to be punishable on summary conviction before magistrates and
justices, and the provisions of the Summary Jurisdiction Acts
applied to them, and that where an order for a prosecution is
made on an application by the official receiver of a bankruptcy
court and based on his report, that court should have power to
order the official receiver to conduct the prosecution before the
court of summary jurisdiction. The committee also reported
that numerous delinquencies by insolvent debtors in the conduct
of their affairs, or which had contributed to the losses sustained
by their creditors, were not punishable or even cognizable by
courts having bankruptcy jurisdiction unless or until a debtor
who had a receiving order against him, or became a bankrupt,
applied for an order sanctioning a composition or scheme of
arrangement with his creditors, or for an order discharging him
from his debts. The most prominent of these delinquencies
which were brought to the notice of the committee were failure
by a debtor to keep any books or any proper or adequate books
of account in his business; trading with knowledge of insolvency;
gambling and speculation leading to, or contributing to, the
debtor's insolvency or bankruptcy; failure properly to account
for any substantial deficiency of assets. The committee received
a large body of evidence in favour of making delinquencies such
as have been described punishable by imprisonment. Evidence
was also given as to the laws in force in Germany, France and
Scotland, from which it appeared that such delinquencies,
especially that of keeping no books of account, can be severely
dealt with as criminal offences.
After carefully weighing the evidence on both sides the com-
mittee recommended that the failure or omission by a debtor who
becomes bankrupt to have kept any books of account, or proper
books of account, within two years next preceding his bankruptcy,
in a trade or business carried on by him, if without excuse, should
be made by law an offence punishable on summary conviction by
imprisonment, subject to four important limitations, namely,
that the law should define what books of account a person
carrying on a trade or business must keep, following in this
respect the law in force in France and Germany; that failure or
omission by a debtor to have kept the required books should only
be punishable in the event of a debtor becoming bankrupt and of
the liquidated debts proved in the bankruptcy exceeding 200 in
amount; that no prosecution of a debtor for failure or omission
to keep books of account should take place before the lapse of two
years from the passing of the law ; that a debtor should not be
punished if he could show that his failure or omission to keep
proper books was honest and excusable and did not contribute
to his insolvency, and that no prosecution should be instituted
for the offence except by order of the bankruptcy court. The
committee made recommendations of much the same character
with regard to punishing some of the other delinquencies men-
tioned above. There were also recommendations by the com-
mittee as to trading by undischarged bankrupts, as to the
realization of estate on bankruptcy, as to the operation of the
law of relation back of a bankruptcy trustee's title, as to the law
relating to the after-acquired property of an undischarged
bankrupt, and dealings with such property, and with respect to
married women and their liabilities under bankruptcy law. The
committee also reported on the law and practice relating to
voluntary deeds of arrangement between a debtor and his
creditors and on the compulsory regulation of assignments of book
debts, and of agreements for the hire and purchase of chattels.
In addition to this report the annual reports of the Board of
Trade, which are accompanied by elaborate tables of statistics,
and by copious illustrations both of the working of the
system and of the characteristic features and causes
of current insolvency, are published as parliamentary
papers, and may be usefully consulted by those
interested in the subject. It appears from these reports that the
total number of insolvencies dealt with under the bankruptcy
acts during the ten years ending 3 ist December 1905, was 43, 141,
involving estimated liabilities amounting to 61,685,678, and
estimated assets amounting to 26,001,417. It may also be
pointed out that according to the official figures, the cost of
bankruptcy administration under the present system has very
considerably decreased as compared with that under the act of
1869. Estates are also closed at much shorter intervals, and,
what is more important from a public point of view, it appears
326
BANKRUPTCY
that while the estimated liabilities of bankrupt estates during the
ten years ending 1883 amounted on an average to 22,380,000
per annum, the estimated liabilities during the ten years ending
1905 only averaged 6,168,567 per annum. But during the latter
period there was an annual average of 3426 private arrangements
involving a further estimated annual liability of 4,166,354
entered into outside of the Bankruptcy Acts by insolvent
debtors. There are no means of ascertaining the corresponding
amount of liabilities on private arrangements outside of the
Bankruptcy Acts prior to 1883, and therefore a complete com-
parison is impossible; but it is evident that on any method of
computation there has been a very great diminution in the
trading insolvency of England and Wales, while it is also clear
as a matter of general knowledge in commercial circles, that a
great decrease in the proportion of fraudulent trade and reckless
speculation has been a marked feature of private trading during
the period in question.
The cost of bankruptcy administration is provided for: (i) by
fees charged to bankrupt estates, (2) by interest on balances at
the credit of such estates with the bankruptcy estates account,
and (3) by interest on unclaimed funds at the credit of estates
under former Bankruptcy Acts.
Out of this are paid the salaries of all the officers of the depart-
ment, including the official receivers; the remuneration due in
respect of bankruptcy services to the county court registrars;
pensions, &c., payable to retired officers under the present and
previous Bankruptcy Acts; cost of bankruptcy prosecutions;
and rents, stationery, travelling and other incidental expenses.
The system is self-supporting and involves no charge upon the
tax-payers of the country. It has been objected that inasmuch
as the act professes to be based on the principle of enforcing
commercial morality in the interests of the general community,
the cost of administering it should not be charged entirely to the
bankruptcy estates concerned. But when it is considered that a
large part of the revenue of the department is derived from funds
to which estates administered under the present act have contri-
buted nothing, this objection does not appear to be well founded.
For the convenience of readers who may require more detailed
information, the accompanying summary of some of the more
important provisions of the law relating to bankruptcy
P roce dure is submitted. It must be borne in mind,
endure, however, that the subject is in some of its branches
extremely intricate, and that both the law and the
procedure are being constantly affected by a considerable body
of judicial interpretation, while the acts also contain detailed
provisions with regard to many questions incident to the ad-
ministration of bankruptcy. A reference to the latest text-
books or competent professional advice will always be advisable
for those who have the misfortune to be practically interested
either as debtors or as creditors in bankruptcy proceedings.
The Deeds of Arrangement Act 1887, although not falling
strictly within the scope of the bankruptcy law, may also, in
consequence of its important bearing upon the question
arrange* ^ insolvency i n England and Wales, be here noticed.
meat. It has been pointed out that, under the Bankruptcy
Acts of 1849 and 1861, non-official arrangements by
deed between a debtor and the general body of his creditors were
not only officially recognized, but were in certain circumstances
made binding on all the creditors, including those who refused
to assent to them. Under the act of 1869, although such deeds
were no longer recognized or made binding on non-assenting
creditors, the proceedings under the " liquidation by arrange-
ment " and " composition " clauses were practically private
arrangements by resolution instead of deed, and were proved by
experience to be open to the same abuses. It has also been
shown that under the act of 1883 no arrangements either by
deed or by resolution have any force against dissenting creditors,
unless confirmed after full investigation and approval of the
bankruptcy courts. Private arrangements, therefore, cease to
form any part of the bankruptcy system. But they are, never-
theless, binding as voluntary contracts between the debtor and
such creditors as assent to them. Being, however, in the nature
of assignments of the debtor's property, they are either deemed
fraudulent if the benefit of the assignment is limited to a portion
of the creditors, or, if it is extended to all they become acts of
bankruptcy, and, like any other voluntary assignment, are
liable to be invalidated if made within three months prior to the
petition on which a receiving order is made against the debtor.
Treated as voluntary assignments, which are not binding on
those who do not assent to them, such arrangements, where
honestly entered into and carried out by capable administration,
in many cases form a useful and expeditious method of liquidating
a debtor's affairs, and where the debtor's insolvency has been
brought about without any gross misconduct they will probably
always be largely resorted to. The danger attending them is
that even in cases where the debtor has been guilty of mis-
conduct, a private arrangement may be used to screen his
conduct from investigation, while in many cases it may be made
the medium for the concealment of fraudulent preferences.
The absence of any independent audit of the trustees' accounts
may also encourage or conceal irregularities in administration.
Previous to 1887, however, much inconvenience arose from the
fact that the execution of these private arrangements was
frequently kept secret, and fresh credit was obtained by the
debtor without any opportunity being afforded for the new
creditors becoming acquainted with the fact that they were
dealing with an insolvent person, and that in many cases they
were simply supplying the means for meeting past obligations
in respect of which the debtor had already committed default.
The Deeds of Arrangement Act 1887 was therefore passed
to compel the disclosure of such arrangements, by declaring
them void unless registered within seven days after the first
execution by the debtor or by any creditor. Registration is
effected by lodging with the registrar of bills of sale at the central
office of the Supreme Court a true copy of the deed and of every
inventory and schedule attached thereto, together with an
affidavit by the debtor, stating the total estimated amount of
property and liabilities, the total amount of composition, if any,
and the names and addresses of the creditors. Where the
debtor's residence or place of business is outside the London
bankruptcy district, the registrar is required to forward a copy
of the deed to the registrar of the county court of the district
where the debtor's residence or place of business is situated.
Both the central and the local registers are open to public
inspection on payment of a small fee and general publicity is
secured by the action of various trade agencies, which make a
practice of extracting and publishing the information for the
benefit of those interested. By section 25 of the Bankruptcy
Act 1890, every trustee under a deed of arrangement is required
to transmit to the Board of Trade within thirty days of the
ist of January in each year an account of his receipts and pay-
ments and such accounts are open to the inspection of any
creditor on payment of a small fee. They are not, however,
subject to any kind of audit or control by the department. The
registrar is also required to make periodical returns of the
deeds thus registered to the Board of Trade, in order that a
report of proceedings under the Deeds of Arrangement Act
may be included in the annual report which the department is
required to make on proceedings under the Bankruptcy Acts.
Full statistics of such proceedings are accordingly included in
these reports, from which it appears that during the ten years
ended 3ist December 1905 the total number of registered deeds
of arrangement was 34,273, with estimated liabilities amounting
to 41,663,541, and estimated assets to 23,020,483.
Summary of Bankruptcy Procedure. Subject to certain special
provisions in the case of what are termed " small bankruptcies "
(see below), the following summary sets forth some of the more
important provisions of the various acts and rules relating to
bankruptcy administration grouped under convenient heads to
facilitate reference. In some cases the effect of legal decisions
has been embodied in the summary.
Preliminary Proceedings.
Petition and Receiving Order. Any court exercising bankruptcy
jurisdiction in the district in which he resides or carries on business
BANKRUPTCY
327
in England or Wales may make a receiving order against a debtor,
whether a trader or not, either on his own petition or on that of a
creditor or creditors whose claims aggregate not less than /so. In
the case of a creditor's petition proof must be given of the debt, and
of the commission of an act of bankruptcy within three months
preceding the date of the petition. An act of bankruptcy is com-
mitted it the debtor fails to satisfy the creditor's claim upon a
bankruptcy notice; if he makes an assignment for the benefit of
his creditors generally; if he absconds or keeps house; if he gives
notice of suspension of payments; if his goods are sold or seized
under execution ; if he files in court a declaration of inability to
pay his debts; or if he grantsa fraudulent preference or conveyance.
These acts are here enumerated in the order in which they most
frequently occur in practice.
Object and Effect of Receiving Order. The object of the order is
to protect the debtor's property until the first meeting of creditors,
and to bring the debtor and his affairs within the jurisdiction of
the court. Its effect is to stay all separate action against the
debtor, and to constitute the official receiver attached to the court
receiver of the debtor's property, although the legal title still remains
in the debtor. Where there is an estate or business to be managed
the official receiver may appoint a special manager, who receives
such remuneration as the creditors, or failing them the Board of
Trade, may determine. As a consequence of the order the following
obligations are imposed upon the debtor: He must make out and
submit to the official receiver within a prescribed period a statement
of his affairs, containing the names and addresses of his creditors,
the amount of their claims and the securities held by them, and the
nature and value of his assets; and accounting for his deficiency.
Any material omission or false statement of his losses or expenses
is a misdemeanour under the Debtors Act, unless he can prove that
he had no intention to defraud. The statement is open to the in-
spection of creditors. He must also in every case submit to a public
examination in court, in which the official receiver, the trustee and
any creditor who has proved his debt may take part. His evidence
may be used against him. He may further be specially examined
by the court at any time with reference to his dealings or property.
He must attend the first meeting of creditors, wait upon the official
receiver, trustee and special manager, and give all necessary informa-
tion, and generally do all acts which may reasonably be required of
him with the view of securing a full investigation of his affairs. He
may be arrested if there is reasonable ground for believing that he is
about to abscond, destroy papers or remove goods, or if he fails
without good cause to attend any examination ordered by the court.
The court may also for a period of three months order his letters to
be re-addressed by the post-office to the official receiver or trustee.
With regard to persons other than the debtor, any person capable of
giving information respecting the debtor, his dealings or property,
may be examined by the court, and a summary order may be made
against such person for delivery of any property belonging to the
debtor.
First Meeting of Creditors.
This meeting is summoned by the official receiver, notice being
given in the London Gazette and in a local paper, and sent by post
to each creditor. A summary of the statement of affairs should
accompany the notice, with any observations by the official receiver
which he may think fit to make. The object of the meeting is to
decide whether any proposal for payment of a composition or for a
scheme of arrangement submitted by the debtor is to be entertained,
or whether an application should be made to the court to adjudicate
the debtor bankrupt. In the latter case the meeting may by an
ordinary resolution appoint a trustee with or without a committee
of inspection. It may also give any directions as to the administra-
tion of the estate. The meeting should be held at the place most
convenient for the majority of the creditors. It is presided over by
the official receiver or his deputy, who, subject to appeal to the
court, admits or rejects proofs for the purpose of voting. For the
transaction of business three creditors qualified to vote, or all the
creditors if fewer than three, must be present or represented. Only
persons who have proved their debts are entitled to vote, and
detailed regulations respecting proofs and the valuation of securities
are laid down in the first and second schedules to the act of 1883.
One of the chief alterations in the law on this point is the condition
imposed on creditors on bills of exchange to deduct from their claims
the value of the liability of prior obligants before voting, thus
cancelling the power of controlling the proceedings previously
possessed by persons who had no real interest in the estate. Votes
may be given in person or by proxy, and stringent regulations are
laid down with the view of preventing the abuse of proxies. General
proxies entitling the holder to exercise all the powers which the
creditor could exercise if present may be given to the official receiver
or to any person in the regular employment of the creditor. Special
proxies may be given to any person to vote for specified resolutions,
or for the appointment of specified persons as trustee and committee.
Only official forms can be used, and the blanks must be filled up in
the handwriting of the creditor or some person in his regular employ-
ment, including the authorized agent of a creditor resident abroad.
A proxy must be lodged with the official receiver not later than four
o'clock on the day before the meeting or adjourned meeting at which
it is to In- used. Resolutions are ordinary, special or extraordinary.
An ordinary resolution is carried by a majority in value of the
creditors voting; a special resolution by a majority in number
and three-fourths in value of such creditors. The only instance of
a resolution other than these is that required for the approval of
a composition or scheme which requires a majority in number and
three-fourths in value of all the creditors who have proved. The
majority of questions arising at a meeting are decided by an ordinary
resolution.
Adjudication.
If the creditors so resolve, or if a composition or scheme of arrange-
ment is not proposed by the debtor or entertained by the creditors,
or if entertained is not approved by the court, or if without reason-
able excuse the debtor fails to furnish a proper statement of his
affairs, or if his public examination is adjourned sine die, the court
adjudicates the debtor bankrupt and thereupon his property vests
in a trustee, and, subject to the payment of the costs and fees of
administration, is divisible among his creditors until all his debts
are paid in full with interest at the rate of 4 % per annum.
Effect on Bankrupt. The bankrupt is bound to aid the trustee
in his administration, and if he wilfully fails to deliver up any part
of his property he is guilty of contempt of court. He is also liable
to criminal prosecution under the Debtors Act if with intent to
defraud he conceals or removes property to the value of 10 or
upwards; or if he fails to deliver to the trustee all his property,
books, documents, &c. ; or if he knowingly permits false debts to
be proved on his estate without disclosure; or mutilates, falsifies,
destroys or parts with books or accounts; or attempts to account
for his property by fictitious losses; or if within four months next
before presentation of a bankruptcy petition, he obtains property
on credit by false representation; or pledges or disposes of, otherwise
than in the ordinary way of his trade, any property which has not
been paid for; or by misrepresentation obtains the assent of his
creditors to any agreement with reference to his affairs. He is also
under the act of 1883, guilty of misdemeanour if before his discharge
he obtains credit for more than 20 from any person without inform-
ing such person that he is an undischarged bankrupt. It is the duty
of the official receiver to report any such facts to the court, and if
the court is satisfied that there is a reasonable probability of con-
viction, it is required to order a prosecution which is then conducted
by the director of public prosecutions.
Disqualifications. A bankrupt cannot during his bankruptcy
or until five years after his discharge, unless the bankruptcy is
annulled or he obtains his discharge with a certificate by the court
that the bankruptcy was caused by misfortune without misconduct,
act as a member of the legislature, or as a justice of the peace, mayor,
alderman, councillor, guardian or overseer of the poor, member of a
sanitary authority, school, highway or burial board, or select vestry
in any part of the United Kingdom.
Annulment. An order of adjudication may be annulled if the
court is of opinion that it should not have been made, or that the
bankrupt's debts are paid in full, or if a composition or scheme of
arrangement is approved by the court after adjudication.
Discharge. The court may also at any time after the conclusion
of the bankrupt's public examination, and after hearing the official
receiver, the trustee and any creditor, to all of whom previous
notice of the application must be given, grant the bankrupt a dis-
charge either absolutely or under conditions, but subject to the
following qualifications, viz.: (i) If the bankrupt has committed
a criminal offence connected with the bankruptcy, the application
must be refused unless for special reasons the court determines
otherwise. (2) If the assets are not equal in value to ten shillings
in the pound of the unsecured liabilities (unless the bankrupt can
show that he is not responsible) ; or if proper books have not been
kept; or if the bankrupt has traded after knowledge of insolvency;
or has contracted debts without reasonable probability of payment ;
or failed to account for his deficiency; or contributed to the bank-
ruptcy by rash speculation, gambling, culpable neglect or by un-
justifiable expenses; or has taken or defended legal proceedings on
frivolous grounds; or has within three months preceding the
receiving order given an undue preference; or has increased his
liabilities with the view of making his assets equal to ten shillings in
the pound; or has previously been bankrupt or made an arrange-
ment with creditors; or has been guilty of any fraud or fraudulent
breach of trust; then the court shall, on proof of any of these facts,
either (a) refuse the discharge, or (6) suspend it for a period of not
less than two years, or until a dividend of not less than ten shillings
in the pound has been paid ; or (c) qualify the order by the condition
that judgment is entered up against the bankrupt for payment of
any unpaid balance of his debts, or of part of such balance out of
his future earnings or property. The bankrupt may, however, after
two years apply to the court to modify the conditions if he is unable
to comply with them. An order of discharge releases the debtor
from all his obligations except debts due to the crown, and other
obligations of a public character which can only be discharged with
the consent of the Treasury, debts incurred by fraud, and judgment
debts in an action for seduction or as a co-respondent in a matri-
monial suit or under an affiliation order, which are only released to
such extent and 'subject to such conditions as the court may expressly
order. The release of the bankrupt does not operate as a release
328
BANKRUPTCY
of any partner or co-obligant with him. Neither does it release
the bankrupt from liability to criminal prosecution.
Composition or Scheme of Arrangement.
After a receiving order has been made the debtor may submit a
proposal for the payment of a composition, or for the liquidation of
his affairs, by a trustee or otherwise, without adjudication. The
proposal must be lodged with the official receiver in sufficient time
to allow notice, together with a report by that officer, to be sent to
the creditors before the meeting is held at which it is to be considered.
If the proposal isentertained at the meeting by a majority in number
and three-fourths in value of all the creditors who have proved their
debts, and if it is thereafter approved by the court, it becomes
binding upon all creditors who would be bound by an order of dis-
charge had the debtor been adjudicated bankrupt. A similar
proposal may be made after adjudication, and if entertained by the
creditors and approved by the court, the adjudication may be
annulled. The debtor's release will be subject to the terms of the
scheme, but his future acquired property will not pass to the creditors
unless there is an express stipulation to that effect. If default is
made in carrying out the scheme, or if it is found that it cannot
proceed without injustice or undue delay, the court may at any time
adjudicate the debtor bankrupt, in which case the scheme will fall
to the ground, except in respect of past transactions under it. The
approval of a composition or scheme does not release the debtor
from his liabilities under the criminal law, nor from the necessity of
undergoing a public examination which must, in fact, be held and
concluded before the approval of the court is applied for. Also
before such approval is given a report must be filed by the official
receiver upon its terms and on the conduct of the debtor, and the
court must be satisfied after hearing that officer and any creditor,
that the proposal is reasonable and calculated to benefit the creditors,
and that no criminal offences connected with the bankruptcy have
been committed by the debtor. Further, if any fact is proved
which would have prevented the debtor from obtaining an absolute
or unconditional order of discharge had he been adjudged bankrupt,
the composition or scheme cannot be approved unless it provides
reasonable security for the payment of not less than seven shillings
and sixpence in the pound on all the unsecured debts. Where a
trustee is appointed to carry out the composition or scheme, all the
provisions of the act with reference to the remuneration of the
trustee, the custody of funds, the audit of his accounts and the
control exercised by the Board of Trade apply in the same manner
as they would under an adjudication. Further, the provisions
relating to the administration of property, proof of debts, dividends,
&c., will also apply, so far as the nature of the case and the terms of
the arrangement admit.
Properly divisible among the Creditors.
No part of the law of bankruptcy is more intricate, or has been
the subject of more litigation than this, and any detailed view of the
effect of legal decisions can only be gathered by a perusal of the
cases; but the following general principles may be stated: The
term " property " includes not 9nly property of which the bankrupt
is the true owner, but property in his possession, order or disposition
in his trade or business with the consent of the true owner, in such
circumstances that he is the reputed owner thereof. The application
of the doctrine of reputed ownership has been considerably restricted
in recent years by the growth of alleged trade customs, in accordance
with which property is frequently lent under a contract of " hire
and purchase" or otherwise; and by the decisions of the courts
that where such custom is sufficiently proved the doctrine does not
apply. Further, the trustee's title not only includes property in
the actual possession of the bankrupt, but relates back to the date
of the first act of bankruptcy committed by him within the three
months preceding the presentation of the bankruptcy petition, and
thus invalidates all payments and assignments to creditors made
during that period with knowledge on the part of the creditor or
assignee of the commission of the act of bankruptcy. In such cases
the trustee may, therefore, require the money or property to be
restored to the estate. And even where no prior act of bankruptcy
is proved, any payment made to a creditor with the view of giving
such creditor a preference over the other creditors, within the three
months preceding the presentation of the petition on which the
payer is made bankrupt, is rendered void as against his trustee.
Settlements of property within the two years preceding the bank-
ruptcy, unless made before and in consideration of marriage, or
made in good faith for valuable consideration, are also void, as are
similar settlements within ten years, unless it is proved that the
settlor was (independently of the settled property) solvent at the
date of the settlement, and that the interest in the property passed
to the trustees on the execution of the deed. The- same rule applies
to covenants to settle in consideration of marriage future-acquired
property in which the debtor had no interest at the date of the
marriage (other than property acquired by the bankrupt through
his wife), if such -property is not actually transferred before the
bankruptcy. Executions by a creditor not completed at the date
of the receiving order are also void, and the proceeds of an execution
in the hands of the sheriff must, with certain exceptions and subject
to deduction of costs, be handed over to the trustee. But all property
held by the bankrupt on trust, and tools of trade, wearing apparel
and bedding to a total value not exceeding 20, are excluded from
the property divisible among the creditors. With respect to property
acquired by the bankrupt, whether by gift or legacy, or consisting of
accumulations of business or other profits after the commencement
of the bankruptcy, and before he obtains his discharge, the trustee's
title also prevails; but bona-fide transactions by the debtor for value,
other than transactions relating to freehold property, appear to be
valid. Where the bankrupt is a beneficed clergyman the trustee
may, subject to certain provisions for the due discharge of the duties
of the office, apply for the sequestration of the profits of the benefice;
and where he is in receipt of a salary, income or pension, &c., the
court may order any part thereof to be paid to the trustee, but where
he is an officer of the army, navy or civil service, such order is only
to be made with the consent of the chief of the department concerned.
Claims of Creditors and Dividends.
In the distribution of the debtor's property certain claims are
entitled to priority over others. Thus the landlord, although not
entitled to a preference out of the funds in the hands of the trustee,
can distrain for unpaid rent on the goods and effects of the debtor
remaining on the landlord's premises, but where the distraint is
levied after the commencement of the bankruptcy this right is
limited by the act of 1890 to six months' rent due before adjudica-
tion, the remainder of his claim ranking for dividend with the
claims of other creditors. Various gas and water companies have
also statutory powers of distraint under special acts, but the policy
of recent legislation has been to discourage any extension of such
privileges. Where the bankrupt holds an office of trust in any
savings bank or friendly society, any balance in his hands due to
such bank or society has been held under the acts relating to these
bodies to be payable in preference to any other claim against the
estate. Other preferential claims are regulated by the Bankruptcy
Acts and by the Preferential Payments in Bankruptcy Act of 1888,
and include taxes, parochial and other local rates for not more than
one year, wages and salaries for four months, but not exceeding 50
(limited in the case of ordinary labourers and workmen to two
months' wages not exceeding 25), and agricultural labourers'
claims not exceeding one year s wages, if hired by special contract
for payment of a lump sum at the end of a year. These claims are
entitled to preference not only over funds in the hands of the trustee,
but also over the proceeds of any distraint levied by the landlord
within the three months prior to the receiving order, the latter in
that case becoming a preferred creditor for the amount so paid.
Articled clerks and apprentices may also be allowed repayment of a
proportion of the premium on their unexpired agreements. On the
other hand, usual trade discounts (exceeding 5 %) must be deducted
from traders' proofs, and the following claims are postponed until
the general creditors are paid in full, viz. claims by a married
woman for loans to the husband for the purposes of his business,
claims for loans advanced to any person in business at a rate of
interest varying with the profits, and claims for interest in excess of
5 % per annum. Subject to these exceptions all debts proved in
the bankruptcy must be paid pari passu. Any surplus after payment
of 2os. in the pound and interest at the rate of 4 % per annum,
from the date of the receiving order, is payable to the bankrupt.
Proofs of Debt. All claims and liabilities present or future, certain
or contingent, arising out of obligations incurred before the date of
the receiving order are provable in the bankruptcy, an estimate of
the liability in the case of contingent debts being made by the trustee
subject to appeal to the court. But demands in the nature of un-
liquidated damages arising otherwise than by reason of a contract,
promise or breach of trust are not provable. A secured creditor if
he proves must either surrender his security, or value the security
ana prove for the balance; and the trustee can thereupon, subject
to the creditor's power in certain circumstances to amend the
valuation, take over the security by paying the amount of the
valuation, or may require it to be realized. He may be required by
the creditor to elect which of these courses he will adopt, failing
which the equity of redemption will vest in the creditor. For further
regulations as to proofs, the time within which they must be lodged
for voting and for dividend, and the manner of dealing with them,
reference should be made to the first and second schedules of the
act of 1883 and the rules relating thereto.
Dividends. After payment of costs of administration and prefer-
ential debts, it is the duty of the trustee to distribute the estate
with all convenient speed, the first dividend within four months
after the first meeting of creditors, and subsequent dividends at
intervals of not more than six months, but the declaration may be
postponed for sufficient reason by the committee of inspection.
Notice of the intention to declare a dividend is gazetted and sent
to each creditor mentioned in the bankrupt's statement of affairs
who has not proved. The notice should state the last day for
proving in order to participate in the distribution, and should be
given not more than two months before the declaration. When
the dividend is declared, notice of the amount due, and of the place
where the same is payable, is sent to each creditor who has proved,
with a statement showing particulars of the estate. And provision
must be made for creditors at a distance, who have not had time to
prove, for disputed claims, and for debts the subject of claims not
BANKRUPTCY
329
yet determined. Creditors who fail to prove before the declaration
of a dividend are entitled to receive their dividends on proving
before any subsequent dividend is declared, but cannot disturb
the distribution of any dividend already declared. Before dis-
tributing a final dividend notice is sent to every creditor whose
claim has been notified to the trustee, but not finally established,
with an intimation that unless so established within a specified
period he will be excluded from participation in the estate. In the
case of a bankrupt firm the joint creditors arc not entitled to receive
a dividend out of the separate property of the bankrupts until all
the separate creditors are paid in full.
Trustee's Administration.
While the interim preservation and management of the estate is
conducted by or under the direct supervision of officers appointed
by and responsible to the Board of Trade, the ultimate realization
and distribution of the assets devolve upon the trustee appointed
by the creditors. But besides acting as receiver prior to the first
meeting of creditors, the official receiver also becomes trustee by
operation of law on the making of an order of adjudication. He
vacates the office when a trustee is appointed by the creditors, and
certified by the Board of Trade, but again becomes trustee on the
creditors' trustee being released, dying, resigning or being removed
from' office. As the bankrupt's property vests in the trustee for the
time being, and passes from trustee to trustee by operation of law,
and without any formal act of conveyance, the continuity of the
office is thus secured.
Appointment of Trustee. A trustee may be appointed by a
majority in value of the creditors voting, at the first or any subse-
quent meeting, or the appointment may be left to the committee
of inspection. In either case the appointment is subject to confirma-
tion by the Board of Trade, who may object on the ground that the
creditors have not acted in good faith in the interests of the general
body, or that the person appointed is not fit to act, or occupies such
a position in relation to the debtor, to any creditor, or to the estate,
as makes it difficult for him to act with impartiality, or that in any
previous case he has been removed from office for misconduct or
for failure without good cause to render his accounts for audit. An
appeal from such objection to the High Court lies at the instance of
a majority in value of the creditors, but in the absence of an appeal
it is fatal to the appointment. Before being confirmed, the trustee-
elect must also furnish security to the satisfaction of the Board of
Trade, and such security must be kept up to the amount originally
fixed, or to such lesser amount as that department may require
throughout the tenure of the trusteeship, failing which the trustee is
liable to be removed from office. Where the creditors fail to appoint
a trustee, the Board of Trade may do so, but such appointment may
at any time be superseded by the creditors.
Removal. The trustee may be removed by the creditors at a
meeting summoned for the purpose without reason assigned, or by
the Board of Trade for misconduct, or for incapacity or failure to
perform his duties, or on either of the other personal grounds of
objection to which the appointment is open. But the removal is
in like manner subject to appeal at the instance of creditors. If a
receiving order is made against a trustee he thereby vacates office.
He may also, with the consent of a general meeting of creditors,
resign, but his resignation does not operate as a release from his
liability to account for his administration.
Powers and Duties. The trustee is required to take immediate
possession of the bankrupt's property, including deeds, books and
accounts, and has the powers of a receiver in the High Court for
the purpose of enforcing delivery. After payment of the costs of
administration it is his duty to distribute the estate in dividends
as speedily as possible. He may also, and with the sanction of the
committee, or, where there is none, with that of the Board of Trade,
carry on the business so far as is necessary to a beneficial winding-
up, institute or defend legal proceedings, employ a solicitor to do
any business previously sanctioned by the same authority, com-
promise debts and claims, raise money on mortgage, sell property
on credit, or divide the estate where practicable among the creditors
in its existing form. He may, without special sanction, but subject
to any directions which may be given by the creditors in general
meeting, or failing them by the committee, sell the property or any
part of it for cash, including business goodwill and book debts, and
either by public auction or private treaty, and generally exercise
all the powers which the bankrupt might before adjudication have
exercised in relation to the property, or which are by the Bankruptcy
Act conferred on the trustee.
Where any part of the property is held subject to onerous obliga-
tions, such as the payment of rent, &c., the trustee may disclaim
the same, subject in certain cases to the leave of the court, and the
disclaimer operates to determine all interest in or liability in respect
of the property on the part of the estate. The trustee is required to
keep a record book (which is commenced by the official receiver),
containing minutes of the proceedings in the bankruptcy, and a cash
book in the prescribed form, in which all receipts and payments by
him must be entered. All monies received must forthwith be paid
into an account at the Bank of England, entitled the " Bankruptcy
Estates Account," which is under the control of the Board of Trade,
unless where in special circumstances the sanction of that depart-
ment is obtained to the opening of a local banking account, but in
no circumstances must estate monies be paid to the trustee's private
account. When monies are required for the purpose of the estate,
special cheques or money orders are issued by the Board of Trade on
the application of the trustee.
Control over Trustee. In his administration of the estate the
trustee is subject to control by the committee of inspection, the
ci'editors, the court and the Board of Trade. The committee is
appointed by the creditors, and must consist of not more than five
nor less than three creditors or authorized representatives of
creditors. It acts by a majority present at a meeting, and should
be convened once a month unless it otherwise directs. If no com-
mittee is appointed, the Board of Trade may give any direction or
permission which might have been given by a committee. Directions
given by the committee, if not inconsistent with the provisions of
the act, are binding on the trustee, unless contrary to or overruled
by those of the creditors or of the court. The official receiver or
trustee may summon a meeting of the creditors at any time to
ascertain their wishes, and must do so when so required by one-sixth
in value of the creditors or when directed by the court. The Board
of Trade may also direct the official receiver to summon a meeting
for the purpose of reviewing any act done by the trustee or any
resolution of the committee of inspection. Further, the trustee may
apply to the court for directions in any particular matter, and the
court may also, on the application of any person aggrieved reverse
or modify any act of the trustee, or make. such order as it deems just.
The directions of the court override those of the creditors. The
Board of Trade is required to take general cognizance of the conduct
of trustees, to inquire into any complaints by creditors, and in the
event of any trustee not faithfully performing his duties, to take
such action, including the power of removal, as may be expedient.
It may also direct a local investigation of the trustee's books and
accounts, and may require him to answer any inquiries, or may apply
to the court to examine him on oath. If any loss has arisen to the
estate from any misfeasance, neglect or omission of the trustee, it
may require him to make it good. The orders of the Board of Trade
under the powers conferred by the act may be enforced by the court
by committal of the trustee or otherwise.
Audit of Accounts. The trustee's accounts must be audited by
the committee of inspection not less than once in every three months ;
and once in every six months, as well as at the close of the administra-
tion, the record and cash books must also be submitted with the
vouchers, and the committee's certificate-of audit to the Board of
Trade for final audit. If it appears that the trustee has retained
more than 50 in hand for more than ten days without a satisfactory
explanation, he may be removed from office, surcharged with interest
at the rate of 20 % per annum and lose all claim to remuneration.
Remuneration. The trustee's remuneration is fixed by the
creditors or by the committee if so authorized by them. It must
be in the nature of a percentage on the amount of the realization
and on the dividends. If one-fourth of the creditors in number or value
dissent from the resolution, or if the bankrupt satisfies the Board
of Trade that the remuneration is excessive, the Board may review
the same and fix the remuneration. A trustee may not receive any
remuneration for services rendered in any other capacity, e.g. as solici-
tor, auctioneer, &c., beyond that voted to him as trustee; nor may he
share his remuneration with the bankrupt, the solicitor or other person
employed about the bankruptcy; or receive from any person any
gift, or other pecuniary or personal benefit in connexion therewith.
Costs. A trustee receiving remuneration is not allowed the costs
of any other person in respect of duties which ought to be performed
by himself. All bills of solicitors and other agents employed must
be taxed before payment, as being in accordance with_ the prescribed
scales of costs; and the taxing master must satisfy himself that the
employment has been properly authorized before the work was done.
All bills of costs must be delivered to the trustee within seven days
of the request for the same, otherwise the estate may be distributed
without regard to such costs.
Release. When the property, so far as it is capable of realization,
has been realized and distributed, the trustee must apply to the
Board of Trade for his release, forwarding to each creditor a notice
of his having done so, together with a copy of his final accounts,
and the Board of Trade, after preparing and considering a report on
the same, and the objections of any person interested, may, subject
to appeal to the High Court, grant or withhold the release. If a
release is withheld, the court may, on the application of any person
interested, make such order against the trustee as it thinks just.
The release when granted operates as a removal from office, and
thereupon the official receiver again becomes trustee, and is thus
in a position, even after the nominal close of the bankruptcy, to deal
with any circumstances which may arise, or which have not been
foreseen and provided for.
Small Bankruptcies.
When the official receiver reports, or the court is otherwise satisfied
that the debtor's property is not likely to realize more than 300,
the court may make an order for the summary administration of the
estate, in which case, if the debtor is adjudged bankrupt, the official
receiver in the ordinary course becomes and remains trustee, and
certain other modifications are effected with the view of simplifying
330
BANKRUPTCY
and accelerating the procedure. The chief of these modifications
are as follows, viz. the Board of Trade acts as committee of inspec-
tion ; there is no advertisement of the proceedings in a local paper ;
in legal proceedings all questions of law and fact are determined by
the court without a jury; adjudication may be made on a report by
the official receiver before the first meeting of creditors where no
composition or scheme is proposed; meetings of creditors may be
held in the town where the court sits or the official receiver's office
is situated; notice to creditors of meetings other than the first
meeting, or of application by a debtor for his discharge, are dispensed
with in the case of creditors for amounts not exceeding 2. Costs,
other than a solicitor's charges, may be paid without taxation ; and
the time for declaring the first dividend is extended to six months,
but the whole estate must be realized and distributed within this
period if practicable. No modification, however, is permitted in
the procedure relating to the public examination and discharge of
the bankrupt. Notwithstanding that an order has been made for
summary administration, the creditors may at any time by a resolu-
tion passed by a majority in number and three-fourths in value
of those voting at the meeting, appoint a trustee in place of the
official receiver, in which case the summary order ceases to be
operative.
Scottish Bankruptcy Legislation.
In Scotland, as in England, the law of bankruptcy arose as a
remedy against the frauds of insolvent debtors. It was declared
by an act of the Scottish parliament (1621, c. 18) that no debtor
after insolvency should fraudulently diminish the fund belonging
to his creditors, and if a deed of assignment was gratuitously
executed after the contracting of debt in favour of a near relation
or a confidential friend, fraudulent dealing was to be presumed.
The act 1696, c. 5, settled the definition of a notour or notorious
bankrupt, a question which had previously engaged the attention
of the judges of the court of session. The statute defines "a
notour bankrupt " to be any debtor who, being under diligence
by horning or caption, at the instance of his creditors, shall be
either imprisoned, or retire to the abbey or any other privileged
place, or flee or abscond for his personal security, or defend his
person by force, and who shall afterwards be found, by sentence
of the lords of session, to be insolvent. Bankruptcy as thus
defined was, it is, said, intended to afford a remedy against
fraudulent preference by debtors, and not as the ground-work
of a general process of distribution, although by later statutes
it became a necessary requisite of every such process. The
exceptions recognized in the act of 1696, of persons absent from
Scotland and therefore not liable to imprisonment, or of persons
exempted therefrom by special privileges, were removed by later
legislation. The old English distinction between traders and
non-traders, it will be observed, is not recognized in Scottish
law. The statute made null and void all voluntary dispositions,
assignations and other deeds made after or within sixty days
before bankruptcy.
In 1856 was passed the Bankruptcy (Scotland) Act, by which
the law of bankruptcy in Scotland is mainly regulated. By this
act, notour (i.e. legally declared) bankruptcy was constituted:
1. By sequestration (or adjudication in England and Ireland);
and
2. By insolvency concurring either (a) with a duly executed
charge for payment or (b) with sale of effects belonging to the
debtor under a poinding or under a sequestration for rent, or
making application for the benefit of cessio bonorum.
Notour bankruptcy continues, in cases of sequestration, until
the debtor has obtained his discharge and in other cases until
insolvency ceases. Sequestration may be awarded of the estate
of any person in the following cases:
1. Living debtor subject to jurisdiction of Scottish courts
(a) on his own petition with concurrence of qualified creditors,
or (b) on petition of qualified creditors, provided he be a notour
bankrupt, and have had a dwelling-house or place of business
in Scotland within the previous year.
2. In the case of a deceased debtor, subject at his death to the
jurisdiction of the court (a) on the petition of his mandatory;
or (b) on the petition of qualified creditors ( 13).
Sequestration may be awarded either by the court of session
or by the sheriff. A sequestration may be recalled by a majority
in number and four-fifths in value of the creditors, who may
prefer to wind up the estate by private arrangement. If the
sequestration proceeds, the creditors hold a meeting, and by
a majority in value elect a trustee to administer the estate, and
three commissioners (being creditors or their mandatories) to
assist and control the administration and declare the dividends.
The bankrupt (under pain of imprisonment) must give ah 1 the
information in his power regarding his estate and he must be
publicly examined on oath before the sheriff; and " conjunct
and confident persons " may likewise be examined. The bank-
rupt may be discharged either by composition or without com-
position. In the latter case (i) by petition with concurrence
of all the creditors, or (2) after six months with concurrence of
a majority and four-fifths in value of the creditors, or (3) after
eighteen months with concurrence of a bare majority in number
and value, or (4) after two years without concurrence. In the
last case the judge may refuse the application if he thinks the
bankrupt has fraudulently concealed his effects or wilfully
failed to comply with the law. This act was amended by the
Bankruptcy and Real Securities Act 1857, which deals with
the cost of competition for trusteeships; the Bankruptcy
Amendment (Scotland) Act 1860, which enables the court to
recall a sequestration where it is more convenient that the estate
should be wound up in England or Ireland; and the Bankruptcy
Amendment Act (Scotland) 1875, which makes the wages of
clerks, shopmen and servants preferential claims for a period
not exceeding four months and an amount not exceeding 50,
while the claims of workmen are placed on a similar footing for
a period not exceeding two months. Some important changes
were subsequently introduced, one of the principal being that
effected by the Debtors (Scotland) Act 1880, which abolished
imprisonment for debt, but which, like its English prototype
(the Debtors Act 1869), contains a series of important provisions
for the punishment of fraudulent bankrupts. Under these pro-
visions the laws of the two countries on that subject are practically
assimilated, although some minor differences still survive. One
of the most important of these differences is, that while the
Scottish act makes the failure, within the three years prior to
the sequestration, to keep " such books and accounts as, accord-
ing to the usual course of any trade or business in which he
(the debtor) may have been engaged, are necessary to exhibit
or explain his transactions " a criminal offence, the English
act contains no provision of an analogous character; the non-
keeping of such books being treated as a fact to be taken into
account in dealing with the debtor's application for his discharge
but not coming within the scope of the criminal law. On the
other hand, there are a few minor trading irregularities dealt
with in the English act which are not specifically included in that
of Scotland. Another important distinction is that under the
Scottish act the same offences may be treated differently, accord-
ing as they are brought for trial before the court of justiciary
or a sheriff and jury, in which case the maximum penalty is two
years' imprisonment; or before a sheriff without a jury, in
which case the penalty is limited to imprisonment for a period
not exceeding sixty days. This distinction admits of a useful
elasticity in the administration of the law, having regard to the
comparative importance of the case, which is hardly possible
under the English act.
Another most important modification of the law is effected
by the Debtors Act 1880, combined with the Bankruptcy and
Cessio Act 1881, and the Act of Sederunt anent Cessios of the
22nd of December 1882. Under the law existing prior to these
enactments, the process of cessio bonorum operated chiefly as a
means for obtaining release from imprisonment for debt on a
formal surrender by a debtor of all his goods and estate. But
under this process the debtor was not entitled to a discharge,
and his future-acquired property was still subject to diligence
at the instance of unsatisfied creditors. By abolishing im-
prisonment for debt (except in regard to crown debts and
public rates and assessments), the legislature also practically
abolished this use of the process of cessio, and the process itself
would probably have become obsolete, but for certain changes
effected by the act of 1881, which have given it a different and
more extended scope. Among these changes may be noted (i)
BANKRUPTCY
the extension to " any creditor of a debtor who is notour bank-
rupt," without reference to the amount of his debt, of the right
hitherto limited to the debtor himself, to petition the court for a
decree of cessio, the prayer of the petition, whether presented by
the debtor or by a creditor, being " to appoint a trustee to take the
management and disposal of the debtor's estate for behoof of
his creditors "; (2) the discretionary power given to the court
upon such petition to award sequestration under the bankruptcy
act, in any case where the liabilities of the debtor exceed 200;
and (3) the right of the debtor to apply for his discharge under
similar conditions to those obtaining in the case of sequestration.
An important modification of the law relating to discharge which
equally affects a debtor under the Bankruptcy and Cessio Acts,
is also effected by the provision of the act of 1881, which requires,
in addition to the concurrence of creditors, the fulfilment of one
of the following conditions, viz., " (a) That a dividend of five
shillings in the pound has been paid out of the estate of the
debtor, or that security for payment thereof has been found to
the satisfaction of the creditors; or (ft) that the failure to pay
five shillings in the pound has, in the opinion of the sheriff,
arisen from circumstances for which the debtor cannot justly
be held responsible." Orders of cessio are only made in the
sheriff courts, and when made, the court also appoints a
trustee, who conducts the proceedings without the control
exercised by the creditors in a sequestration. Under these
conditions it will be seen that the original purpose and con-
stitution of the process of cessio has entirely disappeared,
and it has now become a modified form of official bankruptcy
procedure, with a less elaborate routine than in the case of
sequestration, and one perhaps more suitable to the smaller
class of cases, to which in practice it is limited.
The Bankruptcy Frauds and Disabilities (Scotland) Act 1884
applies to sequestrations and decrees of cessio the criminal
provisions of 31 of the English Bankruptcy Act 1883, relating
to the obtaining of credit for 20 and upwards by an undischarged
bankrupt, without disclosure of his position. It also places the
law relating to the disqualifications attaching to such bankrupts
on a similar footing to that of the English act.
The Judicial Factors Act of 1889 contains a provision calculated
to check excessive costs of administration, by requiring that
where the remuneration of a trustee under a sequestration is to
be fixed by the commissioners, intimation of the rate of re-
muneration is to be given to the creditors and to the accountant
of court before being acted on, and the latter officer is empowered,
subject to appeal, to modify the same if he deems it expedient.
It may be pointed out that the Deeds of Arrangement Act
1887, which applies to England and Ireland, does not apply to
Scotland, and there is no analogous provision requiring registra-
tion of private deeds of assignment for the benefit of creditors
as a condition of their validity in that country.
Finally, it is to be noted that the office of accountant in bank-
ruptcy, which was established by the Bankruptcy Act of 1856,
has under the Judicial Factors Act 1889 been abolished, the
duties being merged in those of the office of accountant of the
court of session.
Irish Bankruptcy Legislation.
The Irish law of bankruptcy is regulated by the two leading
Irish statutes of 1857 and 1872, together with the Irish Debtors
Act 1872, and corresponds in its main features to some of the
older English enactments, with modifications adopted from the
English act of 1869. It may be pointed out, however, that the
system of liquidation by arrangement and composition without
the approval or control of the court, which proved fatal to the
success of the latter, has not at any time been imported into the
Irish law. A special act was passed in 1888 for establishing
local bankruptcy courts in certain districts in Ireland, and an
act was also passed in 1889, applying the main provisions of the
English Act of 1888, relating to preferential payments in bank-
ruptcy, to Ireland.
The Deeds of Arrangement Act 1887, which has been already
discussed above under the head of English bankruptcy legislation,
also applies in its main provisions to Ireland, and as supplemented
by the Irish Deeds of Arrangement Amendment Act 1890,
places the law relating to this branch of insolvency procedure
upon a similar footing in both countries, so far as regards the
publicity of such deeds. The last-mentioned act also requires
a similar registration of all petitions for arrangement under
the Bankruptcy Act 1857. (J. SM.*)
COMPARATIVE LAW
British Empire. In most parts of the British empire the law
of bankruptcy has been modelled upon the English system.
This is particularly the case in Australia and New Zealand.
Victoria, South Australia, Western Australia and New Zealand
follow the lines of the existing English acts. In Queensland,
Tasmania and New South Wales the system is rather that of
the English act of 1869, leaving more to the creditors' manage-
ment and less to officialism.
One point may be mentioned in which the Australian colonies
have improved on the English system. Under the English acts
a bankrupt is under no obligation to apply for his discharge.
The result is that the United Kingdom contains a population of
70,000 undischarged bankrupts a manifest danger to the
trading community. Under the bankruptcy systems of New
South Wales, Victoria and New Zealand, a bankrupt is bound
to apply for his discharge within a fixed period, otherwise he is
guilty of a contempt of court.
In Canada, under the British North America Act 1867, the
Dominion parliament has exclusive legislative power in regard
to bankruptcy and insolvency: but there is no existing Dominion
act on the subject. A Dominion act was passed in 1875, but
repealed in 1880. The failure of this act may perhaps be ascribed
to the diversity of the pre-existing provincial systems, embracing
such contrasts as the English law of Ontario, and the French
code based on cessio bonorum which ruled in Quebec. Bank-
ruptcy is dealt with in a fragmentary way by the provincial
legislatures by acts regulating such matters as priority of
execution creditors, fraudulent assignments and preferences,
imprisonment of debtors, administration of estates of deceased
insolvents.
In Cape Colony and Natal English law is substantially
followed. In the Transvaal, where Roman-Dutch law prevails,
the law governing the subject is the Insolvency Law, No. 13 of
1895. It provides for voluntary surrender and compulsory
sequestration. The law of the Orange River Colony is similar.
In British Guiana, Gambia, Jamaica, Hong Kong, Mauritius,
Grenada, Trinidad, Tobago and the Straits Settlements the law
is modelled on the English pattern.
In India insolvency is regulated by the Indian Insolvency Act
1848, extended by the Act XI. of 1889.
An English bankrupt, it may be added, is entitled to plead
his discharge in England as a defence in a colonial court. The
explanation is this. The English act vests all the bankrupt's
property, whether in the United Kingdom or in the colonies, in
his trustee in bankruptcy. Having thus denuded him of every-
thing, it has been held to follow that the bankrupt's discharge
must also receive recognition in a colonial court.
France. Bankruptcy in France is regulated by the Commercial
Code of 1807, amended and supplemented by the law of gth
June 1838. By Article 437 of the code bankruptcy is defined as
the state of a trader who is unable to meet his commercial
engagements. Simple insolvency of this kind is known in France
as faillite. Insolvency attended with circumstances of mis-
conduct or fraud is known as banqucroute simple or banqueroule
fraudideuse. Only a trader can become bankrupt. The debt,
too, for obtaining adjudication must be a commercial debt, the
laws regulating bankruptcy being designed exclusively for the
protection of commerce. To be made a bankrupt a trader need
not be insolvent: it is sufficient that he has suspended payment.
Commercial companies of all kinds are liable to be declared
bankrupt in the same manner as individual traders. A trader-
debtor can be adjudicated bankrupt upon his own petition, or
upon the petition of a creditor, or by the court itself proprio
motu. A petitioning debtor must within fifteen days file at the
332
BANKRUPTCY
office of the Tribunal of Commerce of the district, a declaration
of suspension, with a true account of his conduct and of the
state of his affairs, showing his assets, debts, profits and losses
and personal expenses. On adjudication the Tribunal of Com-
merce appoints a person, called a syndic provisoire, to manage
the bankrupt's estate, and a juge commissaire is also named to
supervise the syndic. A bankruptcy terminates by an ordinary
composition (concordat), a sale of the debtor's assets (union), or
a composition by relinquishment of assets. It is a striking
feature of the French system, and highly creditable to French
commercial integrity, that a discharge in bankruptcy, even
when accompanied by a declaration d'excusabilile, leaves the
unpaid balance a debt of honour. At the time of the French
Revolution the National Convention passed a resolution that
any man who contracted a debt should never be free from
liability to pay it. The spirit of this resolution still survives,
for until a trader has paid every penny that he owes he is not
rehabilitated and remains under the stigma of various dis-
abilities: he has no political rights, he cannot hold any public
office, or act as a stockbroker, or sit on a jury. Banqueroute
simple is where the bankrupt has been guilty of grave faults in
the conduct of his business, such as extravagance in living,
hazardous speculation or preferring creditors. Banqueroute
frauduleuse Involves the worse delinquency of fraud. Both
banqueroute simple and banqueroute frauduleuse are punish-
able, the latter with penal servitude ranging from five to
twenty years.
Germany. Bankruptcy in Germany is governed by a code
passed in 1877. Prior to this each state had its system and the
law was " wholly chaotic." The same distinction is drawn in
Germany as in France between mere commercial failure and
bankruptcy, simple or fraudulent. Simple bankruptcy is
established by such offences as gambling, dealing in " futures,"
disorderly book-keeping or extravagance in living: fraudulent
bankruptcy, by offences of a deeper dye the concealment of
property, the falsifying of books, the manufacture of fictitious
debts and the giving of illegal preferences. Both kinds of
bankruptcy are punishable, fraudulent bankruptcy by penal
servitude, or in case of mitigating circumstances, by imprison-
ment for not less than three months. Accessories in fraudulent
bankruptcies are liable to penal servitude for instance, a
creditor who conspires with the debtor to secure an advantage
to the prejudice of the other debtors. The creditors are called
together within one month from the date of adjudication, and at
their meeting they may appoint a committee of their number to
advise with the trustee. It is the duty of the court to see that
the trustee performs his functions. Estates are liquidated with
great rapidity. In order that the creditors may receive dividends
at the earliest moment, it is customary to sell the assets by
auction. The creditors by a majority in number and three-
fourths in value may accept a composition, but such an arrange-
ment must have the approval of the court. The fees are very
moderate: in an ordinary bankruptcy the attorney's fees do
not, it is said, exceed 5.
Italy. Bankruptcy in Italy is regulated by the Commercial
Code of 1883 (Part III.). Only merchants can pass through the
bankruptcy court. Merchants are defined by the code as those
who, as an habitual profession, engage in commercial business.
This definition includes merchant companies. Bankruptcy
proceedings may be taken either by the debtor or by a creditor
for a commercial debt, or may be ordered by the court. The
amount of the debt. is immaterial: a small sum will suffice,
provided its non-payment is proof of insolvency. Bankruptcy
can only be declared where there is insolvency. The judgment
adjudicating a debtor bankrupt deprives the bankrupt of the
right to administer his affairs, and nominates a trustee to realize
the property under the superintendence of a judge and a com-
mission of creditors. All the property of the bankrupt, movable
and immovable, is sold by auction and distributed in dividends.
This is one way of closing the bankruptcy, but it may also be
closed by an arrangement. No minimum percentage is required
for such arrangement, but it must have the assent of creditors
representing three-fourths of the bankrupt's indebtedness.
Composition before bankruptcy is not recognized by Italian
law. Bankrupts are liable to criminal proceedings involving
punishments more or less heavy for offences against the law, e.g.
for not keeping books in the way prescribed by law.
United States. After much fragmentary legislation the
bankruptcy system of the United States is now embodied in the
National Bankruptcy Act of 1898, as amended by the act of
1903. The acts of bankruptcy under the act may be summarized
as follows: where a debtor (i) removes any of his property to
hinder or delay his creditors; (2) being insolvent, transfers
property with intent to prefer a creditor; (3) suffers any creditor
to obtain a preference; (4) makes a general assignment for the
benefit of his creditors; (5) " admits in writing his inability to
pay his debts and his willingness to be adjudicated a bankrupt
on that ground." These acts of bankruptcy do not include, it
will be observed, non-payment by a debtor of his debts. A
debtor can therefore only be adjudicated a bankrupt on the
ground of indebtedness with his own consent in writing. Pre-
sumably the legislature thought that the desire to obtain the
protection and privilege of bankruptcy would be a sufficient
inducement to confess insolvency, where such insolvency, in
fact, exists.
To constitute a fraudulent preference it is not necessary, as
it is under English law, that the payment should be made " with
a view to prefer " the favoured creditor. It is enough that the
creditor is preferred. This avoids the nice questions of legal
casuistry which have embarrassed the English courts, and it is
the more rational rule, for creditors are not concerned with a
debtor's intention. Any person, trader or non-trader, may
avail himself of the act, but, in the case of a corporation, there
is this peculiarity: it may be petitioned against but cannot
petition.
Insolvency is construed in a practical sense; that is, a person
is insolvent where the aggregate of his property, at a fair valua-
tion, is insufficient to pay his debts; but he is not necessarily
insolvent because his realized assets are insufficient to meet his
liabilities.
Involuntary proceedings can only be taken against debtors
owing $1000 or over, with certain exceptions. A petitioning
creditor's debt must amount to $500.
The administration of the law of bankruptcy is entrusted to
the district courts and is exercised through the medium of certain
officers appointed by the courts and called referees. The creditors
appoint a trustee or trustees of the estate.
So soon as his judicial examination is over the bankrupt
may offer his creditors a composition, but to take effect the
composition must be approved by the court after hearing
objections.
The discharge is the key to the efficiency of every bankruptcy
system. By the control which the court thus holds, it is enabled
to bring its moral censorship to bear on a debtor's conduct and
so maintain a high standard of commercial integrity. Under
the United States system the judge is to investigate the merits
of the application and to discharge the bankrupt, unless he
has (r) committed an offence punishable by imprisonment; (2)
with intent to conceal his financial condition, destroyed, con-
cealed, or failed to keep books of account or records from which
such condition might be ascertained; or (3) obtained property
on credit from any person upon a materially false statement in
writing made to_ such person for the purpose of obtaining such
property on credit; or (4) at any time, subsequent to the first day
of the four months immediately preceding the filing of the petition,
transferred, removed, destroyed or concealed any of his properly
with intent to hinder, delay or defraud his creditors; or (5) in
voluntary proceedings been granted a discharge in bankruptcy within
six years; or (6) in the course of proceedings in bankruptcy refused
to obey any lawful order of or to answer any material question
approved by the court.
It is significant that the italicized qualifications were
added to the act of 1898 by the experience of five years of its
working. (E. MA.)
BANKS, G. L. BANKS, T.
333
BANKS, GEORGE LINNAEUS (1821-1881), British miscel-
laneous writer, was born at Birmingham on the 2nd of March
1821. After a brief experience in a variety of trades, he became
at the age of seventeen a contributor to various newspapers,
and subsequently a playwright, being the author of two plays,
a couple of burlesques and several lyrics. Between 1848 and
1864 he edited in succession a variety of newspapers, including
the Birmingham Mercury and the Dublin Daily Express, and
published several volumes of miscellaneous prose and verse.
He died in London on the 3rd of May 1881.
BANKS, SIR JOSEPH, Bart. (1743-1820), English naturalist,
was born in Argyle Street, London, on the I3th of February 1743.
His father, William Banks, was the son of a successful Lincoln-
shire doctor, who became sheriff of his county, and represented
Peterborough in parliament; and Joseph was brought up as
the son of a rich man. In 1760 he went to Oxford, where he
showed a decided taste for natural science and was the means of
introducing botanical lectures into the university. In 1764 he
came into possession of the ample fortune left by his father,
and in 1766 he made his first scientific expedition to Newfound-
land and Labrador, bringing back a rich collection of plants and
insects. Shortly after his return, Captain Cook was sent by the
government to observe the transit of Venus in the Pacific Ocean,
and Banks, through the influence of his friend Lord Sandwich,
obtained leave to join the expedition in the " Endeavour,"
which was fitted out at his own expense. He made the most
careful preparations, in order to be able to profit by every
opportunity, and induced Dr Daniel Solander, a distinguished
pupil of Linnaeus, to accompany him. He even engaged draughts-
men and painters to delineate such objects of interest as did not
admit of being transported or preserved. The voyage occupied
three years and many hardships had to be undergone; but
the rich harvest of discovery was more than adequate compensa-
tion. Banks was equally anxious to join Cook's second expedition
and expended large sums in engaging assistants and furnishing
the necessary equipment; but circumstances obliged him to
relinquish his purpose. He, however, employed the assistants
and materials he had collected in a voyage to Iceland in 1772,
returning by the Hebrides and Staffa. In 1778 Banks succeeded
Sir John Pringle as president of the Royal Society, of which he
had been a fellow from 1766, and held the office until his death.
In 1781 he was made a baronet; in 1795 he received the order
of the Bath; and in 1797 he was admitted to the privy council.
He died at Isleworth on the igth of June 1820. As president
of the Royal Society he did much to raise the state of science
in Britain, and was at the same time most assiduous and success-
ful in cultivating friendly relations with scientific men of all
nations. It was, however, objected to him that from his own
predilections he was inclined to overlook and depreciate the
labours of the mathematical and physical sections of the Royal
Society and that he exercised his authoritysomewhat despotically.
He bequeathed his collections of books and botanical specimens
to the British Museum. His fame rests rather on what his liberal-
ity enabled other workers to do than on his own achievements.
See J. H. Maiden, Sir Joseph Banks (1909).
BANKS, NATHANIEL PRENTISS (1816-1894), American
politician and soldier, was born at Waltham, Massachusetts,
on the 3oth of January 1816. He received only a common
school education and at an early age began work as a bobbin-
boy in a .cotton factory of which his father was superintendent.
Subsequently he edited a weekly paper at Waltham, studied
law and was admitted to the bar, his energy and his ability
as a public speaker soon winning him distinction. He served
as a Free Soiler in the Massachusetts house of representatives
from 1849 to 1853, and was speaker in 1851 and 1852; he was
president of the state Constitutional Convention of 1853, and
in the same year was elected to the national House of Repre-
sentatives as a coalition candidate of Democrats and Free
Soilers. Although re-elected in 1854 as an American or " Know-
Nothing," he soon left this party, and in 1855 presided over a
Republican convention in Massachusetts. At the opening of
the Thirty-Fourth Congress the anti-Nebraska men gradually
united in supporting Banks for speaker, and after one of the
bitterest and most protracted speakership contests in the history
of congress, lasting from the 3rd of December 1855 to the 2nd
of February 1856, he was chosen on the I33rd ballot. This has
been called the first national victory of the Republican party.
Re-elected in 1856 as a Republican, he resigned his seat in
December 1857, and was governor of Massachusetts from 1858
to 1861, a period marked by notable administrative and educa-
tional reforms. He then succeeded George B. McClellan as
president of the Illinois Central railway. Although while
governor he had been a strong advocate of peace, he was one
of the earliest to offer his services to President Lincoln, who
appointed him in 1861 major-general of volunteers. Banks was
one of the most prominent of the volunteer officers. When
McClellan entered Upon his Peninsular Campaign in 1862 the im-
portant duty of defending Washington from the army of " Stone-
wall " Jackson fell to the corps commanded by Banks. In the
spring Banks was ordered to move against Jackson in the
Shenandoah Valley, but the latter with superior forces defeated
him at Winchester, Virginia, on the 25th of May, and forced him
back to the Potomac river. OH the 9th of August Banks again
encountered Jackson at Cedar Mountain, and, though greatly
outnumbered, succeeded in holding his ground after a very
sanguinary battle. He was later placed in command of the
garrison at Washington, and in November sailed from New York
with a strong force to replace General B. F. Butler at New
Orleans as commander of the Department of the Gulf. Being
ordered to co-operate with Grant, who was then before Vicksburg,
he invested the defences of Port Hudson, Louisiana, in May 1863,
and after three attempts to carry the works by storm he began
a regular siege. The garrison surrendered to Banks on the gth
of July, on receiving word that Vicksburg had fallen. In the
autumn of 1863 Banks organized a number of expeditions to
Texas, chiefly for the purpose of preventing the French in Mexico
from aiding the Confederates, and secured possession of the region
near the mouths of the Nueces and the Rio Grande. But his
Red River expedition, March-May 1864, forced upon him by
superior authority, was a complete failure. In August 1865 he
was mustered out of the service, and from 1865 to 1873 he was
again a representative in congress, serving as chairman of the
committee on foreign affairs. A personal quarrel with President
Grant led in 1872, however, to his joining the Liberal-Republican
revolt in supportof Horace Greeley, and as the Liberal-Republican
and Democratic candidate he was defeated for re-election. In
1874 he was successful as a Democratic candidate, serving one
term (1875-1877). Having rejoined the Republican party in
1876, he was United States marshal for Massachusetts from
1879 until 1888, when for the ninth time he was elected to
Congress. He retired at the close of his term (1891) and died
at Waltham on the ist of September 1894.
BANKS, THOMAS (1735-1805), English sculptor, son of a
surveyor who was land steward to the duke of Beaufort, was
born in London on the zgth of December 1735. He was taught
drawing by his father, and in 1750 was apprenticed to a wood-
carver. In his spare time he worked at sculpture, and before
1772, when he obtained a travelling studentship and proceeded
to Rome, he had already exhibited several fine works. Return-
ing to England in 1779 he found that the taste for classic poetry,
ever the source of his inspiration, no longer existed, and he spent
two years in St Petersburg, being employed by the empress
Catherine, who purchased his " Cupid tormenting a Butterfly."
On his return he modelled his colossal " Achilles mourning the
loss of Briseis," a work full of force and passion; and thereupon
he was elected, in 1784, an associate of the Royal Academy and
in the following year a full member. Among other works in
St Paul's cathedral are the monuments to Captain Westcott and
Captain Burges, and in Westminster Abbey to Sir Eyre Coote.
His bust of Warren Hastings is in the National Portrait Gallery.
Banks's best-known work is perhaps the colossal group of
" Shakespeare attended by Painting and Poetry," now in the
garden of New Place, Stratford-on-Avon. He died in London
on the 2nd of February 1805.
334
BANKS AND BANKING
BANKS AND BANKING. The word " bank," in the economic
sense, covers various meanings which all express one object, a
contribution of money for a common purpose. Thus Bacon, in
his essay on Usury, while explaining "how the discommodities
of it may be best avoided and the commodities retained," refers
to a " bank or common stock " as an expression with which his
readers would be familiar. Originally connected with the idea
of a mound or bank of earth hence with that of a monte, an
Italian word describing a heap) the term has been gradually
applied to several classes of institutions established for the
general purpose of dealing with money.
The manner in which a bank prospers is explained by David
Ricardo, in his Proposals for an Economical and Secure Currency,
in a passage where he tells us that a bank would never
Banking fo e established if it obtained no other profits but those
business, derived from the employment of its own capital. The
real advantage of a bank to the community it serves
commences only when it employs the capital of others. The
money which a bank controls in the form of the deposits
which it receives and sometimes of the notes which it issues, is
loaned out by it again to those who desire to borrow and can
show that they may be trusted. A bank, in order to carry on
business successfully, must possess a sufficient capital of its own
to give it the standing which will enable it to collect capital
belonging to others. But this it does not hoard. It only holds
the funds with which it is entrusted till it can use them, and the
use is found in the advances that it makes. Some of the deposits
merely lie with the bank till the customer draws what he requires
for his ordinary everyday wants. Some, the greater part by far,
of the deposits enable the bank to make advances to men who
employ the funds with which they are entrusted in reproductive
industry, that is to say, in a manner which not only brings back
a greater value than the amount originally lent to them, but
assists the business development of the country by setting on
foot and maintaining enterprises of a profitable description. It
is possible that some part may be employed in loans required
through extravagance on the part of the borrower, but these can
only be a small proportion of the whole, as it is only through
reproductive industry that the capital advanced by a banker
can really be replaced. A loan sometimes, it is true, is repaid
from the proceeds of the sale of a security, but this only means
a transfer of capital from one hand to another; money that is
not transferred in this way must be made by its owner. Granted
that the security is complete, there is only one absolute rule as
to loans if a bank desires to conduct its business on safe lines,
that the advance should not be of fixed but of floating capital.
Nothing seems simpler than such a business, but no business
requires closer attention or more strong sense and prudence in
its conduct. In other ways also, besides making loans, a well-
conducted bank is of much service to the business prosperity of
a country, as for example by providing facilities for the ready
transmission of money from those who owe money to those to
whom it is due. This is particularly obvious when the debtor
lives in one town or district and the creditor in another at a
considerable distance, but the convenience is very great under
any circumstances. Where an easy method of transmission of
cash does not exist, we become aware that a " rate of exchange "
exists as truly between one place and another in the same country
as between two places in different countries. The assistance
that banking gives to the industries of a community, apart from
these facilities, is constant and most valuable.
With these preliminary remarks on some main features of the
business, we may pass on to a sketch of the history of modern
banking. Banks in Europe from the i6th century on-
warf k ma y be divided into two classes, the one described
men/. as " exchange banks," the other as " banks of deposits."
These last are banks which, besides receiving deposits,
make loans, and thus associate themselves with the trade and
general industries of a country. The exchange banks included
in former years institutions like the Bank of Hamburg and the
Bank of Amsterdam. These were established to deal with
foreign exchange and to facilitate trade with other countries.
The others founded at very different dates were established
as, or early became, banks of deposit, like the Bank of England,
the Bank of Venice, the Bank of Sweden, the Bank of France,
the Bank of Germany and others. Some reference to these will
be made later. The exchange banks claim the first attention.
Important as they were in their day, the period of their activity
is now generally past, and the interest in their operations has
become mainly historical.
In one respect, and that a very important one, the business
carried on by the exchange banks differed from banking as
generally understood at the present time. No exchange bank
had a capital of its own nor did it require any for the performance
of the business. The object for which exchange banks were
established was to turn the values with which they were
entrusted into " current money," " bank money " as it was
called, that is to say, into a currency which was accepted immedi-
ately by merchants without the necessity of testing the value
of the coin or the bullion brought to them. The " value " they
provided was equal to the " value " they received, the only
difference being the amount of the small charge they made to
their customers, who gained by dealing with them more than
equivalent advantages.
Short notices of the Bank of Amsterdam, which was one of the
most important, and of the Bank of Hamburg, which survived
the longest, its existence not terminating till 1873, will suffice to
explain the working of these institutions.
The Amsterdamsche Wisselbank, or exchange bank, known
later as the Bank of Amsterdam, was established by the ordinance
of the city of Amsterdam of 3ist January 1609. The increased
commerce of Holland, which made Amsterdam a leading city
in international dealings, led to the establishment of this bank,
to which any person might bring money or bullion for deposit,
and might withdraw at pleasure the money or the worth of the
bullion. The ordinance which established the bank further
required that all bills of 600 gulden (50), or upwards this
limit was, in 1643, lowered to 300 gulden (25) should be paid
through the bank, or in other words, by the transfer of deposits
or credits at the bank. These transfers came afterwards to be
known as " bank money." The charge for making the transfers
was the sole source of income to the bank. The bank was
established without any capital of its own, being understood to
have actually in its vaults the whole amount of specie for which
" bank money " was outstanding. This regulation was not,
however, strictly observed. Loans were made at various dates
to the Dutch East India Company. In 1795 a report was issued
showing that the city of Amsterdam was largely indebted to the
bank, which held as security the obligations of the states of
Holland and West Friesland. The debt was paid, but it was too
late to revive the bank, and in 1820 " the establishment which
for generations had held the leading place in European commerce
ceased to exist." (See Chapters on the Theory and History oj
Banking, by Charles F. Dunbar, p. 105.)
Similar banks had been established in Middelburg,(March 28th>
i6i6),inHamburg(i6i9)andin Rotterdam (February gth, 1635).
Of these the Bank of Hamburg carried on much the largest
business and survived the longest. It was not till the isth of
February 1873 that its existence was closed by the act of the
German parliament which decreed that Germany should possess
a gold standard, and thus removed those conditions of the local
medium of exchange silver coins of very different intrinsic
values whose circulation had provided an ample field for the
operations of the bank. The business of the Bank of Hamburg
had been conducted in absolute accordance with the regulations
under which it was founded.
The exchange banks were established to remedy the incon-
venience to which merchants were subject through the uncertain
value of the currency of other countries in reference to that of
the city where the exchange bank carried on its business. The
following quotation from Notes on Banking, written in 1873,
explains the method of operation in Hamburg. " In this city,
the most vigorous offshoot of the once powerful Hansa, the latest
representative of the free commercial cities of medieval Europe,
BRITISH]
BANKS AND BANKING
335
there still remains a representative of those older banks which
were once of the highest importance in commercial affairs.
Similar institutions greatly aided the prosperity of Venice, Genoa,
Amsterdam and Nuremberg. The Bank of Hamburg is now the
last survivor of these banks, whose business lay in the assistance
of commerce, not by loans, but by the local manufacture, so to
speak, of an international coinage. In a city of the highest rank
of commercial activity, but greatly circumscribed in territory,
continually receiving payments for merchandise in the coin of
other countries, a common standard of value was a matter of
primary necessity. The invention of bank money, that is, of a
money of account which could be transferred at pleasure from
one holder to another, enabled the trade of the place to be carried
on without any of those hindrances to business which must have
followed on the delay and expense attendant on the verification
of various coins differing from each other in weight, intrinsic
value, standard of purity of metal, in every point in fact in which
coins can differ from each other. By supplying a currency of
universal acceptation the Bank of Hamburg greatly contributed
to the prosperity of that city." The regulations being strictly
carried out, the currency was purely metallic; the " Mark Banco "
being merely the representative of an equal value of silver.
For the earliest example of a bank for the receipt of deposits
carrying on a business on modern lines, we must turn, as in the
case of the exchange banks, to a great commercial city of the
middle ages. Private banking in Venice began as an adjunct of
the business of the campsores or dealers in foreign moneys.
" As early as 1270 it was deemed necessary to require them to
give security to the government as the condition of carrying on
their business, but it is not shown that they were then receiving
deposits. In an act of the 24th of September 1318, however,
entitled Bancherii scriplae dent plegiarias consulibus, the receipt
of deposits by the campsores is recognized as an existing practice,
and provision is made for better security for the depositors."
From this act it becomes clear that between 1270 and 1318 the
money-changers of Venice were becoming bankers, just as the
same class of men became in Amsterdam a couple of centuries
later, and as later still the goldsmiths in London.
Of the early banks in Europe, the bank in Venice, the Banco
di Rialto, was established by the acts of the Venetian senate of
The ant I S 8 4 and 1587. This appears to have been the first
public public bank in that city and in Europe. The senate
bank la by the act of the 3rd of May 1619' established by the
side of the Banco di Rialto a second public bank
known as the Banco Giro, or Banco del Giro, which ultimately
became the only public bank of the city and was for generations
famous throughout Europe as the Bank of Venice. Earlier than
this the campsores or dealers in foreign moneys had carried on
the business. The Bank of Venice (Banco del Giro) appears to
have been called into existence by the natural developments of
trade, but some banks have been established by governments and
have been of great service to the development of the countries
in which they have carried on their business. Of these, the Bank
of Sweden (the Riksbank), established in 1656, is the earliest.
This bank still exists and has always been the state bank of
Sweden. It was founded by a Swede named Palmstruck, who
also invented the use of the bank note perhaps adapted for use
in Europe is the better expression to employ, as notes were
current in China about A.D. 800. The first bank note was issued
by the Riksbank in 1658. An enquete made by the French
government in 1729 recognizes the priority of Sweden in this
matter, and declares the bank note to be an admirable Swedish
invention, designed to facilitate commerce.
EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
United Kingdom. English banking may be traced back to
the dealings in money carried on by the goldsmiths of London
and thus certainly to the i6th century; but it has been so greatly
1 A translation of the act of the 3rd of'May 1619 may be found
in the appendix to the Quarterly Journal of Economics (Boston,
U.S.A.) for April 1892. These documents present a distinct picture
of banking in its true sense.
influenced by the working of the Bank of England and by the
acts of parliament connected with that institution, that a re-
ference to this bank's foundation and development must precede
any attempt at a detailed history of banking in the Found,.
United Kingdom. The Bank of England was founded tioa of the
in 1694.' As in the case of some of the earlier con- Banker
tinental banks, a loan to the government was the *"*
origin of its establishment. The loan, which was 1,200,000,
was subscribed in little more than ten days, between Thursday,
2ist June, and noon of Monday, 2nd July 1694. On Tuesday,
loth July, the subscribers appointed Sir John Houblon the
governor, and Michael Godfrey (who was killed during the siege
of Namur on the i7th of July 1693) deputy-governor. Michael
Godfrey wrote a pamphlet explaining the purposes for which
the bank was established and the use it would be to the country.
The pamphlet supplies some curious illustrations of the dangers
which some persons had imagined might arise from the establish-
ment of the bank and its connexion with William III., depre-
cating the fear " lest it should hereafter joyn with the prince
to make him absolute and so render parliaments useless."
The governor and the deputy-governor, having thus been
appointed, the first twenty-four directors were elected on
Wednesday, nth July '1694. Two of them were brothers of
the governor, Sir John Houblon. They were descended from
James Houblon, a Flemish refugee who had escaped from the
persecution of Alva. All the directors were men of high mercantile
standing. The business of the bank was first carried on in the
Mercers' chapel. It continued there till the 28th of September,
when they moved to Grocers' Hall. They were tenants of the
Grocers' Hall till 1732. The first stone of the building now
occupied by the bank was laid on the ist of August 1732. The
bank has remained on the same site ever since. The structure
occupied the space previously covered by the house and gardens
of Sir John Houblon, the first governor, which had been bought
for the purpose. Between 1 764 and 1 788 the wings were erected.
In 1780 the directors, alarmed at the dangerous facilities which
the adjacent church of St Christopher le Stocks might give to
a mob, obtained parliamentary powers and acquired the fabric,
on the site of which much of the present building stands. The
structure was developed to its present form about the com-
mencement of the igth century.
The bank commenced business with fifty-four assistants,
the salaries of whom amounted to 4350. The total number
employed in 1847 was upwards of nine hundred and their salaries
exceeded 210,000. Mr Thomson Hankey stated that in 1867
upwards of one thousand persons were employed, and the salaries
and wages amounted to nearly 260,000, besides pensions to
superannuated clerks of about 20,000 more. The number of
persons of all classes employed in 1906 (head office and eleven
branches) was about 1400.
Originally established to advance the government a loan of
1,200,000, the management of the British national debt has been
confided to the Bank of England from the date of its foundation,
and it has remained the banker of the government ever since.
The interest on the stock in which the debt is inscribed has always
been paid by the bank, originally half-yearly, now quarterly,
and the registration of all transfers of the stc-ck itself is carried
on by the bank, which assumes the responsibility of the correct-
ness of these transfers. The dignity which the position of banker
to the government gives; the monopoly granted to it of being
the only joint-stock bank allowed to exist in England and Wales
till 1826, while the liability of its shareholders was limited to
the amount of their holdings, an advantage which alone of English
banks it possessed till 1862; the privilege of issuing notes which
since 1833 have been legal tender in England and Wales every-
where except at the bank itself; the fact that it is the banker
of the other banks of the country and for many years had the
control of far larger deposits than any one of them individually
all these privileges gave it early a pre-eminence which it still
maintains, though more than one competitor now holds larger
1 The clearest account of its early days is found in Thorold
Rogers' History of the First Nine Years of the Bank of England.
BANKS AND BANKING
[BRITISH
deposits, and though, collectively, the deposits of the other
banks of the country which have offices in London many times
overpass its own. Some idea of the strength of its position may
be gained from the fact that stocks are now inscribed in the bank
books to an amount exceeding 1250 millions sterling.
In one sense, the power of the Bank of England is greater
now than ever. By the act of 1844, regulating the note-issue of
the country, the Bank of England became the sole
Charter source f rom which legal tender notes can be obtained;
Act. a power important at all times, but pre-eminently so
in times of pressure. The authority to supply the notes
required, when the note.> needed by the public exceed in amount
the limit fixed by the act of 1844, was granted rjy the government
at the request of the bank on three occasions only between 1844
and 1906. Hence the Bank of England becomes the centre of
interest in times of pressure when a " treasury letter " permitting
an excess issue is required, and holds then a power the force of
which can hardly be estimated.
One main feature of the act of 1844 was the manner in which the
issue of notes was dealt with, as described by Sir Robert Peel in
parliament on the 6th of May 1844 : " Two departments of the bank
will be constituted: one for the issue of notes, .the other for the
transaction of the ordinary business of banking. The bullion now
in the possession of the bank will be transferred to the issue depart-
ment. The issue of notes will be restricted to an issue of 14,000,000
upon securities the remainder beingissueduponbullionandgoverned
in amount by the fluctuations in the stock of bullion." The bank was
required to issue weekly returns in a specified form (previously to
the act of 1844 it was necessary only to publish every month a
balance-sheet lor the previous quarter), and the first of such returns
was issued on the 7th of September 1844. The old form of return
contained merely a statement of the liabilities and assets of the
bank, but in the new form the balance-sheets of the Issue Depart-
ment and the Banking Department are shown separately. A copy
of the weekly return in both the old and new forms will be found in
A History of the Bank of England, p. 290, by A. Andreades (Eng.
trans., 1909) ; see also R: H. f. Palgrave, Bank Rate and the Money
Market, p. 297.
One result of the division of the accounts of the bank into two
departments is that, if through any circumstance the Bank of
England be called on for a larger sum in notes or specie than the
notes held in its banking department (technically spoken of as the
" Reserve ") amount to, permission has to be obtained from the
government to "suspend the -Bank Act" in order to allow the
demand to be met, whatever the amount of specie in the " issue
department " may be. Three times since the passing of the Bank
Act during the crises of 1847, 1857 and 1866 authority has been
given for the suspension of that act. On one of these dates only,
in 1857, the limits of the act were exceeded; on the other two
occasions the fact that the permission had been given stayed the
alarm. It should be remembered, whenever the act of 184^. is
criticized, that since it came into force there has been no anxiety
as to payment in specie of the note circulation; but the division
of the specie held into two parts is an arrangement not
Bank rate. w j{ nou { disadvantages. Certainly since the act of 1844
became law, the liability to constant fluctuations in the Bank's
rate of discount one main characteristic of the English money
market has greatly increased. To charge the responsibility of the
increase in the number of those fluctuations on the Bank Act alone
would not be justifiable, but the working of the act appears to have
an influence in that direction, as the effect of the act is to cut
the specie reserve held by the bank into two parts and to cause the
smaller of these parts to receive the whole strain of any demands
either for notes or for specie. Meanwhile the demands on the
English money market are greater and more continuous than those
on any other money market in the world. Of late years the changes
in the bank rate have been frequent, and the fluctuations even in
ordinary years very severe. From the day when the act came into
operation in 1844, to the close of the year 1906, there had been more
than 400 changes in the rate. The hopes which Sir Robert Peel
expressed in 1844, that after the act came into force commercial
crises would cease, have not been realized.
The number of changes in the bank rate from 1876' to 1906 in
England, France, Germany, Holland and Belgium were as follows:
England. France. Germany. Holland. Belgium.
183 27 no 55 77
There has been frequent discussion among bankers and occasion-
ally with the government as to the advantage it might be to grant
the Bank of England an automatic power to augment the note issue
on securities when necessary, similar to that possessed by the Bank
of Germany (Reichsbank). One of the hindrances to the success of
such a plan has been that the government, acting on the advice
1 The date 1876 is taken as being that when the Imperial Bank of
Germany came into full operation.
of the treasury, required an extremely high rate of interest, of which
it would reap the advantage, to be paid on the advances made under
these conditions. Those who made these suggestions did not bear
in mind that the mere fact of so high a rate of interest being
demanded intensifies the panic, a high rate being associated as a
rule with risks in business. The object of the arrangement made
between the Reichsbank and the treasury of the empire of Germany
is a different one to provide the banking accommodation required
and to prevent panic, hence a rate of only 5 % has been generally
charged, though in 1899 the rate was 7 % for a short time. As is
often the case in business, a moderate rate has been accompanied by
higher profit. The duty on the extra issue between 1881, when the
circulation of the Bank of Germany first exceeded the authorized
limit, and the close of the year 1906 amounted to 839,052. Thus
a considerable sum was provided for the relief of taxation, while
business proceeded on its normal course. The proposal made by
Mr Lowe (afterwards Lord Sherbrooke) in 1873 was to charge 12 %,
a rate which presupposes panic. Hence the negotiations came to
nothing. Theact of 1844 remains unaltered. The issue on securities
allowed by it to the Bank of England was originally 14,000,000.
This has since been increased under the provisions of the act to
18,450,000 (29th March 1901). Hence against the notes issued by
the bank less gold by 4,450,000 is now held by the bank than would
have been the case had the arrangements as to the securities re-
mained as they were in 1844.
The Bank of England has, from the date of its establishment,
possessed a practical, though perhaps not an absolutely legal,
monopoly of issuing notes in London. It became gradually
surrounded by a circle of private banks, some of considerable power.
The state papers included in F. G. Hilton Price's Handbook
of London Bankers (1876) contain some of the earliest records
about the establishment of banking in England. The
first of these is a petition, printed in the original Italian,
to Queen Elizabeth, of Christopher Hagenbuck and his banking.
partners in November 1581, representing " that he had
found out a method and form in which it will be possible to
institute an office into which shall enter every year a very
large sum of money without expense to your Majesty," so
" that not only your Majesty will be able to be always provided
with whatever notable sum of money your Majesty may wish,
but by this means your State and people also; and it shall keep
the country in abundance and remove the extreme usuries that
devour your Majesty and your people." Hagenbuck proposed
to explain his plan on condition that he should receive ''6%
every year of the whole mass of money " received by the office
for twenty years. The queen agreed " to grant to the said
Christopher and partners 4 % for a term of twenty years, and
to confirm the said grant under the great seal." The document is
signed by Francis Walsingham, but nothing further appears to
have come of it. When we compare the date of this document
with that of the establishment of the Banco della Piazza di Rialto
at Venice, it is not unlikely that the idea of the establishment of
a bank was floating in the minds of people connected with business
and had become familiar to Hagenbuck from commerce with
Venice. Other state papers in 1621 and 1622 and again in 1662
and 1666 contain somewhat similar proposals which however
were never carried into practice.
The little London Directory, 1677, contains a list of goldsmiths
mentioned as keeping " running cashes." Of these firms de-
scribed in 1677, five houses were carrying on business in 1876.
Three of these, or firms immediately descended from them,
Child & Co. of Temple Bar, Martin & Co. of Lombard Street
(as Martin's Bank, Ltd.), and Hoare & Co. of Fleet Street,
are still carrying on business. Barnetts, Hoare & Co. and
Willis, Percival & Co. have been absorbed since 1876, the first
by Lloyds Bank (1884), the second by the Capital and Counties
(1878). Many of the goldsmiths carried on a considerable
business. Thus the books of Edward Blackwell, who was an
eminent goldsmith and banker in the reign of Charles II., show
that the king himself, the queen mother, Henrietta Maria,
James, duke of York, the prince of Orange, Samuel Pepys, the
East India Company, the Goldsmiths' Company and other city
companies did business with him. Sir John Houblon, the first
governor of the Bank of England, kept an account with Blackwell,
who was, however, ruined by the closing of the exchequer in
1672. But his son married into the family of Sir Francis Child,
and his grandsons became partners in Child's Bank.
BRITISH]
BANKS AND BANKING
337
Besides the banks in London already mentioned, one in the
provinces claims to have been established before the Bank of
England. Smiths' of Nottingham, since amalgamated with the
Union of London Bank, is stated to have been founded in 1688.
Others also claim considerable antiquity. The old Bank of
Bristol (Bailey, Cave & Co.) was founded in 1750; the business
amalgamated with Prescott & Co., Ltd., of London. The
Hull Old Bank (Pease & Co.) dated from 1754; this business
also still continues (amalgamated, 1894, with the York Union
Banking Co., Ltd., and since with Barclay & Co., Ltd.).
The banks of Gurney & Co., established at the end of the
1 8th century in the eastern counties, have with numerous
other banks of similar standing amalgamated with the firm of
Barclay & Co., Ltd., of Lombard Street.
The business of banking had been carried on by the gold-
smiths of the city, who took deposits from the time of James I.
onwards, and thus established " deposit-banking " as early as
that reign. This is described in a pamphlet published in 1676,
entitled The Mystery of the New-Fashioned Goldsmiths or Bankers
Discovered, quoted by Adam Anderson in his History of the Great
Commercial Interests of the British Empire, vol. ii. p. 402. During
the Civil War " the goldsmiths or new-fashioned bankers began
to receive the rents of gentlemen's estates remitted to town, and
to allow them and others who put cash into their hands some
interest for it, if it remained but for a single month in their hands,
or even a lesser time. This was a great allurement for people to
put their money into their hands, which Would bear interest till
the day they wanted it. And they could also draw it out by
100 or 50, &c., at a time, as they wanted it, with infinitely
less trouble than if they had lent it out on either real or
personal security. The consequence was that it quickly brought
a great quantity of Cash into their hands; so that the chief or
greatest of them were now enabled to supply Cromwell with
money in advance on the revenues as his occasion required, upon
great advantage to themselves."
The Bank of England, as stated before, was incorporated by
the act of 1694. The position of the other banks at that time
was denned by that act and the act of 1697, which declared that
no bank, that is, no joint-stock bank, was " to be established
within England during the continuance of the Bank of England,"
and also by the act of 1708, which provided that " during the
continuance of the Bank of England, no company or partnership
exceeding six persons in England " should " borrow, owe or take
up any sum or sums of money on their bills or notes payable on
demand or at any less time than six months from the borrowing
thereof." This was confirmed by the act of 1800. No change
of importance was made till the act of 1826, which prohibited
" bank notes under 5," and the second Banking Act of that
year which allowed the establishment of co-partnerships
of more than six persons, which necessarily were joint-stock
companies, beyond 65 m. from London. The act of 1833 allowed
the establishment of joint-stock banks within the 65 m. limit, and
took away various restrictions of the amounts of notes for less
than 50. But the power of issuing notes was not allowed to
joint-stock banks within the 65 m. radius.
In the early days in England, issuing notes formed, as Bagehot
says in his Lombard Street, the introduction to the system of
deposit-banking so much so, that a bank which had not the
power of issuing notes could scarcely exist out of London.
Bank notes in England originated in goldsmiths' notes.
Goldsmiths received deposits of moneys and gave notes or
receipts for such moneys payable on demand. The
London bankers continued to give their customers
notes or deposit-receipts for the sums left by them
until about 1781, when in lieu of such notes they gave them
books of cheques. Before the invention of cheque-books,
the practice of issuing notes was considered so essentially the
main feature of banking, that a prohibition of issue was con-
sidered an effectual bar against banking. Accordingly the
prohibitory clause in the act of 6 Anne, c. 50, 1707 (in Record
edition), which was repeated in the Bank of England Act 1708,
7 Anne, c. 30, 66 (in Record edition), prohibiting more than six
Bunk
notes.
persons from issuing promissory notes, was intended to prevent
any bank being formed with more than six partners, and was so
understood at the time; and it did have the effect of preventing
any joint-stock bank being formed.
The prohibition, as already related, was modified in the year
1826 and removed in 1833. Even then the privilege of limitation
of liability was not permitted to any other bank but the Bank of
England. The result was that when joint-stock banks were first
formed many persons of good means were kept back from
becoming shareholders, that is to say partners, in banks. For up
to the date of the act of 1862 permitting " limited liability,"
every shareholder in a joint-stock bank was liable to' the extent
of the whole of his means (see the article COMPANY). Even as
late as 1858 when the Western Bank of Scotland and 1878 when
the City of Glasgow Bank failed, very great hardship was
inflicted on many persons who had trusted with over confidence
to the management of those banks. The failure of the City of
Glasgow Bank was the cause of the Companies Act of 1879,
passed to enable unlimited companies to adopt limited Liability.
In limited companies the shareholder who has paid up the
nominal amount of his holding is not liable for any further
amount, unless the company issues bank notes, in which case the
shareholders are liable in the same way as if the company were
registered as an unlimited company. The facilities allowed by
this act were used by almost every joint-stock bank in the United
Kingdom except those banks which were at that date limited by
charter or by special act.
To return to the early history of banking thus, as no bank
could be formed with more than six partners during the whole of
the period from 1694 to 1826 and 1833, the majority
of the banks formed throughout England and Wales
for more than a century were necessarily small and
usually isolated firms. Further, when a partner died, his capital
not infrequently went out of the business; then a fresh partner
with sufficient means had to be found, constant change was the
result, and confidence, " a plant of slow growth," could not
thrive, except in those instances when a son or a relation filled
the vacancy.
The banks in the country districts had frequently branches
in the small market-towns close to them; those in London
had never more than one office. These banks were sometimes
powerful and generally well managed, a considerable number
being established by members of the Society of Friends.
The restriction of partners in private banks to the number of
six continued till 1862. By the act of that year they were
allowed to be ten. This power, however, did not extend to
issuing private banks, which were restricted to six partners as
before. The power of increasing bank partnerships to ten has
been made but little use of. The difficulties of carrying on
business on a large scale by private firms were augmented by
certain legal technicalities which practically rendered large
private banks impossible in ordinary circumstances. Hence
banking business did not begin to assume its present form till
almost half-way through the igth century. The gradual change
followed the passing of the acts of 1826-1833, of 1844-1845, of
1862 and of 1879. Incidentally the act of 1844 had an unex-
pected influence on the constitution of the banking system.
After favouring the existence of small banks for many years, it
gradually led, as the time arrived when the establishment of
large and powerful banks in England and Wales became neces-
sary, to their formation. No new bank of issue whatever was
allowed to be established restrictions were placed on the
English issuing banks private issuing banks with not more
than six partners were allowed to remain, to amalgamate with
other private issuing banks and to retain their joint issues.
The joint-stock banks which possessed issues were also allowed
to continue these, but when two joint-stock banks amalgamated,
the continuing bank only retained its issue. Also when a private
issuing bank was formed into or joined a joint-stock bank, the
issue lapsed.
The greater number of the provincial banks in England and
Wales had been banks of issue up to 1844. The act of 1844
338
BANKS AND BANKING
[BRITISH
restricted their power of issuing notes, which at that date and
even subsequently continued to be of importance to them, in
such a manner that, as Sir R. H. Inglis Palgrave stated in giving
evidence before the committee of the House of Commons at the
banking inquiry of 1875, these banks possessed in their issues a
property they could use, but were not able to sell. The statistics
forming part of Appendix 14 to the report of the select committee
of the House of Commons on banks of issue (1875) give interesting
information as to the proportion of notes in circulation to the
deposits of banks in various districts of the country and at
various dates. The statements were supplied by twenty-one
banks, some in agricultural districts, some in places where
manufactures flourished, some in mixed districts, commercial
and agricultural, or industrial and manufacturing. In all of
these, the inquiry being carried as far back as 1844, the propor-
tion of the circulation to the banking deposits had greatly
diminished in recent years. In several cases the deposits had
increased three-fold in the time. In one case it was five times
as large, in another nearly seven times, in another nearly twelve
and a half times. The proportion of the circulation to the
deposits had very largely diminished in that time. In one
instance, from being about one-third of the deposits, at which
proportion it had remained for five years consecutively, it fell
to 9% at the end of the term. In another from being 22% it
had diminished to i % of the total. In all cases where the
detail was given it had diminished greatly.
The Bank Act of 1844 was arranged with the intention of
concentrating the note issues on the Bank of England in order to
secure the monopoly of that bank as the one issuer in England
and Wales. The result was that nearly all the provincial banks
in England had by 1906 lost the right of issue. Doubtless all
were destined to do so before long, a result by which banking in
England and the industries of the country must lose the advan-
tage which the local issues have been to Scotland and Ireland.
Had the English country banks been allowed, as the Scottish
banks were, to associate together and to retain their issues,
powerful banks would many years since have been established
throughout England and Wales, and the amalgamations of
recent years would have been carried through at a much
earlier date, and on terms much more favourable to the
public.
No security was ever required to be given for the local issues
in the United Kingdom. The provisions of the acts of 1844-
1845 which compel the Irish and Scottish banks to hold
s P ec ' e against the notes issued beyond the legal limit,
^0 not ma ^e the coin held a security for them. The
legislation of 1879 which made the note issues a first
charge, with unlimited liability, on the total assets of the joint-
stock banks which accepted the principle of limited liability for
the rest of their business, has been the only recognition by the
state of the duty to the note-holders of rendering them secure.
It has been a real disadvantage to England that this duty has
never been sufficiently recognized, and that the provincial note
issue, which is a very convenient power for a bank to possess,
and incidentally a considerable advantage to its customers, has
been swept away without any attempt being made to remedy its
deficiencies. There may be objections raised to a note circulation
secured by the bonds of the government, but the security
of the note issues of the national banks of the United
States made against such bonds, has scarcely ever been
questioned.
A different policy was followed by Sir Robert Peel in Scotland
and in Ireland from that which he established in England. By
the acts of 1844-1845 the Scottish and Irish banks were allowed
to exceed their authorized issues on holding specie to the amount
of the excess, and no restrictions were placed on amalgamations
among banks in these countries. In Scotland and in Ireland
notes for less than 5 continued to be allowed. The result has
been that the ten large banks in Scotland, and six of the nine
banks in Ireland, possess the power of issuing notes. The large
proportion of local branches in these countries has been greatly
assisted by this power.
issue.
Originally, besides the Bank of England, nearly all the provincial
banks in England and Wales possessed the privilege of issue. These
banks continued their operations as previously during
the time while the Bank Act was discussed in parliament. * m
When the arrangements which that act created were made '
public, nine banks, of which eight were private and one '
was a joint-stock bank, ceased to issue their notes prior to the
I2th of October 1844, when the act came into operation. Of these,
the Western District Joint-Stock Banking Co. was dissolved, one
of the private banks was closed, the remaining seven issued Bank
of England notes and were allowed certain privileges for doing this.
By the act of 1844 the maximum circulation of the English issuing
banks was fixed at the average circulation of the twelve weeks before
the 27th of April 1844.
The number of the banks to which the privilege of circulation
was then allowed and the amount of notes permitted were, in
England :
207 private banks with an authorized issue of . . 5,153,417
72 joint-stock banks with an authorized issue of . . 3,478,230
8,631,647
The actual circulation of the country in October 1844 was as
follows :
Notes in Circulation. The monthly return of the circulation
ending the I2th of October 1844 (stamps and taxes, 25th October) :
England.
Bank of England 20,228,800
Private banks ...... 4,674,162
Joint-stock banks 3.331. 5i6
Scotland.
Chartered, private and joint-stock banks
Ireland.
Bank of Ireland ....
Private and joint-stock banks
Total
2,987,665
3,597.850
2,456,261
37,276,254
In May 1907 the number and amounts were reduced to :
Authorized Issue. Actual Issue.
12 Private banks . . 482,744 '22,536
17 Joint-stock banks . . 1,084,836 437,693
The reason why the actual circulation of these banks is so far
below the authorized issue is that under existing circumstances their
circulation can only extend over a very limited area. The notes of
country banks are now almost unknown except in the immediate
neighbourhood of the places where they are issued; though they
may all be payable in London, yet there is often considerable
difficulty in getting them cashed.
The average circulation in 1906 was as follows:
Bank of England . . 28,890,000
Private banks . . . 124,000
Joint-stock banks . . . 429,000
Total in England . . . 29,443,000
Scotland 7,477,000
Ireland ... . . 6,452,000
Total in United Kingdom . . 43,372,000
This shows an apparent increase of more than 6,000,000 since 1844.
The decrease of the country circulation in England and the increase
01 the Scottish and Irish circulations may be set off against each
other. The increase is mainly in the notes of the Bank of England.
In 1844 the number of banking offices in England and Wales was
976, while in 1906 there were more than 5880. Each of these offices
must hold some till-money, and of this Bank of England notes
almost always form a part. Hence it is probable that a large part
of the increase in the circulation of the Bank of England since 1844
is held in the tills of the banks in England and Wales, and that the
active note circulation of the United Kingdom is but little larger
than it was.
It may be added that the government received from the note
circulation for a typical year (ending 5th of April 1904), out of the
profits of issue (Bank of England) 184,930, 2s. 2d., and also com-
position for the duties on the bills and notes of the banks of England
and Ireland and of country bankers, 120,768, i8s. 6d.
In 1906 the banking business of England was carried on practi-
cally by about ten private and sixty joint-stock banks of which
more than one was properly a private firm under a joint-stock form
of organization. Though the number of individual banks had
diminished, the offices had greatly increased.
The records of the numbers of banks in the United Kingdom have
up to quite recent years been very imperfect. Such as exist were
made by individual observers. The banks of England and Wales
are believed to have been 350 in number in 1792. Those registered
from 1826 to 1842 were:
BRITISH]
BANKS AND BANKING
339
Private. Joint-stock.
'826 ... 554
1827 ... 465 6
1833 . 4'6 35
1842 . . 311 us
The number of banking offices in England and Wales was esti
mated by Mr. William Leatham in 184035 being 697. The Banking
Almanac for 1845 gives the number in 1844 for England and Wales
as 336 private bank offices and 640 joint-stock offices, Scotland
368 offices, Ireland 180 offices.
The number of inhabitants to each office was as follows in 1844
and 1906:
Number of Bank-
ing Offices.
Number of
Inhabitants to
each Office.
England and Wales
Isle of Man
Scotland ....
Ireland ....
1844.
976
368
1 80
1906.
5527
1180
777
1844.
16,305
7,120
45.417
1906.
5885
2417
379
5738
In United Kingdom
1524
7507
17.526
5530
In the latter years of the l8th century and the early years of the
igth, the note circulation was a very important part of the business,
but about that date the deposits began to be, as they have continued
since, far more important. It is unfortunately impossible to give
any trustworthy statistics of the position of banking in the United
Kingdom extending back for more than forty or fifty years. Even
the Scottish banks, who have been less reticent as to their position
than the English banks, did not publish their accounts generally
till 1865. The figures of the total deposits and cash balances in the
Irish joint-stock banks -were published collectively from the year
1840 by the care of Dr Neilson Hancock, but it is only of quite recent
years that any statement of the general position other than an esti-
mate has been possible owing to the long-continued reluctance of
many banks to allow any publication of their balance-sheets. A
paper by W. Newmarch, printed in the Journal of the Statistical
Society for 1 851 , supplies the earliest basis for a trustworthy estimate.
According to this the total amount of deposits, including the Bank
of England, in England and Wales, Scotland and Ireland, may have
been at that date from 250,000,000 to 360,000,000. The estimate
in Palgrave's Notes on Banking (1872), excluding deposits in dis-
count nouses and the capitals of banks, was from 430,000,000 to
450,000,000. The corresponding amounts at the close of 1906 were,
in round figures, including acceptances &c., 997,000,000. The total
resources, including capitals and reserves and note circulation (in
round figures 177,500,000), were for 1906:
England and Wales
Bank of England and other banks. 922,297,000
Scotland 135,042,000
Ireland 73,707,000
Isle of Man . ... 898,000
1,131,944,000
The progressive growth in bank deposits since it has been possible
to keep a record of their amounts, affords some means of checking
roughly the correctness of the estimates of 1851 and 1872. Broadly
speaking, it may be said that the bank deposits of the United
Kingdom have about doubled since 1872.
The purely city banks had associated themselves in a " Clearing
House " certainly by 1776. An entry in the books of the Grass-
ciearing. hopper, 1 namely " 1773 to quarterly charge for use
of the Clearing-room of io/6d.," points to an earlier
and perhaps less definitely organized system of settlement. A
house was taken for the purpose in 1810, in which year the
number of banking houses who settled their accounts with each
other at the " Clearing House " was forty-six (Gilbart's History
and Principles of Banking, p. 78). The Bank of England has
never been a member of the Clearing House, though it " clears
on one side," i.e. its claim on the clearing bankers is made
through the Clearing House, but the claims of the clearing
bankers on the bank are forwarded direct to Threadneedle Street
twice or thrice daily. Nor did the banks in Fleet Street or at
Charing Cross belong to it. In 1858 the clearing of country
cheques was added through arrangements made by Lord Avebury,
then Sir John Lubbock. The " country clearing " is a great
assistance to business, as it enables a cheque drawn on the most
distant village in England to be dealt with as conveniently as a
cheque on London. Of the forty-nine banks in London in
1 " The Grasshopper " in Lombard Street, by John Biddulph
Masters (1892).
1844, twenty-six were connected with the Clearing House. At
that time only private banks were allowed to be members. In
1854 the joint-stock banks made their way into that body, and
in 1906 the numbers were one private bank and eighteen joint-
stock banks who joined in the clearing nineteen banks in all.
Practically at the present time every large transaction in the
United Kingdom is settled by cheque, that is, by a series of ledger
transfers, notes and specie being but the small change by which
the fractional amounts are paid. A large proportion of these
transactions are arranged through the operation of the London
Clearing House. This is facilitated by the fact that every bank
in the United Kingdom has an agent in London.
The annual circulation shown by the London Clearing House
13 u m - ore than j I2 .ooo,ooo,ooo. No one asks what stock of
gold is held by the bank on which the cheques are drawn, or what
the bank itself keeps in reserve. The whole is taken in faith on a
well-founded trust. It is the most easily worked paper circulation
and circulating medium in existence. Like the marvellous tent
of the fairy Paribanou, it expands itself to meet every want and
contracts again the moment the strain is passed. (See the article by
R. H. Inglis Palgrave on " Gold and the Banks," Quarterly Review,
January 1906.)
If we add to the returns of the London Clearing House those of
the clearing houses in the large towns of England, Ireland and
Scotland, and the numerous exchanges which occur daily, and the
large number which the different offices of banks with a great many
branches settle among themselves, and the number drawn by one
customer of a bank and paid to another, we may form some notion
of the vast amount of the yearly turnover in cheques. This may be
roughly estimated to be at least twice as great as that registered
by the London Clearing House. The earliest authentic statement
as to the clearing is found in the Appendix to the Second Report,
Committee of House of Commons, Banks of Issue (1841).
In 1839 the figures of the London clearings
were 954.4i .600, 29 banks.
In 1840 ,, 978,496,800, 29
In 1899 ,, 9,150,269,000, 19
In 1900 ,, ,, 8,960,170,000, 19
In 1906 12,711,334,000, 18
In 1695, shortly after the establishment of the Bank of England,
the Scottish parliament passed an act for the establishment of a
public bank. Amongst the first names is that of
Thomas Coutts, a name still commemorated in one
of the most substantial banks in London. The
terms of the establishment were more favourable than those
connected with the establishment of the Bank of England,
for they obtained the exclusive privilege of banking for twenty-
one years without giving any consideration whatever. It may
have been the natural caution of the country, or the fact that
William III. was then king, which led to the Bank of Scotland
being prohibited under a heavy penalty from lending money
under any circumstances to the king. It is the only Scottish
bank established by act of parliament. The directors began at
a very early period to receive deposits and to allow interest
thereon, also to grant cash credit accounts, a minute of the
directors respecting the mode of keeping the latter being dated
so far back as 1729.
Though the system of branches forms now so marked a feature
of banking in Scotland, a good many years had to pass before
they obtained any hold. It was not till about the year 1700 that
the directors of the Bank of Scotland established branches at
lasgow, Aberdeen, Dundee and Montrose, but so little encourage-
ment was given to these branches, the expenses far exceeding the
irofits arising from them, that the directors resolved to close
them. In 1731 another attempt was made, and agencies were
stablished at Glasgow, Aberdeen and Dundee. But after a trial
of two years they were discontinued. It was not till 1774 that
jranches were again established by the bank.
Soon after the establishment of the Bank of Scotland the
directors began to issue notes, or, as they were then called, bills
or tickets, for 100, 50, 20, 10, and 5. In 1704 i notes
were issued for the first time. In 1727 the Royal Bank of
Scotland was established by a charter of incorporation, which
granted them " perpetual succession and a common seal."
There was a great rivalry between the two companies. The
British Linen Company was incorporated in 1746 for the
Scottish
bank*.
340
BANKS AND BANKING
[BRITISH
purpose of undertaking the manufacture of linen, but by 1763
they found it best to confine their operations to banking trans-
actions. Thisfoank also was incorporated by charter.
The note circulation was always an important item in the
Scottish banks. Thus in the case of the Bank of Dundee, the
receiving money from the public did not commence till 1792.
Up to that time the whole business of the bank from 1764
onwards, twenty-eight years in all, had consisted in its issue of
notes, which had varied from about 23,000 to 56,000. The
Bank of Dundee was amalgamated with the Royal Bank of
Scotland in 1864, when its deposits amounted in round figures to
700,000 and its note circulation to 41,000. After 1792, the
money deposited with the banks in Scotland rapidly increased,
but the habit of hoarding savings in a chest up to amounts of
10 or 20 continued to a much later period (History of the Dundee
Banking Co.).
Private banking never appears to have had any considerable
hold in Scotland. In 1819 eight private banks were in existence.
These had all disappeared by 1844. In 1906 there were only ten
banks of issue in Scotland, which practically carried on the whole
business of the country. There were two other small banks
established comparatively recently. These ten banks had, in
1906, 1180 branches.
The history of the growth and expansion of Scottish banking
since 1826 is, as far as can be traced, as follows:
Date.
Deposits.
Number of Offices.
1826
2 1 ,000,000
167 = 1
to every 13,170
inhabitants.
1841
27,000,000
380 = 1
6,600
,,
1856
( 63,000,000 )
( and capital \
585 = 1
5.23<>
1872
(92,000,000 1
including all I
liabilities
790 = 1
4.250
and capital J
1906
(135,042,000 1
including all !
liabilities
1,180 = 1
3.790
M
and capital J
Against every note issued in excess of the limit allowed by the
acts of 1844-1845, gold has to be held at the offices of the issuing
banks in Scotland and Ireland. The amount of the specie to be thus
held was, as explained by Sir Robert Peel in his speech of the 25th of
April 1845, to b 6 ascertained by the average amount of the note-
issue for four weeks preceding. The object of the holding of this
amount of specie by the bank which issued the notes was designed
by Sir Robert Peel to cause the circulating medium of the country,
being partly of notes and partly of specie, to fluctuate in the same
manner as if it had been a metallic circulation only. The specie
held in Scotland and Ireland against the note-issue is not a special
security for the note circulation, but is placed in the banks there for
this purpose. The influence ascribed to the working of the note
circulation in the earlier part of the I9th century accounts for this
legislation, which, as Sir Robert Peel stated in his speech of the
6th of May 1844, was intended to " ensure the uniform equivalency
of bank notes to coin." It is not applicable to the present position
of the circulating medium of the United Kingdom, which now con-
sists mainly of a circulation of cheques. This differs absolutely from
what was contemplated by Sir Robert Peel; no attempt is or can
be made to cause such a paper circulation to fluctuate as if it were
one of specie only. One result of the limitation of the power of note-
issue to the banks in Scotland which possessed that power in 1845
has been that no important bank has been established in that
country since. Notes are so largely employed in ordinary business
in Scotland that a bank which does not possess the power, practically
cannot carry on business and supply the needs of its customers.
This limitation in the number of the banks has, however, not been
accompanied by any deficiency in the supply of banking accommo-
dation to the people. There is a larger number of banking offices
in proportion to the population in Scotland than in England and
Wales or Ireland.
The large number of branches must, however, be a cause of great
expense, and in several other respects it is obvious that a business
carried on in such thinly peopled districts as are found in many parts
of Scotland, must be conducted at a disadvantage in comparison
with those banks which deal with more active centres of commerce.
Although the profit derived from their large issue of notes may be
thought to be considerable, yet, when we consider the many expenses
incurred in conducting a large note circulation, the cost of printing,
stamp duty, and the charges on importing gold from London when
the circulation exceeds the limit fixed by the act of 1845, no small
deductions must be made from the apparent profit to be derived
from this head, if there is any direct profit at all.
On the other hand, the great number of branches possessed by the
Scottish banks tends beyond doubt to their stability and prosperity.
The network of banks on the surface of Scotland is as important to
the development of the prosperity of the country as the network of
the railways. It has caused a great economy of capital, as the
universal practice of people, even of the most moderate means, is to
lodge their money with the banks.
The early history of banking in Ireland was marked by
legislation even less favourable to the formation of a steady
and dependable system than in England, and in 1695
several of the principal merchants in Dublin met to- banks
gether for the purpose of forming a public bank for
Ireland on the model of the Bank of England. For many years
this proposal met with no favour. It was not till 1783 that the
Bank of Ireland was established and commenced its business.
The first governor was David La Touche, junior, and two other
members of his family were amongst the first board of directors.
The bank met with very great success, but the jealousy against
rival establishments was extreme. By the act forming the Bank
of Ireland it was enacted that no company or society exceeding
six in number, except the Bank of Ireland, should borrow or take
up money on their bills or notes payable on demand. In the
year 1821 the act was so far modified as to permit the establish-
ment of banking companies exceeding six in number at a distance
of 50 m. from Dublin. In 1824, in consequence of the ambiguity
of that act, an act had to be passed to explain it. It was not till
1845 that the restriction as to the so-m. limit was withdrawn.
The establishment of any other bank but the Bank of Ireland
was for a long time hindered by the legislation on the subject.
Some of the restrictions were so extraordinary that it will be
interesting to refer to three of the more important acts.
1741, 15 Geo. II. Partnerships authorized for the purpose
of trade and manufacture; but such partnerships were not to
exceed nine in number, nor was the capital stock of such co-
partnership to exceed, at ant time, the sum of 10,000.
1780-1781, 21 and 22 Geo. III. " Anonymous Partnership
Act," limited liability not to exceed 50,000, but " business
of banking or discounters of money " expressly excluded.
I 759> 33 Geo. II. By this act a person while he continued
a banker could not make a marriage settlement on a son or
daughter, a grandson or granddaughter, so as to be good against
his creditors, though for a valuable consideration, and though
such creditors were not creditors at the time the grant was
made. This act gave power to creditors over all conveyances
by bankers affecting real estates; and all dispositions after the
loth of May 1760 by bankers of real or leasehold interest therein
to or for children were made void as against creditors, though
for valuable consideration and though not creditors at the time.
No banker to issue notes or receipts bearing interest after the
loth of May 1760. Some of these enactments appear to be in
force at the present day; suggestions have been made, though
apparently unsuccessfully, for their repeal.
So extraordinary were the views of the common people that
a banker in Dublin of the name of Beresford having made himself
very unpopular, a " large assemblage of ignorant country people
having previously collected a quantity of Beresford's notes,
publicly burnt them, crying out with enthusiasm while the
promises to pay on demand were consuming, 'What will he do
now; his bank will surely break.' "
The number of banks which failed in Ireland in earlier times
was extraordinary; thus Sir Robert Peel in his speech of the 9th
of June 1845 on the Bank Act of that year, made a quotation
" from the report of the committee of Irish exchanges, which sat
in 1804. At that period there were fifty registered banks, but
they all failed, and their failures, I know personally, led to the
most fearful distress." Since the legislation of 1845, however,
the business has been carried on with equally extraordinary
steadiness and success, and at the present time is on a footing
fully equal to that of any other part of the United Kingdom.
The earlier history of banking in Ireland pursued very closely
the same process of development as in England. Circulation pre-
ceded and fed deposits. The credit which the banks obtained
BRITISH]
BANKS AND BANKING
by the ready acceptance of their notes brought customers to
their counters, and thus the existing system, fortunate in
excellent managers, was built up gradually and surely.
Alone in the three kingdoms, Ireland maintains the same
limit of authorized circulation as that established by Peel's
Act of 1845. Not one of the six banks which had the privilege
of issue at that period has lost it since.
The names of the banks carrying; on business in Ireland, the years
when they were established and their position in 1906, are as
follows :
CAPITAL OF IRISH JOINT-STOCK BANKS IN 1906
Name of Bank and Year when
established.
Capital
paid-up.
Rate of
Dividend
per annum.
Bank of Ireland . 1783 .
Hibernian Bank* . 1824 .
Provincial Bank . 1825
Northern Banking 0.1825
Belfast Banking Co. 1827 .
National Bank . . 1835
UUter Banking Co. . 1836 .
Royal Bank* . . 1836 .
Munster Bank, Ltd.* 1864 .
2,769,230
500,000
540,000
500,000
500,000
1,500,000
500,000
300,000
200,000
ii
10
20
,8J
36
8
18
12
8
Hanking
crises.
* Thus marked are not banks of issue.
Banking, like every other business, has to pass through periods
of difficulty. The severity of these in the case of banking is
intensified by the vast number of interests affected.
These, on the one hand, are world- wide in their scope,
on the other they touch every home in the country.
The stringency of such a time in England has since the passing
of the act of 1844 been greatly enhanced bya doubt being some-
times felt as to whether a relaxation of the act of 1844 would be
allowed. In any case, some little time must elapse before the
assent of the ministers of the crown to the request of the Bank
of England can be known. Since 1844 there have been five
periods of pressure, during 1847, 1857, 1866, 1870 and
1890. Of these in three, 1847, 1857 and 1866, the difficulties
reached panic.
The crisis of 1847 was brought on by the speculation in railway
enterprise which had gone on since 1845. So little had the
anxieties of the autumn been anticipated that the bank rate
of discount was 3 % on the ist of January. It was raised to
3rJ % on the i4th and to 4 % on the 2ist. It became 5 % on
8th April, si % on 5th August, 6 % on 3oth September and
8 % on 25th October. This was the highest. It was lowered to
7 % on zand November, on and December to 6 % and on
23rd December to 5 %. An announcement was made on the
ist of October that no advances would be made on public
securities. This was followed by general anxiety and alarm.
The reserve of the bank was rapidly reduced to a very low
ebb.
Bank of England Reserve of Specie.
1847, i6th October .... 3,070,000
23rd October . . 1,990,000
,, 3Oth October .... 1,600,000
Meanwhile the anxiety and alarm prevailing were causing a
general hoarding of coin and bank notes, and it really appeared
not unlikely that the banking department of the Bank of England
might be compelled to stop payment while there was more than
6,000,000 of specie in the issue department. The chancellor of
the exchequer (Sir C. Wood, afterwards Lord Halifax) was urged
by many deputations and remonstrances to relax the Bank Act,
but he declined. At last, on the 22nd or 23rd of October, some
of the leading city bankers had an interview with the prime
minister (Lord John, afterwardvS Earl, Russell), and on their
explaining the necessities of the position, the desired relaxation
was given. The official letter (25111 October) recommended
" the directors of the Bank of England, in the present emergency,
to enlarge the amount of their discounts and advances upon
approved security." A high rate, 8 %, was to be charged to
keep these operations within reasonable limits; a bill of in-
demnity was promised if the arrangement led to a breach of the
law. The extra profit derived was to be for the benefit of the
public. The effect of the government letter in allaying the
panic was complete.
The crisis of 1857 was the last occasion of an official inquiry.
This is contained in the Report and Evidence of the Select Com-
mittee of the House of Commons on the Bank Acts (1857, 1858).
The evidence given by Mr Sheffield Neave, the governor, and
Mr Bonamy Dobree, deputy-governor of the bank in 1858, gives
a vivid picture not only of what occurred, but of what might be
expected to recur on such occasions. The wildest alarm pre-
vailed, exchequer bills were scarcely saleable, and the bank itself
so 'd 3,000,000 government securities at a considerable loss.
The extreme pressure was relaxed by the letter issued by the
government on the I2th of November 1857, signed by Lord
Palmerston, then premier, and Sir G. C. Lewis, which allowed a
temporary relaxation of the Bank Act of 1844. The public
alarm, however, was so great that it was not until the 2 ist of
November that the severity of the pressure was in any way
diminished. On the 2oth of November the notes issued to the
public on securities beyond the statutory limit (then 14,475,000)
reached the sum of 928,000. By the next week the issue was
almost down to the limit, and in the week following it was within
the limit. On the ist of January 1858 the bank rate was lowered
to 8 % and the anxiety gradually passed away. Had the treasury
letter been issued earlier, the pressure might not have been so
severe, and the governor of the bank expressed a strong opinion
that, if it had been later, it would not have been sufficient.
November 1857 was the only occasion when the limits of the
Bank Act as to issue were actually passed.
During the crisis of May 1866 4,000,000 left the bank on
one day in notes and coin, and the reserve of the bank was
reduced in the return of the ist of June of that year to 415,000.
The bank rate was raised to 10 % and permission was given by
the government to suspend the act. This, however, was not
done. Tradition says that the bank asked the bankers, during
the period of heaviest pressure of that terrible crisis pressure
more severe than anything that had taken place before or that
has occurred since, to pay in every night the notes they had
drawn out in the morning which were still in their tills at the
close of the day, and that hence the legal limit was never ex-
ceeded. But it was not till the 6th of August that the rate was
reduced to 8 %.
The effect of the crisis of October 1890 was far less severe.
This was due to the judgment and skill displayed by the governor
(Mr Lidderdale) and the directors of the bank, who imported
3,000,000 in gold from Paris. The reserve in that year never
dropped below 10,000,000, and before the end of November
the anxiety had greatly passed away. " Caution prevailed, but
not panic, and the distinction is a very clear one." (See arts, on
" Crises," Dictionary of Political Economy, vol. i.)
The most important requirement of banking in the United
Kingdom is still the establishment of an efficient specie reserve.
The reserve in the banking department of the Bank of England
averaged :
8,500,000 in 1845. 11,600,000 in 1875.
8,400,000 in 1855. 15,100,000 in 1885.
8,000,000 in 1865. 29,900,000 in 1895.
23,500,000 in 1906.
This provides but a narrow basis for the whole business re-
quirements of the country. Though much larger than in several
previous years, it cannot be regarded as adequate.
The figures fluctuate more severely than these decen- Tl " "**"
nial averages show, and the progress has not been one quenton.
of uniform increase. Thus the 15, 100,000 in 1885 was
followed by 12,700,000 in 1888. The 29,000.000 of 1895 was
followed by 34,600,000 in 1896 and 21,200,000 in 1899.
Beyond, or side by side with, the reserve of the Bank of England
there are the reserves held by the other banks. Part of these are
held in the form of balances at the Bank of England, part in
specie and bank notes in their own tills. The latter, hence, are
not unlikely to be estimated twice over. The published figures
on this point are meagre.
The expectations expressed by Sir Robert Peel in his speech
342
BANKS AND BANKING
[FRENCH
on the bank charter and the currency of the 6th of May 1844
have not yet been fulfilled. " I rejoice," he said, " on public
grounds, in the hope that the wisdom of parliament will at length
devise measures which shall inspire just confidence in the
medium of exchange, shall put a check on improvident specula-
tions, and shall ensure the just reward of industry and the
legitimate profit of commercial enterprise conducted with
integrity and controlled by provident calculation."
The extreme measures which have been required since the act
of 1844 point out for themselves the necessity for reform.
Three times since the date of the Bank Act of 1844 it has been
needful to give permission for the suspension of that act which
forms the very foundation of the monetary system of Great
Britain. This, whenever it has occurred, has exercised a very
injurious effect on credit abroad, as well as on prosperity at home.
The British money-market, the clearing-house of the world, is,
in consequence of the smallness of its reserve, exposed to
greater fluctuations than that of any other country. These
fluctuations may arise from the need of meeting the requirements
of other countries for specie or those arising from domestic trade.
The recorded excess of imports over exports, 147,000,000 in
1906, though the difference is eventually balanced by the " in-
visible " exports, gives foreign nations at times a power over the
British money-market greater than has ever previously been the
case. The current must always have a tendency to flow outwards ;
this is enhanced by the great increase in the number of foreign
banks which have branches in England. The need of providing
sufficient reserves to meet requirements thus occasioned is obvious.
As regards the banks in which British interests are concerned in
British colonies and other countries we can only speak briefly. It
must not be overlooked that in the Dominion of Canada
** there are 29 banks, many of them large, managed
~f much on the Scottish principle with capitals of nearly
19,000,000 and deposits of about 140,000,000. These
banks have more than 1200 offices. In Australia and New Zealand
there are 24 banks with capitals of nearly 18,000,000 and deposits
of about 130,000,000 Thenumberof offices is nearly 1700. There
are, including the three Presidency banks, about 15 banks doing
business mainly in India in some cases connecting neighbouring
countries and places like Bangkok, Hong-Kong and Zanzibar.
These banks have capitals of more than 5,000,000 and deposits of
fully 36,000,000 and over 210 offices. There are at least 8 banks in
South and West Africa with capitals of nearly 5,000,000, deposits
of nearly 50,000,000 and nearly 370 offices. Tnere are 5 banks,
including the Colonial Bank, in other British territories with capitals
of about 1,000,000 and deposits of 3,300,000, and about 25 offices.
There are thus, besides many private firms doing very considerable
business, more than 80 joint-stock British banks working in
the colonies with capitals amounting to ^8,000,000, deposits
360,000,000 and ( offices 3505. Outside British territories there
are 6 banks, principally in South America, with nearly 4,000,000
capital, 36,000,000 deposits and about 60 offices. There are 6 large
banks doing business principally in the East with more than
6,700,000 capitals, 77,000,000 deposits and 106 offices; and 7
other banks, including Barings, with about 4,500,000 capitals and
22,000,000 deposits. There are thus about 20 British banks doing
business in foreign countries with capitals amounting to 15,200,000,
deposits 135,000,000 and offices 173.
In this statement we have included only the more important
banks, which collectively wield about 63,000,000 capital and more
than ^95,000,000 deposits in all about 560,000,000 of resources
operating at about 3700 offices situated in places as different from
each other and as widely separated as California and Hong-Kong,
Constantinople and New Zealand.
France. In France the first bank of issue, originally called
the Banque Glnfrale, was established in 1716 by John Law, the
author of the Mississippi Scheme and the Sysleme. Law's bank,
which had been converted into the Banque Royale in 1718, and
its notes guaranteed by the king (Louis XV.), came to an end hi
1721; an attempt at reconstruction was made in 1767, but the
bank thus established was suppressed in 1793. Other banks,
some issuing notes, then carried on operations with limited
success, but these never attained any real power. There were
many negotiations on the subject of the establishment of a bank
in 1796. The financial difficulties of the times prevented any
immediate result, but the advice of those engaged in this plan
was of great assistance to Napoleon I., who, aided by his minister
Mollien, founded in 1800 the Bank of France, which has remained
from that time to the present by far the most powerful financial
institution in the country. The objects for which it was estab-
lished were to support the trade and industry of France and to
supply the use of loanable capital at a moderate charge. These
functions it has exercised ever since with great vigour and great
judgment, extending itself through its branches and towns
attached to branches over the whole country. At its establish-
ment and for some time subsequently the operations of the bank
did not extend over the whole of France. Departmental banks
with the privilege of issue had been formed under a law adopted
in 1803. At the close of 1847 there were nine of these banks
existing in as many of the larger towns. In 1848, however, they
were absorbed into the Bank of France, which has since possessed
an exclusive privilege of issue, and in 1863 took over the Bank of
Savoy after that province was united to France.
The Bank of France has successfully surmounted many political
as well as financial troubles both during and since the times of
Napoleon I. The overthrow of the government of Louis Philippe
in 1848, the war with Germany in 1870, the many difficulties that
followed when the Commune reigned in Paris in 1871, the payment
of the war indemnity not completed till 1873 were all happily
overcome. Great pains, too, have been taken, especially of recent
years, to render services to large and small businesses and to agri-
cultural industry. In 1877 the offices of the Bank of France were
78 in number; in 1906 they were 447, including the towns " con-
nected with the branches " an arrangement which, without putting
the bank to the expense of opening a branch, gives the place con-
nected many of the advantages which a branch confers. The
quantity of commercial paper discounted is very large. More than
20,000,000 bills were discounted in 1906, the total amount being
559,234,996. The advances on securities were in the same year
106,280,124. The rate of discount in Paris is as a rule lower and
the number of alterations fewer than in London. From May 1900
to January 1906 there was no change, the rate remaining uni-
formly at 3 %. Bills as low as 45. 2d. are admitted to discount,
including those below 8s.; about 232,000 of this class were dis-
counted in 1906. Since the 27th of March 1890 loans of as small
an amount as 10 are granted. In most cases three " names " must
be furnished for each bill, or suitable guarantees or security given,
but these necessary safeguards have not to be furnished in such
a manner as to hamper applicants for loans unduly. In this manner
the Bank of France is of great service to the industry of the country.
It has never succeeded, however, in attracting deposits on anything
like the scale of the Bank of England or the banks of the English-
speaking peoples, but it held, as stated in the balance-sheet for the
23rd of December 1906, about 35,000,000 in deposits, of which
14,000,000 was on account of the treasury and 21,000,000 for
individuals, and the amount held in this manner gradually increases.
The report for 1904 says " each year the movement in these in-
creases, and this economical and safe mode of effecting receipts and
payments is more and more appreciated by the public." In one
respect the Bank of France stands at a great advantage in connexion
with this branch of its business. The average amount held in
this manner for individuals during 1906 was about 23,000,000.
As the accounts numbered 77,159 the average for each account was
comparatively small. Accounts so subdivided give a great proba-
bility of permanence. The figures of the accounts for 1904 were as
follows :
11,178 current accounts, with power of discount.
4,576 simple current accounts.
26,709 current accounts, with advances.
24,106 accounts, deposits.
Total 66,569 accounts, against 59,182 at the end of 1903.
At the present time the Bank of France operates chiefly through
its enormous note circulation (averaging in 1906 186,300,000), by
means of which most business transactions in France are carried on.
The limits of the circulation of the Bank of France and the dates
when it has been extended are as follows :
Dates.
Millions of
Francs.
Converting the
Franc as 25 = i.
I5th March 1848 .
35
14,000,000
27th April, 2nd May 1848
452
18,000,000
2nd December 1849
525
21,000,000
I2th August 1870 . '
1800
32,000,000
I4th August 1870 .
2400
96,000,000
agth December 1871
2800
112,000,000
I5th.
uly 1872
3200
128,000,000
30th.
anuary 1884
3500
140,000,000
25th
anuary 1893
4000
160,000,000
I7th
December 1897
5000
200,000,000
In 1906
5800
232,000,000
GERMAN]
BANKS AND BANKING
343
Most business transactions in France are liquidated, not in cheques
as in England, but in notes of the Bank of France. These, owing
to their convenience, are preferred to specie. This is accumulated
in the vaults of the Bank of France, which in 1906 held on average
115,000,000 gold and 42,000,000 silver. The gold held by the
Bank of France is generally considerably larger in amount than
that held by the Bank of England, which in the autumn of 1800
had to borrow 3,000,000 in gold from the Bank of France at the
time of the Baring crisis. The large specie reserve of the bank has
given stability to the trade of France, and has enabled the bank
to manage its business without the numerous fluctuations in the rate
of discount which are constantly occurring in England. It is true
that the holding this very large amount of specie imposes a very
heavy burden on the shoulders of the shareholders of the bank, but
they do not complain. The advantage to business from the low rate
of interest which has to be paid for the use of borrowed capital in
France is a great advantage to the trade and industry of that
country.
The mass of the reserve in France is so great that the movements
of the precious metals, when they are the result only of natural
causes, are allowed to go on without corresponding movements in
the discount rate. But it muot be remembered that this large reserve
is held in part against a gigantic note issue, and also that the trade
activity and enterprise of the French people are less intense than in
either the United Kingdom or Germany ; thus it is much easier for
the Bank of France to maintain a steady rate of discount.
Besides the Bank of France, several great credit institutions carry
on business in the country ; as the Banqtte de Paris el des Pays-Bas
(capital and reserve, 3,729,000; other liabilities, deposits, &c.,
14,842,000), the Banque Fran$aise pour le Commerce el I' Industrie
(2,450,000; and 3,505,000), the Credit Lyonnais (14,000,000;
and 82,570,000), the Comptoir National d'Escompte de Paris
(6,772,000; and 47,593,000), the Societe Generate pour favoriser
le developpement du Commerce el de V Industrie en France (7,469,000 ;
and 45,800,000), and the Societe Generate de Credit Industriel el
Commercial (1,600,000; and 10,060,000).
There is also the Credit Fancier de France with a very considerable
capital, but the business done is so largely that of mortgages that
it can hardly be included among banks, though it carries on in some
measure the business of banking.
Besides the six important joint-stock banks mentioned above,
there exists in France a large number of banks, principally in the
provinces, carrying on a very considerable business. Little is known
as to their deposits, but their business appears to be conducted with
great prudence and discretion. One hundred and eighty-two of
these firms were members of the French Country Bankers' Associa-
tion in 1898. They carry on business in 66 out of the 86 depart-
ments into which France is divided. More than one of these banks
has several offices one possessing 1 8, including the head office.
These branches are situated in the small towns in the vicinity. -In
this the business follows more the English method of small branches.
The French Country Bankers' Association holds its meetings in
Paris, where matters of interest to bankers are discussed. (See
Bankers' Magazine, July 1898.)
Germany. Besides the Imperial Bank of Germany, the
" Reichsbank," there are about 140 banks doing business in
the states which form the German empire. These credit and
industrial banks with their large resources have had an immense
influence in bringing about the astonishing industrial develop-
ment of their country. Five banks possess the right of uncovered
note-issue ; these are :
The Imperial Bank of Germany with right of issue
The Bank of Saxony ,, ,, ,,
The Bank of Bavaria ,, ,,
The Bank of Wurttemberg
The Bank of Baden ,,
23,641,450
838,500
1,600,000
500,000
500,000
27,079,950
At the Bank of Germany the coin and bullion held is sometimes
larger than at the Bank of England. The statement of the specie
in the weekly accounts includes silver. The amounts held in gold
and silver are only separated once a year, when the balance-sheet is
published. The figures of the balance-sheet for the 3ist of December
1906 showed in round numbers 24,000,000 gold and 9,000,000
silver. As far as the capital is concerned the 18,000,000 of the
Bank of England considerably exceeds the 9,000,000 of the Bank
of France and the 12,200,000 of the Bank of Germany. The note
circulation of both the other banks is considerably larger than
that of the Bank of England, that of the Bank of France being
186,300,000, and of the Imperial Bank of Germany 69,000,000 in
1906.
The capitals and reserves of the German banks, including those
of banks established to do business in other countries, as South
America and the Far East, and of the Bank of Germany, are about
133,000,000, with further resources, including deposits, notes and
mortgage bonds, amounting to fully 414,000,000. The amount of
the capital compares very closely with that of the capitals of the
banks of the United Kingdom. The deposits are increasing. The
deposits, however, are not the whole of the resources of the German
banks. The banks make use, besides, of their acceptances in a
manner which is not practised by the banks of other countries, and
the average note circulation of the Reichsbank, included in the
statement given above, is between 60,000,000 and 70,000,000.
A large and apparently increasing proportion of the resources of the
German banks is employed in industrial concerns, some of which are
beyond the boundaries of the empire. The dangers of this practice
have called forth many criticisms in Germany, among which may
be quoted the remarks of Caesar Strauss and of Dr K. Koch, the
president of the Reichsbank. Dr Kock especially points out the
need of the development of powerful banks in Germany unconnected
with speculative business of this kind. The object of employing
their funds thus is the higher rate of interest to be obtained from
these investments than from discounting bills or making loans at
home. But such an employment of the resources of a bank is
opposed to all regular rules of business and of banking tradition,
which abstains from making fixed investments of any large part of
the resources of a bank. On the other hand, Dr Koch observes that
the risks of the one " reserve system " mentioned by Bagehot are
not to be feared in Germany. 1
The recent movement in favour of concentration among the banks
has been described by Dr E. Depitre and Dr Riesser, who give
particulars of the business done by these banks, which does not
correspond with banking as practised in the United Kingdom, being
more of an industrial character.
There are also many private banking firms in Germany which
do a considerable amount of business.
The Reichsbank, by far the most powerful banking institution
in Germany, is managed by the bank directory appointed by
the chancellor of the empire. The shareholders join in the
management through a committee, of which each member must
be qualified by holding not less than three shares. The govern-
ment exercises complete powers of control through the chancellor
of the empire. The influence of the Imperial Bank now permeates,
by means of its branches, all the separate kingdoms of the empire
the uniformity of coinage introduced through the laws of 1871-
1873 rendering this possible. The Imperial Bank assists business
principally in two ways first, through the clearing system
(Giro-Verkehr), which it has greatly developed, and secondly,
through the facilities given to business by its note circulation.
The Imperial Bank also receives deposits, and cheques are drawn
against these, but in Germany notes are principally used in pay-
ments for ordinary business.
Before the Reichsbank was established, Hamburg was the first,
and for a long time the only, example of a clearing in Germany.
This was taken up by the Reichsbank when it established its office
in Hamburg in the time-honoured building which had belonged to
the Hamburg Clearing House. Similar pusiness had long been
undertaken by the Bank of Prussia. This was absorbed and de-
veloped by the Reichsbank in 1876. Through the " clearing system "
money can be remitted from any of the 443 places in which there is
an office of the Reichsbank, to any of these places, without charge
either to the sender or the receiver. It is sufficient that the person
to whom the money is to be remitted should have an account at the
bank. Any person owing him money in the remotest parts of the
empire may go to the office of the bank which is most convenient
to him and pay in the amount of his debt, which is credited on the
following day at the office of the bank, without charge, to the account
of his creditor wherever he may reside. The person who makes the
payment need not have any account with the bank. The impetus
given to business by this arrangement has been verv considerable.
It practically amounts to a money-order system without charge or
risk of loss in transmission. From Hamburg and Bremen to the
frontiers of Russia, from the shores of the Baltic to the frontiers
of Switzerland, the whole of the empire of Germany has thus become
for monetary purposes one country only. The amount of these
transfers for the year 1906 exceeded 1,860,000,000.
The note circulation is also a powerful factor of the business of
the Reichsbank. It is governed by the law of 1875 and the amend-
ing law of 1899, corresponding in some degree to Peel's act of 1844,
which regulates the note circulation of the Bank of England. An
uncovered limit, originally 12,500,000, increased to 14,811,450
by the lapse of the issues of other banks allowed to it, has been ex-
tended by these and by the act of the 5th of June 1902 to 23,641 ,450.
Against the notes thus issued which are not represented by specie,
treasury notes (Reichskassenscheine, the legal tender notes of the
1 See Vortrage and Aufsatze hauptsdchlich aus dem Handels- und
Wechselrecht, von Dr R. Koch, pp. 163-164.
344
BANKS AND BANKING
[GERMAN
empire) * and notes of the issuing banks which are allowed to be
reckoned as specie or discounted bills, must be held maturing not
later than three months after being taken with, as a rule, three,
but never less than two, good indorsements. There is also a pro-
vision that at least one-third of the notes in circulation must be
covered by current German notes, money, notes of the imperial
treasury, and gold in bullion or foreign coin reckoned at 69, I2s.
per pound fine. The Reichsbank is bound by law to redeem its
notes in current German money. It is stated that this may be gold
coin or silver thalers, or bar-gold at the rate of 1392 marks (69, I2s.
reckoning marks as 2O = l) the pound fine of gold. In practice,
however, facilities have not always been given by the Reichsbank
for the payment of its obligations in gold, though the importance
of this is admitted. In the balance-sheet for 1906 the bills held
amounted to 67,000,000, and the loans and advances to 14,200,000.
The notes issued averaged for the year 69,000,000. The gold held
amounted, 3Oth December 1906, to 24,069,000. If the condition
of business requires that the notes in circulation should exceed the
limits allowed by the law, the bank is permitted to do this on the
payment of 5 % on the surplus. In this respect the German act
differs from the English act, which allows no such automatic statu-
tory power of overpassing the limit of issue. Some good authorities
consider that this arrangement is an advantage for the German
bank, and the fact that it has been made use of annually since 1895
appears to show that it is needed by the business requirements of
the country. Of late years the excess of issue of the Reichsbank
has been annual and large, having been 25,267,000 on the 2gth of
September 1906 and 28,632,000 on the 3ist of December of the
same year. The amount of the duty paid on the excess issue in the
year 1906 was 184,764, and the total amount paid thus from 1876
to 1906 was 839,052. The increase of the uncovered limit (untaxed
limit of issue called in Germany the " note reserve ") has not been
sufficient to obviate the need for an excess of issue beyond the limit.
In accordance with a law passed in 1906 the Imperial Bank issues
notes (Reichsbanknoten) of the value of 20 marks (i), and 50 marks
(2, ics.) in addition to the 5, 10, 100 and 1000 mark notes (55., ios.,
5. 5) previously in circulation. Imperial paper currency of the
value of 20 or 50 marks (l and 2, ios.) had previously existed only
in the form of treasury notes (Reichskassenscheine) ; these will in
consequence be withdrawn from circulation.
The amendment of the banking law of Germany, passed in 1899,
not only affects the position of the Reichsbank, but that of the four
other note-issuing banks. The capital of the Reichsbank has been
raised by the bill of that year to 9,000,000. The reserve fund has
been raised out of surplus profits to 3,240,000. This exceeds the
amount required by the act of 1899, which was 3,000,000. The
amending act further diminishes the dividend receivable by the
stockholders of the Reichsbank and increases the share which the
government will obtain.
The arrangement with the four note-issuing banks is designed to
cause them to work in harmony with the Reichsbank when the
Reichsbank has to raise its bank-rate in order to protect its gold
reserves. The official published rate of discount of the Reichsbank
is to be binding on the private note-issuing; banks after it has
reached or when it reaches 4 %. At other times they are not to
discount at more than i % below the official rate of the Reichs-
bank, or in case the Reichsbank itself discounts at a lower rate than
the official rate, at more than J % below that rate. If the Reichs-
bank discounts below the official rate, it is to announce that fact
in the Gazette.
The subject being important, we quote from the amending act
the sections governing the discount rate : - -Gesetz, betreffend die
Abdnderung des Bankgesetzes vom 14. Mdrz 1875; vom 7. Juni 1899,
Artikel 7, 5. /. The private note-issuing banks are bound by Artikel
7, S. 2, after the 1st of January 1901 : " (l) Not to discount below
the rate published in S. 15 of the bank law, so long as this rate attains
or exceeds 4 %, and (2) moreover, not to discount at more than
1 % below the Reichsbank rate, published in S. 15 of the bank
law, or in case the Reichsbank itself discounts at a lower rate, not
to discount at more than \ % below that rate."
It remains to be seen whether the note-issuing banks will find
these conditions too onerous, and rather than be bound by them
will give up their right o( issuing notes. The object of the enact-
ment is apparently to protect the specie reserve of the Reichsbank,
but it may be doubted whether, considering the importance of the
other banks of Germany none of which is bound by similar
conditions relatively to the note-issuing banks, the restrictions
put on the note-issuing banks will have any practical effect.
Since 1870 banking has made immense progress in Germany, but
it may be some time before the habit of making payments by cheque
instead of specie or notes becomes general.
AUTHORITIES. Parliamentary Papers: Report, together with
Minutes of Evidence and Accounts, from the Select Committee on the
High Price of Gold Bullion, House of Commons, 8th of June 1810;
1 The imperial treasury is bound to pay the state notes in cash
at any time when this is required, but an independent fund of cash
set apart for this purpose does not exist. See Handworterbuch der
Staatswissenschaften, vol. v. art. " Papiergeld," p. 97 (Jena, 1893;
ed. J. Conrad, L. Elster, W. Lexis and E. Loning).
Reports, Committee of Secrecy on Bank of England Charter, House of
Commons, 1832; Select Committee on Banks of Issue, House of
Commons, 1840; First and Second Reports, Select Committee on
Banks of Issue, House of Commons, 1841 ; First and Second Reports,
Secret Committee on Commercial Distress, House of Commons, 1848;
Report, Select Committee on Bank Acts, House of Commons, 1857;
Report, Select Committee on Bank Acts, House of Commons, 1858;
Report, Select Committee on Banks of Issue, House of Commons, 1875 >
Report from Secret Committee of the House of Lords on the Causes of
the Distress which has for some time prevailed among the Commercial
Classes, and how far it had been affected by the Laws for regulating
the Issue of Bank Notes payable on demand, session 1847-1848;
Analysis of the Minutes of Evidence taken before the Select Committee
of the House of Commons on Banks of Issue, 1875, with a selection
from the evidence, by R. H. Inglis Palgrave, London, 1876 (printed
for private circulation).
GENERAL INFORMATION. Articles on banking, &c., Dictionary
of Political Economy, edited by R. H. Inglis Palgrave (Macmillan
& Co., 1894-1906) ; Handworterbuch der Staatswissenschaften, edited
by Conrad, Elster, Lexis and Loning, 1899; Worterbuch der Volks-
wirthschaft, 2 vols. (ed. Elster, 1898); Dictionnaire des finances, edited
under the direction of Leon Say, by L. Foyot and A. Lanjalley(i889) ;
Dictionnaire du commerce, de I'industrie et de la banque, edited by A.
Raffalovich and Yves Guyot; Bankers' Magazine, commenced 1844,
to present time; Journal of the Institute of Bankers, commenced 1879,
to present time; Bankers' Magazine (New York); Economist news-
paper, commenced 1843, to present time; Banking Almanac, com-
menced 1845, to present time; Reports of the Comptroller of the
Currency (Washington).
EARLY. De Monetarum Augmento, variatione et diminutione,
Tractatus varii (1509) ; A proposal to supply His Majesty with twelve
or fourteen Millions of Money (or more if requir'd), by A. D. of Grey's
Inn, Esq., and some Others, his Friends (1697); Hayes' Negotiators'
Magazine of Monies and Exchanges, 1730; Lord King, Thoughts on
Bank Restrictions (1804); The Theory of Money with considerations
on tht Bank of England (1811); William Cobbett, Paper against
Gold and Glory against Prosperity, 2 vols. (1815) ; Circulating Credit
with Hints for improving the Banking System of Britain, by a Scottish
Banker (1832); W. Leckie, Bank Restriction (1841); Debates in the
House of Commons on Sir R. Peel's Bank Bills of 1844 and 1845,
reprinted verbatim from " Hansard's Parliamentary Debates,"
1875; Gilbart's Works; 6 vols. (1865); The History, Principles and
Practice of Banking, by J. W. Gilbart, edited and revised by A. S.
Michie, 1882; Thomson Hankey, Principles of Banking (1867);
Walter Bagehot, Lombard Street (1873), a brilliant picture of the city
at that date (new ed., 1906); A. S. Cobb, Threadneedle Street, a
reply to "Lombard Street" (1891); John Dun,.Jiritish Banking
Statistics (1876); R. H. Inglis Palgrave, Notes on Banking; George
Rae, The Country Banker (1886), and several editions later (many
sound hints on practice); J. George Kiddy, The Country Banker's
Handbook, 4th ed. (1903); C. F. Dunbar, Chapters on the
Theory and History of Banking (1891); Charles Gairdner, The
Making of the Gold Reserves (1891); J. B. Attfield, English and
ForeignBanks (1893) (refers to management of banks) ;T.B.Moxon,
English Practical Banking, loth ed. (1899) ; A. Crump, The Key to
the London Money Market (1872); W. Y. Duncan, Notes on the
Rate of Discount in London, 3 vols., 1822-1856, 1856-1866, 1866-1873,
privately printed, Edinburgh, 1856, 1867 and 1877; R. H. Inglis
Palgrave, Bank Rate and the Money Market in England, France,
Germany, Holland and Belgium, 1844-1900 (1903); Ernest Seyd,
The Bank of England Note Issue and its Error (1874); Ernest
Seyd, London Banking and Bankers' Clearing House System ; Ernest
Seyd, The Silver Question in 1893 ; Walter Bagehot, Depreciation of
Silver (1877) ; Ernest Seyd, Bullion and the Foreign Exchanges (1868) ;
Clare, The A B C of the Foreign Exchanges (1895, 2nd ed. 1895);
Tracts, by Lord Overstone (1837-1857); Select Tracts on Money,
&c., reprinted privately by Lord Overstone, 1856-1859 (containing
much valuable and interesting information on early history) ;
A. Crump, A Practical Treatise on Banking, Currency and the
Exchanges (1866); Bonamy Price, Currency and Banking (1876)
(the interest of this volume to the student of banking is found
mainly in the correspondence between Mr Henry Hucks Gibbs
(Lord Aldenham) and Professor Bonamy Price on the reserve of the
Bank of England) ; R. H. Inglis Palgrave, On the Influence of a Note
Circulation in the Conduct of Banking Business, read before the
Manchester Statistical Society, 1877; Edgar Jaffe, Das englische
Bankwesen (Leipzig, 1905); A History of Banks (1837); D. Hard-
castle, Banks and Bankers (1843); W. J. Lawson, The History of
Banking (1850); R. Baxter, The Panic of 1866 (1866); F. G. H.
Price, A Handbook of London Bankers (1876); Conant, History of
Modern Banks of Issue (New York, 1896); History of Banking in
all Leading Nations, 4 vols. (New York, 1896); Viscount Goschen,
Essays and Addresses on Economic Questions, 1865-1893 (1905),
(arts, on " Seven per cent," " Two per cent," " Our cash reserves
and central stock of gold ") ; C. F. Dunbar, Economic Essays, edited
by Q. M. W. Sprague (1904), (containing many articles on banking,
particularly in the United States).
BANK OF ENGLAND. T. Fortune, A Concise and Authentic History
of the Bank of England (1802); John Francis, History of the Bank
of England (1847); J. E. Thorold Rogers, The First Nine Years of
AMERICAN]
BANKS AND BANKING
345
the Bank of England (1887), B. B. Turner, Chronicles of the Bank of
England(i8<)7) ; T. A. Stephens, Bibliography of the Bank of England
(1897); A. Andreades, Histoire de la banque d'Angleterre (1904;
Eng. trans., 1909) ; Sir F. Schuster, The Bank of England and the State
(1906).
HISTORY OF BANKING HOUSES. L. H. Grindon, Manchester
Banks and Bankers (1877) ; J. B. Martin, " The Grasshopper " in Lom-
bard Street (1892); M. Phillips, Banks, Bankers, and Banking in
Northumberland, Durham and North Yorkshire (1894); C. H. Cave,
History of Banking in Bristol (1899); Bid well, Annals of an East
Anglian Bank (1900) ; Richardson, Coutts & Co., Bankers, Edinburgh
and London; H. T. Easton, History of a Banking House (Smith,
Payne & Smiths) (1903) ; J. Hughes, Liverpool Banks and Bankers,
1760-1837 (1906).
SCOTLAND. W. H. Logan, The Scottish Banker (1847); Robert
Somers, The Scotch Banks and System of Issue (1873) ; W. Mitchell,
Scotch Banks and Limited Liability (1879); A. W. Kerr, History of
Scotch Banking (1884); A. W. Kerr, Scottish Banking, 1865-1896
(1898); Boase, A Century of Banking in Dundee (1867).
IRELAND. Malcolm Dillon, History and Development of Banking
in Ireland (1889).
BRITISH COLONIES. Edward B. Hamilton, A Manual of the Law
and Practice of Banking in Australia and New Zealand (1880);
Banking in Australasia (1883); The Canadian System of Banking
and the National Banking System of the United States (Toronto, 1890) ;
Journal of the Canadian Bankers' Association (Montreal).
FRANCE. Annuaire-Chaix, Les Principales SociiUs par actions
(1905); A. Raffalovich, Le Marche financier (1905).
GERMANY. Dr W. Scharling, Bank Polittk (Jena, 1900) ; Die
Reichsbank, 1876-1900 (a history and description of the operations
of the bank) ; Dr Adolf Weber, Depositenbanken und Spekulations-
banken, Ein Vergleich deutschen und englischen Bankwesens (Leipzig,
1902); Dr Felix Hecht, Die Mannheimer Banken, 1870 bis 1000
(Leipzig, 1902); Siegfried Buff, Das Kontokurrentgeschaft im
deutschen Bankwerbe (Stuttgart and Berlin, 1904) ; Dr Riesser, Zur
Entwicklungsgeschichte der deutschen Grossbanken mil besonderer
Rucksicht auf die Konzentralionsbestrebungen (1905); G. M. Boisse-
vain, Duitsche en Engelsche Deposito-Bankcn (1905).
ITALY. La Banco Popolare di Milano (1881).
AUSTRIA. Compass, Finanzielles Jahrbuch fur Osterreich- Ungarn
(Vienna).
JAPAN. The House of Mitsui (Tokio) ; The Law and the By-Laws
of the Nippon Kogyo Ginko (The Industrial Bank of Japan) (1903).
H. W. Wolff, People's Banks (1893). (On systems worked by
Schulze-Delitzsch, Raiffeisen, Luzzatti, Banche Popolari, Dr Wollem-
bore, Popular Banks in Belgium, Switzerland, France, England).
(R. H. I. P.)
UNITED STATES
The early history of the American colonies is strewn, like that
of most new countries, with many crude experiments in banking
and currency issues. Most of these colonial enterprises, however,
were projects for the issue of paper money rather than the
creation of commercial banks. Speculative banking was checked
to a large extent in the colonies by the Bubble Act (6 Geo. I.
c. 18), which was passe'd in England after the bursting of the
South Sea Bubble. This act, which forbade the formation of
banking companies without a special charter, was in 1740
extended to the colonies.
The serious history of banking in the United States may be
said to have begun with the foundation of the Bank of Penn-
sylvania. This bank originated in the project of a number of
the citizens of Philadelphia to supply the continental army with
rations. The first bills, issued in 1780, were nothing more than
interest-bearing notes payable at a future time. The advances
in continental money made by the shareholders were secured
by bills of exchange for 150,000, drawn on the American envoys
in Europe, but not intended to be negotiated.
A further outgrowth of the needs of the continental govern-
ment was the Bank of North America, which was authorized
by congress on May 26, 1781. The act gave to Robert Morris, the
financier, power to create a bank with a capital of $400,000, to
be increased if desirable. Morris arranged with the Bank of
Pennsylvania to take over its holdings of foreign bills and paid
in cash its claims against the Federation. The Bank of North
America did not begin business until the 7th of January 1782,
and there was so much doubt of the power of the continental
congress to charter a bank that it was thought advisable to
obtain a charter from the state of Pennsylvania. Under this
charter the bank continued to operate until it was absorbed in
the national banking system in 1863, and it may be considered
the oldest organized banking institution in the United States.
The bank did much, during the first eight years after its organiza-
tion, to restore order to the chaos of Federation finances. It
loaned to Morris, as government superintendent of finance,
$1,249,975, of which $996,581 was repaid in cash and the re-
mainder by surrendering the stock in the bank owned by the
government.
The Bank of the United Slates. A national bank of issue was
one of the essential parts of the system built up by Alexander
Hamilton in organizing the finances of the Federal government
under the constitution of 1789. The first " Bank of the United
States" was accordingly incorporated in 1791, with a capital
of $10,000,000, divided into 25,000 shares of $400 each. This
bank issued circulating notes, discounted commercial paper
and aided the government in its financial operations. The
government subscribed one-fifth of the capital, but paid for
it by a roundabout process which actually resulted in the loan
of the amount by the bank to the treasury. Other loans were
made by the bank to the government, which gradually carried
the obligation by the end of 1795 to $6,200,000. In order to meet
these obligations, the government gradually disposed of its
bank stock, until by 1802 its entire holdings had been disposed
of at a profit of $671,860. The bank did not publish regular
reports, but a statement submitted by Gallatin to congress for
January 24, 1811, showed resources of $24,183,046, of which
$14,578,294 was in loans and discounts, $2,750,000 in United
States stock and $5,009,567 in specie.
The expiration of the charter of the bank in 1811 was the
occasion of a party contest, which prevented renewal and added
greatly to the financial difficulties of the government in the war
with Great Britain which began in the next year. Although
foreign shareholders were not permitted to vote by proxy, and
the twenty-five directors were required to be citizens of the United
States, the bank was attacked on the ground of foreign ownership
as well as on the constitutional ground that congress had no
power to create such an institution.
The government was compelled in the war of 1812 to rely
on the state banks. Their suspension of specie payments, in
1814, made it very difficult for the treasury to transfer funds
from one part of the Union to the other, because the notes of one
section did not circulate readily in another. Gallatin left on
record the opinion that the suspension of specie payments
" might have been prevented at the time when it took place,
had the former Bank of the United States been still in
existence."
The financial condition of the government became so bad
during the war that the second Bank of the United States was
authorized in April 1816. The general project was that of
Alexander J. Dallas, who in October 1814 had become secretary
of the treasury. The capital of the new bank was $35,000,000.
and the government again appeared as owner of one-fifth of
the stock, which was paid in a stock note. The president of
the United States was authorized to appoint five of the twenty-
five directors and public funds were to be deposited in the bank,
" unless the secretary of the treasury shall at any time otherwise
order and direct." The right of congress to charter the bank
came before the Supreme Court in 1819 in the famous case of
McCulloch v. Maryland. Chief Justice Marshall rendered the
decision that the right to create the bank was within the implied
powers granted by the Federal constitution, and that it was not
competent for the states to levy taxes upon the circulating notes
of the bank or upon its property except in common with other
property.
The second Bank of the United States was not well managed
in the early part of its career, but was upon a firmer foundation
under the presidency of Langdon Cheves in 1819. Its policy
greatly benefited commerce, but invited bitter complaints from
the private dealers in exchange, who had been enabled to make
excessive profits while the currency was below par, because of its
different values in different states and the constant fluctuations
in these values. The Bank, in the language of the report of
Senator Samuel Smith of Maryland in 1832, furnished "a
currency as safe as silver, more convenient, and more valuable
BANKS AND BANKING
[AMERICAN
than silver, which through the whole western and southern
and interior parts of the Union, is eagerly sought in exchange for
silver; which, hi those sections, often bears a premium paid in
silver; which is, throughout the Union, equal to silver, in
payment to the government, and payments to individuals in
business."
The bank hi 1835 had attained a circulation of; $23,075,422
loans of $59,232,445; and deposits of $5,061,456. The institu-
tion was ultimately destroyed by the open enmity of President
Jackson, who in 1833 had suspended the deposit of public money
in its custody. This policy known as the " removal of the
deposits," excited a bitter political controversy in which Clay
and Webster led the opposition, but Jackson was supported by
the public (see JACKSON, ANDREW). The Federal charter of
the bank expired in 1836. Under a charter obtained by
President Nicholas Biddle from the state of Pennsylvania, the
bank continued its business, but without success, and hi 1841
it went into liquidation.
The State Banks. The Bank of the United States found
powerful rivals during its life and successors after its death
in the banks chartered by the separate states. In the unde-
veloped state of the country hi the early days there was much
unsound and speculative banking. The most successful systems
were those of New York and New England, where the surplus
capital of the country hi the early days was chiefly concentrated.
The least successful banking systems were those in the newer
and poorer sections of the country, and they grew progressively
worse as poverty and inexperience added to the difficulty of
setting aside capital for investment in the tools of exchange.
The termination of the first charter of the Bank of the United
States was followed by a banking mania. In Pennsylvania
a bill authorizing 41 new banks was passed over the veto of the
governor, and 37 of them were hi operation hi 1814. Similar
movements in other states increased the number of banks in
four years (1811-1815) from 88 to 208. The amount of specie
was not adequate to support the mass of credit which these banks
created, and what there was hi the country drifted toNew England,
which was upon a metallic basis. A number of banks collapsed
in 1814, and business prostration was prolonged for several years.
The banking laws of the states varied considerably. Some
states authorized the issue of notes upon state bonds, many of
which, especiallyatthe outbreak of the Civil War,proved valueless.
In New England, however, a system prevailed which required
the prompt redemption of the banks' notes at par. The New
England Bank was the pioneer of this movement hi 1814. In
1824 what was known as the " Suffolk system " of redemption
came into operation. This system provided for the deposit by a
bank hi the Suffolk Bank in Boston of a redemption fund, from
which the notes were redeemed and afterwards sent home by the
Suffolk Bank for collection. This system, with slight modifica-
tions, continued in successful operation until 1858. The circula-
tion of the New England banks in 1858 was less than $40,000,000
and the redemptions in the course of the year through the
Suffolk Bank were $400,000,000. It was the essential merit
claimed for the system that it tended to keep the volume of the
circulation constantly adjusted to the requirements of business.
A branch redemption agency was established at Providence.
Legal sanction was given to the system in Vermont by an act of
1842, which levied a tax of i% upon bank capital, but remitted
this tax to any bank which should " keep a sufficient deposit of
funds hi the city of Boston, and should at that city uniformly
cause its bills to be redeemed at par."
The period from 1836 to 1842 was a trying one for American
banking. It was preceded by another great expansion in financial
ventures, made without sufficient circulating capital or adherence
to conservative banking methods. Foreign capital had come
into the country hi considerable amounts after the English
crisis of 1825, the entire debt of the general government was
paid off and a tremendous speculation occurred hi public lands,
which were expected to advance rapidly in value as the result of
immigration and the growth of the country. The sales of public
lands in 1836, on the eve of the crisis, reached 20,074,870 acres
and brought receipts to the treasury of $25,167,833. How
essentially speculative was the mass of these sales is indi-
cated by the fact that such receipts declined in 1842 to only
$1,417,972. President Jackson pricked the bubble of speculation
by the " Specie circular " of July n, 1836, requiring payments
for public lands to be made only in specie or notes of specie
value. Practically every bank in the Union stopped pay-
ment, and banking capital fell from $358,442,692 in 1840 to
$196,894,309 in 1846. As usual in periods of business collapse
the shrinkage of capital did not follow at once the outbreak
of the panic, but was the result of gradual liquidation. Specie
payments were resumed in 1838, but there was another crash
hi 1842, after the United States Bank finally suspended.
In New York, which was becoming the chief commercial state
of the Union, the banks of New York City were generally sound,
but several different systems were tried of securing the circulating
notes. The " safety-fund system," inaugurated hi 1829, provided
for a contribution by each bank towards a fund to meet the
deficit of any contributing bank which might fail with assets
insufficient to meet its liabilities. It was the intention of the
act to protect by this fund only the bank-notes, but it was
treated as a fund for the payment of all the liabilities of a failed
bank and in consequence the fund was exhausted by important
failures which occurred hi the panics of 1837 and 1857. Before
1843 the issue of notes was not controlled by the state, so that
in several cases there were illegal over-issues.
What was called the " free-banking system " was inaugurated
hi New York by the act of 1838. This system permitted any
body of persons, complying with the requirements of the law, to
form a bank and issue circulation secured by the deposit of various
classes of public bonds. This system was in operation at the
outbreak of the Civil War, was imitated hi several other states,
and became hi a measure the model of the national banking
system. The state banks of Indiana and Ohio were among the
most successful of the state banks, being modelled somewhat
on the European plan of a central bank. They held in their
states an exclusive charter for issuing notes and had branches
at important points throughout the state. Under the manage-
ment of Hugh McCulloch, afterwards secretary of the treasury,
the bank of Indiana weathered the crisis of 1857 without sus-
pending specie payments, and retired its circulation when gold
went to a premium hi 1862.
One of the defects of the state system of note-issues was the
inconvenience which it occasioned. Notes issued outside a
state could not safely be received without careful scrutiny as to
the responsibility of their issuers. The systems prevailing in
New England, hi Louisiana, in Ohio and hi Indiana were
eminently successful, and proved the soundness of the issue of
bank-notes upon the assets of a well-conducted commercial bank.
But the speculation fostered by loose banking laws hi some other
states, and the need for uniformity, cast a certain degree of dis-
credit upon the state banks, and prepared the way for the
acceptance of a uniform banking system in 1864.
The power of note-issue formed a more important part of
banking resources before the Civil War than in later years,
because the deposit system had not attained its full development.
Thus hi 1835 circulation and capital of state banks combined
were about $335,000,000 and deposits were only $83,000,000, in
1907 circulation and capital of national banks $1,430,000,000,
while deposits were $4,322,000,000 hi the earlier period
deposits forming less than one-third of the other two items and
in the later period three times the other items. The circulation
of the state banks fluctuated widely at different periods. A
maximum of $149,185,890 was attained in 1837, to decline to
$106,968,572 three years later and to a minimum of $58,563,608
hi 1843. From this point there was a tendency upward, with
some variations, which put the circulation in 1845 at $89,608,71 1 ;
1848, $128,506,091; 1850, $131,366,526; 1854, $204,689,207;
1856, $195,747,950; 1858, $155,208,344; 1860, $207,102,477;
1863, $238,677,218.
Other leading items of the accounts of the state banks for
representative years are as follows:
AMERICAN]
BANKS AND BANKING
347
State Banking Progress, 1835-1863.
Year.
No. of
Banks.
Capital Stock.
Loans and
Discounts.
Deposits.
1835
1845
1850
i855
i860
1863
704
707
824
1307
1562
1466
$231,250,337
206,045,969
217,317,211
332,177,288
421,880,095
405,045,829
$365-163,834
288,617,131
364,204,078
576,144,758
691,945,580
648,601,863
$83,081,365
88,020,646
109,586,595
190,400,342
253,802,129
393,686,226
The National Banking System. The creation of the national
banking system was mainly the outcome of the financial necessities
of the Federal government in the Civil War. It was found
difficult to float government bonds at profitable rates, and Mr
Chase, the secretary of the treasury, devised the scheme of
creating a compulsory market for the bonds by offering special
privileges to banks organized under Federal charters, which
would issue circulating notes only when secured by the deposit
of government bonds. But this plan, authorized by the act of
25th February 1863 (supplemented by the act of 3rd June 1864),
was not sufficient to give predominance to the national banks.
The state banking systems in the older states were so firmly
entrenched in the confidence of the commercial community that
it became necessary to provide for imposing a tax of 10% upon
the face-value of the notes of state banks in circulation after
the ist of July 1866. The state banks were thus driven out of
the note-issuing business, some being converted into national
banks, while others continued their commercial business under
state laws without the privilege of note-issue. A remarkable
growth in the national banking system took place; in 1864
there were 453 national banks with an aggregate capital of
$79,366,950, and in 1865 there were 1014 banks with an aggregate
capital of $242,542,982.
The national banking system was specially marked by the
issue of circulating notes upon United States bonds. Any
national bank desiring to issue notes might by law deposit
with the United States treasurer bonds of the United States to
an amount not exceeding its capital stock, and upon such bonds
it might receive circulation equal to 90% of their par- value.
No bank could be established which did not invest one-third of
its capital in bonds. This was changed in 1874 so as to reduce
the requirement to 25%, with a maximum mandatory require-
ment of $50,000. Notes were taxed at the rate of i % per
annum. The banks obtained from the provision for circulation
the benefit of what was described by critics as " double interest,"
being credited with the interest on bonds in the custody of the
treasury department, and being also able to lend their notes to
the public. But several deductions had to be made: notes could
not be issued to the full par- value of the bonds; the tax of i %
upon circulation reduced by that amount the profit which would
otherwise be earned; and the banks had to set aside in gold
or other lawful money what was needed for redemption purposes
and for reserves. As the banks suspended specie payments at
the close of 1861 and great masses of government paper-money
were issued, gold ceased to be a medium of exchange except in
California, and the new banks redeemed their notes in govern-
ment paper. The gold-value of the bank-notes, therefore, rose and
fell with that of government notes until the resumption of pay-
ments in specie by the national treasury on the ist of January
1879.
The amount of bank-notes in circulation proved in practice
to be influenced largely by the price of bonds. The maximum
originally set for bank circulation was $300,000,000. This was
increased in 1870 by $54,000,000, and in 1875 the limit was
removed. The circulation reached $362,651,169 on the ist of
January 1883, but afterwards declined materially as bonds
became scarce and the price rose. The fact that circulation
could be issued to only 90 % of the par-value of the bonds greatly
reduced the net profits on circulation when the price of 4 % bonds
rose in 1889 above 129 and other classes of bonds rose in like
ratio. The circulation of bank-notes fell as low as $167,927,574
on the ist of July 1891, but afterwards increased somewhat as
the supply of bonds was increased to meet the treasury deficiencies
of 1894-1896 and the expenses of the war with Spain.
The national banks supported the government cordially in
the measures taken to bring about resumption of gold payments
on the ist of January 1879 under the law of 1875. The banks
held more than $125,000,000 in legal tender notes, of which sum
nearly one-third was held in New York City. A run upon the
treasury for the redemption of these notes would have exhausted
the gold funds laboriously accumulated by secretary Sherman
and compelled a new suspension. But the banks appointed a
committee to co-operate with the treasury, declined to receive
gold longer as a special deposit, and resolved to receive and pay
balances without discrimination between gold and government
notes. Thus resumption was accomplished without jar, and as
early as the i7th of December 1878 gold sold at par in paper.
The silver legislation enacted by Congress in 1878 and 1890
caused uneasiness in banking circles, and the banks discriminated
against silver dollars and silver certificates in their cash. When
the treasury began to lose gold heavily, however, in 1893, a
combination of leading bankers in New York, Boston, Phila-
delphia, Baltimore and Chicago turned over a large part of
their holdings to replenish the government reserves. About
150 national banks suspended during the panic of 1893, but 84
of these afterwards resumed business. As in former periods of
depression, the system suffered the greatest decline during the
years of liquidation following the actual panic, the number of
banks falling from 3856 on the ist of June 1893 to 3585 on the
ist of June 1899, and aggregate capital falling during the same
period from $698,454,665 to $610,028,895.
A new extension was given to the national banking system
by the provisions of the gold standard law of I4th March 1900.
Banks were authorized to issue circulation to the full par- value
of bonds deposited, and the tax upon circulation was reduced
from i % to | of i % in the case of circulation which was secured
by the 2 % refunding bonds, which were authorized by this law.
By issuing 2% bonds hi exchange for those paying a higher
interest, at approximately the market-price, it became possible
to obtain a given amount of notes upon a smaller investment in
bonds, independent of other provisions of the law. Under these
provisions the volume of notes outstanding, secured by bonds,
which stood on the 3ist of October 1899 at $207,920,774, reached
on the same date in 1900, $298,829,064; in 1901, $328,198,613;
in 1902, $335,783,189; in 1903, $380,650,821; in 1904,
$424,530,581; hi 1905, $490,037,806; in 1906, $536,933,169;
and in 1907 $562,727,614.
The lowest denomination of national bank-notes authorized
by law is $5, and not more than one-third of any bank's issues
can be of this denomination. The government issues notes for
$i and $2, as well as for higher denominations. The largest
amount of bank-notes of one denomination is in bills for $10,
which on the 3ist of October 1907 constituted $249,946,530 in
total outstanding issues of $609,905,441. Of this total circula-
tion $562,727,614 was secured by bonds, and the remainder,
$47,252,852, was covered by lawful money in the government
treasury, deposited for the redemption and retirement of the
notes as they might be received.
An important extension of the national system resulted from
the authority given by the act of 1900 to incorporate national
banks with a capital as low as $25,000, in places having a
population not in excess of 3000. The previous minimum limit
had been $50,000. Under this provision there were incorporated
to the 3ist of October 1907 2389 national banks with capitals
of less than $50,000, with aggregate capital of $62,312,500, of
which 272 banks were conversions of state and private institu-
tions, 752 were reorganizations and 1365 were new institutions.
The national banks possess most of the powers of commercial
banks, but are not permitted to hold real estate other than their
banking houses, unless taken for debt. Five reports are required
each year to the comptroller of the currency at dates selected
by him without notice, and each bank is subject to the visitation
of bank examiners acting under the comptroller. No reserves
against notes are required by existing law except 5 %, which is
BANKS AND BANKING
[AMERICAN
kept in Washington for current redemption purposes. The
redemption system is defective in that redemptions are not
authorized at other places, and the notes reach the treasury on
an average only about once in two years. For many years the
banks were prohibited from retiring more than $3,000,000 of
notes monthly, but the limit was raised by an act of 4th March
1907 to $9,000,000 per month.
Reserves are required against deposits to the amount of 25 %
in so-called '' reserve cities," and 15% in what are called the
" country banks " outside of reserve cities. Not all these
amounts, however, are required to be kept in cash. The three
central reserve cities, where cash is required, with only trifling
deductions, are New York, Chicago and St Louis. In other
reserve cities, which in 1908 numbered forty, the banks are
permitted to deposit half their cash in national banks in central
reserve cities, while country banks may deposit three-fifths of
their cash in any reserve city. The shareholders of national
banks are subject in case of liquidation to double liability upon
their shares, and this is now the rule in most of the conservative
state banking systems. National bank-notes are not legal
tender, but are receivable by the government for all obligations
except customs dues.
The panic of 1907 imposed a severe strain upon the cash
resources of the banks of New York City, but did not cause any
such considerable number of failures as occurred in 1893.
Payment of cheques in currency was suspended in New York
on the 28th of October 1907, and continued until about the begin-
ning of the year 1908. The panic was precipitated by over-specula-
tion by a group of national banks, followed by the suspension of the
Knickerbocker Trust Company on the 22nd of October with
deposits of $48,000,000. Then came runs on other companies, a
deficit in the required reserves of New York banks of$38,838,82sin
the week of 2nd November, and arrangements for the importation
of foreign gold to an amount which soon approached $100,000,000.
With an increase during the autumn of about $77,000,000 in
national bank circulation, a transfer of $72,000,000 from the
treasury to the banks, and a further decline in required reserves
in New York during the next week, the amount of currency
which was added to the circulation or disappeared during a few
weeks of the panic amounted to more than $275,000,000, or
nearly one-tenth of the usual volume of circulation in the country.
The total bank-note circulation on the 28th of December 1907
had risen to $687,340,835; but this amount was abnormal and
was reduced somewhat during the spring of 1908.
The position of the trust companies, especially those of the
city of New York, was one of the disturbing features of the panic.
These companies were comparatively a small factor in New York
finance at the time of the panic of 1893. The capitalization of all
the trust companies in the United States, even as late as 1897,
was only $106,968, 2 53, and individual deposits were $566,922, 205.
The capital of these companies had risen in 1907 to $276,146,081
and their deposits to $2,061,623,035. The trust companies of
New York were required by the law of the state to maintain
only 5 % of their demand deposits in cash in their vaults.
Whilst most of them had also large amounts on deposit in national
banks, these reserves proved inadequate to sustain the vast mass
of credit which was built upon them. The absolute amount of
the reserves, however, was perhaps less important than the class
of business to which some of the less conservative of these
companies had committed themselves. Instead of keeping their
assets liquid by purchases of commercial paper and loans on
first-class negotiable securities, they had in some cases engaged
in speculative underwritings and had locked up their funds in
enterprises requiring a long time for their consummation.
It was these combined influences which led to distrust of the
Knickerbocker Trust Company, and to the runs upon that
company and others during the late days of October and
early November. The result was to reduce the total resources of
the forty-eight trust companies of Greater New York from
$i, 205,019,700 on the22nd of August 1907 to $858, 674,000 on the
1 9th of December 1907. Individual deposits subject to cheque fell
from $692,744,900 to $437,733,400. Such a reduction of resources
within so short a time, most of it being accomplished within a
few weeks, has hardly ever been recorded in the history of bank-
ing, and the fact that the stronger companies were able to call in
their cash and meet such demands was evidence to a certain
extent that the criticisms upon them were exaggerated. The
necessity for stronger reserves and for greater safeguards against
speculative operations was so strongly impressed upon the public
mind, however, that several restrictive measures were enacted
at the session of the New York legislature in 1008, designed to
prevent any abuses of this sort in the future.
The function of issuing notes, which is exclusively a privilege
of national banks, has diminished in importance in America, as
other methods of transferring credit have attained a wide develop-
ment. This has not only been true of the national banks them-
selves, but has accounted for the development alongside the
national banking system of state banks, private banks and trust
companies, which have not had the privilege of note-issue, but
have obtained other privileges sometimes greater than those of
the national banks.
The aggregate resources of all classes of banks in the United States
have greatly increased in recent years. The following table shows the
increase in the chief items of the accounts of national banks for repre-
sentative years from the reports made nearest to the beginning of the
year :-
PROGRESS OF NATIONAL BANKS, 1865-1908
Year.
No. of
Banks.
Loans and Discounts.
Individual Deposits.
1865
638
$166,448,718
$183,479,636
1870
1615
688,875,203
546,236,881
1875
2027
955,862,580
682,846,607
1880
2052
933-543,661
755-459.966
1885
2664
1,234,202,226
987,649,055
1890
3326
1,811,686,891
1,436,402,685
1895
3737
I-99L9I3-J23
1,695,489,346
1897
3661
1,901,160,110
1,639,688,393
1899
3590
2,214,394,838
2,225,269,813
1900
3602
2,479,819,494
2,380,610,361
1901
3942
2,706,534,643
2,623,997,521
1902
4291
3,038,255,447
2,964,417,965
1903
4666
3,303,148,091
3,152,878,796
1904
5180
3,469,195,043
3,300,619,898
1905
5528
3,728,166,086
3,612,499,598
1906
59"
4,071,041,164
4,088,420,135
1907
6288
4,463,267,629
4,115,650,294
1908
6625
4,585-337,094
4-176,873,717
The combined returns of state and private banks, savings banks
and loan and trust companies in the United States show a growth
within a few years which is indicated by the principal items of their
accounts :
RESOURCES OF STATE BANKS, TRUST COMPANIES, &c.
Items.
1897.
1907?
Capital stock
Surplus and profits
Loans
Deposits .
Total Resources .
$380,090,778
382,436,990
2,231,013,262
3,324,254,807
4,258,677,065
$807,178,262
924,655,010
6,099,897,535
8,776,755,207
11,168,514,516
The aggregate banking power of the United States, as computed
by the comptroller of the currency in his annual report for 1907,
increased from $5,150,000,000 in 1890 to $17,824,800,000 in 1907,
and the banking power of foreign countries from $10,835,000,000 to
$27,034,200,000, representing an increase for all reporting countries
from $15,985,000,000 to $44,859,000,000.
The system of clearing cheques has attained a higher development
in the United States than in any other country, except perhaps,
Great Britain. Clearing-houses exist in about 1 12 leading cities,
and the aggregate clearings for the year ending 3Oth September 1907
reached $154,662,515,258. The New York Clearing-House in-
evitably does a large proportion of this business; its clearings
constituted in 1906 67^2 % of the total clearings in 55 of the
larger cities. The volume of clearings fluctuates greatly with the
volume of stock-exchange transactions and with the business pros-
perity of the country. An indication of these fluctuations at New
York is afforded by the following table, taken from Conant's Prin-
ciples of Money and Banking, brought down to 1907.
The Clearing-House Committee of the New York Clearing-House
exercises a powerful influence over the banking situation through
its ability to refuse aid in emergencies to a bank which is unwisely
conducted. This power was used in the panic of 1907 to eliminate
several important, but speculative, financial interests from control
of national banks. Only national and state banks and the sub-
ENGLISH LAW]
BANKS AND BANKING
34-9
VARIATIONS IN CLEARINGS AT NEW YORK
Year.
Average
Daily
Clearings.
Per cent
Balances to
Clearings.
Remarks.
1870
1873
$90,274,479
115,885,794
3-72
4-iS
Great business activity.
1874
1881
74,692,574
159.232,191
5-62
3-66
Industrial depression.
Renewal of railway building.
1885
82,789,480
5-12
Results of bank panic.
"- ^
1890
1894
123,074,139
79,704,426
4-65
6-54
Business expansion.
Depression following panic.
96,232,442
6-28
Free silver panic.
1899
1901
189,961,029
254,193.639
5-37
4-56
Renewed confidence and activity.
Culmination of industrial flota-
tions.
1904
195,648,514
5-20
Diminished stock-exchange and
business activity.
1906
342,422,773
3-69
Stock-market activity.
Treasury were members of the Clearing-House at this time. Their
weekly reports of condition were awaited every Saturday as an index
of the state of the money-market and the exchanges; but this index
was incomplete and sometimes misleading, because regular weekly
reports were not made by trust companies. It was announced early
in 1908 by the state superintendent of banking that he would exercise
a power vested in him by law to require weekly reports in future
from trust companies, so that the two classes of reports would present
a substantially complete mirror of banking conditions in New York.
AUTHORITIES. VVilliam M. Gouge, A History of Paper Money and
Banking in the United States (Philadelphia, 1833) ; Condy Raguet,
A Treatise on Currency and Banking (Philadelphia, 1840) ; J. S.
Gibbons, The Banks of New York, their Dealers, the Clearing-House
and the Panic of 1857 (New York, 1858) ; Albert S. Bolles, Financial
History of the United States (3 vols., New York, 1884-1886) ; Charles
F. Dunbar, Chapters on the Theory and History of Banking (New
York and London, 1891.); Horace White, Money and Banking
(Boston, 1902) ; Charles A. Conant, A History of Modern Banks of
Issue (New York, 1896); Alexander D. Noyes, Thirty Years of
American Finance (New York, 1898); Davis Rich Dewey, Financial
History of the United States (New York and London, 1903) ; John C.
Schwab, The Confederate States of America, 1861-1865 (New York,
1901); David Kinley, The Independent Treasury of the United
States (New York, 1893) ; Report of the Monetary Commission of the
Indianapolis Convention (Chicago, 1898); Charles A. Conant, The
Principles of Money and Banking (2 yols., New York, 1905) ;
William G. Sumner, A History of American Currency (New York,
1884) ; Amos Kidder Fiske, The Modern Bank (New York, 1904) ;
William G. Sumner, A History of Banking in the United States
(New York, 1896), being vol. i. in A History of Banking in All the
Leading Nations; John Jay Knox, History of Banking in the United
States (rev. ed., New York, 1900) ; and R. C. H. Catterall, The
Second Bank of the United States (Chicago, 1993).
Much statistical information is contained in the annual reports
of the comptroller of the currency of the United States, published
annually at Washington. (C. A. C.)
ENGLISH LAW AFFECTING BANKS AND THEIR
CUSTOMERS
Issue of Notes. The legislation which culminated in the Bank
Charter Acts of 1844 and 1845 secured to the Bank of England
the absolute monopoly of the note issue within the city of
London and a 3-m. radius. Outside that radius, and within
65 m. of the city, there is a concurrent right in banks, consisting
of six or less than six persons, established before 1844, and issuing
notes at that date; beyond the 65-m. radius the privilege may be
exercised by all banks established before 1844, and then issuing
notes, who have not since lost their right to do so by bankruptcy,
abandonment of business, or temporary suspension of issue.
According to some authorities, the effect of 20 and 21 Viet,
cap. 49, sec. 12 [re-enacted Companies Consolidation Act 1908,
sec. 286 (rf)] was to sanction the increase in the constitution of
any bank issuing notes outside the 3-m. and within the 65-m.
radius from six to ten persons without affecting the power to issue
notes. The rule as formulated above is, however, that enunciated
by Bowen J. in Capital and Counties Bank v. Bank of England,
1889; 61 L.T. 516. The increase in the number of joint-stock
banks and the gradual absorption of the smaller and older
concerns have had the effect of minimizing the output of notes
other than those issued by the Bank of England, and, as exem-
plified by the case of The Attorney-General v. Birkbeck, 12
Q.B.D. 57, it would seem impossible to devise any scheme by
which the note-issuing power of an absorbed bank could be con-
tinued to the new or amalgamated body. But a bank having
the right would not necessarily lose it by absorbing other banks
(Capital and Counties Bank v. Bank of England). Foreign banks
may establish branches in Great Britain on complying with the
regulations imposed on them by the Companies Consolidation
Act 1908, but cannot apparently issue notes, even though payable
abroad.
Deposit Business. The term " bank of deposit " gives a mis-
taken idea of the real relation between banker and customer.
So long ago as 1848 it was decided by the House of geiftioa
Lords in Foley v. Hill, 2 H. of L. 28, that the real between
relation between banker and customer was that of *"***
debtor and creditor, not in any sense that of trustee *"''
and cestui que trust, or depositee and depositor, as had been
formerly supposed and contended. The ordinary process by
which a man pays money in to his account at his banker's is in
law simply lending the money to the banker; it fixes the banker
with no fiduciary relation, and he is in no way responsible to the
customer for the use he may make of the money so paid in.
And as being a mere debt, a customer's right to recover money
paid in is barred on the expiration of six years by the Statute of
Limitations, if there has been no payment meantime on account
of principal or interest, and no acknowledgment sufficient to bar
the statute (Pott v. Clegg, 16 M. & W. 321). Such a state of
affairs, however, is hardjy likely to arise, inasmuch as, in the
absence of specific appropriation, earlier drawings out are attri-
buted to the earlier payments in, as in the ordinary case of
current accounts, and so the items on the credit and debit side
cancel each other. An apparent exception to this system of
appropriation exists in cases where a man wrongfully pays into
his own account moneys held by him in a fiduciary capacity. In
such circumstances he is presumed to have drawn out his own
moneys rather than those affected by the trust, and so long as
the account is in credit, any balance will be attributed to the
trust money. As between contending claims to the money,
based on different breaches of trust, the ordinary rule of appro-
priation will apply.
It has often been suggested that the only method of with-
drawing money from a banker is by cheque, that the present-
ation of a cheque is a condition precedent to the
liability of the banker to repay. This is not so; such
a view being inconsistent with the cases establishing the effect
of the Statute of Limitations on money left in a banker's hands,
and with the numerous cases in which a balance at a bank has
been attached as a simple and unconditional debt by a garnishee
order, as, for instance, in Rogers v. Whiteley, 1892, A.C. 118.
The banker's position with regard to cheques is that, superadded
to the relation of debtor and creditor, there is an obligation to
honour the customer's cheques provided the banker has a
sufficient and available balance in his hands for the purpose
(Foley v. Hill). If, having such funds in his hands, the banker
dishonours a cheque, he is liable to the customer in substantial
damages without proof of actual injury having accrued (Rolin v.
Steward, 14 C.B. 595). Where several cheques are presented
simultaneously and the available balance is insufficient to pay all.
the banker should pay as many as the funds will cover, and is
not bound to discriminate between particular cheques. It would
seem a legitimate condition that a cheque should be drawn in the
ordinary recognized form, not in one raising any question or
doubt as to its validity or effect. Cheques drawn to " wages or
order," " petty cash or order," or the like, are common, and are
sometimes regarded as payable to bearer. Such payees are not.
however, " fictitious or non-existent persons," so as to render
the cheques payable to the bearer under sec. 7, subs. 3 of the Bills
of Exchange Act 1882, nor can such payees endorse. Some banks
refuse to pay such cheques, and it is conceived they are justified
in so doing. Money paid in so shortly before the presentation of
the cheque that there would not have been time to pass it through
the books of the bank would not be treated as available for
drawing against. If a person have an account at one branch of
a bank, he is not entitled to draw cheques on another branch
350
BANKS AND BANKING
[ENGLISH LAW
where he has either no account or is overdrawn, but the bank
has, as against the customer, the right to combine accounts at
different branches and treat them as one account (Garnet v.
M'Ewen, L.R. 8 Ex. 10). Funds are not available so long as
a garnishee order, founded on a judgment against the customer,
is pending, since it attaches all moneys on current account
irrespective of the amount of the judgment (Rogers v. Whiteley).
The very questionable practice of post-dating cheques has
been the source of considerable doubt and inconvenience to
bankers. The use of such documents enables the drawer to
obtain the results of a bill at a fixed future date without the
expense of a regular bill-stamp. But the Bills of Exchange Act
iSSz.sec. I3,subs.i, provides that " a bill is not invalid by reason
only that it is ante-dated or post-dated, or that it bears date on
a Sunday." The banker cannot therefore refuse to pay a cheque
presented after the apparent date of its issue on the ground that
he knows it to have been post-dated. On the other hand, he
is entitled and indeed bound to refuse payment if such a cheque
is presented before the apparent date of its issue (Morley v.
Ctdverwell, 7 M. & W. at p. 178). Revocation of authority to
pay a cheque must come to the banker's conscious knowledge
and be unequivocal both in terms and method of communication.
He is not bound to act on an unconfirmed telegram (Curtice v.
London City if Midland Bank [1908], i K.B. 293). The banker's
authority to pay cheques is terminated by the death, insanity
or bankruptcy of the customer, or by notice of an available act
of bankruptcy committed by him.
The banker is bound to observe secrecy with respect to the
customer's account, unless good cause exists for disclosure, and
the obligation does not cease if the account becomes overdrawn
(Hardy v. Veasey, L.R. 3 Ex. 107). In England a cheque is not
an assignment of funds in the banker's hands (Bills of Exchange
Act 1882, sec. 53). The holder of the cheque has therefore no
claim on the banker in the event of payment being refused,
his remedy being against the drawer and endorser, if any. On
this section is also based the custom of English bankers not to
pay part of the amount of a cheque where there are funds, though
not sufficient to meet the whole amount. The section does not
apply to Scotland, where it would seem that the bank is bound
to pay over what funds it has towards satisfaction of the
cheque. A banker is entitled to hold paid cheques as vouchers
until there has been a settlement of account between him and
the customer. The entries in a pass-book constitute prima facie
evidence against the banker, and when returned by the customer
without comment, against him; but the proposition that such
return constitutes a settlement of account has been much dis-
puted. Indeed where forgery is the ground of repudiation of a
cheque, no dealings or omissions of the customer with regard to
the pass-book would seem to preclude him from objecting to
being debited and throwing the loss on the banker (Kepitigatta
Rubber Co. v. National Bank of India, 25 Times L.R. 402).
As against the banker, however, credit entries in the pass-book
cannot be disputed if the customer has altered his position in
reliance thereon, and cheques drawn against an apparent balance
must be honoured (Holland v. Manchester 6* Liverpool District
Bank, 25 Times L.R. 386).
The rule by which the holder of a cheque has no direct recourse
against the banker who dishonours it, holds good even where the
banker has before issue marked the cheque as good for the
amount, such marking not amounting to an acceptance by the
banker. As between banker and banker, however, such marking
or certifying probably amounts to a binding representation that
the cheque will be paid, and, if done by request of the drawer,
the latter cannot subsequently revoke the authority to pay.
In certain circumstances, marking at the instance of the person
presenting the cheque for payment may amount to an under-
taking by the banker to hold the money for his benefit (In re
Beaumont [1902], i Ch. p. 895).
A banker either paying or collecting money on a cheque to
which the person tendering it for payment or collection has no
title or a defective title is prima facie liable to the true owner for
conversion or money had and received, notwithstanding he acted
in perfect good faith and derived no benefit from the operation.
Payment of an open cheque, payable to bearer either originally or
by endorsement, is, however, in all cases a good payment and
discharge (Charles v. Blackwell, 2 C.P.D. at p. 158). Limited
protection in other cases has been extended by legislation to the
banker with regard to both payment and collection of cheques,
usually on the principle of counterbalancing some particular
risk imposed on him by enactments primarily designed to safe-
guard the public.
By sec. 19 of the Stamp Act 1853, the banker paying a draft
or order payable to order on demand, drawn upon him,, was
relieved from liability in the event of the endorsement having
been forged or unauthorized. This enactment was not repealed
by the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, and, in London City 6* Mid-
land Bank v. Gordon (1903), A.C. 240, was held to cover the case
of drafts drawn by a branch of a bank on its head office. Sec. 60
of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882 extends like protection to the
banker in the case of cheques, the definition of which therein as
" bills drawn on a banker payable on demand " debars drafts of
the above-mentioned description. Such definition, involving the
unconditional character of the instrument, also precludes from
the protection of this section the documents now frequently
issued by corporations and others, which direct bankers to make
payments on a specific attached receipt being duly signed
(London City & Midland Bank v. Gordon). Sec. 17 of the
Revenue Act 1883, however, applies to these documents the
crossed cheques sections of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882
(see Bavius, Jr., & Sims v. London & South-Western Bank [1900],
i Q.B. 270), while denying them the position of negotiable
instruments, and a banker paying one of them crossed, in accord-
ance with the crossing and in the absence of any indication of
its having been transferred, could probably claim immunity
under sec. 80. The Bills of Exchange Act 1882 contains no
direct prohibition against a banker paying a- crossed cheque
otherwise than in accordance with the crossing, but if he do so
he is liable to the true owner for any loss suffered by him in
consequence of such payment (sec. 79), and is probably unable
to charge his customer with the amount. A banker paying a
crossed cheque in accordance with its ostensible tenor obtains
protection under sec. 80 and the proviso to sec. 79. Questions
have arisen as to the bearing of the crossed cheques sections
when a crossed cheque drawn on one branch of a bank is paid
in for collection by a customer at another branch; but the
transaction is so obviously a legitimate and necessary one that
either by the collecting branch may be regarded as a separate bank
for this purpose, or sec. 79 may be ignored as inapplic-
able (Gordon v. London City & Midland Bank [1902], i K.B.
2 4 2C.A.).
The collection of crossed cheques for a customer being virtu-
ally incumbent on a banker, qualified immunity is accorded him
in so doing by sec. 82, a final exposition of which was given by
the House of Lords in London City& Midland Bank v. Gordon
(1903), A.C. 240. To come within its provisions, the banker
must fulfil the following conditions. He must receive the cheque
from, and the money for, a customer, i.e. a person with whom he
has definite and existing business relations (see Great Western
Ry. Co. v. London 6* County Bank [1901], A.C. 414). He must
take the cheque already crossed generally or specially to himself.
His own crossing under sec. 77 is absolutely inefficacious in this
connexion. He must take the cheque and receive the money in
good faith and without negligence. Negligence in this relation
is the omission to exercise due care in the interest of the true
owner, not necessarily the customer. To avoid this disquali-
fication of negligence, the banker must see that the endorsements,
where necessary, are ostensibly correct; he must satisfy himself
of the authority where an endorsement is per procuration; he
must not take for private account a cheque which on its face
indicates that the holder is in possession of it as agent, or in an
official capacity, or for partnership purposes (Hannan's Lake View
Central Ld. v. Armstrong & Co., 16 Times L.R. 236; Bevan v.
National Bank, 23 Times L.R. 65); he must not take a cheque
marked " account payee " for an account other than that
ENGLISH LAW]
BANKS AND BANKING
35 1
indicated (Bevan v. National Bank). It is further demonstrated
by the Gordon case that the banker only secures protec-
tion so long as he is acting strictly as a conduit pipe, or as agent
for the customer. If he put himself in the position of owner
of the cheque, he no longer fulfils the condition of receiving the
money only for the customer. In the Gordon case, adoption of
the not uncommon practice of crediting cheques as cash in the
bank's books before the money was actually received was held
equivalent to taking them as transferee or owner, and to debar
the bank from the protection of sec. 82. The anxiety and in-
convenience caused to bankers by this unexpected decision was
ultimately removed by the Bills of Exchange (Crossed Cheques)
Act 1906, which enacts that a banker receives payment of a
crossed cheque for a customer within the meaning of sec. 82 of
the Bills of Exchange Act 1882, notwithstanding that he credits
his customer's account with the amount of the cheque before
receiving payment thereof. Apparently the scope of this act
must be confined to its immediate object, and it does not affect
the relations and rights between the banker and his customer or
parties to the cheque arising from such crediting as cash. For
instance, the customer, in the absence of agreement to the con-
trary, may at once draw against cheques so credited, while the
banker may still debit the customer with the amount of the
cheque if returned unpaid, or sue the drawer or indorser thereon.
The protection to the collecting banker is in no way affected
by the cheque being crossed " not negotiable," or by the nature
of the fraud or crime by which the cheque was obtained by the
customer or any previous possessor, although there are dicta
which have been interpreted in the contrary sense. Nor does the
fact that the customer is overdrawn deprive the banker of the
character of a collecting agent, unless the cheque be de-
finitely given and taken in reduction of such overdraft. Where
the conditions requisite for protection exist, the protection
covers not only the receipt of the money, but all operations usual
in business and leading up to such receipt, on the basis of the
customer's title being unimpeachable. The provisions of the
crossed cheques sections of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882 are
extended to dividend warrants by sec. 95 of that act, and to
certain orders for payment issued by a customer of a banker
by sec. 17 of the Revenue Act 1883, as before stated. But the
wording of the Bills of Exchange (Crossed Cheques) Act 1906,
specifying as it does cheques alone, appears to exclude docu-
ments of both these classes from its operation. With regard to
the orders for payment, inasmuch as the same section which
brings them within the crossed cheques sections expressly pro-
vides that they shall not be negotiable, a banker would probably
be protected only in taking them from the specified payee,
though this distinction has been ignored in some recently decided
cases.
Where a banker incurs loss through forgery or fraud in circum-
stances not covered by statutory protection, his right to relief,
Fraud. ^ anv > must depend on general principles. He cannot
charge his customer with payments made on a forgery
of that customer's signature, on the ground either that he is
presumed to know such signature or that the payment is un-
authorized. But if the customer has accredited the forgery, or,
having knowledge or reasonable ground for belief that it has
been committed, has failed to warn the banker, who has thereby
suffered loss or prejudice, the customer will be held estopped
from disputing the banker's right to debit him with the amount
(Vagliano v. Bank of England [1891], A.C. 107; M'Kenziev.
British Linen Co. 6 A.C. 82; Riving v. Dominion Bank [1904],
A.C. 806). The doctrine of the fictitious person as payee may
also exonerate a banker who has paid an order bill to a wrongful
possessor. Payment on a forgery to an innocent holder is pay-
ment under mistake of fact; but the ordinary right of the payer
to recover money so paid is subordinated to the necessity of safe-
guarding the characteristics of negotiability. Views differ as to
whether the recovery is precluded only where the opportunity
of giving notice of dishonour is lost or prejudiced by delay in
reclaiming payment, or whether mere possibility of damage is
sufficient (cf . London & River Plate Bank v. Bank of Liverpool
[1896], i Q.B. 7, and Imperial Bank of Canada v. Bank of
Hamilton [1903], A.C. 49).
Cases have frequently arisen where the carelessness of a cus-
tomer in filling up cheques has enabled a person to fraudulently
increase the sum for which such cheques were originally drawn.
In Colonial Bank of Australasia v. Mars/tall [1906], A.C. 559, the
judicial committee of the privy council held that the affording
such facilities for forgery was no breach of the customer's duty
to his banker, and that the latter was not entitled to debit the
customer with more than the original amount. As before stated,
the customer's dealings with the pass-book cannot, in the present
state of the authorities, be relied on as debarring him from dis-
puting unauthorized payments appearing therein.
The payment of bills accepted payable at the bank is not,
like the payment of cheques, an essential obligation of the banker,
and the risk involved is enhanced by the fact that the
banker must pay or refuse payment at once, no interval valuables.
being allowed for verification of endorsements. The
abolition or modification of the practice has frequently been
advocated, but it is one of the facilities which competition
compels bankers to extend to their customers. On the same
basis stands the receipt of a customer's valuables for safe custody.
The question of the banker's responsibility for the loss of goods
so deposited with him was raised, but not decided, in an action
brought by Mrs Langtry against the Union Bank of London in
1896. Certain jewels belonging to her had been delivered up by
the bank to an unauthorized person on a forged order. The case
was settled; but bankers being desirous to ascertain their real
position, many legal opinions were taken on the point, and after
consideration of these, the Central Association of Bankers issued
a memorandum, in which they stated that the best legal opinion
appeared to be that a distinction must be drawn between cases
in which valuables were by mistake delivered to the wrong person
and cases in which they were destroyed, lost, stolen or fraudu-
lently abstracted, whether by an officer of the bank or some other
person. That in the former case the question of negligence did
not arise, the case being one of wrongful conversion of the
goods by a voluntary act for which the bank was liable apart
from any question of negligence. That, in the second case, that
of loss or theft, the banker, being a gratuitous bailee, would only
be liable if he had failed to use such care as an ordinary prudent
man would take of valuables of his own. The latter rule is
practically that laid down in Giblin v. MocMullen, L.R. 2 P.C.
318, but in estimating the amount of care to be taken by the
banker, the nature of the goods, if known or suspected, and the
exceptional means of protection at the disposition of bankers,
such as strong-rooms, must be taken into consideration. Methods
of obviating both classes of risk by means of special receipts have
frequently been suggested, but such receipts do not appear to
have come into general use.
Theoretically, bankers are supposed to refuse accounts which
are either expressedly or are known to be trust accounts. In
practice, however, it is by no means uncommon to Trustees.
find accounts opened with a definite heading indicating
the fiduciary capacity. In other cases, circumstances exist which
affect the banker with notice of that capacity. In either case,
however, the obligation to honour the customer's cheque is the
predominant factor, and the banker is not bound or entitled to
question the propriety or object of the cheque, unless he has very
clear evidence of impending fraud (Gray v. Johnston, L.R. 3 H.
of L. i). Even though the banker have derived some personal
benefit from the transaction, it cannot be impeached unless
the banker's conduct amount in law to his being party
or privy to the fraud, as where he has stipulated or pressed for
the settlement or reduction of an ascertained overdraft on private
account, which has been effected by cheque on the trust account
(Coleman v. Bucks & Oxon Union Bank [1897], 2 Ch. 243). A
banker is entitled, in dealing with trust moneys,known to be such,
to insist on the authority of the whole body of trustees, direct
and not deputed, and this is probably the safest course to adopt.
Scarcely larger responsibility devolves on Joint Stock Banks
appointed custodian trustees under the Public Trustee Act 1906,
352
BANKS AND BANKING
[ENGLISH LAW
a remunerative position involving custody of trust funds and
securities, and making and receiving payments on behalf of the
estate, while leaving the active direction thereof in the hands
of the managing trustees.
Other incidents of the ordinary practice of banking are the
discounting of bills, the keeping of deposit accounts, properly
so called, and the making of advances to customers,
counting either by way of definite loan or arranged overdraft.
So far as the discounting of bills is concerned, there is
little to differentiate the position of the banker from that of any
ordinary bill-discounter. It has been contended, however, that
the peculiar attribute of the banker's lien entitled him to hold
funds of the customer against his liability on current discounted
bills. This contention was ultimately disposed of by Bowen v.
Foreign & Colonial Gas Company, 22 W.R. 740, where it was
pointed out that the essential object of a customer's discounting
bills with his banker was to feed the current account, and that
a possible liability constituted no set-off against an existing debt.
Whether a particular bill has been taken for discount or collection
is a question of fact. As in the payment of bills, so in the collec-
tion of them, there is no statutory protection whatever for the
banker; as against third parties he can only rely either on
the customer's title or his own as a holder for value, if no
forged endorsement intervene and he can establish a con-
sideration.
A deposit account, whether at call or on fixed notice, does not
constitute any fiduciary relation between the depositor and the
banker, but merely a debt due from the latter to the
accounts, former. It has been suggested that cheques can be
drawn against deposit account on call, and, though a
banker might safely honour such a cheque, relying, if necessary,
on his right of lien or set-off, there appears no legal right in the
customer to enforce such payment. Deposit receipts given by
bankers are exempt from stamp duty, even though they contain
an undertaking with respect to payment of principal and interest.
They are clearly not negotiable instruments, but it is difficult
to deduce from the cases how far dealings with them may amount
to an equitable assignment of the moneys they represent. Prob-
ably deliberate definite transfer, coupled with endorsement,
would confer an effective title to such moneys. Where, as is not
uncommon, the form of deposit note includes a cheque, the
banker could not refuse to pay were the cheque presented and
any superadded formalities complied with.
There is no obligation on a banker to permit his customer
to overdraw, apart from agreement express or implied from
course of business. Drawing a cheque or accepting
ana" 1 ""* a bil1 P av . able at tne banker's which there are not funds
'advances. to m eet is an implied request for an overdraft, which
the banker may or may not comply with. Interest is
clearly chargeable on overdrafts whether stipulated for or not.
There is no direct authority establishing this right in the banker,
and interest is not usually recoverable on mere debts, but the
charge is justifiable on the ground of the universal custom of
bankers, if not otherwise. The charging of compound interest or
interest with periodical rests has been supported where such
system of keeping the accounts has been brought to the notice
of the customer by means of the pass-book, and not objected
to by him, but in the present attitude of the courts towards
the pass-book some further recognition would seem necessary.
Such system of charging interest, even when fully recognized,
only prevails so long as the relation of banker and customer, on
which it is founded, continues in force; the taking a mortgage
for the existing debt would put an end to it.
The main point in which advances made by bankers differ
from those made by other people is the exceptional right pos-
sessed by bankers of securing repayment by means
of the banker's lien. The banker's lien is part of the
law merchant and entitles him, in the absence of agreement
express or implied to the contrary, to retain and apply, in dis-
charge of the customer's liability to him, any securities of the
customer coming into his possession in his capacity as banker.
It includes bills and cheques paid in for collection (Currie v.
Lien.
Misa, i A.C. 564). Either by virtue of it, or his right of set-
off, the banker can retain moneys paid in by or received for the
credit of the customer, against the customer's debt to him.
Goods deposited for safe custody or moneys paid in to meet
particular bills are exempt from the lien, the purpose for which
they come to the banker's hands being inconsistent with the
assertion of the lien. The existence of the banker's lien entitles
him to sue all parties to bills or cheques by virtue of sec. 27, subs.
3 of the Bills of Exchange Act, and to the extent of his advances
his title is independent of that of the previous holder. Moreover,
the banker's lien, though so termed, is really in effect an implied
pledge, and confers the rights of realization pn default pertaining
to that class of bailment. But with regard to the exercise of
his lien, as in many other phases of his relation to his customer,
the banker's strict rights may be curtailed or circumscribed by
limitations arising out of course of business. The principle,
based either on general equity or estoppel and independent of
definite agreement or consideration, requires that when dealings
between banker and customer have for a reasonable space of
time proceeded on a recognized footing, the banker shall not
suddenly break away from such established order of things and
assert his strict legal rights to the detriment of the customer.
By the operation of this rule, the banker may be precluded from
asserting his lien in particular cases, as for instance for an over-
draft on one account against another which had habitually
been kept and operated on separately. It equally prevents
the dishonouring of cheques in circumstances in which they
have hitherto been paid independent of the actual available
balance.
Restrictions arising from course of business can of course be
put an end to by the banker, but only on reasonable notice to
the customer and by providing for outstanding liabilities under-
taken by the latter in reliance on the continuance of the pre-
existing state of affairs (see Buckingham v. London &* Midland
Bank, 12 Times L.R. 70). As against this, the banker can, in
some cases, fortify his position by appeal to the custom of bankers.
The validity of such custom, provided it be general and reason-
able, has frequently been recognized by the courts. Any person
entering on business relations with a banker must be taken to
contemplate the existence of such custom and implicitly agree
that business shall be conducted in accordance therewith.
Practical difficulty has been suggested with regard to proof of
any such custom not already recognized in law, as to how far it
can be established by the evidence of one party, the bankers,
unsupported by that of members of the outside public, in most
cases impossible to obtain. It is conceived, however, that on the
analogy of local custom and the Stock Exchange rules, such
outside evidence could be dispensed with, and this is the line
apparently indicated with relation to the pass-book by the
court of appeal in Vagliano's case (23 Q.B.D. at p. 245). The
unquestionable right of the banker to summarily debit his cus-
tomer's account with a returned cheque, even when unindorsed
by the customer and taken by the banker in circumstances
constituting him a transferee of the instrument, is probably
referable to a custom of this nature. So is the common practice
of bankers to refuse payment of a so-called " stale " cheque,
that is, one presented an unreasonable time after its ostensible
date; although the fact that some banks treat a cheque as stale
after six months, others not till after twelve, might be held to
militate against the validity of such custom, and lapse of time
is not included by the Bills of Exchange Act among the matters
working revocation of the banker's duty, and authority to
pay his customer's cheque. Indirectly, this particular custom
obtains some support from sec. 74 (2) of the Bills of Exchange
Act, although the object of that section is different.
That section does, however, import the custom of bankers into
the reckoning of a reasonable time for the presentation of a
cheque, and with other sections clears up any doubts which
might have arisen on the common law as to the right of the holder
of a cheque, whether crossed or not, to employ his banker for
its collection, without imperilling his rights against prior parties
in case of dishonour. On dishonour of a cheque paid in for
BANKSIA BANNERET
353
collection, the banker is bound to give notice of dishonour.
Being in the position of an agent, he may either give notice
to his principal, the customer, or to the parties liable on the bill.
The usual practice of bankers has always been to return the
cheque to the customer, and sec. 49, subs. 6 of the Bills of
Exchange Act is stated to have been passed to validate this
custom. Inasmuch as it only provides for the return of the
dishonoured bill or cheque to the drawer or an endorser it appears
to miss the case of a cheque to bearer or become payable to
bearer by blank endorsement prior to the customer's.
Where a bank or a banker takes a mortgage, legal or equitable,
or a guarantee as cover for advances or overdraft, there is nothing
necessarily differentiating the position from that of any other
mortgagee or guaranteed party. It has, however, fallen to banks
to evoke some leading decisions with respect to the former class
of security. In London Joint Stock Bank \.Simmons ([1892], A.C.
201) the House of Lords, professedly explaining their previous
decision in Sheffield v. London Joint Stock Bank, 13 A.C. 333,
determined that negotiable securities, commercial or otherwise,
may safely be taken in pledge for advances, though the person
tendering them is, from his known position, likely to be holding
them merely as agent for other persons, so long as they are taken
honestly and there is nothing tangible, outside the man's position,
to arouse suspicion. So again in Lloyd's Bank v. Cooke [1907],
i K.B. 794, the bank vindicated the important principle that
the common law of estoppel still obtains with regard to bills,
notes and cheques, save where distinctly annulled or abrogated
by the Bills of Exchange Act, and that therefore a man putting
inchoate negotiable instruments into the hands of an agent for
the purpose of his raising money thereon is responsible to any
one taking them bona fide and for value, although the agent may
have fraudulently exceeded and abused his authority and the
case does not fall within the provisions of the Bills of Exchange
Act.
With regard to guarantees, the main incidents peculiarly
affecting bankers are the following. The existence of a guarantee
does not oblige the banker to any particular system
of keeping the account. So long as it is not unfairly
manipulated to the detriment of the guarantor, there
is no obligation to put moneys paid in, without appropriation,
to the guaranteed rather than to the unguaranteed account,
and on the termination of a guarantee, the banker may close the
account, leaving it to be covered by the guarantee, and open a
new one with the customer, to which he may devote payments
in, not otherwise appropriated. Where by its nature or terms
a continuing guarantee is revocable either summarily or on
specified notice, difficult questions may arise on such revocation
as to the banker's duty and obligations towards the customer,
who has probably incurred liabilities on the strength of the credit
afforded by the guarantee. Although the existence of a guaran-
tee does not bind the banker to advance up to the prescribed
limit, he could not well, on revocation, immediately shut off all
facilities from the customer without notice, while subsequent
purely voluntary advances might not be covered by the guaran-
tee. These contingencies should therefore be fully provided for
by the guarantee, particularly the crucial period of the pendency
of notice.
AUTHORITIES. The Institute of Bankers (London), Questions
on Banking Practice (6th ed., 1909) ; J. Douglas Walker, A Treat-
ise on Banking Law (2nd ed., 1885); Chalmers, Bills of Exchange
(7th ed., 1909); Sir j. R. Paget, The Law of Banking (2nd ed.,
1908) ; H. Hart, The Law of Banking (and ed., 1906). (J. R. P.)
BANKSIA, an Australian genus of shrubs and trees (natural
order Proteaceae), with leathery leaves often deeply cut and
handsome dense spikes of flowers. It is named after Sir Joseph
Banks (?..). The plants are grown in England for their handsome
foliage as evergreen greenhouse shrubs.
BANKURA, a town and district of British India, within the
Burdwan division of Bengal. The town has a population of
20,737. The district has an area of 2621 sq. m., and in 1901 its
population was 1,116,411, showing an increase of 4% in the
decade. It is bounded on the N. and E. by Burdwan district;
III. 13
on the S. by Midnapur district; and on the W. by Manbhura
district. Bankura forms a connecting link between the delta
of the Ganges on the E. and the mountainous highlands of
Chota Nagpur on the W. Along its eastern boundary adjoining
Burdwan district the country is flat and alluvial, presenting the
appearance of the ordinary paddy lands of Bengal. Going N.
and W., however, the surface gradually rises into long undulating
tracts; rice lands and swamps give way to a region of low thorny
jungle or forest trees; the hamlets become smaller and more
scattered, and nearly disappear altogether in the wild forests
along the western boundary. Large quantities of lac and tussur
silk are gathered in the hilly tract. The stone quarries and
minerals are little worked. There are indigo factories and two
coal-mines. Both cotton and silk are woven, and plates, &c.,
are carved from soap-stone. The old capital of the country was
at Bishnupur, which is still the chief centre of local industries.
The north-east part of the district is skirted by the East Indian
railway beyond the river Damodar. The Midnapur-Jherria line
of the Bengal-Nagpur railway passes through the district, and
there is a line frorn Howrah to Bankura. The climate of Bankura
is generally healthy, the cold season being bracing, the air whole-
some and dry, and fogs of rare occurrence. The district is
exposed to drought and also to destructive floods. It suffered in
thefaminesof 1866, 1874-1875 and 1896-1897. The temperature
in the hot season is very oppressive and relaxing. The Bishnupur
raj was one of the largest estates in Bengal in the end of the
1 8th century, but it was sold for arrears of revenue shortly
after the conclusion of the permanent settlement in 1793.
BANK, the principal river in the north of Ireland. Rising in
the Mourne mountains in the south of the Co. Down it runs
N.W. until it enters Lough Neagh (q.v.), which it drains N.N.W.
to an estuary at Coleraine, forming Lough Beg immediately
below the larger lough. The length of its valley (excluding the
lesser windings of the river) is about oo m. The total drainage
area, including the other important feeders of Lough Neagh, is
about 2300 sq. m., extending westward to the confines of the
Co. Fermanagh, and including parts of the Cos. Down and
Antrim, Armagh and Monaghan, Tyrone and Londonderry.
The river has valuable salmon fisheries, but is not of much
importance for navigation. Above Lough Neagh it is known
as the Upper Bann and below as the Lower Bann.
BANNATYNE, GEORGE (1345-? 1608), collector of Scottish
poems, was a native of Newtyle, Forfarshire. He became an
Edinburgh merchant and was admitted a burgess in 1 587. Some
years earlier, in 1568, when the " pest " raged in the capital, he
retired to his native county and amused himself by writing out
copies of poems by i$th and early i6th century Scots poets.
His work extended to eight hundred folio pages, divided into five
parts. The MS. descended to his only daughter Janet, and later
to her husband's family, the Foulises of Woodhall and Ravelston,
near Edinburgh. From them it passed to the Advocates' library,
where it is still preserved. This MS., known as the " Bannatyne
Manuscript," constitutes with the " Asloan " and " Maitland
Folio " MSS. the chief repository of Middle Scots poetry, especi-
ally for the texts of the greater poets Henryson, Dunbar, Lyndsay
and Alexander Scott. Portions of it were reprinted (with
modifications) by Allan Ramsay in his Ever Green (1724), and
later, and more correctly, by Lord Hailes in his A ncieni Scottish
Poems (1770). The entire text was issued by the Hunterian Club
(1873-1902) in a handsome and generally accurate form. The
name of Bannatyne was honoured in 1823 by the foundation in
Edinburgh of the Bannatyne Club, devoted to the publication
of historical and literary material from Scottish sources. The
thirty-third issue of the club (1829) was Memorials of George
Bannatyne (1545-1608), with a memoir by Sir Walter Scott and
an account of the MS. by David Laing.
See also Gregory Smith, Specimens of Middle Scots (1902).
BANNERET (Fr. banneret, from banniere, banner, elliptical
for seigneur or chevalier banneret, Med. Lat. banneretus), in
feudalism, the name given to those nobles who had the right to
lead their vassals to battle under their own banner. Ultimately
bannerets obtained a place in the feudal hierarchy between
354
BANNERS BANNOCKBURN
barons and knights bachelors, which has given rise to the idea
that they are the origin of King James I.'s order of baronets.
Selden, indeed, points out that "the old stories" often have
baronetti for bannereti, and he points out that in France the title
had become hereditary; but he himself is careful to say (p. 680)
that banneret " hath no relation to this later title." The title
of knight banneret, with the right to display the private banner,
came to be granted for distinguished service in the field. " No
knight banneret," says Selden, of the English custom, " can be
created but in the field, and that, when either the king is present,
or at least his royal standard is displayed. But the creation is
almost the self-same with that in the old French ceremonies
by the solemn delivery of a banner charged with the arms of
him that is to be created, and the cutting of the end of the pennon
or streamer to make it a square or into the shape of a banner
in case that he which is to be created had in the field his arms
on a streamer before the creation." The creation of bannerets
is traceable, according to Selden, to the time of Edward I.
" Under these bannerets," he adds, " divers knights bachelors
and esquires usually served; and according to the number
of them, the bannerets received wages." The last authentic
instance of the creation of a knight banneret was that of John
Smith, created banneret at the battle of Edgehill by Charles I.
for rescuing the royal standard from the enemy.
See Selden, Titles of Honor (3rd ed., London, 1672), p. 656; Du
Cange, Glossarium (Niort, 1883), s.v. " Bannereti."
BANNERS, FEAST OF (Jap. N obori-no-Sekku) , a Japanese
festival in honour of male children held on the sth of May.
Every householder who has sons fastens a bamboo pole over his
door and hangs from it gaily-coloured paper fishes, one for each
of his boys. These fishes are made to represent carp, which are
in Japanese folklore symbolical of health and longevity. The
day is recognized as a national holiday.
For banners in general see FLAG.
BANNISTER, CHARLES (1738-1804), English actor and
singer, was born in Gloucestershire, and after some amateur
and provincial experience made his first London appearance in
1762 as Will in The Orators at the Haymarket. Gifted with a
fine bass voice, Bannister acquired a reputation as a singer at
Ranelagh and elsewhere, as well as an actor, and was received
with such favour that Garrick engaged him for Drury Lane.
He died on the 26th of October 1804.
His son JOHN BANNISTER (1760-1836), born at Deptford on
the 1 2th of May 1760, first studied to be a painter, but soon
took to the stage. His first formal appearance was at the
Haymarket in 1778 as Dick in The Apprentice. The same
year at Drury Lane he played in James Miller's version of
Voltaire's Mahomet the part of Zaphna, which he had studied
under Garrick. The Palmira of the cast was Mrs Robinson
(" Perdita "). Bannister was the best low comedian of his day.
As manager of Drury Lane (1802) he was no less successful.
He retired in 1815 and died on the 7th of November 1836. He
never gave up his taste for painting, and Gainsborough,
Morland and Rowlandson were among his friends.
See Adolphus's Memoirs of John Bannister (2 vols., 1838).
BANNOCK (adapted from the Gaelic, and apparently connected
with Lat. panis, bread), the term used in Scotland and the north
of England for a large, flattish, round sort of bun or cake, usually
made of barley-meal, but also of wheat, and sometimes with
currants.
BANNOCK, the name of a county in the south-east of the
state of Idaho, U.S.A., and of a river in the same state, which
runs northward in Oneida county into the Snake or Lewis river.
It is taken from that of the Bannock Indians (see BANATE), a
corruption of the native Panaili.
BANNOCKBURN, a town of Stirlingshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 2444. It is situated on the " burn " from which its name
is derived, the Bannock (Gaelic, ban oc, " white, shining stream"),
a right-hand affluent of the Forth, which was once a considerable
river. The town lies 2\ m. S.S.E. of Stirling by the Caledonian
railway, and now has thriving manufactures of woollens (chiefly
tweeds, carpets and tartans) and leather, though at the beginning
of the ipth century it was only a village. The Bore Stone, in
which Bruce planted his standard before the battle in which
he defeated Edward II. in 1314 (see below), is preserved by an
iron grating. A mile to the west is the Gillies' Hill, now finely
wooded, over which the Scots' camp-followers appeared to
complete the discomfiture of the English, to which event it owes
its name. Bannockburn House was Prince Charles Edward's
headquarters in January 1746 before the fight at Falkirk.
The famous battle of Bannockburn (24th June 1314) was
fought for the relief of Stirling Castle, which was besieged by
the Scottish forces under Robert Bruce. The English governor
of Stirling had promised that, if he were not relieved by that date,
he would surrender the castle, and Edward II. hastily collected
an army in the northern and midland counties of England.
Bruce made no attempt to defend the border, and selected his
defensive position on the Bannock Burn, i\ m. S. of Stirling.
His front was covered by the marshy bed of the stream, his left
flank by its northerly bend towards the Forth, his right by a
group of woods, behind which, until the English army appeared,
the Scots concealed themselves. Two corps were left in the open
in observation, one at St Ninian's to watch the lower course of the
burn, one to guard the point at which the Falkirk-Stirling road
crosses the burn. On the 23rd the van of the army of Edward,
which numbered about 60,000 against the 40,000 of the Scots,
appeared to the south of the burn and at once despatched two
bodies of men towards Stirling, the first by the direct road, the
other over the lower Bannock Burn near its junction with the
Forth. The for.ner was met by the Scottish outpost on the road,
and here occurred the famous single combat in which Robert
Bruce, though not fully armed for battle, killed Sir Henry Bohun.
The English corps which took the other route was met and after
a severe struggle defeated by the second Scottish outpost near
St Ninian's. The English army assembled for battle on the
following day. Early on St John's day the Scottish army took
up its assigned positions. Three corps of pikemen in solid masses
formed the first line, which was kept out of sight behind the crest
until the enemy advanced in earnest. A line of " pottes "
(military pits) had been previously dug to give additional pro-
tection to the front, which extended for about one mile from wing
to wing. The reserve under Bruce consisted of a corps of pikemen
and a squadron of 500 chosen men-at-arms under Sir Robert
Keith, the marischal of Scotland. The line of the defenders was
unusually dense; Edward, in forming up on an equal front with
greatly superior numbers, found his army almost hopelessly
cramped. The attacking army was formed in an unwieldy mass
of ten " battles," each consisting of horse and foot, and the whole
formed in three lines each of three " battles," with the tenth
" battle " as a reserve in rear. In this order the English moved
down into the valley for a direct attack, the cavalry of each
" battle " in first line, the foot in second. Ignoring the lesson
of Falkirk (</..), the mounted men rode through the morass and
up the slope, which was now crowned by the three great masses
of the Scottish pikemen. The attack of the English failed to
make any gap in the line of defence, many knights and men-at-
arms were injured by falling into the pits, and the battle became a
melee, the Scots, with better fortune than at Falkirk and Flodden,
presenting always an impenetrable hedge of spears, the English,
too stubborn to draw off, constantly trying in vain to break it
down. So great was the press that the " battles " of the second
line which followed the first were unable to reach the front and
stood on the slope, powerless to take part in the battle on the
crest. The advance of the third English line only made matters
worse, and the sole attempt to deploy the archers was crushed
with great slaughter by the charge of Keith's mounted men.
Bruce threw his infantry reserve into the battle, the arrows of
the English archers wounded the men-at-arms of their own side,
and the remnants of the leading line were tired and disheartened
when the final impetus to their rout was given by the historic
charge of the " gillies," some thousands of Scottish camp-
followers who suddenly emerged from the woods, blowing horns,
waving such weapons as they possessed, and holding aloft
BANNS OF MARRIAGE BANTAM
355
improvised banners. Their cries of " slay, slay ! " seemed to the
wearied English to betoken the advance of a great reserve, and
in a few minutes the whole English army broke and fled in dis-
order down the slope. Many perished in the burn, and the
demoralized fugitives were hunted by the peasantry until they
re-crossed the English border. One earl, forty-two barons and
bannerets, two hundred knights, seven hundred esquires and
probably 10,000 foot were killed in the battle and the pursuit.
One earl, twenty-two barons and bannerets and sixty-eight
knights fell into the hands of the victors, whose total loss of
4000 men included, it is said, only two knights.
See J. E. Shearer, Fact and Fiction in the Story of Bannockburn
(1909).
BANNS OF MARRIAGE (formerly bannes, from A.S. gebann,
proclamation, Fr. ban, Med. Lat. bannum), the public legal
notice of an impending marriage. The church in earliest days
was forewarned of marriages(Tertullian,,4<f Uxorem, DePudicilia,
c. 4). The first canonical enactment on the subject in theEnglish
church is that contained in the nth canon of the synod of West-
minster in London (A.D. 1200), which orders that " no marriage
shall be contracted without banns thrice published in the church,
unless by special authority of the bishop." It is, however, believed
that the practice was in France as old as the gth century, and
certainly Odo, bishop of Paris, ordered it in 1176. Some have
thought that the custom originated in the ancient rule that all
" good knights and true," who elected to take part in the tourna-
ments, should hang up their shields in the nearest church for
some weeks before the opening of the lists, so that, if any " impedi-
ment " existed, they might be " warned off." By theLateran
Council of 1215 the publication of banns was made compulsory
on all Christendom. In early times it was usual for the priest
to betroth the pair formally in the name of the Blessed Trinity;
and sometimes the banns were published at vespers, sometimes
during mass. In the United Kingdom, under the canon law and
by statute, banns are the normal preliminary to marriage; but
a marriage may also be solemnized without the publication of
banns, by obtaining a licence or a registrar's certificate. In
America there is no statutory requirement; and the practice of
banns (though general in the colonial period) is practically con-
fined to the Roman Catholics.
BANNU, a town and district of British India, in the Derajat
division of the North- West Frontier Province. The town (also
called Edwardesabad and Dhulipnagar) lies in the north-west
corner of the district, in the valley of the Kurram river. Pop.
(1901) 14,300. It forms the base for all punitive expeditions
to the Tochi Valley and Waziri frontier.
The district of Bannu, which only consists of the Bannu and
Marwat tahsils since the constitution of the North- West Frontier
Province in 1001, contains an area of 1680 sq. m. lying north
of the Indus. The cis-Indus portions of Bannu and Dera Ismail
Khan now comprises the new Punjab district of Mianwali. In
addition to the Indus the other streams flowing through the
district are the Kurram (which falls into the Indus) and its
tributary the Gambila. The valley of Bannu proper, stretching
to the foot of the frontier hills, forms an irregular oval, measuring
60 m. from north to south and about 40 m. from east to west.
In 1901 the population was 231,485, of whom the great majority
were Mahommedans. The principal tribes inhabiting the district
are: (i) Waziri Pathans, recent immigrants from the hills, for
the most part peaceable and good cultivators; (2) Marwats,
a Pathan race, inhabiting the lower and more sandy portions
of the Bannu valley; (3) Bannuchis, a mongrel Afghan tribe
of bad physique and mean vices. The inhabitants of this district
have always been very independent and stubbornly resisted
the Afghan and Sikh predecessors of the British. After the
annexation of the Punjab the valley was administered by
Herbert Edwardes so thoroughly that it became a source of
strength instead of weakness during the Mutiny. The inhabitants
of the valley itself are now peaceful, but it is always subject to
incursion from the Waziri tribes in the Tochi valley and the
neighbouring hills. Salt is quarried on government account
at Kalabagh and alum is largely obtained in the same neigh-
bourhood. The chief export is wheat. A military road leads
from Bannu town towards Dera Ismail Khan. The Indus,
which is nowhere bridged within the district, is navigable for
native boats throughout its course of 76 m. The chief frontier
tribes on the border are the Waziris, Battannis and Dawaris.
All these are described under their separate names.
BANSDA, a native state in the south Gujarat division of
Bombay, India, belonging to the Surat agency. Area, 2 1 5 sq. m.
Pop. (1901) 40,382, showing a decrease of 2% in the decade;
estimated revenue 19,508. Its chief is a rajput. About half
the total area of the state is cultivable, but the bulk is forested.
BANSHEE (Irish bean sidhe; Gaelic ban silk, " woman of
the fairies "), a supernatural being in Irish and general Celtic
folklore, whose mournful screaming, or " keening," at night is
held to foretell the death of some member of the household
visited. In Ireland legends of the banshee belong more particu-
larly to certain families in whose records periodic visits from
the spirit are chronicled. A like ghostly informer figures in
Brittany folklore. The Irish banshee is held to be the distinction
only of families of pure Milesian descent. The Welsh have the
banshee under the name gwrach y Rhibyn (witch of Rhibyn).
Sir Walter Scott mentions a belief in the banshee as existing in
the highlands of Scotland (Demonology and Witchcraft, p. 351).
A Welsh death-portent often confused with the gwrach y
Rhibyn and banshee is the cyhyraeth, the groaning spirit.
See W. Wirt Sikes, British Goblins (1880).
BANSWARA (literally "the forest country"), a rajput
feudatory state in Rajputana, India. It borders on Gujarat
and is bounded on the N. by the native states of Dungarpur
and Udaipur or Mewar; on the N.E. and E. by Partabgarh;
on the S. by the dominions of Holkar and the state of Jabua;
and on the W. by the state of Rewa Kantha. Banswara state
is about 45 m. in length from N. to S., and 33 m. in breadth
from E. to W., and has an area of 1946 sq. m. The population
in 1901 was 165,350. The Mahi is the only river in the state
and great scarcity of water occurs in the dry season. The
Banswara chief belongs to the family of Udaipur. During the
vigour of the Delhi empire Banswara formed one of its depend-
encies; on its decline the state passed under the Mahrattas.
Wearied out by their oppressions, its chief in 1812 petitioned for
English protection, on the condition of his state becoming
tributary on the expulsion of the Mahrattas. The treaty of 1818
gave effect to this arrangement, Britain guaranteeing the prince
against external enemies and refractory chiefs; he, on his part,
pledging himself to be guided by her representative in the
administration of his state. The chief is assisted in the adminis-
tration by a hamdar or minister. The estimated gross revenue
is 17,000 and the tribute 2500. The custom of suttee, or
widow-burning, has long been abolished in the state, but the
people retain all their superstitions regarding witches and
sorcery; and as late as 1870, a Bhil woman, about eighty years
old, was swung to death at Kushalgarh on an accusation of
witchcraft. The perpetrators of the crime were sentenced to
five years' rigorous imprisonment, but they had the sympathy
of the people on their side. The chief town is Banswara, situated
about 8 m. W. of the Mahi river, surrounded by an old disused
rampart and adorned by various Hindu temples, with the
battlements of the chief's palace overlooking it. Its population
in 1901 was 7038. The petty state of Kushalgarh is feudatory to
Banswara.
BANTAM, the westernmost residency of the island of Java,
Dutch East Indies, bounded W. by the Strait of Sunda, N. by
the Java sea, E. by the residencies of Batavia and Preanger,
and S. by the Indian Ocean. It also includes Princes Island
and Dwars-in-den-weg (" right-in-the-way ") Island in Sunda
Strait, as well as several smaller islands along the coasts. Bantam
had a population in 1897 of 709,339, including 302 Europeans,
1959 Chinese and 89 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The
natives are Sundanese, except in the northern or Serang division,
where they are Javanese. The coast is low-lying and frequently
marshy. The northern portion of the residency constitutes the
most fertile portion, is generally flat with a hilly group in the
middle, where the two inactive volcanoes, Karang and Pulosari,
35 6
BANTIN BANTU LANGUAGES
are found, while the north-western corner is occupied by the
isolated Cede Mountain. The southern portion is covered by
the Kendang (Malay for " range ") Mountains extending into
the Preanger. The rivers are only navigable at their mouths.
Various geysers and cold and warm sulphur springs are found in
the centre of the residency, and on a ridge of the Karang Mountain
is the large crater-lake Dano, a great part of which was drained
by the government in 1835 for rice cultivation. Pulse (kachang),
rice and coffee are the principal products of cultivation; but in
the days of government culture sugar, indigo and especially
pepper were also largely grown. The former considerable fishing
and coasting trade was ruined by the eruption of Krakatoa in
1883, a large stretch of coast line and the seaport towns of
Charingin and Anjer being destroyed by the inundation. The
prosperity of the residency was further affected by a cattle
plague in 1879, followed by a fever epidemic which carried off
50,000 people, and except in the rice season there is a considerable
emigration of natives. Bantam contains five native regencies or
territorial divisions, namely, Serang, Anjer, Pandeglang,
Charingin, Lebak. The principal towns are Serang, the capital
of the residency, Chilegon, Pandeglang, Menes and Rangkas
Betug. The chief town, Serang, is situated 25 m. from Bantam
Bay on the high road from Batavia. The port of Serang is
Karangantu, on Bantam Bay, and close by is the old ruined
town of Bantam, once the capital of the kingdom of Bantam,
and before the foundation of Batavia the principal commercial
port of the Dutch East India Company. The ruins include the
remains of the former pepper warehouses, the old factory, called
Fort Speelwijk, belonging to the company, the fortified palace
of the former sultans and a well-preserved mosque thought to
have been built by the third Mahbmmedan ruler of Bantam
about 1562-7576, and containing the tombs of various princes of
Bantam. Before the Dutch conquest Bantam was a powerful
Mahommedan state, whose sovereign extended his conquests in
the neighbouring islands of Borneo and Sumatra. In 1595 the
Dutch expelled the Portuguese and formed their first settlement.
A British factory was established in 1603 and continued to
exist till the staff was expelled in 1682. In 1683 the Dutch
reduced the sultan to vassalage, built the fort of Speelwijk and
monopolized the port, which had previously been free to all
comers; and for more than a century afterwards Bantam was
one of the most important seats of commerce in the East Indies.
In 1811 after Batavia had surrendered to the British, Bantam
soon followed; but it was restored to the Dutch in 1814. Two
years later, however, they removed their chief settlement to
the more elevated station of Serang, or Ceram, 7 m. inland,
and in 1817 the ruin of Bantam was hastened by a fire.
For " Bantam " fowls see POULTRY.
BANTIN, or BANTING, the native name of the wild ox of Java,
known to the Malays as sapi-utan, and in zoology as Bos (Bibos)
sondaicus. The white patch on the rump distinguishes the
bantin from its ally the gaur (<?..). Bulls of the typical bantin
of Java and Borneo are, when fully adult, completely black
except for the white rump and legs, but the cows and young are
rufous. In Burma the species is represented by the tsaine, or
h'saine, in which the colour of the adult bulls is rufous fawn.
Tame bantin are bred in Bali, near Java, and exported to
Singapore. (See BOVIDAE.)
BANTRY, a seaport, market-town and seaside resort of Co.
Cork, Ireland, in the west parliamentary division, 58 m. S.W. of
Cork by the Cork, Bandon & South Coast railway, on the bay
of the same name. Pop. (1901) 3109. It is an important centre
both for sea fisheries and for sport with the rod. It is the ter-
minus of the railway, and a coaching station on the famous
" Prince of Wales " route (named after King Edward VII.) from
Cork to GlengarriS and Killarney. The bay, with excellent,
anchorage, is a picturesque inlet some 22m. long by 3 to 6 broad,
with 12 to 32 fathoms of water. It is one of the headquarter
stations of the Channel Squadron, which uses the harbour at
Castletown Bearhaven on the northern shore, behind Bear
Island, near the mouth of the bay. It was the scene of attempts
by the French to invade Ireland in 1689 and 1796, and troops of
William of Orange were landed here in 1697. There are several
islands, the principal of which are Bear Island and Whiddy,
off the town. Ruins of the so-called " fish palaces " testify to
the failure of the pilchard fishery in the i8th century.
BANTU LANGUAGES. The greater part of Africa south of
the equator possesses but one linguistic family so far as its
native inhabitants are concerned. This clearly-marked division
of human speech has been entitled the Bantu, a name invented
by Dr W. H. I. Bleek, and it is, on the whole, the fittest general
term with which to designate the most remarkable group of
African languages. 1
It must not be supposed for a moment that all the people who
speak Bantu languages belong necessarily to a special and
definite type of negro. On the contrary, though there is a certain
physical resemblance among those tribes who speak clearly-
marked Bantu dialects (the Babangi of the upper Congo, the
people of the Great Lakes, the Ova-herero, the Ba-tonga, Zulu-
Kaffirs, Awemba and some of the East Coast tribes), there is
nevertheless a great diversity in outward appearance, shape of
head and other physical characteristics, among the negroes who
inhabit Bantu Africa. Some tribes speaking Bantu languages
are dwarfs or dwarfish, and belong to the group of Forest
Pygmies. Others betray relationship to the Hottentots; others
again cannot be distinguished from the most exaggerated types
of the black West African negro. Yet others again, especially
on the north, are of Gala (Galla) or Nilotic origin. But the
general deduction to be drawn from a study of the Bantu
languages, as they exist at the present day, is that at some
period not more than 3000 years ago a powerful tribe of
negroes speaking the Bantu mother-language, allied physically
to the negroes of the south-western Nile and southern Lake
Chad basins (yet impregnated with the Caucasian Hamite),
pushed themselves forcibly from the very heart of Africa (the
region between the watersheds of the Shari, Congo and western
Nile) into the southern half of the continent, which at that time
was probably sparsely populated except hi the north-west, east
and south. The Congo basin and the south-western watershed
of the Nile at the time of the Bantu invasion would have been
occupied on the Atlantic seaboard by West Coast negroes, and
in the centre by negroes of a low type and by Forest Pygmies;
the eastern coasts of Victoria Nyanza and the East African coast
region down to opposite Zanzibar probably had a population
partly Nilotic-negro and partly Hottentot-Bushman. From
Lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa south-westwards to the Cape of
Good Hope the population was Forest-negro, Nilotic-negro,
Hottentot and Bushman. Over nearly all this area the Bantu
swept; and they assimilated or absorbed the vast majority of
the preceding populations, of which, physically or linguistically,
the only survivors are the scattered tribes of pygmies in the
forests of south-west Nile land, Congo basin and Gabun, the
central Sudanese of the N.E. Congo, a few patches of quasi-
Hottentot, Hamitic and Nilotic peoples between Victoria
Nyanza and the Zanzibar coast, and the Bushmen and Hottentots
of south-west Africa. The first area of decided concentration
on the part of the Bantu was very probably Uganda and the
shores of Tanganyika. The main line of advance south-west
trended rather to the east coast of Africa than to the west, but
bifurcated at the south end of Lake Tanganyika, one great
branch passing west between that lake and Nyasa, and the
other southwards. Finally, when the Bantu had reached the
1 Bantu (literally Ba-ntu) is the most archaic and most widely
spread term for " men," " mankind," " people," in these languages.
It also indicates aptly the leading feature of this group of tongues,
which is the governing of the unchangeable root by prefixes. The
syllable -ntu is nowhere found now standing alone, but it originally
meant " object," or possibly " person." It is also occasionally used
as a relative pronoun " that, ' " that which," " he who." Com-
bined with different prefixes it has different meanings. Thus (in the
purer forms of Bantu languages) muntu means a man," bantu
means " men," kintu means " a thing," bintu " things," kantu means
" a little thing," tuntu " little things," and so on. This term Bantu
has been often criticized, but no one has supplied a better, simpler
designation for this section of Negro languages, and the name has
now been definitely consecrated by usage.
BANTU LANGUAGES
357
south-west corner of Africa, their farther advance was checked
by two causes: first, the concentration in a healthy, cattle-
rearing part of Africa of the Hottentots (themselves only a
superior type of Bushman, but able to offer a much sturdier
resistance to the big black Bantu negroes than the crafty but
feeble Bushmen), and secondly, the arrival on the scene of the
Dutch and British, but for whose final intervention the whole of
southern Africa would have been rapidly Bantuized, as far as
the imposition of language was concerned.
The theory thus set forth of the origin and progress of the
Bantu and the approximate date at which their great southern
exodus commenced, is to some extent attributable to the present
writer only, and has been traversed at different times by other
writers on the same subject. In the nearly total absence of any
historical records, the only means of building up Bantu history
lies in linguistic research, in the study of existing dialects, of
their relative degree of purity, of their connexion one with the
other and of the most widely-spread roots common to the
majority of the Bantu languages. The present writer, relying
on linguistic evidence, fixed the approximate date at which the
Bantu negroes left their primal home in the very heart of Africa
at not much more than 2000 years ago; and the reason
adduced was worth some consideration. It lay in the root
common to a large proportion of the Bantu languages expressing
the domestic fowl kuku {nkuku, ngoko, nsusu, nguku, nku).
Now the domestic fowl reached Africa first through Egypt, at
the time of the Persian occupation not before 500 to 400 B.C.
It would take at that time at least a couple of hundred years
before from people to people and tribe to tribe up the Nile
valley the fowl, as a domestic bird, reached the equatorial
regions of Africa. The Muscovy duck, introduced by the
Portuguese from Brazil at the beginning of the i7th century,
is spreading itself over Negro Africa at just about the same
rate. Yet the Bantu people must have had the domestic fowl
well established amongst themselves before they left their
original home, because throughout Bantu Africa (with rare
exceptions and those not among the purest Bantu tribes) the
root expressing the domestic fowl recurs to the one vocable of
kuku. 1 Curiously enough this root kuku resembles to a marked
degree several of the Persian words for " fowl," and is no doubt
remotely derived from the cry of the bird. Among those Negro
races which do not speak Bantu languages, though they may be
living in the closest proximity to the Bantu, the name for fowl
is quite different. 2 The fowl was only introduced into Mada-
gascar, as far as researches go, by the Arabs during the historical
period, and is not known by any name similar to the root kuku.
Moreover, even if the fowl had been (and there is no record of
this fact) introduced from Madagascar on to the east coast of
Africa, it would be indeed strange if it carried with it to Cameroon,
to the White Nile and to Lake Ngami one and the same name.
It may, however, be argued that such a thing is possible, that
the introduction of the fowl south of the equator need not be in
any way coincident with the Bantu invasion, as its name in
North Central Africa may have followed it everywhere among
the Bantu peoples. But all other cases of introduced plants or
animals do not support this idea in the least. The Muscovy
duck, for instance, is pretty well distributed throughout Bantu
Africa, but it has no common widely-spread name. Even tobacco
(though the root " taba " turns up unexpectedly in remote
parts of Africa) assumes totally different designations in different
Bantu tribes. The Bantu, moreover, remained faithful to a great
1 In Luganda and other languages of Uganda and the Victoria
Nyanza, and also in Runyoro on the Victoria Nile, the word for
'_' fowl " is enkoko. In Ki-Swahili of Zanzibar it is kuku. In Zulu
it is inkuku. In some of the Cameroon languages it is lokoho, ngoko,
ngok, and on the- Congo it is nkogo, nsusu. On the Zambezi it is
nkuku ; so also throughout the tribes of Lakes Nyasa and Tangan-
yika, and most dialects of South Africa.
1 From this statement are excepted those tongues classified as
" semi-Bantu." In some languages of the Lower Niger and of the
Gold Coast the word for " fowl is generally traceable to a root
kuba. This form kuba also enters the Cameroon region, where it
exists alongside of -koko. Kuba may have arisen independently,
or have been derived from the Bantu kuku.
number of roots like " fowl," which referred to animals, plants,
implements and abstract concepts known to them in their
original home. Thus there are the root-words for ox (Jlombe,
-ombe, -nte), goat (-budi, -buzi, -bitrf), pig (-guluba), pigeon (-jiba),
buffalo (nyati), dog (mbwa), hippopotamus (-bugu, gubu), elephant
(-jobo, -joko), leopard (ngvri), house (-zo, -do, -yumba, -anda,
-dago, -dabo), moon (-'), sun, sky, or God (-juba), water (-ndi,
-ndiba, mandiba), lake or river (-anza),' drum (ngoma), name
(-ina orjina), wizard (nganga), belly, bowel (-vu, -vumo), buttocks
(-tako); adjectives like -bi (bad), -eru (white); the numerals,
2 > 3> 4) S 10 and 100; verbs like /wo (to die), ta (to strike, kill),
la (da) or lia (di, dia) (to eat). The root- words cited are not a
hundredth part of the total number of root words which are
practically common to all the spoken dialects of Bantu Africa.
Therefore the possession amongst its root-words of a common
name for " fowl " seems to the present writer to show con-
clusively that (i) the original Bantu tribe must have possessed
the domestic fowl before its dispersal through the southern half of
Africa began, and that (2) as it is historically certain that the
fowl as a domestic bird did not reach Egypt before the Persian
conquest in 525 B.C., and probably would not have been trans-
mitted to the heart of Africa for another couple of hundred
years, the Bantu exodus (at any rate to the south of the equatorial
region) may safely be placed at a date not much anterior to 2100
years ago.
The creation of the Bantu type of language (pronominal-
prefix) was certainly a much more ancient event than the exodus
from the Bantu mother-land. Some form of speech like Fula,
Kiama (Tern), or Kposo of northern Togoland, or one of the
languages of the lower Niger or Benue, may have been taken up
by ancient Libyan, Hamite or Nilotic conquerors and cast into
the type which we now know as Bantu, a division of sexless
Negro speech, however, that shows no obvious traces of Hamitic
(Caucasian) influence. We have no clue at present to the exact
birth-place of the Bantu nor to the particular group of dialects
or languages from which it sprang. Its origin and near relation-
ships are as much a puzzle as is the case with the Aryan speech.
Perhaps in grammatical construction (suffixes taking the place
of prefixes) Fula shows some resemblance; and Fula possesses
the concord in a form considerably like that of the Bantu, as well
as offering affinities in the numerals 3 and 4, and in a. few nominal,
pronominal and verbal roots. The Timne and cognate languages
of Sierra Leone and the north Guinea coast use pronominal
prefixes and a system of concord, the employment of the latter
being precisely similar to the same practice in the Bantu lan-
guages; but in word-roots (substantives, numerals, pronouns,
verbs) there is absolutely no resemblance with this north Guinea
group of prefix-using languages. In the numerals 2, 3, 4, and
sometimes 5, and in a few verbal roots, there is a distinct
affinity between Bantu and the languages of N. Togoland, the
Benue river, lower Niger, Calabar and Gold Coast. The same
thing may be said with less emphasis about the Madi and possibly
the Nyam-Nyam (Makarka) group of languages in Central Africa
though in none of these forms of speech is there any trace of the
concord. Prefixes of a simple kind are used in the tongues of
Ashanti, N. Togoland, lower Niger and eastern Niger delta,
Cross River and Benue, to express differences between singular
and plural, and also the quality of the noun; but they do not
correspond to those of the Bantu type, though they sometimes
fall into " classes." In the north-west of the Bantu field, in the
region between Cameroon and the north-western basin of the
Congo, the Cross river and the Benue, there is an area of great
extent occupied by languages of a " semi-Bantu " character,
such as Nki, Mbudikum, Akpa, Mbe, Bayofi, Manyafl, Bafut and
BanshS, and the Munshi, Jarawa, Kororofa, Kamuku and Gbari
of the central and western Benue basin. The resemblances to
the Bantu in certain word-roots are of an obvious nature; and
prefixes in a very simple form are generally used for singular and
plural, but the rest of the concord is very doubtful. Here, how-
ever, we have the nearest relations of the Bantu, so far as
1 Whence the many nyanza, nyanja, nyasa, mwanta, of African
geography.
BANTU LANGUAGES
etymology of word-roots is concerned. Further evidence of
slight etymological and even grammatical relationships may be
traced as far west as the lower Niger and northern and western
Gold Coast languages (and, in some word-roots, the Mandingo
group). The Fula language would offer some grammatical
resemblance if its suffixes were turned into prefixes (a change
which has actually taken place in the reverse direction in the
English language between its former Teutonic and its modern
Romanized conditions; cf. " offset " and " set-off," " upstand-
ing " and " standing-up ").
The legends and traditions of the Bantu peoples themselves
invariably point to a northern origin, and a period, not wholly
removed from their racial remembrance, when they were strangers
in their present lands. Seemingly the Bantu, somewhat early
in their migration down the east coast, took to the sea, and not
merely occupied the islands of Pemba and Zanzibar, but travelled
as far afield as the Comoro archipelago and even the west coast
of Madagascar. Their invasion of Madagascar must have been
fairly considerable in numbers, and they doubtless gave rise to
the race of black people known traditionally to the Hovas as the
Va-zimba.
The accompanying map will show pretty accurately the
distribution of the Bantu-speaking Negroes at the present day.
BANTU AFRICA
Scale, 1:75,000.000
English Miles
500
The Bantu language field.
The gradation of the thret
tones indicates degrees of
resemblance to original
Bantu mother tongue, the
darkest area showing the
most archaic languages.
Languages slightly ah in In
structure or vocabulary
to Bantu.
Prefix governed languages
aftin in structure to Bantu,
tut not In vocabulary.
Sir H.H Jobiuttn. da.
It will be seen by a glance at this map that the areas in which
are spoken Bantu languages of typical structure and archaic form
are somewhat widely spread. Perhaps on the whole the most
archaic dialects at the present day are those of Mount Elgon,
Ruwenzori, Unyoro, Uganda, the north coast of Tanganyika and
of the Bemba country to the south-west of Tanganyika; also
those in the vicinity of Lake Bangweulu, and the Nkonde and
Kese dialects of the north and north-east coasts of Lake Nyasa;
also (markedly) the Subiya speech of the western Zambezi.
Another language containing a good many original Bantu roots
and typical features is the well-known Oci-herero of Damaraland
(though this S.W. African group also presents marked peculiarities
and some strange divergencies). Kimakonde, on the east coast
of Africa, is a primitive Bantu tongue; so in its roots, but not
in its prefixes, is the celebrated Ki-swahili of Zanzibar. Ci-bodzo
of the Zambezi delta is also an archaic type of great interest.
The Zulu-Kaffir language, though it exhibits marked changes and
deviations in vocabulary and phonetics (both probably of recent
date), preserves a few characteristics of the hypothetical mother-
tongue: so much so that, until the languages of the Great Lakes
came to be known, Zulu-Kaffir was regarded as the most archaic
type of Bantu speech, a position from which it is now completely
deposed. It is in some features unusually divergent from the
typical Bantu.
Classification. With our present knowledge of the existing Bantu
tongues and their affinities, it is possible to divide them approxi-
mately into the following numbered groups and subdivisions, com-
mencing at the north-eastern extremity of the Bantu domain, where,
on the whole, the languages approximate nearest to the hypothetical
parent speech.
(1) The Uganda-Unyoro group. This includes all the dialects
between the Victoria Nile and Busoga on the east and north, the
east coast of Lake Albert, the range of Ruwenzori and the Congo
Forest on the west; on the south-east and south, the south coast
of the Victoria Nyanza, and a line from near Emin Pasha Gulf to
the Malagarazi river and the east coast of Tanganyika. On the
south-west this district is bounded more or less by the Rusizi river
down to Tanganyika. It includes the district of Busoga on the
north-east and all the archipelagoes and inhabited islands of the
Victoria Nyanza even as far east as Bukerebe, except those islands
near the north-east coast. The dialects of Busoga, the Sese Islands
and the west coast of Lake Victoria are closely related to the lan-
guage of the kingdom of Uganda. Allied to, yet quite distinct from
the Uganda sub-section, is that which is usually classified as Unyoro. 1
This includes the dialects spoken by the Hima (Hamitic aristocracy
of these equatorial lands Uru-hima, Ru-hinda, &c.), Ru-songora,
Ru-iro, Ru-toro, Ru-tusi, and all the kindred dialects of Karagwe,
Busiba, Ruanda, Businja and Bukerebe. Ki-rundi, of the Burundi
country at the north end of Tanganyika, and the other languages
of eastern Tanganyika down to Ufipa are closely allied to the Unyoro
sub-section of group I, but perhaps adhere more closely to group
12. The third independent sub-section of this group is Lu-konjo,
the language which is spoken on the southern flanks of the Ruwen-
zori Range and thence southwards to Lake Kivu and the eastern
limits of the Congo Forest.
(2) The second group on the geographical list is Lihuku-Kuamba,
the separate and somewhat peculiar Bantu dialects lingering in the
lands to the south and south-west of Albert Nyanza (Mboga country).
Lihuku (or Libvanuma) is a very isolated type of Bantu, quite apart
from the Uganda-Unyoro groups, with which it shows no special
affinity at all, though in close juxtaposition. Its alliance with
Kuamba of western Ruwenzori is not very close. Other affinities
are with the degraded Bantu dialects (Ki-bira, &c.) of the Ituri-
Aruwimi forests. Kuamba is spoken on the west and north slopes
of Ruwenzori. Both Kuamba and Lihuku show a marked relation-
ship with the languages on the northern Congo and Aruwimi, less in
grammar than in vocabulary.
(3) The Kavirondo-Masaba section. This group, which includes
the Lu-nyara, Luwanga, Lukonde and Igizii of the north-east and
eastern shores of the Victoria Nyanza and the northern Kavirondo
and Mount Elgon territories, is related to the Luganda section more
than to any group of the Bantu tongues, but it is a very
distinct division, ''n its prefixes the most archaic. It includes the
languages spoken along the western flanks of Mount Elgon, those of
Bantu Kavirondo, and of the eastern coast-lands of the Victoria
Nyanza (Igizii).
(4) The Kikuyu-Kamba group of British East Africa, east of the
Rift valley. It includes, besides the special dialects of Kikuyu and
Ukambani, all the scattered fragments of Bantu speech on Mount
Kenya and the upper Tana river (Dhaicho).
(5) The Kilimanjaro (Chaga-Siha) group, embracing the rather
peculiar dialects of Mount Kilimanjaro, Mount Meru and Ugweno.
(6) The Pokomo-Nyika-Giriama-Taiieita group represents the
Bantu dialects of the coast province of British East Africa, between
(and including) the Tana river on the north and the frontier of
German East Africa on the south.
(7) Swahili, the language of Zanzibar and of the opposite coast,
a form of speech now widely spread as a commercial language over
Eastern and Central Africa. Swahili is a somewhat archaic Bantu
dialect, indigenous probably to the East African coast south of the
Ruvu (Pangani) river, which by intermixture with Arabic has become
the lingua franca of eastern Africa between the White Nile and the
Zambezi. It was almost certainly of mainland origin, distinct from
the original local dialects of Zanzibar and Pemba, which may have
belonged to group No. 6. There are colonies of Swahili-speaking
people at Mombasa, Malindi, Lamu, and even as far north as the
Shebeli river in Somaliland, also along the coast of German and
Portuguese East Africa as far south as Angoche. In the coast-lands
between the Ruvu or Pangani river on the north and the Kilwa
settlements on the south, the local languages and dialects are more
or less related to Swahili, though they are independent languages.
Amongst these may be mentioned Bondei, Shambala (north of the
Ruvu), Nguru, Zeguha, Ki-mrima and Ki-zaramo.
(8) This group might be described as Kaguru-Sagala-Kami. It
is one which occupies the inland territories of German East Africa,
between the Swahili coast dialects on the east and the domain of the
Nyamwezi (No. 1 1 ) on the west. On the north this group is bounded
by the non-Bantu languages of the Masai, Mbugu and Taturu, and
on the south by the Ruaha river. This group includes Kigogo and
Irangi.
1 In using the forms Uganda, Unyoro, the writer accepts the
popular mis-spelling. These countries should be called B Uganda
and Bunyoro, and their languages Luganda and Runyoro.
BANTU LANGUAGES
359
(9) The dialects of the Comoro Islands, between the East African
coast and Madagascar, are styled lli-nzua or A nzuani and Shi-ngazija.
They are somewhat closely related to Swahili.
(10) The archaic Makonde or Mabiha of the lower Ruvuma, and
the coast between Lindi and Ibo; this might conceivably be attached
to the Swahili branch.
(n) The Nyamwezi group includes all the dialects of the Nyam-
wezi country west of Cgogo as far north as the Victoria Nyanza
(where the tongues melt into group No. i), and bounded on the
south by the Upper Ruaha river, and on the west by the eastern
borderlands of Tanganyika. The Nyamwezi genus penetrates
south-west to within a short distance of Lake Rukwa. A language
of this group was at one time a good deal spoken in the southern part
of the Belgian Congo, having been imported there by traders who
made themselves chiefs.
(12) The Tanganyika languages (Ki-rega, Kabwari, Kiguha, &c).
These dialects are chiefly spoken in the regions west-north-west,
and perhaps north and east of Tanganyika, from the vicinity of Lake
Albert Edward on the north and the Lukuga outlet of Tanganyika
on the south. On the west they are bounded by the Congo Forest
and the Manyema genus (No. 13). The languages on the east
coast of Tanganyika (Ki-rundi, Kigeye, &c.) seem to be more nearly
connected with those of group No. I (Uganda- Unyoro), yet perhaps
they are more conveniently included here.
(13) The Manyema (Baenya) group includes most of the corrupt
Bantu dialects between the western watershed of Tanganyika and
the main stream of the Luapula-Congo, extending also still farther
north, and comprising (seemingly) the languages of the Aruwimi
basin, such as Yalulema, Soko, Lokele, Kusu, Tu-rumbu, &c. On the
west the Manyema group is bounded by the languages of the Lomami
valley, which belong to groups Nos. 15 and 16; on the east the
Manyema genus merges into the much purer Bantu dialects of
groups Nos. I and 12. An examination of the Lihuku-Kuamba
section (No. 2) shows these tongues to be connected with the Man-
yema group. The Kibira dialects of the north-eastern Congo Forest
(Ituri district) may perhaps be placed in this section. 1
(14) The Rua-Luba-Lunda-Marungu group (in which are included
Kanyoka, Lulua and .KY-/a6mt)occupies a good deal of the south central
basin of the Congo, between the south-west coast-line of Tanganyika
on the east and the main streams of the Kasai and Kwango on the
west, between the Bakuba country' on the north and the Zambezi
watershed on the south.
(15) The Bakuba assemblage of Central Congo dialects (Songe,
Shilange, Babuma, &c.) probably includes all the Bantu languages
between the Lomami river on the east and the Kwa- Kasai and Upper
Kwilu on the west. Its boundary on the north is perhaps the Sankuru
river.
(16) The Balolo group consists of all the languages of the Northern
Congo bend (bounded on the north, east and west by the main
stream of the Congo), and perhaps the corrupt dialects of the
Northern Kasai, Kwilu and Kwango (Babuma, Bahuana, Bambala,
Ba-yaka, Baktttu, &c.), where these are not nearer allied to Teke
(No. 1 8) or to Bakuba.
(17) The Bangala-Bobangi-Liboko group comprises the commercial
languages of the Upper Congo (Ngala, Bangi, Liboko, Polo, Ngombe,
Yanzi, &c.) and all the known Congo dialects along and to the north
and sometimes south of the main stream, from as far west as the
junction of the Sanga to as far east as the Rubi and Lomami rivers,
and those between the Congo and the Lower Ubangi river and up
the Ubangi, as far north as the limits of the Bantu domain (about
3 30' N.). Allied to these perhaps are the scarcely-known forms of
speech in the basin of the Sanga river, besides the " Ba-yanzi "
dialects of Lakes Mantumba and Leopold II.
(18) The Bateke (Batio) group. This may be taken roughly to
include most of the Bantu dialects west of the Sanga river, north-
west of the Lower Congo, south of the Upper Ogowe and Ngoko
rivers and east of the Atlantic coast-lands.
(19) The Di-Kele and Benga dialects of Spanish Guinea and the
Batanga coast of German Cameroon.
(20) The Fan or Pangwe forms of speech (so corrupt as to be only
just recognizable as Bantu), which occupy the little-known interior
of German Cameroon and French Gabun, down to the Ogowe, and
as far east and north as the Sanga, Sanaga and Mbam rivers, and the
immediate hinterland of the " Duala" Cameroon.
(21) The Duala group, which on the other hand is of a much
purer Bantu type, includes the languages spoken on the estuary
and delta of the Cameroon river.
(22) The Isubu-Bakwiri group of the coast-lands north of Cameroon
delta (Ambas Bay), and on the west slopes of Cameroon Mts.
1 It is an important and recently discovered fact (delineated in the
work of the Baptist missionaries and of the Austrian traveller Dr
Franz Thonner) that theCongo at its northern and north-eastern bend,
between the Rubi river and Stanley Falls, lies outside the Bantu
field. The Bondonta and Wamanga languages are not Bantu. They
are allied to the Mbuba-Momfu of the Ituri and Nepoko, and also
to the Mundu of the Egyptian Sudan. The Mundu group extends
westward to the Ubangi river, as far south as 3 30' N. See George
Crenfeil and the Congo, by Sir Harry Johnston; and Dans la Grande
Foret de I'Afrique fqualoriale, by Franz Thonner (1899).
(23) The Bantu dialects of Fernando P6 (Ediya, Bateti, Bani, Ac.)
distantly allied to Nos 24, 2 and 13.
(24) The Barondo-Bakundu group, which begins on the north at
the Rio del Rey on the extremity of the Bantu field, near the estuary
of the Cross river. This group may also include Barombi and Basa,
Boil ken, Abo, Nkosi and other much-debased dialects, which are
spoken on the eastern slopes of the Cameroon mountains and on the
Cameroon river (Magombe), and thence to the Sunag.'i and Nyong
rivers. Eastwards and north-eastwards of this group, the language*
(such as Mbe, Bali, Nki, Mbudikum, Bafut, Bayon) may be described
as " semi-Bantu," and evincing affinities with the forms of speech
in the basin of the Central Benuc river and also with the Fan (No. 20).
(25) Turning southwards again from the north-westernmost limit
of the Bantu, we meet with another group, the Mpongwe-Orungu
and Aduma languages of French Gabun, and the tongues of the
Lower Ogowe and Fernan Vaz promontory.
_ (26) These again shade on the south into the group of Katanga
dialects of the Loango and Sete Kama coast such as Ba-kama,
Ba-nyanga, Ma-yombe, Ba-vili, Ba-kamba and Ka-kongo (Kabinda).
(27) The Kongo language group comprises the dialects along the
lower course of the Congo from its mouth to Stanley Pool ; also the
territory of the old kingdom of Congo, lying to the south of that
river (and north of the river Loje) from the coast eastwards to the
watershed of the river Kwango (and the longitude, more or less, of
Stanley Pool).
(28) In the south the Kongo dialects melt imperceptibly into the
closely-allied Angola language. This group may be styled in a
general way Mbundu, and it includes the languages of Central Angola,
such as Ki-mbundu, Mbamba, Ki-sama, Songo, U-mbangala. The
boundary of this genus on the east is probably the Kwango river,
beyond which the Lunda languages begin (No. 14). On the north,
the river Loje to some extent serves as a frontier between the Kongo
and Mbundu tongues. On the south the boundary of group No. 28
is approximately the nth degree of south latitude.
(29) Very distinct from the Ki-mbundu speech (though with
connecting forms) is the Oci-herero group, which includes the Herero
language of Damaraland, the Umbundu of the Bihe highlands of
south Angola, the Nano of the Benguela coast, and Si-ndonga, Ku-
anyama and Oci-mbo of the southern regions of Portuguese Angola
arid the northern half of German South-west Africa. The languages
of group No. 29 probably extend as far inland as the Kwito and
Kubango rivers, in short, to the Zambezi watershed. On the south
they are confronted with the Hottentot languages. The Haukoin
or Hill Damaras a Negro race of unexplained affinities and ap-
parently speaking a Hottentot language occupy an enclave in the
area of Herero speech.
(30) What may be called the Kiboko or Kibokwe (also Kioko)
family of eastern Angola is a language-group which seems to offer
affinities to the languages of the Upper Zambezi and to those of
groups Nos. 28 and 29. It extends eastwards into the south-western
portion of the Belgian Congo, and includes the Lubale of northern
Barotseland and the sources of the river Zambezi, and possibly the
Gangela of south-western Angola.
(31) Southwards of group No. 30 is that of the Barotseland lan-
guages, of which the best-known form almost the only one that is
effectively illustrated is Si-luyi. To Si-luyi may be related the
Mabunda of Western Barotseland. The dialects of the Ambwela,
A-mbwe, Ma-bukushu and A-kwamashi are probably closely related.
(32) Next is a group which might be styled the Subiya-Tonga-lla,
though some authorities think that Tonga and Ila deserve to be
ranked as an independent group. There is, however, a close alliance
in structure between the languages of each of the two subsections.
The Tonga subgroup would include the dialects of the Ba-tetela, the
Ba-ila (Mashukulumbwe) and of all Central Zambezia. Ci-subiya
is the dominant language of South- West Zambezia, along a portion
of the Zambezi river south of Barotseland, and in the lands lying
between the Zambezi and the Chobe-Linyante river. Subiya is one
of the most archaic of Bantu languages, more so than Tonga. Both
are without any strong affinity to Oci-herero, and only evince a
slight relationship with the Zulu group (No. 44).
(33.) The Bisa or Wisa family includes the languages of Iramba,
Bausi, Lukinga, in the southernmost projection ol the Belgian
Congo, and the dialects of Lubisa and Ilala between the Chambezi
river and Lake Bangweulu on the north, and the Luangwa river on
the east and south; perhaps also some of the languages along the
course of the Upper Luapula river.
(34) With it is closely allied that of the Bemba or Emba dialects.
This interesting genus occupies the ground between the south-west
and south coasts of Tanganyika, Lake M weru, and the Upper Cham-
bezi river. The Ki-bemba domain may be taken to include the
locally-modified Ki-lungu and Ki-mambwe of South and South-East
Tanganyika.
(35) What may be called the North Nyasa or Nkonde group com-
prises all the dialects of the north-west and north coasts of Lake
Nyasa (such as Ici-wandia and Iki-nyikiusa) and Ishi-nyix<t of the
Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau, and extends perhaps as far north west
as the Fipa country (Iki-fipa), and the shores of Lake Rukwa (Ici-
wungu) in the vicinity of the Nyamwezi domain (No. n). Iki-fifta,
however, has some affinities to the Tanganyika and western Victoria-
Nyanza languages (groups Nos. I and 12).
3 6
BANTU LANGUAGES
(36) The western part of Nyasaland, south of group No. 35, is
occupied by the Tumbuka section, which includes the languages
of the Tumbuka, Henea and A-tonga peoples, and occupies the area
between the western shores of Lake Nyasa and the Upper Luangwa
(37) Eastwards of No. 35 (North Nyasa group) lies the Kinga
speech of the lofty Livingstone mountains, which is sufficiently
distinct from its neighbours to be classified as a separate group.
(38) East of the Livingstone mountains and west of the Ruaha
river, south also of the Unyamwezi domain, extends the Sango-
Bena-Hche-Sutu group.
(39) The extensive Yao genus of languages stretches from just
behind the coast of the Lindi settlements in German East Africa
(Ki-mwera) south-westward across the Ruvuma river to the north-
east shores of Lake Nyasa (Ki-kese), and thence back to the valley of
the Lujenda-Ruvuma (Cingindo), and southwards in various dialects
of the Yao language to the south-east corner of Lake Nyasa and the
region east of the Shire river, between Lake Nyasa, the Shire high-
landsand Mt.Mlanje. It isonly since the middle of the igth century
that the Yao language has conquered territory to the_ south of Lake
Nyasa. There still remain within its domain colonies of Nyanja-
speaking people.
(40) Eastwards of the Yao domain, and bounded on the north
by the range of that language in the Ruvuma valley and by the
separate group of Ki-makonde (No. 10), ranges the well-marked
Makua genus. The languages thus described occupy the greater part
of Portuguese East Africa away from the watershed of Lake Nyasa.
The Makua language is probably divided into the following dialects :
I-medo, I-lomwe, I-tugulu and Anguru. There are other dialects
unnamed in the Angoji coast-region, where, however, strong colonies
of Swahili-speaking people are settled. The southern part of the
Makua domain is occupied by the Ci-cuambo of the Quelimane
district.
(41) Nyanja, perhaps the most extensive group of cognate lan-
guages in the Bantu field, is principally associated with the east
and west shores of the southern half of Lake Nyasa. It also covers
all the valley of the Shire, except portions of the Shire highlands,
down to the junction of that stream with the Zambezi, and further,
the lands on both banks of the Zambezi down to and including its
delta. West of Lake Nyasa, the Nyanja domain extends in the
Senga language to the river Luangwa and the Central Zambezi, also
along both banks of the Central Zambezi. South of the Central
Zambezi, Nyanja dialects are spoken as far west as the Victoria
Falls. Thence they extend eastwards over Mashonaland to the sea-
coast. With this family may also be associated the languages of
the Portuguese coast-region south of the Zambezi as far as Inham-
bane. The principal dialects of the Nyanja language are the Ci-
nyanja of Eastern Nyasaland, Ci-peta and Ci-maravi of South-West
Nyasaland to as far as the watershed of the Luangwa river, the
Gi-mananja of the Shire highlands, Ci-mobo and Ci-machinjiri of the
Shire valley, Ci-sena or Ci-nyungwe of Tete and Sena (Zambezi), and
Ci-maza.ro of the Lower Zambezi. The Luangwa regions, as already
mentioned, are occupied by the distinct but closely-allied Senga
language. South of the Central Zambezi there are Ci-nanzwa in the
region near the Victoria Falls, Ci-nyai, Shi-kalana, Ci-shuna (Ci-
gomo), Ci-loze, and possibly Ci-shangvie (or Ci-Uangane) and Shi-
lenge which link on to the Beira coast dialects. In the delta of the
Zambezi is to be found Ci-podzo, a very distinct language, yet one
which belongs to the Nyanja genus. Ci-shangane, Chopi or Shi-
lenge and other dialects of the Beira and Inhambane coast-lands and
of Manika have been much influenced by Zulu dialects (Tebele and
Ronga).
(42) The well-marked Bechuana language group has very distinct
features of its own. This includes all the Bantu dialects of the
Bechuanaland protectorate west of the Guai river. Bechuana
dialects (such as Ci-venda, Se-suto, Se-peli, Se-rolon, Se-\lapi, &c.)
cover a good deal of the north and west of the Transvaal, and extend
over all the Orange River Colony and Bechuanaland. Se-suto is the
language of Basutoland; Se-rolon, Se-mangviato, of the Eastern
Kalahri; Se-kololo is the court language of Barotseland; Ci-venda
and Se-pedi or Pelt are the principal dialects of the Transvaal.
Group No. 42, in fact, stretches between the Zambezi on the north
and the Orange river on the south, and extends westward (except
for Hottentot and Bushmen interruptions) to the domain of the
Oci-herero.
(43) The Ronga (Tonga) languages of Portuguese South-East
Africa (Gazaland, Lower Limpopo valley, and patches of the North
Transvaal (Shi-gwamba), Delagoa Bay) are almost equally related
to the Nyanja group (41) on the one hand, and to Zulu on the other,
probably representing a mingling of the two influences, of which the
latter predominates.
(44) Lastly comes the Zulu-Kaffir group, occupying parts of
Rhodesia, the eastern portion of the Transvaal, Swaziland, Natal and
the eastern half of Cape Colony. In vocabulary, and to some degree
in phonetics, the Zulu language (divided at most into three dialects)
is related in some phonetic features to No. 42, and of course to
No. 43; otherwise it stands very much alone in its developments.
It may have distant relations in groups Nos. 29 and 32. Dialects
of Zulu (Tebele and Ki-ngoni or Ct-nongi) are spoken at the present
day in South-West Rhodesia and in Western Nyasaland and on the
plateaus north-east of Lake Nyasa, carried thither by the Zulu raiders
of the early igth century.
The foregoing is only an attempt to classify the known forms of
Bantu speech and to give their approximate geographical limits.
The writer is well aware that here and there exist small patches of
languages spoken by two or three villages which, though emphati-
cally Bantu, possess isolated characters making them not easily
included within any of the above-mentioned groups; but too de-
tailed a reference to these languages would be wearisome and
perhaps puzzling. Broadly speaking, the domain of Bantu speech
seems to be divided into four great sections: (a) the languages of
the Great Lakes and the East Coast down to and including the
Zambezi basin; (b) the South-Central group (Bechuana-Zulu) ;
(c) the languages of the South-West, from the southern part of
the Belgian Congo to Damaraland and the Angola-Congo coast;
and (d) the Western group, including all the Central and Northern
Congo and Cameroonlanguages, and probably also group No. 2 of the
Albert Nyanza and Semhki river.
Common Features. There is no mistaking a Bantu language,
which perhaps is what renders the study of this group so
interesting and encouraging. The homogeneity of this family is
so striking, as compared with the inexplicable confusion of tongues
which reigns in Africa north of the Bantu borderland, that the
close relationships of these dialects have perhaps been a little
exaggerated by earlier writers.
The phonology of the Western group (d) is akin to that of the
Negro languages of Western and West-Central Africa. A small
portion of (b) the South-Central group (Zulu) has picked up clicks,
perhaps borrowed from the Hottentots and Bushmen. Other-
wise, the three groups (a), (b) and (c) are closely related in
phonology, and never, except here and there on the borders of
the Western group, adopt the peculiar West African combinations
of kp and gb, which are so characteristic of African speech
between the Upper Nile and the Guinea coast.
The following propositions may be laid down to define the special
or peculiar features of the Bantu languages :
(1) They are agglutinative in their construction, the syntax being
formed by adding prefixes principally and also suffixes to the root,
but no infixes (that is to say, no mutable syllable incorporated into
the middle of the root-word). 1
(2) The root excepting its terminal vowel is practically unchang-
ing, though its first ' or penultimate vowel or consonant may be
modified in pronunciation by the preceding prefix, or the last vowel
in the same way by the succeeding suffix.
(3) The vowels of the Bantu languages are always of the Italian
type, and no true Bantu language includes obscure sounds like d
and u. Each word must end in a vowel (though in some modern
dialects in Eastern Equatorial, West and South Africa the terminal
vowel may be elided in rapid pronunciation, or be dropped, or
absorbed in the terminal consonant, generally a nasal). No two
consonants can come together without an intervening vowel, except
in the case of a nasal, labial or sibilant. 2 No consonant is doubled.
Apparent exceptions occur to this last rule where two nasals, two
r's or two d's come togetheV through the elision of a vowel or a labial.
(4) Substantives are divided into classes or genders, indicated
by the pronominal particle prefixed to the root. These prefixes are
used either in a singular or in a plural sense. With the exception
of the " abstract " prefix Bu (No. 14), no singular prefix can be used
as a plural nor vice versa. There is a certain degree of correspond-
ence between the singular and plural prefixes (thus No. 2 prefix
serves almost invariably as a plural to No. 3 ; No. 8 corresponds as
a plural to No. 7). The number of prefixes common to the whole
group is perhaps sixteen. The pronominal particle or prefix of the
noun is attached as a prefix to the roots of the adjectives, pronouns,
prepositions and verbs of the sentence which are connected with
the governing noun; and though in course of time these particles
may differ in form from the prefix of the substantive, they were
akin in origin. (This system is the " concord " of Dr Bleek.')
The pronominal particles, whether in nominative or accusative
case, must always precede the nominal, pronominal, adjectival and
verbal roots, though they often follow the auxiliary prefix-participles
used in conjugating verbs, 4 and the roots of some prepositions.
1 These features are characteristic of almost all the Negro lan-
guages of Africa.
* This does not preclude the aspiration of consonants, or the
occasional local change of a palatal into a guttural.
* As already mentioned, a somewhat similar concord is also
present as regards the suffixes of the Fula and the Kiama (Tern)
languages in Western Africa, and as regards the prefixes of the
Timne language of Sierra Leone; it exists likewise in Hottentot
and less markedly in many Aryan, Semitic and Hamitic tongues.
4 An apparent but not a real exception to this rule is in the second
person plural of the imperative mood, where an abbreviated form
of the pronoun is affixed to the verb. Other phases of the verb
may be occasionally emphasized by the repetition of the governing
pronoun at the end.
BANTU LANGUAGES
361
(5) The root of the verb is the second person singular of the
imperative.
(6) No sexual gender is recognized in the pronouns and concord.
Sexual gender may be indicated by a male " prefix " of varying
form, often identical with a word meaning " father," while there
is a feminine prefix, na or nya, connected with the root meaning
" mother," or a suffix ka or kazi, indicating " wife," " female.
The 1st and 2nd prefixes invariably indicate living beings and are
usually restricted to humanity.
The sixteen original prefixes of the Bantu languages are given
below in the most archaic forms to be found at the present day.
The still older types of these prefixes met with in one or two lan-
guages, and deduced generally by the other forms of the particle
used in the syntax, are given in brackets. It is possible that some
of these prefixes resulted from the combination of a demonstrative
pronoun and a prefix indicating quality or number.
Singular.
Old Bantu Prefixes.
Plural.
Class i. Umu- (Ngu-mu-). 1 Class 2. Aba (Mba-baorNga-ba). 1
3. Umu- (ftgu-mu-). 4. Imi- (Nei-mi-).
5. Idi (Ndi-di-). 6. Ama- (Nga-ma-).
7. Iki- (Nki-ki-). 8. Ibi- (Mbi-bi-).
9. I-n- or I-ni- (?Ngi-ni-). ,, 10. Iti-, Izi-, Iti-n-, Izi-n-
II. Ulu (Ndu-du-). 12. Utu (iNtu-tu-); often
diminutive in sense.
13. Aka (? Nka-ka-) ; usually diminutive, sometimes honorific.
,, 14. Ubu- (IMbu-bu-) ; sometimes used in a plural sense ;
generally employed to indicate abstract nouns.
15. Uku (?tku-ku-) ; identical with the preposition " to,"
used as an infinitive with verbs, but also with
certain nouns indicating primarily functions of
the body.
,, 16. Apa (Mpa-pa-); locative; applied to nouns and other
forms of speech to indicate place or position;
identical with the adverb " here," as Ku- is with
" there."
To these sixteen prefixes, the use of which is practically common
to all members of the family, might perhaps be added No. 17, Ft- or
Vi~, a prefix in the singular number, having a diminutive sense,
which is found in some of the western and north-western Bantu
tongues, chiefly in the northern half of the Congo basin and
Cameroon. It is represented as far east (in the form of /-) as the
Manyema language on the Upper Congo, near Tanganyika. This
prefix cannot oe traced to derivation from any others among the
sixteen, certainly not to No. 8, as it is always used in the singular.
Its corresponding plural prefix is No. 12 (Tu-). Prefix No. 18 is
Ogu-, which has, as a plural prefix, No. 19, Ago-. These are both
used in an augmentative sense, and their use seems to be confined
to the Luganda and Masaba dialects, and perhaps some branches of
the Unyoro language. These, like No. 17, are regular prefixes, since
they are supplied with the concord (-gu- and -ga-j. Lastly, there is
the 2Oth prefix, Mu-, which is really a preposition meaning " in "
or " into, ' often combined in meaning with another particle, -*',
used always as a suffix. 1 The 2Oth prefix, MU-, however, does not
seem to have a complete concord, as it is only used adjectivally or
as a preposition and has no pronominal accusative.
The concord may be explained thus: Let us for a moment re-
construct the original Bantu mother-tongue (as attempts are some-
times made to deduce the ancient Aryan from a comparison of the
most archaic of its daughters) and propound sentences to illustrate
the repetition of pronominal particles known as the concord.
Old Bantu.
Babo mio&a-ntu* 6abi ba-bo-ta tu-Ja-oga.
They these-they person they bad they who kill we fear them.
Rendered into the modern dialect of Luganda this would be :
Bo aba-ntu babi fcabota tu-fra-tia.
They these-they person they bad they who kill we them fear.
(They are bad people who kill ; we fear them.)
Old Bantu.
ffgu-mu-ti ffguno ftgu-ewa. ku-ngw-mbona.
This tree this here this falls; thou this seest?
Rendered into Kiguha of North-West Tanganyika, this would be:
Umuti guno ggwa ugumona?
It tree this here it falls; thou it seest?
(The tree falls; dost thou see it?)
The prefixes and their corresponding particles have varied greatly
in form from the original syllables, as the various Bantu dialects
1 The full hypothetical forms of the prefixes as joined with
definite articles ffgumu, Mbaba, flgimi, Ngama and so on are
added in brackets. Forms very like these are met with still in the Mt.
Elgon languages (Group No. 3) and in Subiya group (No. 32).
"This is prominently met with in East Africa, and also in the
various Bechuana dialects of Central South Africa, where it takes
the form of ft at the end of words.
' Or perhaps nga-ba-ntu (afterwards na-ba-, aba-) ; the form
Hgabantu is actually met with in Zulu-Kaffir; also ngumuntu.
became more and more corrupt. Assuming these prefixes to have
consisted once of two distinct particles, such as, for example, NOB. I
and 3, Ngu-mu-, or the 6th plural prefix Nga-ma-, the first syllable
seems to have been of the nature of a demonstrative pronoun, and
the second more like a numeral or an adjective. Mu- probably meant
" one," and Ma- a collective numeral of indefinite number, applied
to liquids (especially water), a tribe of men, a herd of beasts any-
thing in the mass. 4 In the corresponding particles of the concord
as applied to adjectives, verbs and pronouns, sometimes the first
syllable, Ngu or Nga was taken for the concord and sometimes the
second mu or ma. This would account for the seemingly inexplicable
jack of correspondence between the modern prefix and its accompany-
ing particle, which so much puzzled Bleek and other early writers on
the Bantu languages. In many of these tongues, for example, the
particle which corresponds at the present day to the plural prefix
Ma- is not always Ma, but more often Co-, Ya-, A-; while to Mu-
(Classes I and 3) the corresponding particle besides -mu- is JK-,
gw-, u-, wu-, yu-, H-, &c.
The second prefix, Ba- or Aba-, is, in the most archaic Bantu
speech (the languages of Mt. Elgon), Baba- in its definite form
(Ngaba sometimes in Zulu-Kaffir). The concord is -ba- in all the
less corrupt Bantu tongues, but this plural prefix degenerates into
Ka-, Wa-, Ma-, and A-. The concord of the 4th prefix, Mi-, is ft-,
-i-, -ji-, and sometimes -mi-. The commonest form of the h prefix
at the present day is Li- (the older and more correct is Di~), and its
concord is the same; this 5th prefix is often dropped (the concord
remaining) or becomes Ri-, /-, Ji-, and Ni-. The 7th prefix, Ki-,
in many non-related dialects pursues a parallel course through Ci-
into St- ( = Shi) and 5- and its concord resembles it. The 8th
prefix is still more variable. In its oldest form this is Ibi- or Mbibi-.
It is invariably the plural of the 7th. It becomes in different forms
of Bantu speech Vi-, Pi-, Ft-, Fy-, Pii-, Si-, /-, By-, Bzi-, Psi-, Zwi-,
Zi- and Ri-, with a concord that is similar. The loth prefix, which
was originally Ti- or Tin-, or Zi- or Zin-, becomes Jin-, Rin-, Din-,
Lin-, 0in-, Son-, &c._ The n in this prefix is really the singular
prefix No. 9, which is sometime;, retained in the plural, and some-
times omitted. In the case of the loth prefix, the concord or corre-
sponding pronoun persists long after the prefix has fallen out of use
as a definite article. Thus, though it is absent as a plural prefix for
nouns in the Swahili of Zanzibar, it reappears in the concord.
For instance: Nombe hizi zangu -Cows these mine (These cows
are mine), although ffombe has ceased to be zinombe in the plural,
the Zi- particle reappears in hizi and zangu. In fact, the persistence
of this concord, which exists in almost every known Bantu language
in connexion with the loth prefix, shows that prefix to have been in
universal use at one time. The nth prefix -Lu- seems to be de-
scended from an older form, Ndu-. Its commonest type is Lu-,
but it sometimes loses the L and becomes U-, and in the more archaic
dialects is usually pronounced Du- or Ru-. It is also Nu- in one
or two languages. _ The I2th prefix (Tu-), always used in a diminutive
sense, disappears in many of these languages. Where met with it
is generally Tu- or To-, but sometimes the initial T becomes R
(Ru-, Ro-) or L(Lu-, Lo-) or even Y(Yo-), the concord following the
fortunes of the prefix. The i^th prefix (Ka-) is sometimes confused
with the 7th (Ki) and merged into it and vice versa. Ka- very often
takes the 8th prefix as a plural, more commonly the I2th, sometimes
the J4th. This prefix (Ka-) entirely disappears in the north-western
section of the Bantu languages. Bleek thought that it persisted in
the attenuated form of E- so characteristic of the Cameroon and
northern Congo languages, but later investigations show this E-
to be a reduction of Ki- (Ke-) the 7th prefix. The 141(1 prefix Bu-
is very persistent, but frequently loses its initial letter B, which is
either softened into V or W, or disappears altogether, the prefix
becoming U- or O- or Ow-. Sometimes this prefix Becomes palatized
into By- or even T$- (C-). The concord follows suit. The isth
prefix, Ku-, occasionally loses its initial K or softens into Hu or x
or strengthens into CM. Itsconcord under these circumstances some-
times remains in the form of Ku-. The l6th, Pa-, prefix is one of
the most puzzling in its distribution and its phonetic changes. A
very large number of the Bantu languages in the north, east and
west have a dislike to the consonant P, which they frequently trans-
mute into an aspirate (H), or soften into V, W, or F, or simply drop
out. There is too much evidence in favour of this prefix having
been originalIy_.Pa- or Mpa-pa to enable us to give it any other form
in reconstructing the Bantu mother-tongue. Yet in the most
archaic Bantu dialects to the north of the Victoria Nyanza it is
nowhere found in the form of Pa-. It is either Ha- (and /fa-
changes eastward into Sa- !) or Wa-. 1 But for its existence in
this shape in the language of Uganda one might almost be led
to think that the i6th locative prefix began as Ha-, and by
some process without a parallel changed in the east and south
to the _form of Pa-. There are, however, a good many place
names in the northern part of the Uganda protectorate, in the
region now occupied by Nilotic negroes, which begin with Pa-.
These place names would seem to be of ancient Bantu origin in a
4 Likewise ba- may have meant " two " (Bantu root Baii = two);
a dual first and then a plural.
* Wa- in Luganda. In Lusoga (north coast of Victoria Nyanza)
Wa- becomes To (Gha).
362
BANTU LANGUAGES
land from which the Bantu negroes were subsequently driven by
Nilotic invaders from the north. They may be relics therefore of
a time before the Pa- prefix of those regions had changed to the
modern form of Ha-. In S.W. and N.W. Cameroon the initial * of
the i6th prefix reappears in two or three dialects; but elsewhere
in North- West Bantu Africa and in the whole basin of the Congo,
except the extreme south and south-east, the form Pa- is never met
with; it is Va-, Wa-, Ha-, Fa-, or A-. In the Secuana group of
dialects it is Fa- or Ha-; in the Luyi language of Barotseland it
assumes the very rare form of Ba-, while the first prefix is weakened
to A-.
The pronouns in Bantu are in most cases traceable to some such
general forms as these :
I, me, my . . ngi, mi, 1 ngu.
Thou, tbee, thy . . give, ku; -ko.
He or she, him, her, his, &c . a-, ya-, wa- (nom.) ; also ngu-
(which becomes yu-, ye-, wu-,
hu-, u-); -mu (ace.); -ka,
-kwe (poss.) ; there is also
another form, ndi (nom. and
poss.) in the Western Bantu
sphere.
We, us, our . - . . . isu, swi-, tu-, ti- ; -tu- (ace.) ;
-itu
Ye, you, your
-ni;
inu
They, them, their
. nu, mu-, nyu-, ny-, -
-nu, -mu- (ace.); -
(poss.).
. babo, ba- ; -ba- (ace.) ; -babo
(poss.).
The Bantu verb consists of a practically unchangeable root which
is employed as the second person singular of the imperative. To
this root are prefixed and suffixed various particles. These are
worn-down verbs which have become auxiliaries or they are re-
duced adverbs or prepositions. It is probable (with one exception)
that the building up of the verbal root into moods and tenses has
taken place independently in the principal groups of Bantulanguages,
the arrangement followed being probably founded on a fundamental
system common to the original Bantu tongue. The exception
alluded to may be a method of forming the preterite tense, which
seems to be shared by a great number of widely-spread Bantu
languages. This may be illustrated by the Zulu tanda, love, which
changes to tandile, have loved, did love. This -tie or -Hi may become
in other forms -idi, didi, -ire, -ine, but is always referable back to
some form like -Hi or He, which is probably connected with the root
li or di (ndi or ni), which means " to be " or " exist." The initial
i in the particle -He often affects the last or penultimate syllable
of the verbal root, thereby causing one of the very rare changes which
take place in this vocable. In many Bantu dialects the root pa
(which means to give) becomes pele in the preterite(no doubt from an
original pa-ile). Likewise the Zulu tandile is a contraction of tanda-ile.
Two other frequent changes of the terminal vowel of the common
root are those from a (which is almost invariably the terminal vowel
of Bantu verbs), (i) into e to form the subjunctive tense, (2) into i
to give a negative sense in certain tenses. With these exceptions
the vowel a almost invariably terminates verbal roots. The de-
partures from this rule are so rare that it might almost be included
among the elementary propositions determining the Bantu lan-
gauges. And these instances when they occur are generally due
(as in Swahili) to borrowed foreign words (Arabic, Portuguese or
English). 2 This point of the terminal a is the more interesting
because, by changing the terminal vowel of the verbal root and
possibly adding a personal prefix, one can make nouns from verbs.
Thus in Luganda senyua is the verbal root for " to pardon." " A
pardon " or " forgiveness " is ki-senyuo. " A pardoner " might be
mu-senyui. In Swahili patanisa would be the verbal root for " con-
ciliate"; mpatanasi is a " conciliator," and upataniso is "con-
ciliation." Another marked feature of Bantu verbs is their power
of modifying the sense of the original verbal root by suffixes, the
affixion of which modifies the terminal vowel and sometimes the
preceding consonant of the root. Familiar forms of these variations
and their usual meanings are as follows :
Supposing an original Bantu root, tanda, to love ; this may become
tandiea . . . . to be loved.
tandeka or tandika . . to be lovable.
tandila or tandela * . to love for, with, or by some
other person.
tandiza (or -eza) 1 . .to cause to love.
. (or -esa) 4 (
tandisa (or -esa) *
tandana
to love reciprocally.
_* Mi is possibly a softening of ngi, Hi; ngi becomes in some dialects
HJi, ndi, ni or mbi; there is in some of the coast Cameroon languages,
and in the north-eastern Congo, a word mbi, mba for " I," " me,"
which seems to be borrowed from the Sudanian Mundu tongues.
The possessive pronoun for the first person is devired from two forms,
-ami and -angi (-am, -angu, -anji, -ambi, &c.).
* An exception to this rule is the verbal particle li or di, which
means " to be." ' Or-ira, -era.
4 This form may also appear as ia, as for instance aka = to be on
fire becomes asa, to set on fire.
The suffix -aka or -anga sometimes appears and gives a sense of con-
tinuance to the verbal root. Thus tanda may become tandaka in the
sense of " to continue loving." 6
The negative verbal particle in the Bantu languages may be traced
back to an original ka, ta or sa, ki, ti or si in the Bantu mother-
tongue. Apparently in the parent language this particle had already
these alternative forms, which resemble those in some West African
Negro languages. In the vast majority of the Bantu dialects at the
present day, the negative particle in the verb (which nearly always
coalesces with the pronominal particle) is descended from this ka,
ta or sa, ki, ti or si, assuming the forms of ka, ga, nga, sa, ta, ha, a,
ti, si, hi, &c. It has coalesced to such an extent in some cases with
the pronominal particle that the two are no longer soluble, and it is
only by the existence of some intermediate forms (as in the Kongo
language) that we are able to guess at the original separation between
the two. Originally the negative particle ka, sa, &c., was joined to
the pronominal particles, thus:
Ka-ngi
not I.
gi
(Therefore Ka-ngi tanda = not I love.)
Ka-ku or ka-wu ..... not thou.
Ka-a . . ... not he, she.
Ka-tu . . . . not we.
Ka-nu . . . . . . . not ye.
Ka-ba ....... not they.
In like manner sa would become sa-ngi, sa-wu, &c. But very early
in the history of Bantu languages ka-ngi, or sa-ngi,became contracted
into kai, sai, and finally, ki, si ; ka-ku or ka-wu into ku ; and kaa or saa
have always been ka or sa. Sometimes in the modern languages the
negative particle (such as ti or si) is used without any vestige of a
pronoun being attached to it, and is applied indifferently to all the
persons. Occasionally this particle has fallen out of use, and the
negative is expressed (i) by stress or accent; (2) by suffix (traceable
to a root -pe or -ko) answering to the French pas, and having the
same sense; and (3) by the separate employment of an adverb.
If not a few Bantu languages, the verb used in a negative sense
changes its terminal -a to -i. The subjunctive is very frequently
formed by changing the terminal -a to -e : thus, tanda = love; -tande
= may love.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A Comparative Grammar of South African
Languages (in two parts, left unfinished), by Dr W. I. Bleek (London,
1869) ; A Sketch of the Modern Languages of Africa, by R. N. Cust
(1882) ; Comparative Grammar of the South African Bantu Languages.
by Father J. Torrend (1894; mainly composed on a study of the
languages of the Central Zambezi, interesting, but erroneous in some
deductions, and incomplete). In Sir H. H. Johnston's The Kiliman-
jaro Expedition (1884), British Central Africa (1898), and The
Uganda Protectorate (1902-1904), there are illustrative vocabularies;
and in George Grenfell and the Congo (1908) the Congo groups of
Bantu speech are carefully classified, also the Fernandian and
Cameroon. In the numerous essays of Carl Menihof on the original
structure of the Bantu mother-speech, and on existing languages in
East and South-East Africa, in the Mittheilungen des Seminars fur
Orientalische Sprachen, Berlin (also issued separately through Brock-
haus, Leipzig, 1899), and also in his Grundzuge einer vergleichenden
Grammatik der Bantusprachen (Berlin, 1906), a vast amount of valu-
able information has been collected, but Meinhof's deductions there-
from are not in every case in accord with those of other authorities.
The Swahili-English Dictionary, by Dr L. Krapf (London, 1882),
contains a mass of not well-sorted but invaluable information con-
cerning the Swahili language as spoken on the coast of East Africa,
especially regarding many words now becoming obsolete. A similar
mine of information is to be found in An Encyclopaedic Dictionary of
the Mananja (Mang'anja) Language of British Central Africa, by the
Rev. D.C.Scott (1891). Other admirable works are the Dictionary of
the Congo Language, by the Rev. Holman Bentley (1891), and The
Folklore of Angola, and a Grammar of Kimbundu, by Dr. Heli Chate-
lain. The many handbooks and vocabularies written and published
by Bishop Stecre on the languages of the East African coast-lands
are of great importance to the student, especially as they give forms
of the prefixes now passing out of use. The Introductory Handbook
of the Yao Language, by the Rev. Alexander Hetherwick, illustrates
very fully that peculiar and important member of the East African
group. Vocabularies of various Congo languages have been compiled
by Dr. A. Sims; more important works on this subject have been
published by the Rev. W. H. Stapleton (Comparative Handbook of
Congo Languages), and by Rev. John Whitehead (Grammar and
Dictionary of the Bobangi Language (London, 1899). E. Torday has
illustrated the languages of the Western Congo basin (Kwango,
Kwilu, northern Kasat) in the Journal of the Royal A nthropological
Institute. There is a treatise on the Lunda language of the south-
western part of the Belgian Congo, in Portuguese, by Henrique de
Carvalho, who also in his Ethnographia da ExpedicaS portugueza
6 In choosing this common root tanda, and applying it to the above
various terminations, the writer is not prepared to say that it is
associated with all of them in any one Bantu language. Although
tanda is a common verb in Zulu, it has not in Zulu all these variations,
and in some other language where it may by chance exhibit all the
variations its own form is changed to londa or randa.
BANVILLE BAPHOMET
363
ao Muata Yanvo goes deeply into Bantu language questions. The
Duala language of Cameroon has been illustrated Dy the Baptist
missionary Saker in his works published about 1860, and since 1900
by German missionaries and explorers (such as Schuler)._ The
German work on the Duala language is mostly published in the
Mittheilungen des Seminars fiir Orientalische Sprachen (Berlin) ; see
also Schuler's Grammatik des Duala. The Rev. S. Koelle, in his
Polyglotta Africana, published in 1851, gave a good many interesting
vocabularies of the almost unknown north-west Bantu borderland,
as well as of other forms of Bantu speech of the Congo coast and
Congo basin. I. T. Last, in his Polyglotta Africana Orientalis, has
illustrated briefly many of the East African dialects and languages,
some otherwise touched by no one else. He has also published an
excellent grammar of the Kaguru language of the East African high-
lands (Usagara). The fullest information is now extant regarding
the languages of Uganda and Unyoro, in works by the missionaries
of the Church Missionary Society(Pilkington, Blackledge, Hattersley,
Henry Duta and others). Mr Crabtree, of the same mission, has
collected information regarding the Masaba dialects of Elgpn, and
these have also been illustrated by Mr C.W. Hobley, arid by Sir H. H.
Johnston ( Uganda Protectorate), and privately by Mr S. A. Northcote.
Mr A. C. Madan has published works on the Swahili language and on
the little-known Senga of Central Zambezia and Wisa of North-East
Rhodesia (Oxford University Press). Jacottet (Paris, 1902) has in
his Grammaire Subiya provided an admirable study of the Subtya
and Luyi languages of Barotseland, and in 1907, Edwin W. Smith
(Oxford University Press) brought out a Handbook of the Ila_ Lan-
guage (Mashukulumbwe). The Rev. W. Govan Robertson is the
author of a complete study of the Bemba language. Mrs Sydney
Hinde has illustrated the dialects of Kikuyu and Kamba. . Van
der Burgt has published a Dictionary of Kirundi (the language spoken
at the north end of Tanganyika). Oci-herero of Damaraland has
chiefly been illustrated by German writers, old and new; such as
Dr Kx>lbe and Dr P. H. Brincker. The northern languages of this
Herero group have been studied by members of the American
Mission at Bailundu under the name of Umbundu. Some information
on the languages of the south-western part of the Congo basin and
those of south-eastern Angola may be found in the works of Capello
and Ivens and of Henrique de Carvalho and Commander V. L.
Cameron. The British, French and German missionaries have
published many dictionaries and grammars of the different Secuana
dialects, notable amongst which is John Brown's Dictionary of
Secuana and Meinhof's Study of the TSi-venda. The grammars and
dictionaries of Zulu-Kaffir are almost too numerous to catalogue.
Among the best are Maclaren's Kafir Grammar and Roberts' Zulu
Dictionary. The works of Boyce, Appleyard and Bishop Colenso
should also be consulted. Miss A. Werner has written important
studies on the Zulu click-words and other grammatical essays and
vocabularies of the Bantu languages in the Journal of the African
Society between 1902 and 1906. The Tebele dialect of Zulu has been
well illustrated by W. A. Elliott in his Dictionary of the Tebele and
Shuna languages (London, 1897). The Ronga (Tonga, Si-gwamba,
Hlengwe, Sfc.) are dealt with in the Grammaire Ronga (Lausanne,
1896) of Henri Junod. Bishop Smyth and John Mathews have
published a vocabulary and short grammar of the Xilenge (Shilenge)
language of Inhambane (S.P.C.R., 1902). The journal Anthropos
(Vienna) should also be consulted. (H. H. J.)
BANVILLE, THEODORE FAULLAIN DE (1823-1891), French
poet and miscellaneous writer, was born at Moulins in the
Bourbonnais, on the I4th of March 1823. He was the son of a
captain in the French navy. His boyhood, by his own account,
was cheerlessly passed at a lycee in Paris; he was not harshly
treated, but took no part in the amusements of his companions.
On leaving school with but slender means of support, he devoted
himself to letters, and in 1842 published his first volume of verse
(Les Cariatides), which was followed by Les Stalactites in 1846.
The poems encountered some adverse criticism, but secured for
their author the approbation and friendship of Alfred de Vigny
and Jules Janin. Henceforward Banville's life was steadily
devoted to literary production and criticism. He printed other
volumes of verse, among which the Odes funambulesques
(Alencon, 1857) received unstinted praise from Victor Hugo, to
whom they were dedicated. Later, several of his comedies in
verse were produced at the Thdatre Francais and on other stages;
and from 1853 onwards a stream of prose flowed from his in-
dustrious pen, including studies of Parisian manners, sketches
of well-known persons (Camees parisiennes, 6*c.), and a series of
tales (Conies bourgeois, Conies heroiques, 6*c.), most of which were
republished in his collected works (1875-1878). He also wrote
freely for reviews, and acted as dramatic critic for more than one
newspaper. Throughout a life spent mainly in Paris, Banville's
genial character and cultivated mind won him the friendship
of the chief men of letters of his time. He was also intimate with
Fr6d6rick-Lemaltre and other famous actors. In 1858 he was
decorated with the legion of honour, and was promoted to be an
officer of the order in 1886. He died in Paris on the i $th of March
1 89 1 , having just completed his sixty -eighth year. Banville's claim
to remembrance rests mainly on his poetry. His plays are written
with distinction and refinement, but are deficient in dramatic
power; his stories, though marked by fertility of invention, are
as a rule conventional and unreal. Most of his prose, indeed, in
substance if not in manner, is that of a journalist. His lyrics,
however, rank high. A careful and loving student of the finest
models, he did even more than his greater and somewhat older
comrades, Victor Hugo, Alfred de Musset and Theophile
Gautier, to free French poetry from the fetters of metre and
mannerism in which it had limped from the days of Malherbe.
In the Odes funambulesques and elsewhere he revived with perfect
grace and understanding the rondeau and the villaneUe, and like
Victor Hugo in Les Orientates, wrote panloums (pantuns) after the
Malay fashion. He published in 187 2 a Pelit traiU de versification
franc,aise in exposition of his metrical methods. He was a master
of delicate satire, and used with much effect the difficult humour
of sheer bathos, happily adapted by him from some of the early
folk-songs. He has somewhat rashly been compared to Heine,
whom he profoundly admired; but if he lacked the supreme
touch of genius, he remains a delightful writer, who exercised a
wise and sound influence upon the art of his generation.
Among his other works may be mentioned the poems, Idylles
prussiennes (1871), and Trente-six ballades joyeuses (1875); the
prose tales, Les Saltimbanques (1853); Esquisses parisiennes
(1859) and Conies fieriques; and the plays, Le Feuittelon
d" Arislophane (1852), Gringoire (1866), and Deidamia (1876).
See also J. Lemaftre, Les Contemporains (first series, 1885);
Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, vol. xiv. ; Maurice Spronck, Les
Artistes litteraires (1889). (C.)
BANYAN, or BANIAN (an Arab corruption, borrowed by the
Portuguese from the Sanskrit vanij, " merchant "), the Ficus
Indica, or Bengalensis, a tree of the fig genus. The name
was originally given by Europeans to a particular tree on the
Persian Gulf beneath which some Hindu " merchants " had
built a pagoda. In Calcutta the word was once generally applied
to a native broker or head clerk in any business or private house,
now usually known as sircar. Bunya, a corruption of the word
common in Bengal generally, is usually applied to the native
grain-dealer. Early writers sometimes use the term generically
for all Hindus in western India. Banyan was long Anglo-Indian
for an undershirt, in allusion to the body garment of the Hindus,
especially the Banyans.
Banyan days is a nautical slang term. In the British navy
there were formerly two days in each week on which meat formed
no part of the men's rations. These were called banyan days,
in allusion to the vegetarian diet of the Hindu merchants.
Banyan hospital also became a slang term for a hospital for
animals, in reference to the Hindu's humanity and his dislike
of taking the life of any animal.
BAOBAB, A dansoniadtgitala(na.tura\ order Bomboceoe), ana live
of tropical Africa, one of the largest trees known, its stem reaching
30 ft. in diameter, though the height is not great. It has a large
woody fruit, containing a mucilaginous pulp, with a pleasant cool
taste, in which the seeds are buried. The bark yields a strong
fibre which is made into ropes and woven into doth. The wood
is very light and soft, and the trunks of living trees are often
excavated to form houses. The name of the genus was given by
Linnaeus in honour of Michel Adanson, a celebrated French
botanist and traveller.
BAPHOMET, the imaginary symbol or idol which the Knights
Templars were accused of worshipping in their secret rites.
The term is supposed to be a corruption of Mahomet, who in
several medieval Latin poems seems to be called by this name.
J. von Hammer-Purgstall, in his Mysterium Baphometis relevatum,
&<:., and Die Schuld der Tempter, revived the old charge against
the Templars. The word, according to his interpretation, signi-
fies the baptism of Metis, or of fire, and is, therefore, connected
with the impurities of the Gnostic Ophites (q.v.). Additional
BAPTISM
evidence of this, according to Hammer-Purgstall, is to be found
in the architectural decorations of the Templars' churches.
An elaborate criticism of Hammer-Purgstall's arguments was made
in the Journal des Susans, March and April 1819, by M. Raynouard,
a well-known defender of the Templars. (See also Hallam, Middle
Ages, c. i. note 15.)
BAPTISM. The Gr. words /Ja7TTW|t6s and /Sdimcr/wi (both
of which occur in the New Testament) signify " ceremonial
washing," from the verb /Jan-rifco, the shorter form jScbrco
meaning " dip " without ritual significance (e.g. the finger in
water, a robe in blood). That a ritual washing away of sin
characterized other religions than the Christian, the Fathers of
the church were aware, and Tertullian notices, in his tract On
Baptism (ch. v.), that the votaries of Isis and Mithras were
initiated per lavacrum, " through a font," and that in the Ludi
Apollinares et Eleusinii, i.e. the mysteries of Apollo and Eleusis,
men were baptized (tinguntur, Tertullian's favourite word for
baptism), and, what is more, baptized, as they presumed to
think, " unto regeneration and exemption from the guilt of their
perjuries." " Among the ancients," he adds, " anyone who
had stained himself with homicide went in search of waters
that could purge him of his guilt."
The texts of the New Testament relating to Christian baptism,
given roughly in chronological order, are the following:
A.D. 55-60, Rom. vi. 3, 4; i Cor. i. 12-17, vi. n, x. 1-4, xii. 13,
xv. 29; Gal. iii. 27.
A.D. 60-65, Col. ii. n, 12; Eph. iv. 5, v. 26.
A.D. 60-70, Mark x. 38, 39.
A.D. 86-90, Acts i. 5, ii. 38-41, viii. 16, 17, x. 44-48, xix. 1-7,
TTii. 16; i Pet. iii. 20, 21; Heb. x. 22.
A.D. 90-100, John iii. 3-8, iii. 22, iii. 26, iv. i, 2.
Uncertain, Matt, xxviii. 18-20; Mark xvi. 16.
The baptism of John is mentioned in the following:
A.D. 60-70, Mark i. i-n.
A.D. 80-90, Matt. iii. 1-16.; Luke iii. 1-22, vii. 29, 30; Acts i. 22,
x. 37, xiii. 24, xviii. 25, xix. 3, 4.
A.D. 90-100, John i. 25-33, iii. 23, x. 40.
It is best to defer the question of the origin of Christian
baptism until the history of the rite in the centuries which
followed has been sketched, for we know more clearly what
baptism became after the year 100 than what it was before. And
that method on which a great scholar * insisted when studying
the old Persian religion is doubly to be insisted on in the study
of the history of baptism and the cognate institution, the
eucharist, namely, to avoid equally " the narrowness of mind
which clings to matters of fact without rising to their cause and
connecting them with the series of associated phenomena, and
the wild and uncontrolled spirit of comparison, which, by com-
paring everything, confounds everything."
Our earliest detailed accounts of baptism are in the Teaching
of the Apostles (^.90-1 20) and in Justin Martyr.
The Teaching has the following:
1. Now concerning baptism, thus baptize ye: having spoken
beforehand all these things, baptize into the name of the Father
and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, in living water.
2. But if thou hast not living water, baptize into other water;
if thou canst not in cold, in warm.
3. But if thou hast not either, pour water upon the head
thrice, in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy
Spirit.
4. Now before the baptism, let him that is baptizing and
him that is being baptized fast, and any others who can; but
thou biddest him who is being baptized to fast one or two days
before.
The " things spoken beforehand " are the moral precepts known
as the two ways, the one of life and the other of death, with which
the tract begins. This body of moral teaching is older than the
rest of the tract, and may go back to the year A.D. 80.
Justin thus describes the rite in ch. Ixi. of his first Apology,
(c. 140):
1 James Darmesteter, in " Introd. to the Vendidad," in the Sacred
Books of the East.
" I will also relate the manner in which we dedicated ourselves
to God when we had been made new through Christ. As many
as are persuaded and believe that what we teach and say is true,
and undertake to be able to live accordingly, are instructed to
pray and entreat God with fasting, for the remission of their
sins that are past, we praying and fasting with them. Then they
are brought by us where there is water, and are regenerated in
the same manner in which we were ourselves regenerated. For
in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of
our Saviour Jesus Christ and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive
the washing with water."
In the sequel Justin adds:
" There is pronounced over him who chooses to be born again,
and has repented of his sins, the name of God the Father and Lord
of the universe, he who leads to the laver the person that is to
be washed calling Him by .this name alone. For no one can utter
the name of the ineffable God, and this washing is called Illumina-
tion (Gr. <TW/u6s), because they who learn these things are
illuminated in their understandings. And in the name of Jesus
Christ, who was crucified under Pontius Pilate, and in the name
of the Holy Ghost, who through the prophets foretold all things
about Jesus, he who is illuminated is washed."
In ch. xiv. of the dialogue with Trypho, Justin asserts, as,
against Jewish rites of ablution, that Christian baptism alone
can purify those who have repented. " This," he says, " is the
water of life. But the cisterns which you have dug for yourselves
are broken and profitless to you. For what is the use of that
baptism which cleanses the flesh and body alone? Baptize
the soul from wrath, from envy and from hatred; and, lo!
the body is pure."
In ch. xliii. of the same dialogue Justin remarks that " those
who have approached God through Jesus Christ have received
a circumcision, not carnal, but spiritual, after the manner of
Enoch."
In after ages baptism was regularly called illumination. Late
in the 2nd century Tertullian describes the rite of baptism in
his treatise On the Resurrection of the Flesh, thus:
1. The flesh is washed, that the soul may be freed from stain.
2. The flesh is anointed, that the soul may be consecrated.
3. The flesh is sealed (i.e. signed with the cross), that the soul
also may be protected.
4. The flesh is overshadowed with imposition of hands, that
the soul also may be illuminated by the Spirit.
5. The flesh feeds on the body and blood of Christ, that the
soul also may be filled and sated with God.
6. He also mentions elsewhere that the neophytes, after
baptism, were given a draught of milk and honey. (The candi-
date for baptism, we further learn from his tract On Baptism,
prepared himself by prayer, fasting and keeping of vigils.)
Before stepping into the font, which both sexes did quite naked,
the neophytes had to renounce the devil, his pomps and angels.
Baptisms were usually conferred at Easter and in the season of
Pentecost which ensued, and by the bishop or by priests and
deacons commissioned by him. .
Such are the leading features of the rite in Tertullian, and they
reappear in the 4th century in the rites of all the orthodox
churches of East and West; Tertullian testifies that the
Marcionites observed the particulars numbered one to six, which
must therefore go back at least to the year 1 50. About the year
300, those desirous of being baptized were (a) admitted to the
catechumenate, giving in their names to the bishop, (b) They
were subjected to a scrutiny and prepared, as to-day in the
western churches the young are prepared for confirmation.
The catechetic course included instruction in monotheism, in
the folly of polytheism, in the Christian scheme of salvation,
&c. (c) They were again and again exorcized, in order to rid
them of the lingering taint of the worship of demons, (d) Some
days or even weeks beforehand they had the creed recited to
them. They might not write it down, but learned it by heart
and had to repeat it just before baptism. This rite was called
in the West the traditio and redditio of the symbol. The Lord's
Prayer was communicated with similar solemnity in the West
BAPTISM
365
(traditio precis). The creed given in Rome was the so-called
Apostles' Creed, originally compiled as we now have it to exclude
Marcionites. In the East various other symbols were used.
(e) There followed an act of unction, made in the East with the
oil of the catechumens blessed only by the priest, in the West
with the priest's saliva applied to the lips and ears. The latter
was accompanied by the following formula: " Effeta, that is,
be thou opened unto odour of sweetness. But do thou flee, O
Devil, for the judgment of God is at hand." (/) Renunciation of
Satan. The catechumens turned to the west in pronouncing
this; then turning to the east they recited the creed, (g) They
stepped into the font, but were not usually immersed, and the
priest recited the baptismal formula over them as he poured
water, generally thrice, over their heads, (h) They were anointed
all over with chrism or scented oil, the priest reciting an appro-
priate formula. Deacons anointed the males, deaconesses the
females. (i) They put on white garments and often baptismal
wreaths or chaplets as well. In some churches they had worn
cowls during the catechumenate, in sign of repentance of their
sins. (J) They received the sign of the cross on the brow; the
bishop usually dipped his thumb in the chrism and said: " In
name of Father, Son and Holy Ghost, peace be with thee." In
laying his hands on their heads the bishop in many places,
especially in the West, called down upon them the sevenfold
spirit, (k) The first communion followed, with milk and honey
added. (/) Usually the water in the font was exorcized, blessed
and chrism poured into it, just before the catechumen entered it.
() Easter was the usual season of baptism, but in the East
Epiphany was equally favoured. Pentecost was sometimes
chosen. We hear of all three feasts being habitually chosen in
Jerusalem early in the 4th century, but fifty years later baptisms
seem to have been almost confined to Easter. The preparatory
fasts of the catechumens must have helped to establish the
Lenten fast, if indeed they were not its origin.
Certain features of baptism as used during the earlier centuries
must now be noticed. They are the following: (i) Use of
fonts; (2) Status of baptizer; (3) Immersion, submersion or
aspersion; (4) Exorcism; (5) Baptismal formula and trine
immersion; (6) The age of baptism; (7) Confirmation; (8)
Disciplina arcani; (o) Regeneration; (10) Relation to repent-
ance; (n) Baptism for the dead; (12) Use of the name;
(13) Origin of the institution; (14) Analogous rites in other
religions.
i. Fonts. The New Testament, the Didache, Justin,
Tertullian and other early sources do not enjoin the use of a
font, and contemplate in general the use of running or living
water. It was a Jewish rule that in ablutions the water should
run over and away from the parts of the body washed. In acts
of martyrdom, as late, as the age of Decius, we read of baptisms
in rivers, in lakes and in the sea. In exceptional cases it sufficed
for a martyr to be sprinkled with his own blood. But a martyr's
death in itself was enough. Nearchus (c. 2 50) quieted the scruples
of his unbaptized friend Polyeuctes, when on the scaffold he
asked if it were possible to attain salvation without baptism,
with this answer: " Behold, we see the Lord, when they brought
to Him the blind that they might be healed, had nothing to say
to them about the holy mystery, nor did He ask them if they.had
been baptized; but this only, whether they came to Him with
true faith. Wherefore He asked them, Do ye believe that I am
able to do this thing?"
Tertullian (c. 200) writes (de Bapl. iv.) thus: " It makes no
difference whether one is washed in the sea or in a pool, in a
river or spring, in a lake or a ditch. Nor can we distinguish
between those whom John baptized (tinxit) in the Jordan and
those whom Peter baptized in the Tiber." The custom of
baptizing in the rivers when they are annually blessed at Epiphany,
the feast of the Lord's baptism, still survives in Armenia and
in the East generally. Those of the Armenians and Syrians
who have retained adult baptism use rivers alone at any time
of year.
The church of Tyre described by Eusebius (H.E. x. 4) seems
to have had a font, and the church order of Macarius, bishop
of Jerusalem (c. 31 1-335), orders the font to be placed in the same
building as the altar, behind it and on the right hand; but the
same order lays down that a font is not essential in cases of illness
for " the Holy Spirit is not hindered by want of a vessel."
3. Status of Baptizer. Ignatius (Smyrn. viii.) wrote that it is
not lawful to baptize or hold an agapt (Lord's Supper) without
the bishop. So Tertullian (de Bapl. rvii.) reserves the right of
admitting to baptism and of conferring it to the summits sacerdos
or bishop, Cyprian (Epist. Ixxiii. 7) to bishops and priests. Later
canons continued this restriction; and although in outlying
parts of Christendom deacons claimed the right, the official
churches accorded it to presbyters alone and none but bishops
could perform the confirmation or seal. In the Montanist
churches women baptized, and of this there are traces in the
earliest church and in the Caucasus. Thus St Thekla baptized
herself in her own blood, and St Nino, the female evangelist of
Georgia, baptized king Mirian (see " Life of Nino," Studio
Biblica, 1903). In cases of imminent death a layman or a
woman could baptize, and in the case of new-born children it is
often necessary.
3. Immersion or Aspersion. The Didache bids us "pour
water on the head," and Christian pictures and sculptures
ranging from the ist to the loth century represent the baptizand
as standing in the water, while the baptizer pours water from
his hand or from a bowl over his head. Even if we allow for the
difficulty of representing complete submersion in art, it is never-
theless clear that it was not insisted on; nor were the earliest
fonts, to judge from the ruins of them, large and deep enough
for such an usage. The earliest literary notices of baptism are
far from conclusive in favour of submersion, and are often to be
regarded as merely rhetorical. The rubrics of the MSS., it is
true, enjoin total immersion, but it only came into general
vogue in the 7th century, " when the growing rarity of adult
baptism made the Gr. word (/Scwnf o>) patient of an interpreta-
tion that suited that of infants only." 1 The Key of Truth, the
manual of the old Armenian Baptists, archaically prescribes
that the penitent admitted into the church shall advance on his
knees into the middle of the water and that the elect one or
bishop shall then pour water over his head.
4. Exorcism. The Didache and Justin merely prescribe
fasting, the use of which was to hurry the exit of evil spirits
who, in choosing a nidus or tenement, preferred a well-fed body
to an emaciated one, according to the belief embodied in the
interpolated saying of Matt. xvii. 21: "This kind (of demon)
goeth not forth except by prayer and fasting." The exorcisms
tended to become longer and longer, the later the rite. The
English prayer-book excludes them, as it also excludes the
renunciation of the devil and all his angels, his pomps and works.
These elements were old, but scarcely primitive; and the archaic
rite of the Key of Truth (see PAULICIANS) is without them.
Basil, in his work On the Holy Spirit, confesses his ignorance of
how these and other features of his baptismal rite had originated.
He instances the blessing of the water of baptism, of the oil of
anointing and of the baptizand himself, the use of anointing him
with oil, trine immersion, the formal renunciation of Satan and
his angels. All these features, he says, had been handed down
in an unpublished and unspoken teaching, in a silent and
sacramental tradition.
5. The Baptismal Formula. The trinitarian formula and trine
immersion were not uniformly used from the beginning, nor did
they always go together. The Teaching of the Apostles, indeed,
prescribes baptism in the name of Father, Son and Holy Ghost,
but on the next page speaks of those who have been baptized
into the name of the Lord the normal formula of the New
Testament. In the 3rd century baptism in the name of Christ
was still so widespread that Pope Stephen, in opposition to
Cyprian of Carthage, declared it to be valid. From Pope
Zachariah (Ep. x.) we learn that the Celtic missionaries in
baptizing omitted one or more persons of the Trinity, and this
was one of the reasons why the church of Rome anathematized
1 Rogers' essay on Baptism and Christian Archaeology in Studio,
Biblica, vol. v.
366
BAPTISM
them; Pope Nicholas, however (858-867), in the Responsa ad
consulla Eulgarorum, allowed baptism to be valid tantum in
nomine Christi, as in the Acts. Basil, in his work On the Holy
Spirit just mentioned, condemns " baptism into the Lord
alone " as insufficient. Baptism " into the death of Christ " is
often specified by the Armenian fathers as that which alone was
essential.
Ursinus, an African monk (in Gennad. de Scr. Eccl. xxvii.),
Hilary (de Synodis, Ixxxv.), the synod of Nemours (A.D. 1284),
also asserted that baptism into the name of Christ alone was
valid. The formula of Rome is, " I baptize thee in the name
of Father and Son and Holy Spirit." In the East, " so-and-so,
the servant of God, is baptized," &c. The Greeks add Amen after
each person, and conclude with the words, " Now and ever and
to aeons of aeons, amen." ~.
We first find in Tertullian trine immersion explained from the
triple invocation, Nam nee semel, sed ler, ad singula nomina in
personas singulas tinguimur: " Not once, but thrice, for the
several names, into the several persons, are we dipped " (adv.
Prax. xxvi.). And Jerome says: " We are thrice plunged, that
the one sacrament of the Trinity may be shown forth." On the
other hand, in numerous fathers of East and West, e.g. Leo of
Rome, Athanasius, Gregory of Nyssa, Theophylactus, Cyril of
Jerusalem and others, trine immersion was regarded as being
symbolic of the three days' entombment of Christ; and in the
Armenian baptismal rubric this interpretation is enjoined, as
also in an epistle of Macarius of Jerusalem addressed to the
Armenians (c. 330). In Armenian writers this interpretation is
further associated with the idea of baptism into the death of
Christ.
Trine immersion then, as to the origin of which Basil confesses
his ignorance, must be older than either of the rival explanations.
These are clearly aetiological, and invented to explain an existing
custom, which the church had adopted from its pagan medium.
For pagan lustrations were normally threefold; thus Virgil
writes (Aen. vi. 229): Ter socios pura circumtulit unda. Ovid
(Met. vii. 189 and Fasti, iv. 315), Persius (ii. 16) and Horace
(Ep. i. i. 37) similarly speak of trine lustrations; and on the
last mentioned passage the scholiast Aero remarks: " He uses
the words thrice purely, because people in expiating their sins,
plunge themselves in thrice." Such examples of the ancient
usage encounter us everywhere in Greek and Latin antiquity.
6. Age of Baptism. In the oldest Greek, Armenian, Syrian
and other rites of baptism, a service of giving a Christian (i.e.
non-pagan) name, or of sealing a child on its eighth day, is found.
According to it the priest, either at the door of the church or at
the home, blessed the infant, sealed it (this not in Armenia) with
the sign of the cross on its forehead, and prayed that in due
season (kv Kcupo) tvdirq) or at the proper time (Armenian) it
may enter the holy Catholic church. This rite announces itself
as the analogue of Christ's circumcision.
On the fortieth day from birth another rite is prescribed, of
churching the child, which is now taken into the church with its
mother. Both are blessed by the clergy, whose petition now is
that God " may preserve this child and cause him to grow up by
the unseen grace of His power and made him worthy in due season
of the washing of baptism." As the first rite corresponds to the
circumcision and naming of Jesus, so does the second to His
presentation in the temple. These two rites really begin the
catechumenate or period of instruction in the faith and discipline
of the church. It depended on the individual how long he would
wait for initiation. Whenever he felt inclined, he gave in his
name as a candidate. This was usually done at the beginning of
Lent. The bishop and clergy next examined the candidates one
by one, and ascertained from their neighbours whether they had
led such exemplary lives as to be worthy of admission. In case
of strangers from another church certificates of character had
to be produced. If a man seemed unworthy, the bishop dis-
missed him until another occasion, when he might be worthier;
but if all was satisfactory he was admitted, in the West as a
competens or asker, in the East as a #umf6/ii'os, i.e. one in
course of being illumined. Usually two sponsors made themselves
responsible for the past life of the candidate and for the sincerity
of his faith and repentance. The essential thing was that a man
should come to baptism of his own free will and not under
compulsion or from hope of gain. Macariusof Jerusalem (op. cit.)
declares that the grace of the spirit is given in answer to our
prayers and entreaties for it, and that even a font is not needful,
but only the wish and desire for grace. Tertullian, however, in
his work On Baptism, holds that even that is not always enough.
Some girls and boys at Carthage had asked to be baptized, and
there were some who urged the granting of their request on the
score that Christ said: " Forbid them not to come unto Me"
(Matt. xix. 14), and: " To each that asketh thee give " (Luke vi.
30). Tertullian replies that " We must beware of giving the holy
thing to dogs and of casting pearls before swine." He cites
i Tim. v. 22: " Lay not on thy hands hastily, lest thou share in
another's sins." He denies that the precedents of the eunuch
baptized by Philip or of Paul baptized without hesitation by
Simon (to which the other party appealed) were relevant. He
dwells on the risk run by the sponsors, in case the candidates for
whose purity they went bail should fall into sin. It is more
expedient, he concludes, to delay baptism. Why should persons
still in the age of innocence be in a hurry to be baptized and win
remission of sins ? Let people first learn to feel their need of
salvation, so that we may be sure of giving it only to those who
really want it. Especially let the unmarried postpone it. The
risks of the age of puberty are extreme. Let people have married
or be anyhow steeled in continence before they are admitted to
baptism. It would appear from the homilies of Aphraates
(c. 340) that in the Syriac church also it was usual to renounce
the married relation after baptism. Cyril of Jerusalem, in his
Catecheses, insists on " the longing for the heavenly polity, on
the goodly resolution and attendant hope " of the catechumen
(Pro. Cat. ch. i.). If the resolution be not genuine, the bodily
washing, he says, profits nothing. " God asks for nothing else
except a goodly determination. Say not: How can my sins be
wiped out? I tell thee, by willing, by believing " (ch. viii.).
So again (Cat. I. ch. iii.) " God gives not his holy treasures to the
dogs; but where he sees the goodly determination, there he
bestows the seed of salvation. . . . Those then who would
receive the spiritual saving seal have need of a determination
and will of their own. . . . Grace has need of faith on our part."
In Jerusalem, therefore, whither believers flocked from all over
Christendom to be buried, the official point of view as late as
A.D. 350 was entirely that of Tertullian. Tertullian's scruples
were not long respected in Carthage, for in Cyprian's works
(c. 250.) we already hear of new-born infants being baptized. In
the same region of Africa, however, Monica would not let her son
Augustine be baptized in boyhood, though he clamoured to be.
She was a conservative. In the Greek world thirty was a usual
age in the 4th century for persons to be baptized, in imitation of
Christ. It is still the age preferred by the Baptists of Armenia.
But it was often delayed until the deathbed, for the primitive
idea that mortal sins committed after baptism were sins against
the Holy Spirit and unforgivable, still influenced men, and
survived among the Cathars up to the I4th century. The fathers,
however, of the 4th century emphasized already the danger of
deferring the rite until men fall into mortal sickness, when they
may be unconscious or paralysed or otherwise unable to profess
their faith and repentance, or to swallow the viaticum. Gregory
Theologus therefore (c. 340) suggests the age of three years as
suitable for baptism, because by then a child is old enough, if not
to understand the questions put to him, at any rate to speak and
make the necessary responses. Gregory sanctions the baptism
of infants only where there is imminent danger of death. " It
is better that they should be sanctified without their own sense
of it than that they pass away unsealed and uninitiated." And
he justifies his view by this, that circumcision, which foreshadowed
the Christian seal (cr<f>payis), was imposed on the eighth day on
those who as yet had no use of reason. He also urges the analogue
of " the anointing of the doorposts, which preserved the first-born
by things that have no sense." On such grounds was justified
the transition of a baptism which began as a spontaneous act of
BAPTISM
367
self-consecration into an opus operatum. How long after this it
was before infant baptism became normal inside the Byzantine
church, we do not exactly know, but it was natural that mothers
should insist on their children being liberated from Satan and
safeguarded from demons as soon as might be. The change came
more quickly in Latin than in Greek Christendom, and very
slowly indeed in the Armenian and Georgian churches. Augus-
tine's insistence on original sin, a doctrine never quite accepted
in his sense in the East, hurried on the change.
7. Confirmation. In the West, however, the sacrament has
been saved from becoming merely magical by the rite of confirma-
tion or of reception of the Spirit being separated from the baptism
of regeneration and reserved for an adult age. The English
church confirms at fifteen or sixteen; the Roman rather earlier.
The catechetic course, which formerly preceded the complete rite,
now intervenes between its two halves; and the sponsors who
formerly attested the worthiness of the candidate and received
him up as anadochi out of the font, have become god-parents,
who take the baptismal vows vicariously for infants who cannot
answer for themselves. In the East,on the contrary, the complete
rite is read over the child, who is thus confirmed from the first.
The Roman church already foreshadowed the change and gave a
peculiar salience to confirmation as early as the 3rd century,
when it decreed that persons already baptized by heretics, but
reverting to the church should not be baptized over again, but
only have hands laid on them. It was otherwise in Africa and
the East. Here they insisted in such cases on a repetition of the
entire rite, baptism and confirmation together. The Cathars
(q.v.) of the middle ages discarded water baptism altogether as
being a Jewish rite, but retained the laying on of hands with
the Iradilio precis as sufficient initiation. This they called the
spiritual baptism, and interpreted Matt, xxviii. 19, as a command
to practise it, and not water baptism.
8. Disciplina arcani. The communication to the candidates
of the Creed and Lord's Prayer was a solemn rite. Cyril of
Jerusalem, in his instruction of the catechumens, urges them to
learn the Creed by heart, but not write it down. On no account
must they divulge it to unbaptized persons. The same rule
already meets us in Clement of Alexandria before the year 200.
In time this rule gave rise to what is called the Disciplina arcani.
Following the fashion of the pagan mysteries in which men were
only permitted to gaze upon the sacred objects after minute
lustrations and scrupulous purifications, Christian teachers
came to represent the Creed, Lord's Prayer and Lord's Supper
as mysteries to be guarded in silence and never divulged either
to the unbaptized or to the pagans. And yet Justin Martyr,
Tertullian and other apologists of the and century had found
nothing to conceal from the eye and ear of pagan emperors and
their ministers. In the 3rd century this love of mystification
reached the pitch of hiding even the gospels from the unclean
eyes of pagans. Probably Mgr. Pierre Battifol 1 is correct in
supposing that the Disciplina arcani was more or less of a make-
believe, a bit of belletristic trifling on the part of the over-
rhetorical Fathers of the 4th and $th centuries. It is in them
that the atmosphere of mystery attains a maximum of intensity.
They clearly felt themselves called upon to out-trump the pagan
Mystae. Yet it is inconceivable that men and women should
spend years, even whole lives, as catechumens within the pale of
the church, and really remain ignorant all the time of the Trini-
tarian Epiclesis used in baptism, of the Creed, and above all of
the Lord's Prayer. Wherever the Disciplina arcani, i.e. the
obligation to keep secret the formula of the threefold name, the
creed based on it and the Lord's Prayer, was taken seriously, it
was akin to the scruple which exists everywhere among primitive
religionists against revealing to the profane the knowledge of a
powerful name or magic formula. The name of a deity was often
kept secret and not allowed to be written down,as among the Jews.
9. Regeneration. The idea of regeneration seldom occurs in
the New Testament, and perhaps not at all in connexion with
baptism; for in the conversation with Nicodemus, John iii. 3-8,
the words " of water and " in v. 5 offend the context, spiritual
l tudts historiques, Essai sur Disc. arc. (Paris 1902).
re-birth alone being insisted upon in w. 3, 6, 7 and 8; moreover,
Justin Martyr, who cites v. 5, seems to omit them. Nor is there
any mention of water in ch. i. 13, where, according to the oldest
text, Christ is represented as having been born or begotten not
of blood, nor of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man, but
of God.
In i Pet. i. 3, it is said of the saints that God the Father
begat them anew unto a living hope by the resurrection of
Jesus, and in v. 23 that they have been begotten again, not of
corruptible seed, but of incorruptible through the word of God.
But here again it is not clear that the writer has in view water
baptism or any rite at all as the means and occasion of regenera-
tion. In the conversation with Nicodemus we seem to overhear
a protest against the growing tendency of the last years of the
ist century to substitute formal sacraments for the free afflatus
of the spirit, and to "crib, cabin and confine" the gift of prophecy.
The passage where re-birth is best put forward in connexion
with baptism is Luke iii. 22, where ancient texts, including the
Gospel of the Hebrews, read, " Thou art my beloved Son, this day
have I begotten Thee." These words were taken in the sense
that Jesus was then re-born of the Spirit an adoptive Son of God
and Messiah; and with this reading is bound up the entire
adoptionist school of Christology. It apparently underlies the
symbolizing of Christ as a fish in the art of the catacombs, and
in the literature of the 2nd century. Tertullian prefaces with
this idea his work on baptism. Nos pisciculi secundum IX6TN
nostrum Jesum Christum in aqua nascimur. " We little fishes,
after the example of our Fish Jesus Christ, are born in the water."
So about the year 440 the Gaulish poet Orientius wrote of
Christ; Piscis natus aquis, auctor baptismalis ipse est. " A fish
born of the waters is himself originator of baptism."
But before his time and within a hundred years of Tertullian
this symbolism in its original significance had become heretical,
and the orthodox were thrown back on another explanation of it.
This was that the word IX6TS is made up of the letters which
begin the Greek words meaning " Jesus Christ, Son of God,
Saviour." An entire mythology soon grew up around the idea
of re-birth. The font was viewed as the womb of the virgin
mother church, who was in some congregations, for example, in
the early churches of Gaul, no abstraction, but a divine aeon
watching over and sympathizing with the children of her womb,
the recipient even of hymns of praise and humble supplications.
Other mythoplastic growths succeeded, one of which must be
noticed. The sponsors or anadochi, who, after the introduction
of infant baptism came to be called god-fathers and god-mothers,
were really in a spiritual relation to the children they took up
out of the font. This relation was soon by the canonists identified
with the blood-tie which connects real parents with their off-
spring, and the corollary drawn that children, who in baptism
had the same god-parent, were real brothers and sisters, who
might not marry either each the other or real children of the
said god-parent. The reformed churches have set aside this
fiction, but in the Latin and Eastern churches it has created a
distinct and very powerful marriage taboo.
10. Relation to Repentance. Baptism justified the believer,
that is to say, constituted him a saint whose past sins were
abolished. Sin after baptism excluded the sinner afresh from
the divine grace and from the sacraments. He fell back into
the status of a catechumen, and it was much discussed from the
2nd century onwards whether he could be restored to the church
at all, and, if so, how. A rite was devised, called exhomologesis,
by which, after a fresh term of repentance, marked by austerities
more strict than any Trappist monk imposes on himself to-day,
the persons lapsed from grace could re-enter the church. In
effect this rite was a repetition of baptism, the water of the font
alone being omitted. Such restoration could in the earlier church
only be effected once. A second lapse from the state of grace
entailed perpetual exclusion from the sacraments, the means of
salvation. As has been remarked above, the terror of post-
baptismal sin and the fact that only one restoration was allowable
influenced many as late as the 4th century to remain catechumens
all their lives, and, like Constantine, to receive baptism on the
3 68
BAPTISM
deathbed alone. The same scruples endured among the medieval
Cathars. (See PENANCE and NOVATIANUS.)
ii. Baptism for the Dead. Paul, in i Cor. xv. 29, glances
at this as an established practice familiar to those whom he
addresses. Three explanations are possible: (i) The saints
before they were quickened or made alive together with Christ,
were dead through their trespasses and sins. In baptism they
were buried with Christ and rose, like Him, from the dead. We
can, therefore, paraphrase v. 29 thus: " Else what shall they do
which are baptized for their dead selves ?" &c. It is in behalf of
his own sinful, i.e. dead self, that the sinner is baptized and
receives eternal life. (2) Contact with the dead entailed a
pollution which lasted at least a day and must be washed away
by ablutions, before a man is re-admitted to religious cult. This
was the rule among the Jews. Is it possible that the words " for
the dead " signify " because of contact with the dead " ? (3)
Both these explanations are forced, and it is more probable
that by a make-believe common in all religions, and not un-
known in the earliest church, the sins of dead relatives, about
whose salvation their survivors were anxious, were transferred
into living persons, who assumed for the nonce their names
and were baptized in their behalf, so in vicarious wise rendering
it possible for the sins of the dead to be washed away. The
Mormons have this rite. The idea of transferring sin into
another man or into an animal, and so getting it purged through
him or it, was widespread in the age of Paul and long afterwards.
Chrysostom says that the substitutes were put into the beds of
the deceased, and assuming the voice of the dead asked for
baptism and remission of sins. Tertullian and others attest this
custom among the followers of Cerinthus and Marcion.
12. Use of the Name. In Acts iv. 7, the rulers and priests
of the Jews summon Peter and inquire by what power or in
what name he has healed the lame. Here a belief is assumed
which pervades ancient magic and religion. Only so far as we
can get away from the modern view that a person's name is
a trifling accident, and breathe the atmosphere which broods
over ancient religions, can we understand the use of the name in
baptisms, exorcisms, prayers, purifications and consecrations.
For a name carried with it, for those who were so blessed as to
be acquainted with it, whatever power and influence its owner
wielded in heaven or on earth or under the earth. A vow or
prayer formulated in or through a certain name was fraught
with the prestige of him whose name it was. Thus the psalmist
addressing Jehovah cries (Ps. liv. i): "Save me, O God, by
Thy name, and judge me in Thy might." And in Acts iii. 16,
it is the name itself which renders strong and whole the man
who believed therein. In Acts xviii. 15, the Jews assail Paul
because he has trusted and appealed to the name of a Messiah
whom they regard as an overthrower of the law; for Paul
believed that God had invested Jesus with a name above all
names, potent to constrain and overcome all lesser powers, good
or evil, in heaven or earth or under earth. Baptism then in the
name or through the name or into the name of Christ placed
the believer under the influence and tutelage of Christ's person-
ality, as before he was in popular estimation under the influence
of stars and horoscope. Nay, more, it imported that personality
into him, making him a limb or member of Christ's body, and
immortal as Christ was immortal. Nearly all the passages in
which the word name is used in the New Testament become more
intelligible if it be rendered personality. In Rev. xi. 13, the
revisers are obliged to render it by persons, and should equally
have done so in iii. 4: " Thou hast a few names (i.e. persons)
in Sardis which did not defile their garments." (See CON-
SECRATION.)
13. Origin of Christian Baptism. When it is asked, Was this
a continuance of the baptism of John or was it merely the baptism
of proselytes? a distinction is implied between the two latter
which was not always real. In relation to the publicans and
soldiers who, smitten with remorse, sought out John in the
wilderness, his baptism was a purification from their past and
so far identical with the proselyte's bath; but so far as it raised
them up to be children unto Abraham and filled them with the
Messianic hope, it advanced them further than that bath could
do, and assured them of a place in the kingdom of God, soon to
be established this, without imposing circumcision on them;
for the ordinary proselyte was circumcised as well as baptized.
For the Jews, however, who came to John, his baptism could
not have the significance of the proselyte's baptism, but rather
accorded with another baptism undergone by Jews who wished
to consecrate their lives by stricter study and practice of the law.
So Epictetus remarks that he only really understands Judaism
who knows " the baptized Jew " (ri>v fStfiavnivov). We
gather from Acts xix. 4, that John had merely baptized in
the name of the coming Messiah, without identifying him with
Jesus of Nazareth. The apostolic age supplied this identification,
and the normal use during it seems to have been " into Christ
Jesus," or " in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ," or " of Jesus
Christ " simply, or " of the Lord Jesus Christ." Paul explains
these formulas as being equivalent to " into the death of Christ
Jesus," as if the faithful were in the rite raised from death into
everlasting life. The likeness of the baptismal ceremony with
Christ's death and resurrection ensured a real union with him
of the believer who underwent the ceremony, according to the
well-known principle in sacris simulala pro veris accipi.
But opinion was still fluid about baptism in the apostolic age,
especially as to its connexion with the descent of the Spirit.
The Spirit falls on the disciples and others at Pentecost without
any baptism at all, and Paul alone of the apostles was baptized.
So far was the afflatus of the Spirit from being conditioned by
the rite, that in Acts x. 44 ff., the gift of the Spirit was first
poured out upon the Gentiles who heard the word preached
so that they spoke with tongues, and it was only after these
manifestations that they were baptized with water in the name
of Jesus Christ at the instance of Peter. We can divine from
this passage why Paul was so eager himself to preach the word,
and left it to others to baptize.
But as a rule the repentant underwent baptism in the name
of Christ Jesus, and washed away their sins before hands were
laid upon them unto reception of the Spirit. Apollos, who only
knew the baptism of John (Acts xviii. 24), needed only instruction
in the prophetic gnosis at the hands of Priscilla and Aquila in
order to become a full disciple. On the other hand, in Acts xix.
1-7, twelve disciples, for such they were already accounted, who
had been baptized into John's baptism, i.e. into the name of him
that should follow John, but had not even heard of the Holy
Spirit, are at Paul's instance re-baptized into the name of the
Lord Jesus. Then Paul himself lays hands on them and the Holy
Ghost comes upon them, so that they speak with tongues and
prophecy. Not only do we hear of these varieties of practice,
but also of' the laying on of hands together with prayer as a
substantive rite unconnected with baptism. The seven deacons
were so ordained. And this rite of laying on hands, which was
in antiquity a recognized way of transmitting the occult power
or virtue of one man into another, is used in Acts ix. 17, by
Ananias, in order that Paul may recover his sight and be filled
with the Holy Ghost. Saul and Barnabas equally are separated
for a certain missionary work by imposition of hands with prayer
and fasting, and are so sent forth by the Holy Ghost. It was
also a way of healing the sick (Acts xxviii. 8), and as such
accompanied by anointing with oil (Jas. v. 14). The Roman
church then had early precedents for separating confirmation
from baptism. It would also appear that in the primitive age
confirmation and ordination were one and the same rite; and
so they continued to be among the dissident believers of the
middle ages, who, however, often dropped the water rite alto-
gether. (See CATHARS.) More than one sect of the 2nd century
rejected water baptism on the ground that knowledge of the
truth in itself makes us free, and that external material washing
of a perishable body cannot contribute to the illumination of the
inner man, complete without it. St Paul himself recognizes
(i Cor. vii. 14) that children, one of whose parents only is a
believer, are ipso facto not unclean, but holy. Even an unbe-
lieving husband or wife is sanctified by a believing partner. If
we remember the force of the words S-yios d-yiifco (cf. i Cor.
BAPTISTE
i. a), here used of children and parents, we realize how far off
was St Paul from the positions of Augustine.
The question arises whether Jesus Himself instituted baptism
as a condition of entry into the Messianic kingdom. The fourth
gospel (iii. 22, and iv. i) asserts that Jesus Himself baptized
on a greater scale than the Baptist, but immediately adds that
Jesus Himself baptized not, but only His disciples, as if the writer
felt that he had too boldly contradicted the older tradition of
the other gospels. Nor in these is it recorded that the disciples
baptized during their Master's lifetime; indeed the very contrary
is implied. There remain two texts in which the injunction to
baptize is attributed to Jesus, namely, Mark xvi. 16 and Matt.
zzviii. 18-20. Of these the first is part of an appendix headed " of
Ariston the elder " in an old Armenian codex, and taken perhaps
from the lost compilations of Papias; as to the other text, it
has been doubted by many critics, e.g. Neander, Harnack,
Dr Armitage Robinson and James Martineau, whether it repre-
sents a real utterance of Christ and not rather the liturgical usage
of the region in which the first gospel was compiled. The
circumstance, unknown to these critics when they made their
conjectures, that Eusebius Pamphili, in nearly a score of citations,
substitutes the words " in My Name " for the words " baptizing
them into the name of the Father and of the Son and of the
Holy Ghost," renders their conjectures superfluous. Aphraates
also in citing the verse substitutes " and they shall believe in
Me "a paraphrase of " in My Name." The first gospel thus
falls into line with the rest of the New Testament.
14. Analogous Rites in other Religions (see also PURIFICATION).
The Fathers themselves were the first to recognize that " the
devil too had his sacraments," and that the Eleusinian, Isiac,
Mithraic and other mysiae used baptism in their rites of initiation.
But it is not to be supposed that the Christians borrowed from
these or from any Gentile source any essential features of their
baptismal rites. Baptism was long before the advent of Jesus
imposed on proselytes, and existed inside Judaism itself.
It has been remarked that the developed ceremony of baptism,
with its threefold renunciation, resembles the ceremony of Roman
law known as emancipatio, by which the patria potestas (or
power of life and death of the father over his son) was ex-
tinguished. Under the law of the XII. Tables the father lost it, if
he three times sold his child. This suggested a regular procedure,
according to which the father sold his son thrice into mawipium,
while after each sale the fictitious vendee enfranchized the son,
by manumissio vindicta, i.e. by laying his rod (vindicta) on the
slave and claiming him as free (iiindicatio in liberlatem). Then
the owner also laid his rod on the slave, declaring his intention
to enfranchise him, and the praetor by his addictor confirmed
the owner's declaration. The third manumission thus gave to
the son and slave his freedom. It is possible that this common
ceremony of Roman law suggested the triple abrenunciatio of
Satan. Like the legal ceremony, baptism freed the believer
from one (Satan) who, by the mere fact of the believer's birth,
had power of death over him. And as the legal manumission
dissolved a son's previous agnatic relationships, so, too, the
person baptized gave up father and mother, &c., and became one
of a society of brethren the bond between whom was not physical
but spiritual. The idea of adoption in baptism as a son and heir
of God was almost certainly taken by Paul from Roman law.
The ceremony of turning to the west three times with renuncia-
tion of the Evil One, then to the east, is exactly paralleled in a
rite of purification by water common among the Malays and
described by Skeat in his book on Malay magic. If the Malay
rite is not derived through Mahommedanism from Christianity,
it is a remarkable example of how similar psychological conditions
can produce almost identical rites.
The idea of spiritual re-birth, so soon associated with baptism,
was of wide currency in ancient religions. It is met with in Philo
of Alexandria and was familiar to the Jews. Thus the proselyte
is said in the Talmud to resemble a child and must bathe in the
name of God. The Jordan is declared in 2 Kings v. 10 to be
a cleansing medium, and Naaman's cure was held to pre-figure
Christian baptism. Jerome relates that the Jew who taught him
Hebrew communicated to him a teaching of the Rabbi Baraciba,
that the inner man who rises up in us at the fourteenth year
after puberty (i.e. at 29) is better than the man who is born from
the mother's womb.
In a Paris papyrus edited by Albr. Dieterich (Leipzig, 1903)
under the title of Eine Mithrasliturgie, an ancient mystic describes
his re-birth in impressive language. In a prayer addressed to
" First birth of my birth, first beginning (or principle) of my
beginning, first spirit of the spirit in me," he prays " to be restored
to his deathless birth (genesis), albeit he is let and hindered by
his underlying nature, to the end that according to the pressing
need and spur of his longing he may gaze upon the deathless
principle with deathless spirit, through the deathless water,
through the solid and the air; that he may be re-born through
reason (or idea), that he may be consecrated, and the holy spirit
breathe in him, that he may admire the holy fire, that he- may
behold the abyss of the Orient, dread water, and that he may be
heard of the quickening and circumambient ether; for this day he
js about to gaze on the revealed reality with deathless eyes; a
mortal born of mortal womb, he has been enhanced in excellence
by the might of the All-powerful and by the right hand of the
Deathless one, "&c.
This is but one specimen of the pious ejaculations, which in the
first centuries were rising from the lips of thousands of mystae, in
Egypt, Asia Minor, Italy and elsewhere. The idea of re-birth was
in the air; it was the very keynote of all the solemn initiations
and mysteries Mythraic, Orphic, Eleusinian through which re-
pentant pagans secured pardon and eternal bliss. Yet there is
not much evidence that the church directly borrowed many of its
ceremonies or interpretations from ou tside sources. They for the
most part originated among the believers, and not improbably the
outside cults borrowed as much from the church as it from them.
AUTHORITIES. The following ancient works are recommended:
Tertullian, De Baptismo (edition with introd. J. M. Lupton, 1909) ;
Cyril of Jerusalem, Catecheses ; Basil, De Spiritu Sancto; Constitution's
Apostolicae; Gregory Nazianzen, Oral. 40; Gregory Nyss., Oratio in
eos qui differunt baptismum; Sacramentary of Serapion of Thmuis;
Augustine, De Baptismo contra Donatistas; Jac. Goar, RituaJe
Graecorum (gives the current Greek rites) ; F. C. Conybeare, Rittiale
Armenorum (the oldest forms of Armenian and Greek rites);
Gerard G. Vossius, De Baptismo (Amsterdam, 1648); Edmond
Martene, De Ant. Ecclesiae Ritibus (gives Western rites) (Bassani,
1788). The modern literature is infinite; perhaps the most ex-
haustive works are W. F. Hading, Das Sacrament der Taufe (Erlangen,
'859); Jos. Bingham's Antiquities (London, 1834), and W. Wall, On
Infant Baptism (London, 1707); J. Anrich, Das unlike Mysterien-
wesen (Gottingen, 1894), details the corresponding rites of the Greek
mysteries, also A. Dieterich, Eine Mithras Liturgie (Leipzig, 1903);
J. C. Suicer, Thesaurus, sub voce (Hnmana; Ad. Harnack, Dogmen-
geschichte (Freiburg im Br. 1894) ; L. Duchesne, Origines du culte
Chretien (Paris, 1808); Mgr. P. Batiffol, Etudes kistoriques (Paris.
1904); J- C. W. Augusti, Denkwiirdigkeiten (Leipzig, 1829-1831);
Monumenta Ecclesiae Liturgica by Dom Cabrol and Dom Leclercq
(Paris, 1902) (a summary of all liturgical passages given in the early
Fathers); Corblet, Histoire du sacrement de baptime (2 vols. Paris,
1881-1882). (F. C. C.)
BAPTISTE, NICOLAS ANSELME (1761-1835), French actor,
was born in Bordeaux on the i8th of June 1761, the elder son of
Joseph Francois Anselme, a popular actor. His mother played
leading parts in tragedy, and both his parents enjoyed the pro-
tection of Voltaire and the friendship of Lekain. It was probably
under the auspices of the latter that Nicolas Anselme made his
first appearance as de Belloy in Gaston et Bayard; and shortly
afterwards, under the name of Baptiste, he made a contract to
play young lover parts at Arras, where he also appeared in opera
and even in pantomime. From Rouen, where he had three
successful years, his reputation spread to Paris and he was
summoned to the new theatre which the comedian Langlois-
Courcelles had just founded, and where he succeeded, not only
in making an engagement for himself, but in bringing all his
family, father, mother, wife and brother. They were thus
distinguished in the playbills: Baptiste, atn(, Baptiste pert,
Baptiste cadet, Madame Baptiste mere, Madame Baptiste bru.
This resulted in the pun of calling a play in which they all
appeared une piece de baptistes. Nicolas soon obtained the public
favour, specially in La MartelliSre's mediocre Robert, chef de
BAPTISTERY BAPTISTS
brigands, and as Count Almaviva in Beaumarchais' La Mire
coupable. His success in this was so great that the directors of
the Theatre de la Republique who had already secured Talma,
Dugazon and Madame Vestris hastened to obtain his services,
and, in order to get him at once (1703), paid the 20,000 francs
forfeit which he was obliged to surrender on breaking his contract.
Later he, as well as his younger brother, became socittaire.
Nicolas took all the leading parts in comedy and tragedy. As he
grew older his special forte lay in noble fathers. After a brilliant
career of thrity-five years of uninterrupted service, he retired in
1828. But, after the revolution of 1830, when the Theatre
Francais was in great straits, the brothers Baptiste came to the
rescue, reappeared on the stage and helped to bring back its
prosperity. The elder died in Paris on the ist of December
1835. The younger brother, Paul Eustache Anselme, known as
BAPTISTE cadet (1765-1839), was also a comedian of great talent,
and had a long and brilliant career at the Comedie Francaise,
where he made his debut in 1792 in L' Amour el I'int&ret.
BAPTISTERY (Baptislerium, in the Greek Church <f>uTurri]pu>v) ,
the separate hall or chapel, connected with the early Christian
Church, in which the catechumens were instructed and the
sacrament of baptism administered. The name baptistery is
also given to a kind of chapel in a large church, which serves the
same purpose. The baptistery proper was commonly a circular
building, although sometimes it had eight and sometimes twelve
sides, and consisted of an ante-room (irpoauXtos O?KOS) where
the catechumens were instructed, and where before baptism
they made their confession of faith, and an inner apartment
where the sacrament was administered. In the inner apartment
the principal object was the baptismal font (KoXu/^Sijflpa, or
piscina), in which those to be baptized were immersed thrice.
Three steps led down to the floor of the font, and over it was
suspended a gold or silver dove; while, on the walls were com-
monly pictures of the scenes in the life of John the Baptist. The
font was at first always of stone, but latterly metals were often
used. Baptisteries belong to a period of the church when great
numbers of adult catechumens were baptized, and when im-
mersion was the rule. We find little or no trace of them before
Constantine made Christianity the state religion, i.e. before the
4th century; and as early as the 6th century the baptismal font
was built in the porch of the church and then in the church
itself. After the gth century few baptisteries were built, the
most noteworthy of later date being those at Pisa, Florence,
Padua, Lucca and Parma. Some of the older baptisteries were
very large, so large that we hear of councils and synods being
held in them. It was necessary to make them large, because in
the early Church it was customary for the bishop to baptize all
the catechumens in his diocese (and so baptisteries are commonly
found attached to the cathedral and not to the parish churches),
and also because the rite was performed only thrice in the year.
(See BAPTISM.) During the months when there were no baptisms
the baptistery doors were sealed with the bishop's seal. Some
baptisteries were divided into two parts to separate the sexes;
sometimes the church had two baptisteries, one for each sex. A
fireplace was often provided to warm the neophytes after
immersion. Though baptisteries were forbidden to be used as
burial-places by the council of Auxerre (578) they were not
uncommonly used as such. Many of the early archbishops of
Canterbury were buried in the baptistery there. Baptisteries,
we find from the records of early councils, were first built and
used to correct the evils arising from the practice of private
baptism. As soon as Christianity made such progress that
baptism became the rule, and as soon as immersion gave place to
sprinkling, the ancient baptisteries were no longer necessary.
They are still in general use, however, in Florence and Pisa. The
baptistery of the Lateran must be the earliest ecclesiastical
building still in use. A large part of it remains as built by Con-
stantine. The central area, where is the basin of the font,
is an octagon around which stand eight porphyry columns, with
marble capitals and entablature of classical form; outside these
are an ambulatory and outer walls forming a larger octagon.
Attached to one side, towards the Lateran basilica, is a fine
porch with two noble porphyry columns and richly carved
capitals, bases and entablatures. The circular church of Santa
Costanza, also of the 4th century, served as a baptistery and
contained the tomb of the daughter of Constantine. This is a
remarkably perfect structure with a central dome, columns and
mosaics of classical fashion. Two side niches contain the
earliest known mosaics of distinctively Christian subjects. In
one is represented Moses receiving the Old Law, in the other
Christ delivers to St Peter the New Law a charter sealed with
the X P monogram.
Another baptistery of the earliest times has recently been
excavated at Aquileia. Ruins of an early baptistery have also
been found at Salona. At Ravenna exist two famous baptisteries
encrusted with fine mosaics, one of them built in the middle of the
5th century, and the other in the 6th. To the latter date also
belongs a large baptistery decorated with mosaics at Naples.
In the East the metropolitan baptistery at Constantinople still
stands at the side of the mosque which was once the patriarchal
church of St Sophia; and many others, in Syria, have been
made known to us by recent researches, as also have some
belonging to the churches of North Africa. In France the most
famous early baptistery is St Jean at Poitiers, and other early
examples exist at Riez, Frejus and Aix. In England, a
detached baptistery is known to have been associated with the
cathedral of Canterbury.
See Hefele's Concilien, passim; Du Cange, Glossary, article
" Baptisterium " ; Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. x. 4; Bingham's Anti-
quities of the Christian Church, book xi. (W. R. L.)
BAPTISTS, a body of Christians, distinguished, as their name
imports, from other denominations by the view they hold respect-
ing the ordinance of baptism (q.v.). This distinctive view,
common and peculiar to all Baptists, is that baptism should be
administered to believers only. The mode of administration of the
ordinance has not always been the same, and some Baptists (e.g.
the Mennonites) still practise baptism by pouring or sprinkling,
but among those who will here be styled modern Baptists,
the mode of administration is also distinctive, to wit, immersion.
It should, however, be borne in mind that immersion is not
peculiar to the modern Baptists. It has always been recognized
by Paedobaptists as a legitimate mode, and is still practised
to the exclusion of other modes by a very large proportion of
paedobaptist Christendom (e.g. the Orthodox Eastern Church).
We shall distinguish here between two main groups of Baptists
in Europe: the Anabaptists, now practically extinct, and the
modern Baptists whose churches are in nearly every European
country and in all other countries where white men reside.
I. THE ANABAPTISTS
The great spiritual movement of the isth and i6th centuries
had for its most general characteristic, revolt against authority.
This showed itself not merely in the anti-papal reformation of
Luther, but also in the anti-feudal rising of the peasants and in
a variety of anti-ecclesiastical movements within the reformation
areas themselves. One of the most notable of these radical
anti-ecclesiastical movements was that of the Zwickau prophets,
(Marcus Stubner, Nikolaus Storch and Thomas Munzer): the
most vigorous and notorious that of the Miinster Anabaptists.
Although they have been called the " harbingers " of the
Anabaptists, the characteristic teaching of the Zwickau prophets
wasnotAnabaptism. (See, however, ANABAPTISTS.) For although
Munzer repudiated infant baptism in theory, he did not relin-
quish its practice, nor did he insist on the re-baptism of believers.
The characteristic teaching of the Zwickau movement, so closely
linked with the peasant rising, was the great emphasis laid upon
the " inner word." Divine revelation, said Munzer, was not
received from the church, nor from preaching, least of all from
the dead letter of the Bible; it was received solely and directly
from the Spirit of God. It is this daring faith in divine illumina-
tion that brings the Zwickau teachers most nearly into touch
with the Anabaptists. But if they are not typical of Anabap-
tism, still less are the later representatives of the movement in
the last sad months at Miinster.
The beginnings of the Anabaptist movement proper were in
BAPTISTS
Zurich, where Wilheld Reubli (1480-1554), Konrad Grebel (d.
1526), Felix Manz (d. 1527) and Simon Strumpf separated from
Zwingli and proposed to form a separate church. They repudi-
ated the use of force, advocated a scriptural communism of
goods, and asserted that Christians must always exercise love
and patience towards each other and so be independent of
worldly tribunals. But their most radical doctrine was the
rejection of infant baptism as unscriptural. They rapidly
gained adherents, among whom was Hans Brodli, pastor of
Zollikon. Their refusal, however, to baptize infants, and the
formation of a separate church as the outcome of this refusal,
brought upon them the condemnation of Zwingli, and a number
of them were banished. This act of banishment, however,
drove Jorg Blaurock, Konrad Grebel and others to take the
step which definitely instituted " Anabaptism " : they baptized
one another and then partook of the Lord's Supper together.
This step took them much farther than the repudiation of
paedobaptism. It formed a new religious community, which
sought to fashion itself on the model of primitive Christianity,
rejecting all tradition and accretions later than New Testament
records. Its members claimed to get back to the simple church
founded on brotherly love. The result was thai their numbers
grew with astonishing rapidity, and scholarly saints like
Balthasar Hubmaier (ca. 1480-1528) and Hans Denck (ca. 1495-
'S 2 ?) joined them. Hubmaier brought no new adherents with
him, and in 1525 himself baptized 300 converts. This baptism,
however, was not immersion. Blaurock and Grebel baptized
each other, and many adherents, kneeling together in an ordinary
room. Hubmaier baptized his 300 from one bucket. The mode
was sprinkling or pouring. In all this the Anabaptists had
maintained one central article of faith that linked them to the
Zwickau prophets, belief in conscience, religious feeling, or inner
light, as the sole true beginning or ground of religion; and one
other article, held with equal vigour and sincerity, that true
Christians are like sheep among wolves, and must on no account
defend themselves from their enemies or take vengeance for
wrong done. Very soon this their faith was put to fiery test.
Not only were Catholics and Protestants opposed to them on
doctrinal grounds, but the secular powers, fearing that the new
teaching was potentially as revolutionary as Miinzer's radicalism
had been, soon instituted a persecution of the Anabaptists. On
the yth of March 1 5 26 the Zurich Rath issued an edict threatening
all who were baptized anew with death by drowning, and in
1529 the emperor Charles V., at the diet of Spires, ordered
Anabaptists to be put to death with fire and sword without even
the form of ecclesiastical trial. A cruel persecution arose. Manz
was drowned at Zurich and Michael Sattler (ca. 1495-1527)
burned to death after torture in 1527; Hubmaier was burned in
1528 and Blaurock in 1529, and Sebastian Franck (1499-1542)
asserts that the number of slain was in 1530 already about 2000.
Two results followed from this persecution. First, the develop-
ment of a self-contained and homogeneous community was
made impossible. No opportunity for the adoption of any
common confession was given. Only a few great doctrines are
seen to have been generally held by Anabaptists such as the
baptism of believers only, the rejection of the Lutheran doctrine
of justification by faith as onesided and the simple practice of
the breaking of bread. This last, the Anabaptist doctrine of the
Lord's Supper, was to the effect that brothers and sisters in
Christ should partake in remembrance of the death of Christ,
and that they should thereby renew the bond of brotherly love
as the basis of neighbourly life. In the second place, the persecu-
tion deprived the Anabaptists of the noble leaders who had
preached non-resistance and at the same time provoked others
to an attitude of vengeance which culminated in the horrors of
MUnster. For Melchior Hofmann (ca. 1498-1543 or 1544)
having taken the Anabaptist teaching to Holland, there arose in
Haarlem a preacher of vengeance, Jan Matthisson or Matthyszoon
(Matthys) (d. 1534) by name, who, prophesying a speedy end of
the world and establishment of the kingdom of heaven, obtained
many adherents, and despatched Boekebinder and de Kniper
to Miinster. Here the attempt was made to realise Matthisson's
ideals. All who did not embrace Anabaptism were driven from
Miinster (1533), and Bernt Knipperdolling (ca. 1495-1336)
became burgomaster. The town was now besieged and Matthis-
son was killed early in 1534. John (Johann Bockelson) of
Leiden (1510-1536) took his place and the town became the
scene of the grossest licence and cruelty, until in 1535 it was
taken by the besieging bishop. . Unhappily the Anabaptists have
always been remembered by the crimes of John of Leiden and
the revelry of Miinster. They should really be known by the
teaching and martyrdom of Blaurock, Grebel and Hubmaier,
and by the gentle learning and piety of Hans Denck of whom,
with many hundred others, " the world was not worthy."
For the teaching of the Anabaptists, see ANABAPTISTS.
Reference has already been made to the reason why a common
Anabaptist confession was never made public. Probably, how-
ever, the earliest confession of faith of any Baptist community
is that given by Zwingli in the second part of his Elenchus contra
Catabaptistas, published in 1527. Zwingli professes to give it
entire, translating it, as he says, ad verbum into Latin. Whatever
opinion may be held as to the orthodoxy of the seven articles of
the Anabaptists, the vehemence with which they were opposed,
and the epithets of abuse which were heaped upon the unfortunate
sect that maintained them, cannot fail to astonish those used to
toleration. Zwingli, who details these articles, as he says, that
the world may see that they are " fanatical, stolid, audacious,
impious," can scarcely be acquitted of unfairness in joining
together two of them, the fourth and fifth, thus making the
article treat " of the avoiding of abominable pastors in the
church " (Super devitalione abominabilium pastorum in Ecclesia),
though there is nothing about pastors in the fourth article, and
nothing about abominations in the fifth, and though in a marginal
note he himself explains that the first two copies that were sent
him read as he does, but the other copies make two articles, as in
fact they evidently are. It is strange that the Protestant Council
of Zurich, which had scarcely won its own liberty, and was still
in dread of the persecution of the Romanists, should pass the
decree which instituted the cruel persecution of the Anabaptists.
After Miinster had fallen the harassed remnants of the Ana-
baptists were gathered together under Menno Simonis, who
joined them in 1537. His moderation and piety held in check
the turbulence of the more fanatical amongst them. He died
in 1561 after a life passed amidst continual dangers and con-
flicts. His name remains as the designation of the Mennonites
(q.v.), who eventually settled in the Netherlands under the
protection of William the Silent, prince of Orange.
Of the introduction of Anabaptist views into England we
have no certain knowledge. Fox relates that " the registers
of London make mention of certain Dutchmen counted for
Anabaptists, of whom ten were put to death in sundry places
in the realm, anno 1535; other ten repented and were saved."
In 1536 King Henry VIII. issued a proclamation together with
articles concerning faith agreed upon by Convocation, in which
the clergy are told to instruct the people that they ought to
repute and take " the Anabaptists' opinions for detestable
heresies and to be utterly condemned." Thomas Fuller (1608-
1661) tells us from Stow's Chronicles that, in the year 1538,
" four Anabaptists, three men and one woman, all Dutch, bare
faggots at Paul's Cross, and three days after a man and
woman of their sect was burnt in Smithfield." In the reign
of Edward VI., after the return of the exiles from Zurich,
John Hooper (bishop of Gloucester and Worcester, d. 1555)
writes to his friend Bullinger in 1549, that he reads " a public
lecture twice in the day to so numerous an audience that the
church cannot contain them," and adds, " the Anabaptists flock
to the place and give me much trouble." It would seem that at
this time they were united together in communities separate
from the established Church. La timer, in 1552, speaks of them
as segregating themselves from the company of other men. In
the sixth examination of John Philpot (1516-1555) in 1555 we
are told that Lord Riche said to him, " All heretics do boast of
the Spirit of God, and every one would have a church by himself,
as Joan of Kent and the Anabaptists." Philpot was imprisoned
372
BAPTISTS
soon after Mary's accession in 1553; and it is very pleasing
to find, amidst the records of intense bitterness and rancour
which characterized these times, and with which Romanist and
Protestant alike assailed the persecuted Anabaptists, a letter of
Philpot's, to a friend of his, " prisoner the same time in New-
gate," who held the condemned opinions. His friend had
written to ask his judgment concerning the baptism of infants.
Philpot in a long reply, whilst maintaining the obligation of
infant baptism, yet addresses his correspondent as, " dear
brother, saint, and fellow-prisoner for the truth of Christ's
gospel "; and at the close of his argument he says, " I beseech
thee, dear brother in the gospel, follow the steps of the faith of
the glorious martyrs in the primitive church, and of such as at
this day follow the same."
Many Anabaptist communities existed in England toward the
end of the i6th century, particularly in East Anglia, Kent and
London. Their most notable representative was Robert Cooke,
but they were more notorious for heretical views as to the Virgin
Mary (see ANABAPTISTS) than for their anti-paedobaptist position.
It was for these views that Joan Boucher of Kent was burnt in
1550. There is no doubt that these prepared the way for the
coming of the modern Baptists, but " the truth is that, while
the Anabaptists in England raised the question of baptism, they
were almost entirely a foreign importation, an alien element;
and the rise of the Baptist churches was wholly independent of
them."
II. THE MODERN BAPTISTS
i. Great Britain and Ireland. If the Anabaptists of England
were not the progenitors of the modern Baptist church, we must
look abroad for the beginnings of that movement. Although
there were doubtless many who held Baptist views scattered
among the Independent communities, it was not until the time
of John Smith or Smyth (d. 1612) that the modern Baptist
movement in England broke away from Brownism. Smyth was
appointed preacher of the city of Lincoln in 1600 as an ordained
clergyman, but became a separatist in 1605 or 1606, and, soon
after, emigrated under stress of persecution with the Gains-
borough Independents to Amsterdam. With Thomas Helwys
(ca. i$6o-ca. 1616) and Morton he joined the " Ancient " church
there, but, coming underMennonite teaching in 1609, he separated
from the Independents, baptized himself (hence he is called the
" Se-baptist "), Helwys and others probably according to the
Anabaptist or Mennonite fashion of pouring. These then formed
the first English Baptist Church which in 1611 published " a
declaration of faith of English people remaining at Amsterdam
in Holland." The article relating to baptism is as follows:
" That every church is to receive in all their members by baptism
upon the confession of their faith and sins, wrought by the
preaching of the gospel according to the primitive institution
and practice. And therefore churches constituted after any other
manner, or of any other persons, are not according to Christ's
testament. That baptism or washing with water is the outward
manifestation of dying unto sin and walking in newness of life;
and therefore in no wise appertained! to infants." They held
" that no church ought to challenge any prerogative over any
other "; and that " the magistrate is not to meddle with religion,
or matters of conscience nor compel men to this or that form of
religion." This is the first known expression of absolute liberty
of conscience in any confession of faith.
Smyth died in Holland, but in 1612 Helwys returned to
England with his church and formed the first Baptist church
worshipping on English soil. The church met in Newgate Street,
London, and was the origin of the " General " Baptist denomina-
tion. Helwys and his followers were Arminians, repudiating
with heat the Calvinistic doctrine of predestination. They thus
differed from other Independents. " They also differed on the
power of the magistrate in matters of belief and conscience. It
was, in short, from their little dingy meeting house . . . that
there flashed out, first in England, the absolute doctrine of
Religious Liberty " (Prof. Masson) . Leonard Busher, the author
of "Religious Peace: or a Plea for Liberty of Conscience," was
a member of this church.
The next great event in the history of the Baptists (though it
should be mentioned that the last execution for heresy in England
by burning was that of a Baptist, Edward Wightman, at Lichfield
1612) is the rise of the first Calvinistic or Particular Baptist
Church. This was the Jacob church in Southwark, which
numbered among its members John Lothropp orLathrop (d. 1653),
Praise-God Barbon (ca. 1596-1679), Henry Jcssey (1601-1663),
Hanserd Kaollys (ca. 1599-1691) and William Kiffin (1616-1701).
It was originally Independent but then became Baptist. From
this six other churches sprang, five of which were Baptist.
Before the Jacob church, however, had itself become Baptist, it
dismissed from its membership a group of its members (the
church having grown beyond what was regarded as proper
limits) who, in 1633, became the first Particular Baptist Church.
Thus there were now in existence in England two sets of
Baptists whose origins were quite distinct and who never had any
real intercourse as churches. They differed in many respects.
The General Baptists were Arminian, owing to the influence of
the Mennonite Anabaptists. The Particular Baptists were
Calvinist, springing as they did from the Independents. But on
the question of Baptism both groups, while they utterly rejected
the baptism of infants, were as yet unpledged to immersion and
rarely practised it. The development of their doctrine as to
baptism was marked along three lines of dispute: (i) who is
the proper administrator of baptism? (2) who are the proper sub-
jects? and (3) what is the proper mode ? Eventually agreement
was reached, and in 1644 a Confession of Faith was published in
the names of the Particular Baptist churches of London, now
grown to seven, " commonly (though falsely) called Anabaptist."
The article on baptism is as follows: "That baptism is an
ordinance of the New Testament given by Christ to be dispensed
only upon persons professing faith, or that are disciples, or taught,
who, upon a profession of faith, ought to be baptized." " The
way and manner of dispensing this ordinance the Scripture holds
out to be dipping or plunging the whole body under water."
They further declare (particularly in order that they may avoid
the charge of being Anabaptists) that " a civil magistracy is an
ordinance of God," which they are bound to obey. They speak
of the " breathing time " which they have had of late, and their
hope that God would, as they say, " incline the magistrates'
hearts so for to tender our consciences as that we might be pro-
tected by them from wrong, injury, oppression and molestation ";
and then they proceed: " But if God withhold the magistrates'
allowance and furtherance herein, yet we must, notwithstanding,
proceed together in Christian communion, not daring to give
place to suspend our practice, but to walk in obedience to Christ
in the profession and holding forth this faith before mentioned,
even in the midst of all trials and afflictions, not accounting our
goods, lands, wives, children, fathers, mothers, brethren, sisters,
yea, and our own lives, dear unto us, so that we may finish our
course with joy; remembering always that we ought to obey
God rather than men." They end their confession thus: " If
any take this that we have said to be heresy, then do we with the
apostle freely confess, that after the way which they call heresy
worship we the God of our fathers, believing all things which are
written in the Law and in the Prophets and Apostles, desiring
from our souls to disclaim all heresies and opinions which are not
after Christ, and to be stedfast, unmovable, always abounding
in the work of the Lord, as knowing our labour shall not be in
vain in the Lord." The " breathing time " was not of long
continuance. Soon after the Restoration (1660) the meetings of
nonconformists were continually disturbed and preachers were
fined or imprisoned. One instance of these persecutions will,
perhaps, be more impressive than any general statements. In
the records of the Broadmead Baptist Church, Bristol, we find this
remark: " On the 29th of November 1685 our pastor, Brother
Fownes, died in Gloucester jail, having been kept there for two
years and about nine months a prisoner, unjustly and maliciously,
for the testimony of Jesus and preaching the gospel. He was a
man of great learning, of a sound judgment, an able preacher,
having "great knowledge in divinity, law, physic, &c.; a bold and
patient sufferer for the Lord Jesus and the gospel he preached."
BAPTISTS
373
With the Revolution of 1688, and the passing of the Act of
Toleration in 1689, the history of the persecution of Baptists,
as well as of other Protestant dissenters, ends. The removal of
the remaining disabilities, such as those imposed by the Test
and Corporation Acts repealed in 1828, has no special bearing on
Baptists more than on other nonconformists. The ministers of
the " three denominations of dissenters," Presbyterians,
Independents and Baptists, resident in London and the
neighbourhood, had the privilege accorded to them of presenting
on proper occasions an address to the sovereign in state, a
privilege which they still enjoy under the name of " the General
Body of Protestant Dissenting Ministers of the three Denomina-
tions." The " General Body " was not organized until 1727.
The Baptists, having had a double origin, continued for many
years in two sections those who in accordance with Arminian
views held the doctrine of " General Redemption," and those
who, agreeing with the Calvinistic theory, held the doctrine of
" Particular Redemption "; and hence they were known respec-
tively as General Baptists and Particular Baptists. In the i8th
century many of the General Baptists gradually adopted the
Arian, or, perhaps, the Socinian theory; whilst, on the other
hand, the Calvinism of the Particular Baptists in .many of the
churches became more rigid, and approached or actually became
Antinomianism. In 1770 the orthodox portion of the General
Baptists, mainly under the influence of Dan Taylor (b. 1738),
formed themselves into a separate association, under the name
of the General Baptist New Connection, since which time the
" Old Connection " has gradually merged into the Unitarian
denomination. By the beginning of the igth century the New
Connection numbered 40 churches and 3400 members. The old
General Baptists " still keep up a shadowy legal existence."
Towards the end of the i8th century many of the Particular
Baptist churches became more moderate in their Calvinism, a
result largely attributable to the writings of Andrew Fuller.
Up to this time a great majority of the Baptists admitted none
either to membership or communion who were not baptized,
the principal exception being the churches in Bedfordshire and
Hertfordshire, founded or influenced by Bunyan, who maintained
that difference of opinion in respect to water baptism was no
bar to communion. At the beginning of the ipth century
this question was the occasion of great and long-continued
discussion, in which the celebrated Robert Hall (1764-1831) took
a principal part. The practice of mixed communion gradually
spread in the denomination. Still more recently many Baptist
churches have considered it right to admit to full membership
persons professing faith in Christ, who do not agree with them
respecting the ordinance of baptism. Such churches justify
their practice on the ground that they ought to grant to all their
fellow-Christians the same right of private judgment as they
claim for themselves. It may not be out of place here to correct
the mistake, which is by no means uncommon, that the terms
Particular and General as applied to Baptist congregations were
intended to express this difference in their practice, whereas
these terms related, as has been already said, to the difference
in their doctrinal views. The difference now under consideration
is expressed by the terms " strict " and " open," according as
communion (or membership) is or is not confined to persons
who, according to their view, are baptized.
In 1891, largely under the influence of Dr John Clifford, a
leading General Baptist, the two denominations, General and
Particular, were united, there being now but one body called
" The Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland." This Union,
however, is purely voluntary, and some Baptist churches, a few
of them prosperous and powerful, hold aloof from their sister
churches so far as organization is concerned.
There are other Baptist bodies outside the Baptist Union beside
certain isolated churches. Throughout England there are many
"Strict " Baptist churches which really form a separate denomina-
tion. For the most part they are linked together according to
geographical distribution in associations, such as the " Metropolitan
Association of Strict Baptist Churches," and the " Suffolk and
Norfolk Association of Particular Baptist Churches." In the latter
case the name " Particular " is preferred, but the association holds
aloof from other Baptist churches because its principles are " strict."
There is, however, no national Union. Indeed, the Strict Baptists
are themselves divided into the " Standard " and_" Vessel " parties
names derived from the " Gospel Standard " and " Earthen
Vessel," the organs of the rival groups.
The general characteristic of the Strict Baptists is their rigorous
adherence to a type of Calvinistic theology now generally obsolete,
and their insistence upon baptism as the condition of Christian
communion. Their loose organization makes it impossible to obtain
accurate statistics, but the number of their adherents is small.
There is a strict Baptist Missionary Society (founded 1860, re-
founded 1807) which conducts mission work in South India. The
income of this society was 1146 in 1905. It comprises 730 church
members and 72 pastors and workers.
The Baptists early felt the necessity of providing an educated
ministry for their congregations. Some of their leading pastors had
been educated in one or other of the English universities. Others
had by their own efforts obtained a large amount of learning, amongst
whom Dr John Gill was eminent for his knowledge of Hebrew, as
shown in his Exposition of the Holy Scriptures, a work in 9 vols. folio,
1746-1766. Edward Terrill, who died in 1685, left a considerable
part of his estate for the instruction of young men desiring to be
trained for the ministry, under the superintendence of the pastor
of the Broadmead Church, Bristol, of which he wasa member. Other
bequests for the same purpose were made, and from the year 1720
the Baptist Academy, as it was then called, received young men as
students for the ministry among the Baptists. In 1770 the Bristol
Education Society was formed to enlarge this academy ; and about
the year 1811 the present Bristol Baptist College was erected. In
the north of England a similar education society was formed in 1804
at Bradford, Yorkshire, which has since been removed to Rawdon,
near Leeds. In London another college was formed in 1810 at
Stepney; it was removed to Regent's Park in 1856. The Pastors'
College in connexion with the Metropolitan Tabernacle was insti-
tuted in 1856, and in 1 866 the present Baptist College at Manchester
was instituted at Bury in the interests of the " Strict " Baptist
views. Besides these, which were voluntary colleges not under
denominational control, the General Baptists maintained a college
since 1797, which, since the amalgamation of the two Baptist bodies,
has become also a voluntary institution, though previously sup-
ported by the General Baptist Association. It is called the Mid-
land Baptist College," and is situated in Nottingham. There is also
a Baptist theological college in Glasgow, and there are two colleges
in Wales and one in Ireland. The total number of students in these
institutions is about 210.
The Baptists were the first denomination of British Christians
to undertake in a systematic way that work of missions to the
heathen, which became so prominent a feature in the religious
activity of the igth century. As early as the year 1784 the North-
amptonshire Association of Baptist churches resolved to recom-
mend that the first Monday of every month should be set apart for
prayer for the spread of the gospel. Shortly after, in 1792, the
Baptist Missionary Society was formed at Kettering in Northampton-
shire, after a sermon on Isaiah Hi. 2, 3, preached by William Carey
(1761-1834), the prime mover in the work, in which he urged two
points: " Expect great things from God; attempt great things for
God." In the course of the following; year Carey sailed for India,
where he was joined a few years later by Marshman and Ward, and
the mission was established at Serampore. The great work of
Dr Carey's life was the translation of the Bible into the various
languages and dialects of India. The society's operations are now
carried on, not only in the East, but in the West Indies, China,
Africa (chiefly on the Congo river), and Europe.
In regard to church government, the Baptists agree with the Con-
gregationalists that each separate church is complete in itself, and
has, therefore, power to choose its own ministers and to make such
regulations as it deems to be most in accordance with the purpose
of its existence, that is, the advancement of the kingdom of Christ.
A comparatively small section of the denomination maintain that a
" plurality of elders " or pastors is required for the complete organiza-
tion of every separate church. This is the distinctive peculiarity of
those churches in Scotland and the north of England which are known
as Scotch Baptists. The largest church of this section, consisting of
approximately 500 members, originated in Edinburgh in 1765, be-
fore which date only one Baptist church that of Keiss in Caithness,
formed about 1750 appears to have existed in Scotland. The
greater number of the churches are united in association voluntarily
formed, all of them determined by geographical limits. The associa-
tions, as well as the churches not in connexion with them, are united
together in the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland, formed
in 1813 by the Particular Baptists. This union, however, exerts
no authoritative action over the separate churches. One import-
ant part of the work of the union is the collection of information
in which all the churches are interested. In 1909 there were in
the United Kingdom: Baptist churches, 3046; chapels, 4124;
sittings, 1,450,352; members, 424,008; Sunday school teachers,
58,687; Sunday scholars, 578,344; local preachers, 5615; and
pastors in charge, 2078.
At the beginning of the 2Oth century the Baptist Union collected
a "Twentieth Century Fund" of 250,000, which has largely
assisted the formation of new churches, and gives an indication of
374
BAPTISTS
the unity and virility of the denomination. A still stronger evidence
to the same effect was given by the Religious Census taken in 1904.
While this only applied to London, its results are valuable as showing
the comparative strength of the Baptist Church. These results are
to the effect that in all respects the Baptists come second to the
Anglicans in the following three particulars: (i) Percentage of
attendances at public worship contributed by Baptists, 10-81
(London County), 10-70 (Greater London) ; (2) aggregate of attend-
ances, 54-597 ; (3) number of places of worship, 443.
2. The Continent of Europe. During the igth century what
we have called the modern Baptist movement made its appear-
ance in nearly every European country. In Roman Catholic
countries Baptist churches were formed by missionaries coming
from either England or America: work in France began in
1832, in Italy missions were started in 1866 (Spezia Mission) and
in 1884 (Baptist Missionary Society, which also has a mission in
Brittany), and in Spain in 1888. In Protestant countries and
in Russia the Baptist movement began without missionary
intervention from England or America. J. G. Oncken (1800-
1884) formed the first church in Hamburg in 1834, and thereafter
Baptist churches were formed in other countries as follows:
Denmark (1839), Holland and Sweden (1848), Switzerland (1849),
Norway (1860), Austria and Rumania (1869), Hungary (1871),
and Bulgaria (1884). Baptist churches also began to be formed
in Russia and Finland in the 'fifties and 'sixties.
3. British Colonies. In every colony the Baptists have a
considerable place. There are unions of Baptist churches in the
following colonies: New South Wales, Victoria, S. Australia,
Western Australia, Queensland, New Zealand, Tasmania,
Canada (four Unions) and S. Africa. The work in S. Africa is
assisted by the Baptist South African Missionary and Colonial
Aid Society, having its seat in London.
The Baptist World Alliance was formed in 1905, when the first
Baptist World Congress was held in London. The preamble of
the constitution of this Alliance sufficiently indicates its nature:
" Whereas, in the providence of God, the time has come when it
seems fitting more fully to manifest the essential oneness in the
Lord Jesus Christ, as their God and Saviour, of the churches of
the Baptist order and faith throughout the world, and to promote
the spirit of fellowship, service and co-operation among them,
while recognizing the independence of each particular church
and not assuming the functions of any existing organization, it
is agreed to form a Baptist alliance, extending over every part
of the world." This alliance does in fact include Baptists in
every quarter of the globe, as will be seen from the following
statistics:
Churches. Members.
United States
National Baptist Convention
Southern Baptist Convention
" Disciples of Christ "
Thirty-five Northern States
Fourteen other Bodies
Australasia .
Canada
S. Africa . . '.
United Kingdom .
Austria Hungary .
Denmark . . '.
Finland
France
Germany
Italy ....
Mexico and Central America
Netherlands .
Norway
Rumania and Bulgaria .
1 Russia and Poland
S. America .
Spain .
Sweden
Switzerland .
West Indies .
Ceylon
China .
16,996
20,431
11.157
8,894
7,921
270
985
52
2,934
37
43
28
1 80
2,110,269
1,832,638
1,235,798
986,82 1
414,775
23,253
103,062
4,865
426,563
9,783
22
39
5
131
63
:i
25
137
2,278
32,462
1,375
1,820
1,413
2,849
374
24,136
3,641
245
43,305
796
42.310
1,044
12,160
The figures for Russia include only the German-speaking Baptists
is impossible to ascertain the numbers of properly Russian
Baptists. Estimates have been made which vary from 60,000 to
lOOfOOO.
India .
Japan .
Palestine
Philippines
Congo .
West Africa
Total
1,215 121,716
40 2,326
i 106
4 425
21 4.673
10 629
72,681 7.454.165
In 1909 the comparative totals were roughly: 72,988
churches ; 7,480,940 members. In both sets of figures the
Disciples of Christ (U.S.A.) are included.
LITERATURE. Thomas Crosby, The History of the English Bap-
tists (4 vols. London, 1738-1740); D. Masson, Life of John Milton
in Connexion -with the History of his Time (6 vols. 1859-1880, new
ed. 1881, &c.); B. Evans, The Early English Baptists, i. ii. (1862-
1864) ; H. C. Vedder, A Short History of the Baptists (London, 1897) ;
A. H. Newman, A Manual of Church History (Philadelphia, 1900-
1903); R. Heath, Anabaptism (1895); C. Williams, The Principles
and Practices of the Baptists (1903); E. C. Pike, The Story of the
Anabaptists (1904); J. H. Shakespeare, Baptist and Congregational
Pioneers; ]. G. Lehmann, Geschichte der deutschen Baptisten (1896-
1900); G. Tumbult, Die Wiedertaufer (Bielefeld, 1899); The
Baptist Handbook (annually); The Baptist World Congress, 1905;
The Religious Census of London (1904). (N. H. M.)
4. United States of America. The first Baptist Church in
America was that founded in the Providence settlement on
Narragansett Bay under the leadership of Roger Williams
(q.v.). Having been sentenced to banishment (October 1635)
by the Massachusetts Court because of his persistence in advocat-
ing separatistic views deemed unsettling and dangerous, to
escape deportation to England he betook himself (January
1636) to the wilderness, where he was hospitably entertained
by the natives who gave him a tract of land for a settlement.
Having been joined by a few friends from Massachusetts,
Williams founded a commonwealth in which absolute religious
liberty was combined with civil democracy. In the firm convic-
tion that churches of Christ should be made up exclusively of
regenerate members, the baptism of infants appeared to him
not only valueless but a perversion of a Christian ordinance.
About March 1639, with eleven others, he decided to restore
believers' baptism and to form a church of baptized believers.
Ezekiel Holliman, who had been with him at Plymouth and shared
his separatist views, first baptized Williams and Williams baptized
the rest of the company. Williams did not long continue to find
satisfaction in the step he had taken. Believing that the
ordinances and apostolic church organization had been lost in
the general apostasy, he became convinced that it was pre-
sumptuous for any man or company of men to undertake their
restoration without a special divine commission. He felt com-
pelled to withdraw from the church and to assume the position
of a seeker. He continued on friendly terms with the Baptists
of Providence, and in his writings he expressed the conviction
that their practice came nearer than that of other communities
to the first practice of Christ.
In November 1637 John Clarke (1609-1676), a physician, of
religious zeal and theological acumen, arrived at Boston, where,
instead of the religious freedom he was seeking, he found the
dominant party in the Antinomian controversy on the point
of banishing the Antinomian minority, including Mrs Anne
Hutchinson (q.v.) and her family, John Wheelwright (c. 1 592-1679) ,
and William Coddington (1601-1678). Whether from sympathy
with the persecuted or aversion to the persecutors, he cast in
!iis lot with the former and after two unsuccessful attempts at
settlement assisted the fugitives in forming a colony on the island
of Aquidnek (Rhode Island), procured from the Indians through
the good offices of Williams. By 1641 there were, according
to John Winthrop, " professed Anabaptists " on the island,
and Clarke was probably their leader. Robert Lenthall, who
ioined the Newport company in 1640 when driven from Massa-
chusetts, probably brought with him antipaedobaptist con-
victions. Mrs Scott, sister of Mrs Hutchinson, is thought to
lave been an aggressive antipaedobaptist when the colony was
'ounded. Mark Lucar, who was baptized by immersion in London
n January 1642 (N.S.) and was a member of a Baptist church
there, reached Newport about 1644. A few years later we find
BAPTISTS
375
him associated with Clarke as one of the most active members
of the Newport church, and as the date of the organization is un-
certain, there is some reason to suspect that he was a constituent
member.and that asabaptized man he took the initiative in baptiz-
ing and organizing. At any rate we have in Lucar an interesting
connecting link between early English and American Baptists.
The Providence church maintained a rather feeble existence
after Williams's withdrawal, with Thomas Olney (d. 1682),
William Wickenden, Chad Brown (d. 1665) and Gregory Dexter
as leading members. A schism occurred in 1652, the last three
with a majority of the members contending for general redemp-
tion and for the laying on of hands as indispensable to fellowship,
Olney, with the minority, maintaining particular redemption
and rejecting the laying on of hands as an ordinance. Olney's
party became extinct soon after his death in 1 68 2 . The surviving
church became involved in Socinianism and Universalism, but
maintained a somewhat vigorous life and, through Wickenden
and others, exerted considerable influence at Newport, in Con-
necticut, New York and elsewhere. Dexter became, with
Williams and Clarke, a leading statesman in Rhode Island and
Providence Plantations.
The Newport church extended its influence into Massachusetts,
and in 1649 we find a group of Baptists at Rehoboth, with
Obadiah Holmes as leader. The intolerance of the authorities
rendered the prosecution of the work impracticable and these
Massachusetts Baptists became members of the Newport church.
In 1651 Clarke, Holmes and Joseph Crandall of the Newport
church made a religious visit to Lynn, Mass. While holding
a meeting in a private house they were arrested and were com-
pelled to attend the church services of the standing order.
For holding an unlawful meeting and refusing to participate
quietly in the public service they were fined, imprisoned and
otherwise maltreated. While in England on public business
in 1652, Clarke published /// News from New England, which
contained an impressive account of the proceedings against
himself and his brethren at Lynn, and an earnest and well-
reasoned plea for liberty of conscience.
Henry Dunster (1612-1659), the first president of the college
at Cambridge (Harvard), had by 1653 become convinced that
" visible believers only should be baptized." Being unwilling to
hold his views in abeyance, he relinquished in 1654, under circum-
stances of considerable hardship, the work that he greatly loved.
In 1663 John Myles (1621-1683), a Welsh Baptist who had
been one of Cromwell's Tryers, with his congregation, took refuge
in Massachusetts from the intolerance of the government of
Charles II. They were allowed to settle in Rehoboth, Mass.,
and even after they were discovered to be Baptists they were
allowed to remain on condition of establishing their meeting-
place at a considerable distance from that of the standing order.
Myles did much to promote the growth of the Baptist Church
in Massachusetts, and was of service to the denomination in
Boston and elsewhere. Thomas Gould of Charlestown seems
to have been in close touch with President Dunster and to have
shared his antipaedobaptist views as early as 1654. Some
time before 1665 several English Baptists had settled in the
neighbourhood of Boston and several others had adopted
Baptist views. These, with Gould, were baptized (May 1665)
and joined with those who had been baptized in England in a
church covenant. The church was severely persecuted, the
members being frequently imprisoned and fined and denied
the use of a building they had erected as a meeting-house.
Long after the Act of Toleration (1689) was in full force in England,
the Boston Baptists pleaded in vain for the privileges to which
they were thereby entitled, and it required the most earnest
efforts of English Baptists and other dissenters to gain for them
a recognition of the right to exist. A mandate from Charles II.
(July 1679), in which the Massachusetts authorities were sharply
rebuked for denying to others the liberty to secure which they
themselves had gone into exile, had produced little effect.
In 1682 William Screven (1629-1713) and Humphrey Church-
wood, members of the Boston church, gathered and organized,
with the co-operation of the mother church, a small congregation
at Kittery, Me. Persecution led to migration, Screven and some
of the members making their way to South Carolina, where,
with a number of English Baptists of wealth and position, what
became the First Baptist church in Charleston, was organized
(about 1684). This became one of the most important of
early Baptist centres, and through Screven's efforts Baptist
principles became widely disseminated throughout that region.
The withdrawal of members to form other churches in the
neighbourhood and the intrusion of Socinianism almost
extinguished the Charleston church about 1746.
A few Baptists of the general (Anninian) type appeared in
Virginia from 1714 onward, and were organized and fostered
by missionaries from the English General Baptists. By 1727 they
had invaded North Carolina and a church was constituted there.
From 1643 onward antipaedobaptists from New England and
elsewhere had settled in the New Netherlands (New York).
Lady Deborah Moody left Massachusetts for the New Nether-
lands in 1643 because of her antipaedobaptist views and on her
way stopped at New Haven, where she won to her principles
Mrs Eaton, the wife of the governor, Theophilus Eaton. She
settled at Gravesend (now part of Brooklyn) having received
from the Dutch authorities a guarantee of religious liberty.
Francis Doughty, an English Baptist, who had spent some time
in Rhode Island, laboured in this region in 1656 and baptized a
number of converts. This latter proceeding led to his banish-
ment. Later in the same year William Wickenden of Providence
evangelized and administered the ordinances at Flushing, but
was heavily fined and banished. From 1711 onward Valentine
Wightman (1681-1747) of Connecticut (General Baptist) made
occasional missionary visits to New York at the invitation of
Nicolas Eyres, a business man who had adopted Baptist views,
and in 1714 baptized Eyres and several others, and assisted them
in organizing a church. The church was well-nigh wrecked( 1 730)
by debt incurred in the erection of a meeting-house. A number
of Baptists settled on Block Island about 1663. Some time
before 1724 a Baptist church (probably Arminian) was formed
at Oyster Bay.
The Quaker colonies, with their large measure of religious
liberty, early attracted a considerable number of Baptists from
New England, England and Wales. About 1 684 a Baptist church
was founded at Cold Spring, Bucks county, Pa., through the
efforts of Thomas Dungan, an Irish Baptist minister who had
spent some time in Rhode Island. The Pennepek church was
formed in 1688 through the labours of Elias Reach, son of
Benjamin Reach (1640-1704), the famous English evangelist.
Services were held in Philadelphia under the auspices of the
Pennepek church from 1687 onward, but independent organiza-
tion did not occur till 1698. Several Reithian Quakers united
with the church, which ultimately became possessed of the
Reithian meeting-house. Almost from the beginning general
meetings had been held by the churches of these colonies. In
1707 the Philadelphia Association was formed as a delegated
body " to consult about such things as were wanting in the
churches and to set them in order." From its inception this body
proved highly influential in promoting Baptist co-operation in
missionary and educational work, in efforts to supply the churches
with suitable ministers and to silence unworthy ones, and in
maintaining sound doctrine. Sabbatarianism appeared within
the bounds of the association at an early date and Seventh-day
Baptist churches were formed (1705 onward).
The decades preceding the " Great Awakening " of 1740-1743
were a time of religious declension. A Socinianized Arminianism
had paralysed evangelistic effort. The First Church, Providence,
had long since become Anninian and held aloof from the
evangelism of Edwards, Whitefield and their coadjutors. The
First Church, Boston, had become Socinianized and discounten-
anced the revival. The First Church, Newport, had been rent
asunder by Arminianism, and the nominally Calvinistic remnant
had itself become divided on the question of the laying on of
hands and showed no sympathy with the Great Awakening.
The First Church, Charleston, had been wrecked by Socinianism.
The General (Six Principles) Baptists of Rhode Island and
37 6
BAPTISTS
Connecticut had increased their congregations and membership,
and before the beginning of the i8th century had inaugurated
annual associational meetings. But the fact that the Great
Awakening in America was conducted on Calvinistic principles
was sufficient to prevent their hearty co-operation. The churches
of the Philadelphia Association were organized and engaged to
some extent in missionary endeavour, but they showed little
interest in the Edwards-Whitefield movement. And yet the
Baptists ultimately profited by the Great Awakening beyond
almost any of the denominations. In many New England
communities a majority in the churches of the standing order
bitterly opposed the new evangelism, and those who came under
its influence felt constrained to organize " Separate " or " New
Light " churches. These were severely persecuted by the
dominant party and were denied even the scanty privileges that
Baptists had succeeded in gaining. As the chief objection of the
" Separates " to the churches of the standing order was their
refusal to insist on personal regeneration as a term of membership,
many of them were led to feel that they were inconsistent in
requiring regenerate membership and yet administering baptism
to unconscious infants. In several cases entire " Separate "
churches reached the conviction that the baptism of infants was
not only without Scriptural warrant but was a chief corner-stone
of state-churchism, and transformed themselves into Baptist
churches. In many cases a division of sentiment came to prevail
on the matter of infant-baptism, and for a while mutual toleration
prevailed; but mixed churches had their manifest disadvantages
and separation ultimately ensued.
Among the Baptist leaders gained from Congregationalism as
a result of the awakening was Isaac Backus (1724-1806), who
became the New England champion in the cause of religious
liberty and equality, and the historian of his denomination. To
Daniel Marshall (d. 1784) and Shubael Stearns, " New Light "
evangelists who became Baptists, the spread of Baptist principles
and the multiplication of Baptist churches throughout the
southern colonies were in great measure due. The feeble Baptist
cause in Virginia and North Carolina had been considerably
strengthened by missionaries from the churches of the Phila-
delphia Association, including Benjamin Griffith, John Gano
(1727-1804), John Thomas, Benjamin Miller, Samuel Eaton,
John Garrard and David Thomas, and several churches, formed
or reformed under their influence, united with the association. In
1776 the Ketockton Association was formed by this group of
churches. The Virginia colonial government, in earlier days
cruelly intolerant, gave a limited toleration to Baptists of this
type; but the " Separate " Baptists were too enthusiastic and
too much alive to the evils of state control in religious matters
to be willing to take out licences for their meetings, and soon
came into sharp conflict with the authorities. Stearns was an
evangelist of great power. With Marshall, his brother-in-law,
and about a dozen fellow-believers he settled at Sandy Creek,
North Carolina, and in a few years had built up a church with a
membership of more than six hundred. Marshall afterward
organized and ministered to a church at Abbott's Creek
about 30 m. distant. From these centres " Separate " Baptist
influence spread throughout North and South Carolina and across
the Georgia border, Marshall himself finally settling and forming
a church at Kiokee, Georgia. From North Carolina as a centre
" Separate " Baptist influence permeated Virginia and extended
into Kentucky and Tennessee. The Sandy Creek Association
came to embrace churches in several colonies, and Stearns,
desirous of preserving the harmonious working of the churches
that recognized his leadership, resisted with vehemence all
proposals for the formation of other associations.
From 1760 to 17 70 the growth of the" Separate "Baptist body
in Virginia and the Carolinas was phenomenal. Evangelists like
Samuel Harris (i724-c.i7Q4) and John Waller (1741-1802)
stirred whole communities and established Baptist churches
where the Baptist name had hitherto been unknown. The Sandy
Creek Association, with Stearns as leader, undertook to " un-
fellowship ordinations, ministers and churches that acted
independently," and provoked such opposition that a division
of the association became necessary. The General Association
of Virginia and the Congaree Association of South Carolina now
took their places side by side with the Sandy Creek. The
Virginia " Separate " Baptists had more than doubled their
numbers in the two years from May 1771 to May 1773. In
1774 some of the Virginia brethren became convinced that the
apostolic office was meant to be perpetuated and induced the
association to appoint an apostle. Samuel Harris was the
unanimous choice and was solemnly ordained. Waller and
Elijah Craig (1743-1800) were made apostles soon afterward for
the northern district. This arrangement, soon abandoned, was
no doubt suggested by Methodist superintendency. In 1775
Methodist influence appeared in the contention of two of the
apostles and Jeremiah Walker for universal redemption. Schism
was narrowly averted by conciliatory statements on both sides.
As a means of preserving harmony the Philadelphia Confession
of Faith, a Calvinistic document, with provision against too
rigid a construction, was adopted and a step was thus taken
toward harmonizing with the " Regular " Baptists of the
Philadelphia type. When the General Association was sub-
divided (1783), a General Committee, made up of delegates from
each district association, was constituted to consider matters
that might be for the good of the whole society. Its chief work
was to continue the agitation in which for some years the body
had been successfully engaged in favour of religious equality and
the entire separation of church and state. Since 1780 the
" Separate " Baptists had had the hearty co-operation of the
" Regular " Baptists in their struggle for religious liberty and
equality. In 1787 the two bodies united and agreed to drop the
names " Separate " and " Regular." The success of the Baptists
of Virginia in securing step by step the abolition of everything
that savoured of religious oppression, involving at last the
disestablishment and the disendowment of the Episcopal Church,
was due in part to the fact that Virginia Baptists were among
the foremost advocates of American independence, while the
Episcopal clergy were loyalists and had made themselves
obnoxious to the people by using the authority of Great Britain
in extorting their tithes from unwilling parishioners, and that
they secured the co-operation of free-thinking statesmen like
Thomas Jefferson and James Madison and, in most measures,
that of the Presbyterians.
The Baptist cause in New England that had profited so largely
from the Great Awakening failed to reap a like harvest from the
War of Independence. The standing order in New England
represented the patriotic and popular party. Baptists lost
favour by threatening to appeal to England for a redress of their
grievances at the very time when resistance to English oppression
was being determined upon. The result was slowness of growth
and failure to secure religious liberty. Though a large proportion
of the New England Baptists co-operated heartily in the cause of
independence, the denomination failed to win the popularity
that comes from successful leadership.
About 1762 the Philadelphia Association began to plan for the
establishment of a Baptist institution of learning that should
serve the entire denomination. Rhode Island was finally fixed
upon, partly as the abode of religious liberty and because of
its intelligent, influential and relatively wealthy Baptist con-
stituency, the consequent likelihood of procuring a charter from
its legislature, and the probability that the co-operation of other
denominations in an institution under Baptist control would be
available. James Manning (1738-1791), who had just been
graduated from Princeton with high honours, was thought of as
a suitable leader in the enterprise, and was sent to Rhode Island
(1763) to confer with leading men, Baptist and other. As a
result a charter was granted by the legislature in 1764, and after
a few years of preliminary work at Warren (where the first
degrees ever bestowed by a Baptist institution were conferred
in 1 769), Providence was chosen as thehomeof the college (17 70).
Here, with Manning as president and Hezekiah Smith (1737-
1805), his class-mate at Princeton, as financial agent and in-
fluential supporter, the institution (since 1804 known as Brown
University) was for many years the only degree-conferring
BAPTISTS
377
institution controlled by Baptists. The Warren Association
(1767) was organized under the influence of Manning and Smith
on the model of the Philadelphia, and became a chief agency
for the consolidation of denominational life, the promotion of
denominational education and the securing of religious liberty.
Hezekiah Smith was a highly successful evangelist, and through
his labours scores of churches were constituted in New England.
As chaplain in the American Revolutionary Army he also exerted
a widespread influence.
The First Church, Charleston, which had become almost
extinct through Arminianism in 1746, entered upon a career of
remarkable prosperity in 1749 under the leadership of Oliver
Hart (1723-1795), formerly of the Philadelphia Association. In
1751 the Charleston Association was formed, also on the model
of the Philadelphia, and proved an element of denominational
strength. The association raised funds for domestic missionary
work (1755 onward) and for the education of ministers (1756
onward). Brown University shared largely in the liberality of
members of this highly-cultivated and progressive body. Among
the beneficiaries of the education fund was Samuel Stillman
(1737-1807), afterward the honoured pastor of the Boston
church. The most noted leader of the Baptists of South Carolina
during the four decades following the War of Independence was
Richard Furman (1755-1825), pastor of the First Church,
Charleston. The remarkable numerical progress of Baptists in
South Carolina from 1787 to 1812 (from 1620 members to 11,325)
was due to the " Separate " Baptist movement under Stearns
and Marshall far more than to the activity of the churches of the
Charleston Association. Both these types of Baptist life per-
meated Georgia, the latter making its influence felt in Savannah,
Augusta and the more cultivated communities, the former
evangelizing the masses. Many negro slaves became Baptists in
Virginia, the Carolinas and Georgia. In most cases they became
members of the churches of the white Baptists; but in Richmond,
Savannah and some other towns they were encouraged to have
churches of their own.
By 1812 there were in the United States 173,972 Baptist church
members, the denominational numerical strength having consider-
ably more than doubled since the beginning of the igth century.
Foreign Missions. Baptists in Boston and vicinity, Phila-
delphia and Charleston, and a few other communities had
from the beginning of the I9th century taken a deep interest
in the missionary work of William Carey, the English missionary,
and his coadjutors in India, and had contributed liberally to its
support. The conversion to Baptist views of Adoniram Judson
(q.v.) and Luther Rice (1812), who had just been sent, with
others, by the newly-formed American Board of Commissioners
for Foreign Missions to open up missionary work in India, marks
an epoch in American Baptist history. Judson appealed to his
American brethren to support him in missionary work among
the heathen, and Rice returned to America to organize missionary
societies to awaken interest in Judson's mission. In January
1813 there was formed in Boston " The Baptist Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel in India and other Foreign Parts."
Other societies in the Eastern, Middle and Southern states
speedily followed. The desirability of a national organization
soon became manifest, and in May 1814 thirty-three delegates,
representing eleven states, met in Philadelphia and organized
the " General Missionary Convention of the Baptist Denomina-
tion in the United States of America for Foreign Missions."
As its meetings were to be held every three years it came to
be known as the " Triennial Convention." A Board of Com-
missionerswas appointed with headquarters in Philadelphia(trans-
f erred in 1 8 26 to Boston) . The need of a larger supply of educated
ministers for home and for mission work alike soon came to be
profoundly felt, and resulted in the establishment of Columbian
College, Washington (now George Washington University), with
its theological department (1821), intended to be a national
Baptist institution. Destitution on the frontiers led the Triennial
Convention to engage extensively in home mission work (1817
onward), and in 1832 the American Baptist Home Mission Society
was constituted for the promotion of this work. The need of an
organ for the dissemination of information, and the quickening
of interest in the missionary and educational enterprises of
the Triennial Convention, led Rice to establish the Latter Day
Luminary (1816) and the Columbian Star, a weekly journal
(1822). From the first the attempt to rouse the denomination
to organized effort for the propagation of the gospel met with
much opposition, agents of the Convention being looked upon by
the less intelligent pastors and churches as highly-paid and
irresponsible collectors of money to be used they knew not how,
or for purposes of which they disapproved. The fact that Rice
was unduly* optimistic and allowed the enterprises of the Con-
vention to become almost hopelessly involved in debt, and was
constrained to use some of the fund collected for missions to
meet the exigencies of his educational and journalistic work,
intensified the hostility of those who had suspected from the
beginning the good faith of the agents and denied the scriptural
authority of boards, paid agents, paid missionaries, &c. So
virulent became the opposition that in several states, as Tennes-
see and Kentucky, the work of the Convention was for years
excluded, and a large majority in each association refused to
receive into their fellowship those who advocated or contributed
to its objects. Hyper-Calvinism, ignorance and avarice co-
operated in making the very name " missions " odious, ministerial
education an impertinent human effort to supplant a spirit-called
and spirit-endowed ministry, Sunday-schools and prayer-
meetings as human institutions, the aim of which was to interfere
with the divine order, and the receiving of salaries for ministerial
work as serving God for hire or rather as serving self. To
counteract this influence, Baptist State Conventions were formed
by the friends of missions and education, only contributing
churches, associations, missionary societies and individuals
being invited to membership (1821 onward Massachusetts had
effected state organization in 1802). These became highly
efficient in promoting foreign and domestic missions, Sunday-
school organization, denominational literature and education.
Nearly every state soon had its institutions of learning, which
aspired to become universities.
Before 1844 the sessions of the Triennial Convention had occa-
sionally been made unpleasant by harsh anti-slavery utterances by
Northern members against their Southern brethren and somewhat
acrimonious rejoinders by the latter. The controversy between
Francis Wayland and Richard Fuller (1804-1876) on the slavery
question ultimately convinced the Southern brethren that separate
organization for missionary work was advisable. The Southern
Baptist Convention, with its Home and Foreign Missionary Boards,
and (later) its Sunday-school Board, was formed in 1845. Since
then Northern and Southern Baptists, though in perfect fellowship
with each other, have found it best to carry on their home and foreign
missionary work through separate boards and to have separate
annual meetings. In 1905 a General Baptist Convention for America
was formed for the promotion of fellowship, comity and denomina-
tional esprit de corps, but this organization is not to interfere with the
sect ionalorganizationsortoundertake any kindof administrative work.
Since 1845 Northern and Southern Baptists alike have greatly
increased in numbers, in missionary work, in educational insti-
tutions, in literary activity and in everything that pertains to the
equipment and organization of a great religious denomination.
Since 1812 they have increased in numbers from less than 200,000
to more than 5,000,000. In 1812 American Baptists had no theo-
logical seminary; in 1906 they had II with more than 100
instructors, 1300 students, and endowments and equipments valued
at about $7,000,000. In 1812 they had only one degree-conferring
college with a small faculty, a small student body and almost no
endowment; in 1906 they had more than 100 universities and
colleges with endowment and equipment valued at about $30,000,000,
and an annual income of about $3,ooo,ooo._ In 1812 the value of
church property was small; in 1906 it was estimated at $100,000,000.
Then a single monthly magazine, with a circulation of a few hundreds,
was all that the denomination possessed in the way of periodical
literature; in 1906 its quarterlies, monthlies and weeklies were
numbered by hundreds. The denomination has a single publishing
concern (the American Baptist Publication Society) with an annual
business of nearly $1,000,000 and assets of $1,750,000.
Baptists in the Dominion of Canada had their rise about the close
of the 1 8th century in migrations from the United States. They
have been reinforced by considerable numbers of English, Welsh
and Scottish Baptists. They are divided into four sections : those
of the Maritime Provinces, with their Convention, their Home and
Foreign Mission Boards, an Education Board and a Publication
Board, and with M'Master University (Arts, Theological and
BAR
Acidemic departments) as its educational institution; those of
Manitoba and the North-west, with Brandon College as its educa-
tional institution; and those of British Columbia, Canadian
Baptists numbered 120,000 in 1909, and are considered in the above
general estimates. I*- " )
BAR, FRANCOIS DE (1338-1606), French scholar, was born
at Seizencourt, near St Quentin, and having studied at the
university of Paris entered the order of St Benedict. He soon
became prior of the abbey of Anchin, near Pecquencourt, and
passed much of his time in the valuable library of the abbey,
studying ecclesiastical history, especially that of Flanders. He
also made a catalogue of the manuscripts at Anchin and annotated
many of them. During the French Revolution his manuscripts
passed to the library at Douai. Bar died at Anchin on the 25th
of March 1606.
See T Lelong, Bibliotheque historique de la France (Paris, 1768-
1778)- CCA. Dehaisnes, " Catalogue des manuscrits de Douai,
in the Catalogue general des manuscrits des bibliotheques des departe-
ments, t. vi. (Pans, 1849-1885).
BAR, a town of Russia, in the government of Podolia, 50 m.
N.E. of Kamenets, on an affluent of the Bug. Pop. (1897) 10,614.
It was formerly called Rov. Its present designation was
bestowed upon it in memory of Bari in Italy (where she was
born) by Bona Sforza, the consort of Sigismund I. of Poland, who
rebuilt the town after its destruction in 1452 by the Tatars.
From 1672 to 1699 it remained in possession of the Turks. In
1768 a confederation of the Polish nobles (see next article)
against the Russians was formed in the town, which was shortly
after taken by storm, but did not become finally united to Russia
till the partition of 1793.
BAR, CONFEDERATION OF, a famous confederation of the
Polish nobles and gentry formed at the little fortress of Bar in
Podolia in 1768 to defend the internal and external independ-
ence of Poland against the aggressions of the Russian government
as represented by her representative at Warsaw, Prince Nicholas
Repnin. The originators of this confederation were Adam
Krasinski, bishop of Kamenets, Osip Pulawski and Michael
Krasinski. King Stanislaus was at first inclined to mediate
between the confederates and Russia; but finding this impossible,
sent a force against them under the grand hetman Ksawery
Branicki and two generals, who captured Bar. Nevertheless,
a simultaneous outbreak of a jacquerie in Little-Russia con-
tributed to the extension of the confederation throughout the
eastern province of Poland and even in Lithuania. The con-
federates, thereupon, appealed for help abroad and contributed
to bring about a war between Russia and Turkey. So serious
indeed was the situation that Frederick II. advised Catherine to
come to terms with the confederates. Their bands under Ignaty
Malchewsky, Michael Pac and Prince Charles Radziwill ravaged
the land in every direction, won several engagements over the
Russians, and at last, utterly ignoring the king, sent envoys on
their own account to the principal European powers. In 1770
the Council of the Confederation was transferred from its original
seat in Silesia to Hungary, from whence it conducted diplomatic
negotiations with France, Austria and Turkey with the view of
forming a league against Russia. The court of Versailles sent
Dumouricz to act as commander-in-chief of the confederates, but
neither as a soldier nor as a politician did this adroit adventurer
particularly distinguish himself, and his account of his experiences
is very unfair to the confederates. Among other blunders, he
pronounced King Stanislaus a tyrant and a traitor at the very
moment when he was about to accede to the Confederation
The king thereupon reverted to the Russian faction and the
Confederation lost the confidence of Europe. Nevertheless, its
army, thoroughly reorganized by Dumouriez, gallantly main-
tained the hopeless struggle for some years, and it was not til
1776 that the last traces of it disappeared.
See Alexander Kraushar, Prince Repnin in Poland (Pol.) (Warsaw
1900); F. A. Thesby de Belcour, The Confederates of Bar (Pol.
(Cracow, 1895); Charles Franjois Dumouriez, Memoires et cones
pondance (Paris, 1834). (R. N. B.)
BAR (O. Fr. barre, Late Lat. barra, origin unknown), in physica
geography, a ridge of sand or silt crossing an estuary under wate:
or raised by wave action above sea-level, forming an impedimen
o navigation. When a river enters a tidal sea its rate of flow
s checked and the material it carries in suspension is deposited
n a shifting bar crossing the channel from bank to bank. Where
he channel is only partly closed, a spur of this character is called
a " spit." A bar may be produced by tidal action only in an
stuary or narrow gulf (as at Port Adelaide) where the tides
weep the loose sand backwards and forwards, depositing it
arhere the motion of the water is checked. Nahant Bay, Mass.,
s bordered by the ridge of Lynn Beach, which separates it from
ynn Harbor, and ties Nahant to the mainland by a bar formed
n this way.
BAR, THE. This term, as equivalent to the profession of
>arrister (q.v.), originated in the partition or bar dividing the
English law-courts into two parts, for the purpose of separating
the members and officials of the court from the prisoners or
,uitors, their advocates and the general public. Theoretically,
.his division of the court is still maintained in England, those
who are entitled to sit within the bar including king's counsel,
barristers with patents of precedence, Serjeants (till the order
died out) and solicitors, while the other members of the bar and
the general public remain without. Parties in civil suits who
appear in person are allowed to stand on the floor within the bar
nstead of, as formerly, appearing at the bar itself. In criminal
trials the accused still stands forward at the bar. There is also
a " bar " in parliament. In the House of Commons it remains
iterally a bar a long brass rod hidden in a tube from which
t is pulled out when required to mark the technical boundary
of the House. Before it appear those who are charged with
laving violated the privileges of the House; below it also sit
those members who have been returned at bye-elections, to
await their introduction to the House and the taking of the oath
of allegiance. In the House of Lords the place where Mr Speaker
and the members of the House of Commons stand when sum-
moned by Black Rod is called " the bar."
The " call to the bar " in England, by which a law student at
one of the Inns of Court is converted into a barrister, is dealt
with under INNS OF COURT. The exclusive privilege of calling to
the bar belongs to those bodies, which also exercise disciplinary
power over their members; but it was widely felt by members
of the bar in recent years that the benchers or governing body
with their self-elected members did not keep a sufficiently
watchful eye on the minutiae of the profession. Consequently,
in 1883, a bar committee was formed for the purpose of dealing
with all matters relating to the profession, such as the criticizing
of proposed legal reforms, and the expression of opinions on
matters of professional etiquette, conduct and practice. In
1894 the committee was dissolved, and succeeded by the general
council of the bar, elected on a somewhat wider basis. It is
composed of a due proportion of king's counsel and outer
barristers elected by voting-papers sent to all barristers having
an address in the Law List within the United Kingdom. Its
expenses are paid by contributions from the four Inns of Court.
Its powers are not disciplinary, but it would draw the attention
of the benchers to any gross violation of the professional etiquette
of the bar.
Each state in America has its own bar, consisting of all
attorneys-at-law residing within it who have been admitted to
practice in its courts. Generally attorneys are admitted in one
court to practice in all courts. Each of the United States courts
has a bar of its own. An attorney of a state cannot practise in
a court of the United States unless he has been admitted to it,
or to one of the same class in another district or circuit. He
cannot appear in the Supreme Court of the United States unless
specially admitted and sworn as an attorney of that court,
which is done on motion in case of any one who has practised
for three years in the highest courts of his state and is in good
standing at its bar. In most of the states there is a state bar
association, and in some cities and counties local bar associations.
These consist of such members of its bar as desire thus to asso-
ciate, the object being to guard and advance the standards of
the profession. Some own valuable libraries. These associations
have no official recognition, but their influence is considerable in
BARA BANKI BARANTE
379
recommending and shaping legislation respecting the judicial
establishment and procedure. They also serve a useful purpose
in instituting or promoting proceedings to discipline or expel
unworthy attorneys from the bar. There is an American Bar
Association, founded in 1878, composed of over 3500 members
of different states of like character and position. Some of these
associations publish annually a volume of transactions. The
rights, duties and liabilities of counsellor-at-law are stated under
ATTORNEY. As members of the bar of the state in which they
practise they are subject to its laws regulating such practice, e.g.
in some states they are forbidden to advertise for divorce cases
(New York Penal Code [1902] 1483) (1905, People v. Taylor
[Colorado], 75 Pac. Rep. 914). It is common throughout the
United States for lawyers to make contracts for " contingent
fees," i.e. for a percentage of the amount recovered. Such
contracts are not champertous and are upheld by the courts,
but will be set aside if an unconscionable bargain be made with
the client (Deering v. Scheyer [N.Y.], 58 App. D. 322). So also
by the U.S. Supreme Court (Wright v. Tebbets, 91 U.S. 252;
Taylor v. Benis, no U.S. 42). The reason for upholding such
contracts is that otherwise poor persons would often fail of
securing or protecting their property or rights. In fact such
contracts are seldom set aside, though no doubt the practice is
capable of abuse.
BARA BANKI, a town and district of British India in the
Fyzabad division of the United Provinces. The town, which
forms one municipality with Nawabganj, the administrative
headquarters of the district, is 17 m. E. of Lucknow by railway.
The population of Bara Banki alone in 1901 was 3020. There is
some trade in sugar and cotton.
The district has an area of 1758 sq. m. It stretches out in a
level plain interspersed with numerous jhils or marshes. In the
upper part of the district the soil is sandy, while in the lower part
it is clayey and produces finer crops. The principal rivers are
the Gogra, forming the northern boundary, and the Gumti,
flowing through the middle of the district. In 1856 it came, with
the rest of Oudh, under British rule. During the Sepoy war of
1857-1858 the whole of the Bara Banki talukdars joined the
mutineers, but offered no serious resistance after the capture of
Lucknow. The cultivators are still, for the most part, tenants-
at-will, rack-rented and debt-ridden. In 1901 the population
was 1,179,323, showing an increase of 4 % in the decade. The
principal crops are rice, wheat, pulse and other food-grains,
sugar-cane and opium. Both the bordering rivers are navi-
gable; and the district is traversed by two lines of the Oudh
and Rohilkhand railway, with branches. Trade in agricultural
produce is active.
BARABOO, a city and the county-seat of Sauk county,
Wisconsin, U.S.A., about 37 m. N.W. of Madison, on the Baraboo
river, a tributary of the Wisconsin. Pop. (1890) 4605; (1900)
5751, of whom 732 were foreign-born; (1905) 5835; (1910)
6324. The city is served by the Chicago & North- Western
railway, which maintains here an engine house and extensive
machine shops, and of which it is a division headquarters.
Baraboo has an attractive situation on a series of hills about
1000 ft. above sea-level. In the vicinity are Devil's Lake (3 m.
S.) and the famous Dells of the Wisconsin river (near Kilbourn,
about 12 m. N.), two summer resorts with picturesque scenery.
The principal public buildings are the court-house (in a small
public park), the public library and a high school. Dairying
and the growing of small fruits are important industries in the
surrounding region; and there is a large nursery here. Stone
quarried in the vicinity is exported, and the city is near the
centre of the Sauk county iron range. Among the manufactures
are woollen goods, towels, canned fruit and vegetables, dairy
products, beer, and circus wagons (the city is the headquarters
of the Ringling and the Gollmar circuses). The first permanent
settlement here was made in 1839. Baraboo was named in
honour of Jean Baribault, an early French trapper, and was
chartered as a city in 1882.
BARABRA, a name for the complex Nubian races of the
Egyptian Sudan, whose original stock is Hamitic-Berber, long
modified by negro crossings. The word is variously derived
from Berberi, i.e. people of Berber, or as identical with Barabara,
figuring in the inscription on a gateway of Tethmosis I. as the
name of one of the 113 tribes conquered by him. In a later
inscription of Rameses II. at Karnak (c. 1300 B.C.) Beraberala is
given as that of a southern conquered people. Thus it is sug-
gested that Barabra is a real ethnical name, confused later with
Greek and Roman barbarus, and revived in its proper meaning
subsequent to the Moslem conquest. A tribe living on the banks
of the Nile between Wadi Haifa and Assuan are called Barabra.
(See further NUBIA.)
BARACALDO, a river-port of north-eastern Spain, in the
province of Biscay; on the left bank of the river Nervion or
Ansa (in Basque, Ibaizabal), 5 m. by rail N.W. of Bilbao. Pop.
(1900) 15,013. Few Spanish towns have developed more rapidly
than Baracaldo, which nearly doubled its population between
1880 and 1900. During this period many immigrant labourers
settled here; for the ironworks and dynamite factory of Bara-
caldo prospered greatly, owing to the increased output of the
Biscayan mines, the extension of railways in the neighbourhood,
and the growth of shipping at Bilbao. The low flat country
round Baracaldo is covered with maize, pod fruit and vines.
BARACOA, a seaport city of N.E. Cuba, in Santiago province.
Pop. (1907) 5633. The town lies under high hills on a small
circular harbour accessible to small craft. The country round
about is extremely rugged. The hill called the " Anvil of
Baracoa " (about 3000 ft.) is remarkable for its extremely regular
formation. It completely dominates the city's background,
and is a well-known sailors' landmark. The town is the trading
centre of a large plantation region behind it and is the centre
of the banana and cocoanut export trade. There is a fort dating
from the middle of the i8th century. Baracoa is the oldest
town in Cuba, having been settled by Diego Velazquez in 1512.
It held from its foundation the honours of a city. From 1512
to 1514 it was the capital of the island, and from 1518 to 1522
its church was the cathedral of the island's first diocese. Both
honours were taken from it to be given to Santiago de Cuba;
and for two centuries after this Baracoa remained an obscure
village, with little commerce. In the i6th century it was re-
peatedly plundered by pirates until it came to terms with them,
gave them welcome harbourage, and based a less precarious
existence upon continuous illicit trade. Until the middle of the
1 8th century Baracoa was almost without connexion with
Havana and Santiago. In the wars of the end of the century
it was a place of deposit for French and Spanish corsairs. At
this time, too, about 100 fugitive immigrant families from
Santo Domingo greatly augmented its industrial importance.
In 1807 an unsuccessful attack was made upon the city by an
English force. In 1826 the port was opened to foreign commerce.
BARAHONA DE SOTO, LUIS (1535?-! 595), Spanish poet,
was born about 1535 at Luccna (Cordova), was educated at
Granada, and practised as a physician at C6rdova. His principal
poem is the Primera parte de la Angelica (1586), a continuation
of the Orlando furioso; the second part was long believed to
be lost, but fragments of it have been identified in the anonymous
Dialogos de la monteria, first printed in 1890; the Dialogos also
embody fragments of a poem by Barahona entitled Los Principios
del mundo, and many graceful lyrics by the same writer have been
published by Francisco Rodriguez Marin. Cervantes describes
Barahona as " one of the best poets not only in Spain, but in
the whole world "; this is friendly hyperbole. Nevertheless
Barahona has high merits: poetic imagination, ingenious fancy,
and an exceptional mastery of the methods transplanted to
Spain from Italy. His Angelica has been reproduced in facsimile
(New York, 1904) by Archer M. Huntington.
See F. Rodriguez Martn, Luis Barahona de Solo, estudio biogrdfico,
bibliografico, y critico (Madrid. 1903) ; Dialogos de la monteria, edited
by F. R. de Uhag6n (Madrid, 1890). (J. F.-K.)
BARANTE, AMABLE GUILLAUME PROSPER BRUGlfiRE,
BARON DE (1782-1866), French statesman and historian, the
son of an advocate, was born at Riom on the icthof June 1782.
At the age of sixteen he entered the Ecole Polytechnique at
3 8o
BARASAT BARBADOS
Paris, and at twenty obtained his first appointment in the civil
service. His abilities secured him rapid promotion, and in 1806
he obtained the post of auditor to the council of state. After
being employed in several political missions in Germany, Poland
and Spain, during the next two years, he became prefect of
Vendee. At the time of the return of Napoleon I. he held the
prefecture of Nantes, and this post he immediately resigned.
On the second restoration of the Bourbons he was made councillor
of state and secretary-general of the ministry of the interior.
After filling for several years the post of director-general of
indirect taxes, he was created in 1819 a peer of France and was
prominent among the Liberals. After the revolution of July 1 830,
M. de Barante was appointed ambassador to Turin, and five
years later to St Petersburg. Throughout the reign of Louis
Philippe he remained a supporter of the government; and after
the fall of the monarchy, in February 1848, he withdrew from
political affairs and retired to his country seat in Auvergne.
Shortly before his retirement he had been made grand cross of
the Legion of Honour. Barante's Histoire des dues de Bourgogne
de la maison de Valois, which appeared in a series of volumes
between 1824 and 1828, procured him immediate admission to
the French Academy. Its narrative qualities, and purity of
style, won high praise from the romantic school, but it exhibits
a lack of the critical sense and of scientific scholarship. Amongst
his other literary works are a Tableau de la litterature franc.aise
au dixhuitieme siecle, of which several editions were published;
Des communes et de V aristocratic (1821); a French translation
of the dramatic works of Schiller; Questions constitutionnelles
(1850); Histoire de la Convention Nationale, which appeared
in six volumes between 1851 and 1853; Histoire du Directoire
de la Republique franc.aise (1855); Etudes historiques et bio-
grapkiques (1857); La Vie politique de M. Royer-Collard (1861).
The version of Hamlet for Guizot's Shakespeare was his work.
He died on the 22nd of November 1866.
His Souvenirs were published by his grandson (Paris, 1890-99).
See also the article by Guizot in the Revue des deux Mondes, J uly 1 867.
BARASAT, a subdivisional town in the district of the Twenty-
four Parganas, Bengal, India. For a considerable time Barasat
town was the headquarters of a joint magistracy, known as the
" Barasat District," but in 1861, on a readjustment of boundaries
Barasat district was abolished by order of government, and
was converted into a subdivision of the Twenty-four Parganas.
Pop. (1901) 8634. It forms a striking illustration of the rural
character of the so-called " towns " in Bengal, and is merely
an agglomeration of 41 separate villages, in which all the opera-
tions of husbandry go on precisely as in the adjacent hamlets.
BARATIER, JOHANN PHILIPP (1721-1740), German scholar
of precocious genius, was born at Schwabach near Nuremberg
on the loth of January 1721. His early education was most
carefully conducted by his father, the pastor of the French
church at Schwabach, and so rapid was his progress that by the
time he was five years of age he could speak French, Latin
and Dutch with ease, and read Greek fluently. He then studied
Hebrew, and in three years was able to translate the Hebrew
Bible into Latin or French. He collected materials for a dictionary
of rare and difficult Hebrew words, with critical and philological
observations; and when he was about eleven years old trans-
lated from the Hebrew Tudela's Itinerarium. In his fourteenth
year he was admitted master of arts at Halle, and received into
the Royal Academy at Berlin. The last years of his short life
he devoted to the study of history and antiquities, and had
collected materials for histories of the Thirty Years' War and
of Antitrinitarianism, and for an Inquiry concerning Egyptian
Antiquities. His health, which had always been weak, gave
way completely under these labours, and he died on the sth of
October 1740. He had published eleven separate works, and
left a great quantity of manuscript.
BARATYNSKI, JEWGENIJ ABRAMOVICH (1800-1844),
Russian poet, was educated at the royal school at St Petersburg
and then entered the army. He served for eight years in
Finland, where he composed his first poem Eda. Through the
interest of friends he obtained leave from the tsar to retire from
the army, and settled in 1827 near Moscow. There he completed
his chief work The Gipsy, a poem written in the style of Pushkin.
He died in 1844 at Naples, whither he had gone for the sake of
the milder climate.
A collected edition of his poems appeared at St Petersburg, in
2 vols. in 1835; later editions, Moscow 1869, and Kazan 1884.
BARB, (i) (From Lat. barba, a beard), a term used in various
senses, of the folds of mucous membrane under the tongue of
horses and cattle, and of a disease affecting that part, of the
wattles round the mouth of the barbel, of the backward turned
points of an arrow and of the piece of folded linen worn over the
neck by nuns. (2) (From Fr. barbe, meaning " from Barbary "),
a name applied to a breed of horses imported by the Moors into
Spain from Barbary, and to a breed of pigeons.
BARBACENA, an inland town of Brazil, in the state of Minas
Geraes, 150 m. N.N.W. of Rio de Janeiro and about 3500 ft.
above sea-level. The surrounding district is chiefly agricultural,
producing coffee, sugar-cane, Indian corn and cattle, and the
town has considerable commercial importance. It is also noted
for its healthiness and possesses a large sanatorium much fre-
quented by convalescents from Rio de Janeiro during the hot
season. Barbacena was formerly a principal distributing centre,
for the mining districts of Minas Geraes, but this distinction
was lost when the railways were extended beyond that point.
BARBADOS, or BARBADOES, an island in the British West
Indies. It lies 78 m. E. of St Vincent, in 13 4' N. and 59 37' W. ;
is 2 1 rrt. long, 145 m. at its broadest, and i66sq. m. (106,470 acres)
in extent (roughly equalling the Isle of Wight). Its coasts are
encircled with coral reefs, extending in some places 3 m. seaward.
In its configuration the island is elevated but not mountainous.
Near the centre is its apex, Mount Hillaby (noo ft.), from which
the land falls on all sides in a series of terraces to the sea. So
gentle is the incline of the hills that in driving over the well-
constructed roads the ascent is scarcely noticeable. The only
natural harbour is Carlisle Bay on the south-western coast,
which, however, is little better than a shallow roadstead, only
accessible to light draught vessels.
Geology. The oldest rocks of Barbados, known as the Scotland
series, are of shallow water origin, consisting of coarse grits, brown
sandstones and sandy clays, in places saturated with petroleum
and traversed by veins of manjak. They have been folded and
denuded, so as to form the foundation on which rest the later beds
of the island. Upon the denuded edges of the Scotland beds lies
the Oceanic series. It includes chalky limestones, siliceous
earths, red clay, and, at the top, a layer of mudstone composed
mainly of volcanic dust. The limestones contain Globigerina
and other Foraminifera, the siliceous beds are made of Radiolaria,
sponge spicules and diatoms, while the red clay closely resembles
the red clay of the deepest parts of the oceans. There can be no
doubt that the whole series was laid down in deep waters. The
Oceanic series is generally overlaid directly, and unconformably,
by coral limestones; but at Bissex Hill, at the base of the coral
limestones, and resting unconformably upon the Oceanic series,
there is a Globigerina marl. The Coral Limestone series lies
indifferently upon the older beds. Although of no great thickness
it covers six-sevenths of the island, rising in a series of steps or
platforms to a height of nearly noo ft.
Even the Scotland series probably belongs to the Tertiary
system, but owing to the want of characteristic fossils, it is
impossible to determine with any degree of certainty the precise
homotaxis of the several formations. Jukes-Browne and
Harrison ascribe the Scotland beds to the Eocene or Oligocene
period, the Oceanic series to the Miocene, the Bissex Hill marls
to the Pliocene, and the coral limestones partly to the Pliocene
and partly to the Pleistocene. But these correlations rest upon
imperfect evidence.
Sandstone, and clays suitable for brick-making, are found in
the district of Scotland, so called from a fancied resemblance to
the Highlands of North Britain. The only other mineral product
is manjak, a species of asphalt, also found in this district and to
some extent exported.
Climate, &c. The climate of Barbados is pleasant. The
BARBARA
seasons are divided into wet and dry, the latter (extending from
December to the end of May) being also the cold season. The
temperature ranges from 70 F. to 86 F., rarely, even on the
coldest days, falling below 65 F. The average annual rainfall
is about 60 in., September being the wettest month. For eight
months the invigorating N.E. trade winds temper the tropical
heat. The absence of swamps, the porous nature of the soil,
and the extent of cultivation account for the freedom of the island
from miasma. Fever>is unknown. The climate has a beneficial
effect on pulmonary diseases, especially in their earlier stages,
and is remarkable in arresting the decay of vital power consequent
upon old age. Leprosy occurs amongst the negroes, and elephan-
tiasis is so frequent as to be known as " Barbados leg."
Industries. The cultivation of sugar was first introduced in
the middle of the i7th century, and owing to the cheapness
of labour, the extreme fertility of the soil and the care bestowed
on its cultivation, became the staple product of the island.
Cotton growing has recently become of importance. The few
other industries include rum distilleries and factories for chemicals,
ice and tobacco. A railway 28 m. long runs from Bridgetown
partly round the coast. The island is a place of call for almost
all the steamships plying to and from the West Indies, and is a
great centre of distribution. There is direct communication at
frequent intervals with England, the United States, Canada and
the other West Indian islands.
Population and Administration. The greater part of the
inhabitants belong to the Church of England, which exceeds in
numbers the combined total of all other denominations. The
island is the see of a bishop, who, with the clergy of all creeds,
is paid by the government. The chief educational establishment
is Codrington College, founded by Colonel ChristopherCodrington,
who in 1 7 10 bequeathed two estates to the Society for the Propaga-
tion of the Gospel. It trains young men for holy orders and is
affiliated to the university of Durham. Harrison College and
The Lodge are secondary schools for boys, Queen's College for
girls. There are several second grade and a large number of
primary schools. The colony possesses representative institutions
but not responsible government. The crown has a veto on
legislation and the home government appoints the public officials,
excepting the treasurer. The island is administered by a
governor, assisted by an executive council, a legislative council
of 9 nominated members, and a house of assembly of 24
members elected on a limited franchise. Barbados is the
headquarters of the Imperial Agricultural Department of the
West Indies, to which (under Sir Daniel Morris) the island owes
the development of cotton growing, &c. The majority of the
population consists of negroes, passionately attached to the
island, who have a well-marked physiognomy and dialect of
their own, and are more intelligent than the other West Indian
negroes. They outnumber the whites by 9 to i. Barbados is
one of the most densely populated areas in the world. In 1901
the numbers amounted to 195,588, or 1178 to the sq. m., and in
1906 they were 196,287. There are no crown lands nor forests.
Towns. Bridgetown (pop. 21,000), the capital, situated on
the S.W. coast, is a pretty town nestling at the foot of the hills
leading to the uplands of the interior. It has a cathedral,
St Michael's, which also serves as a parish church. In Trafalgar
Square stands the earliest monument erected to the memory of
Nelson. There are a good many buildings, shops, pleasure
grounds, a handsome military parade and exquisite beaches.
Pilgrim, the residence of the governor, is a fine mansion about
a mile from the city. Fontabelle and Hastings are fashionable
suburban watering-places with good sea-bathing. Speighstown
(1500) is the only other town of any size.
History. Opinions differ as to the derivation of the name of
the island. It may be the Spanish word for the hanging branches
of a vine which strike root in the ground, or the name may have
been given from a species of bearded fig-tree. In the 16th-century
maps the name is variously rendered St Bernardo, Bernados,
Barbudoso, Barnodos and Barnodo. There are more numerous
traces of the Carib Indians here than in any other of the Antilles.
Barbados is thought to have been first visited by the Portuguese.
Its history has some special features, showing as it does the
process of peaceful colonization, for the island, acquired without
conquest, has never been out of the possession of the British.
It was touched in 1605 by the British ship " Olive Blossom,"
whose crew, finding it uninhabited, took possession in the name
of James I.; but the first actual settlement was made in 1625,
at the direction of Sir William Courteen under the patent of
Lord Leigh, afterwards earl of Marlborough, to whom the island
had been granted by the king. Two years later, a compromise
having been effected with Lord Marlborough, a grant of the
island was obtained by the earl of Carlisle, whose claim was
based on a grant, from the king, of all the Caribbean islands in
1624; and in 1628 Charles Wolferstone, a native of Bermuda,
was appointed governor. In the same year sixty-four settlers
arrived at Carlisle Bay and the present capital was founded.
During the Civil War in England many Royalists sought refuge
in Barbados, where, under Lord Willoughby (who had leased the
island from the earl of Carlisle), they offered stout resistance to
the forces of the Commonwealth. Willoughby, however, was
ultimately defeated and exiled. After the Restoration, to
appease the planters, doubtful as to the title under which they
held the estates which they had converted into valuable
properties, the proprietary or patent interest was abolished,
and the crown took over the government of the island; a duty
of 42 % on all exports being imposed to satisfy the claims of
the patentees. In 1684, under the governorship of Sir Richard
Dutton, a census was taken, according to which the population
then consisted of 20,000 whites and 46,000 slaves. The European
wars of the i8th century caused much suffering, as the West
Indies were the scene of numerous battles between the British
and the French. During this period a portion of the t,\ % duty
was returned to the colony in the form of the governor's salary.
In the course of the American War of Independence Barbados
again experienced great hardships owing to the restrictions
placed upon the importation of provisions from the American
colonies, and in 1778 the distress became so acute that the
British government had to send relief. For three years after the
peace of Amiens in 1802 the colony enjoyed uninterrupted calm,
but in 1805 it was only saved from falling into the hands of the
French by the timely arrival of Admiral Cochrane. Since that
date, however, it has remained unthreatened in the possession of
the British. The rupture between Great Britain and the United
States in 1812 caused privateering to be resumed, the trade of
the colony being thereby almost destroyed. This led to an
agitation for the repeal of the 4$ % duty, but it was not till
1838 that the efforts to secure this were successful. The abolition
of slavery in 1834 was attended by no ill results, the slaves
continuing to work for their masters as hired servants, and a
period of great prosperity succeeded. The proposed confedera-
tion of the Windward Islands in 1876, however, provoked riots,
which occasioned considerable loss of life and property, but
secured for the people their existence as a separate colony.
Hurricanes are the scourge of Barbados, those of 1780, 1831,
and 1898 being so disastrous as to necessitate relief measures on
the part of the home government.
See Ligon, History of Barbados (1657) ; Oldmixon, British Empire
in America (1741); A Short History of Barbados (1768); Remarks
upon the Short History (1768); Poyer, History of Barbados (1808);
Capt. Thorn. Southey, Chron. Hist, of W. Indies (1827); Schom-
burgk, History of Barbados (1848); J. H. S. Moxby, Account of a
West Indian Sanatorium (1886); N. D. Davis, The Cavaliers and
Roundheads of Barbados (1887); J. H. Stark, History and Guide to
Barbados (1893); R. T. Hill, Cuba and Porto Rico (1897). For
geology, see A. J. Jukes-Browne and J. B. Harrison, " The Geology
of Barbados," Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xlvii. (1891),
pp. 197-250, vol. xlviii. (1892), pp. 170-226; I. W. Gregory, " Con-
tributions to the Palaeontology and Physical Geology of the West
Indies," ibid. vol. li. (1895), pp. 255-310; G. F. Franks and J. B.
Harrison, " The Globigerma-marls and Basal Reef-rocks of Bar-
bados," ibid. vol. liv. (1898), pp. 540-555; I. W. Spencer, "On
the Geological and Physical Development of Barbados; with Notes
on Trinidad," ibid. vol. Iviii. (1902), pp. 354-367.
BARBARA, SAINT, a virgin martyr and saint of the Roman
Catholic and Orthodox Eastern Churches, whose festival day is
December 4th. Her legend is that she was immured in a tower
3 82
BARBARIAN BARBAROUX
by her father who was opposed to her marriage; that she was
converted to Christianity by a follower of Origen, and that
when her father learnt this, he beheaded her. The place of her
martyrdom is variously given as Heliopolis, as a town of Tuscany,
and as Nicomedia, Bithynia, about the year 235. St Barbara is
the patron saint of armourers and gunsmiths, and her protection
is sought specially against lightning.
BARBARIAN (Gr. /SapjSapos), the name among the early
Greeks for all foreigners. The word is probably onomatopoetic,
designed to represent the uncouth babbling of which languages
other than their own appeared to the Greeks to consist. Even
the Romans were included in the term. The word soon
assumed an evil meaning, becoming associated with the vices
and savage natures of which they believed their enemies to
be possessed. The Romans adopted the word for all peoples
other than those under Graeco-Roman influence and domination.
It has long become synonymous with a general lack of civilization.
BARBARO, ERMOLAO (HERMOLAUS BARBARUS) (1454-1493),
Italian scholar, was born at Venice on the 2ist of May 1454.
At an early age he was sent to Rome, where he studied under
Pomponius Laetus. He completed his education at the uni-
versity of Padua, where he was appointed professor of philosophy
in 1477. Two years later he revisited Venice, but returned to
Padua when the plague broke out in his native city. He was
sent on various missions to persons of high rank, amongst them
Pope Innocent VIII., by whom he was nominated to the im-
portant office of patriarch of Aquileia (1491). The Venetian
senate, however, refused to ratify the appointment, which,
contrary to the law, he had accepted without first obtaining its
sanction. He was banished and forced to resign the patriarchate,
under the threat of being punished vicariously by the confiscation
of his father's property. Barbaras remained at Rome, in receipt
of a small pension from the pontifical government, until his death
(probably from the plague) on the I4th of June 1493 (according
to some, two years later). He edited and translated a number
of classical works, of which the most important were: Castiga-
tioncs Plinianae (1492), in which he boasted of having made 5000
corrections in the text of Pliny's Natural History; Themis tius'
Paraphrases of certain works of Aristotle (1480); Aristotle's
Rhelorica (published in 1 544) ; Castigationes in Pomponium Melam
(i493)-
BARBAROSSA ("Redbeard"), the name given by the Christians
to a family of Turkish admirals and sea rovers of the i6th century,
Arouj and Khizr (alias Khair-ed-Din) and Hassan the son of
Khair-ed-Din. As late as 1840, Captain Walsin Esterhazy,
author of a history of the Turkish rule in Africa, ventured the
guess that " Barbarossa " was simply a mispronunciation of
Baba Arouj, and the supposition has been widely accepted.
But the prefix Baba was not applied to Arouj by contemporaries.
His name is given in Spanish or Italian form as " Orux " or
" Harrach " or " Ordiche." The contemporary Arab chronicle
published by S. Rang and F. Denis in 1837 says explicitly that
Barbarossa was the name applied by Christians to Khair-ed-Din.
It was no doubt a nickname given to the family on account of
their red or tawny beards (Lat. barba) . The founder of the family
was Yakub, a Roumeliot, probably of Albanian blood, who
settled in Mitylene after its conquest by the Turks. He was a
coasting trader and skipper, and had four sons Elias, Isaak,
Arouj and Khizr, all said to have been born after 1482. Khizr
became a potter and Isaak a trader. Elias and Arouj took to
sea roving. In an action with a galley of the Knights of Saint
John, then established at Rhodes, Elias was killed and Arouj
taken prisoner; the latter was ransomed by a Turkish pasha
and returned to the sea. For some time he served the Mamelukes
who still held Egypt. During the conflict between the Mamelukes
and the sultan Selim I., he considered it more prudent to transfer
himself to Tunis. The incessant conflicts among the Berber
princes of northern Africa gave him employment as a mercenary,
which he varied by piratical raids on the trade of the Christians.
At Tunis he was joined by Khizr, who took, or was endowed with,
the name of Khair-ed-Din. Isaak soon followed his brothers.
Arouj and Khair-ed-Din joined the exiled Moors of Granada in
raids on the Spanish coast. They also pushed their fortunes by
fighting for, or murdering and supplanting, the native African
princes. Their headquarters were in the island of Jerba in the
Gulf of Gabes. They attempted in 1512 to take Bougie from the
Spaniards, but were beaten off, and Arouj lost an arm, shattered
by an arquebus shot. In 1 5 14 they took Jijelli from the Genoese,
and after a second beating at Bougie in 1515 were called in by
the natives of Cherchel and Algiers to aid them against the
Spaniards. They occupied the towns and murdered the
native ruler who called them in. The Spaniards still held the
little rocky island which gives Algiers its name and forms the
harbour. In 1518 Arouj was drawn away to take part in a
civil war in Tlemcen. He promptly murdered the prince he
came to support and seized the town for himself. The rival
party then called in the Spaniards, by whom Arouj was expelled
and slain while fleeing at the Rio Salado. Khair-ed-Din clung
to his possessions on the coast and appealed to the sultan Selim I.
He was named beylerbey by the sultan, and with him began the
establishment of Turkish rule in northern Africa. For years he
was engaged in subduing the native princes, and in carrying on
warfare with the Christians. In 1519 he repelled a Spanish
attack on Algiers, but could not expel his enemies from the island
till 1529. As a combatant in the forefront of the war with the
Christians he became a great hero in Islam, and dreaded by its
enemies under his name of Barbarossa. In 1 534 he seized Tunis,
acting as capitan pasha for the sultan Suleiman. The emperor
Charles V. intervened on behalf of the native prince, retook the
town, and destroyed great part of Barbarossa 's fleet. The corsair
retaliated by leading what remained of his navy on a plundering
raid to the Balearic Islands. During the remainder of his life
till 1547 Barbarossa, though still beylerbey of northern Africa,
was mainly engaged as capitan pasha in co-operating with the
armies of the sultan Suleiman in the east. He was absent from
Algiers when it was attacked by Charles V. in 1 541. In 1 543-1 544
he commanded the fleet which Suleiman sent to the coast of
Provence to support Francis I. Barbarossa would not allow the
bells of the Christian churches to be rung while his fleet was at
anchor in the ports. He plundered the coast of Italy on his
way back to Constantinople. When he died in his palace at
Constantinople he was succeeded as beylerbey of Africa by his
son Hassan. Hassan Barbarossa, like his father, spent most of
his life in the Levant, but was occasionally in Africa when the
influence of his family was required to suppress the disorders of
the Turkish garrisons. He left it for the last time in 1 567, and is
said by Hammer-Purgstall to have been present at Lepanto in
1571. His last years are obscure.
AUTHORITIES. The History of the Ottoman Empire, by Joseph von
Hammer-Purgstall (French translation J. J. Hellert, 1835-1843),
contains accounts of the Barbarossas, but requires to be corrected
by other authorities. See La Fondation de la regencc d'Alger,
histoire des Barberousse, chronique arabe du XVI*"" siccle pub-
lished by Sander Rang and Ferdinand Denis, Paris, 1837 for a
curious Moslem version of their story. H. D. de Grammont has
collected later evidence in his Histoire d'Alger (Paris, 1887) ; and
he discusses the origin of the name in a paper contributed to the
Revue Africaine, No. 171. Their campaigns are told in a readable
way with the advantage of technical knowledge by Ad. Jurien de
la Graviere in Les Corsaires barbaresques et la marine de Soliman le
Grand (1887), and Doria et Barberousse (1886). The History of the
Maritime Wars of the Turks, by Hajji Khalifa (translated by J.
Mitchell for the Oriental Translation Fund, 1831), is said to nave
been founded on evidence collected by order of the sultan Suleiman.
BARBAROUX, CHARLES JEAN MARIE (1767-1794), French
revolutionist, was educated at first by the Oratorians of Marseilles,
then studied law, and became a successful advocate. He was
appointed secretary (grcffier) to the commune of Marseilles, and
in 1792 was commissioned to go to the Legislative Assembly and
demand the accusation of the directory of the department of
Bouches-du-Rhone, as accomplice in a royalist movement in
Aries. At Paris he was received in the Jacobin club and entered
into relations with J. P. Brissot and the Rolands. It was at his
instigation that Marseilles sent to Paris the battalion of volunteers
which contributed to the insurrection of the loth of August 1792
against the king. Returning to Marseilles he helped to repress
a royalist movement at Avignon and an ultra- Jacobin movement
BARBARY BARBARY PIRATES
383
at Marseilles, and was elected deputy to the Convention by 775
votes out of 776 voting. From the first he posed as an opponent
of the Mountain, accused Robespierre of aiming at the dictator-
ship (zsth of September 1792), attacked Marat, and proposed to
break up the commune of Paris. Then he got the act of accusa-
tion against Louis XVI. adopted, and in the trial voted for his
death " without appeal and without delay." During the final
struggle between the Girondists and the Mountain, he refused
to resign as deputy and rejected the offer made by the sections
of Paris to give hostages for the arrested representatives. He
succeeded in escaping, first to Caen, where he organized the civil
war, then to Saint-Emilion near Bordeaux, where he wrote his
Mtmoircs, which were published in 1822 by his son, and re-edited
in 1866. Discovered, he attempted to shoot himself, but was
only wounded, and was taken to Bordeaux, where he was
guillotined when his identity was established.
See Ch. Vatel, Charlotte Corday el les Girondins (Paris, 1873);
A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de la Legislative et de la Convention (Paris,
2nd ed., 1906).
BARBARY, the general designation of that part of northern
Africa bounded E. by Egypt, W. by the Atlantic, S. by the
Sahara and N. by the Mediterranean, comprising the states of
Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli. The name is derived
from the Berbers, the chief inhabitants of the region.
BARBARY APE, a tailless monkey inhabiting Algeria,
Morocco, and the rock of Gibraltar (where it may have been
introduced), and referable to the otherwise Asiatic group of
macaques, in which it alone represents the subgenus Inuus.
This monkey, Macacus inuus, is light yellowish-brown above
and yellowish-white below, with the naked part of the face
flesh-coloured. It is entirely terrestrial in habits, at least on
Gibraltar, and goes about in droves.
BARBARY PIRATES. The coast population of northern
Africa has in past ages been addicted to piratical attacks on the
shores of Europe opposite. Throughout the decline of the
Roman empire, the barbarian invasions, the Mahommedan
conquest and the middle ages, mere piracy always existed by
the side of the great strife of peoples and religions. In the course
of the I4th century, when the native Berber dynasties were
in decadence, piracy became particularly flagrant. The town
of Bougie was then the most notorious haunt of these " skimmers
of the sea." But the savage robber powers which, to the dis-
grace of Europe, infested the commerce and the coasts, not only
of the Mediterranean but even for a time of the ocean; who were
not finally suppressed till the igth century was well advanced;
and who are properly known as the Barbary pirates, arose in
the 1 6th century, attained their greatest height in the I7th,
declined gradually throughout the i8th and were extinguished
about 1830. Isolated cases of piracy have occurred on the Rif
coast of Morocco even in our time, but the pirate communities
which lived by plunder and could live by no other resource,
vanished with the French conquest of Algiers in 1830. They are
intimately connected with the general history of northern Africa
from about 1492 to their end. The story of the establishment of
Turkish rule in northern Africa and of the revolutions of Morocco
must be sought under the heads of TURKEY, TRIPOLI, TUNISIA,
ALGERIA and MOROCCO.
In dealing with the pirates, it will be sufficient to note a few
leading dates. The conquest of Granada in 1492 by the Catholic
sovereigns of Spain drove many Moors into exile. They revenged
themselves by piratical attacks on the Spanish coast. They had
the help of Moslem adventurers from the Levant, of whom the
most successful were Arouj and his brother Khair-ed-Din, natives
of Mitylene, both of whom were known to the Christians by
the nickname of Barbarossa (q.v.) or " Redbeard." Spain in
self-defence began to conquer the coast towns of Oran, Algiers
and Tunis. Arouj having fallen in battle with the Spaniards
in 1518, his brother Khair-ed-Din appealed to Selim, the sultan
of Turkey, who sent him troops. He drove the Spaniards in
1529 from the rocky island in front of Algiers, where they had a
fort, and was the founder of the Turkish power. From about
1518 till the death of Uluch Ali in 1587, Algiers was the main seat
of government of the beylerbeys of northern Africa, who ruled
over Tripoli, Tunisia and Algeria. From 1587 till 1659, they
were ruled by Turkish pashas, sent from Constantinople to govern
for three years; but in the latter year a military revolt in Algiers
reduced the pashas to nonentities. P>om 1659 onwards, these
African cities, though nominally forming parts of the Turkish
empire, were in fact anarchical military republics which chose
their own rulers and lived by plunder.
It may be pointed out that during the first period (1518-1587)
the beylerbeys were admirals of the sultan, commanding great
fleets and conducting serious operations of war for political ends.
They were slave-hunters and their methods were ferocious,
but their Christian enemies were neither more humane nor
more chivalrous. After 1587, plunder became the sole object
of their successors plunder of the native tribes on land and of
all who went upon the sea. The maritime side of this long-lived
brigandage was conducted by the captains, or reises, who formed
a class or even a corporation. Cruisers were fitted out by
capitalists and commanded by the reises. Ten per cent of the
value of the prizes was paid to the treasury of the pasha or his
successors, who bore the titles of Agha or Dey or Bey. Bougie
was the chief shipbuilding port and the timber was mainly drawn
from the country behind it. Until the I7th century the pirates
used galleys, but a Flemish renegade of the name of Simon
Danser taught them the advantage of using sailing ships. In this
century, indeed, the main strength of the pirates was supplied
by renegades from all parts of Christendom. An English
gentleman of the distinguished Buckinghamshire family of
Verney was for a time among them at Algiers. This port was
so much the most formidable that the name of Algerine came to
be used as synonymous with Barbary pirate, but the same trade
was carried on, though with less energy, from Tripoli and Tunis
as also from towns in the empire of Morocco, of which the most
notorious was Salli. The introduction of sailing ships gave
increased scope to the activity of the pirates. While the galleys,
being unfit for the high seas, were confined to the Mediterranean
and the coast, the sailing vessels ranged into the Atlantic as far
as the Canaries or even to Iceland. In 1631 a Flemish renegade,
known as Murad Reis, sacked Baltimore in Ireland, and carried
away a number of captives who were seen in the slave-market
of Algiers by the French historian Pierre Dan.
The first half of the i7th century may be described as the
flowering time of the Barbary pirates. More than 20,000 captives
were said to be imprisoned in Algiers alone. The rich were allowed
to redeem themselves, but the poor were condemned to slavery.
Their masters would not in many cases allow them to secure
freedom by professing Mahommedanism. A long list might be
given of people of good social position, not only Italians or
Spaniards, but German or English travellers in the south, who
were captives for a time. The chief sufferers were the inhabitants
of the coasts of Sicily, Naples and Spain. But all traders be-
longing to nations which did not pay blackmail in order to secure
immunity were liable to be taken at sea. The payment of black-
mail, disguised as presents or ransoms, did not always secure
safety with these faithless barbarians. The most powerful states
in Europe condescended to make payments to them and to
tolerate their insults. Religious orders the Redemptionists
and Lazarites were engaged in working for the redemption of
captives and large legacies were left for that purpose in many
countries. The continued existence of this African piracy was
indeed a disgrace to Europe, for it was due to the jealousies of
the powers themselves. France encouraged them during her
rivalry with Spain; and when she had no further need of them
they were supported against her by Great Britain and Holland.
In the 1 8th century British public men were not ashamed to
say that Barbary piracy was a useful check on the competition
of the weaker Mediterranean nations in the carrying trade.
When Lord Exmouth sailed to coerce Algiers in 1816, he ex-
pressed doubts in a private letter whether the suppression of
piracy would be acceptable to the trading community. Every
power was, indeed, desirous to secure immunity for itself and
more or less ready to compel Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Salli and
BARBAULD BARBED WIRE
the rest to respect its trade and its subjects. In 1655 the British
admiral, Robert Blake, was sent to teach them a lesson, and he
gave the Tunisians a severe beating. A long series of expeditions
was undertaken by the British fleet during the reign of Charles II.,
sometimes single-handed, sometimes in combination with the
Dutch. In 1682 and 1683 the French bombarded Algiers. On
the second occasion the Algerines blew the French consul from
a gun during the action. An extensive list of such punitive
expeditions could be made out, down to the American operations
of 1801-5 and 1815. But in no case was the attack pushed
home, and it rarely happened that the aggrieved Christian state
refused hi the end to make a money payment in crder to
secure peace. The frequent wars among them gave the pirates
numerous opportunities of breaking their engagements, of which
they never failed to take advantage.
After the general pacification of 1815, the suppression of
African piracy was universally felt to be a necessity. The
insolence of a Tunisian squadron which sacked Palma in the
island of Sardinia and carried off 158 of its inhabitants, roused
widespread indignation. Other influences were at work to bring
about their extinction. Great Britain had acquired Malta and
the Ionian Islands and had now many Mediterranean subjects.
She was also engaged in pressing the other European powers to
join with her in the suppression of the slave trade which the
Barbary states practised on a large scale and at the expense of
Europe. The suppression of the trade was one of the objects of
the congress of Vienna. Great Britain was called on to act for
Europe, and in 1816 Lord Exmouth was sent to obtain treaties
from Tunis and Algiers. His first visit produced diplomatic
documents and promises and he sailed for England. While he
was negotiating, a number of British subjects had been brutally
ill-treated at Bona, without his knowledge. The British govern-
ment sent him back to secure reparation, and on the 27th of
August, in combination with a Dutch squadron under Admiral
Van de Capellen, he administered a smashing bombardment to
Algiers. The lesson terrified the pirates both of that city and of
Tunis into giving up over 3000 prisoners and making fresh
promises. But they were not reformed and were not capable of
reformation. Algiers renewed its piracies and slave-taking,
though on a smaller scale, and the measures to be taken with it
were discussed at the conference or congress of Aix-la-Chapelle
in 1818. In 1824 another British fleet under Admiral Sir Hairy
Neal had again to bombard Algiers. The great pirate city was
not in fact thoroughly tamed till its conquest by France in 1830.
AUTHORITIES. The Histoire d'Alger of H. D. de Grammont (Paris,
1887) is based on original authorities. Sir R. L. Playfair's Scourge
of Christendom (London, 1884) gives the history of the British con-
sulate in Algiers. The main authorities for the early history of the
Barbary states are : Luis del Marmot Carvajal, Description de Africa
(Granada, 1573) ; Diego de Haedo, Topographia e Historia General de
Argel (ValladoTid, 1612) ; and Pere Pierre Dan, Histoire de Barbaric
et de ses corsaires (Paris, 1637). The readable treatises of Ad. Jurien
de la Graviere, all published in Paris, Doria et Barberousse (1886),
Les Corsaires barbaresques (1887), Les Chevaliers de Malte (1887), and
La Guerre de Chypre (1888), deal with the epoch of the beylerbeys
and the regular wars. For American work see Gardner Weld Allen,
Our Navy and the Barbary Corsairs (New York, 1905). (D. H.)
BARBAULD, ANNA LETITIA (1743-1825), English poet and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Kibworth-Harcourt, in
Leicestershire, on the 2oth of June 1743. Her father, the Rev.
John Aikin, a Presbyterian minister and schoolmaster, taught
his daughter Latin and Greek. In 1758 Mr Aikin removed his
family to Warrington, to act as theological tutor in a dissenting
academy there. In 1773 Miss Aikin published a volume of
Poems, which was very successful, and co-operated with her
brother, Dr John Aikin, in a volume of Miscellaneous Pieces in
Prose. In 1774 she married Rochemont Barbauld, a member of
a French Protestant family settled in England. He had been
educated in the academy at Warrington, and was minister of
a Presbyterian church at Palgrave, in Suffolk, where, with his
wife's help, he established a boarding school. Her admirable
Hymns in Prose and Early Lessons were written for their pupils.
In 1785 she left England for the continent with her husband,
whose health was seriously impaired. On their return about
two years later, Mr Barbauld was appointed to a church at
Hampstead. In 1802 they removed to Stoke Newington. Mrs
Barbauld became well known in London literary circles. She
collaborated with Dr Aikin in his Evenings at Home; in 1795
she published an edition of Akenside's Pleasures of Imagination,
with a critical essay; two years later she edited Collins's Odes;
in 1804 she published a selection of papers from the English
Essayists, and a selection from Samuel Richardson's corre-
spondence, with a biographical notice; in 1810 a collection of
the British Novelists (50 vols.) with biographical and critical
notices; and in 1811 her longest poem, Eighteen Hundred and
Eleven, giving a gloomy view of the existing state and future
prospects of Britain. This poem anticipated Macaulay in
contemplating the prospect of a visitor from the antipodes
regarding at a future day the ruins of St Paul's from a broken
arch of Blackfriars Bridge. Mrs Barbauld died on the 9th of
March 1825; her husband had died in 1808. A collected
edition of her works, with memoir, was published by her niece,
Lucy Aikin, in 2 vols., 1825.
See A. L. le Breton, Memoir of Mrs Barbauld (1874) : G. A. Ellis,
Life and Letters of Mrs A. L. Barbauld (1874) ; and Lady Thackeray
Ritchie, A Book of Sibyls (1883).
BARBECUE (Span, barbacoa), originally a framework on posts
placed over a fire on which to dry or smoke meat; hence, a
gridiron for roasting whole animals, and in Cuba an upper floor
on which fruit or grain is stored. In the United States the word
means an open-air feast, either political or social, where whole
animals are roasted and eaten and hogsheads of beer and other
vast quantities of food and drink consumed.
BARBED WIRE, a protective variety of fencing, consisting
usually of several strands of wire twisted together with sharp
spikes or points clinched or fastened into the strands.
In the United States, barbed wire for fencing was originally
suggested to meet conditions existing in the western states, by
reason of the large cattle-raising industry hi sections where
timber was scarce. Prior -to its introduction, a No. 9 round or
oval iron wire was popular on the frontier of the United States
and in South America, as a fencing material. Large amounts
were used annually for this purpose, but iron lacked strength,
and single wire strand was not fully satisfactory on account of
stretching hi warm and contracting hi cold weather, and of thus
being broken. Cattle would rub against a smooth fence, and this
constant pressure loosened the posts and broke the wire. To
overcome this defect, ingenious people the most successful
being farmers set themselves to find a way by which wire could
be used and at the same time be free from destruction by the
animals it was intended to confine. This investigation resulted
in the invention of barbed wire. Soon after, automatic machinery
was invented for rapidly and cheaply placing the barb upon the
smooth wire, so that the cost of barbed wire is much less than the
cost of smooth wire when it was in general use. So immediately
did barbed wire find favour with the farmers of the United States,
and, in fact, all over the world, that the manufacture of wire
was revolutionized.
The history of barbed wire fencing is of recent date. In the
United States the real home of this industry patents were
taken out by Lucien B. Smith, Kent, Ohio, in 1867; by William
B. Hunt, of Scott, N.Y., at almost the same time; and by
Michael Kelly, of New York, a year later. The practical begin-
ning of the industry, however, was hi the patents issued to
Joseph F. Glidden, De Kalb, 111., 1874, on barbed fence wire,
and during the same year, to Joseph F. Glidden and Phineas
W. Vaughan, for a machine to manufacture the same. These
inventions were the foundation of the system of patents under
which barbed wire has been protected and sold. The develop-
ment of the barbed wire industry would hardly have been possible
without steel. Iron wire, used for fencing prior to the introduc-
tion of steel, was not suitable, seeing that iron does not possess
sufficient tensile strength and lacks homogeneity, qualities
which Bessemer and open-hearth steels possess hi a high degree.'
The advantages of galvanized- barbed wire fencing are that it
is almost imperishable, is no burden on the posts; does not
BARBEL BARBE-MARBOIS
385
oppose the wind with enough surface to rack the posts, thus
allowing water to settle around them and rot them; is economical,
not only in the comparative cheapness of its first cost but also
in the amount of land covered by it; and is effective as a barrier
against all kinds of stock and a protection against dogs and wild
beasts. Cattle, once discovering what it is, will not press against
it, nor even go near it, and thus it becomes an effective means of
dividing the farmer's ranch into such fields as he may desire.
It is quickly and cheaply constructed, and has the advantage of
freedom from harbouring weeds. It affords no impediment to
the view. A man can see across his farm, and ascertain what is
going on in every portion within the scope of vision, as plainly
as if there were no fences. It does not contribute to the formation
of snow drifts as do other kinds of efficient fence. This makes
it a favourite form of fencing for railroads and along highways.
Finally, barbed wire composed of two wires twisted together,
once firmly put in place, will retain its taut condition through
many seasons without repair. The fact of the wire being twisted
allows it to adapt itself to all the varying temperatures.
The introduction of barbed wire met with some opposition in
America on supposed humanitarian grounds, but ample and
extended tests, both of the economy and the humanity of the
new material, silenced this objection. Now no American farmer,
especially in the west, ever thinks of putting any other kind of
fencing on his farm, unless it may be the new types of meshed
wire field fencing which have been coming so generally into use
since 1899. Generally speaking, the use of barbed wire fencing
in other countries has not been as extensive as in the western
United States. While it has been used on a comparatively large
scale in Argentina and Australia, both these countries use a much
larger quantity of plain wire fence, and in Argentina there is an
important consumption of high-carbon oval fence wire of great
strength, which apparently forms the only kind of fence that
meets the conditions in a satisfactory manner.
It is interesting to note the largely increased demand for meshed
wire field fencing in the more thickly settled portions of the United
States, and along the lines of railway. Beginning with 1899, there
has been an annual increase in this demand, owing to the scarcity
and high cost of labour, and the discontinuing of the building of
rail fences. Meshed wire is considered by many a better enclosure
for small animals, like sheep and hogs, than the barbed wire fence.
Barbed wire has been popular with railroads, but of late meshed
wire fencing has been substituted with advantage, the fabric being
made of wires of larger diameter than formerly, to insure greater
stability. The popularity of barbed wire is best shown by the
following statistics:
APPROXIMATE PRODUCTION FOR THE UNITED STATES
Year.
Tons barbed wire.
Tons meshed field fencing.
1874
5
1875
300
1876
1,500
1877
7,000
1878
13,000
1879
25,000
1880
40,000
1890
125,000
1900
200,000
50,000
1907
250,000
425,000
Barbed wire is usually shipped to customers on wooden spools,
each holding approximately 100 Ib or 80 to 100 rods. A hole is
provided through the centre of the spool for inserting a bar, on
which the reel can revolve for unwinding the wire as it is put up.
After the wire is stretched in place, it is attached to the wooden posts
by means of galvanized steel wire staples, ordinarily made from
No. 9 wire. They are cut with a sharp, long, diagonal point and can
be easily driven into the posts. On account of the rapid decay and
destruction of wooden posts, steel posts have become popular, as
also have reinforced concrete posts, which add materially to the
durability of the fence. It is essential that barbed wire should
be stretched with great care. For this purpose a suitable barbed
wire stretcher is necessary.
Barbed wire fencing is now manufactured in various patterns.
The general process may be outlined briefly as follows: The wire
is made of soft Bessemer or Siemens-Martin steel, and is drawn
in the wire mill in the usual way. Galvanizing is done by a con-
tinuous process. The coil of wire to be galvanized is placed on a reel.
The first end of the wire is led longitudinally through an annealing
medium either red-hot lead or heated fire-brick tubes of sufficient
m. 13
length to soften the wire. From the annealing furnace, the wire is
fed longitudinally through a bath of muriatic acid, which removes
the scale, and from the acid, after a thorough washing in water, the
wire passes through a bath of spelter, heated slightly above the
melting point. After coming from the spelter and being cooled by
water, the wire is wound on suitable take-up blocks into finished
coils. From 30 to 60 wires are passing simultaneously in parallel
lines through this continuous galvanizing apparatus, thus insuring
a large output. The galvanizing gives the wire a bright finish and
serves to protect it from the corrosive action of the atmosphere.
There is a considerable demand for painted fencing, in the manu-
facture of which the galvanizing is dispensed with, and the spools
of finished barbed wire, as they come from the barbing machine,
are submerged in paint and dried. The barbing and twisting to-
gether of the two longitudinal strand wires is done by automatic
machinery. A brief description of the manufacture of 2 and 4 point
Glidden wire is as follows: Two coils of wire on reels are placed
behind the machine, designed to form the main or strand wires of
the fence. One of the main wires passes through the machine
longitudinally. One or two coils of wire are placed on reels at either
side of the machine for making 2 or 4 point wire respectively.
These wires are fed into the machine at right angles to the strand
wire. At each movement of the feeding mechanism, when fabri-
cating 2 point wire, one cross wire is fed forward. A diagonal cut
forms a sharp point on the first end. The wire is again fed forward
and instantly wrapped firmly around one strand wire and cut off
so as to leave a sharp point on the incoming wire as before, while
the bit of pointed wire cut off remains as a double-pointed steel
barb attached firmly to the strand wire. This wire armed with
barbs at regular intervals passes on through a guide, where it is met
by a second strand wire a plain wire without barbs. The duplex
strand wires are attached to a take-up reel, which is caused to revolve
and take up the finished barbed wire simultaneously and in unison
with the barbing machine. In this way the strand wires are loosely
twisted into a 2-ply strand, armed with barbs projecting at right
angles in every direction.
When once started, the operation of barbed wire making is con-
tinuous and rapid. The advantage of two strands is the automatic
adjustment to changes of temperature. When heat expands the
strands, the twist simply loosens without causing a sag, and when
cold contracts them, the twist tightens, all without materially
altering the relative lengths of the combined wires. A barbed wire
machine produces from 2000 to 3000 Ib of wire per day of ten hours.
In some American states, the use of barbed wire is regulated by
law, but as a rule these laws apply to placing barbed wire on high-
ways. Others prohibit the use of barbed wire fencing to indicate
the property line between different owners, unless both agree to its
use. In some states the use of barbed wire is prohibited unless it
has a top rail of lumber.
Barbed wire is also employed in connexion with " obstacles " in
field fortifications, especially in what are known as " high wire en-
tanglements." Pointed stakes or " pickets," 4 ft. high, are planted
in rows and secured by ordinary wire to holdfasts or pegs in the
ground. Each picket is connected to all around it, top and bottom,
by lengths of barbed wire.
In England, where the use of barbed wire has also become common,
the Barbed Wire Act 1893 enacted that, where there is on any land
adjoining a highway within the county or district of a local authority,
a fence which is made with barbed wire (i.e. any wire with spikes or
jagged projections), or in which barbed wire has been placed, and
where such barbed wire may probably be injurious to persons or
animals lawfully using the highway, the local authority may require
the occupier of the land to abate the nuisance by serving notice in
writing upon him. If the occupier fails to do so within the specified
time, the local authority may apply _to a court of summary juris-
diction, and such court, if satisfied that the barbed wire is a nuisance,
may by summary order direct the occupier to abate it, and on his
failure to comply with the order within a reasonable time, the local
authority may execute it and recover in a summary manner from
the occupier the expenses incurred.
BARBEL (Barbus vulgaris), a fish of the Cyprinid family, which
is an inhabitant of the rivers of central Europe, and is very
locally distributed in England. It has four barbels (Lat. barba,
beard; fleshy appendages hanging from the mouth), and the
first ray of the short dorsal fin is strong, spine-like and serrated
behind. It attains a weight of 50 Ib on the continent of Europe.
The genus of which it is the type is a very large one, comprising
about 300 species from Europe, Asia and Africa, among which is
the mahseer or mahaseer, the great sporting fish of India.
BARB&-MARBOIS, FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1745-1837),
French politician, was born at Metz. He began his public career
as intendant of San Domingo under the old regime. At the close
of 1789 he returned to France, and then placed his services at
the disposal of the revolutionary government. In 1791 he was
sent to Regensburg to help de Noailles, the French ambassador,
in the negotiations with the diet of the Empire concerning the
386
BARBER BARBEY D'AUREVILLY
possessions of German princes in Alsace and Lorraine. Suspected
of treason, he was arrested on his return but set at liberty again.
In 1795 he was elected to the Council of the Ancients, where the
general moderation of his attitude, especially in his opposition
to the exclusion of nobles and the relations of emigres from public
life, brought him under suspicion of being a royalist, though he
pronounced a eulogy on Bonaparte for his success in Italy.
At the coup d'etat of the i8th Fructidor (September 4) 1797, he
was arrested and transported to French Guiana. Transferred to
O16ron in 1799, he owed his liberty to Napoleon, after the i8th
Brumaire. In 1801 he became councillor of state and director
of the public treasury, and in 1802 a senator. In 1803 he
negotiated the treaty by which Louisiana was ceded to the
United States, and was rewarded by the First Consul with a
gift of 152,000 francs. In 1805 he was made grand officer of the
legion of honour and a count, and in 1808 he became president
of the cour des comptes. In return for these favours, he addressed
Napoleon with servile compliments; yet in 1814 he helped to
draw up the act of abdication of the emperor, and declared to
the cour des comptes,vfiih reference to the invasion of France by
the allies, " united for the most beautiful of causes, it is long
since we have been so free as we now are in the presence of the
foreigner in arms." In June 1814, Louis XVIII. named him peer
of France and confirmed him in his office as president of the
cour des comptes. Deprived of his positions by Napoleon during
the Hundred Days he was appointed minister of justice in the
ministry of the due de Richelieu (August 1815). In this office he
tried unsuccessfully to gain the confidence of the ultra-royalists,
and withdrew at the end of nine months (May 10, 1816).
In 1830, when Louis Philippe assumed the reins of government,
Barbe-Marbois went, as president of the cour des comptes, to
compliment him and was confirmed in his position. It was the
sixth government he had served and all with servility. He
held his office until April 1834, and died on the i2th of February
1837. He published various works, of which may be mentioned :
Reflexions sur la colonie de Saint- Domingue (1794), De la Guyane,
&c. (1822), an Hisloire de la Louisiane et la cession de cette colonie
par la France aux tats-Unis, &c. (1828), and the story of his
transportation after the i8th Fructidor in Journal d'un deporte
non juge, 2 vols. (1834).
BARBER (from Lat. barba, beard), one whose occupation it is
to shave or trim beards, a hairdresser. In former times the
barber's craft was dignified with the title of a profession, being
conjoined with the art of surgery. In France the barber-surgeons
were separated from the perruquiers, and incorporated as a
distinct body in the reign of Louis XIV. In England barbers
first received incorporation from Edward IV. in 1461, By
32 Henry VIII. c. 42, they were united with the company of
surgeons, it being enacted that the barbers should confine them-
selves to the minor operations of blood-letting and drawing
teeth, while the surgeons were prohibited from " barbery or
shaving." In 1745 barbers and surgeons were separated into
distinct corporations by 18 George II. c. 15. The barber's shop
was a favourite resort of idle persons; and in addition to its
attraction as a focus of news, a lute, viol, or some such musical
instrument, was always kept for the entertainment of waiting
customers. The barber's sign consisted of a striped pole, from
which was suspended a basin, symbols the use of which is still
preserved. The fillet round the pole indicated the ribbon for
bandaging the arm in bleeding, and the basin the vessel to receive
the blood.
See also BEARD, and Annals of the Barber Surgeons of London
(1890).
BARBERINI, the name of a powerful Italian family, originally
of Tuscan extraction, who settled in Florence during the early
part of the nth century. They acquired great wealth and
influence, and in 1623 Maffeo Barberini was raised to the papal
throne as Urban VIII. He made his brother, Antonio, a dis-
tinguished soldier, and two nepKews, cardinals, and gave to a
third nephew, Taddeo, the principality of Palestrina. Great
jealousy of their increasing power was excited amongst the
neighbouring princes, and Odoardo Farnese, 'duke of Parma,
made war upon Taddeo, and defeated the papal troops. After
the death of Urban in 1644 his successor, Innocent X., showed
hostility to the Barberini family. Taddeo fled to Paris, where
he died in 1647, and with him the family became extinct in the
male line. His daughter Cornelia married Prince Giulio Cesare
Colonna di Sciarra in 1728, who added her name to his own.
On the death of Prince Enrico Barberini-Colonna the name
went to his daughter and heiress Donna Maria and her husband
Marquis Luigi Sacchetti, who received the title of prince of
Palestrina and permission to bear the name of Barberini. The
fine Barberini palace and library in Rome give evidence of their
wealth and magnificence. The ruthless way in which they
plundered ancient buildings to adorn their own palaces is the
origin of the saying, " Quod non fecerunt barbari, fecerunt
Barberini."
See A. von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868), iii.
b. 611-612, 615, 617, &c. ; Almanack de Gotha (Gotha, 1902); J. H.
Douglas, The Principal Noble Families of Rome (Rome, 1905).
BARBERRY (Berberis vulgaris), a shrub with spiny-toothed
leaves, which on the woody shoots are reduced to forked spines,
and pale yellow flowers in hanging racemes, which are succeeded
by orange-red berries. It is a member of the botanical natural
order Berberidaceae, and contains about 100 species in the north
temperate zone and in the Andes of South America extending
into Patagonia. The order is nearly allied to the buttercup order
in having the parts of the flowers all free and arranged in regular
succession below the ovary which consists of only one carpel.
It is distinguished by having the sepals, petals and stamens
in multiples of 2, 3 or 4, never of 5. The berries of Berberis
are edible; those of the native barberry are sometimes made
into preserves. The alkaloid berberine (q.v.) occurs in the roots.
BARBERTON, a town of the Transvaal, 283 m. by rail (175
m. in a direct line) E. of Pretoria and 136 m. W.N.W. of Delagoa
Bay. Pop. (1904) 2433, of whom 1214 were whites. Barberton
lies 2825 ft. above the sea and is built on the side of a valley
named De Kaap, from a bold headland of the Drakensberg which
towers above it. The chief town of a district of the same name,
it owes its existence to the discovery of gold in the Kaap valley,
and dates from 1886. There are several fine public buildings
grouped mainly round President Square. The town is connected
with the Lourenco Marques-Pretoria trunk railway by a branch
line, 35 m. long, which runs N.E. through fine mountainous
country and joins the main line at Kaapmuiden. During the war
of 1899-1902 the Boers were driven out of Barberton (i3th of
September 1900) by General (afterwards Sir John) French.
BARBETTE (Fr. diminutive of barbe, a beard), a platform
inside a fortification raised sufficiently high for artillery placed
thereon to be able to fire en barbette, viz. over the top of the
parapet; also in warships a raised platform, protected by
armour on the sides, upon which guns are mounted en barbette.
BARBEY D'AUREVILLY, JULES AM6D6E (1808-1889),
French man of letters, was born at Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte
(Manche) on the 2nd of November 1808. His most famous
novels are Une Vieille Mattresse (1851), attacked at the time of
its publication on the charge of immorality; L'Ensorcelee (1854),
an episode of the royalist rising among the Norman peasants
against the first republic; the Chevalier Destouches (1864); and
a collection of extraordinary stories entitled Les Diaboliques
(1874). Barbey d'Aurevilly is an extreme example of the
eccentricities of which the Romanticists were capable, and to
read him is to understand the discredit that fell upon the manner.
He held extreme Catholic views and wrote on the most risque
subjects; he gave himself aristocratic airs and hinted at a
mysterious past, though his parentage was entirely bourgeois
and his youth very hum-drum and innocent. In the 'fifties
d'Aurevilly became literary critic of the Pays, and a number of
his essays, contributed to this and other journals, were collected
as Les (Euwes et les hommes du XIX' siecle (1861-1865). Other
literary studies are Les Romanciers (1866) and Goethe et Diderot
(1880). He died in Paris on the 23rd of April 1889. Paul
Bourget describes him as a dreamer with an exquisite sense of
vision, who sought and found in his work a refuge from the
BARBEYRAC BARBITON
387
uncongenial world of every day. Jules Lemaltre, a less sym-
pathetic critic, finds in the extraordinary crimes of his heroes
and heroines, his reactionary views, his dandyism and snobbery,
an exaggerated Byronism.
See also Alcide Dusplier, Jules Barbey d'Aurevilly (1862), a collec
tion of eulogies and interviews; Paul Bourget, Preface to d'Aure
villy's Memoranda (1883); Jules Lemaltre, Les Contemporains
Eugene Crete, Barbey d'Aurevilly, sa vie et son aeuvre (1902); Rene
Doumic, in the Revue des deux tnondes (Sept. 1902).
BARBEYRAC, JEAN (1674-1744), French jurist, the nephew
of Charles Barbeyrac, a distinguished physician of Montpellier,
was born at Beziers in Lower Languedoc on the isth of March
1674. He removed with his family into Switzerland after the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, and there studied jurisprudence.
After spending some time at Geneva and Frankfort-on-Main, he
became professor of belles-lettres in the French school of Berlin.
Thence, in 1711, he was called to the professorship of history
and civil law at Lausanne, and finally settled as professor of
public law at Groningen. He died on the 3rd of March 1744.
His fame rests chiefly on the preface and notes to his translation
of Pufendorf's treatise De Jure Naturae et Gentium. Jn funda-
mental principles he follows almost entirely Locke and Pufendorf ;
but he works out with great skill the theory of moral obligation,
referring it to the command or will of God. He indicates the
distinction, developed more fully by Thomasius and Kant,
between the legal and the moral qualities of action. The
principles of international law he reduces to those of the law of
nature, and combats, in so doing, many of the positions taken
up by Grotius. He rejects the notion that sovereignty in any
way resembles property, and makes even marriage a matter of
civil contract. Barbeyrac also translated Grotius's De Jure
Belli et Pads, Cumberland's De Legibus Naturae, and Pufendorf's
smaller treatise De Officio Hominis et Civis. Among his own
productions are a treatise, De la morale des peres, a history of
ancient treaties contained in the Supplement au grand corps
diplomatique, and the curious Traite du jeu (1709), in which he
defends the morality of games of chance.
BARBICAN (from Fr. barbacane, probably of Arabic or
Persian origin), an outwork for the defence of a gate or draw-
bridge; also a sort of pent-house or construction of timber to
shelter warders or sentries from arrows or other missiles.
BARBIER, ANTOINE ALEXANDRE (1765-1825), French
librarian and bibliographer, was born on the nth of January
1 765 at Coulommiers (Seine-et-Marne). He took priest's orders,
from which, however, he was finally released by the pope in
1 80 1 . In 1 794 he became a member of the temporary commission
of the arts, and was charged with the duty of distributing among
the various libraries of Paris the books that had been confiscated
during the Revolution. In the execution of this task he dis-
covered the letters of Huet, bishop of Avranches, and the MSS.
of the works of Fenelon. He became librarian successively to
the Directory, to the Conseil d'Etat, and in 1807 to Napoleon,
from whom he carried out a number of commissions. He produced
a standard work in his Dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymes et
pseudonymes (4 vols., 1806-1809; 3rd edition 1872-1879).
Only the first part of his Examen critique des dictionnaires
historiques (1820) was published. He had a share in the founda-
tion of the libraries of the Louvre, of Fontainebleau, of Compiegne
and Saint-Cloud; under Louis XVIII. he became administrator
of the king's private libraries, but in 1822 he was deprived of all
his offices. Barbier died in Paris on the sth of December 1825.
See also a notice by his son, Louis Barbier, and a list of his works
prefixed to the 3rd edition of the Diet, des ouvrages anonymes et
pseudonymes.
BARBIER, HENRI AUGUSTS (1805-1882), French dramatist
and poet, was born in Paris on the zgth of April 1805. Inspired
by the revolution of July he poured forth a series of eager,
vigorous poems, denouncing, crudely enough, the evils of the
time. They are spoken of collectively as the lambes (1831),
though the designation is not strictly applicable to all. As the
name suggests, they are modelled on the verse of Andre Ch6nier.
They include La Curie, La Popularite, L'Idole, Paris, Dante,
Quatre-vingt-treize and Varsovie. The rest of Barbier's poems
are forgotten, and when, in 1869, he received the long delayed
honour of admission to the Academy, Montalembert expressed
the general sentiment in his Barbier? mats U est mortf It was
even asserted, though without foundation, that he was not the
real author of the lambes. He died at Nice on the i3th of
February 1882. He collaborated with Leon de Wailly in the
libretto of Berlioz's opera, Benvenuto Cellini, and his works
include two series of poems on the political and social troubles
of Italy and England, printed in later editions of lambes el
poemes.
See also Sainte-Beuve, Portraits Contemporains, vol. ii.
BARBIER, LOUIS, known as the ABBE DE LA RIVIERE (1593-
1670), French bishop, was born of humble parents in Vaudelain-
court, near Compiegne. He entered the church and made his
way by his wit and cleverness, until he was appointed tutor,
and then became the friend and adviser, of Gaston d'Orl6ans,
brother of Louis XIII. He thus gained an entrance to the court,
became grand almoner of the queen, and received the revenue of
rich abbeys. In March 1655 he was named bishop of Langres,
but he spent his time at court, where his wit was always
in demand, and where he gained great sums by gambling. He
died very rich.
BARBIERI, QIOVANNI FRANCESCO (otherwise called
GUERCINO, from his squinting), (1591-1666), Italian historical
painter, was born at Cento, a village not far from Bologna. His
artistic powers were developed very rapidly, and at the age of
seventeen he was associated with Benedetto Gennari (1550-1610),
a well-known painter of the Bolognese school. The fame of the
young painter spread beyond his native village, and in 1615 he
removed to Bologna, where his paintings were much admired.
His first style was formed after that of the Caracci; but the
strong colouring and shadows employed by Caravaggio made
a deep impression on his mind, and for a considerable period
his productions showed evident traces of that painter's influence.
Some of his latest pieces approach rather to the manner of his
great contemporary Guido, and are painted with moi-e lightness
and clearness. Guercino was esteemed very highly in his
lifetime, not only by the nobles and princes of Italy, but by his
brother artists, who placed him in the first rank of painters. He
was remarkable for the extreme rapidity of his execution; he
completed no fewer than 106 large altar-pieces for churches, and
his other paintings amount to about 144. His most famous piece is
thought to be the St Petronilla, which was painted at Rome for
Gregory XV. and is now in the Capitol. In 1626 he began his
frescoes in the Duomo at Piacenza. Guercino continued to
paint and teach up to the time of his death in 1666. He had
amassed a handsome fortune by his labours. His life, by J. A.
Calvi, appeared at Bologna in 1808.
His brother, PAOLO ANTONIO BARBIERI (1603-1649), was a
celebrated painter of still life and animals. He chose for his
subjects fruits, flowers, insects and animals, which he painted
after nature with a lively tint of colour, great tenderness of
pencil, and a strong character of truth and life.
BARBITON, or BARBITOS (Gr. p&ppmv or jSAp/Stros; Lat.
'larbitus; Pers. barbat, barbud), an ancient stringed instrument
cnown to us from the Greek and Roman classics, but derived
rom Persia. Theocritus (xvi. 45), the Sicilian poet, calls it an
nstrument of many strings, i.e. more than seven, which was by
the Hellenes accounted the perfect number, as in the cithara
of the best period. Anacreon 1 (a native of Teos in Asia Minor)
sings that his barbitos only gives out erotic tones. Pollux
(Onomasticon iv. chap. 8, 59) calls the instrument barbiton
or barymite (from papvs, heavy and (d-ras, a string), an instru-
ment producing deep sounds; the strings were twice as long as
those of the pectis and sounded an octave lower. Pindar (in
Athen. xiv. p. 635), in the same line wherein he attributes the
ntroduction of the instrument into Greece to Terpander, tells us
one could magadize, i.e. play in two parts at an interval of an
octave on the two instruments. The word barbiton was frequently
used for the lyre itself. Although in use in Asia Minor, Italy,
1 See Bergk's Poetae Lyrici Graeci (4th ed., 1882), p. 291, fr. 143
113]; and p. 311, 23 [i], 3; and 14 [9], 34, p. 306.
3 88
BARBIZON
Sicily, and Greece, it is evident that the barbiton never won for
itself a place in the affections of the Greeks of Hellas; it was
regarded as a barbarian instrument affected by those only whose
tastes in matters of art were unorthodox. It had fallen into disuse
in the days of Aristotle, 1 but reappeared under the Romans.
In spite of the few meagre shreds of authentic information
extant concerning this somewhat elusive instrument, it is possible
nevertheless to identify the barbiton as it was known among the
Greeks and Romans. From the Greek writers we know that
it was an instrument having some feature or features in common
with the lyre, which warranted classification with it. From the
Persians and Arabs we learn that it was a kind of rebab or lute,
or a chelys-lyre, 2 first introduced into Europe through Asia
Minor by way of Greece, and centuries later into Spain by the
Moors, amongst whom it was in the i4th century known as
al-barbet? There is a stringed instrument, as yet unidentified
by name, of which there are at least four different representations
in sculpture, 4 which combines the characteristics of both lyre
and rebab, having the vaulted back and gradual narrowing to
form a neck which are typical of
the rebab and the stringing of the
lyre. In outline it resembles a
large lute with a wide neck, and
the seven strings of the lyre of the
best period, or sometimes nine, fol-
lowing the decadent lyre. Most
authors in reproducing these sculp-
tures showing the barbiton represent
the instrument as boat-shaped and
without a neck, as, for instance, Carl
Engel. This is due to the fact
that the part of the instrument
where neck joins body is in deep
shadow, so that the correct out-
line can hardly be distinguished,
being almost hidden by hand
on one side and drapery on the
other.
The barbiton, as pictured here,
had probably undergone con-
siderable modification at the
hands of the Greeks and had
Barbiton, from a bas-relief
in the Louvre, " Achilles at
Scyros."
diverged from the archetype. The barbiton, however, although
it underwent many changes, retained until the end the charac-
teristics of the instruments of the Greek lyre whose strings
were plucked, whereas the rebab was sounded by means of the
bow at the time of its introduction into Europe. At some
period not yet determined, which we can but conjecture, the
barbat approximated to the form of the large lute (q.v.).
An instrument called barbiton was known in the early part
of the 1 6th 5 and during the i?th century. It was a kind of
1 Polit. viii. (v.), 6, ed. SusemihJ-Hicks (1894), pp. 604 ( = 13413
40) and 632; Daremberg and Saglio, Diet, d'ant. gr. et rom., article
" Lyre," p. 1450, for a lew more references to the classics.
2 Johnson's Persian-Arabic-English dictionary: barbat, a harp or
lute, barbalzan, player upon lute, pi. barabit; G. W. Freytag, Lexicon
Arabico-Latinum, i. p. 102: barbat (Persian and Arabic), barbitus,
genus testudinis, plerumque sex septemve chordis instructum
(rotundam habet formam in Africa) ; Lexicon Aegidii Forccllini
(Prato, 1858); " Barbito aurataque chely ac doctis fidibus per-
sonare " (Martianus Capella i. 36) ; G. B. Doni, Lyra Barberina, ii.
index.
3 Enumeration of Arab Musical Instruments, xiv. c.
4 (a) See C. Clarac, Musee du Louvre, vol. i. pi. 202, No. 261.
(6) Accompanying illustration. See also Kathleen Schlesinger,
Orchestral Instruments, part ii., " Precursors of the Violin Family,"
fig. 108 and p. 23, pp. 106-107, fig. 144 and appendix. W Sarcophagus
in the cathedral of Girgenti in Sicily, illustrated by Carl Engel, Early
History of the Violin Family, p. 112. A cast is preserved in the
sepulchral basement at the British Museum. Domenico, Lo Faso
Pietra-Santa, le antichita delta Sicilia (Palermo, 1834), vol. 3,
pi. 45 (2), text p. 89. (d) G. Zoega, Antike Basreliefe von Rom
(Giessen, 1812), atlas, pi. 98, sarcophagus representing a scene in
the story of Hippolytus and Phaedra.
6 In Jacob Locher's Navis Stultifera (Basel, 1506), titulus 7, is an
illustration of a small harp and lute with the legend nee cytharam
tangit nee barbiton.
theorbo or bass-lute, but with one neck only, bent back at
right angles to form the head. Robert Fludd 6 gives a detailed
description of it with an illustration : " Inter quas instru-
menta non nulla barbito simillima effinxerunt cujus modi sunt ilia
quae vulgo appellantur theorba, quae sonos graviores reddunt
chordasque nervosas habent." The people called it theorbo, but
the scholar having identified it with the instrument of classic
Greece and Rome called it barbiton. The barbiton had nine
pairs of gut strings, each pair being in unison. Dictionaries of the
i8th century support Fludd's use of the name barbiton. G. B.
Doni 7 mentions the barbiton, defining it in his index as Barbitos
seu major chelys ilalice liorba, and deriving it from lyre and
cithara in common with testudines, tiorbas and all tortoiseshell
instruments. Claude Perrault, 8 writing in the i8th century,
states that " les modernes appellent notre luth barbiton " (the
moderns call our lute barbiton). Constantijn Huygens 9 declares
that he learnt to play the barbiton in a few weeks, but took
two years to learn the cittern.
The barbat was a variety of rebab (q.v.), a bass instrument,
differing only in size and number of strings. This is quite in
accordance with what we know of the nomenclature of musical
instruments among Persians and Arabs, with whom a slight
deviation in the construction of an instrument called for a new
name. 10 The word barbud applied to the barbiton is said to be
derived " from a famous musician living at the time of Chosroes II.
(A.D. 590-628), who excelled in playing upon the instrument.
From a later translation of part of the same authority into
German 12 we obtain the following reference to Persian musical
instruments: " Die Sanger stehen bei seinem Gastmahl; in
ihrer Hand Barbiton''-* und Leyer'"-' und Laute <iiiJ und
Flote" und Deff (Handpauke)." Mr Ellis, of the Oriental
Department of the British Museum, has kindly supplied the
original Persian names translated above, i.e. (i.) barbut, (ii.)
chang, (iii.) rubdb, (iv.) nei. The barbut and rubab thus were
different instruments as late as the igth century in Persia. There
were but slight differences if any between the archetypes of the
pear-shaped rebab and of the lute before the application of the
bow to the former both had vaulted backs, body and neck in
one, and gut strings plucked by the fingers. (K. S.)
BARBIZON, a French village, near the forest of Fontainebleau,
which gave its name to the " Barbizon school " of painters,
whose leaders were Corot, Rousseau, Millet and Daubigny,
together with Diaz, Dupre, Jacque, Francais, Harpignies and
others. They put aside the conventional idea of " subject " in
their pictures of landscape and peasant life, and went direct to
the fields and woods for their inspiration. The distinctive note
of the school is seen in the work of Rousseau and of Millet, each
of whom, after spending his early years in Paris, made his home
in Barbizon. Unappreciated, poor and neglected, it was not until
after years of struggle that they attained recognition and success.
They both died at Barbizon Rousseau in 1867 and Millet in
1875. It is difficult now to realize that their work, so unaffected
and beautiful, should have been so hardly received. To under-
stand this, it is necessary to remember the conflicts that existed
between the classic and romantic schools in the first half of the
century, when the classicists, followers of the tradition of
Historia Utriusque Cosmi (Oppenheim, 1617), torn. i. tract ii. part
ii. lib. iv. cap. i. p. 226.
7 Lyra Barberina, vol. ii. index, and also vol. i. p. 29.
8 " La Musique des anciens," (Euvres completes (ed. Amsterdam,
1727), torn. i. p. 306.
9 De Vita propria sermonum inter liberos libri duo (Haarlem, 1817).
See also Edmund van der Straeten, La Musique aux Pays-Bas,
vol. ii. p. 349.
10 See The Seven Seas, a dictionary and grammar of the Persian
language, by Ghazi ud-din Haiclar, king of Oudh, in seven parts
(Lucknow, 1822) (only the title of the book is in English). A review
of this book in German with copious quotations by von Hammer-
Purgstall is published in Jahrbiicher der Lileratur (Vienna, 1826),
Bd. 35 and 36; names of musical instruments, Bd. 36, p. 292 et seq.
See also R. G. Kiesewetter, Die Musik der Araber, nach Originalquellen
dargestellt (Leipzig, 1843, p. 91, classification of instruments).
11 The Seven Seas, part i. p. 153; Jahrb. d. Lileratur, Bd. 36, p. 294.
" Fr. Riickert, Grammatik, Poetik und Rhetorik der Perser, nach
dem 7'"Bde. des Hefts Kolzum (Gotha, 1874), p. 80.
BARBON BARBOUR
39
David, were the predominant school. The romantic movement,
with Ge'ricault, Bonington and Delacroix, was gaining favour.
In 1824 Constable's pictures were shown in the Salon, and
confirmed the younger men in their resolution to abandon the
lifeless pedantry of the schools and to seek inspiration from
nature. In those troubled times Rousseau and Millet unburdened
their souls to their friends, and their published lives contain
many letters, some extracts from which will express the ideals
which these artists held in common, and show clearly the true
and firmly-based foundation on which their art stands. Rousseau
wrote, " It is good composition when the objects represented are
not there solely as they are, but when they contain under a
natural appearance the sentiments which they have stirred in
our souls. . . . For God's sake, and in recompense for the life
He has given us, let us try in our works to make the manifestation
of life our first thought: let us make a man breathe, a tree really
vegetate." And Millet " I try not to have things look as if
chance had brought them together, but as if they had a necessary
bond between themselves. I want the people I represent to look
as if they really belonged to their station, so that imagination
cannot conceive of their ever being anything else. People and
things should always be there with an object. I want to put
strongly and completely all that is necessary, for I think things
weakly said might as well not be said at all, for they are, as it
were, deflowered and spoiled but I profess the greatest horror
for uselessness (however brilliant) and filling up. These things
can only weaken a picture by distracting the attention toward
secondary things." In another letter he says " Art began to
decline from the moment that the artist did not lean directly
and naively upon impressions made by nature. Cleverness
naturally and rapidly took the place of nature, and decadence
then began. ... At bottom it always comes to this: a man
must be moved himself in order to move others, and all that is
done from theory, however clever, can never attain this end, for
it is impossible that it should have the breath of life." The ideas
of the " Barbizon school " only gradually obtained acceptance,
but the chief members of it now rank among the greater artists
of their time.
See D. Croal Thomson, The Barbizon School (1891), with a full
list of the French authorities to be consulted; Jules Breton, Nos
peintres du siecle, Paris, 1000.
BARBON, NICHOLAS (c. 1640-1698), English economist,
probably the son of Praise-god Barbon, was born in London,
studied medicine at Leiden, graduated M.D. at Utrecht in 1661,
and was admitted an honorary fellow of the College of Physicians
in 1664. He took a considerable part in the rebuilding of London
after the great fire of 1666, and has a claim to be considered the
institutor of fire-insurance in England, which he started some-
where about 1680. He was M.P. for Bramber in 1690 and 1695.
He founded a land bank which, according to contemporaries, was
fairly successful and was united with that of John Briscoe in
1696. He died in 1698. His writings are interesting as ex-
pressing views much in advance of his time and very near akin
to those of modern times on such important topics as value,
rent and foreign trade. The more important were Apology for
the Builder; or a Discourse showing the Cause and Effects of the
Increase of Building (1685); A Discourse of Trade (1690); and
A Discourse Concerning Coining the New Money Lighter (1696).
BARBON (BAREBONE or BAREBONES), PRAISE-GOD (c. 1596-
1679), English leather-seller and Fifth Monarchy man, was
admitted freeman of the Leathersellers Company on the
zoth of January 1623 and liveryman on the I3th of October
1634. About the same time he became minister to a congregation
which assembled at his own house, " The Lock and Key," in
Fleet Street, where his preaching attracted large audiences.
The exact nature of his religious opinions is not perfectly clear.
He is styled by his enemies a Brownist and Anabaptist, i.e.
probably Baptist, but he wrote two books in support of paedo-
baptism, and his congregation had separated from a larger one
of Baptists on that point of controversy. Later he belonged to
the sect of Fifth Monarchy men. He was the object of the abuse
and ridicule of the opposite party, and his meetings were fre-
quently disturbed by riots. On the 2oth of December 1641 his
house was stormed by a mob and he narrowly escaped with his
life. Barbon, who was a man of substantial property, was
summoned by Cromwell on the 6th of June 1653 as a member
for London to the assembly of nominees called after him in
derision Barebone's Parliament. His name is occasionally
mentioned, but he appears to have taken no part in the debates.
In 1660 he showed great activity in endeavouring to prevent the
Restoration. He published Needham's book, News from Brussels
in a Letter from a Near Attendant on His Majesty's Person . . .,
which retailed unfavourable anecdotes relating to Charles's
morals, and on the Qth of February he presented the petition
to the Parliament, which proposed that all officials should abjure
the Stuarts, and all publicly proposing the Restoration should
be deemed guilty of high treason. His conduct drew upon him
several royalist attacks. On the 3ist of March he was obliged
to sign an engagement to the council not to disturb the peace,
and on the 26th of November 1661 he was arrested, together
with John Wildman and James Harrington, and was imprisoned
in the Tower till the 27th of July 1662, when he was released on
bail. Barbon, who was married, was buried on the 5th of January
1680. He was the author of A Discourse tending to prove . . .
Baptism . . . to be the ordinance of Jesus Christ. As also that
the Baptism of Infants is warentable (1642), the preface of which
shows a spirit of wide religious tolerance; and A Reply to the
Frivolous and Impertinent answer of R. B. and E. B. to the Dis-
course of P. B. (1643).
BARBOUR, JOHN (? 1316-1395), Scottish poet, was born,
perhaps in Aberdeenshire, early in the I4th century, approxi-
mately 1316. In a letter of safe-conduct dated 1357, allowing
him to go to Oxford for study, he is described as archdeacon
of Aberdeen. He is named in a similar letter in 1364 and in
another in 1368 granting him permission to pass to France,
probably for further study, at the university of Paris. In 1372 he
was one of the auditors of exchequer, and in 1373 a clerk of audit
in the king's household. In 1375 (he gives the date, and his age
as 60) he composed his best known poem The Brus, for which
he received, in 1377, the gift of ten pounds, and, in 1378, a life-
pension of twenty shillings. Additional rewards followed,
including the renewal of his exchequer auditorship (though he
may have continued to enjoy it since his first appointment)
and ten pounds to his pension. The only biographical evidence
of his closing years is his signature as a witness to sundry deeds
in the " Register of Aberdeen " as late as 1392. According to the
obit-book of the cathedral of Aberdeen, he died on the I3th of
March 1395. The state records show that his life-pension was not
paid after that date.
Considerable controversy has arisen regarding Barbour's
literary work. If he be the author of the five or six long poems
which have been ascribed to him by different writers, he adds
to his importance as the father of Scots poetry the reputation
of being one of the most voluminous writers in Middle English,
certainly the most voluminous of all Scots poets.
(i) The Brus, in twenty books, and running to over 13,500
four-accent lines, in couplets, is a narrative poem with a purpose
partly historical, partly patriotic. It opens with a description
of the state of Scotland at the death of Alexander III. (i 286) and
concludes with the death of Douglas and the burial of the Bruce's
heart (1332). The central episode is the battle of Bannockburn.
Patriotic as the sentiment is, it is in more general terms than is
found in later Scots literature. The king is a hero of the chivalric
type common in contemporary romance; freedom is a " noble
thing " to be sought and won at all costs; the opponents of
such freedom are shown in the dark colours which history and
poetic propriety require; but there is none of the complacency
of the merely provincial habit of mind. The lines do not lack
vigour; and there are passages of high merit, notably the oft-
quoted section beginning "A! fredome is a noble thing."
Despite a number of errors of fact, notably the confusion of the
three Bruces in the person of the hero, the poem is historically
trustworthy as compared with contemporary verse-chronicle,
and especially with the Wallace of the next century. No one
39
BARBUDA BARCA
has doubted Barbour's authorship of the Brus, but argument
has been attempted to show that the text as we have it is an
edited copy, perhaps by John Ramsay, a Perth scribe, who
wrote out the two extant texts, preserved in the Advocates'
library, Edinburgh, and in the library of St John's College,
Cambridge. Extensive portions of the poem have been incor-
porated by Wyntoun (q.v.) in his Chronicle. The first printed
edition extant is Chatferis's (Edinburgh, 1571); the second is
Hart's (Edinburgh, 1616).
(2) Wyntoun speaks (Chronicle III. iii.) of a " Treteis " which
Harbour made by way of " a genealogy " of " Brutus lynagis ";
and elsewhere in that poem there are references to the arch-
deacon's " Stewards Oryginale." This "Brut" is unknown;
but the reference has been held by some to be to (3) a Troy-book,
based on Guido da Colonna's Historia Destructions Troiae.
Two fragments of such a work have been preserved in texts
of Lydgate's Troy-book, the first in MS. Camb. Univ. Lib. Kk.
v. 30, the second in the same and in MS. Douce 148 in the Bodleian
library, Oxford. This ascription was first made by Henry
Bradshaw, the librarian of Cambridge University; but the con-
sensus of critical opinion is now against it. Though it were proved
that these Troy fragments are Barbour's, there remains the ques-
tion whether their identification with the book on the Stewart
lin'e is justified. The scale of the story in these fragments
forces us to doubt this identification. They contain 595+3118
= 3713 lines and are concerned entirely with " Trojan " matters.
This would be an undue allowance in a Scottish " genealogy."
(4) Yet another work was added to the list of Barbour's
works by the discovery in the university library of Cambridge,
by Henry Bradshaw, of a long Scots poem of over 33,000 lines,
dealing with Legends of the Saints, as told in the Legenda Aurea
and other legendaries. The general likeness of this poem to
Barbour's accepted work in verse-length, dialect and style,
and the facts that the lives of English saints are excluded and
those of St Machar (the patron saint of Aberdeen) and St Ninian
are inserted, made the ascription plausible. Later criticism,
though divided, has tended in the contrary direction, and has
based its strongest negative judgment on the consideration of
rhymes, assonance and vocabulary (see bibliography). That
the " district " of the author is the north-east of Scotland cannot
be doubted in the face of a passage such as this, in the fortieth
legend (St Ninian), n, 1359 et seq.
" A lytil tale 3et herd I tel,
.f>at in to my tyme befel,
of a gudman, in murrefe [Moray] borne
in elgyne [Elgin] , and his kine beforne,
and callit was a faithful man
vith al j>ame {>at hyme knew than;
& $is mare trastely I say,
for I kend hyme weile many day.
John balormy ves his name,
a man of ful gud fame."
But whether this north-east Scots author is Barbour is a
question which we cannot answer by means of the data at present
available.
(5) If Barbour be the author of the Legends, then (so does one
conclusion hang upon another) he is the author of a Gospel story
with the later life of the Virgin, described in the prologue to the
Legends and in other passages as a book " of the birth of Jhesu
criste " and one " quhare-in I recordit the genology of our lady
sanct Mary."
(6) In recent years an attempt has been made to name Barbour
as the author of the Buik of Alexander (a translation of the Roman
d'Alexandre and associated pieces, including the VOMX du Paon),
as known in the unique edition, c. 1 580, printed at the Edinburgh
press of Alexander Arbuthnot. The " argument " as it stands
is nothing more than an exaggerated inference from parallel-
passages in the Bruce and Alexander; and it makes no allowance
for the tags, epithets and general vocabulary common to all
writers of the period. Should the assumption be proved to be
correct, and should it be found that the " Troy fragments were
written first of all, followed by Alexander and Bruce or Bruce and
Alexander, and that the Legends end the chapter," it will be by
" evidence " other than that which has been produced to this date.
For Barbour's life see Exchequer Rolls of Scotland, ii. and iii.;
Registrum Episcopatus Aberdonensis (Spalding Club); Rymer's
Foedera.
WORKS. (i)The Brus MSS. and early editions u.s. Modern
editions: J. Pinkerton, 3 vols. (1790) (called by the editor " the first
genuine edition," because printed from the Advocates' Library text,
but carelessly); Jamieson (1820); Cosmo Innes (Spalding Club,
1856); W. W. Skeat (Early English Text Society, 1870-1889;
reprinted, after revision by the editor, by the Scottish Text
Society, 18931895). On the question of the recension of Barbour's
text, see }. T. T. Brown, The Wallace and The Bruce restudied
(Bonn, 1900). (2 and 3) Troy Fragments. C. Horstmann has
printed the text in his Legendensammlung (ut infra). See Bradshaw,
Transactions of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society (1866); the
prolegomena in Horstmann's edition; Skeat, Brus (S. T. S. edit.
u.s. pp. xlvi. et seq.) ; Koppel, " Die Fragmente von Harbours
Trojanerkrieg," in Englische Studien, x. 373 ; Panton and Donaldson,
The Gest Historiale of the Destruction of Troye (E. E. T. S. pt. ii.
Introd. pp. x. et seq.); G. Neilson (ut infra); and T. T. T. Brown
(ut supra) passim. (4) Legends of the Saints. C. Horstmann, who
upholds Barbour's authorship, has printed the text in his Barbours
des schottischen NationoMichters Legendensammlung nebst den
Fragmenten seines Trojanerkrieges, 2 vols. (Heilbronn, 1881-1882),
and that of the legend of St Machor in his Altenglische Legenden.
Neue Folge (Heilbronn, 1881) pp. 189-208. A later edition by
W. M. Metcalfe, who disputes Barbour's claim, appeared in 1896
(Legends of the Saints in the Scottish Dialect of the Fourteenth Century,
3 vols., Scottish Text Society). See the introductions to these
editions; also Skeat and Koppel U.S., and P. Buss, Sind die von
Horstmann herausgegebenen schottischen Legenden ein Werk Barberes?
(Halle, 1886) (cf. Anglia, ix. 3, 1886). (5) For the Gospel-story
evidence see Metcalfe, u.s. I. xxix. (6) On the Alexander Book and
its assumed relationships, see G. Neilson, John Barbour, Poet and
Translator (1900) (a reprint from the Transactions of the Philological
Society); ]. T. T. Brown U.S., "Postscript," pp. 156-171; and
Athenaeum, I7th of November, 1st and 8th December 1900, and
the 9th of February 1901. (G. G. S.)
BARBUDA, an island in the British West Indies. It lies
25 m. N. of Antigua, of which it is a dependency, in 17 33' N.
and 61 43' W., and it has an area of 62 sq. m. Pop. (1901) 775.
It is flat and densely wooded. On the western side there is a
large lagoon, separated from the sea by a spit of sand. The part
of the island under cultivation is very fertile, and the air is
remarkable for its purity. Cattle and horses are bred and wild
deer are still found. Salt and phosphates of lime are exported.
The island was annexed by Great Britain in 1628 and was
bestowed in 1680 upon the Codrington family who, for more than
200 years, held it as a kind of feudal fief.
BARBY, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
left bank of the Elbe, 82 m. S.W. of Berlin on the direct railway
to Cassel. Pop. (1900) 5136. It has two evangelical churches
and a seminary for school teachers, which is housed in the former
castle of the lords of Barby. The industries are mainly agri-
cultural, but there are sugar factories and breweries. Here from
1749 to 1809 was a settlement of the Herrnhut evangelical
brotherhood.
BARCA (mod. Merj), an ancient city founded in the territory
of Cyrene in the middle of the 6th century B.C. Rising quickly
to importance it became a rival of the older city, and gave its
name to the western province of the latter's territory. The name
as a provincial designation is still in occasional use, but is now
applied to all the province of Bengazi. Barca is said to have
owed its origin to Greek refugees flying from the tyranny of
Arcesilaus II. (see CYRENE), but it is certain that it was rather
a Libyan than a Greek town at all times. A Persian force invited
by the notorious Pheretima, mother of Arcesilaus III., in revenge
for Barcan support of a rival faction, sacked it towards the close
of the 6th century and deported a number of its inhabitants to
Bactria. Under Ptolemaic rule it began to decline, like Cyrene,
and its port Ptolemais (Tolmeita) took its place: but after the
Arab conquest (A.D. 641) it became the chief place of the Cyrenaica
for a time and a principal station on the Kairawan road. Though
now a mere village, Merj is still the chief centre of administration
inland, and has a fort and small garrison. No ruins of earlier
period than the late Roman and early Arab seem to be visible
on the site. The latter lies, like Cyrene, about ten miles from
the coast on the crest of Jebel Akhdar, here sunk to a low down-
land. It owed its early prosperity to its easy access to the sea,
and to the fact that natural conditions in Cyrenaica and the
BARCAROLE BARCELONA
39 1
Sahara behind it, tend to divert trade to the west of the district
a fact which is exemplified by the final survival of Berenice (mod.
Bengazi). Merj stands in a rich but ill-cultivated stretch of red
soil. (D. G. H.)
BARCAROLE, or BARCAROLLE (Ital. barcaruola, a boat-song),
properly a musical term for the songs sung by the Venetian
gondoliers, and hence for an instrumental or vocal composition,
generally in 6-8 time, written in imitation of their characteristic
rhythm.
BARCELONA, a maritime province of north-eastern Spain,
formed in 1833 out of districts belonging to the ancient kingdom
of Catalonia, and bounded on the N.E. and E. by Gerona; S. by
the Mediterranean Sea; S.W. by Tarragona; and W. and N.W.
by Lerida. Pop. (1900) 1,054,541; area 2968 sq. m. Apart
from a few tracts of level country along the coast and near
Igualada, Manresa, Sabadell and Vich, almost the whole surface
consists of mountain ranges, often densely wooded, rich in
minerals and intersected by deep ravines. These ranges are
outliers of the Pyrenees, which extend along the northern
frontier, forming there the lofty Sierra del Cadi with the peak of
Tosa (83 1 7 ft.) . Towards the sea, the altitudes become gradually
less, although not with a uniform decrease; for several isolated
peaks and minor ranges such as Montserrat and Monseny rise
conspicuously amid the lower summits to a height of 4000-6000
ft. The central districts are watered by the Llobregat, which
rises at the base of the Sierra del Cadi, and flows into the sea
near Barcelona, the capital, after receiving many small tributaries.
The river Ter crosses the eastern extremity of the province.
Barcelona can be divided into three climatic zones; a
temperate one near the sea, where even palm and orange trees
grow; a colder one in the valleys and plains, more inland;
and a colder still among the mountains, where not a few peaks
are snow-clad for a great part of the year. Agriculture and
stock-keeping are comparatively unimportant in this province,
which is the centre of Spanish industry and commerce. In every
direction the country looks like a veritable hive of human
activity and enterprise, every town and village full of factories,
and alive with the din of machinery. Lead, zinc, lignite, coal and
salt are worked, and there are numerous mineral springs; but
the prosperity of the province chiefly depends on its transit
trade and manufactures. These are described in detail in
articles on the chief towns. Barcelona (pop. 1900, 533,000),
Badalona (19,240), Cardona (3855), Igualada (10,442), Manresa
(23,252), Matar6 (19,704), Sabadell (23,294), Tarrasa (15,956),
Vich (11,628) and Villanueva y Geltru (11,856). Berga (5465),
perhaps the Roman Castrum Bergium, on the Llobregat, is the
home of the Catalonian cotton industry. None of the rivers is
navigable, and the roads are in general indifferent and insufficient.
The province is better off in regard to railways, of which there
are 349 m. Important lines radiate from the city of Barcelona
north-east along the coast to Gerona and to Perpignan in France;
south-west along the coast to Tarragona and Valencia; and west
to Saragossa and Madrid. Several local railways link together
the principal towns. For a general description of the people,
and for the history of this region see CATALONIA. The population
is greater and increases more rapidly than that of any other
Spanish province, a fact due not to any large excess of births
over deaths, but to the industrial life which attracts many
immigrants. In the last quarter of the igth century the increase
exceeded 200,000, while the average yearly number of emigrants
was below 2000. In point of education this province is quite
among the first in Spain, and as far back as 1880 there were
97,077 children enrolled on the school registers; the figures have
since steadily increased.
BARCELONA, formerly the capital of Catalonia, and since 1833
the capital of the province of Barcelona in eastern Spain, in
41 23' N. and 2 n' E., on the Mediterranean Sea, and at the
head of railways from Madrid, Saragossa, and Perpignan in
France. Pop. (1900) 533,000. Barcelona is a flourishing city and
the principal seaport of Spain. It is built on the sloping edge of a
small plain between the rivers Besos, on the north, and Llobr6gat,
on the south. Immediately to the south-west the fortified hills of
Montjuich rise to an altitude of 650 ft., while the view is bounded
on the west by the heights which culminate in Tibidabo (1745
ft.), and en the north-east by the Montanas Matas. The greater
part of the space thus enclosed is occupied by comparatively
modern suburbs and gardens of almost tropical luxuriance,
strongly contrasting with the huge factories and busy port of
the original city in their midst.
Barcelona was formerly surrounded by a strong line of
ramparts, and defended, or more correctly, overawed by a
citadel on the north-east, erected in 1715 by Philip V.; but these
fortifications being felt as a painful restriction on the natural
development of the city, were, in spite of the opposition of the
central government, finally abolished by the local authorities in
1845. The walls of the moat were utilized for the cellars of the
houses which soon occupied the site of the ramparts, and the
ground, which had been covered by the citadel, was laid out in
gardens. A rapid extension of the city to the north-west took
place, and in 1860 an elaborate plan for the laying out of new
districts received the royal sanction. Barcelona thus comprises
an old town, still consisting for the most part of irregular and
narrow streets, and a new town built with all the symmetry and
precision of a premeditated scheme. The buildings of the old
town are chiefly of brick, from four to five storeys in height, with
flat roofs, and other oriental peculiarities; while in the new town
hewn stone is very largely employed, and the architecture is often
of a modern English style. To the east, on the tongue of land
that helps to form the port, lies the suburb of Barceloneta. It
owes its origin to the marquis de la Mina, who, about 1754, did
much for the city, and is regularly laid out, the houses being
built of brick after a uniform pattern. The main street or axis of
the old town is the Rambla, which has a fine promenade planted
with plane-trees running down the middle, and contains the
principal hotels and theatres of the city. The most important
suburbs are Gratia, Las Corts de Sarria, Horta, San Andres de
Palomar, San Gervasio de Cassolas, San Martin de Provensals
and Sans. Exclusive of these, the city contains about 334,000
inhabitants, an increase of nearly 150,000 since 1857. Large
numbers of immigrant artisans joined the population during the
latter half of the igth century, attracted by the great develop-
ment of industry. Barcelona is the see of a bishop, and, like
most Spanish towns, has a large number of ecclesiastical build-
ings, though by no means so many as it once possessed. No
fewer than eighteen convents were still standing in 1873. The
cathedral, erected between 1298 and 1448 on Monte Taber, an
oval hill which forms the highest point of the Rambla, is one of
the finest examples of Spanish Gothic; although it is not
designed on a great scale and some parts have been freely
modernized. It contains the early 14th-century tomb of Santa
Eulalia, the patron saint of the city, besides many othe<*monu-
ments of artistic or historical interest. Its stained glass windows
are among the finest in Spain, and it possesses archives of great
value. Santa Maria del Mar, Santa Ana, Santos Justo y Pastor,
San Pedro de las Puellas, and San Pablo del Campo are all
churches worthy of mention.
The educational institutions of Barcelona have from an early
period been numerous and important. The university (Uni-
versidad Literaria), which was originally founded in 1430 by the
magistracy of the city, and received a bull of confirmation from
Pope Nicholas V. in 1450, possessed at that time four faculties
and thirty-one chairs all endowed by the corporation. It was
suppressed in 1714, but restored in 1841, and now occupies an
extensive building in the new town. There are, besides, an
academy of natural sciences, a college of medicine and surgery
confirmed by a bull of Benedict XIII. in 1400 an academy of
fine arts, a normal school, -a theological seminary, an upper
industrial school, an institution for the education of deaf-
mutes, a school of navigation and many minor establishments.
Gratuitous instruction of a very high order is afforded by the
Board of Trade to upwards of 2000 pupils. The principal charit-
able foundations are the Casa de Caridad or house of charity,
the hospital general, dating from 1401, and the foundling
hospital. The principal civic and commercial buildings are the
39 2
BARCELONA
Casa Consistorial, a fine Gothic hall (1369-1378), the Lonja or
exchange (1383), and the Aduana or custom-house (1792).
At the seaward end of the Rambla is a large ancient structure,
the Atarazanas or Arsenals, which was finished about 1243,
and partly demolished in the igih century to give a better view
to the promenade. Remains of the former royal state of Barce-
lona are found in the Palacio Real of the kings of Aragon and
the Palacio de la Reina. At the highest part of the city, in the
Calle del Paradis, are some magnificent columns, and other
Roman remains, which, however, are hidden by the surrounding
buildings. Means of public recreation are abundantly supplied.
There are many theatres, the two most important being the
Teatro Principal, and the Teatro del Liceo, a very fine building,
originally erected in 1845 on the site of a convent of Trinitarian
monks. The number of restaurants and similar places of evening
resort is very great, and there are several public courts where the
Basque game of pelota can be witnessed.
The so-called port of Barcelona was at first only an open beach,
on the east, slightly sheltered by the neighbouring hills, but at
an early period the advantage of some artificial protection was
felt. In 1438 Don Alphonso V. granted the magistracy a licence
to build a mole; and in 1474 the Moll de Santa Creu was officially
begun. Long after this, however, travellers speak of Barcelona
as destitute of a harbour; and it is only in the i7th century that
satisfactory works were undertaken. Until modern times all the
included area was shut off from the open sea by a sand-bank,
which rendered the entrance of large vessels impossible. An
extension of the former mole, and the construction of another
from the foot of Montjuich, have embraced a portion of the sea
outside of the bank, and a convenient shelter is thus afforded for
the heaviest battleships. From 1873 the work of extension and
improvement was carried on systematically, with the addition
of new quays, greater storage room, and better means for handling
cargo. After thirty years of steady development, further plans
were approved in 1903. At this time the port included an inner
harbour, with a depth of 18 to 30 ft. at low tide, and an outer
harbour with a depth of 20 to 35 ft. In the following year 8075
vessels of nearly 5,0x20,000 tons entered the port. Barcelona is
well supplied with inland communication by rail, and the traffic
of its streets is largely facilitated by tramway lines running from
the port as far as Gracia and the other chief suburbs.
Barcelona has long been the industrial and commercial centre
of eastern Spain a pre-eminence which dates from the 1 2th and
i3th centuries. It received a temporary check from the disasters
of the Spanish-American War of 1898; but less than a year later
it paid about 550,000 in industrial and commercial taxes, or
more than 1 1 % of the whole amount thus collected in the
kingdom; and within five years it had become a port of regular
call forthirty-five important shipping companies. It also con-
tained the head offices of thirteen other lines, notably those of
the Transatlantic Mail Company, which possessed a fleet of
twenty-five fine steamships. Trades and industries give occupa-
tion to more than 1 50,000 hands of both sexes. The spinning and
weaving of wool, cotton and silk are the principal industries, but
the enterprising spirit of the Catalans has compelled them to try
almost every industry in which native capital could attempt to
compete with foreign, especially since the institution of the
protectionist tariffs of 1892. The native manufacturers are quite
able to compete in peninsular markets with foreign rivals. This
prosperity has been in part due to the great development of
means of communication around the city and in the four Catalan
provinces. -Comestibles, raw materials, and combustibles form
the greater part of the imports, but this great manufactory also
imports a considerable quantity of foreign manufactured goods.
The principal exports are wines, cereals, olive-oil, cotton goods,
soap, cigarette-paper, furniture and barrels, boots, shoes and
leather goods, and machinery.
Barcino, the ancient name of the city, is usually connected
with that of the Carthaginian Hamilcar Barca, its traditional
founder in the 3rd century B.C. After the Roman conquest, it
received from Augustus (27 B.C.-A.D. 14) the name of Julia
Faventia (afterwards Augusta and Pia), with the status of a
Roman colony; and thenceforward it rapidly grew to be the
leading mart of the western Mediterranean, rivalling Tarraco
(Tarragona) and Massilia (Marseilles) as early as the 2nd century
A.D. As its remains testify, the Roman city occupied Monte
Taber. The bishopric of Barcelona was founded in 343. In 41 5
and 531, the Visigoths chose Barcelona as their temporary
capital; in 540 and 599 church councils were held there.
Barcinona or Bardjaluna, as it was then called, was captured
by the Moors in 713, and in 801 it passed, with the rest of
Catalonia, under the dominion of the Franks. From 874 the
counts of Barcelona ruled as independent monarchs. But the
accession of larger resources due to the union between Catalonia
and Aragon in 1149, brought the city to the zenith of its fame
and wealth. Its merchant ships vied with those of Genoa,
Venice and Ragusa, trading as far west as the North Sea and the
Baltic, and as far east as Alexandria. In 1 2 58 James I. of Aragon
empowered Barcelona to issue its famous Consulado del Mar, a
code of maritime law recognized as authoritative by many
European states. Consuls represented Barcelona at the principal
commercial centres on or near the Mediterranean; and the city
was among the first communities to adopt the practice of marine
insurance. But the union of Castile and Aragon in 1479 favoured
other cities of Spain at the expense of Barcelona, whose com-
mercial supremacy was transferred to the ports of western Spain
by the discovery of America in 1492. The citizens attributed
their misfortunes to the " Castilian " government, and a strong
party anong them favoured annexation by France. In 1640
Barcelona was the centre of the Catalonian rebellion against
Philip IV., and threw itself under French protection. In 1652
it returned to its allegiance, but was captured by the duke of
Vendome in 1697. At the peace of Ryswick, in the same year,
it was restored to the Spanish monarchy. During the War of the
Succession (1701-1714) Barcelona adhered to the house of
Austria. The seizure of Montjuich in 1705, and the subsequent
capture of the city by the earl of Peterborough, formed one of his
most brilliant achievements. In 1714 it was taken after an
obstinate resistance by the duke of Berwick in the interests of
Philip V., and at the close of the war was reluctantly reconciled
to the Bourbon dynasty. In 1809 the French invaders of Spain
obtained possession of the fortress and kept the city in sub-
jection until 1814. Since then it has shared in most of the
revolutionary movements that have swept over Spain, and has
frequently been distinguished by the violence of its civic com-
motions. For the historic antagonism between the Catalans
and the other inhabitants of Spain was strengthened by the
industrial development of Barcelona. Among the enterprising
and shrewd Catalans, who look upon their rulers as reactionary,
and reserve all their sympathies for the Provencal neighbours
whom they so nearly resemble in race, language and temperament,
French influence and republican ideals spread rapidly; taking
the form partly of powerful labour and socialist organizations,
partly of less reputable bodies, revolutionary and even anarchist.
Strikes are very common, seventy-three having occurred in such
a year of comparative quiet as 1903; but the causes of disturb-
ance are almost as often political as economic, and the annals of
the city include a long list of revolutionary riots and bomb
outrages. A strange contrast is presented by the co-existence of
these turbulent elements with the more old-fashioned Spanish
society of Barcelona. Church festivals, civic and ecclesiastical
processions are almost as animated and picturesque as in Seville
itself; and many medieval customs continue to flourish side by
side with the most modern features of industrial life, giving to
Barcelona a character altogether unique among Spanish cities.
The literature relating to Barcelona is extensive. For a general
description of the city, see A. A. P. Arimon, Barcelona antigua y
moderna, two illustrated folio volumes (Madrid, 1850); and J.
Artigas y Feiner, Guia Uineraria de Barcelona (Barcelona, 1888).
For the antiquities, see S. Sampere, Topografia antigua de Barcelona
(1890). The economic history of the city is dealt with by A. Cap-
many in his Memorias historicas sobra la marina, comercio, y artes de
la antigua ciudad de Barcelona (Madrid, 1779-1792); and, for its
political history, the same work should be consulted, together with
Historias e conquestas dels comtes de Barcelona, by T. Tomich
(Barcelona, 1888), and the Coleccio de documents inedits del Arxin
BARCELONA BARCLAY, A.
393
municipal de la ciutat de Barcelona (Barcelona, 1802). The spread of
the revolutionary movement is traced by M. Gil Maestre, in his El
Anarquitmo en Espana, y el especial de Barcelona (Madrid, 1897),
and in his La Criminalidad en Barcelona (Barcelona, 1886).
BARCELONA, a town and port of Venezuela, capital of the
state of Bermudez, on the Neveri river, 3 m. from its mouth and
12 m. by rail from the port of Guanta, which has superseded the
incommodious river port in the trade of this district. Pop.
(est. 1904) 13,000. Built on the border of a low plain and having
a mean annual temperature of 82 F., the town has the reputa-
tion of being unhealthy. There are salt works and important
coal deposits in its vicinity, the latter at Naricual and Capiricual,
1 2 m. distant by rail. Though the adjacent country is fertile, its
prosperity has greatly declined, and the exports of coffee, sugar,
cacao and forest products are much less important than formerly.
The town dates from 1637, when it was located at the foot of the
Cerro Santo and was called Nueva Barcelona; it reached a state of
much prosperity and commercial importance before the end of the
century. The War of Independence, however, and the chronic
political disorders that followed nearly ruined its industries
and trade.
BARCELONNETTE, a town in the department of Basses-
Alpes, in the S.E. of France. Pop. (1906) 2075. It is built at
a height of 3717 ft. on the right bank of the Ubaye river, on which
it is the most important place. It is situated in a wide and very
fertile valley, and is surrounded by many villas, built by natives
who have made their fortune in Mexico, and are locally known
as les Amtricains. The town itself is mainly composed of a long
street (flanked by two others), which is really the road from
Grenoble to Cuneo over the Col de 1'Argentiere (6545 ft.). The
only remarkable buildings in the town are a striking clock-tower
of the isth century (the remains of a Franciscan convent)
and the Musee Chabrand, which contains a very complete collec-
tion of birds, both European and extra-European.
Refounded in 1231 by Raymond Berenger IV., count of
Provence (he was of the family of the counts of Barcelona,
whence the name of the town he rebuilt), Barcelonnette passed
to Savoy in 1388 (formal cession in 1419), and hi 1713 by the
treaty of Utrecht was ceded to France in exchange for the
valleys of Exilles, Fenestrelles, and Chateau Dauphin (Castel-
delfino). It was the birth-place of J. A. Manuel (1775-1827),
the well-known Liberal orator at the time of the Restoration
of 1815, after whom the principal square of the town is named.
See F. Arnaud, Barcelonnette et ses environs (Guide du C. A. F.)
(1898), and La Vallee de Barcelonnette (1900). (W. A. B. C.)
BARCLAY, ALEXANDER (c. 1476-1552), British poet, was
born about 1476. His nationality is matter of dispute, but William
Bulleyn, who was a native of Ely, and probably knew him when
he was in the monastery there, asserts that he was born " beyonde
the cold river of Twede "; moreover, the spelling of his name
and the occasional Scottish words in his vocabulary point to
a northern origin. His early life was spent at Croydon, but it
is not certain whether he was educated at Oxford or Cambridge.
It may be presumed that he took his degree, as he uses the title
of " Syr " in his translation of Sallust, and in his will he is called
doctor of divinity. From the numerous incidental references
in his works, and from his knowledge of European literature,
it may be inferred that he spent some time abroad. Thomas
Cornish, suffragan bishop in the diocese of Bath and Wells,
andprovostof Oriel College, Oxford, from 1493 to 1507, appointed
him chaplain of the college of St Mary Ottery, Devonshire.
Here he translated Sebastian Brant's Ship of Fools, and even
introduced his neighbours into the satire:
" For if one can flatter, and beare a Hauke on his fist,
He shall be parson of Honington or Cist."
The death of his patron in 1513 apparently put an end to his
connexion with the west, and he became a monk in the Bene-
dictine monastery of "Ely. In this retreat he probably wrote his
eclogues, but in 1520 " Maistre Barkleye, the Blacke Monke
and Poete " was desired to devise " histoires and convenient
raisons to florisshe the buildings and banquet house withal"
at the meeting between Henry VIII. and Francis I. at the Field
of the Cloth of Gold. He at length became a Franciscan monk
of Canterbury. It is presumed that he conformed with the change
of religion, for he retained under Edward VI. the livings of Great
Baddow, Essex, and of Wokey, Somerset, which he had received
in 1546, and was presented in 1552 by the dean and chapter of
Canterbury to the rectory of All Hallows, Lombard Street,
London. He died shortly after this last preferment at Croydon,
Surrey, where he was buried on the loth of June 1552. All the
evidence in Barclay's own work goes to prove that he was
sincere in his reproof of contemporary follies and vice, and the
gross accusations which John Bale 1 brings against his moral
character may be put down to his hatred of Barclay's cloth.
The Ship of Fools was as popular in its English dress as it
had been in Germany. It was the starting-point of a new satirical
literature. In itself a product of the medieval conception of
the fool who figured so largely in the Shrovetide and other
pageants, it differs entirely from the general allegorical satires
of the preceding centuries. The figures are no longer abstrac-
tions; they are concrete examples of the folly of the bibliophile
who collects books but learns nothing from them, of the evil
judge who takes bribes to favour the guilty, of the old fool whom
time merely strengthens in his folly, of those who are eager to
follow the fashions, of the priests who spend their time in church
telling " gestes " of Robin Hood and so forth. The spirit of
the book reflects the general transition between allegory and
narrative, morality and drama. The Narrenschijf of Sebastian
Brant was essentially German in conception and treatment,
but his hundred and thirteen types of fools possessed, neverthe-
less, universal interest. It was in reality sins and vices, however,
rather than follies that came under his censure, and this didactic
temper was reflected in Barclay. The book appeared in 1494
with woodcuts said to have been devised and perhaps partly
executed by Brant himself. In these illustrations, which gave
an impulse to the production of " enblems " and were copied
in the English version, there appears a humour quite absent
from the text. In the Latin elegiacs of the Stuliifera Navis
(1497) of Jacob Locher the book was read throughout Europe.
Barclay's The Shyp of Folys of the Worlde was first printed by
Richard Pynson in 1509. He says he translated " oute of Laten,
Frenche, and Doche," but he seems to have been most familiar
with the Latin version. He used a good deal of freedom in his
translation, " sometyme axldynge, sometyme detractinge and tak-
inge away suche thinges as semeth me necessary and superflue."
The fools are given a local colour, and Barclay appears as the
unsparing satirist of the social evils of his time. At the end of
nearly every section he adds an envoi of his own to drive home
the moral more surely. The poem is written in the ordinary
Chaucerian stanza, and in language which is more modern than
the common literary English of his day.
Cerlayne Ecloges of Alexander Barclay, Priest, written in his
youth, were probably printed as early as 1513, although the
earliest extant edition is that in John Cawood's reprint (1570)
of the Ship of Fools. They form, with the exception of Henry son's
Robin and Makyn. the earliest examples of the English pastoral.
The first three eclogues, in the form of dialogues between Coridon
and Cornix, were borrowed from the Miseriae Curialium of
Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini (Pope Pius II.), and contain an
eulogy of John Alcock, bishop of Ely, the founder of Jesus
College, Cambridge. The fourth is based on Mantuan's eclogue,
De consuetudine divitum erga poetas, with large additions. It
contains the " Descrypcion of the towre of Virtue and Honour,"
an elegy on Sir Edward Howard, lord high admiral of England,
who perished in the attack on the French fleet in the' harbour
of Brest in 1513. The fifth, printed by Wynkyn de Worde, also
without date, is entitled the " Fyfte Eglog of Alexandre Barclay
of the Cytezen and the uplondyshman " and is also based on
Mantuan. Two shepherds, Amintas and Faustus, discuss the
familiar theme of the respective merits of town and country life,
and relate a quaint fable of the origin of the different classes of
society. Barclay's pastorals contain many pictures of rustic
life as he knew it. He describes for instance the Sunday games
in the village, football, and the struggle for food at great feasts;
1 Script. III. Maj. Brit. (1557, Cent. ix. No. 66).
394
but his eclogues were, like his Italian models, also satires on
social evils. The shepherds are rustics of the Colin Clout type,
and discuss the follies and corruptions around them. Barclay
had, however, no sympathy with the anti-clerical diatribes of
John Skelton, whom he more than once attacks. Bale mentions
an Anti-Skeltonum which is lost. His other works are: The
Castell of Laboure (Wynkyn de Worde, 1506), from the French
of Pierre Gringoire; the Introductory to write and to pronounce
Frenche (Robert Copland, 1521); The Myrrour of Good Maners
(Richard Pynson, not dated), a translation of the De quatuor
virlutibus of Dominicus Mancinus; Cronycle compyled in Latyn
by the renowned Sallust (Richard Pynson, no date), a translation
of the Bellum Jugurthinum; The Lyfe of the glorious Martyr
Saynt George (R. Pynson, c. 1530). The Lyfe of Saynte Thomas,
and Haython's Cronycle, both printed by Pynson, are also
attributed to Barclay, but on very doubtful grounds.
SeeT. H. Jamieson's edition of the Ship of Fools (Edinburgh, 1874),
which contains an account of the author and a bibliography of his
works; and J. W. Fairholt's edition of The Cytezen and Uplondysh-
man (Percy Soc. 1847), which includes large extracts from the other
eclogues; also Zarncke's edition of Brant (Leipzig, 1854); and
Dr Fedor Fraustadt, ffber das Verhdltnis von Barclays Ship of
Fools zu den lateinischen, franzosischen und deutschen Quellen (1894).
A prose version of Locher's Stultifera Navis, by Henry Watson, was
printed by Wynkyn de Worde in 1518.
BARCLAY, JOHN (1582-1621), Scottish satirist and Latin
poet, was born, on the 28th of January 1 582, at Pont-a-Mousson,
where his father William Barclay held the chair of civil law.
His mother was a Frenchwoman of good family. His early
education was obtained at the Jesuit College. While there, at
the age of nineteen, he wrote a commentary on the Thebaid of
Statius. In 1603 he crossed with his father to London. Barclay
had persistently maintained his Scottish nationality in his
French surroundings, and probably found in James's accession
an opportunity which he would not let slip. He did not remain
long in England, where he is supposed to have published the first
part of his Salyricon, for in 1605 when a second edition of that
book appeared in Paris, he was there, having already spent some
time in Angers, and being now the husband of a French girl,
Louise Debonaire. He returned to London with his wife in 1606,
and there published his Syhae, a collection of Latin poems. In
the following year the second part of the Satyricon appeared in
Paris. Barclay remained on in London till 1616. In i6og he
edited the De Potestate Papae, an anti-papal treatise by his father,
who had died in the preceding year, and in 1611 he issued an
Apologia or " third part " of the Salyricon, in answer to the
attacks of the Jesuits and others who were probably embittered
by the tone of the earlier parts of the satire. A so-called " fourth
part," with the title of Icon Animorum, appeared in 1614.
James I. is said to have been attracted by his scholarship, but
particulars of this, or of his life in London generally, are not avail-
able. In 1616 he went to Rome, for some reason unexplained,
and there resided till his death on the isth of August 1621. He
appears to have been on better terms with the Church and
notably with Bellarmine; for in 1617 he issued, from a press at
Cologne, a Paraenesis ad Sectaries, an attack on the position of
Protestantism. The literary effort of his closing years was his
best-known work the Argents, completed about a fortnight
before his death, which has been said to have been hastened by
poison. The romance was printed in Paris in the same year.
Barclay's contemporary reputation as a writer was of the
highest; by his strict scholarship and graceful style he has
deserved the praise of modern students. The Satyricon, a severe
satire on the Jesuits, is modelled on Petronius and catches his
lightness of touch, though it shows little or nothing of the tone
of its model, or of the unhesitating severity and coarseness of the
humanistic satire of Barclay's age. The Argenis is a long romance,
with a monitory purpose on the dangers of political intrigue,
probably suggested to him by his experiences of the league in
France, and by the catholic plot in England after James's acces-
sion. The work has been praised by all parties; and it enjoyed
for more than a century after his death a remarkable popularity.
Most of the innumerable editions are supplied with a key to
BARCLAY, J. BARCLAY, R.
the characters and names of the story. Thus Aneroetus is
Clement VIII; Arx non eversa is the Tower of London; Hip-
pophilus and Radirobanes are the names of the king of Spain;
Hyanisbe is Queen Elizabeth; Mergania, by an easy anagram,
is Germany; Usinulca, by another, is Calvin. The book is of
historical importance in the development of i7th century
romance, including especially Fenelon's Telemaque. Ben
Jonson appears, from an entry at Stationers' Hall on the 2nd of
October 1623, to have intended to make a translation. Barclay's
shorter poems, in two books, were printed in the Delitiae Poetarum
Scotorum (Amsterdam, 1637, i. pp. 76-136). In the dedication,
to Prince Charles of England, he refers to his earlier publication,
the Sylvae.
The best account of Barclay is the preface by Jules Dukas in his
bibliography of the Salyricon (Paris, 1889). This supersedes the
life in Bayle's Dictionary, which had been the sole authority. A
" fifth part " of the Satyricon appears in most of the editions, by
Alethophilus (Claude Morisot). For the Argenis, see the disser-
tations by Leon Boucher (Paris, 1874), and Dupond (Paris, 1875).
The Icon Animorum was Englished by Thomas May in 1631 (The
Mirrour of Mindes, or Barclay's Icon Animorum). Barclay's works
have never been collected.
BARCLAY, JOHN (1734-1798), Scottish divine, was born in
Perthshire and died at Edinburgh. He graduated at St Andrews,
and after being licensed became assistant to the parish minister
of Errol in Perthshire. Owing to differences with the minister,
he left in 1763 and was appointed assistant to Antony Dow of
Fettercairn, Kincardine. In this parish he became very popular,
but his opinions failed to give satisfaction to his presbytery. In
1772 he was rejected as successor to Dow, and was even refused
by the presbytery the testimonials requisite in order to obtain
another living. The refusal of the presbytery was sustained by
the General Assembly, and Barclay thereupon left the Scottish
church and founded congregations at Sauchyburn, Edinburgh and
London. His followers were sometimes called Bereans, because
they regulated their conduct by a diligent study of the Scriptures
(Acts xvii. n). They hold a modified form of Calvinism.
His works, which include many hymns and paraphrases of the
Csalms, and a book called Without Faith, without Cod, were edited
y J. Thomson and D. Macmillan, with a memoir (1852).
BARCLAY, ROBERT (1648-1690), one of the most eminent
writers belonging to the Society of Friends, or Quakers, was born
in 1648 at Gordonstown in Morayshire. His father had served
under Gustavus Adolphus, and pursued a somewhat tortuous
course through the troubles of the civil war. Robert was sent to
finish his education in Paris, and it appears he was at one time
inclined to accept the Roman Catholic faith. In 1667, however,
he followed the example of his father, and joined the recently-
formed Society of Friends. In 1670 he married a Quaker lady,
Christian Mollison of Aberdeen. He was an ardent theological
student, a man of warm feelings and considerable mental powers,
and he soon came prominently forward as the leading apologist
of the new doctrine, winning his spurs in a controversy with one
William Mitchell. The publication of fifteen Theses Theologiae
(1676) led to a public discussion in Aberdeen, each side claiming
a victory. The most prominent of the Theses was that bearing
on immediate revelation, in which the superiority of this inner
light to reason or scripture is sharply stated. His greatest work,
An Apology for the True Christian Divinity, was published in
Latin at Amsterdam in 1676, and was an elaborate statement
of the grounds for holding certain fundamental positions laid
down in the Theses. It was translated by its author into English
in 1678, and is " one of the most impressive theological writings
of the century." It breathes a large tolerance and is still perhaps
the most important manifesto of the Quaker Society. Barclay
experienced to some extent the persecutions inflicted on the new
society, and was several times thrown into prison. He travelled
extensively in Europe (once with Penn and George Fox), and
had several interviews with Elizabeth, princess palatine. In
later years he had much influence with James II., who as duke of
York had given to twelve members of the society a patent of the
province of East New Jersey, Barclay being made governor
(1682-88). He is said to have visited James with a view
to making terms of accommodation with William of Orange,
BARCLAY, W. BARDAISAN
395
whose arrival was then imminent. He died on the 3rd of
October 1690.
BARCLAY, WILLIAM (1546-1608) Scottish jurist, was born
in Aberdeenshire in 1546. Educated at Aberdeen University, he
went to France in 1573, and studied law under Cujas, at Bourges,
where he took his doctor's degree. Charles III. , duke of Lorraine,
appointed him professor of civil law in the newly - founded
university of Pont-a-Mousson, and also created him counsellor
of state and master of requests. In 1603, however, he was
obliged to quit France, having incurred the enmity of the Jesuits,
through his opposition to their proposal to admit his son John
(g.v.) a member of their society. Returning to England, he was
offered considerable preferment by King James on condition of
becoming a member of the Church of England. This offer he
refused, and returned to France in 1604, when he was appointed
professor of civil law in the university of Angers. He died at
Angers in 1608. His principal works were De Regno et Regali
Potestate, 6*c. (Paris, 1600), a strenuous defence of the rights of
kings, in which he refutes the doctrines of George Buchanan,
" Junius Brutus " (Hubert Languet) and Jean Boucher; and
De Poteslate Papae, &c. (London, 1609), in opposition to the
usurpation of temporal powers by the pope, which called forth
the celebrated reply of Cardinal Bellarmine; also commentaries
on some of the titles of the Pandects.
BARCLAY DE TOLLY, MICHAEL ANDREAS, called by the
Russians MICHAEL, PRINCE BOGDANOVICH (1761-1818), Russian
field marshal, was born in Livonia in 1761. He was a descendant of
a Scottish family which had settled in Russia in the i7th century.
He entered the Russian army at an early age. In 1788-1789 he
served against the Turks, in 1790 and 1794 against the Swedes
and Poles. He became colonel in 1798 and major-general in
1799. In the war of 1806 against Napoleon, Barclay took a
distinguished part in the battle of Pultusk and was wounded at
Eylau, where his conduct won him promotion to the rank of
lieut.-general. In 1808 he commanded against the Swedes in
Finland, and in 1809 by a rapid and daring march over the frozen
Gulf of Bothnia he surprised and seized Umeo. In 1810 he was
made minister of war, and he retained the post until 1813. In
1812 Barclay was given command of one of the armies operating
against Napoleon. There was very keen opposition to the
appointment of a foreigner as commander-in-chief, and after he
was defeated at Smolensk the outcry was so great that he
resigned his command and took a subordinate place under the
veteran Kutusov. Barclay was present at Borodino, but left
the army soon afterwards. In 1813 he was re-employed in the
field and took part in the campaign in Germany. After the
battle of Bautzen he was reinstated as commander-in-chief of
the Russian forces, and in this capacity he served at Dresden,
Kulm and Leipzig. After the last battle he was made a count.
He took part in the invasion of France in 1814 and at Paris
received the baton of a field marshal. In 1815 he was again
commander-in-chief of the Russian army which invaded France,
and he was made a prince at the close of the war. He died at
Insterburg in Prussia on the i4th (i6th) of May 1818.
BARCOCHEBAS, BAR-CocHAB, or BAR KOKBA (" son of a
star "), the name given in Christian sources to one Simeon, the
leader in the Jewish revolt against Rome in the time of Hadrian
(A.D. 132-135). The name does not appear in the Roman
historians. In Rabbinic sources he is called Bar (Ben) Coziba,
" son of deceit," which perhaps reflects the later verdict of con-
demnation recorded after his failure (root 213 "to be false").
Cochab is, therefore, the name either of his father or of his home.
But it is recorded that the Rabbi 'Aqiba (q.v.), who recognized
him as Messiah, applied Num. xxiv. 17 to him, reading not
Cochab ("a star"), but Cosiba ("goes forth from Jacob");
thus Bar-cochab is a Messianic title of the " man of Cozeba "
(cf. Chron. iv. 22) whose original name was recalled by later
Rabbis with sinister intention. At first the Romans paid little
attention to the insurgents, who were able to strike coins in the
name of Simeon, prince of Israel, and Eleazar the priest, and to
persecute the Christians, who refused to join the revolt. But
troops were collected and the various fortresses occupied by the
Jews were successively reduced. The end came with the fall of
Beth-thar (Bethar). Extraordinary stories were told of the
prowess of Barcochebas and of the ordeals to which he subjected
his soldiers in the way of training.
See Eusebius H.E. iv. 6; Dio Cassius xix. 12-14; Schurer, Gesch.
d. jud. Volkes, yA ed. i. 682 ff . ; Derenbourg, Hist, de la Palest. 423 ff .
(distinguishes Barcochebas from Simeon) ; Schlattler, Gesch. Israels,
2nd ed. 303 ff. ; articles JEWS and PALESTINE, History: also art.
s.v. " Bar Kokba " in Jewish Encyc. (S. Krauss).
BARD, a word of Celtic derivation (Gaelic baird, Cymric bardli,
Irish bard) applied to the ancient Celtic poets, though the name is
sometimes loosely used as synonymous with poet in general.
So far as can be ascertained, the title bards, and some of the
privileges peculiar to that class of poets, are to be found only
among Celtic peoples. The name itself is not used by Caesar in
his account of the manners and customs of Gaul and Britain, but
he appears to ascribe the functions of the bards to a section of the
Druids, with which class they seem to have been closely con-
nected. Later Latin authors, such as Lucan (Phar. p. 447),
Festus (De Verb. Sign, s.v.), and Ammianus Marcellinus (bk. xv.),
used the term Bardi as the recognized title of the national poets
or minstrels among the peoples of Gaul and Britain. In Gaul,
however, the institution soon disappeared; the purely Celtic
peoples were swept back by the waves of Latin and Teutonic
conquest, and finally settled in Wales, Ireland, Brittany and the
north of Scotland. There is clear evidence of the existence of
bards in all these places, though the known relics belong almost
entirely to Wales and Ireland, where the institution was more
distinctively national. In Wales they formed an organized
society, with hereditary rights and privileges. They were treated
with the utmost respect and were exempt from taxes or military
service. Their special duties were to celebrate the victories of
their people and to sing hymns of praise to God. They thus
gave poetic expression to the religious and national sentiments
of the people, and therefore exercised a very powerful influence.
The whole society of bards was regulated by laws, said to have
been first distinctly formulated by Hywell Dha, and to have been
afterwards revised by Gruffydd ap Conan. At stated intervals
great festivals were held, at which the most famous bards from
the various districts met and contended in song, the umpires
being generally the princes and nobles. Even after the conquest
of Wales, these congresses, or Eisteddfodau, as they were called
(from the Welsh eistedd, to sit), continued to be summoned by
royal commission, but from the reign of Elizabeth the custom
has been allowed to fall into abeyance. They have not been since
summoned by royal authority, but were revived about 1822, and
are held regularly at the present time. In modern Welsh, a bard
is a poet whose vocation has been recognized at an Eisteddfod.
In Ireland also the bards were a distinct class with peculiar and
hereditary privileges. They appear to have been divided into
three great sections: the first celebrated victories and sang
hymns of praise; the second chanted the laws of the nation;
the third gave poetic genealogies and family histories. The
Irish bards were held in high repute, and frequently were brought
over to Wales to give instruction to the singers of that country.
In consequence, perhaps, of Lucan 's having spoken of carmina
bardi, the word bard began to be used, early in the I7th century,
to designate any kind of a serious poet, whether lyric or epic,
and is so employed by Shakespeare, Milton and Pflpe. On the
other hand, in Lowland Scots it grew to be a term of contempt
and reproach, as describing a class of frenzied vagabonds.
See Ed. Tones, Relics of the Welsh Bards (1784) ; Walker, Memoirs
of the Irish Bards (1786); Owen Jones, Myvyrian Archaeology of
Wales (3 vols., 1801-1807); W. F. Skene, Four Ancient Books of
Wales (2 vols., 1868).
BARDAISAN, an early teacher of Christianity in Mesopotamia,
the writer of numerous Syriac works which have entirely perished '
(with one possible exception, the Hymn of the Soul in the Acts
of Thomas) , and the founder of a school which was soon branded
as heretical. According to the trustworthy Chronicle of Edessa,
he was born in that city on the nthTammuz (July), A.D. 154.
1 The Book of the Laws of the Countries, referred to below, is the
work of a disciple of Bardaisan.
39^
BARDILI BARDSEY
His parents were of rank and probably pagan; according to
Barhebraeus, he was in youth a priest in a heathen temple at
Mabbog. Another probable tradition asserts that he shared the
education of a royal prince who afterwards became king of
Edessa perhaps Abgar bar Manu, who reigned 202-217. He
is said to have converted the prince to Christianity, and may
have had an important share in christianizing the city. Epi-
phanius and Barhebraeus assert that he was first an orthodox
Christian and afterwards an adherent of Valentinus; but
Eusebius and the Armenian Moses of Chorene reverse the order,
stating that in his later days he largely, but not completely,
purged himself of his earlier errors. The earliest works attributed
to him (by Eusebius and others) are polemical dialogues against
Marcionism and other heresies; these were afterwards translated
into Greek. He also wrote, probably under Caracalla, an
apology for the Christian religion in a time of persecution. But
his greatest title to fame was furnished by his hymns, which,
according to St Ephrem, numbered 150 and were composed in
imitation of the Davidic psalter. He thus became the father of
Syriac hymnology, and from the favour enjoyed by his poems
during the century and a half that intervened between him and
St Ephrem we may conclude that he possessed original poetic
genius. This would be clearly proved if (as is not unlikely) the
beautiful Hymn of the Soul incorporated in the apocryphal Acts
of Thomas could be regarded as proceeding from his pen; it is
practically the only piece of real poetry in Syriac that has come
down to us. Perhaps owing to the persecution under Caracalla
mentioned above, Bardaisan for a time retreated into Armenia,
and is said to have there preached Christianity with indifferent
success, and also to have composed a history of the Armenian
.kings. Porphyry states that on one occasion at Edessa he
interviewed an Indian deputation who had been sent to the
Roman emperor, and questioned them as to the nature of Indian
religion. He was undoubtedly a man of wide culture. He died
(according to the patriarch Michael) in 222.
For our knowledge of Bardaisan's doctrine we are mainly
dependent on the hostile witness of St Ephrem, and on statements
by Greek writers who had no acquaintance with his works in
their original form. His teaching had certain affinities with
gnosticism. Thus he certainly denied the resurrection of the
body; and so far as we can judge by the obscure quotations
from his hymns furnished by St Ephrem he explained the origin
of the world by a process of emanation from the supreme God
whom he called " the Father of the living." On the other hand
the dialogue known as the Book of the Laws of the Countries,
which was written by a disciple and is quoted by Eusebius as a
genuine exposition of the master's teaching while it recognizes
the influence of the celestial bodies over the body of man and
throughout the material sphere and attributes to them a certain
delegated authority > upholds the freedom of the human will
and can in the main be reconciled with orthodox Christian
teaching. On this M. Nau has based his effort (see Une Biographic
inedile de Bardesane I'astrologue, Paris, 1897; Le Litre des lois
des pays, Paris, 1899) to clear Bardaisan of the reproach of
gnosticism, maintaining that the charge of heresy arises from a
misunderstanding of certain astrological speculations. It must
be admitted that it is impossible to -reconstruct Bardaisan's
system from f the few fragments remaining of his own work and
therefore a certain verdict cannot be given. But the ancient
testimony to the connexion of Bardaisan with Valentinianism
is strong, and the dialogue probably represents a modification of
Bardesanist teaching in the direction of orthodoxy. The later
adherents of the school appear to have moved towards a
Manichean dualism.
The subject is exhaustively discussed in Hort's article
". Bardaisan ' in Diet. Christ. Biog., and a full collection of the ancient
testimonies will be found in Harnack's Altchristliche Litteratur vol i
PP- !4 (N. M.)
BARDILI, CHRISTOPH GOTTFRIED (1761-1808), German
philosopher, was born at Blaubeuren in WUrttemberg, and died
1 Even Ephrem allows that Bardaisan was in principle a mono-
theist.
at Stuttgart. His system has had little influence in Germany;
Reinhold (q.ii.) alone expounded it against the attacks of Fichte
and Schelling. Yet in some respects his ideas opened the way
for the later speculations of Schelling and Hegel. He dissented
strongly from the Kantian distinction between matter and form
of thought, and urged that philosophy should consider only
thought in itself, pure thought, the ground or possibility of
being. The fundamental principle of thought is, according to
him, the law of identity; logical thinking is real thinking. The
matter upon which thought operated is in itself indefinite and
is rendered definite through the action of thought. Bardili
worked out his idea in a one-sided manner. He held that
thought has in itself no power of development, and ultimately
reduced it to arithmetical computation. He published Grundriss
der ersten Logik (Stuttgart, 1800); Uber die Gesetze der Ideen-
association (Tubingen, 1796); Brief e Uber den Ursprung. der
Metaphysik (Altona, 1798); Philos. Elementarlehre (Landshut,
1802-1806); Beitriigezur Beurteilung des gegenwartigeh Zustandes
der V ernunftlehre (Landshut, 1803).
See C. L. Michelet, Ge.schichte der letzten Systeme; J. E. Erdmann,
Versuch einer Geschichte d. neu. Phil. Bd. iii. pt. i. ; B's und Reinholds
Briefwechsel.
BARDOUX, AGENOR (1820-1897), French statesman, was a
native of Bourges. Established as an advocate at Clermont, he
did not hesitate to proclaim his republican sympathies. In 1871
he was elected deputy of the National Assembly, and re-elected in
1876 and in 1877. In the chamber he was president of the group
of the left centre, standing strongly ,for the republic but against
anti-clericalism. After the coup d'etat of the i6th of May, he
was one of the leaders of the " 363." In the republican chamber
elected after the i6th of May, he became minister of public
instruction (December 1877), an d proposed various republican
laws, notably on compulsory primary education. He resigned
in 1879. He was not re-elected in 1881, but in December 1882
was named senator for life. He wrote essays on Les Legistes
et lew influence sur la societt franc.aise (1878); Le Comte de
Montlosier et le Gallicanisme (1881); and published in 1882 his
Dix Annees de vie politique.
BARDOWIEK, a village of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Hanover, 3 m. N. of Luneburg on the navigable Ilmenau.
Pop. 2000. Its trade consists entirely in agricultural produce.
The Gothic parish church (c. 1400) incorporates remains of a
cathedral of vast dimensions.
Bardowiek was founded in the 8th century by Charlemagne,
who established a bishopric in it, and until its destruction by Henry
the Lion in 1189, it was the most prosperous commercial city of
north Germany. Its name is derived from the Longobardi, the
tribe for whom it was the home and centre, and from it the coloniza-
tion of Lombardy started.
BARDSEY (i.e. "Bards' Island": cf. Anglesey, "Angles'
Island "; Welsh, Ynys Enlli, " isle of the current "), an island
at the northern extremity of Cardigan Bay. The " sound "
between Aberdaron point and the island is some 4 m. wide.
Bardsey is included in Carnarvonshire, North Wales (but
traditionally in S. Wales). On the N.W. side it has high
cliffs. It is about 2\ m. long by f m. broad, with an area cf
some 370 acres, a third of which is hilly. Barley and oats
are grown. On the S.E. side is a fairly deep harbour. On
the N.E. are the ruins of the tower of St Mary's abbey
(i3th century). There is no Anglican church, the inhabitants
being Dissenters. They are farmers and fishermen. The light-
house, with fixed light, 140 ft. high and visible for 17 m., is
locally celebrated. The rectory of Aberdaron (on the mainland,
opposite Bardsey), Penmachnoand Llangwnadl(Llangwynhoedl),
in Lleyn (S. Carnarvonshire), belong to St John's College,
Cambridge. St Dubricius made the sanctuary famous, and died
here in 612. Here was the burial-place of all the monks whose
friends could afford to go thither with their bodies. All the
great abbeys of England sent their quota. Roads to Bardsey
with the monks' wells, found at intervals of 7 to 9 m.
run from north, east and south. The remnant of priests fled
thither (after the great massacre of Bangor-is-coed in 613, by
Ethelfride of Northumbria) by the road of the Rivals (Yn Eifl)
BAREGES BARERE DE VIEUZAC
397
hill, S. Carnarvonshire, on which Pistyll farm still gives food
gratis to all pilgrims or travellers. A part of the isle is one great
cemetery of about 3 to 4 acres, with rude, rough graves as close
to each other as possible, with slabs upon them. Though
Aberdaron rectory does not belong to the isle, the farm " Cwrt "
(Court), where the abbot held his court, still goes with Bardsey,
which was granted to John Wynn of Bodvel, Carnarvonshire,
after the battle and partial sack of Norwich by the Puritans in
the Civil War; passing through Mary Bodvel to her husband,
the earl of Radnor, who sold it to Dr Wilson of York. The doctor,
in turn, sold it to Sir John Wynn, of Glynllifon and Bodfean Hall,
Carnarvonshire. One of the Wynns, the 3rd Baron Newborough,
was, at his wish, buried here. The archaeology and history of
the isle are voluminous. Lady Guest's Mabinogion translation
(i. p. 115, ed. of 1838) gives an account of the (legendary)
Bardsey House of Glass, into which Merlin (Myrddin) took a
magic ring, originally kept at Caerleon-on-Usk.
BAREG ES, a town of south-western France, in the department
of Hautes-Pyren6es, in the valley of the Bastan, 25 m. S.S.W.
of Bagneres-de-Bigorre by road. The town, which is situated
at an altitude of 4040 ft., is hardly inhabited in the winter.
It is celebrated for its warm sulphurous springs (75 to 111 F.),
which first became generally known in 1675 when they were
visited by Madame de Maintenon and the duke of M^iine, son
of Louis XIV. The waters, which are used for drinking and in
baths, are efficacious in the treatment of wounds and ulcers
and in cases of scrofula, gout, skin diseases, &c. There is a
military hospital, founded in 1760. The town was formerly
much exposed to avalanches and floods, which are now less
frequent owing to the construction of embankments and replant-
ing of the hillsides. It is a centre for mountain excursions.
The light silk and wool fabric called bartge takes its name from
the place, where it was first made.
BAREILLY, or BARELI, a city and district of British India in
the Bareilly or Rohilkhand division of the United Provinces.
The city is situated on the Ramganga river, 812 m. N.W. from
Calcutta by rail. Pop. (1901) 131,208. The principal buildings
are two mosques built in the I7th century; a modern fort over-
looking the cantonments; the railway station, which is an
important junction on the Oudh and Rohilkhand line; the
palace of the nawab of Ramp'ur, and the government college.
Bareilly is the headquarters of a brigade in the 7th division of the
eastern army corps. The chief manufactures are furniture and
upholstery. Bareilly college is a seat of upper class learning for
the surrounding districts. It is conducted by an English staff,
and its course includes the subjects for degrees in the Calcutta
University.
The district of Bareilly has an area of 1 580 sq. m. It is a level
country, watered by many streams, the general slope being
towards the south. The soil is fertile and highly cultivated,
groves of noble trees abound, and the villages have a neat,
prosperous look. A tract of forest jungle, called the tarai,
stretchfcs along the extreme north of the district, and teems with
large game, such as tigers, bears, deer, wild pigs, &c. The river
Sarda or Gogra forms the eastern boundary of the district and
is the principal stream. Next in importance is the Ramganga,
which receives as its tributaries most of the hill torrents of the
Kumaon mountains. The Deoha is another great drainage
artery and receives many minor streams. The Gomati or Gumti
also passes through the district. The population in 1901 was
1,090,117. The Mahommedans are chiefly the descendants of
Yusafzai Afghans, called the Rohilla Pathans, who settled in the
country about the year 1720. The Rohillas were formerly the
ruling race of the tract of country called Rohilkhand, and are
men of a taller stature, a fairer complexion and a more arrogant
air than the general inhabitants of the district. Bishop Heber
described them as follows: " The country is burdened with a
crowd of lazy, profligate, self -called sawars (cavaliers), who,
though many of them are not worth a rupee, conceive it derogatory
to their gentility and Pathan blood to apply themselves to any
honest industry, and obtain for the most part a precarious
livelihood by sponging on the industrious tradesmen and farmers,
on whom they levy a sort of blackmail, or as hangers-on to the
wealthy and noble families yet remaining in the province. These
men have no visible means of maintenance, and no visible
occupation except that of lounging up and down with their
swords and shields, like the ancient Highlanders, whom in many
respects they much resemble." The Rohillas, after fifty years'
precarious independence, were subjugated in 1774 by the con-
federacy of British troops with the nawab of Oudh's army, which
formed so serious a charge against Warren Hastings. Their
territory was in that year annexed to Oudh. In 1801 the nawab
of Oudh ceded it to the Company in commutation of the subsidy
money. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Rohillas took a very
active part against the English, but since then they have been
disarmed. Both before and after that year, however, the
Bareilly Mahomniedans have distinguished themselves by
fanatical tumults against the Hindus. The district is irrigated
from the Rohilkhand system of government canals. There are
no manufactures except for domestic use and little external
trade. Several lines of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway pass
through the district.
BARENTIN, a town of northern France, in the department
of Seine-Inferieure, 1 1 m. N.N.W. of Rouen by rail. Pop. (1906)
5245. The town is situated in the valley of the Austreberthe,
a small affluent of the Seine, here crossed at a height of 100 ft.
by a fine railway viaduct 540 yds. long. The manufacture of
cotton fabrics is the principal industry.
BARENTS, WILLEH (d. 1597), Dutch navigator, was born
about the middle of the i6th century. In 1 594 he left Amsterdam
with two ships to search for a north-east passage to eastern Asia.
He reached the west coast of Novaya Zemlya, and followed it
northward, being finally forced to turn back when near its
northern extremity. In the following year he commanded
another expedition of seven ships, which made for the strait
between the Asiatic coast and Vaygach Island, but was too late
to find open water; while his third journey equally failed of its
object and resulted in his death. On this occasion he had two
ships, and on the outward journey sighted Bear Island and
Spitsbergen, where the ships separated. Barents' vessel, after
rounding the north of Novaya Zemlya, was beset by ice and he
was compelled to winter in the north; and as his ship was not
released early in 1597, his party left her in two open boats on the
1 3th of June and most of its members escaped. Barents himself,
however, died on the 3oth of June 1597. In 1871 the house in
which he wintered was discovered, with many relics, which are
preserved at the Hague, and in 1875 part of his journal was found.
See The Three Voyages of Barents, by Gerrit de Veer, translated by
the Hakluyt Society (1876) from de Veer's text (Amsterdam, 1598).
BARENTS SEA, that part of the Arctic Ocean which is de-
marcated by the north coast of Europe, the islands of Novaya
Zemlya, Franz Josef Land and Spitsbergen, and smaller inter-
vening islands; it was named after the Dutch navigator.
Omitting the great inlet of the White Sea in the south, it extends
from about 67 to 80 N., and from 20 to 60 E. The southern
part, off the Murman coast of the Kola peninsula, is sometimes
called the Murman Sea.
BARERE DE VIEUZAC, BERTRAND (1755-1841), one of
the most notorious members of the French National Convention,
was bom at Tarbes in Gascony on the loth of September 1755.
The name of Barere de Vieuzac, by which he continued to call
himself long after the renunciation of feudal rights on the famous
4th of August, was assumed from a small fief belonging to his
father, a lawyer at Vieuzac. He began to practise as an advocate
at the parlement of Toulouse in 1770, and soon earned a con-
siderable reputation as an orator; wjiile his brilliant and flowing
style as a writer of essays led to his election as a member of the
Academy of Floral Games of Toulouse in 1788. At the age of
thirty he married. Four years later, in 1789, he was elected
deputy by the estates of Bigorre to the states-general, which
met in May. He had made his first visit to Paris in the preceding
year. His personal appearance, his manners, social qualities
and liberal opinions, gave him a good standing among the
multitude of provincial deputies then thronging into Paris. He
BARETTI BARGAIN AND SALE
attached himself at first to the constitutional party; but he was
less known as a speaker in the Assembly than as a journalist.
His paper, however, the Point du Jour, according to Aulard,
owes its reputation not so much to its own qualities as to the
fact that the painter David, in his famous picture of the " Oath
in the Tennis Court," has represented Barere kneeling in the
corner and writing a report of the proceedings as though for
posterity. The reports of the debates of the National Assembly
in the Point du Jour, though not inaccurate, are as a matter of
fact very incomplete and very dry. After the flight of the king
to Varennes, Barere passed over to the republican party, though
he continued to keep in touch with the duke of Orleans, to whose
natural daughter, Pamela, he was tutor. Barere, however,
appears to have been wholly free from any guiding principle;
conscience he had none, and his conduct was regulated only by
the determination to be on the side of the strongest. After the
close of the National Assembly he was nominated one of the
judges of the newly instituted court of cassation from October
1791 to September 1792. In 1792 he was elected deputy to the
National Convention for the department of the Hautes-Pyrenees.
At first he voted with the Girondists, attacked Robespierre,
" a pygmy who should not be set on a pedestal," and at the trial
of the king voted with the Mountain for the king's death " with-
out appeal and without delay." He closed his speech with a
sentence which became memorable: " the tree of liberty could
not grow were it not watered with the blood of kings." Ap-
pointed member of the Committee of Public Safety on the 7th
of April 1793, he busied himself with foreign affairs; then,
joining the party of Robespierre, whose resentment he had
averted by timely flatteries, he played an important part in the
second Committee of Public Safety after the I7th of July 1793
and voted for the death of the Girondists. He was thoroughly
unscrupulous, stopping at nothing to maintain the supremacy
of the Mountain, and rendered it great service by his rapid work,
by the telling phases of his oratory, and by his clear expositions
of the problems of the day. On the gth Thermidor (July 27th,
1794) Barere hesitated, then he drew up the report outlawing
Robespierre. In spite of this, in Germinal of the year III.
(the 2ist of March to the 4th of April 1795), the Thermidorians
decreed the accusation of Barere and his colleagues of the Terror,
Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne, and he was sent to the
Isle of Oleron. He was removed to Saintes, and thence escaped
to Bordeaux, where he lived in concealment for several years.
In 1795 he was elected member of the Council of Five Hundred,
but was not allowed to take his seat. Later he was used as a
secret agent by Napoleon I., for whom he carried on a diplomatic
correspondence. On the fall of Napoleon, Barere played the
part of royalist, but on the final restoration of the Bourbons
in 1815 he was banished for life from France as a regicide, and
then withdrew to Brussels and temporary oblivion. After the
revolution of July 1830 he reappeared in France, was reduced
by a series of lawsuits to extreme indigence, accepted a small
pension assigned him by Louis Philippe (on whom he had heaped
abuse and railing), and died, the last survivor of the Committee
of Public Safety, on the i3th of January 1841. (See also FRENCH
REVOLUTION.)
The Memoires de B. Barere . . . publics par MM. H. Carnot . . .
et David (d' Angers) . . . precedes d'une 'notice historique (Paris, 1824-
1844) are false, but contain valuable information; Carnot's Notice,
which is very good, was published separately in 1842. See F. A.
Aulard, Les prateurs de la Cpnstituante (Paris, 1882); Les Orateurs
de la Convention (2nd ed., Paris, 1905). Macaulay's essay on Barere,
(Edinburgh Review, vol. 79) is eloquent, but incorrect.
BARETTI, GIUSEPPE MARC' ANTONIO (1719-1789), Italian
critic, was born at Turin in 1 7 1 9. He was intended by his father
for the profession of law, but at the age of sixteen fled from Turin
and went to Guastalla, where he was for some time employed
in a mercantile house. His leisure hours he devoted to literature
and criticism, in which he became expert. For many years he
led a wandering life, supporting himself chiefly by his writings.
At length he arrived in London, where he remained for a consider-
able time. He obtained an appointment as secretary to the
Royal Academy of Painting, and became acquainted with
Johnson, Garrick and others of that society. He was a frequent
visitor at the Thrales'; and his name occurs repeatedly in
Bos well's Life. In 1769 he was tried for murder, having had
the misfortune to inflict a mortal wound with his fruit knife on
a man who had assaulted him on the street. Johnson among
others gave evidence in his favour at the trial, which resulted
in Baretti's acquittal. He died in May 1789. His first work
of any importance was the Italian Library (London, 1757), a
useful catalogue of the lives and works of many Italian authors.
The Lettere famigliari, giving an account of his travels through
Spain, Portugal and France during the years 1761-1765, were
well received, and when afterwards published in English (4 vols.,
1770), were highly commended by Johnson. While in Italy
on his travels Baretti set on foot a journal of literary criticism,
to which he gave the title of Frusta lelteraria, the literary scourge.
It was published under considerable difficulties and was soon
discontinued. The criticisms on contemporary writers were
sometimes just, but are frequently disfigured by undue vehem-
ence and coarseness. Among his other numerous works may
be mentioned a useful Dictionary and Grammar of the Italian
Language, and a dissertation on Shakespeare and Voltaire. His
collected works were pubh'shed at Milan in 1838.
BARFLEUR, a small seaport of north-western France, over-
looking the Bay of the Seine, in the department of Manche,
225 m. N.N.E. of Valognes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1069. In the
middle ages Barfleur was one of the chief ports of embarkation for
England. In 1120 the " White Ship," carrying Prince William,
only son of Henry I., went down outside the harbour. About 2 m.
to the north is Cape Barfleur, with a lighthouse 233 ft. high.
BARFURUSH, a town of Persia, in the province of Mazandaran
in 36 32' N., and 52 42' E., and on the left bank of the river
Bawul [Babul], which is here crossed by a bridge of eight arches,
about 15 m. distant from the southern shore of the Caspian Sea,
where the small town.of Meshed i Sar serves as a port. It is the
commercial capital of Mazandaran, and 26 m. distant from Sari
and 90 m. from Teheran. Pop. about 50,000. Built in a low
and swampy country and approached by deep and almost
impassable roads, Barfurush would not seem at all favourably
situated for the seat of an extensive inland trade; it is, however,
peopled entirely by merchants and tradesmen, and is wholly
indebted for its present size and importance to its commercial
prosperity. The principal articles of its trade are rice and cotton,
some sugar cane (nai shakar), flax (Katun) and hemp (Kanab)
are also grown. The town is of peculiar structure and aspect,
being placed in the midst of a forest of tall trees, by which the
buildings are so separated from one another, and so concealed,
that, except in the bazars, it has no appearance of a populous
town. The streets are broad and neat, though generally unpaved,
and kept in good order. No ruins are to be seen as in other
Persian towns; the houses are comfortable, in good repair,
roofed with tiles and enclosed by substantial walls. There are no
public buildings of any importance, and the only places of
interest are the bazars, which extend fully a mile in length, and
consist of substantially built ranges of shops covered with roofs
of wood and tiles, and well stored with commodities. There are
about ten commodious caravanserais and a number of colleges
(medresseh), the place being as much celebrated for learning as
for commerce. On an island in a small lake east of the town is a
garden, called Bagh i Shah (garden of the Shah), with ruined
palaces and baths. At Meshed i Sar, the port, or roadstead of
Barfurush, the steamers of the Caucasus and Mercury Company
call weekly, ,and a brisk shipping trade is carried on between it
and other Caspian ports.
Barfurush was formerly called Mamatlr. The present name is
from a settlement called Barfurush-deh, which was added to the
old city A.D. 1012. (A. H.-S.)
BARGAIN 1 AND SALE, in English law, a contract whereby
property, real or personal, is transferred from one person-
called the bargainer to another called the bargainee for a
1 From O. Fr. bargaigne, a word of doubtful origin, appearing in
many Romance languages, cf. Ital. bargagno', it is connected with
Late Lat. barcaniare, to traffic, possibly derived from barca, a barge.
BARGE BAR HARBOR
399
valuable consideration; but the term is more particularly used
to describe a mode of conveyance of lands. The disabilities
under which a feudal owner very frequently lay gave rise to the
practice of conveying land by other methods than that of
feoffment with livery of seisin, that is, a handing over of the
feudal possession. That of " bargain and sale " was one. Where
a man bargained and sold his land to another for pecuniary
consideration, which might be merely nominal, and need not
necessarily be actually paid, equity held the bargainer to be
seised of the land to the use of the bargainee. The Statute of
Uses (1535), by converting the bargainee's interest into a legal
estate, had an effect contrary to the intention of its framers. It
made bargain and sale an easy means of secret or private con-
veyance, a policy to which the law was opposed. To remedy
this defect, a statute (called the Statute of Enrolments) was
passed in the same year, which provided that every conveyance
by bargain and sale of freehold lands should be enrolled in a court
of record or with the custos rotulorum of the county within six
months of its date. The Statute of Enrolments applied only to
estates of inheritance or for life, so that a bargain and sale of
an estate for years might be made without enrolment. This in
turn was the foundation of another mode of conveyance, namely,
lease and release, which took the place of the deed of
bargain and sale, so far as regards freehold. Bargain and sale
of copyhold estates, which operates at common law, is still a
mode of conveyance in England in the case of a sale by executors,
where a testator has directed a sale of his estate to be made,
instead of devising it to trustees upon trust to sell.
See also CONVEYANCING.
BARGE (Med. Lat. barca, possibly connected with Lat. baris,
Gr. jSapis, a boat used on the Nile), formerly a small sailing
vessel, but now generally a flat-bottomed boat used for carrying
goods on inland navigations. On canals barges are usually
towed, but are sometimes fitted with some kind of engine; the
men in charge of them are known as bargees. On tidal rivers
barges are often provided with masts and sails (" sailing barges "),
or in default of being towed, they drift with the current, guided
by a long oar or oars (" dumb-barges ") Barges used for un-
loading, or loading, the cargo of ships in harbours are sometimes
called " lighters " (from the verb " to light " = to relieve of a
load). A state barge was a heavy, often highly ornamented
vessel used for carrying passengers on occasions of state cere-
monials. The college barges at Oxford are houseboats moored in
the river for the use of members of the college rowing clubs. In
New England the word barge frequently means a vehicle, usually
covered, with seats down the side, used for picnic parties or the
conveyance of passengers to or from piers or railway stations.
BARGEBOARD (probably from Med. Lat. bargus, or barcus, a
scaffold, and not from the now obsolete synonym " vergeboard "),
the boards fastened to the projecting gables of a roof to give
strength to the same and to mask or hide the horizontal timbers
of the roof to which they were attached. Bargeboards are some-
times moulded only or carved, but as a rule the lower edges
were cusped and had tracery in the spandrels besides being
otherwise elaborated. The richest example is one at Ockwells
in Berkshire, England, which is moulded and carved as if it
were intended for internal work.
BARGHEST, BARGUEST or BARGEST, the name given in the
north of England, especially in Yorkshire, to a monstrous goblin-
dog with huge teeth and claws. The spectre-hound under various
names is familiar in folk-lore. The Demon of Tedworth, the Black
Dog of Winchester and the Padfoot of Wakefield all shared the
characteristics of the Barghest of York. In Wales its counter-
part was Gwyllgi, "the Dog of Darkness," a frightful apparition
of a mastiff with baleful breath and blazing red eyes. In Lanca-
shire the spectre-hound is called Trash or Striker. In Cambridge-
shire and on the Norfolk coast it is known as Shuck or Shock.
In the Isle of Man it is styled Mauthe Doog. It is mentioned
by Sir Walter Scott in " The Lay of the Last Minstrel "-
" For he was speechless, ghastly, wan
Like him of whom the story ran
Who spoke the spectre hound in Man."
A Welsh variant is the Cvm Annvn, or " dogs of hell." The
barghest was essentially a nocturnal spectre, and its appearance
was regarded as a portent of death. Its Welsh form is confined
to the sea-coast parishes, and on the Norfolk coast the creature
is supposed to be amphibious, coming out of the sea by night and
travelling about the lonely lanes. The derivation of the word
barghest is disputed. " Ghost " in the north of England is
pronounced " guest," and the name is thought to be burh-ghest,
" town-ghost." Others explain it as German Berg-geist, " moun-
tain demon," or Bar-geist, " bear-demon," in allusion to its
alleged appearance at times as a bear. The barghest has a
kinsman in the Rongeur d'Os of Norman folklore. A belief in
the spectre-hound still lingers in the wild parts of the north
country of England, and in Nidderdale, Yorkshire, nurses frighten
children with its name.
See Wirt Sikes, British Goblins (1880); Notes and Queries, first
series, ii. 51; Joseph Ritson, Fairy Tales (Lond. 1831), p. 58;
Lancashire Folklore (1867); Joseph Lucas, Studies in Nidderdale
(Pateley Bridge, 1882).
BARHAM, RICHARD HARRIS (1788-1845), English
humourist, better known by his nom de plume of THOMAS
INGOLDSBY, was born at Canterbury on the 6th of December
1788. At seven years of age he lost his father, who left him a
small estate, part of which was the manor of Tappington, so
frequently mentioned in the Legends. At nine he was sent to
St Paul's school, but his studies were interrupted by an accident
which shattered his arm and partially crippled it for life. Thus
deprived of the power of bodily activity, he became a great
reader and diligent student. In 1807 he entered Brasenose
College, Oxford, intending at first to study for the profession of
the law. Circumstances, however, induced him to change his
mind and to enter the church. In 1813 he was ordained and
took a country curacy; he married in the following year, and
in 1821 removed to London on obtaining the appointment of
minor canon of St Paul's cathedral. Three years later he became
one of the priests in ordinary of the King's Chapel Royal, and
was appointed to a city living. In 1826 he first contributed to
Blackwood's Magazine; and on the establishment of Bentley's
Miscellany in 1837 he began to furnish the series of grotesque
metrical tales known as The Ingoldsby Legends. These became
very popular, were published in a collected form and have since
passed through numerous editions In variety and whimsicality
of rhymes these verses have hardly a rival since the days of
Hudibras. But beneath this obvious popular quality there lies
a store of solid antiquarian learning, the fruit of patient enthusi-
astic research, in out-of-the-way old books, which few readers
who laugh over his pages detect. His life was grave, dignified
and highly honoured. His sound judgment and his kind heart
made him the trusted counsellor, the valued friend and the
frequent peacemaker; and he was intolerant of all that was
mean and base and false. In politics he was a Tory of the old
school; yet he was the lifelong friend of the liberal Sydney
Smith, whom in many respects he singularly resembled. Theo-
dore Hook was one of his most intimate friends. Barham was a
contributor to the Edinburgh Review and the Literary Gazette;
he wrote articles for Gorton's Biographical Dictionary; and
a novel, My Cousin Nicholas (1834). He retained vigour
and freshness of heart and mind to the last, and his last verses
(" As I laye a-thynkynge ") show no signs of decay. He
died in London after a long, painful illness, on the I7th of June
1845.
A short memoir, .by his son, was prefixed to a new edition of
Ingoldsby in 1847, an d a fuller Life and Letters, from the same hand,
was published in 2 vols. in 1870.
BAR HARBOR, a well-known summer resort of Hancock
county, Maine, U.S.A., an unincorporated village, in the town-
ship of Eden, on Frenchman's Bay, on the E. side of Mount
Desert Island, about 45 m. S.E. of Bangor. Pop. of the township
(1900) 4379; (1910) 4441; of the village (1910), about 2000,
greatly increased during the summer season. Bar Harbor is
served by the Maine Central railway and by steamship lines
to New York, Boston, Portland and other ports. The summer
climate is cool, usually too cool for sea-bathing, but there is a
4-oo
BAR-HEBRAEUS BARI
large open-air salt water swimming bath. Rugged mountains
from 1000 to 1500 ft. in height, a coast with deep indentations
and lined with bold cliffs, a sea dotted with rocky islets, clear
lakes, sparkling rivulets, deep gorges, and wooded glens are
features of the attractive scenery here and in the vicinity.
Several fine hotels and a number of costly residences occupy
a plateau along the shore and the hillsides farther back. The
Kebo Valley Club has fine golf links here; and since 1900 an
annual horse show and fair has been held at Robin Hood Park
at the foot of Newport Mountain. Bar Harbor is usually a
summer rendezvous of the North Atlantic Squadron of the
United States Navy. The name Bar Harbor, which displaced
East Eden, was suggested by the bar which appears at low
water between it and Bar Island. Although the first summer
hotel was built here in 1855, Bar Harbor's development as a
summer resort began about 1870, after some artists had visited
the place, and made it widely known through their pictures.
(See MOUNT DESERT.)
BAR-HEBRAEUS or ABU'L-FARAJ, a maphrian or catholicus
of the Jacobite (Monophysite) Church in the I3th century, and
(in Dr. Wright's words) " one of the most learned and versatile
men that Syria ever produced." Perhaps no more industrious
compiler of knowledge ever lived. Simple and uncritical in his
modes of thought, and apparently devoid of any striking
originality, he collected in his numerous and elaborate treatises
the results of such research in theology, philosophy, science and
history as was in his time possible in Syria. Most of his works
were written in Syriac, but some few in Arabic, which had long
before his time supplanted Syriac as a living speech.
The son of a physician of Jewish descent, Bar-Hebraeus was
born in 1226 at Malatiah on the upper Euphrates. His youth
was passed in the troublous times of the Mongol advance into
western Asia, and his father eventually retired to Antioch, where
Bar-Hebraeus completed his education. In 1 246 he was ordained
at Tripolis as Jacobite bishop of Gubas near Malaria, and a year
later was transferred to the neighbouring diocese of Lakabhm,
whence in 1253 he passed to be bishop of Aleppo. Deposed
almost immediately by an ecclesiastical superior on account of
disputes about the patriarchate, he was restored to his see in
1258, and in 1264 was promoted by the patriarch Ignatius III.
to be maphrian the next rank below that of patriarch an
office which he held till his death at Maragha in 1 286. He seems
to have been a model of devotion to his ecclesiastical duties and
to have won the respect of all parties in his diocese.
It is mainly as an historian that Bar-Hebraeus interests the
modern student. His great historical work the Syriac Chronicle
is made up of three parts. The first ' is a history of secular
events from the Creation to his own time, and in its later portions
gives valuable information regarding the history of south-east
Europe and western Asia. A compendium in Arabic of this
secular history was made by Bar-Hebraeus under the title
al-Mukhlasarfi'd-Duwal (Compendious History of the Dynasties) .
The second and third parts 2 of the Chronicle deal with the
history of the Church, the second being mainly concerned with
the patriarchate of Antioch, and the third with the eastern
branch of the Syrian Church. Of special value to theologians
is the Aus,ar Raze (Storehouse of Secrets), a critical and doctrinal
commentary on the text of the Scriptures. Of this many portions
have been edited by various scholars, and a valuable study of
the work, together with a biography and estimate of its author,
has been published by J. Gottsberger (Barhebraus und seine
Scholien zur heiligen Schrift, Freiburg i. B., 1900).
A full list of Bar-Hebraeus's other works, and of editions of such
of them as have been published, will be found in W. Wright's Syriac
Literature, pp. 268-281. The more important of them are: (i)
Kethabha dhe-Bhabhatha (Book of the Pupils of the Eyes), a treatise
on logic or dialectics; (2) Hewath Hekhmetha (Butter of Wisdom),
an exposition of the whole philosophy of Aristotle; (3) Sullaba
"Haunanaya (Ascent of the Mind), a treatise on astronomy and
1 Imperfectly edited and translated by Bruns and Kirsch in 1789.
There is now a better edition by Bedjan (Paris, 1890).
1 Edited and translated by Abbeloos and Lamy (Paris and Louvain,
1872-1877).
cosmography, edited and translated by F. Nau (Paris, 1899); (4)
various medical works; (5) Kethabha dhe-Semhe (Book of Ravs), a
treatise on grammar; (6) ethical works; (7) poems; (8) Kethabha
dhe-Thunnaye Meghahhekhane (Book of Entertaining Stories),
edited and translated by E. A. W. Budge (London, 1897).
(N. M.)
BARI, a tribe of Nilotic negroes, living on the banks of the
upper Nile some 200 m. N. of Albert Nyanza. They have as neigh-
bours the Dinka to the north, the Madi to the south, and the
Galla to the east. The men are tall and thin, the women fat
and under middle height. Their colour is a deep dead brown.
The men and unmarried girls go practically naked, the married
women wearing a goatskin dyed red. The body is ornamented
with red clay and the lower incisors are often extracted. Their
sole wealth is cattle and their chief food milk and blood; meat
is only eaten when a cow happens to die. They live in round
grass huts with conjcal roofs. Twins are considered unlucky,
the mother is divorced by her husband and her family must
refund part of the marriage-price. The dead are buried in the
hut; a square grave is dug in which the body is arranged in a
sitting position with the hands tied behind the back. The most
important men in the country are the rainmakers, who are
reverenced even more than the chiefs, and, indeed, are famous
among the surrounding tribes. The Bari warriors have been
much recruited for the Egyptian army and were formerly used
as slave-hunters by the Arab traders.
See Sir Samuel Baker, The Albert N'yanza (London, 1866);
Friedrich Muller, Die Sprache der Bari (Vienna, 1864); G. Casati,
Ten Years in Equatoria (London, 1891); W. Junker, Travels in
Africa (English ed., 1890-1892) ; R. C. Owen, Bari Grammar (1908).
BARI (anc. Barium], a seaport and archiepiscopal see of
Apulia, Italy, capital of the province of Bari, situated on a small
peninsula projecting into the Adriatic, 69 m. N.W. of Brindisi
by rail. Pop. (1901) 77,478. The town consists of two parts,
the closely built old town on the peninsula to the N., and the
new town to the S., which is laid out on a rectangular plan.
The former contains the cathedral of S. Sabino, begun in 1035
but not completed till 1171: the exterior preserves in the main
the fine original architecture (notably the dome and campanile),
but the interior has been modernized. Not far off is the church
of S. Nicola, founded in 1087 to receive the relics of this saint,
which were brought from Myra in Lycia, and now lie beneath the
altar in the crypt. The facade is fine, and the interior, divided into
three naves by columns, with galleries over the aisles, has fortun-
ately not been restored; the vaulting of the crypt has, however,
been covered with modern stucco. The church is one of the four
Palatine churches of Apulia (the others being the cathedrals of
Acquaviva and Altamura, and the church of Monte S. Angelo
sul Gargano). Adjacent is the small church of S. Gregorio,
belonging also to the nth century. The castle, built in 1169,
and strengthened in 1233, lies on the W. side of the old town:
it is now used as a prison. The old harbour lies on the E. side
of the peninsula, and the new on the W. In the new town is the
Ateneo, containing the provincial museum, with a large collection
of vases found in the district, in which the pre-Hellenic specimens
are especially important (M. Mayer in Romische Milteilungen,
1897, 201; 1899, 13; 1904, 188, 276). Bari is the seat of the
command of the IX. army corps, and the most important com-
mercial town in Apulia. It manufactures olive oil, soap, carbon
sulphide and playing-cards, and has a large iron foundry.
Barium does not seem to have been a place of great im-
portance in early antiquity; only bronze coins struck by
it have been found. In Roman times it was the point of junction
between the coast road and the Via Traiana; there was also a
branch road to Tarentum from Barium. Its harbour, mentioned
as early as 181 B.C., was probably the principal one of the district
in ancient times, as at present, and was the centre of a fishery.
But its greatest importance dates from the time when it became,
in 852, a seat of the Saracen power, and in 885, the residence of
the Byzantine governor. In 1071 it was captured by Robert
Guiscard. In 1095 Peter the Hermit preached the first crusade
there. In 1 156 it was razed to the ground, and has several times
suffered destruction. In the i4th century it became an
BARILI BARISAL
4.01
independent duchy, and in 1558 was left by Bona Sforza to
Philip II. of Spain and Naples. (T. As.)
BARILI, a town of the province of Cebu, island of Cebu, Philip-
pine Islands, on the Barili river, 2 m. from its mouth and about
35 m. S.W. of Cebu, the capital. Pop. (1903) 31,617. It has a
relatively cool and healthful climate. Its people are agriculturists
and raise Indian corn, sibucao, hemp, cacao and coffee. The
language is Cebu-Visayan.
BARING, the name of a family of English financiers and bankers.
The firm of Baring Brothers was founded by FRANCIS BARING
(1740-1810), whose father, John Baring, son of a Lutheran
minister at Bremen, had come to England from Germany, and
started a cloth manufactory at Larkbear, near Exeter. Francis
Baring was born at Larkbear, and in due course was placed in a
London commercial firm. In 1770, in conjunction with his
brother John, Francis Baring established a banking-house in
London, and before he died in 1810 had so developed the business
that he was regarded as the first merchant in Europe. He was
for many years a director of the East India Company, and chair-
man in 1792-1793, receiving a baronetcy for his services. From
1784-1806 he sat almost continuously in parliament as a Whig.
He left five sons, of whom the eldest, SIR THOMAS BARING (1772-
1848), was a well-known art-patron and collector. The control
of the business passed to his second son, ALEXANDER (1774-1848),
better known as LORD ASHBURTON, who had already been highly
successful in extending the firm's operations in America, where
his marriage with the daughter of William Bingham, a wealthy
resident of Philadelphia and United States senator, secured
him considerable influence with the American commercial
community. From 1806-1835 he represented various con-
stituencies in parliament where he strongly opposed reform.
In 1834 he became president of the Board of Trade and master
of the mint in Sir Robert Peel's first administration, and the
following year was raised to the peerage as Baron Ashburton.
His business capacity and intimate acquaintance with American
customs and institutions caused his appointment in 1842 as
commissioner to the United States to negotiate the settlement
of the north-eastern boundary question and other matters
in dispute between the two countries, and he concluded in that
year at Washington the treaty, commonly known as the Ash-
burton treaty, by which the frontier between Maine and Canada
was fixed. After his death in 1848 the affairs of the house
were managed by THOMAS BARING (1799-1873), the son of Sir
Thomas Baring. Thomas Baring represented Huntingdon in
parliament from 1844 till his death. His elder brother, Sir
FRANCIS THORNHILL BARING (1796-1866), sat for Portsmouth
from 1826-1865. From 1839-1841 he was chancellor of the
exchequer, and from 1840-1852 first lord of the admiralty. In
1866 he was created BARON NORTHBROOK, the barony being
converted in 1876 into an earldom in favour of his eldest son
Thomas George Baring (1826-1904). The latter, the ist EARL OF
NORTHBROOK, was occupied almost entirely with public affairs,
and filled at different times many important official positions. He
is best remembered as viceroy of India, which office he held from
1872-1876, but his last public position was first lord of the
admiralty (1880-1885). With the death of Thomas Baring,
Edward Charles Baring (1828-1897), son of Henry Baring, M. P.,
and grandson of Sir Francis Baring, became head of the firm 'of
Baring Brothers, and in 1885 was raised to the peerage as BARON
REVELSTOKE. The house of Baring then stood at the height of
its prosperity. During the following years a large amount of
English capital was advanced to the Argentine Republic, Barings
undertaking the loans and guaranteeing the interest. Through
thecontinueddefaultof the Argentinegovernment, Barings became
seriously involved, their heavy obligations precipitating a general
financial crisis. Towards the end of 1890 it became known that
the firm was on the eve of suspending payment, with liabilities
amounting to 21,000,000. The prompt action of the Bank of
England, which in conjunction with the leading joint-stock banks
of the United Kingdom took over these liabilities, averted further
disaster, and the firm of Baring Brothers was subsequently
reorganized as a limited company with a capital of 1,000,000.
Besides those already referred to, various other members of the
Baring family have achieved public distinction, notably Charles
Baring (1807-1879), bishop of Durham, and Evelyn Baring, ist
Earl of Cromer (q.v.).
BARING-GOULD, SABINE (1834- ), English novelist, was
born at Exeter on the 28th of January 1834. After graduating
at Clare College, Cambridge, he spent some years in travel, and
became in 1864 curate of Horbury, Yorkshire; then perpetual
curate of Dalton, in the same county, in 1867; and in 1871 rector
of East Mersea, Essex. On his father's death in 1872 he inherited
the estate of Lew Trenchard, North Devon, where his family had
been settled for nearly three centuries, and he exchanged his
Essex living for the rectory of Lew Trenchard in 1881. He
had a ready pen, and began publishing books on one subject or
another fiction, travel, history, folk-lore, religion, mythology,
from 1854 onwards. His novel Mehalah (1880), the scene of
which is laid on the east coast of England, was an excellent story,
and among many others may be mentioned John Herring (1883),
a tale of the west country; Court Royal (1886); Red Spider
(1887); The Pennycomequicks (1889); Cheap Jack Zita (1893);
and Broom Squire (1896), a Sussex tale. His contributions to
the study of topography, antiquities and folk-lore, while popularly
written, were also full of serious research and real learning, notably
his Book of Were-wolves (1865), Curious Myths of the Middle Ages
(1866), Curious Survivals (1892). He produced at the same time
many volumes of sermons and popular theology, and edited
(1871-1873) The Sacristy, a quarterly review of ecclesiastical art
and literature.
Living the life of the rapidly disappearing English "squarson,"
and full of cultivated interests, especially in humanizing the local
village mind, and investigating and recording the good things of
old-time, his many-sided activities were shown in every direction
and his literary facility made his work known far and wide. His
familiarity with the country-side and his interest in folk-lore were
of special utility in recovering and preserving for publication a
large mass of English popular song, and in assisting the new
English movement for studying and appreciating the old national
ballad-music.
BARINGO, a lake of British East Africa, some 30 m. N. of the
equator in the eastern rift-valley. It is one of a chain of lakes
which stud the floor of the valley and has an elevation of 3325 ft.
above the sea. It is about 16 m. long by 9 broad and has an irreg-
ular outline, the northern shore being deeply indented. Its waters
are brackish. Fed by several small streams it has no outlet.
The largest of the rivers which enter it, the Tigrish and the Nyuki,
run north through a flat marshy country which extends south
of the lake. This district, inhabited by the negro tribe of
Njamusi, was by the first explorers called Njemps. It is a
fertile grain-growing region containing two considerable villages.
The Njamusi are peaceful agriculturists who show marked
friendliness to Europeans. N. of the lake rise the Karosi hills; to
the E. the land rises in terraces to the edge of the Laikipia
escarpment. A characteristic of the country in the neighbour-
hood of the lake are the " hills " of the termites (white ants).
They are hollow columns 10 to 12 ft. high and from i ft. to 18 in.
broad. The greater kudu, almost unknown elsewhere in East
Africa, inhabits the flanks of the Laikipia escarpment to the east
of the lake and comes to the foot-hills around Baringo to feed.
The existence of Lake Baringo was first reported in Europe
by Ludwig Krapf and J. Rebmann, German missionaries
stationed at Mombasa, about 1850; in J. H. Speke's map of the
Nile sources (1863) Baringo is confused with Kavirondo Gulf of
Victoria Nyanza; it figures in Sir H. M. Stanley's map (1877) as
a large sheet of water N.E. of Victoria Nyanza. Joseph Thomson,
in his journey through the Masai country in 1883, was the first
white man to see the lake and to correct the exaggerated notions
as to its size. Native tradition, however, asserts that the lake
formerly covered a much larger area.
BARISAL, a town of British India, headquarters of Backergunje
district in Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated on a river of
the same name. Pop. (1901) 18,978. It is an important centre
of river trade, on the steamer route through the Sundarbans
402
BARIUM
from Calcutta to the Brahmaputra. It contains a first grade
college and several schools. There are a public library, established
by subscription in 1858; and a students' union, for helping the
.sick and poor and promoting the intellectual and physical
improvement of boys. Barisal has given its name to a curious
physical phenomenon, known as the " Barisal guns," the cause
of which has not been satisfactorily explained. These are noises,
like the report of cannon, frequently heard in the channels of the
delta of the Brahmaputra, at the rising of the tide.
BARIUM (symbol Ba, atomic weight 137-37 [0=i6]), one of
the metallic chemical elements included in the group of the
alkaline earths. It takes its name from the Greek /Sapus (heavy)
on account of its presence in barytes or heavy spar which was
first investigated in 1602 by V. Casciorolus, a shoemaker of
Bologna, who found that after ignition with combustible sub-
stances it became phosphorescent, and on this account it was
frequently called Bolognian phosphorus. In 1 7 74 K. W. Scheele,
in examining a specimen of pyrolusite, found a new substance to
be present in the mineral, for on treatment with sulphuric acid
it gave an insoluble salt which was afterwards shown to be
identical with that contained in heavy spar. Barium occurs
chiefly in the form of barytes or heavy spar, BaSC>4, and witherite,
BaCOs, and to a less extent in baryto-calcite, baryto-celestine,
and various complex silicates. The metal is difficult to isolate,
and until recently it may be doubted whether the pure
metal had been obtained. Sir H. Davy tried to electrolyse
baryta, but was unsuccessful; later attempts were made by him
using barium chloride in the presence of mercury. In this way he
obtained an amalgam, from which on distilling off the mercury the
barium was obtained as a silver white residue. R. Bunsen in 1 8 54
electrolysed a thick paste of barium chloride and dilute hydro-
chloric acid in the presence of mercury, at 100 C., obtaining a
barium amalgam, from which the mercury was separated by a
process of distillation. A. N. Guntz (Comptes rendus, 1901, 133,
p. 872) electrolyses a saturated solution of barium chloride using
a mercury cathode and obtains a 3% barium amalgam; this
amalgam is transferred to an iron boat in a wide porcelain tube
and the tube slowly heated electrically, a good yield of pure
barium being obtained at about 1000 C. The metal when freshly
cut possesses a silver white lustre, is a little harder than lead,
and is extremely easily oxidized on exposure; it is soluble in
liquid ammonia, and readily attacks both water and alcohol.
Three oxides of barium are known, namely, the monoxide,
BaO, the dioxide, BaC>2, and a suboxide, obtained by heating
BaO with magnesium in a vacuum to 1 100 (Guntz, loc. cit., 1906,
p. 359). The monoxide is formed when the metal burns in air,
but is usually prepared by the ignition of the nitrate, oxygen
and oxides of nitrogen being liberated. It can also be obtained
by the ignition of an intimate mixture of the carbonate and
carbon, and in small quantities by the ignition of the iodate.
It is a greyish coloured solid, which combines very energetically
with water to form the hydroxide, much heat being evolved
during the combination; on heating to redness in a current of
oxygen it combines with the oxygen to form the dioxide, which
at higher temperatures breaks up again into the monoxide and
oxygen.
Barium hydroxide, Ba(OH) 2 , is a white powder that can
be obtained by slaking the monoxide with the requisite
quantity of water, but it is usually made on the large scale
by heating heavy spar with small coal whereby a crude
barium sulphide is obtained. This sulphide is then heated in
a current of moist carbon dioxide, barium carbonate being
formed, BaS+HjO+CO^BaCOj+HjS, and finally the car-
bonate is decomposed by a current of superheated steam,
BaCOa+HjO = Ba(OH) 2 + CO 2 , leavingaresidue of the hydroxide.
It is a white powder moderately soluble in cold water, readily
soluble in hot water, the solution possessing an alkaline reaction
and absorbing carbon dioxide readily. The solution, known as
baryta-water, finds an extensive application in practical chemistry,
being used in gas-analysis for the determination of the amount
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; and also being used in
organic chemistry as a hydrolysing agent for the decomposition
of complex ureides and substituted aceto-acetic esters, while
E. Fischer has used it as a condensing agent in the preparation
of a- and /3-acrose from acrolein dibromide. A saturated solu-
tion of the hydroxide deposits on cooling a hydrated form
Ba(OH) 2 -8H 2 O, as colourless quadratic prisms, which on ex-
posure to air lose seven molecules of water of crystallization.
Barium dioxide, BaO 2 , can be prepared as shown above, or
in the hydrated condition by the addition of excess of baryta-
water to hydrogen peroxide solution, when it is precipitated in
the crystalline condition as BaOy8H 2 O. These crystals on
heating to 130 C. lose the water of crystallization and leave a
residue of the anhydrous peroxide. In the Brin process for
the manufacture of oxygen, barium dioxide is obtained as an
intermediate product by heating barium monoxide with air
under pressure. It is a grey coloured powder which is readily
decomposed by dilute acids with the production of hydrogen
peroxide.
Barium chloride, BaCl 2 -2H 2 O, can be obtained by dissolving
witherite in dilute hydrochloric acid, and also from heavy spar
by ignition in a reverberatory furnace with a mixture of coal,
limestone and calcium chloride, the barium chloride being
extracted from the fused mass by water, leaving a residue of
i nsoluble calcium sulphide. The chloride crystallizes in colourless
rhombic tables of specific gravity 3-0 and is readily soluble in
water, but is almost insoluble in concentrated hydrochloric
acid and in absolute alcohol. It can be obtained in the anhydrous
condition by heating it gently to about 1 20 C. It has a bitter
taste and is a strong poison. Barium bromide is prepared by
saturating baryta-water or by decomposing barium carbonate
with hydrobromic acid. It crystallizes as BaBr 2 -2H 2 O iso-
morphous with barium chloride. Barium bromate, Ba(BrOj),
can be prepared by the action of excess of bromine on baryta-
water, or by decomposing a boiling aqueous solution of 100 parts
of potassium bromate with a similar solution of 74 parts of
crystallized barium chloride. It crystallizes in the monoclinic
system, and separates from its aqueous solution as Ba(BrO s ) 2 -H 2 O.
On heating, it begins to decompose at 260-265 C. Barium
chlorate, Ba(ClC>3) 2 , is obtained by adding barium chloride to
sodium chlorate solution; on concentration of the solution
sodium chloride separates first, and then on further evaporation
barium chlorate crystallizes out and can be purified by recrystal-
lization. It can also be obtained by suspending barium carbonate
in boiling water and passing in chlorine. It crystallizes in mono-
clinic prisms of composition Ba(ClOs) 2 -H 2 O, and begins to
decompose on being heated to 250 C. Barium iodate, Ba(IO3) 2 ,
is obtained by the action of excess of iodic acid on hot caustic
baryta solution or by adding sodium iodate to barium chloride
solution. It crystallizes in monoclinic prisms of composition
Ba(IOs) 2 -H 2 O, and is only very sparingly soluble in cold water.
Barium carbide, BaC 2 , is prepared by a method similar to that
in use for the preparation of calcium carbide (see ACETYLENE).
L. Maquenne has also obtained it by distilling a mixture of barium
amalgam and carbon in a stream of hydrogen. Barium sulphide,
BaS, is obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen over heated
barium monoxide, or better by fusion of the sulphate with a
small coal. It is a white powder which is readily decomposed by
water with the formation of the hydroxide and hydrosulphide.
The phosphorescence of the sulphide obtained by heating the
thiosulphate is much increased by adding uranium, bismuth, or
thorium before ignition (J. pr. Chem., 1905, ii. p. 196).
Barium sulphate, BaSO4, is the most abundant of the naturally
occurring barium compounds (see BARYTES) and can be obtained
artificially by. the addition of sulphuric acid or any soluble
sulphate to a solution of a soluble barium salt, when it is pre-
cipitated as an amorphous white powder of specific gravity 4-5.
It is practically insoluble in water, and is only very slightly
soluble in dilute acids; it is soluble to some extent, when freshly
prepared, in hot concentrated sulphuric acid, and on cooling
the solution, crystals of composition BaSCVH 2 S04 are deposited.
It is used as a pigment under the name of " permanent white "
or blanc fixe.
Barium nitride, BaN 2 , is obtained as a brownish mass by
BARKER BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT
403
passing nitrogen over heated barium amalgam. It is decomposed
by water with evolution of hydrogen, and on heating in a cur-
rent of carbonic oxide forms barium cyanide (L. Maquenne).
Barium amide, Ba(NH 2 )2, is obtained from potassammonium
and barium bromide.
Barium nitrate, Ba(NOs)2, is prepared by dissolving either the
carbonate or sulphide in dilute nitric acid, or by mixing hot
saturated solutions of barium chloride and sodium nitrate.
It crystallizes in octahedra, having a specific gravity of 3.2,
and melts at 597 C. (T. Carnelley). It is decomposed by heat,
and is largely used in pyrotechny for the preparation of green
fire. Barium carbonate, BaCOs, occurs rather widely distributed
as witherite (?..), and may be prepared by the addition of barium
chloride to a hot solution of ammonium carbonate, when it is
precipitated as a dense white powder of specific gravity 4-3;
almost insoluble in water.
Barium and its salts can be readily detected by the yellowish-
green colour they give when moistened with hydrochloric acid
and heated in the Bunsenflame, or by observation of their spectra,
when two characteristic green lines are seen. In solution, barium
salts may be detected by the immediate precipitate they give on
the addition of calcium sulphate (this serves to distinguish barium
salts from calcium salts), and by the yellow precipitate of barium
chromate formed on the addition of potassium chromate. Barium
is estimated quantitatively by conversion into the sulphate.
The atomic weight of the element has been determined by C.
Marignac by the conversion of barium chloride into barium
sulphate, and also by a determination of the amount of silver
required to precipitate exactly a known weight of the chloride;
the mean value obtained being 136-84; T. W. Richards (Zeit.
anorg. Chem., 1893, 6, p. 89), by determining the equivalent of
barium chloride and bromide to silver, obtained the value 137-44.
For the relation of barium to radium, see RADIOACTIVITY.
BARKER, EDMUND HENRY (1788-1839), English classical
scholar, was born at Hollym in Yorkshire. He entered Trinity
College, Cambridge, as a scholar in 1807, but left the university
without a degree, being prevented by religious scruples from
taking the oath then required. He had previously obtained
(in 1809) the Browne medal for Greek and Latin epigrams. After
acting as amanuensis to the famous Samuel Parr, the vicar of
Hatton in Warwickshire, he married and settled down at Thetford
in Norfolk, where he. lived for about twenty-five years. He was
in the habit of adding the initials O.T.N. (of Thetford, Norfolk)
to the title-page of his published works. In later life he became
involved in a law-suit in connexion with a will, and thus ex-
hausted his means. In 1837-1838 he was a prisoner for debt
in the king's bench and in the Fleet. He died in London on
the 2ist of March 1839. Barker was a prolific writer on classical
and other subjects. In addition to contributing to the Classical
Journal, he edited portions of several classical authors for the
use of schools. He was one of the first commentators to write
notes in English instead of Latin. In a volume of letters he
disputed the claims of Sir Philip Francis to the authorship of
the Letters of Junius; his Parriana (1828) is a vast and ill-
digested compilation of literary anecdotes and criticisms. He
also saw through the press the English edition of Lempriere's
Classical Dictionary (revised by Anthon) and of Webster's
English Dictionary. It is as a lexicographer, however, that
Barker is chiefly known. While at Hatton, he conceived the
design of a new edition of Stephanus's Thesaurus Graecae Linguae.
The work was undertaken by A. J. Valpy, and, although not
expressly stated, it was understood that Barker was the re-
sponsible editor. When a few parts had appeared, it was severely
criticized in the Quarterly Review (xxii., 1820) by Blomfield;
the result was the curtailment of the original plan of the work
and the omission of Barker's name in connexion with it. It
was completed in twelve volumes (1816-1828). The strictures
of the Quarterly were answered by Barker in his Aristarchus Anti-
Blomfieldianus, which, although unconvincing, was in turn
answered by Bishop Monk. He also published notes on the
Etymologicum Cudianum, and collaborated with Professor Dunbar
of Edinburgh in a Greek and English Lexicon (1831). The
editio princeps (1820) of the treatise attributed to Arcadius, Ilepi
rbvuv, was published by him from a Paris MS. Continental
scholars entertained a more favourable opinion of him than those
of his own country. He expressed contempt for the minute verbal
criticism of the Porsonian school, in which he was himself deficient.
An account of his life will be found in the Gentleman's Magazine
for May 1839; see a\so Notes and Queries (6th series, xii. p. 443), where
a full list of his works is given.
BARKER'S MILL, a mechanical contrivance invented by a
Dr Barker about the end of the i7th century. It consisted of a
hollow vertical cylinder, provided with a number of horizontal
arms fitted with lateral apertures; the contrivance is mounted
so as to rotate about the vertical axis. By allowing water to
enter the vertical tube, a rotation, due to the discharge through
the lateral orifices, is set up.
BARKING, a market-town in the Romford parliamentary
division of Essex, England, on the river Roding near its junction
with the Thames, 8* m. E. of Fenchurch Street station and
Liverpool Street station, London, by the London, Tilbury &
Southend and Great Eastern railways. Pop. of urban district
of Barking town (1891) 14,301; Opoi) 21,547. The church of
St Margaret is Norman with perpendicular additions, and con-
tains many monuments of interest. Barking was celebrated for
its nunnery, one of the oldest and richest in England, founded
about 670 by Erkenwald, bishop of London, and restored in 970
by King Edgar, about a hundred years after its destruction by
the Danes. The abbess was a baroness ex officio, and the revenue
at the dissolution of the monasteries was 1084. There remains
a perpendicular turreted gateway. There is also an ancient
market-house, used as a town-hall. Victoria Gardens form a
public pleasure-ground, and there are recreation grounds. The
Gaslight and Coke Company's works at Beckton are in the parish,
and also extensive rubber works. At the mouth of the Roding
(Barking Creek) are great sewage works, receiving the Northern
Outfall sewer from London. There are also chemical works, and
some shipping trade, principally in timber and fish. Barking is
a suffragan bishopric in the diocese of St Albans.
BARKLY EAST, a town of Cape province, South Africa, capital
of a district of the same name, and 80 m. by rail E.S.E. of Aliwal
North. The town lies north of the Drakensberg on the Kraai
tributary of the Orange river at an elevation of 5831 ft. The
district has an area of 1564 sq. m. and a population (1904) of
8400, of whom 50% are whites. The chief occupation followed
is sheep-farming, the pasturage being excellent. Like Barkly
West, the town and district are named after Sir Henry Barkly,
governor of Cape Colony, 1870-1877.
BARKLY WEST, a town of Cape province, South Africa, 21 m.
N. W. of Kimberley, capital of a district and of an electoral division
of the same name in Griqualand West. It is built on the
right bank of the Vaal, here spanned by a bridge. Pop. (1904)
1037. Originally called Klipdrift, the town was the first founded
by the diggers after the discovery in 1867 of diamonds along the
valley of the Vaal, and it had for some years a large floating
population. On the discovery of the " dry diggings " at Kim-
berley, the majority of the diggers removed thither. Barkly West
remains, however, the centre of the alluvial diamonds industry.
The diamonds of this district are noted for their purity and lustre,
and are generally associated with other crystals garnets, agates,
quartz and chalcedonies.
Barkly West electoral division includes the whole of Griqualand
West save the Kimberley division. It is divided into the fiscal
districts of Barkly West, Hay and Herbert, with a total pop. (1904)
of 48,388, of whom 12,170 are whites (see GRIQUALAND).
BARLAAM AND JOSAPHAT, one of the most popular and
widely disseminated of medieval religious romances, which owes
its importance and interest to the fact that it is a Christianized
version of the story of Gautama Siddharta, the Buddha, with
which it agrees not only in broad outline but in essential details.
The Christian story first appears in Greek among the works of
John (q.v.) of Damascus, who flourished in the early part of the
3th century, and who, before he adopted the monastic life, had
44
BAR-LE-DUC
held high office at the court of the caliph Abu Ja'far al-Mansur,
as his father Sergius is said to have done before him.
The outline of the Greek story is as follows: St Thomas had
converted the people of India, and after the eremitic life originated
in Egypt, many Indians adopted it. But a powerful pagan king
arose who hated and persecuted the Christians, especially the
ascetics. After this king, Abenner by name, had long been child-
less, a boy greatly desired and matchless in beauty, was born to
him and received the name of Josaphat. The king, in his joy,
summons astrologers to predict the child's destiny. They foretell
glory and prosperity beyond those of all his predecessors. One
sage, most learned of all, assents, but intimates that the scene of
this glory will be, not the paternal kingdom, but another in-
finitely more exalted, and that the child will adopt the faith
which his father persecutes.
The boy shows a thoughtful and devout turn. King Abenner,
troubled by this and'by the remembrance of the prediction, selects
a secluded city, in which he causes a splendid palace to be built,
where his son should abide, attended only by tutors and servants
in the flower of youth and health. No stranger was to have
access, and the boy was to be cognizant of none of the sorrows of
humanity, such as poverty, disease, old age or death, but only
of what was pleasant, so that he should have no inducement
to think of the future life; nor was he ever to hear a word of
Christ and His religion.
Prince Josaphat grows up in this seclusion, acquires all kinds of
knowledge and exhibits singular endowments. At length, on his
urgent prayer, the king reluctantly permits him to pass the limits
of the palace, after having taken all precautions to keep painful
objects out of sight. But through some neglect of orders, the
prince one day encounters a leper and a blind man, and asks of
his attendants with pain and astonishment what such a spectacle
should mean. These, they tell him, are ills to which man is liable.
Shall all men have such ills? he asks. And in the end he returns
home in deep depression. Another day he falls in with a decrepit
old man, and stricken with dismay at the sight, renews his
questions and hears for the first time of death. And in how
many years, continues the prince, does this fate befall man? and
must he expect death as inevitable? Is there no way of escape?
No means of eschewing this wretched state of decay? The
attendants reply as may be imagined; and Josaphat goes home
more pensive than ever, dwelling on the certainty of death and
on what shall be thereafter.
At this time Barlaam, an eremite of great sanctity and know-
ledge, dwelling in the wilderness of Sennaritis, divinely warned,
travels to India in the disguise of a merchant, and gains access to
Prince Josaphat, to whom he imparts the Christian doctrine and
commends the monastic life. Suspicion arises and Barlaam
departs. But all attempts to shake the prince's convictions fail.
As a last resource the king sends for Theudas, a magician, who
removes the prince's attendants and substitutes seductive girls;
but all their blandishments are resisted through prayer. The
king abandons these efforts and associates his son in the govern-
ment. The prince uses his power to promote religion, and every-
thing prospers in his hands. At last Abenner himself yields to
the faith, and after some years of penitence dies. Josaphat
surrenders the kingdom to a friend called Barachias and departs
for the wilderness. After two years of painful search and much
buffeting by demons he finds Barlaam. The latter dies, and
Josaphat survives as a hermit many years. King Barachias
afterwards arrives, and transfers the bodies of the two saints to
India, where they are the source of many miracles.
Now this story is, mutatis mutandis, the story of Buddha. It
will suffice to recall the Buddha's education in a secluded palace,
his encounter successively with a decrepit old man, with a man in
mortal disease and poverty, with a dead body, and, lastly, with
a religious recluse radiant with peace and dignity, and his
consequent abandonment of his princely state for the ascetic
life in the jungle. Some of the correspondences in the two stories
are most minute, and even the phraseology, hi which some of
the details of Josaphat's history are described, almost literally
renders the Sanskrit of the Lalita Vistara. More than that, the
very word Joasaph or Josaphat (Arabic, Yudasatf) is a corruption
of Bodisat due to a confusion between the Arabic letters for Y
and B, and Bodisatva is a common title for the Buddha in the
many birth-stories that clustered round the life of the sage.
There are good reasons for thinking that the Christian story did
not originate with John of Damascus, and a strong case has been
made out by Zotenberg that it reflects the religious struggles and
disputes of the early 7th century in Syria, and that the Greek
text was edited by a monk of Saint Saba named John, his version
being the source of all later texts and translations. How much
older than this the Christian story is, we cannot tell, but it is
interesting to remember that it embodies in the form of a speech
the " Apology " of the 2nd-century philosopher Aristides. After
its appearance among the writings of John of Damascus, it was
incorporated with Simeon Metaphrastes' Lives of the Saints
(c. 950), and thence gained great vogue, being translated into
almost every European language. A famous Icelandic version
was made for Prince Hakon early in the i3th century. In the
East, too, it took on new life and Catholic missionaries freely used
it in their propaganda. Thus a Tagala (Philippine) translation
was brought out at Manila in 1 7 1 2. Besides furnishing the early
playwrights with material for miracle plays, it has supplied
episodes and apologues to many a writer, including Boccaccio,
John Gower and Shakespeare. Rudolph of Ems about 1220
expanded it into a long poem of 16,000 lines, celebrating the
victory of Christian over heathen teaching. The heroes of the
romance have even attained saintly rank. Their names were
inserted by Petrus de Natalibus in his Catalogue Sanctorum
(c. 1380), and Cardinal Baronius included them in the official
Martyrologium authorized by Sixtus V.( 1 585-1 590) under the date
of the 27th of November. In the Orthodox Eastern Church " the
holy Josaph, son of Abener, king of India " is allotted the
z6th of August. Thus unwittingly Gautama the Buddha has
come to official recognition as a saint in two great branches of
the Catholic Church, and no one will say that he does not deserve
the honour. A church dedicated Diw Josaphat in Palermo is
probably not the only one of its kind.
The identity of the stories of Buddha and St Josaphat was re-
cognized by the historian of Portuguese India, Dipgo do Couto
(1542-1616), as may be seen in his history (Dec. v. liv. vi. cap. 2).
In modern times the honour belongs to Laboulaye (1859), Felix
Liebrecht in 1860 putting it beyond dispute. Subsequent researches
have been carried out by Zotenberg, Max Miiller, Rhys Davids,
Braunholtz and Joseph Jacobs, who published his Barlaam and
Josaphat in 1896.
BAR-LE-DUC, a town of north-eastern France, capital of the
department of Meuse, 50 m. E.S.E. of Chalons-sur-Marne, on
the main line of the Eastern railway between that town and
Nancy. Pop. (1906) 14,624. The lower, more modern and busier
part of the town extends along a narrow valley, shut in by wooded
or vine-clad hills, and is traversed throughout its length by the
Ornain, which is crossed by several bridges. It is limited towards
the north-east by the canal from the Marne to the Rhine, on the
south-west by a small arm of the Ornain, called the Canal des
Usines, on the left bank of which the upper town (Ville Haute)
is situated. The Ville Haute, which is reached by staircases and
steep narrow thoroughfares, is intersected by a long, quiet street,
bordered by houses of the isth, i6th and i7th centuries. In this
quarter are the remains (i6th century) of the chateau of the
dukes of Bar, dismantled in 1670, the old clock-tower and the
college, built in the latter half of the i6th century. Its church
of St Pierre (i4th and isth centuries) contains a skilfully-carved
effigy in white stone of a half-decayed corpse, the work of Ligier
Richier (1500-1572), a pupil of Michelangelo erected to the
memory of Rene de Chalons (d. 1 544). The lower town contains
the official buildings and two or three churches, but these are of
little interest. Among the statues of distinguished natives of the
town is one to Charles Nicolas Oudinot, whose house serves as the
h6tel-de-ville. Bar-le-Duc has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a Iyc6e, a training-college
for girls, a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of France
and an art museum. The industries of the town include iron-
founding and the manufacture of machinery, corsets, hosiery,
BARLETTA BARLEY
405
flannel goods, jam and wall-paper, and brewing, cotton spinning
and weaving, leather-dressing and dyeing. Wine, timber and
iron are important articles of commerce.
Bar-le-Duc was at one time the seat of the countship, later
duchy, of Bar, the history of which is given below. Though
probably of ancient origin, the town was unimportant till the
loth century when it became the residence of the counts.
COUNTS AND DUKES OF BAR. In the middle of the loth
century the territory of Bar (Barrois) formed a dependency of
the Empire. In the nth century its lords were only counts by
title ; they belonged to the house of Mousson (which also possessed
the countships of Montb61iard and Ferrette), and usually fought
in the French ranks, while their neighbours, the dukes of Lorraine,
adhered to the German side. Theobald I., count of Bar, was an
ally of Philip Augustus, as was also his son Henry II., who
distinguished himself at the battle of Bouvines in 1214. But
sometimes the counts of Bar bore arms against France. In 1301
Henry III. having made an alliance with Edward I. of England,
whose daughter he had married, was vanquished by Philip the
Fair, who forced him to do homage for a part of Barrois, situated
west of the Meuse, which was called Barrois mouvant. In 1354
Robert, count of Bar, who had married the daughter of King
John, was made marquis of Pont-a-Mousson by the emperor
Charles IV. and took the title of duke of Bar. His successor,
Edward III., was killed at Agincourt in 1415. In 1419 Louis of
Bar, brother of the last-named, a cardinal and bishop of Chalons,
gave the duchy of Bar to Ren6 of Anjou, the grandson of his
sister Yolande, who married Isabella, duchess of Lorraine.
Yolande of Anjou, who in 1444 had married Fern of Lorraine,
count of Vaudemont, became heiress of Nicholas of Anjou, duke
of Calabria and of Lorraine, in 1473, and of Rene of Anjou, duke
of Bar, in 1480; thus Lorraine, with Barrois added to it, once
more returned to the family of its ancient dukes. United with
Lorraine to France in 1634, Barrois remained, except for short
intervals, part of the royal domain. It was granted in 1738 to
Stanislaus Leszczynski, ex-king of Poland, and on his death in
1766 was once more attached to the crown of France. (M.P.*)
BARLETTA (anc. Barduli), a seaport town and episcopal see
of Apulia, Italy, on the E.S.E. coast, in the province of Bari,
345 m. W.N. W. of Bari by rail. Pop. (1901) 42,022. Itsimport-
ance dates from the time of the Hohenstaufen. The Gothic
church of S. Sepolcro was built at the close of the 1 2th century,
and the Romanesque cathedral was begun at the same period,
but added to later. In front of the former church stands a
bronze statue, 14 ft. in height, of the emperor Heraclius. The
castle behind the cathedral dates from 1537. The harbour is
good. It was cleared -by 508 sailing-vessels and 461 steamers, the
latter with a total tonnage of 364,904 in 1904; the exports were
of the value of 180,699 (principally wine, sulphur, oil, tartar and
tartaricacid), and the imports 92,486 (coal, timber and sundries).
In the neighbourhood (between Andria and Corato), during
the siege of Barletta by the French in 1503, the town being
defended by the Spanish army, a combat took place between
thirteen picked knights of Italy and France, which resulted in
favour of the former: it has been celebrated by Massimo d'
Azeglio in his Disfida di Barletta. Seven miles to the N.W. are
the salt-works of Barletta, now known under the name of
Margherita di Savoia. (T. As.)
BARLEY (Hordeum sativum), a member of the grass family,
and an important cereal which belongs peculiarly to temperate
regions. It originated from a wild species, H. spontaneum, a
native of western Asia and has been cultivated from the earliest
times. Three subspecies or races are recognized, (i.) H. sativum,
subsp. distichum (described by Linnaeus as a distinct species,
H. distichon), two- rowed barley. Only the middle spikelet of
each triplet is fertile; the car has therefore only two longitudinal
rows of grain, and the spikes are strongly compressed laterally.
This approaches most nearly to the wild stock, from which it is
distinguished by the non-jointed axis and somewhat shorter
awns. This is the race most commonly grown in the British
Isles and in central Europe, and includes a large number of
sub-races and varieties among which are the finest malting-
barleys. The chief sub-races are (a) peacock, fan or battledore
barley, described by Linnaeus as a distinct species, H. zeocriton,
with erect short ears about 2j in. long, broad at the base and
narrow at the tip, suggesting an open fan or peacock's tail;
(b) erect-eared barleys (var. erectum) with erect broad ears and
closely-packed plump grains; (c) nodding barleys (var. nutans).
The ripe ears of the last hang so as to become almost parallel with
the stem; they are narrower and longer than in (b), owing to the
grains being placed farther apart on the rachis; it includes the
Chevalier variety, one of the best for malting purposes, (ii.) H.
sativum, subsp. hcxastichum, six-rowed barley (the H . hexastichon
of Linnaeus). All the flowers of each triplet of spikelets on both
sides of the rachis are fertile and produce ripe fruits; hence the
ear produces six longitudinal rows of grain. The ears are short,
erect, and the grain thin and coarse; the straw is also short. It
is a hardy race, but owing to the poor quality of the grain is
rarely met with in Great Britain, (iii.) H. sativum, subsp.
vulgare, bere, bigg or four-rowed barley (the H. vulgare of
Linnaeus). All the flowers of each triplet are fertile as in (ii.),
but the rows are not arranged regularly at equal distances round
the rachis. The central fruits of each triplet form two regular
rows, but the lateral spikelets form not four straight single rows
as in (ii.), but two regular double rows, the whole ear appearing
irregularly four-rowed. This race seems to be of later origin
than the others. The ears are erect, about zj in. long, the
grains thinner and longer than in the two-rowed race, and the
awns stiff and firmly adhering to the flowering glume. The var.
pallidum is the barley most frequently cultivated in northern
Europe and northern Asia. This race was formerly used for malt
and beer, but owing to its larger amount of gluten as compared
with starch it is less adapted for brewing than the two-rowed sorts.
To this belong the varieties naked barley (H. coelestf and H.
nudum) and Himalayan barley (H . trifurcalum and H. aegiceras).
In both the fruits fall out freely from the glume, and in the
latter the awns are three-pronged and shorter than the grain.
Barley is the most hardy of all cereal grains, its limit of
cultivation extending farther north than any other; and, at
the same time, it can be profitably cultivated in sub-tropical
countries. The opinion of Pliny, that it is the most ancient
aliment of mankind, appears to be well-founded, for no less than
three varieties have been found in the lake dwellings of Switzer-
land, in deposits belonging to the Stone Period. According to
Professor Heer these varieties are the common two-rowed
(H. distichum), the large six-rowed (H. hexastichum, var. densum),
and the small six-rowed (H. hexaslichum, var. sanctum). The
last variety is both the most ancient and the most commonly
found, and is the sacred barley of antiquity, ears of which are
frequently represented plaited in the hair of the goddess Ceres,
besides being figured o'n ancient coins. The cultivation of barley
in ancient Egypt is indicated in Exod. ix. 31. Till within recent
times barley formed an important source of food in northern
countries, and barley cakes are still to some extent eaten.
Owing, however, to its poverty in that form of nitrogenous
compound called gluten, so abundant in wheat, barley-flour
cannot be baked into vesiculated bread; still it is a highly-
nutritious substance, the salts it contains having a high propor-
tion of phosphoric acid. The following is the composition of
barley-meal according to Von Bibra, omitting the salts:
Water 15 per cent.
Nitrogenous compounds . . 12-981
Gum . . . 6-744
Sugar . . 3-200
Starch 59'95O
Fat . . . 2-170
Barley is now chiefly cultivated for malting (see MALT) to
prepare spirits and beer (see BREWING), but it is also largely
employed in domestic cookery. For the latter purpose the hard,
somewhat flinty grains are preferable, and they are prepared by
grinding off the outer cuticle which forms " pot barley." When
the attrition is carried further, so that the grain is reduced to
small round pellets, it is termed " pearl barley." Patent barley
is either pot or pearl barley reduced to flour. Under the name
decoctum hordei, a preparation of barley is included in the
406
BARLEY-BREAKBARLOW
British Pharmacopoeia, which is of value as a demulcent and
emollient drink in febrile and inflammatory disorders.
Cultivation. Apart from the growth-Habits of the plant itself,
the consideration that chiefly determines the routine of barley
cultivation is the demand on the part of the maltster for uni-
formity of sample. Less care is required in its cultivation when
it is intended for feeding live-stock. It is essential that the grains
on the maltster's floor should germinate simultaneously, hence at
the time of reaping, the whole crop must be as nearly as possible
in the same stage of maturity. On rich soils the crop is liable to
grow too rapidly and yield a coarse, uneven sample, consequently
the best barley is grown on light, open and preferably calcareous
soils, while if the condition of the soil is too high it is often reduced
by growing wheat before the barley.
Barley (see AGRICULTURE, Crops and Cropping) is a rapidly-
growing and shallow-rooted plant. The upper layer of the soil
must therefore be free from weeds, finely pulverized and stocked
with a readily-available supply of nutriment. In most rotations
barley is grown after turnips, or some other " cleaning " crop,
with or without the interposition of a wheat crop. The roots are
fed off by sheep during autumn and early winter, after which the
ground is ploughed to a depth of 3 or 4 in. only in order
not to put the layer of soil fertilized by the sheep beyond reach
of the plant. The ground is then left unworked and open to the
crumbling influence of frost till towards the end of winter, when
it is stirred with the cultivator followed by the harrows, or in
some cases ploughed with a shallow furrow. The seed, which
should be plump, light in colour, with a thin skin covered by
fine wrinkles, is sown in March and early April * at the rate of
from 8 to 1 2 pecks to the acre and lightly harrowed in. As even
distribution at a uniform depth is necessary, the drill is preferred
to the broadcast-seeder for barley sowing. In early districts
seeding may take place as early as February, provided a fine
tilth is obtainable, but it rarely extends beyond the end of April.
If artificial manures are used, a usual dressing consists of 2 or
3 cwt. of superphosphate to the acre at the time of sowing,
followed, if the ground is in poor condition, by i cwt. of nitrate
of soda when the plant is showing. Nitrogen must, however, be
applied with caution as it makes the barley rich in albumen,
and highly albuminous barley keeps badly and easily loses its
germinating capacity. Farm-yard manure should also be avoided.
After-cultivation may comprise rolling, harrowing (to preserve
the fineness of the tilth) and in some districts hoeing. Barley is
cut, either with scythe or machine, when it is quite ripe with the
ears bending over. The crop is often allowed to lie loose for a day
or two, owing to the belief that sunshine and dews or even showers
mellow it and improve its colour. It may even be stacked without
tying into sheaves, though this course involves greater expendi-
ture of labour in carrying and afterwards in threshing. There
is a prejudice against the use of the binder in reaping barley, as
it is impossible to secure uniformity of colour in the grain when
the stalks are tightly tied in the sheaf, and the sun has not free
access to those on the inside. In any case it must not be stacked
while damp, and if cut by machine is therefore sometimes tied
in sheaves and set up in stocks as in the case of wheat. The
above sketch indicates the general principles of barley-cultivation,
but in practice they are often modified by local custom or farming
exigencies.
Barley is liable to smut and the other fungus diseases which
attack wheat (q.v.), and the insect pests which prey on the two
plants are also similar. The larvae of the ribbon-footed corn-fly
(Chlorops taeniopus) caused great injury to the barley crop in
Great Britain in 1893, when the plant was weakened by extreme
drought. A fair crop of barley yields about 36 bushels ,(56 ft to
the bushel) per acre, but under the best conditions 40 and 50
bushels may be obtained. The yield of straw is from 15 to 20
cwt. per acre. Barley-straw is considered inferior both as fodder
and litter.
BARLEY-BREAK, an old English country game frequently
mentioned by the poets of the lyth and i8th centuries. It was
1 Barley is occasionally sown in autumn to provide keep for sheep
in the following spring.
played by three pairs composed of one of each sex, who were
stationed in three bases or plots, contiguous to each other. The
couple occupying the middle base, called hell or prison,
endeavoured to catch the other two, who, when chased, might
break to avoid being caught. If one was overtaken, he and his
companion were condemned to hell. From this game was taken
the expression "the last couple in hell," often used in old plays.
BARLEY-CORN, a grain of barley, and thus a measure taken
from the length of a grain of barley, three of which (sometimes
four) were considered to make up an inch. The barley-corn has
been personified as representing the malt liquor made from
barley, as in Burns's song " John Barleycorn."
BARLOW, SIR GEORGE HILARO (1762-1847), Anglo-Indian
statesman, was appointed to the Bengal Civil Service in 1778,
and in 1788 carried into execution the permanent settlement of
Bengal. When the marquess of Cornwallis died in 1805, Sir
George Barlow was nominated provisional governor-general, and
his passion for economy and retrenchment in that capacity has
caused him to be known as the only governor-general who
diminished the area of British territory; but his nomination
was rejected by the home government, and Lord Minto was
appointed. Subsequently Barlow was created governor of
Madras, where his want of tact caused a mutiny of officers in
1809, similar to that which had previously occurred under Clive.
In 1812 he was recalled, and lived in retirement until his death
in February 1847. He was created a baronet in 1803.
BARLOW, JOEL (1754-1812), American poet and politician,
born in Redding, Fairfield county, Connecticut, on the 24th of
March 1 7 54. He graduated at Yale in 1778, was a post-graduate
student there for two years, and from September 1780 until the
close of the revolutionary war was chaplain in a Massachusetts
brigade. He then, in 1783, removed to Hartford, Connecticut,
established there in July 1784 a weekly paper, the American
Mercury, with which he was connected for a year, and in 1 786 was
admitted to the bar. At Hartford he was a member of a group
of young writers including Lemuel Hopkins, David Humphreys,
and John Trumbull, known in American literary history as the
" Hartford Wits." He contributed to the Anarchiad, a series of
satirico-political papers, and in 1787 published a long and
ambitious poem, The Vision of Columbus, which gave him a
considerable literary reputation and was once much read. In
1788 he went to France as the agent of the Scioto Land Company,
his object being to sell lands and enlist immigrants. He seems
to have been ignorant of the fraudulent character of the company,
which failed disastrously in 1790. He had previously, however,
induced the company of Frenchmen, who ultimately founded
Gallipolis, Ohio, to emigrate to America. -In Paris he became
a liberal in religion and an advanced republican in politics.
He remained abroad for several years, spending much of his
time in London; was a member of the obnoxious " London
Society for Constitutional Information "; published various
radical essays, including a volume entitled Advice to the Privileged
Orders (1792), which was proscribed by the British government;
and was made a citizen of France in 1792. He was American
consul at Algiers in 1795-1797, securing the release of American
prisoners held for ransom, and negotiating a treaty with Tripoli
(1796). He returned to America in 1805, and lived near Washing-
ton, D.C., until 1811, when he became American plenipotentiary
to France, charged with negotiating a commercial treaty with
Napoleon, and with securing the restitution of confiscated
American property or indemnity therefor. He was summoned
for an interview with Napoleon at Wilna, but failed to see the
emperor there; became involved in the retreat of the French
army; and, overcome by exposure, died at the Polish village of
Zarnowiec on the 24th of December 1812. In 1807 he had pub-
lished in a sumptuous volume the Columbiad, an enlarged edition
of his Vision of Columbus, more pompous even than the original;
but, though it added to his reputation in some quarters, on the
whole it was not well received, and it has subsequently been much
ridiculed. The poem for which he is now best known is his mock
heroic Hasty Pudding (1793). Besides the writings mentioned
above, he published Conspiracy of Kings, a Poem addressed to
BARLOW BARNABAS
407
the Inhabitants of Europe from another Quarter of the Globe (1792);
View of the Public Debt, Receipts and Expenditure of the United
States (1800); and the Political Writings of Joel Barlow (2nd ed.,
1796). He also published an edition, " corrected and enlarged,"
of Isaac Watt's Imitation of the Psalms of David (1786).
See C. B. Todd's Life and Letters of Joel Barlow (New York and
London, 1886); and a chapter, "The Literary Strivings of Joel
Barlow," in M. C. Tyler's Three Men of Letters (New York and
London, 1895).
BARLOW, PETER (1776-1862), English writer on pure and
applied mathematics, was born at Norwich in 1776 and died on
the ist of March 1862. In 1806 he was appointed mathematical
master in the Woolwich Academy, and filled that post for forty-
one years. In 1823 he was made a fellow of the Royal Society,
and two years later received the Copley medal. Steam loco-
motion received much attention at his hands, and he sat on the
railway commissions of 1836, 1839, 1842, 1845. He received
many distinctions from British and foreign scientific societies.
Barlow's principal works are Elementary Investigation of the
Theory of Numbers (1811); New Mathematical and Philosophical
Dictionary (1814); Essay on Magnetic Attractions (1820). The
investigations on magnetism led to the important practical
discovery of a means of rectifying or compensating compass
errors in ships. Besides compiling numerous useful tables, he
contributed largely to the Encyclopaedia Metropolilana.
BARM (a word common to Teutonic languages), the scum
formed on the top of malt liquor when fermenting; yeast used to
leaven bread, or to set up fermentation in liquor.
BARMECIDES, more accurately BARMAKIDS, a noble Persian
family which attained great power under the Abbasid caliphs.
Barmak, the founder of the family, was a Persian fire-worshipper,
and is supposed to have been a native of Khorasan. According
to tradition, his wife was taken for a time into the harem of
Abdallah, brother of Kotaiba the conqueror of Balkh, and be-
came the mother of Khalid b. Barmak the Barmecide. Barmak
subsequently (about A.D. 736) rebuilt and adorned his native
city of Balkh after the rebellion of Harith. The family prospered,
and his grandson Yahya b. Khalid was the vizier of the caliph
Mahdi and tutor of Harun al-Rashid. His sons Fadl and Ja'far
(the Giafar of the Arabian Nights) both occupied high offices
under Harun. The story of their disgrace, though romantic,
is not improbable. Harun, it is said, found his chief pleasure
in the society of his sister 'Abbasa and Ja'far, and in order that
these two might be with him continuously without breach of
etiquette, persuaded them to contract a purely formal marriage.
The conditions were, however, not observed and Harun, learning
that 'Abbasa had borne a son, caused Ja'far suddenly to
be arrested and beheaded, and the rest of the family except
Mahommed, Yahya's brother, to be imprisoned and deprived
of their property. It is probable, however, that Harun's anger
was caused to a large extent by the insinuations of his courtiers
that he was a mere puppet in the hands of a powerful family.
See further CALIPHATE, section C, 4, 5.
The expression "Barmecide Feast," to denote an imaginary
banquet, is drawn from one of the tales (" The Barber's Tale
of his Sixth Brother ") in the Arabian Nights, in which a series
of empty dishes is served up to a hungry man to test his sense
of humour by one of the Barmecides (see edition by L. C.
Smithers, Lond., 1894, vol. i. 317).
BARMEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province
and the governmental district of Diisseldorf. Pop. (1816)
19,030; (1890) 116,144; (1905) 156,148. It is served by the
main railway from Berlin to Aix-la-Chapelle, and lies immediately
east of Elberfeld, with which it virtually forms one town. It
stretches for some 4 m. along the narrow valley of the river
Wupper, which, within the municipal boundaries, is crossed by
twenty bridges. High wooded hills surround it. It is divided
into three main districts, Upper, Middle and Lower Barmen, and
is connected, throughout its length, with Elberfeld, by railway,
tramway, and a suspended trolley line, hanging over the bed of the
Wupper. It contains nine Evangelical and two Roman Catholic
churches, a stately modern town hall, a Hall of Fame (Ruhmes-
halle), with statues of the emperors William I. and Frederick III.,
a theatre, a picture-gallery, an ethnographical museum, and ar
exchange. There are many public monuments, one to Bismarck
another to the poet Emil Rittershaus (1834-1897), a native of the
town, and one commemorative of the Franco-German War of
1870-71. There are several high-grade public schools, academies
of technical science, engineering and textile industry, and a
missionary theological seminary. Barmen is one of the most
important manufacturing centres of Germany. The rapid
development of its commercial activity only dates from the
beginning of the i9th century. It is the chief seat of ribbon
weaving in Germany, and manufactures thread, lace, braids,
cotton and cloth goods, carpets, silks, machinery, steel wares,
plated goods and buttons, the last industry employing about
15,000 hands. There are numerous bleaching-fields, print-fields
and dyeworks famous for their Turkey-red, soap works, chemical
works and potteries. There are also extensive breweries. Its
export trade, particularly to the United States, is very consider-
able. The hills lying S. of the town are laid out in public grounds.
Here are a health resort, a tower commanding an extensive view,
and numerous villas. Barmen, although mentioned in chronicles
in the nth century, did not attain civic rights until 1808, when
it was formed into a municipality by the grand-duke of Berg.
See A. Shadwell, Industrial Efficiency (1906), for a good description
of the industrial aspect.
BARMOTE COURT (also written BERGHMOTE, BARGHMOTE,
BARGEMOTE, BARMOOT), a name applied to courts held in the
lead-mining districts of Derbyshire, England, for the purpose of
determining the customs peculiar to the industry and also for the
settlements of any disputes which may arise in connexion there-
with. Barmote courts are of very ancient origin, having been
in existence in the reign of Edward I. Their jurisdiction extends
both to the crown lands in the duchy of Lancaster and to those
under individual ownership, comprising seven clearly denned
districts. Owing to the progress made in modern mining, many
of the customs and much of the procedure had become obsolete,
and their powers were regulated by the High Peak Mining
Customs and Mineral Courts Act 1851. An appeal from the
jurisdiction of the courts lies by way of certiorari.
BARMOUTH (Abermaw, mouth of the Maw, or Mawddach, in
Cardigan Bay, the only haven in Merionethshire, North Wales),
a small seaport on the north of the estuary. Pop. of urban
district (1901), 2214. The ride to Dolgelley (Dolgellau) is fine.
The parish church, Llanaber, ij m. from Barmouth, is on a cliff
overlooking the sea. Barmouth is a favourite bathing place, on
the Cambrian railway. It is a centre for coaching in summer,
especially to and through the Vale of Llangollen.
BARNABAS, in the New Testament, the surname, according
to Acts iv. 36, given by the apostles (possibly in contrast to
Joseph Barsabbas, Acts i. 23) to Joseph, "a Levite, a man of
Cyprus by birth," who, though like Paul not of the Twelve, came
like him to rank as an apostle (Acts xiv. 4, 14, i Cor. ix. 6; see
APOSTLE). The Greek rendering of this Semitic name (i/tos
Trapa/cXijffecos) may be translated " son of consolation " (as in the
A. V.), or " son of exhortation " (as in the R. V.). But there is
an initial difficulty about the Greek rendering itself, as no
satisfactory etymology of Bar-nabas in this sense has as yet been
suggested. The one at present in favour on the ground of philo-
logical analogy (see Z.N.T.W., 1906, p. 91 for a fresh instance),
viz. Bar-Nebo, lacks intrinsic fitness for a Jew and a Levite, and
of course does not accord with the statement in Acts itself.
Hence it still seems best to assume some unknown Aramaic form
equivalent to irapaKX7)<m, and then to take the latter in the
sense of comfort or encouragement. This rendering, rather than
" exhortation " in the sense of eloquence, best suits the usage
of Acts, which suggests such comfort as is given by encouraging
rather than rousing words (ix. 31, xi. 23, xiii. 15, xv. 31 f.; cf.
Luke ii. 25, vi. 24). All we hear of Barnabas points to goodness
of heart (" a good man," xi. 24)33 his distinctive quality, giving
fineness of perception (ix. 27, xi. 25 f.) and large insight into
essentials (xi. 23 f.). It was probably the practically helpful and
encouraging form that his gift as a " prophet " took (Acts xiii. i,
408
BARNABAS
with i Cor. xiv. 3) . It is perhaps significant that his first appear-
ance is of the generously helpful kind described in Acts iv. 36 f.
Yet we must beware of regarding Barnabas as merely a fine
character; he plays too prominent a part in the New Testament
for any such limitation. Thus, he next appears as braving the
suspicions which dogged the ex-persecutor Saul (Paul) possibly
an old acquaintance in Hellenist circles at Jerusalem (cf. vi. 9,
ix. 29) and introducing him to the older apostles (ix. 27). More
suggestive still of high repute as a man of insight and authority
is his mission from the Jerusalem Church to inspect and judge
of the new departure in the Gospel at Antioch, in Acts xi. 22.
This means very much, though his modesty led him to call in the
aid of his friend Saul to cope with the new and expanding situation
(25 f.). After their brief joint visit to Judaea and Jerusalem
(xi. 30, xii. 25) we next get a glimpse of Barnabas as still chief
among the spiritual leaders of the Antiochene Church, and as
called by the Spirit, along with Saul, to initiate the wider
mission of the Gospel, outside Syria even, in regions beyond
(xiii. 2, 4). He led the way to his native Cyprus; but in the
crucial struggle with the magician Bar-Jesus, in the presence
of the governor of the island (xiii. 7 ff.), Saul seems to have come
so decisively to the front, that henceforth, for the author of Acts
he takes the lead, and Barnabas appears as his colleague (see
xiii. 13, " Paul and his company," and note the turning back of
Mark, the kinsman of Barnabas). The fact that at Lystra the
natives styled Barnabas, Zeus, and Paul, Hermes, while suggest-
ing that Barnabas was the man of nobler mien, proves that Paul
was the chief speaker (xiv. 12); and the notices in the Pauline
epistles fully bear out the view that " the gospel of the Gentiles "
which they preached was in conception Paul's (Gal. ii. 1-9).
Indeed, Barnabas's vacillation at Antioch, as recorded in Gal.
ii. ii ff. (whether it preceded or followed their mission in Acts
xiii.-xiy.), shows that, while gifted with true intuitions, he was
not strong in thinking out his position to all its issues on principle,
and that it was here that Paul was so immensely his superior.
But what Barnabas did see with full reasoned conviction, he
was staunch in upholding; thus he upheld the general cause of
Gentile freedom from the obligation of circumcision (as distinct
from perfect religious equality with Jewish believers) at the
Jerusalem conference (Acts xv.). With this stand for principle,
however, his main work, as a great link in the transition of
the Gospel from its Jewish to its universal mission, reached
its climax; and Acts transfers its attention wholly to Paul,
after explaining how their roads parted under rather painful
circumstances (xv. 37 ff.).
When Barnabas sails away with Mark to resume work in
Cyprus, the mists of history hide him from our sight. Only
now and again do we catch fugitive and increasingly doubtful
glimpses of him and his work. We learn from i Cor. ix. 6 that
he adhered to Paul's principle of self-support in his mission work,
and from Col. iv. 10 that his name was well known and respected
at Colossae about A.D. 60. Tradition, which early regards him
as one of the seventy (Clem. Alex.), carries him, plausibly enough,
to Alexandria (Clem. Horn. i. 8, ii. 4; cf. the ascription to him
of the Alexandrine Epistle of Barnabas). But the evidence for his
having visited Rome (later tradition says also Milan) is stronger
because more' varied (Clem. Recog. i. 7, cf. Horn. i. 7; the early
Actus Pelri Vercellenses; and the late Cypriot Encomium),
especially if we might trust the Western ascription to him of the
epistle to the Hebrews, which begins with Tertullian (De Pud. 20).
But this may itself be mere inference from its self-description
(xiii. 22), as a " word of exhortation," to the " son of exhorta-
tion " (Acts iv. 36) as its author. The legend of his missionary
labours in Cyprus, including martyrdom at Salamis, is quite
late and untrustworthy. The date of his death is uncertain,
but he was probably no longer living when Acts was written
(c. A.D. 75-80).
His was essentially a mediating role. He filled a position
intermediate between Jewish and Pauline Christianity one
characteristic of Christian Hellenists generally. Hence he -is
spoken of with respect in the Clementines; while Paul, as a
radical in relation to the Law, is discountenanced. If we could
confidently credit him with the authorship of the epistle to the
Hebrews, we could conceive his theological standpoint more
exactly. But, in any case, the Barnabas of history was a greater
man than the Barnabas of modern tradition.
See W. Cunningham, Epistle of Barnabas, pp. xlvii.-lxii. ; 0.
Braunsberger, Der A pastel Barnabas, seinLeben . . . (Mainz, 1876) ;
articles s.v. in Ency. Biblica and Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible.
THE EPISTLE OF BARNABAS is one of the apocryphal books
of the New Testament. At the end of the Codex Sinaiticus of
the 4th century, as a sort of appendix to the New Testament,
there stands an " Epistle of Barnabas." Here it is followed by
the Shepherd of Hermas, while in an nth-century MS., which
contains also the Didache, it is followed by two writings which
themselves form an appendix to the New Testament in the
Codex Alexandrinus. This means that it once enjoyed quasi-
canonical authority, a fact amply borne out by what Eusebius
(H. E. iii. 25) says as to its standing in the ancient Church.
It was at Alexandria that its authority was greatest. Clement
comments on it, as on the canonical scriptures, in his Hypotyposes;
Origen cites it in the same spirit as scripture (C. Celsum, i. 63, De
Princ. iii. 2,4, 7). Clement, too, ascribes it to " the apostle " or
" the prophet " Barnabas (Strom, ii. 6, 31, cf. ii. 20, 116), with
explicit reference to Paul's fellow-apostle. Internal evidence
makes this ascription impossible, nor does the epistle itself lay
any claim to such authorship. Lightfoot, indeed, suggests that its
author was " some unknown namesake " of the famous Barnabas:
but it is simpler to suppose that it was fathered upon the latter
by the Alexandrian Church, ready to believe that so favourite a
writing was of apostolic origin.
" That Alexandria, the place of its earliest reception, was also
the place of its birth, is borne out by the internal evidence of
style and interpretation, which is Alexandrian throughout "
(Lightfoot). The picture, too, which it gives of the danger lest
the Christianity of its readers should be unduly Judaic in feeling
and practice, suits well the experiences of a writer living in
Alexandria, where Judaism was immensely strong. Further, he
shows an " astonishing familiarity with the Jewish rites," in the
opinion of a modern Jew (Kohler in the Jewish Encycl.); so
much so, that the latter agrees with another Jewish scholar
in saying that " the writer seems to have been a converted Jew,
whose fanatic zeal rendered him a bitter opponent of Judaism
within the Christian Church." These opinions must overrule the
view of some Christian scholars that the writer often blunders
in Jewish matters, the fact being that his knowledge is derived
from the Judaism of Alexandria 1 rather than Palestine. But we
need not therefore regard the author as of Jewish birth. It is
enough, and more in keeping with the thought as a whole, to
regard him as having been in close contact with Judaism,
possibly as a proselyte. He now uses his knowledge to warn his
readers, with intense passion, against all compromise between
Judaism and the Gospel. In this he goes so far as to deny any
historical connexion between the two, maintaining with all the
devices of an extravagant allegorism, including the Rabbinic
Gematria based on the numerical values of letters (ix. 7 f.), that
the Law and Prophecy, as meant by God, had never been given
to Israel as a people. The Divine oracles had ever pointed to
the Christian Covenant, and had been so understood by the men
of God in Israel, whereas the apostate people had turned aside
to keep the ceremonial letter of the Law at the instigation of an
evil angel (ix. 4) . In this way he takes in succession the typical
Jewish institutions Circumcision, Foods, Ablutions, Covenant,
Sabbath, Temple showing their spiritual counterpart in the New
People and its ordinances, and that the Cross was prefigured
from the first. Such insight (gnosis) into the reality of the case
he regards as the natural issue of Christian faith; and it is his
main object to help his readers to attain such spirituality the
more so that, by similar insight applied to the signs of the times,
he knows and can show that the end of the present age is imminent
(i. 5, 7-iv.). The burden of his epistle, then, is, " Let us become
1 His reference to the wide prevalence of circumcision beyond
Israel (ix. 6) is perhaps simply an exaggeration, more or less
conscious.
BARNACLE BARNARD
409
spiritual, a perfect temple unto God " (iv. n); and that not only
by theoretic insight, but also by practical wisdom of life. In
order to enforce this moral, he passes to " another sort of gnosis
and instruction " (xviii. i), viz. the precepts of the " Two Ways,"
cited in a slightly different form from that found in the first
part of the Teaching of the Apostles. The modifications, however,
are all in a more spiritual direction, in keeping with the genuinely
evangelic spirit which underlies and pervades even the allegorical
ingenuities of the epistle.
Its opening shows it to have been addressed to a Church, or
rather a group of Churches, recently visited by the writer, who,
while not wishing to write as an authoritative " teacher " so
much as one who has come to love them as a friend (i. 8, cf . ix. 9) ,
yet belongs to the class of " teachers " with a recognized spiritual
gift (charisma) , referred to e.g. in the Didache. He evidently feels
in a position to give his gnosis with some claim to a deferential
hearing. This being so, the epistle was probably written, not
to Alexandria, but rather by a " teacher " of the Alexandrine
Church to some body of Christians in Lower Egypt among whom
he had recently been visiting. This would explain the absence
of specific address, so that it appears as in form a " general
epistle," as Origen styles it. Its date has been much debated.
But Lightfoot's reading of the apocalyptic passage in ch. iv.
with a slight modification suggested by Sir W. M. Ramsay is
really conclusive for the reign of Vespasian (A.D. 70-79). The
main counter-view, in favour of a date about A.D. 130, can give
no natural account of this passage, while it misconstrues the
reference in ch. xvi. to the building of the spiritual temple,
the Christian Church. Thus this epistle is the earliest of the
Apostolic Fathers, and as such of special interest. Its central
problem, the relation of Judaism and Christianity of the Old
and the New forms of a Covenant which, as Divine, must in a
sense abide the same was one which gave the early Church
much trouble; nor, in absence of a due theory of the education
of the race by gradual development, was it able to solve it
satisfactorily.
LITERATURE. Besides collected editions of the Apostolic Fathers,
see O. Braunsberger, Der A pastel Barnabas, . . . u. der ihm beigelegte
Brief (Mainz, 1876); W. Cunningham, Epistle of Barnabas (1877);
sections in J. Donaldson, The Apostolic Fathers; E. Reuss, Theologie
chretienne, vol. ii., and in M. von Engelhardt, Das Christenthum
Justins des Mdrtyrers; and Lightfoot's fragmentary essay in his
Clement of Rome, ii. 503-512. See also APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE,
section " New Testament. "
GOSPEL OF BARNABAS. We read in antiquity, e.g. in the
Decretum Gelasii, of an apocryphal Gospel of Barnabas (see
APOCRYPHAL LITERATURE), but we have no knowledge of its
contents. There exists, however, in a single MS. in Italian a
longish gospel with this title, written from a Mahommedan
standpoint, but probably embodying materials partly Gnostic
in character and origin. The Italian MS. was found by the
Deist, John Toland, in a private collection at Amsterdam (see
his Nazarenus, 1718); subsequently it came into the possession
of Prince Eugene of Savoy, and finally was obtained with
Eugene's library by the imperial library at Vienna. It has been
edited, with an English translation (1907) by (Rev.) Lonsdale and
Laura Ragg, who hold that it was the work of a Christian
renegade to Mahommedanism about the I3th-i6th century.
See also preliminary notice in the Journal of Theol. Studies, vi.
424 ff. The old view held by Toland and others that the Italian
was a translation from the Arabic is demonstrably wrong. The
Arabic marginal notes are apparently partly pious ejaculations,
partly notes for the aid of Arabic students. The work is highly
imaginative and often grotesque, but it is pervaded by an
unusually high ethical enthusiasm. (J. V. B.)
BARNACLE, a name applied to Crustacea of the division
' Cirripedia or Thyrostraca. Originally, the name was given to
the stalked barnacles (Lepadidae of C. Darwin), which attach
themselves in great numbers to drift-wood and other objects
floating in the sea and are one of the chief agents in the fouling
of ships' bottoms during long voyages. The sessile barnacles
(Balanidae of Darwin) or " acorn-shells " are found in myriads,
encrusting the rocks between tide-marks on all coasts. One of
the most extraordinary and persistent myths of medieval natura
history, dating back to the 1 2th century at least, was the cause
of transferring to these organisms the name of the barnack
or bernacle goose (Bernicla branla). This bird is a winter visitor
to Britain, and its Arctic nesting-places being then unknown, it
was fabled to originate within the shell-like fruit of a tree growing
by the sea-shore. In some variants of the story this shell is said
to grow as a kind of mushroom on rotting timber in the sea, and
is obviously one of the barnacles of the genus Lepas. Even after
1. Scalpellum rostratum, Darwin, sponges, New South Wales;
Philippine Islands. (4'), tergum; (4'), scutum.
2. Pollicipes cornucopiae, Leach, 5. Balanus tintinnabulum, Linn.,
European seas. Atlantic.
3. Tubicinella trachealis, Shaw, 5'. Section of Balanus, Linn.
attached to whales. 6. Coronula diadema. Linn., at-
4. Acasta sulcata, Lamk., in
tached to whales.
the scientific study of zoology had replaced the fabulous tales of
medieval writers, it was a long time before the true affinities of
the barnacles were appreciated, and they were at first classed
with the Mollusca, some of which they closely resemble in
external appearance. It was not till Vaughan Thompson
demonstrated, in 1830, their development from a free-swimming
and typically Crustacean larva that it came to be recognized that,
in Huxley's graphic phrase, " a barnacle may be said to be a
Crustacean fixed by its head and kicking the food into its mouth
with its legs." For a systematic account of the barnacles and
their allies, see the article THYROSTRACA. (W.T.CA.)
BARNARD, LADY ANNE (1750-1825), author of the ballad
" Auld Robin Gray," the eldest daughter of James Lindsay,
5th earl of Balcarres, was born at Balcarres House, Fife, on the
i2th of December 1750. She was married in 1793 to Andrew
Barnard, a son of the bishop of Limerick, for whom she obtained
from Henry Dundas (ist Viscount Melville) an appointment
as colonial secretary at the Cape of Good Hope. Thither the
Barnards went in March 1797, Lady Anne remaining at the Cape
until January 1802. A remarkable series of letters written by
Lady Anne thence to Dundas, then secretary for war and the
colonies, was published in 1901 under the title South Africa a
Century Ago. In 1806, on the reconquest of the Cape by the
British, Barnard was reappointed colonial secretary, but Lady
Anne did not accompany him thither, where he died in 1807.
The rest of her life was passed in London, where she died on the
6th of May 1825. " Auld Robin Gray " was written by her in
1772, to music by the Rev. William Leeves (1748-1828), as
he admitted in 1812. It was published anonymously in 1783,
Lady Anne only acknowledging the authorship of the words
two years before her death in a letter to Sir Walter Scott,
who subsequently edited it for the Bannatyne Club with two
continuations.
See the memoir by W. H. Wilkins, together with the original text
of " Auld Robin Gray," prefixed to South Africa a Century Ago.
BARNARD, FREDERICK AUGUSTUS PORTER (1809-1889),
American scientist and educationalist, was born in Sheffield,
Massachusetts, on the 5th of May 1809. In 1828 he graduated,
second on the honour list, at Yale. He was then in turn a tutor
at Yale, a teacher (1831-1832) in the American Asylum for the
410
BARNARD BARNARD CASTLE
Deaf and Dumb at Hartford, Connecticut, and a teacher (1832-
1838) in the New York Institute for the Instruction of the Deaf
and Dumb. From 1838 to 1848 he was professor of mathematics
and natural philosophy, and from 1848 to 1854 was professor
of chemistry and natural history in the University of Alabama,
for two years, also, filling the chair of English literature. In
1854 he was ordained as deacon in the Protestant Episcopal
Church. In the same year he became professor of mathematics
and natural philosophy in the University of Mississippi, of which
institution he was chancellor from 1856 until the outbreak of
the Civil War, when, his sympathies being with the North, he
resigned and went to Washington. There for some time he was in
charge of the map and chart department of the United States
Coast Survey. In 1864 he became the tenth president of
Columbia College (now Columbia University) in New York City,
which position he held until the year before his death, his service
thus being longer than that of any of his predecessors. During
this period the growth of the college was rapid; new departments
were established; the elective system was greatly extended;
more adequate provision was made for graduate study and
original research, and the enrolment was increased from about
150 to more than 1000 students. Barnard strove to have educa-
tional privileges extended by the university to women as well
as to men, and Barnard College, for women (see COLUMBIA
UNIVERSITY), established immediately after his death, was named
in his honour. He died in New York City on the 27th of April
1889. Barnard was a versatile man, of catholic training, a
classical and English scholar, a mathematician, a physicist,
and a chemist, a good public speaker, and a vigorous but some-
what prolix writer on various subjects, his annual reports to
the Board of Trustees of Columbia being particularly valuable
as discussions of educational problems. Besides being the
editor-in-chief, in 1872, of Johnson's Universal Cyclopaedia,
he published a Treatise on Arithmetic (1830); an Analytical
Grammar with Symbolic Illustration (1836); Letters on Collegiate
Government (1855); and Recent Progress in Science (1869).
See John Fulton's Memoirs of Frederick A. P. Barnard (New York,
1896).
BARNARD, GEORGE GREY (1863- ), American sculptor,
was born at Bellefonte, Pennsylvania, on the 24th of May 1863.
He first studied at the Art Institute, Chicago, and in 1883-1887
worked in P. T. Cavelier's atelier at Paris. He lived in Paris
for twelve years, returning to America in 1896; and with his
first exhibit at the Salon of 1894 he scored a great success.
His principal works include, "The Boy" (1885); "Cain"
(1886), later destroyed; " Brotherly Love," sometimes called
" Two Friends " (1887); the allegorical " Two Natures " (1894,
in the Metropolitan Museum, New York City) ; " The Hewer "
(1002, at Cairo, Illinois); " Great God Pan " (in Central Park,
New York City); the " Rose Maiden "; the simple and graceful
" Maidenhood "; and sculptural decorations for the new
Capitol building for the state of Pennsylvania at Harrisburg.
BARNARD, HENRY (1811-1000), American educationalist,
was born in Hartford, Connecticut, on the 24th of January 1811.
He graduated at Yale in 1830, and in 1835 was admitted to the
Connecticut bar. In 1837-1839 he was a member of the
Connecticut legislature, effecting in 1838 the passage of a bill,
framed and introduced by himself, which provided for " the
better supervision of the common schools " and established a
board of " commissioners of common schools " in the state.
Of this board he was the secretary from 1838 till its abolition in
1842, and during this time worked indefatigably to reorganize
and reform the common school system of the state, thus earning
a national reputation as an educational reformer. In 1843 he
was appointed by the governor of Rhode Island agent to examine
the public schools of the state, and recommended improvements;
and his work resulted in the reorganization of the school system
two years later. From 1845 to 1849 he was the first commissioner
of public schools in the state, and his administration was marked
by a decided step in educational progress. Returning to Con-
necticut, he was, from 1851 to 1855, " superintendent of common
schools," and principal of the State Normal School at New
Britain, Conn. From 1859 to 1860 he was chancellor of the
University of Wisconsin and agent of the board of regents of
the normal school fund; in 1866 he was president of St John's
College, Annapolis, Maryland; and from 1867 to 1870 he was
the first United States commissioner of education, and in this
position he laid the foundation for the subsequent useful work
of the Bureau of Education. His chief service to the cause of
education, however, was rendered as the editor, from 1855 to
1 88 1, of the American Journal of Education, the thirty-one
volumes of which are a veritable encyclopaedia of education,
one of the most valuable compendiums of information on the
subject ever brought together through the agency of any one man.
He also edited from 1838 to 1842, and again from 1851 to 1854,
the Connecticut Common School Journal, and from 1846 to 1849
the Journal of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction. He died
at Hartford, Conn., on the 5th of July 1900. Among American
educational reformers, Barnard is entitled to rank next to
Horace Mann of Massachusetts.
See a biographical sketch by A. D. Mayo in the Report of the Com-
missioner of Education for 1896-1897 (Washington, 1898), and W. S.
Monroe's Educational Labours of Henry Barnard (Syracuse, 1893).
BARNARD, JOHN, English musician, was a minor canon of
St Paul's in the reign of Charles I. He was the first to publish
a collection of English cathedral music. It contains some of
the finest 16th-century masterpieces, ranging from the " faux-
bourdon " style of Tallis's Preces and Responses to the most
developed types of full anthem. The text, however, is not
trustworthy.
BARNARD CASTLE, a market-town in the Barnard Castle
parliamentary division of Durham, England, 17 m. W. of
Darlington by a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of
urban district (1901) 4421. It is beautifully situated on the steep
left bank of the Tees. A noteworthy building in the town is the
octagonal town-hall, dating from 1747. There are a few pictur-
esque old houses, and a fragment of an Augustinian convent.
St Mary's church, in a variety of styles from Norman onward,
contains some curious monuments; but the building of chief
interest is the castle, which gives the town its name, and is the
principal scene of Sir Walter Scott's Rokeby. The remains extend
over a space of more than six acres. A remarkable building known
as the Bowes' Mansion and Museum, bequeathed in 1874 to the
town by a descendant of Sir George Bowes, contains a valuable-
collection of works of art. In the vicinity of the town are
Egglestone Abbey, beautifully situated on the Yorkshire bank
of the river, Rokeby Park on the same bank, at the confluence
of the Greta, and the massive i4th century castle of Raby to
the north-east. The principal manufacture is shoe-thread. The
corn-market is important.
As part of the lordship of Gainford, Barnard Castle is said to
have been granted by William Rufus to Guy Baliol Bernard, son of
Guy Baliol, who built the castle, and called it after himself, Castle
Bernard. To the men of the town which grew up outside the
castle walls he gave, about the middle of the i2th century, a
charter making them burgesses and granting them the same
privileges as the town of Richmond in Yorkshire. This charter
was confirmed by Bernard Baliol, son of the above Bernard.
Other confirmation charters were granted to the town by Hugh.
John, and Alexander Baliol. The castle and lordship remained
in the hands of the Baliols until John Baliol, king of Scotland,
forfeited them with his other English estates in 1296. Barnard
Castle was then seized by Anthony, bishop of Durham, as being
within his palatinate of Durham. Edward I., however, denied
the bishop's rights and granted the castle and town to Guy
Beauchamp, earl of Warwick, whose descendants continued to
hold them until they passed to the crown by the marriage of Anne
Nevill with Richard III., then duke of Gloucester. In 1630
Barnard Castle was sold to Sir Henry Vane, and in the same year
the castle is said to have been unroofed and dismantled for tht
sake of the materials of which it was built. Tanning leather was
formerly one of the chief industries of the town. In 1614 an act
for " knights and burgesses to have place in parliament for the
county palatine and city of Durham and borough of Barnard
BARNARDO BARNAVE
411
Castle " was brought into the House of Commons, but when the
act was finally passed for the county and city of Durham,
Barnard Castle was not included.
BARNARDO, THOMAS JOHN (1845-1005), English philan-
thropist, and founder and director of homes for destitute children ,
was born at Dublin, Ireland, in 1845. His father was of Spanish
origin, his mother being an Englishwoman. With the intention
of qualifying for medical missionary work in China, he studied
medicine at the London hospital, and later at Paris and Edin-
burgh, where he became a fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons.
His medical work in the east end of London during the epidemic
of cholera in 1865 first drew his attention to the great numbers
of homeless and destitute children in the cities of England.
Encouraged by the support of the seventh earl of Shaftesbury
and the first Earl Cairns, he gave up his early ambition of foreign
missionary labour, and began what was to prove his life's work.
The first of the " Dr Barnardo's Homes " was opened in 1867 in
Stepney Causeway, London, where are still the headquarters of
the institution. From that time the work steadily increased until,
at the time of the founder's death, in loo's, there were established
112 district " Homes," besides mission branches, throughout the
United Kingdom. The object for which these institutions were
started was to search for and to receive waifs and strays, to feed,
clothe, educate, and, where possible, to give an industrial training
suitable to each child. The principle adopted has been that of
free and immediate admission; there are no restrictions of age or
sex, religion or nationality; the physically robust and the in-
curably diseased are alike received, the one necessary qualification
being destitution. The system under which the institution is
carried on is broadly as follows: the infants and younger girls and
boys are chiefly " boarded out " in rural districts; girls above
fourteen years of age are sent to the industrial training homes, to
be taught useful domestic occupations; boys above seventeen
years of age are first tested in labour homes and then placed in
employment at home, sent to sea or emigrated ; boys of between
thirteen and seventeen years of age are trained for the various
trades for which they may be mentally or physically fitted.
Besides the various branches necessary for the foregoing work,
there are also, among others, the following institutions: a rescue
home for girls in danger, a convalescent seaside home, and a
hospital for sick waifs. In 1872 was founded the girls' village
home at Barkingside, near Ilford, with its own church and
sanatorium, and between sixty and seventy cottage homes,
forming a real " garden city "; and there Barnardo himself was
buried. In IQOI, through the generosity of Mr E. H. Watts, a
naval school was started at North Elmham, near Norwich, to
which boys are drafted from the homes to be trained for the navy
and the mercantile marine. Perhaps the most useful of all the
varied work instituted by Barnardo is the emigration system, by
which means thousands of boys and girls have been sent to
British colonies, chiefly to Canada, where there are distributing
centres at Toronto and Winnipeg, and an industrial farm of some
8000 acres near Russell in Manitoba. The fact that in Canada
less than 2 % of the children sent out proved failures confirmed
Barnardo's conviction that " if the children of the slums can be
removed from their surroundings early enough, and can be kept
sufficiently long under training, heredity counts for little,
environment for almost everything." In 1899 the various
institutions and organizations were legally incorporated under
the title of " The National Association for the reclamation of
Destitute Waif Children," but the institution has always been
familiarly knswn as " Dr Barnardo's Homes." Barnardo laid
great stress on the religious teaching of the children under his care.
Each child is brought up under the influence and teaching of the
denomination of the parents. The homes are divided into two
sections for religious teaching, Church of England and Non-
conformists; children of Jewish and Roman Catholic parentage
are, where possible, handed over to the care of the Jewish Board
of Guardians in London, and to Roman Catholic institutions,
respectively. From the foundation of the homes in 1867 to the
date of Barnardo's death, nearly 60,000 children had been rescued,
trained and placed out in life. Barnardo died of angina pectoris
in London on the I9th of September 1005. A national memorial
was instituted to form a fund of 250,000 to relieve the various
institutions of all financial liability and to place the entire work
on a permanent basis. Dr William Baker, formerly the chairman
of the council, was selected to succeed the founder of the homes as
director. Barnardo was the author of many books dealing with
the charitable work to which he devoted his life.
His biography (1907) was written by his wife (the daughter of
Mr William Elmslie) and J. Marchant.
BARNAUL, a town of Asiatic Russia, government of Tomsk,
standing in a plain bounded by offshoots of the Altai Moun-
tains, and on the Barnaulka river, at its confluence with the Ob,
in lat. 53 20' N. and long. 83 46' E., 220 m. S. of Tomsk. It is
the capital of the Altai mining districts, and besides smelting
furnaces possesses glassworks, a bell-foundry and a mint. It has
also a meteorological observatory, established in 1841, a mining
school and a museum with a rich collection of mineral and
zoological specimens. Barnaul was founded in 1730 by A.
Demidov, to whose memory a monument has been erected. Pop.
(1900) 29,850.
BARNAVE, ANTOINE PIERRE JOSEPH MARIE (1761-1793),
one of the greatest orators of the first French Revolution, was
born at Grenoble in Dauphin6, on the zznd of October 1761. He
was of a Protestant family. His father was an advocate at the
parlement of Grenoble, and his mother was a woman of high
birth, superior ability and noble character. He was educated
by his mother because, being a Protestant, he could hot attend
school, and he grew up at once thoughtful and passionate,
studious and social, handsome in person and graceful in manners.
He was brought up to the law, and at the age of twenty-two made
himself favourably known by a discourse pronounced before
the local parlement on the division of political powers. Dauphin6
was one of the first of the provinces to feel the excitement of the
coming revolution; and Barnave was foremost to give voice to
the general feeling, in a pamphlet entitled Esprit des edits en-
registrts militairement le 20 mai 1788. He was immediately
elected deputy, with his father, to the states of Dauphine, and
took a prominent part in their debates. A few months later he
was transferred to a wider field of action. The states-general
were convoked at Versailles for the 5th of May 1 789, and Barnave
was chosen deputy of the tiers Slat for his native province. He
soon made an impression on the Assembly, became the friend of
most of the leaders of the popular party, and formed with
Adrien Duport and Alexandre Lameth (q.v.) the group known
during the Constituent Assembly as " the triumvirate." He
took part in the conference on the claims of the three orders,
drew up the first address tthe king, and supported the proposal
of Sieyes that the Assembly should declare itself National. Until
1791 he was one of the principal members of the club known later
as the Jacobins, of which he drew up the manifesto and first rules
(see JACOBINS). Though a passionate lover of liberty, he hoped
to secure the freedom of France and her monarchy at the same
time. But he was almost unawares borne away by the mighty
currents of the time, and he took part in the attacks on the
monarchy, on the clergy, on church property, and on the pro-
vincial parlements. With the one exception of Mirabeau,
Barnave was the most powerful orator of the Assembly. On
several occasions he stood in opposition to Mirabeau. After the
fall of the Bastille he wished to save the throne. He advocated
the suspensory veto, and the establishment of trial by jury in
civil causes, but voted with the Left against the system of two
chambers. His conflict with Mirabeau on the question of
assigning to the king the right to make peace or war (from the
i6th to the 23rd of May 1791) was one of the most striking scenes
in the Assembly. In August 175/1, after a vehement debate, he
fought a duel with J. A. M. de Cazales, in which the latter was
slightly wounded. About the close of October 1 790 Barnave was
called to the presidency of the Assembly. On the death of
Mirabeau a few months later, Barnave paid a high tribute to his
worth and public services, designating him the Shakespeare of
oratory. On the arrest of the king and the royal family at
Varennes, while attempting to escape from France, Barnave was
412
BARNBY BARNES, SIR E.
one of the three appointed to conduct them back to Paris. On
the journey he was deeply affected by the mournful fate of
Marie-Antoinette, and resolved to do what he could to alleviate
their sufferings. In one of his most powerful speeches he main-
tained the inviolability of the king's person. His public career
came to an end with the close of the Constituent Assembly, and
he returned to Grenoble at the beginning of 1 792. His sympathy
and relations with the royal family, to whom he had submitted
a plan for a counter-revolution, and his desire to check the
downward progress of 'the Revolution, brought on him suspicion
of treason. Denounced (isth of August 1792) in the Legislative
Assembly, he was arrested and imprisoned for ten months at
Grenoble, then transferred to Fort Barraux, and in November
1793 to Paris. The nobility of his character was proof against
the assaults of suffering. " Better to suffer and to die," he said,
" than lose one shade of my moral and political character." On
the 28th of November he appeared before the Revolutionary
Tribunal. He was condemned on the evidence of papers found
at the Tuileries and executed the next day, with Duport-
Dutertre.
Barnave's (Euvres posthumes were published in 1842 by Berenger
(de la Dr8me) in 4 vols. See*". A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de ['assembles
constituante (Paris, 1882).
BARNBY, SIR JOSEPH (1838-1896), English musical composer
and conductor, son of Thomas Barnby, an organist, was born
at York on the i2th of August 1838. He was a chorister at
York minster from the age of seven, was educated at the Royal
Academy of Music under Cipriani Potter and Charles Lucas, and
was appointed in 1862 organist of St. Andrew's, Wells Street,
London, where he raised the services to a high degree of excellence.
He was conductor of " Barnby's Choir " from 1864, and in 1871
was appointed, in succession to Gounod, conductor of the Albert
Hall Choral Society, a post he held till his death. In 1875 he was
precentor and director of music at Eton, and in 1892 became
principal of the Guildhall School of Music, receiving the honour
of knighthood in July of that year. His works include an
oratorio Rebekah, Ps. xcvii., many services and anthems, and
two hundred and forty-six hymn-tunes (published in 1897 in one
volume), as well as some part-songs (among them the popular
" Sweet and Low "), and some pieces for the organ. As a con-
ductor he possessed the qualities as well as the defects of the
typical north-countryman; if he was wanting in the higher kind
of imagination or ideality, he infused into those who sang under
him something of his own rectitude and precision. He was largely
instrumental in stimulating the love for Gounod's sacred music
among the less educated part of the London public, although he
displayed little practical sympathy *ith opera. On the other
hand, he organized a remarkable concert performance of Parsifal
at the Albert Hall in London in 1884. He conducted the Cardiff
Festivals of 1892 and 1895. He died in London on the 28th of
January 1896, and after a special service in St Paul's cathedral
was buried in Norwood Cemetery.
BARNES, ALBERT (1798-1870), American theologian, was
born at Rome, New York, on the ist of December 1798. He
graduated at Hamilton College, Clinton, N.Y., in 1820, and at
the Princeton Theological Seminary in 1823, was ordained as
a Presbyterian minister by the presbytery of Elizabethtown,
New Jersey, in 1825, and was the pastor successively of the
Presbyterian Church in Morristown, New Jersey (1825-1830)
and of the First Presbyterian Church of Philadelphia(i83O-i867).
He held a prominent place in the New School branch of the
Presbyterians, to which he adhered on the division of the de-
nomination in 1837; he had been tried (but not convicted) for
heresy in 1836, the charge being particularly against the views
expressed by him in Notes on Romans (1835) of the imputation
of the sin of Adam, original sin and the atonement; the bitter-
ness stirred up by this trial contributed towards widening the
breach between the conservative and the progressive elements
in the church. He was an eloquent preacher, but his reputation
rests chiefly on his expository works, which are said to have had
a larger circulation both in Europe and America than any others
of their class. Of the well-known Notes on the New Testament
it is said that more than a million volumes had been issued by
1870. The Notes on Job, the Psalms, Isaiah and Daniel, found
scarcely less acceptance. Displaying no original critical power,
their chief merit lies in the fact that they bring in a popular
(but not always accurate) form the results of the criticism of
others within the reach of general readers. Barnes was the author
of several other works of a practical and devotional kind, and
a collection of his Theological Works was published in Phila-
delphia in 1875. ' He died in Philadelphia on the 24th of December
1870.
BARNES, BARNABE (1569 ?-i6o9), English poet, fourth son
of Dr Richard Barnes, bishop of Durham, was born in Yorkshire,
perhaps at Stonegrave, a living of his father's, in 1568 or 1569.
In 1586 he was entered at Brasenose College, Oxford, where
Giovanni Florio was his servitor, and in 1591 went to France
with the earl of Essex, who was then serving against the prince
of Parma. On his return he published Parthenophil and Par-
thenophe, Sonnettes, Madrigals, Elegies and Odes (ent. on
Stationers' Register 1593), dedicated to his " dearest friend,"
William Percy, who contributed a sonnet to the eulogies prefixed
to a later work, Offices. Parthenophil was possibly printed for
private circulation, and the copy in the duke of Devonshire's
library is believed to be unique. Barnes was well acquainted
with the work of contemporary French sonneteers, to whom he is
largely indebted, and he borrows his title, apparently, from a
Neapolitan writer of Latin verse, Hieronymus Angerianus.
It is possible to outline a story from this series of love lyrics,
but the incidents are slight, and in this case, as in other Eliza-
bethan sonnet-cycles, it is difficult to dogmatize as to what
is the expression of a real personal experience, and what is
intellectual exercise in imitation of Petrarch. Parthenophil
abounds in passages of great freshness and beauty, although
its elaborate conceits are sometimes over-ingenious and strained.
Barnes took the part of Gabriel Harvey and even experimented
in classical metres. This partisanship is sufficient to account
for the abuse of Thomas Nashe, who accused him, apparently
on no proof at all, of stealing a nobleman's chain at Windsor,
and of other things. Barnes's second work, A Divine Centurie
of Spirituall Sonnetts, appeared in 1595. He also wrote two
plays: The Divil's Charter (1607), a tragedy dealing with the
life of Pope Alexander VI.; which was played before the king;
and The Battle of Evesham (or Hexham), of which the MS., traced
to the beginning of the i8th century, is lost. In 1606 he dedicated
to King James Offices enabling privat Persons for the speciall
service of all good Princes and Policies, a prose treatise containing,
among other things, descriptions of Queen Elizabeth and of the
earl of Essex. Barnes was buried at Durham in December 1609.
His Parthenophil and Spirituall Sonnetts were edited by Dr A. B.
Grosart in a limited issue in 1875; Parthenophil was included by
Prof. E. Arber in vol. v. of An English Garner; see also the new
edition of An English Garner (Elizabethan Sonnets, cd. S. Lee, 1904,
pp. Ixxv. et seq.). Professor E. Dowden contributed a sympathetic
criticism of Barnes to The Academy of Sept. 2, 1876.
BARNES, SIR EDWARD (1776-1838), British soldier, entered
the 47th regiment in 1792, and quickly rose to field rank. He
was promoted lieutenant-colonel in 1807, and colonel in 1810,
and two years later went to the Peninsula to serve on Wellington's
staff. His services in this capacity gained him further promotion,
and as a major-general he led a brigade at Vittoria and in the
Pyrenean battles. He had the cross and three clasps for his
Peninsula service. As adjutant-general he served in the cam-
paign of 1815 and was wounded at Waterloo. Already a K.C.B.,
he now received the Austrian order of Maria Theresa, and the
Russian order of St Anne. In 1819 began his connexion with
Ceylon, of which island he was governor from 1824 to 1831.
He directed the construction of the great military road between
Colombo and Kandy, and of many other lines of communication,
made the first census of the population, and introduced coffee
cultivation on the West Indian system (1824). In 1831 he
received the G.C.B., and from 1831 to 1853 he was commander-
in-chief in India, with the local rank of general. On his return
home, after two unsuccessful attempts to secure the seat, he
became M.P. for Sudbury in 1837, but he died in the following
BARNES, J. BARNES, W.
year. Sir Edward Barnes' portrait was painted, for Ceylon, by
John Wood, and a memorial statue was ericted in Colombo.
BARNES, JOSHUA (1654-1712), English scholar, was born
in London on the loth of January 1654. Educated at Christ's
Hospital and at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, he was in 1695
chosen regius professor of Greek, a language which he wrote
and spoke with the utmost facility. One of his first publications
was entitled Gerania; a New Discovery of a Little Sort of People,
anciently discoursed of, called Pygmies (1675), a whimsical sketch
to which Swift's Voyage to Lilliput possibly owes something.
Among his other works are a History of that Most Victorious
Monarch Edward III. (1688), in which he introduces long and
elaborate speeches into the narrative ; editions of Euripides (1694)
and of Homer (1711), also one of Anacreon (1705) which contains
titles of Greek verses of his own which he hoped to publish. He
died on the 3rd of August 1712, at Hemingford, near St Ives,
Hunts.
BARNES, ROBERT (1495-1540), English . reformer and
martyr, born about 1495, was educated at Cambridge, where
he was a member, and afterwards prior of the convent of Austin
Friars, and graduated D.D. in 1523. He was apparently one of
the Cambridge men who were wont to gather at the White
Horse Tavern for Bible-reading and theological discussion early
in the third decade of the i6th century. In 1 5 26, he was brought
before the vice-chancellor for preaching a heterodox sermon,
and was subsequently examined by Wolsey and four other
bishops. He was condemned to abjure or be burnt; and
preferring the former alternative, was committed to the Fleet
prison and afterwards to the Austin Friars in London. He
escaped thence to Antwerp in 1528, and also visited Wittenberg,
where he made Luther's acquaintance. He also came across
Stephen Vaughan, an agent of Thomas Cromwell and an advanced
reformer, who recommended him to Cromwell: " Look well,"
he wrote, " upon Dr Barnes' book. It is such a piece of work
as I have not yet seen any like it. I think he shall seal it with
his blood" (Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. v. 593). In
1531 Barnes returned to England, and became one of the chief
intermediaries between the English government and Lutheran
Germany. In 1535 he was sent to Germany, in the hope of
inducing Lutheran divines to approve of Henry's divorce from
Catherine of Aragon, and four years later he was employed in
negotiations connected with Anne of Cleves's marriage. The
policy was Cromwell's, but Henry VIII. had already in 1538
refused to adopt Lutheran theology, and the statute of Six Articles
(1539), followed by the king's disgust with Anne of Cleves (1540),
brought the agents of that policy to ruin. An attack upon
Bishop Gardiner by Barnes in a sermon at St Paul's Cross was
the signal for a bitter struggle between the Protestant and
reactionary parties in Henry's council, which raged during
the spring of 1540. Barnes was forced to apologize and recant;
and Gardiner delivered a series of sermons at St Paul's Cross
to counteract Barnes' invective. But a month or so later
Cromwell was made earl of Essex, Gardiner's friend, Bishop
Sampson, was sent to the Tower, and Barnes raverted to
Lutheranism. It was a delusive victory. In July, Cromwell
was attainted, Anne of Cleves was divorced and Barnes was
burnt (30th July 1540). He also had an act of attainder passed
against him, a somewhat novel distinction for a heretic, which
illustrates the way in which Henry VIII. employed secular
machinery for ecclesiastical purposes, and regarded heresy as an
offence against the state rather than against the church. Barnes
was one of six executed on the same day: two, William Jerome
and Thomas Gerrard, were, like himself, burnt for heresy under
the Six Articles; three, Thomas Abel, Richard Fetherstone
and Edward Powell, were hanged for treason in denying the
royal supremacy. Both Lutherans and Catholics on the con-
tinent were shocked. Luther published Barnes' confession with
a preface of his own as Bekenntnis des Glaubens (1540), which
is included in Walch'S edition of Luther's Wcrke xxi. 186.
See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vols. iv.-xv. passim;
Wriothesley's Chronicle; Foxe's Acts and Monuments, ed. G. Town-
send; Burnet's Hist, of the Ref., ed. Pocock; Dixon's Hist, of the
Church; Gairdner's Church in the XVIth Century; Pollard's
Henry VIII. and Cranmer; Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie,
3rd ed. , (A. F. P.)
BARNES, THOMAS (1785-1841), British journalist, was born
about 1785. Educated at Christ's Hospital and Pembroke
College, Cambridge, he came to London and soon joined the
famous literary circle of which Hunt, Lamb and Hazlitt were
prominent members. Upon the retirement of Dr Stoddart in
1817 he was appointed editor of The Times, a position which he
held until his death, when he was succeeded by Delane. Lord
Lyndhurst gave expression to a very widely-held opinion when
he described him as " the most powerful man in the country."
He died on the 7th of May 1841.
BARNES, WILLIAM (1800-1886), the Dorsetshire poet, was
born on the 22nd of February 1800, at Rushay, near Pentridge
in Dorset, the son of John Barnes and Grace Scott, of the farmer
class. He was a delicate child, in direct contrast to a strong race
of forebears, and inherited from his mother a refined, retiring
disposition and a love for books. He went to school at Sturminster
Newton, where he was considered the clever boy of the school;
and when a solicitor named Dashwood applied to the master for
a quick-witted boy to join him as pupil, Barnes was selected for
the post. He worked with the village parson in his spare hours
at classics and studied music under the organist. In 1818 he left
Sturminster for the office of one Coombs at Dorchester, where
he continued his evening education with another kindly clergy-
man. He also made great progress in the art of wood-engraving,
and with the money he received for a series of blocks for a work
called Walks about Dorchester, he printed and published his first
book, Orra, a Lapland Tale, in 1822. In the same year he became
engaged to Julia Miles, the daughter of an excise officer. In 1823
he took a school at Mere in Wiltshire, and four years later married
and settled in Chantry House, a fine old Tudor mansion in that
town. The school grew in numbers, and Barnes occupied all his
spare time in assiduous study, reading during these years
authors so diverse in character as Herodotus, Sallust, Ovid,
Petrarch, Buffon and Burns. He also began to write poetry,
and printed many of his verses in the Dorset County Chronicle.
His chief studies, however, were philological; and in 1829 he
published An Etymological Glossary of English Words of Foreign
Derivation. In 1832 a strolling company of actors visited Mere,
and Barnes wrote a farce, The Honest Thief, which they produced,
and a comedy which was played at Wincanton. Barnes also
wrote a number of educational books, such as Elements of
Perspective, Outlines of Geography, and in 1833 first began his
poems in the Dorsetshire dialect, among them the two eclogues
" The 'Lotments " and " A Bit o'Sly Coorten," in the pages of the
local paper. In 1835 he left Mere, and returned to Dorchester,
where he started another school, removing in 1837 into larger
quarters. In 1844 he published Poems of Rural Life in the
Dorset Dialect. Three years later Barnes took holy orders, and
was appointed to the cure of Whitcombe, 3 m. from Dor-
chester. He had been for some years upon the books of St John's
College, Cambridge, and took the degree of B.D. in 1850. He
resigned Whitcombe in 1852, finding the work too hard in
connexion with his mastership; and in June of that year he
sustained a severe bereavement by the death of his wife. Con-
tinuing his studies in the science of language, he published his
Philological Grammar in 1854, drawing examples from more than
sixty languages. For the copyright of this erudite work he
received 5. The second series of dialect poems, Hicomcly
Rhymes, appeared in 1859 (2nd ed. 1863). Hwomely Rhymes
contained some of his best-known pieces, and in the year of its
publication he first began to give readings from his works. As
their reputation grew he travelled all over the country, delighting
large audiences with his quaint humour and natural pathos.
In 1861 he was awarded a civil list pension of 70 a year, and in
the next year published Tiw, the most striking of his philological
studies, in which the Teutonic roots in the English language are
discussed. Barnes had a horror of Latin forms in English, and
would have substituted English compounds for many Latin
forms in common use. In 1862 he broke up his school, and
414
BARNET BARNFIELD
removed to the rectory of Winterborne Came, to which he was
presented by his old friend, Captain Seymour Dawson Darner.
Here he worked continuously at verse and prose, contributing
largely to the magazines. A new series of Poems of Rural Life
in the Dorset Dialect appeared in 1862, and he was persuaded in
1868 to publish a series of Poems of Rural Life in Common English,
which was less successful than his dialect poems. These latter
were collected into a single volume in 1879, and on the 7th of
October 1886 Barnes died at Winterborne Came. His poetry
is essentially English in character; no other writer has given
quite so simple and sincere a picture of the homely life and labour
of rural England. His work is full of humour and the clean,
manly joy of life; and its rusticity is singularly allied to a literary
sense and to high technical finish. He is indeed the Victorian
Theocritus; and, as English country life is slowly swept away
before the advance of the railway and the telegraph, he will be
more and more read for his warm-hearted and fragrant record of
rustic love and piety. His original and suggestive books on the
English language, which are valuable in spite of their eccen-
tricities, include: Se Gefylsta: an Anglo-Saxon Delectus (1849);
A Grammar and Glossary of the Dorset Dialect (1864); An Outline
of English Speech-Craft (1878); and A Glossary of the Dorset
Dialect (Dorchester, 1886).
See The Life of William Barnes, Poet and Philologist (1887), by
his daughter, Lucy E. Baxter, who is known as a writer on art by
the pseudonym of Leader Scott; and a notice by Thomas Hardy
in the Athenaeum (i6th of October 1886).
BARNET, a residential district in the mid or St Albans parlia-
mentary division of Hertfordshire, England; 10 m. N. of London,
served by the main line and branches of the Great Northern
railway. The three chief divisions are as follows : ( i ) CHIPPING
or HIGH BARNET, a market town and urban district (Barnet),
pop. (1901) 7876. The second epithet designates its position
on a hill, but the first is given it from the market granted to the
abbots of St Albans to be kept there, by Henry II. Near the
town, round a point marked by an obelisk, was fought in 1471 the
decisive battle between the houses of York and Lancaster, in
which the earl of Warwick fell and the Lancastrians were totally
defeated. The town is on the Great North Road, on which it was
formerly an important coaching station. A large annual horse
and cattle fair is held. (2) EAST BARNET, 2 m. S.E. of Chipping
Barnet, has an ancient parish church retaining Norman portions,
though enlarged in modern times. Pop. of East Barnet Valley
urban district, 10,094. (3) NEW BARNET lies i m. E. by S. from
Chipping Barnet.
FRIERN BARNET, in the Enfield parliamentary division of
Middlesex, lies 3 m. S. of Chipping Barnet. Pop. of urban
district, 11,566. The prefix recalls the former lordship of the
manor possessed by the friary of St John of Jerusalem in Clerken-
well, London. Friern Barnet adjoins Finchley on the north
and Whetstone on the south, the whole district being residential.
BARNETT, JOHN (1802-1890), English musical composer, son
of a Prussian named Bernhard Beer, who changed his name on
settling in England as a jeweller, was born at Bedford, and at the
age of eleven sang on the Lyceum stage in London. His good
voice led to his being given a musical education, and he soon
began writing songs and lighter pieces for the stage. In 1834 he
published a collection of Lyrical Illustrations of the Modern Poets.
His Mountain Sylph with which his name is chiefly connected
received a warm welcome when produced at the Lyceum on
August 25, 1834, as the first modern English opera: and it was
followed by another opera Fair Rosamund in 1837, and by
Farinelli in 1839. He had a large connexion as a singing-master
at Cheltenham, and published Systems and Singing-masters (1842)
and School for theVoice (1844). He died on the 1 6th of April 1890.
His nephew, JOHN FRANCIS BARNETT (1837- ), son of John's
brother, Joseph Alfred, also a professor of music, carried on the
traditions of the family as a composer and teacher. He obtained
a queen's scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music, and
developed into an accomplished pianist, visiting Germany to
study in 1857 and playing at a Gewandhaus concert at Leipzig
in 1860. He came into notice as a composer with his symphony
in A minor (1864), and followed this with a number of composi-
tions for orchestra, strings or pianoforte. His cantata The
Ancient Mariner was brought out at Birmingham in 1867, and
another, Paradise and the Peri, in 1870, both with great success.
In 1873 his most important work, the oratorio The Raising of
Lazarus, was written, and in 1876 produced at Hereford. Many
other cantatas, pianoforte pieces, &c. were composed by him,
and successfully brought out; and he took an active part as a
professor in the work of the Guildhall School of Music and Royal
College of Music.
BARNETT, SAMUEL AUGUSTUS ( 1 844- ) , English clergy-
man and social reformer, was born at Bristol on the 8th of
February 1844, the son of Francis Augustus Barnett, an iron
manufacturer. After leaving Wadham College, Oxford, in 1866,
he visited the United States. Next year he was ordained to the
curacy of St Mary's, Bryanston Square, and took priest's orders
in 1 868. In 1 87 2 he became vicar of St Jude's, Commercial Street ,
Whitechapel, and in the next year married Henrietta Octavia
Rowland, who had been a co-worker with Miss Octavia
Hill and was no less ardent a philanthropist than her husband.
Mr and Mrs Barnett worked hard for the poor of their parish,
opening evening schools for adults, providing them with music
and reasonable entertainment, and serving on the board of
guardians and on the managing committees of schools. Mr
Barnett did much to discourage outdoor relief, as tending to the
pauperization of the neighbourhood. At the same time the
conditions of indoor relief were improved, and the various
charities were co-ordinated, by co-operation with the Charity
Organization Society and the parish board of guardians. In
1875 Arnold Toynbee paid a visit, the first of many, to White-
chapel, and Mr Barnett, who kept in constant touch with Oxford,
formed in 1877 a small committee, over which he presided himself,
to consider the organization of university extension in London,
his chief assistants being Leonard Montefiore, a young Oxford
man, and Frederick Rogers, a member of the vellum binders'
trade union. The committee received influential support, and
in October four courses of lectures, one by Dr S. R. Gardiner on
English history, were given in Whitechapel. The Barnetts were
also associated with the building of model dwellings, with the
establishment of the children's country holiday fund and the
annual loan exhibitions of fine art at the Whitechapel gallery.
In 1884 an article by Mr Barnett in the Nineteenth Century
discussed the question of university settlements. This resulted
in July in the formation of the University Settlements Associa-
tion, and when Toynbee Hall was built shortly afterwards Mr
Barnett became its warden. He was a select preacher at Oxford
in 1895-1897, and at Cambridge in 1900; he received a canonry
in Bristol cathedral in 1893, but retained his wardenship of
Toynbee Hall, while relinquishing the living of St Jude's. In
June 1906 he was preferred to a canonry at Westminster, and
when in December he resigned the wardenship of Toynbee Hall
the position of president was created so that he might retain his
connexion with the institution. Among Canon Barnett's works
is Practicable Socialism (1888, 2nd ed. 1894), written in conjunc-
tion with his wife.
BARNFIELD, RICHARD (1574-1627), English poet, was born
at Norbury, Staffordshire, and baptized on the i3th of June 1574.
His obscure though close relationship with Shakespeare has long
made him interesting to students and has attracted of late years
further attention from the circumstance that important dis-
coveries regarding his life have been made. Until recently
nothing whatever was known about the facts of Barnfield's
career, whose very existence had been doubted. It was, however,
discovered by the late Dr A. B. Grosart that the poet was the son
of Richard Barnfield (or Barnefield) and Maria Skrymsher, his
wife, who were married in April 1572. They resided in the parish
of Norbury, in Staffordshire, on the borders of Salop, where the
poet was baptized on the i3th of June 1574. The mother died
in giving birth to a daughter early in 1581, and her unmarried
sister, Elizabeth Skrymsher, seems to have devoted herself to
the care of the children. In November 1589 Barnfield matricu-
lated at Brasenose College, Oxford, and took his degree in
BARNIM
February 1592. He "performed the exercise for his master's
gown," but seems to have left the university abruptly, without
proceeding to the M.A. It is conjectured that he came up to
London in 1593, and became acquainted with Watson, Drayton,
and perhaps with Spenser. The death of Sir Philip Sidney had
occurred while Barnfield was still a school-boy, but it seems to
have strongly affected his imagination and to have inspired
some of his earliest verses. In November 1 594, in his twenty-first
year, Barnfield published anonymously his first work, The
A/ectionate Shepherd, dedicated with familiar devotion to
Penelope, Lady Rich. This was a sort of florid romance, in two
books of six-line stanza, in the manner of Lodge and Shakespeare,
dealing at large with " the complaint of Daphnis for the love of
Ganymede." As the author expressly admitted later, it was an
expansion or paraphrase of Virgil's second eclogue
" Formosum pastor Corydon ardebat Alexin."
This poem of Barnfield's was the most extraordinary specimen
hitherto produced in England of the licence introduced from Italy
at the Renaissance. Although the poem was successful, it did not
pass without censure from the moral point of view. Into the
conventional outlines of The Affectionate Shepherd the young poet
has poured all his fancy, all his epithets, and all his coloured
touches of nature. If we are not repelled by the absurd subject,
we have to admit that none of the immediate imitators of Venus
and Adonis has equalled the juvenile Barnfield in the picturesque-
ness of his " fine ruff-footed doves," his " speckled flower call'd
sops-in-wine," or his desire " by the bright glimmering of the
starry light, to catch the long-bill'd woodcock." Two months
later, in January 1595, Barnfield published his second volume,
Cynthia, with certain Sonnets, and this time signed the preface,
which was dedicated, in terms which imply close personal rela-
tions, to William Stanley, the new earl of Derby. This is a book of
extreme interest; it exemplifies the earliest study both of Spenser
and Shakespeare. " Cynthia " itself, a panegyric on Queen
Elizabeth, is written in the Spenserian stanza, of which it is
probably the earliest example extant outside The Faerie Queene.
This is followed by a sequence of twenty sonnets, which have the
extraordinary interest that, while preceding the publication of
Shakespeare's sonnets by fourteen years, they are closer to them
in manner than are any others of the Elizabethan age. They
celebrate, with extravagant ardour, the charms of a young man
whose initials seem to have been j. U. or J. V., and of whom
nothing else seems known. These sonnets, which preceded even
the Amoretti of Spenser, are of unusual merit as poetry, and would
rank as high in quality as in date of publication if their subject-
matter were not so preposterous. They show the influence of
Dray ton's Idea, which had appeared a few months before; in that
collection also, it is to be observed, there had appeared amatory
sonnets addressed to a young man. If editors would courageously
alter the gender of the pronouns, several of Barnfield's glowing
sonnets might take their place at once in our anthologies. Before
the publication of his volume, however, he had repented of his
heresies, and had become enamoured of a "lass" .named Eliza
(or Elizabeth), whom he celebrates with effusion in an " Ode."
This is probably the lady whom he presently married, and as we
find him a grandfather in 1626 it is unlikely that the wedding was
long delayed. In 1598 Barnfield published his third volume, The
Encomion of Lady Pecunia, a poem in praise of money, followed
by a sort of continuation, in the same six-line stanza, called " The
Complaint of Poetry for the Death of Liberality." In this volume
there is already a decline in poetic quality. But an appendix of
" Poems in diverse Humours " to this volume of 1598 presents
some very interesting features. Here appears what seems to be
the absolutely earliest praise of Shakespeare in a piece entitled
" A Remembrance of some English Poets," in which the still
unrecognized author of Venus and Adonis is celebrated by the side
of Spenser, Daniel and Drayton. Here also are the sonnet, " If
Music and sweet Poetry agree," and the beautiful ode beginning
" As it fell upon a day," which were until recently attributed to
Shakespeare himself. In the next year, 1599, The Passionate
Pilgrim was published, with the words " By W. Shakespeare " on
the title-page. It was long supposed that this attribution was
correct, but Barnfield claimed one of the two pieces just mentioned,
not only in 1 598, but again in 1605. It is certain that both are his,
and possibly other things in The Passionate Pilgrim also; Shake-
speare's share in the twenty poems of that miscellany being
doubtless confined to the five short pieces which have been
definitely identified as his. In the opinion of the present writer
the sonnet beginning " Sweet Cytherea " has unmistakably the
stamp of Barnfield, and is probably a gloss on the first rapturous
perusal of Venus and Adonis; the same is to be said of " Scarce
had the sun," which is aut Barnfield, out diabolus. One or two
other contributions to The Passionate Pilgrim may be conjectured,
with less confidence, to be Barnfield's. It has been stated that
the poet was now studying the law at Gray's Inn, but for this the
writer is unable to discover the authority, except that several
members of that society are mentioned in the course of the volume
of 1598. In all probability Barnfield now married and withdrew
to his estate of Dorlestone (or Darlaston) , in the county of Stafford,
a house romantically situated on the river Trent, where he hence-
forth resided as a country gentleman. In 1605 he reprinted his
Lady Pecunia, and this was his latest appearance as a man of
letters. His son Robert Barnfield and his cousin Elinor Skrymsher
were his executors when his will was proved at Lichfield; his
wife, therefore, doubtless predeceased him. Barnfield died at
Dorlestone Hall, and was buried in the neighbouring parish
church of St Michael's, Stone, on the 6th of March 1627. The
labours of Dr Grosart and of Professor Arber have thrown much
light on the circumstances of Barnfield's career. He has taken of
late years a far more prominent place than ever before in the
history of English literature. This is due partly to the remarkable
merit of his graceful, melodious and highly-coloured verse, which
was practically unknown until it was privately printed in 1876
(ed. Grosart, Roxburghe Club), and at length given to the public
in 1882 (ed. Arber, English Scholars' Library). It is also due to
the mysterious personal relation of Barnfield to Shakespeare, a
relation not easy to prove in detail, as it is built up on a great
variety of small indications. It is, however, obvious that
Barnfield warmly admired Shakespeare, whose earliest imitator
he may be said to have been, and that between 1595 and 1600 t|e
younger poet was so close to the elder that the compositions of the
former could be confused with those of the latter. Barnfield died,
as a poet, in his twenty-fifth year. Up to that time he had dis-
played a talent which, if he had pursued it, might have placed
him very high among the English poets. As it is, he will always
interest a certain number of readers as being, in his languid
"Italianate " way, a sort of ineffectual Mcleager in the rich
Elizabethan anthology.
Besides the editions already cited, The Affectionate Shepherd was
edited by Mr J. O. Halliwell-Phillipps for the Percy Society (Early
English Poetry, vol. xx.) ; The Encomion of Pecunia and some other
poems by J. Boswell (Roxburghe Club, 1816) ; and by J. P. Collier
in Illustrations of Old English Literature (vol. i., 1866). (E.G.)
BARNIM, the name of a district between the Spree, the Oder
and the Havel, which was added to the mark of Brandenburg
during the i3th century. In the isth century it was divided into
upper and lower .Barnim, and these names are now borne by two
circles (Kreise) in the kingdom of Prussia.
BARNIM, the name of thirteen dukes who ruled over various
divisions of the duchy of Pomerania. The following are the most
important:
BARNIM I. (c. 1209-1278), called the Good, was the son of
Bogislaus II., duke of Pomerania-Stettin, -and succeeded to this
duchy on his father's death in 1220. After he became of age he
was engaged in a long struggle with external enemies, and in 1 250
was compelled to recognize the supremacy of the margrave of
Brandenburg. Having in 1264 united the whole of Pomerania
under his rule, Barnim devoted his energies to improving its
internal condition. He introduced German settlers and customs
into the duchy, founded many towns, and was extremely generous
towards ecclesiastical foundations. He died on the iath or i4th
of November 1278.
BARNIM III. (c. 1303-1368), called the Great, was the son of
Otto I., duke of Pomerania-Stettin, and took a prominent part
in the defence and government of the duchy before his father's
416
BARNSLEY BARNSTAPLE
death in 1344. A long and intermittent struggle with the repre-
sentatives of the emperor Louis IV., who had invested his own
son Louis with the mark of Brandenburg, enabled him to gain
military experience and distinction. A victory gained by him
in August 1332 was mainly instrumental in freeing Pomerania
for a time from the vexatious claim of Brandenburg to supremacy
over the duchy, which moreover he extended by conquest.
Barnim assisted the emperor Charles IV. in his struggle with the
family of Wittelsbach. He died on the 24th of August 1368.
BARNIM XL (1501-1573), son of Bogislaus X., duke of
Pomerania, became duke on his father's death in 1 5 23 . He ruled
for a time in common with his elder brother George; and after
George's death in 1531 he shared the duchy with his nephew
Philip L, retaining for himself the duchy of Pomerania-Stettin.
The earlier years of his rule were troubled by a quarrel with the
margrave of Brandenburg, who wished to annex Pomerania. In
1529, however, a treaty was made which freed Pomerania from
the supremacy of Brandenburg on condition that if the ducal
family became extinct the duchy should revert to Brandenburg.
Barnim adopted the doctrines of Martin Luther, and joined the
league of Schmalkajden, but took no part in the subsequent war.
But as this attitude left him without supporters he was obliged
to submit to the emperor Charles V., to pay a heavy fine, and to
accept the Interim, issued from Augsburg in May 1548. In 1569
Barnim handed over his duchy to his grand-nephew, John
Frederick, and died at Stettin on the 2nd of June 1573.
BARNSLEY (BLACK, or properly BLEAK BARNSLEY), a market
town and municipal borough in the Barnsley parliamentary
division of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, 15 m. N. of
Sheffield. Pop. (1891) 35,427; (1901) 41,086. It is served by
the Midland, Great Central, Lancashire & Yorkshire, Great
Northern, and Hull & Barnsley railways. It is in the parish
of Silksto'ne, which gives name to important collieries. It is
situated on rising ground west of the river Dearne, and, though
it loses in attraction owing to its numerous factories, its
neighbourhood has considerable natural beauty. Among the
principal buildings and institutions are several churches, of which
the oldest, the parish church of St Mary, was built in 1821 on an
early site; court house, public hall, institute and free library.
Among several educational institutions, the free grammar school
dates from 1665; and a philosophical society was founded in
1828. A monument was erected in 1905 to prominent members
of the Yorkshire Miners' Association. The park was presented
in 1862 by the widow of Joseph Locke, M.P. The manufacture
of iron and steel, and the weaving of linen and other cloth, are
the two principal industries; but there are also bleachfields,
printfields, dyeworks, sawmills, cornmills and malt-houses; and
the manufacture of glass, needles and wire is carried on. There
are large coalfields in the neighbourhood, which, indeed, extend
underthe town. Coal and coke are largelyexported to London and
Hull. In the vicinity, Monk Bretton Priory, a Cluniac foundation
of 1157, retains a Perpendicular gatehouse, some Decorated
domestic remains, and fragments of the church. Wentworth
Castle, built in 1730 by Thomas, earl of Strafford, stands in a
singularly beautiful park, and contains a fine collection of portraits
of historical interest. Besides the communications afforded by
railway, Barnsley has the advantage of connexion with the Aire
and Calder Navigation system of canals. The borough is under
a mayor, six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 2385 acres.
At the time of the Domesday survey Ilbert de Lacy held
Barnsley by gift of William the Conqueror as part of the honour of
Pontefract, and the overlordship remained in his family until the
reign of Stephen, when it was granted by Henry dc Lacy to the
monks of Pontefract. Henry III. in 1249 granted the prior and
convent of Pontefract a market every Wednesday at Barnsley,
and a fair on the vigil and feast of St Michael and two following
days, and Henry VIII. in 1512 granted them a new fair on the
day of the Conversion of St Paul and two following days. The
monastery evidently also held another fair there called St Ellen's
fair, for in 1583 Queen Elizabeth granted this fair and St Paul's
fair and the market " lately belonging to the dissolved monastery
of Pontefract " to one Henry Burdett, and Ralph and Henry his
sons for their lives. Besides these charters and others granting
land in Barnsley to the monks of Pontefract there is very little
history of the town, since it was not until after the introduction
of the linen manufacture in 1744 that it became really important.
Before that time the chief industry had been wire-drawing, but
this trade began to decrease about the end of the i8th century,
just as the linen trade was becoming important. In 1869
Barnsley was incorporated.
See Rowland Jackson, The History of the Town and Township
of Barnsley (1858); Victoria County History Yorkshire.
BARNSTABLE, a seaport township and the county-seat of
the county of the same name, in Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop.
(1900) 4364, of whom 391 were foreign-born; (1910, U. S.
census) 4676. Barnstable is served by the New York, New
Haven & 'Hartford Railway. It is situated between Cape Cod
Bay on the N. and Nantucket Sound on the S., extending across
Cape Cod. The soil of the township, unlike that of other parts
of the county, is well adapted to agriculture, and the principal
industry is the growing of vegetables and the supplying of milk
and poultry for its several villages, nearly all of which are summer
resorts. At Hyannis is a state normal school (1897; co-educa-
tional). Cranberries are raised in large quantities, and there are
oyster and other shell fisheries. In the 1 7th century the mackerel
and whale fisheries were the basis of economic life; the latter
gave way later to the cod and other fisheries, but the fishing
industry is now relatively unimportant. Much of the county is
a region of sands, salt-marshes, beach-grass and scattered woods.
From 1865 to 1895 the county diminished 20-1 % in population.
Barnstable was settled and incorporated in 1639 (county created
1685), and includes among its natives James Otis and Lemuel
Shaw.
See F. Freeman, The History of Cape Cod: the Annals of Barnstable
County (2 vols., Boston, 1858, 1862; and other impressions 1860 to
1869).
BARNSTAPLE, a seaport, market town and municipal
borough, in the Barnstaple parliamentary division of Devonshire,
England, on the river Taw, near the north coast. Pop. (1901)
14,137. It is served by the London & South-Western, the
Great Western, and the Lynton & Barnstaple railways. The
Taw is here crossed by a stone bridge of sixteen arches, said to
have been built in the I2th or I3th century. The town manu-
factures lace, gloves, sail-cloth and fishing-nets, and has extensive
potteries, tanneries, sawmills and foundries, while shipbuilding
is also carried on. The harbour admits only small coasting
vessels. The public buildings and institutions include a guildhall
(1826), a free grammar school and a large market-place. The
poet John Gay was born in the vicinity, and received his educa-
tion at the grammar school, which at an earlier period had
numbered Bishop Jewel among its pupils. It was founded in the
1 4th century, in connexion with a chantry. There are also some
curious Jacobean almshouses. The borough is under a mayor,
six aldermen and eighteen councillors. Area, 2236 acres.
Barnstaple (Berdestaple, Barnstapol, Barstaple, also Barum)
ranks among the most ancient of royal boroughs. As early as
Domesday, where it is several times mentioned, there were forty
burgesses within the town and nine without, who rendered 408.
Tradition claims that King Athelstan threw up defensive earth-
works here, but the existing castle is attributed to Joel of Totnes,
who held the manor during the reign of William the Conqueror,
and also founded a Cluniac priory, dedicated to St Mary
Magdalene. From this date the borough and priory grew up
side by side, but each preserving its independent privileges and
rights of government until the dissolution of the latter in 1535.
In Edward II. 's reign the burgesses petitioned for the restoration
of rights bestowed by a pretended charter from Athelstan. The
existence of this charter was denied, but the desired privileges
were conceded, including the right to elect a mayor. The earliest
authenticated charter is that of Henry L, which was confirmed
in a charter of Henry II. The later charter states that the
burgesses should have customs similar to those granted to London,
and further charters confirmed the same right. A charter of
Queen Mary in 1556 added some new privileges, and specified
that the common council should consist of a mayor, two aldermen
BARNUM BARODA
4-17
and twenty-four chief burgesses. James I., by a charter dated
1610, increased the number of chief burgesses to twenty-five and
instituted a recorder, a clerk of the market, justices of the peace
and other officers. This charter was confirmed in 161 1 and 1689,
and held force until the Municipal Corporations Act of 1835,
which established six aldermen and eighteen councillors. The
borough sent two members to parliament in 1295, and so con-
tinued to do until the Redistribution of Seats Act of 1885, when
the representation was merged in that of the county. Barnstaple
was once famous for its woollen trade, now entirely declined, and
as early as the reign of Edward III. was an important naval port,
with an extensive shipping trade. That this prosperity was not
altogether uninterrupted is testified by the fact that, at the time
of the Armada, the mayor pleaded inability to contribute three
ships, on account of injuries to trade consequent on the war with
Spain. The Friday market and the annual four days' fair in
September are held by immemorial prescription.
See J. B. Gribble, Memorials of Barnstaple (Barnstaple, 1830).
BARNUM, PHINEAS TAYLOR (1810-1891), American show-
man, was born. in Bethel, Connecticut, on the sth of July 1810,
his father being an inn- and store-keeper. Barnum first started
as a store-keeper, and was also concerned in the lottery mania
then prevailing in the United States. After failing in business,
he started in 1829 a weekly paper, The Herald of Freedom, in
Danbury; after several libel suits and a prosecution which
resulted in imprisonment, he moved to New York in 1834,
an'd in 1835 began his career as a showman, with his pur-
chase and exploitation of a coloured woman, Joyce Heth,
reputed to have been the nurse of George Washington, and to
be over a hundred and sixty years old. With this woman and
a small company he made well-advertised and successful tours
in America till 1839, though Joyce Heth died in 1836, when her
age was proved to be not more than seventy. After a period of
failure, he purchased Scudder's American Museum, New York,
in 1841; to this he added considerably, and it became one of the
most popular shows in the United States. He made a special hit
by the exhibition, in 1842, of Charles Stratton, the celebrated
" General Tom Thumb " (see DWARF). In 1844 Barnum toured
with the dwarf in England. A remarkable instance of his
enterprise was the engagement of Jenny Lind to sing in America
at $1000 a night for one hundred and fifty nights, all expenses
being paid by the entrepreneur. The tour began in 1850. Barnum
retired from the show business in 1855, but had to settle with his
creditors in 1857, and began his old career again as showman and
museum proprietor. In 1871 he established the " Greatest Show
on Earth," a travelling amalgamation of circus, menagerie and
museum of " freaks," &c. This show, incorporated in the name
of " Barnum, Bailey & Hutchinson," and later as " Barnum
& Bailey's " toured all over the world. In 1907 the business
was sold to Ringling Brothers. Barnum wrote several books,
such as The Humbugs of the World (1865), Struggles and Triumphs
(1869), and his Autobiography (1854, and later editions). He
died on the 7th of April 1891.
BAROCCHIO (or BAROZZI), GIACOMO, called DA VIGNOLA
(1507-1573), Italian architect, was born at Vignola in the
Modenese territory on the ist of October 1507. His early work
was conducted at Bologna, Piacenza, Assisi and Perugia, until
he was summoned to Rome as papal architect under Pope Julius
III. In 1564 he succeeded Michelangelo as the architect of
St Peter's, and executed various portions of that fabric, besides
a variety of works in Rome. The designs for the Escorial were
also supplied by him. He is the author of an excellent work on
the Five Orders of Architecture (Rome, 1563), and another work
on Practical Perspective (Rome, 1583). To his extensive acquire-
ments and exquisite taste were superadded an amenity of
manners and a noble generosity that won the affection and
admiration of all who knew him. He died in Rome on the 7th of
July 1573. He was an eminent upholder of the classic style at
a period when the style known as baroque was corrupting the
architecture of Italy. The term baroque owes its origin to the
Spanish word barrueco or berrueco, an imperfectly round pearl,
and is not derived from the architect Barocchio, whose name so
m. 14
much resembles it. Yet it is curious that it was much used
to describe a debased form of architecture encouraged by the
Jesuits whose church in Rome was built by Barocchio.
BAROCCI (or BAROCCIO), FEDERIGO (1528-1612), Italian
painter, was born at Urbino, where the genius of Raphael inspired
him. In his early youth he travelled to Rome, where he painted
in fresco and was warmly commended by Michelangelo. He
then returned to Urbino, where, with the exception of some
short visits to Rome, he continued to reside till his death. He
acquired great fame by his paintings of religious subjects, in the
style of which he to some extent imitated Correggio. His own
followers were very numerous, but according to Lanzi (Hist, of
Painting) carried their master's peculiarities to excess. Barocci
also etched from his own designs a few prints, which are highly
finished, and executed with great softness and delicacy.
BARODA, a native state of India, within the Gujarat province
of Bombay, but in direct relations with the governor-general.
It consists of four isolated divisions, each of which is interlaced
in the most intricate fashion with British territory or with other
native states. Three of these divisions Kadi, Baroda and
Nausari are in Gujarat proper; the fourth, Amreli with
Okhamandal, is in the peninsula of Kathiawar. The total area
covers 8099 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 1,952,692,
showing a decrease of 19 % in the decade, compared with an
increase of 1 1 % in the preceding decade. This decrease was due
partly to the famines of 1896-1897 and 1900-1901, partly to
the epidemics of cholera and fever which accompanied them,
and partly to the plague which attacked the state in as great
measure as the surrounding presidency.
The princes of Baroda were one of the chief branches of the
Mahratta confederacy, which in the :8th century spread devasta-
tion and terror over India. About 1721 one Pilaji gaekwar
carved a fertile slice of territory out of Gujarat, and afterwards
received the title of " Leader of the Royal Troops " from the
peshwa. During the last thirty-two years of the century the
house fell a prey to one of those bitter and unappeasable family
feuds which are the ruin of great Indian families. In 1800 the
inheritance descended to a prince feeble in body and almost
idiotic in mind. British troops were sent in defence of the
hereditary ruler against all claimants; a treaty was signed in
1802, by which his independence of the peshwa and his de-
pendence on British government were secured. Three years
later these and various other engagements were consolidated
into a systematic plan for the administration of the Baroda
territory, under a prince with a revenue of three-quarters of
a million sterling, perfectly independent in all internal matters,
but practically kept on his throne by subsidiary British troops.
For some time the history of the gaekwars was very much the
same as that of most territorial houses in India: an occasional
able minister, more rarely an able prince; but, on the other hand,
a long dreary list of incompetent heads, venal advisers and
taskmasters oppressive to the people. At last a fierce family
feud came to a climax. In 1873 an English committee of inquiry
was appointed to investigate various complaints of oppression
against the gaekwar, Malhar Rao, who had recently succeeded
to the throne after being for a long time kept in prison by his
brother, the former gaekwar. No real reform resulted, and
in 1874 an attempt at poisoning the British resident led to the
gaekwar being formally accused of the crime and tried by a
mixed commission. The result of the trial (1875) was a failure
to obtain a unanimous verdict on the charge of poisoning; the
viceroy, Lord Northbrook, however, decided to depose Malhar
Rao on the ground of gross misgovernment, the widow of his
brother and predecessor, Khande Rao, being permitted to adopt
an heir from among the descendants of the founder of the family.
This heir, by name Sayaji Rao, then a boy of twelve years in
the humble home of a Deccani cultivator, was educated by
an English tutor, the administration being meanwhile placed for
eight years under the charge of Sir T. Madhava Rao, formerly
diwan of Travancore, one of the ablest and most enlightened
of Indian statesmen. The result was a conspicuous success.
The gaekwar showed himself a model prince, and his territories
BAROMETER
became as well governed and prosperous as a British district.
He repeatedly visited Europe in company with his wife. In
1887 the queen-empress conferred upon him at Windsor the
insignia of G.C.S.I., and in 1892 upon his wife the Imperial order
of the crown of India.
The gross revenue of the state is more than a million sterling.
In 1901 the state currency of Babashai rupees was withdrawn,
and the British rupee was introduced. The regular military
force consists of a field battery, with several regiments of cavalry
and battalions of infantry. In addition, there is an irregular
force of horse and foot. Compulsory education has been carried
on experimentally since 1893 in the Amreli division with apparent
success, the compulsory age being 7 to 12 for boys and 7 to 10
for girls. Special measures are also adopted for the education
of low castes and aboriginal tribes. There is a female training
college under a Christian lady superintendent. The Kala B ha van,
or technical school, has departments for drawing, carpentry,
dyeing, weaving and agriculture. There is also a state museum
under a European director, and a state library. Portions of
the state are crossed by the Bombay & Baroda and the
Rajputana railways. In addition, the state has constructed
three railways of its own, on three different gauges. Other
railways are in contemplation. The state possesses a cotton mill.
The city of Baroda is situated on the river Viswamitri, a
station on the Bombay & Baroda railway, 245 m. N. of Bombay
by rail. Pop. (1001) 103,790. The whole aspect of the city
has been changed by the construction of handsome public
buildings, the laying-out of parks and the widening of the streets.
An excellent water-supply is provided from the Ajwa lake.
The cantonments, garrisoned by a native infantry regiment,
are under British jurisdiction, and have a population of 4000.
The city contains a college and many schools. The chief
hospitals are called after the countess of Dufferin, Sayaji Rao
and Jamnabai, the widow of Khande Rao.
See Baroda Gazetteer, 1908.
BAROMETER (from Gr. /3apos, pressure, and n&pov,
measure), an instrument by which the weight or pressure of the
atmosphere is measured. The ordinary or mercurial barometer
consists of a tube about 36 in. long, hermetically closed at the
upper end and containing mercury. In the " cistern barometer "
the tube is placed with its open end in a basin of mercury, and the
atmospheric pressure is measured by the difference of the heights
of the mercury in the tube and the cistern. In the " siphon
barometer " the cistern is dispensed with, the tube being bent
round upon itself at its lower end; the reading is taken of the
difference in the levels of the mercury in the two limbs. The
" aneroid " barometer (from the Gr. o- privative, and n?p6s,
wet) employs no liquid, but depends upon the changes in volume
experienced by an exhausted metallic chamber under varying
pressures. " Baroscopes " simply indicate variations in the
atmospheric pressure, without supplying quantitative data.
" Barographs " are barometers which automatically record any
variations in pressure.
Philosophers prior to Galileo had endeavoured to explain the
action of a suction pump by postulating a principle that " Nature
Historical, abhorred a vacuum." When Galileo observed that a
common suction pump could not raise water to a greater
height than about 32 ft. he considered that the " abhorrence "
was limited to 32 ft., and commended the matter to the attention
of his pupil Evangelista Torricelli. Torricelli perceived a ready
explanation of the observed phenomenon if only it could be
proved that the atmosphere had weight, and the pressure which
it exerted was equal to that of a 32-ft. column of water. He
proved this to be the correct explanation by reasoning as
follows: If the atmosphere supports 32 feet of water, then it
should also support a column of about 2^ ft. of mercury, for this
liquid is about 13$ times heavier than water. This he proved in
the following manner. He selected a glass tube about a quarter
of an inch in diameter and 4ft. long, and hermetically sealed one
of its ends; he then filled it with mercury and, applying his
finger to the open end, inverted it in a basin containing mercury.
The mercury instantly sank to nearly 30 in. above the surface
of the mercury in the basin, leaving in the top of the tube an
apparent vacuum, which is now called the Torricellian vacuum;
this experiment is sometimes known as the Torricellian experiment.
Torricelli's views rapidly gained ground, notwithstanding the
objections of certain philosophers. Valuable confirmation was
afforded by the variation of the barometric column at different
elevations. Rene Descartes and Blaise Pascal predicted a fall
in the height when the barometer was carried to the top of a
mountain, since, the pressure of the atmosphere being diminished,
it necessarily followed that the column of mercury sustained
by the atmosphere would be diminished also. This was
experimentally observed by Pascal's brother-in-law, Florin
Perier (1605-1672), who measured the height of the mercury
column at various altitudes on the Puy de D&me. Pascal
himself tried the experiment at several towers in Paris, Notre
Dame, St Jacques de la Boucherie, &c. The results of his
researches were embodied in his treatises De I'equilibre des
liqueurs and De la pesanteur de la masse d'air, which were written
before 1651, but were not published till 1663 after his death.
CorroborationwasalsoaffordedbyMarinMersenneandChristiaan
Huygens. It was not long before it was discovered that the
height of the column varied at the same place, and that a rise
or fall was accompanied by meteorological changes. The
instrument thus came to be used as a means of predicting the
weather, and it was frequently known as the weather-glass. The
relation of the barometric pressure to the weather is mentioned by
Robert Boyle, who expressed the opinion that it is exceedingly
difficult to draw any correct conclusions. Edmund Halley,
Leibnitz, Jean Andre Deluc (1727-1817) and many others
investigated this subject, giving rules for predicting the weather
and attempting explanations for the phenomena. Since the
height of the barometric column varies with the elevation of the
station at which it is observed, it follows that observations of the
barometer afford a means for measuring altitudes. The early
experiments of Pascal were developed by Edmund Halley,
Edme Mariotte, J. Cassini, D. Bernoulli, and more especially by
Deluc in his Recherches sur les modifications del' 'atmosphere (177 2),
which contains a full account of the early history of the barometer
and its applications. More highly mathematical investigations
have been given by Laplace, and also by Richard Ruhlmann
(Barometrischen Hohenmessung., Leipzig, 1870). The modern
aspects of the relation between atmospheric pressure and the
weather and altitudes are treated in the article METEOROLOGY.
Many attempts have been made by which the variation in the
height of the mercury column could be magnified, and so more
exact measurements taken. It is not possible to enumerate
in this article the many devices which have been proposed; and
the reader is referred to Charles Hutton's Mathematical and
Philosophical Dictionary (1815), William Ellis's paper on the
history of the barometer in the Quarterly Journal of the Royal
Meteorological Society, vol. xii. (1886), and E. Gerland and
F. Traumiiller's Geschichte der physikalischen Experimentierkunst
(1899). Descartes suggested a method which Huygens put into
practice. The barometer tube was expanded into a cylindrical
vessel at the top, and into this chamber a fine tube partly filled
with water was inserted. A slight motion of the mercury
occasioned a larger displacement of the water, and hence the
changes in the barometric pressure were more readily detected
and estimated. But the instrument failed as all water-barometers
do, for the gases dissolved in the water coupled with its high
vapour tension destroy its efficacy. The substitution of methyl
salicylate for the water has been attended with success. Its
low vapour tension (Sir William Ramsay and Sydney Young
give no value below 70 C.), its low specific gravity (1-18 at 10
C.), its freedom from viscosity, have contributed to its successful
use. In the form patented by C. 0. Bartrum it is claimed that
readings to -ooi of an inch of mercury can be taken without
the use of a vernier.
The diagonal barometer, in which the upper part of the tube
is inclined to the lower part, was suggested by Bernardo
Ramazzini (1633-1714), and also by Sir Samuel Morland (or
Moreland). This form has many defects, and even when the
BAROMETER
419
tube is bent through 45 the readings are only increased in the
ratio of 7 to 5. The wheel barometer of Dr R. Hooke, and the
steel-yard barometer, endeavour to magnify the oscillation of the
mercury column by means of a float resting on the surface of the
mercury in the cistern; the motion of the float due to any
alteration in the level of the mercury being rendered apparent
by a change in the position of the wheel or steel-yard. The
pendant barometer of G. Amontons, invented in 1695, con-
sists of a funnel-shaped tube, which is hung vertically with the
wide end downwards and closed in at the upper end. The tube
contains mercury which adjusts itself in the tube so that the
length of the column balances the atmospheric pressure. The
instability of this instrument is obvious, for any jar would cause
the mercury to leave the tube.
The Siphon Barometer (fig. i) consists of a tube bent in the
form of a siphon, and is of the same diameter throughout. A
graduated scale passes along the whole length of the tube, and
the height of the barometer is ascertained by taking the difference
of the readings of the upper and lower limbs respectively. This
instrument may also be read by
bringing the zero-point of the gradu-
ated scale to the level of the surface
of the lower limb by means of a
screw, and reading off the height at
once from the surface of the upper
limb. This barometer requires no
correction for errors of capillarity or
capacity. Since, however, impurities
are contracted by the mercury in the
lower limb, which is usually in open
contact with the air, the satisfac-
tory working of the instrument comes
soon to be seriously interfered with.
Fig. 2 shows the Cistern Barometer
in its essential and simplest form.
This barometer is subject to two
kinds of error, the one arising from
capillarity, and the other from changes
in the level of the surface of the cis-
tern as the mercury rises and falls
in the tube, the latter being tech-
nically called the error of capacity. If
a glass tube of small bore be plunged into a vessel containing
mercury, it will be observed that the level of the mercury in the
tube is not in the line of that of the -mercury in the vessel, but
somewhat below it, and that the surface is convex. The capillary
depression is inversely proportional to the diameter of the tube.
In standard barometers, the tube is about an inch in diameter,
and the error due to capillarity is less than -ooi of an inch. Since
capillarity depresses the height of the column, cistern barometers
require an addition to be made to the observed height, in order
to give the true pressure, the amount depending, of course, on
the diameter of the tube.
The error of capacity arises in this way. The height of the
barometer is the perpendicular distance between the surface of
the mercury in the cistern and the upper surface of the mercurial
column. Now, when the barometer falls from 30 to 29 inches, an
inch of mercury must flow out of the tube and pass into the
cistern, thus raising the cistern level; and, on the other hand,
when the barometer rises, mercury must flow out of the cistern
into the tube, thus lowering the level of the mercury in the
cistern. Since the scales of barometers are usually engraved on
their brass cases, which are fixed (and, consequently, the zero-
point from which the scale is graduated is also fixed), it follows
that, from the incessant changes in the level of the cistern, the
readings would be sometimes too high and sometimes too low,
if no provision were made against this source of error.
A simple way of correcting the error of capacity is to ascertain
(i) the neutral point of the instrument, or that height at which
the zero of the scale is exactly at the height of the surface of the
cistern, and (2) the rate of error as the barometer rises or falls
above this point, and then apply a correction proportional to
FIG. i.
Siphon
Barometer.
FIG. 2.
Cistern
Barometer.
this rate. The instrument in which the error of capacity is
satisfactorily (indeed, entirely) got rid of is Fortin's Barometer.
Fig. 3 shows how this is effected. The upper part
of the cistern is formed of a glass cylinder, through
which the level of the mercury may be seen. The
bottom is made like a bag, of flexible leather, against which a
screw works. At the top of the interior of the cistern is a
small piece of ivory, the point of which coincides with the zero
of the scale. By means of the screw, which acts on the flexible
cistern bottom, the level of the mercury can
be raised or depressed so as to bring the ivory
point exactly to the surface of the mercury in
the cistern. In some barometers the cistern is
fixed, and the ivory point is brought to the
level of the mercury in the cistern by raising
or depressing the scale.
In constructing the best barometers three
materials are employed, viz.: (i) brass, for
the case, on which the scale is engraved; (2)
glass, for the tube containing the mercury;
and (3) the mercury itself. It is evident that
if the coefficient of expansion of mercury and
brass were the same, the height of the mer-
cury as indicated by the brass scale would be
the true height of the mercurial column. But
this is not the case, the coefficient of expansion
for mercury being considerably greater than
that for brass. The result is that if a baro-
meter stand at 30 in. when the temperature of
the whole instrument, mercury and brass, is
32, it will no longer stand at 30 in. if the FIG. 3. Fortin's
temperature be raised to 69; in fact, it will Barometer,
then stand at 30-1 in. This increase in the
height of the column by the tenth of an inch is not due to any
increase of pressure, but altogether to the greater expansion of
the mercury at the higher temperature, as compared come-
with the expansion of the brass case with the engraved tionsofthe
scale by which the height is measured. In order, Barometer
therefore, to compare with each other with exactness
barometric observations made at different temperatures, it is
necessary to reduce them to the heights at which they would
stand at some uniform temperature. The temperature to which
such observations are reduced is 32 Fahr. or o cent.
If English units be used (Fahrenheit degrees and inches), this
correction is given by the formula *=-H
- 2-56
1000
in the
centigrade-centimetre system the correction is -0001614 HT
(H being the observed height and T the observed temperature).
Devices have been invented which determine these corrections
mechanically, and hence obviate the necessity of applying the
above formula, or of referring to tables in which these corrections
for any height of the column and any temperature are given.
The standard temperature of the English yard being 62 and
not 32, it will be found in working out the corrections from the
above formula that the temperature of no correction is not 32
but 28-5. If the scale be engraved on the glass tube, or if the
instrument be furnished with a glass scale or with a wooden scale,
different corrections are required. These may be worked out
from the above formula by substituting for the coefficient of the
expansion of brass that of glass, which is assumed to be 0-00000498,
or that of wood, which is assumed to be o. Wood, however,
should not be used, its expansion with temperature being un-
steady, as well as uncertain.
If the brass scale be attached to a wooden frame and be free to
move up and down the frame, as is the case with many siphon
barometers, the corrections for brass scales are to be used, since
the zero-point of the scale is brought to the level of the lower
limb; but if the brass scale be fixed to a wooden frame, the
corrections for brass scales are only applicable provided the zero
of the scale be fixed at (or nearly at) the zero line of the column,
and be free to expand upwards. In siphon barometers, with
which an observation is made from two readings on the scale, the
420
BAROMETER
scale must be free to expand in one direction. Again, if only
the upper part of the scale, say from 27 to 31 in., be screwed to
a wooden frame, it is evident that not the corrections for brass
scales, but those for wooden scales must be used. No account
need be taken of the expansion of the glass tube containing the
mercury, it being evident that no correction for this expansion
is required in the case of any barometer the height of which is
measured from the surface of the mercury in the cistern.
In fixing a barometer for observation, it is indispensable that
it be hung in a perpendicular position, seeing that it is the
perpendicular distance between the surface of the
mercury in the cistern and the top of the column which
' is the true height of the barometer. The surface of the
mercury column is convex, and in noting the height of the
barometer, it is not the chord of the curve, but its tangent
which is taken. This is done by setting the straight lower edge
of the vernier, an appendage with which the barometer is
furnished, as a tangent to the curve. The vernier is made to
slide up and down the scale, and by it the height of the barometer
may be read true to 0-002 or even to o-ooi in.
It is essential that the barometer is at the temperature shown
by the attached thermometer. No observation can be regarded
as good if the thermometer indicates a temperature differing
from that of the whole instrument by more than a degree. For
every degree of temperature the attached thermometer differs
from the barometer, the observation will be faulty to the extent
of about 0-003 in., which in discussions of diurnal range, &c.,
is a serious amount.
Before being used, barometers should be thoroughly examined
as to the state of the mercury, the size of cistern (so as to admit
of low readings), and their agreement with some known standard
instrument at different points of the scale. The pressure of the
atmosphere is not expressed by the weight of the mercury
sustained in the tube by it, but by the perpendicular height of
the column. Thus, when the height of the column is 30 in.,
it is not said that the atmospheric pressure is 14-7 Ib on the
square inch, or the weight of the mercury filling a tube at that
height whose transverse section equals a square inch, but that
it is 30 in., meaning that the pressure will sustain a column of
mercury of that height.
It is essential in gasometry to fix upon some standard pressure
to which all measurements can be reduced. The height of the
standard mercury column commonly used is 76 cms. (20-922 in.)
of pure mercury at o; this is near the average height of the
barometer. Since the actual force exerted by the atmosphere
varies with the intensity of gravity, and therefore with the posi-
tion on the earth's surface, a place must be specified in defining
the standard pressure. This may be avoided by expressing the
force as the pressure in dynes due to a column of mercury, one
square centimetre in section, which is supported by the atmo-
sphere. If H cms. be the height at o, and g the value of gravity,
the pressure is 13-596 Hg dynes (13-596 being the density of
mercury). At Greenwich, where g= 981-17, the standard pressure
at o is 1,013,800 dynes. At Paris the pressure is 1,013,600
dynes. The closeness of this unit to a mega-dyne (a million
dynes) has led to the suggestion that a mega-dyne per square
centimetre should be adopted as the standard pressure, and it
has been adopted by some modern writers on account of its
convenience of calculation and independence of locality.
The height of the barometer is expressed in English inches
in England and America, but the metric system is used in all
scientific work excepting in meteorology. In France
metric anc ^ mos t European countries, the height is given in
readings, millimetres, a millimetre being the thousandth part
of a metre, which equals 39-37079 English inches.
Up to 1869 the barometer was given in half-lines in Russia, which,
equalling the twentieth of an English inch, were readily reduced
to English inches by dividing by 20. The metric barometric
scale is now used in Russia. In a few European countries the
French or Paris line, equalling 0-088814 in., is sometimes used.
The English measure of length being a standard at 62 Fahr.,
the old French measure at 61-2, and the metric scale at 32,
it is necessary, before comparing observations made with the
three barometers, to reduce them to the same temperature, so
as to neutralize the inequalities arising from the expansion of
the scales by heat.
The sympiezometer was invented in 1818 by Adie of Edinburgh.
It is a revived form of Hooke's marine barometer. It consists
of a glass tube, with a small chamber at the top and
an open cistern below. The upper part of the tube
is filled with air, and the lower part and cistern with
glycerin. When atmospheric pressure is increased, the air is
compressed by the rising of the fluid; but when it is diminished
the fluid falls, and the contained air expands. To correct for the
error arising from the increased pressure of the contained air when
its temperature varies, a thermometer and sliding-scale are added,
so that the instrument may be adjusted to the temperature at
each observation. It is a sensitive instrument, and well suited
for rough purposes at sea and for travelling, but not for exact
observation. It has long been superseded by the Aneroid, which
far exceeds it in handiness.
Aneroid Barometer. Much obscurity surrounds the invention
of barometers in which variations in pressure are rendered
apparent by the alteration in the volume of an elastic chamber.
The credit of the invention is usually given to Lucien Vidie,
who patented his instrument in 1845, but similar instruments
were in use much earlier. Thus in 1799 Nicolas Jacques Conte
(1755-1805), director
of the aerostatical
school at Meudon,
and a man of many
parts a chemist,
mechanician and
painter, devised an
instrument in which
the lid of the metal
chamber was sup-
ported by internal
springs; this instru-
ment was employed
during the Egyptian
campaign for measur-
ing the altitudes of
the war-balloons. Al-
though Vidie patented
,. . o FIG. 4. Aneroid Barometer,
his device in 1845, the
commercial manufacture of aneroids only followed after
E. Bourdon's patent of the metallic manometer in 1849,
when Bourdon and Richard placed about 10,000 aneroids on
the market. The production was stopped by an action taken
by Vidie against Bourdon for infringing the former's patent,
and in 1858 Vidie obtained 25,000 francs (1000) damages.
Fig. 4 represents the internal construction, as seen when the
face is removed, but with the hand still attached, of an aneroid
which differs only slightly from Vidie's form, a is a flat circular
metallic box, having its upper and under surfaces corrugated
in concentric circles. This box or chamber being partially
exhausted of air, through the short tube b, which rs subsequently
made air-tight by soldering, constitutes a spring, which is affected
by every variation of pressure in the external atmosphere, the
corrugations on its surface increasing its elasticity. At the centre
of the upper surface of the exhausted chamber there is a solid
cylindrical projection x, to the top of which the principal lever
cde is attached. This 'lever rests partly on a spiral spring at
d; it is also supported by two vertical pins, with perfect freedom
of motion. The end e of the lever is attached to a second or small
lever /, from which a chain g extends to h, where it works on a
drum attached to the axis of the hand, connected with a hair
spring at h, changing the motion from vertical to horizontal,
and regulating the hand, the attachments of which are made to
the metallic plate i. The motion originates in the corrugated
elastic box a, the surface of which is depressed or elevated as
the weight of the atmosphere is increased or diminished, and
this motion is communicated through the levers to the axis of
BAROMETRIC LIGHT BARON
421
the hand at h. The spiral spring on which the lever rests at d
is intended to compensate for the effects of alterations of tem-
perature. The actual movement at the centre of the exhausted
box, whence the indications emanate, is very slight, but by the
action of the levers is multiplied 657 times at the point of the
hand, so that a movement of the zzoth part of an inch in the box
carries the point of the hand through three inches on the dial.
The effect of this combination is to multiply the smallest degrees
of atmospheric pressure, so as to render them sensible on the
index. Vidie's instrument has been improved by Vaudet and
Hulot. Eugene Bourdon's aneroid depends on the same principle.
The aneroid requires, however, to be repeatedly compared with
a mercurial barometer, being liable to changes from the elasticity
of the metal chamber changing, or from changes in the system
of levers which work the pointer. Though aneroids are con-
structed showing great accuracy in their indications, yet none can
lay any claim to the exactness of mercurial barometers. The
mechanism is liable to get fouled and otherwise go out of order,
so that they may change 0-300 in. in a few weeks, or even indicate
pressure so inaccurately and so irregularly that no confidence
can be placed in them for even a few days, if the means of com-
paring them with a mercurial barometer be not at hand.
The mercurial barometer can be made self-registering by con-
centrating the rays from a source of light by a lens, so that
they strike the top of the mercurial column, and having
graphs. a sneet f sensitized paper attached to a frame and
placed behind a screen, with a narrow vertical slit in
the line of the rays. The mercury being opaque throws a part of the
paper in the shade, while above the mercury the rays from the lamp
pass unobstructed to the paper. The paper being carried steadily
round on a drum at a given rate per hour, the height of the column
of mercury is photographed continuously on the paper. From
the photograph the height of the barometer at any instant may be
taken. The principle of the aneroid barometer has been applied
to the construction of barographs. The lever attached to the
collapsible chamber terminates in an ink-fed style which records
the pressure of the atmosphere on a moving ribbon. In all
continuously registering barometers, however, it is necessary,
as a check, to make eye-observations with a mercury standard
barometer hanging near the registering barometer from four to
eight times daily.
See Marvin, Barometers and the Measurement of Atmospheric
Pressure (1901); and C. Abbe, Meteorological Apparatus (1888).
Reference may also be made to B. Stewart and W. W. H. Gee,
Practical Physics (vol. i. 1901), for the construction of standard
barometers, their corrections and method of reading.
BAROMETRIC LIGHT, the luminous glow emitted by mercury
in a barometer tube when shaken. It was first observed by Jean
Picard, and formed the subject of many experiments at the hands
of Francis Hawksbee. The latter showed that the Torricellian
vacuum was not essential to the phenomenon, for the same glow
was apparent when mercury was shaken with air only partially
rarefied. The glow is an effect of the electricity generated by
the friction of the mercury and the air in the barometer tube.
BARON, MICHEL (1653-1729), French actor (whose family
name originally was Boyron), was born in Paris, the son of a
leading actor (d. 1655) and of a talented actress (d. 1662). At
the age of twelve he joined the company of children known as
the Petits Comidiens Dauphins, of which he was the brightest
star. Moliere was delighted with his talent, and with the king's
permission .secured him for his own company. In consequence
of a misunderstanding with Moliere's wife, the actor withdrew
from the dramatist's company, but rejoined it in 1670, reappear-
ing as Domitien in Corneille's Tite et Berenice, and in his Psyche.
He remained in this company until Moliere's death. He then
became a member of the company at the H6tel de Bourgogne,
and from this time until his retirement in 1691 was undisputed
master of the French stage, creating many of the leading roles in
Racine's tragedies, besides those in two of his own comedies,
L'Homme a bonnes fortunes (1686), and La Coquette (1687). He
also wrote Les Enlevements (1685), Le Dfbauche (1689), and
translated and acted two plays of Terence. In 1720 Baron re-
appeared at the Palais Royal, and his activity on the stage was
renewed in a multitude of parts. He died on the sand of
December 1729.
His son ETIENNE MICHEL BARON (1676-1711) was also a fine
actor, and left a son and two daughters who all played at the
Comedie Franchise.
See George Monval, Un Comfdien amateur d'art (1893); al"o the
Abbe d'Allamial's Lettres d mylord XXX. sur Baron et la demoiselle
Lecouvreur, in F. G. J. S. Andrieux's Collection des memoires sur I'art
dramatique (1822).
BARON. This word, of uncertain origin, was introduced into
England at the Conquest to denote " the man " (i.e. one who had
done him " homage ") of a great lord, and more especially of the
king. All who held " in chief " (i.e. directly) of the king were alike
barones regis, bound to perform a stipulated service, and members,
in theory at least, of his council. Great nobles, whether earls or
not, also spoke of their tenants as " barons," where lesser mag-
nates spoke of their " men " (homines). This was especially the
case in earldoms of a palatine character, such as Chester, where
the earl's barons were a well-recognized body, the Venables
family, " barons of Kinderton," continuing in existence down to
1679. In the palatinate of Durham also, the bishop had his
barons, among whom the Hiltons of Hilton Castle were usually
styled " Barons of Hilton " till extinct in 1746. Other families
to whom the title was accorded, independently of peerage dignity
and on somewhat uncertain grounds, were " the barons of
Greystock," " the barons of Stafford," and the Comwalls,
" barons of Burford." Fantosme makes Henry II. speak of
" mes baruns de Lundres "; John's charter granting permission
to elect a mayor speaks of " our barons of our city of London,"
and a London document even speaks of " the greater barons of the
city." The aldermen seem to have been loosely deemed equiva-
lent to barons and were actually assessed to the poll-tax as fuch
under Richard II. In Ireland the palatine character of the
great lordships made the title not uncommon (e.g. the barons of
Galtrim, the barons of Slane, the barons of the Naas).
As all those who held direct of the crown by military service
(for those who held " by serjeanty " appear to have been classed
apart), from earls downwards, were alike " barons," the great
difference in their position and importance must have led, from
an early date, to their being roughly divided into " greater " and
" lesser " barons, and indeed, under Henry II., the Dialogus de
Scaccario already distinguishes their holdings as " greater " or
" lesser " baronies. Within a century of the Conquest, as we
learn from Becket's case (i 164), there arose the practice of sending
to the greater barons a special summons to the council, while the
lesser barons, it is stipulated in Magna Carta (1215), were to be
summoned only through the sheriffs. Thus was introduced a
definite distinction, which eventually had the effect of restricting
to the greater barons the rights and privileges of peerage.
Thus far the baron's position was connected with the tenure
of land; in theory the barons were those who held their lands
of the king; in practice, they were those who so held a large
amount of land. The great change in their status was effected
when their presence in that council of the realm which became
the House of Lords was determined by the issue of a writ of
summons, dependent not on the tenure of land, but only on the
king's will. Camden's statement that this change was made by
Henry III. after " the Barons' War " was long and widely
accepted, but it is now assigned, as by Stubbs, to Edward I., and
the earliest writs accepted as creating hereditary baronies are
those issued in his reign. It must not, however, be supposed
that those who received such summons were as yet distinguished
from commoners by any style or title. The only possible prefix
at that time was Dominus (lord), which was regularly used by
simple knights, and writs of summons were still issued to the
lowest order of peers as knights (chevaliers) only. The style of
baron was first introduced by Richard II. in 1387, when he
created John de Beauchamp, by patent, Lord de Bcauchamp and
baron of Kidderminster, to make him " unum parium et baronum
regni nostri." But it was not till 1433 that the next " baron "
was created, Sir John Cornwall being then made baron of
Fanhope. In spite, however, of these innovations, the former
422
BARON
was only summoned to parliament by the style of " John
Beauchamp of Kidderminster," and the latter by that of " John
Cornwall, knight." Such creations became common under
Henry VI., a transition period in peerage styles, but " Baron "
could not evict " Sire," " Chevalier " and " Dominus." Patents of
creation contained the formula " Lord A. (and) Baron of B.," but
the grantee still styled himself " Lord " only, and it is an histori-
cally interesting fact that to this day a baron is addressed in cor-
respondence, not by that style, but as " the Lord A.," although
all peers under the rank of Duke are spoken of as " lords," while
they are addressed in correspondence by their proper styles. To
speak of " Baron A." or " Baron B." is an unhistorical and quite
recent practice. When a barony, however, is vested in a lady
it is now the recognized custom to speak of her as baroness, e.g.
Baroness Berkeley.
The solemn investiture of barons created by patent was
performed by the king himself, by enrobing the peer in the
scarlet " robe of estate " during the reading of the patent, and
this form continued till 13 Jac. I., when the lawyers declared
that the delivery of the letters patent without ceremony was
sufficient. The letters patent express the limits of inheritance
of the barony. The usual limit is to the grantee and heirs male
of his body, occasionally, in default of male issue, to a collateral
male relative (as in the case of Lord Brougham, i86o)or (as in the
case of Lord Basset, 1797, and Lord Burton, 1897) to the heirs-
male of a daughter, and occasionally (as in the case of Lord
Nelson, 1801) to the heirs-male of a sister. Sometimes also
(as in the case of the barony of Rayleigh, 1821) the dignity is
bestowed upon a lady with remainder to the heirs-male of her
body. The coronation robes of a baron are the same as those of
an earl, except that he has only two rows of spots on each
shoulder; and, in like manner, his parliamentary robes have but
two guards of white fur, with rows of gold lace; but in other
respects they are the same as those of other peers. King
Charles II. granted to the barons a coronet, having six large
pearls set at equal distances on the chaplet. A baron's cap is the
same as a viscount's. His style is " Right Honourable "; and
he is addressed by the king or queen, " Right Trusty and Well-
beloved." His children are by courtesy entitled to the prefix
"The Honourable."
Barons of the Exchequer were formerly six judges (a chief
baron and five puisne barons) to whom the administration of
justice was committed in causes betwixt the king and his subjects
relative to matters of revenue. Selden, in his Titles of Honour,
conjectures that they were originally chosen from among the
barons of the kingdom, and hence their name; but it would
probably be more exact to say that they were officers of a branch
of the king's Curia, which was theoretically composed of his
" barons." The title has become obsolete since 1875, when the
court of exchequer was merged in the High Court of Judicature.
Barons of the Cinque Ports (originally Hastings, Dover, Hythe,
Romney and Sandwich) were at first the whole body of their
freemen, who were so spoken of in royal charters. But the
style was afterwards restricted to their mayors, jurats, and
(prior to 1831) members of the House of Commons elected by the
Cinque Ports, two for each port. Their right to the title is
recognized in many old statutes, but in 1606 the use of the term
in a message from the Lower House drew forth a protest from
the peers, that " they would never acknowledge any man that
sitteth in the Lower House to the right or title of a baron of
parliament " (Lords' Journals'). It was the ancient privilege of
these " barons " to bear a canopy over the sovereign at his or
her coronation and retain it as their perquisite. They petitioned
as " barons of the Cinque Ports " to attend the coronation of
Edward VII., and a deputation was allowed to do so.
Baron and Feme, in English law, is a phrase used for husband
and wife, in relation to each other, who are accounted as one
person. Hence, by the old law of evidence, the one party was
excluded from giving evidence for or against the other in civil
questions, and a relic of this is still preserved in the criminal law.
Baron and Feme, in heraldry, is the term used when the coats-
of-arms of a man and his wife are borne per pale in the same
escutcheon, the man's being always on the dexter side, and the
woman's on the sinister. But in this case the woman is supposed
not to be an heiress, for then her coat must be borne by the
husband on an escutcheon of pretence. (See HERALDRY.)
The foreign title of baron is occasionally borne by English
subjects, but confers no precedence in the United Kingdom. It
may be Russian, e.g. Baron Dimsdale (1762); German, e.g.
Baron Stockmar, Baron Halkett (Hanoverian); Austrian, e.g.
Baron Rothschild (1822), Baron de Worms; Italian, e.g. Baron
Heath; French, e.g. Baron de Teissier ; French-Canadian, e.g.
Baron de Longueil (1700); Dutch, e.g. Baron Mackay (Lord
Reay). (J. H. R.)
The Foreign Title. On the continent of Europe the title baron,
though the same in its origin, has come, owing to a variety of
causes, to imply a rank and status very different from its con-
notation in the United Kingdom, and again varies considerably
in different countries. Originally baro meant no more than
" man," and is so used in the Salic and other " barbarian "
laws; e.g. Si quis mortaudit barum velfeminam, &c. (Lex Aleman.
tit. 76). In this way, too, it was long preserved in the sense of
" husband," as in the Assize of Jerusalem (MSS. cap. 98): Si Von
appelle aucune chose femme qui aura baron, el il la veut defendre,
il la peut defendre de son cars, &c. Gradually the word seems
to have come to mean a " strong or powerful man," and thus
generally " a magnate." Finally, in France in the i2th century
the general expression barones was introduced in a restricted
sense, as applied properly to all lords possessing an important fief,
subject to the rule of primogeniture and thus not liable to be
divided up, and held of one overlord alone. Sometimes it in-
cluded ecclesiastical lordships of the first rank. In the i3th
century the Register of King Philip Augustus places the barones
regis Francie next to the dukes and counts holding in chief, the
title being limited to vassals of the second rank. Towards the
end of the century the title had come to mean that its bearer held
his principal fief direct from the crown, and was therefore more
important than that of count, since many counts were only
mediate vassals. Thus the kings in granting a duchy or
countship as an apanage to their brothers or sons used the
phrase in comitatum et baroniam. From this period, how-
ever, the title tends to sink in comparative importance.
When, in the I4th century, the feudal hierarchy was com-
pleted and stereotyped, the barons are ranked not only below
counts, but below viscounts, though in power and possessions
many barons were superior to many counts. In any case,
until the i?th century, the title of baron could only be borne
by the holder of a territorial barony; and it was Louis XIV.
who first cheapened the title in France by creating numerous
barons by royal letters. This entire dissociation of the title
from the idea of feudal rights and obligations was completed
by Napoleon's decree of March i, 1808, reviving the ancient
titles. By this instrument the title of baron was to be borne
ex offlcio by a number of high officials, e.g. ministers, senators,
councillors of state, archbishops and bishops. It was given
to the 37 mayors who attended the coronation, and could be
claimed by any mayor who had served to the emperor's satis-
faction for ten years, and by any member of an electoral college
who had attended three sessions. The title was made to descend
in order of primogeniture to legitimate or adopted sons and to
the nephews of bishops, the sole condition being that proof must
be presented of an actual income of 15,000 fr., of which one-third
should descend with the title. The creation of barons was con-
tinued by Louis XVIII., Charles X. and Louis Philippe, and,
suspended at the revolution of 1848, was revived again on a
generous scale by Napoleon III. The tolerant attitude of the
Third Republic towards titles, which it does not officially
recognize, has increased the confusion by facilitating the assump-
tion of the title on very slender grounds of right. The result has
been that in France the title of Baron, unless borne by the re-
cognized representative of a historic name, not only involves no
political status, but confers also but very slight social distinction.
The same is true, mutatis mutandis, of most other European
countries, and notably of Italy. In Austria and Germany the
BARONET
423
case is somewhat different. Though in Latin documents of the
middle ages the term barones for liberi domini was used, it was
not until the iyth century that the word Baron, perhaps under
the influence of the court of Versailles, began to be used as the
equivalent of the old German Freiherr, or free lord of the Empire.
The style Freiherr (liber dominus) implied originally a dynastic
status, and many Freiherren held countships without taking
the title of count. When the more important of them styled
themselves counts, the Freiherren sank into an inferior class of
nobility. The practice of conferring the title Freiherr by imperial
letters was begun in the i6th century by Charles V., was assumed
on the ground of special imperial concessions by many of the
princes of the Empire, and is now exercised by all the German
sovereigns. Though the practice of all the children taking the
title of their father has tended to make that of Baron compara-
tively very common, and has dissociated it from all idea of
territorial possession, it still implies considerable social status
and privilege in countries where a sharp line is drawn between
the caste of " nobles " and the common herd, whom no wealth
or intellectual eminence can place on the same social level with
the poorest Adeliger. In Japan the title baron (Dan) is the
lowest of the five titles of nobility introduced in 1885, on the
European model. It was given to the least important class of
territorial nobles, but is also bestowed as a title of honour without
reference to territorial possession.
See du Cange, Glossarium, s. " Baro " (ed. Niort, 1883) ; John
Selden, Titles of Honor, p. 353 (ed. 1672); Achille Luchaire,
Manuel des institutions fran$aises (Paris, 1892) ; Maurice Prou,
art. " Baron " in La Grande Encyclopedic. (W. A. P.)
BARONET. Although the origin of this title has been the
subject of learned speculation, it is not known for certain why
it was selected as that of " a new Dignitie between Barons and
Knights " created by James I. The object of its institution was
to raise money for the crown, as was also done by the sale of
peerage dignities under this sovereign. But the money was pro-
fessedly devoted to the support of troops in Ulster, that is, each
grantee was to be liable for the pay of thirty men, at 8d. a day
for three years. This amounted to 1095, which was the sum
paid for the honour. When it was instituted, in May 1611, the
king, to keep the baronetage select, covenanted that he would
not create more than two hundred, and that only those who
had 1000 a year in landed estate and whose paternal grand-
fathers had borne arms should receive the honour. But these
qualifications were before long abandoned. As an inducement
to apply for it, it was made to confer the prefix of " Sir " and
" Lady " (or " Dame "), and was assigned precedence above
knights, though below the younger sons of barons. Eight years
later (3Oth of September 1619), the baronetage of Ireland was
instituted, the king pledging himself not to create more than a
hundred baronets. Meanwhile, questions had arisen as to the
exact precedence of the baronets, and James by royal decree
(28th of May 1612) had announced that it was his intention to
rank them below the younger sons of barons. As this had the
effect of stopping applications for the honour, James issued a
fresh commission (i8th of November 1614) to encourage them,
and finally, as " the Kinges wants might be much relieved out
of the vanities and ambition of the gentrie " (in Chamberlain's
words), he granted, in 1616, the further privilege that the heirs
apparent of baronets should be knighted on coming of age.
The baronetage of Nova Scotia was devised in 1624 as a means
of promoting the " plantation " of that province, and James
announced his intention of creating a hundred baronets, each of
whom was to support six colonists for two years (or pay 2000
marks in lieu thereof) and also to pay 1000 marks to Sir William
Alexander (afterwards earl of Stirling), to whom the province
had been granted by charter in 1621. For this he was to receive
a " free barony " of 16,000 acres in Nova Scotia, and to become
a baronet of " his Hienes Kingdom of Scotland." James dying
at this point, Charles I. carried out the scheme, creating the first
Scottish baronet on the 28th of May 1625, covenanting in the
creation charter that the baronets " of Scotland or of Nova
Scotia " should never exceed a hundred and fifty in number, that
their heirs apparent should be knighted on coming of age, and
that no one should receive the honour who had not fulfilled the
conditions, viz. paid 3000 marks (166, 135. 4d.) towards the
plantation of the colony. Four years later ( 1 7 th of November 1629)
the king wrote to " the contractors for baronets," recognizing
that they had advanced large sums to Sir William Alexander for
the plantation on the security of the payments to be made by
future baronets, and empowering them to offer a further induce-
ment to applicants; and on the same day he granted to all Nova
Scotia baronets the right to wear about their necks, suspended
by an orange tawny ribbon, a badge bearing an azure saltire with
a crowned inescutcheon of the arms of Scotland and the motto
" Fax mentis honestae gloria." As the required number, how-
ever, could not be completed, Charles announced in 1633 that
English and Irish gentlemen might receive the honour, and in
1634 they began to do so. Yet even so, he was only able to create
a few more than a hundred and twenty in all. In 1638 the
creation ceased to carry with it the grant of lands in Nova Scotia,
and on the union with England (1707) the Scottish creations
ceased, English and Scotsmen alike receiving thenceforth
baronetcies of Great Britain.
It is a matter of dispute whether James I. had kept faith with
the baronets of England as to limiting their number; but his son
soon rejected the restriction freely. Creations became one of his
devices for raising money; blank patents were hawked about,
and in 1641 Nicholas wrote that baronetcies were to be had for
400 or even for 350; a patent was offered about this time to
Mr Wrottesley of Wrottesley for 300. On the other hand, the
honour appears to have been bestowed for nothing on some
ardent royalists when the great struggle began.
Cromwell created a few baronets, but at the Restoration the
honour was bestowed so lavishly that a letter to Sir Richard
Leveson (3rd of June 1660) describes it as " too common," and
offers to procure it for any one in return for 300 or 400. Sir
William Wiseman, however, is said to have given 500.
The history of the baronetage was uneventful till 1783, when in
consequence of the wrongful assumption of baronetcies, an old and
then increasing evil, a royal warrant was issued (6th of December)
directing that no one should be recognized as a baronet in official
documents till he had proved his right to the dignity, and also
that those created in future must register their arms and pedigree
at the Heralds' College. In consequence of the opposition of the
baronets themselves, the first of these two regulations was
rescinded and the evil remained unabated. Since the union
with Ireland (1800) baronets have been created, not as of Great
Britain or of Ireland, but as of the United Kingdom.
In 1834 a movement was initiated by Mr Richard Broun (whose
father had assumed a Nova Scotia baronetcy some years before),
to obtain certain privileges for the order, but on the advice of the
Heralds' College, the request was refused. A further petition,
for permission to all baronets to wear a badge, as did those of
Nova Scotia, met with the same fate in 1836. Meanwhile George
IV. had revoked (igth of December 1827), as to all future
creations the right of baronets' eldest sons to claim knighthood.
Mr Broun claimed it as an heir apparent in 1836, and on finally
meeting with refusal, publicly assumed the honour in 1842, a
foolish and futile act. In 1854 Sir J. Kingston James was
knighted as a baronet's son, and Sir Ludlow Cotter similarly in
1874, on his coming of age; but when Sir Claude de Crespigny's
son applied for the honour (i7th of May 1893), his application
was refused, on the ground that the lord .chancellor did not
consider the clause in the patent (1805) valid. The reason for
this decision appears to be unknown.
Mr Broun's subsequent connexion with a scheme for reviving
the territorial claims of the Nova Scotia baronets as part of a
colonizing scheme need not be discussed here. A fresh agitation
was aroused in 1897 by an order giving the sons of life peers
precedence over baronets, some of whom formed themselves, in
1898, into " the Honourable Society of the Baronetage " for the
maintenance of its privileges. But a royal warrant was issued on
the I5th of August 1898, confirming the precedence complained
of as an infringement of their rights. The above body, however,
424
BARONIUS BAROTSE
has continued in existence as the " Standing Council of the
Baronetage," and succeeded in obtaining invitations for some
representatives of the order to the coronation of King Edward
VII. It has been sought to obtain badges or other distinctions
for baronets and also to purge the order of wrongful assumptions,
an evil to which the baronetage of Nova Scotia is peculiarly
exposed, owing to the dignity being descendible to collateral
heirs male of the grantee as well as to those of his body. A
departmental committee at the home office was appointed in
1906 to consider the question of such assumptions and the best
means of stopping them.
All baronets are entitled to display in their coat of arms, either
on a canton or on an inescutcheon, the red hand of Ulster, save
those of Nova Scotia, who display, instead of it, the saltire of that
province. The precedency of baronets of Nova Scotia and of
Ireland in relation to those of England was left undetermined by
the Acts of Union, and appears to be still a moot point with
heralds. The premier baronet of England is Sir Hickman Bacon,
whose ancestor was the first to receive the honour in 1611.
See Pixley's History of the Baronetage; Playfair's " Baronetage "
(in British Family Antiquity, vols. vi.-ix.); Foster's Baronetage;
G. E. Cokayne's Complete Baronetage; Nichols, "The Dignity of
Baronet " (in Herald and Genealogist, vol. iii.) (J. H. R.)
BARONIUS, CAESAR (1538-1607), Italian cardinal ?nd
ecclesiastical historian, was born at Sora, and was educated at
V'eroli and Naples. At Rome he joined the Oratory in 1 5 5 7 under
St Philip Neri (q.v.) and succeeded him as superior in 1593.
Clement VIII., whose confessor he was, made him cardinal in
1596 and librarian of the Vatican. At subsequent conclaves he
was twice nearly elected pope, but on each occasion was opposed
by Spain on account, of his work On the Monarchy of Sicily, in
which he supported the papal claims against those of the Spanish
government. Baronius is best known by his Annales Ecclesias-
tici, undertaken by the order of St Philip as an answer to the
Magdeburg Centuries. After nearly thirty years of lecturing on
the history of the Church at the Vallicella and being trained by
St Philip as a great man for a great work, he began to write, and
produced twelve folios (1588-1607). In the Annales he treats
history in strict chronological order and keeps theology in the
background. In spite of many errors, especially in Greek history,
in which he had to depend upon secondhand information, the
work of Baronius stands as an honest attempt to write history,
marked with a sincere love of truth. Sarpi, in urging Casaubon
to write against Baronius, warns him never to charge or suspect
him of bad faith, for no one who knew him could accuse him of
disloyalty to truth. Baronius makes use of the words of St
Augustine: " I shall love with a special love the man who most
rigidly and severely corrects my errors." He also undertook a
new edition to the Roman martyrology (1586), which he purified
of many inaccuracies.
His Annales, which end in 1198, were continued by Rinaldi (9 vols.,
1676-1677); by Laderchi (3 vols., 1728-1737); and by Theiner
(3 vols., 1856). The most useful edition is that of Mansi (38 vols.,
Lucca, 1738-1759), giving Pagi's corrections at the foot of each
page. (E. TN.)
BARONY, the domain of a baron (q.v.). In Ireland counties
are divided into " baronies," which are equivalent to the
" hundreds " (q.v.) in England, and seem to have been formed
out of the territories of the Irish chiefs, as each submitted to
English rule (General Report of the Census of England, iv. 181,
1873). In Scotland the term is applied to any large freehold
estate even when held by a commoner. Barony also denotes the
rank or dignity of a baron, and the feudal tenure " by barony."
BAROQUE, a technical term, chiefly applicable to architecture,
furniture and household decoration. Apparently of Spanish
origin a barrueco is a large, irregularly-shaped pearl the word
was for a time confined to the craft of the jeweller. It indicates
the more extravagant fashions of design that were common in
the first half of the i8th century, chiefly in Italy and France, in
which everything is fantastic, grotesque, florid or incongruous
irregular shapes, meaningless forms, an utter lack of restraint
and simplicity. The word suggests much the same order of ideas
as rococo.
BAROSS, 6ABOR (1848-1892), Hungarian statesman, was born
at Trencsen on the 6th of July 1848, and educated at Esztergom.
He was for a time one of the professors there under Cardinal Kolos
Vaszary. After acquiring considerable local reputation as chief
notary of his county, he entered parliament in 1875. He at once
attached himself to Kalman Tisza and remained faithful to his
chief even after the Bosnian occupation had alienated so many
of the supporters of the prime minister. It was he who drew up
the reply to the malcontents on this occasion, for the first time
demonstrating his many-sided ability and his genius for sustained
hard work. But it was in the field of economics that he princi-
pally achieved his fame. In 1883 he was appointed secretary to
the ministry of ways and communications. Baross, who had
prepared himself for quite another career, and had only become
acquainted with the civilized West at the time of the Composition
of 1867, mastered, in an incredibly short time, the details of this
difficult department. His zeal, conscientiousness and energy
were so universally recognized, that on the retirement of Gabor
Kemeny, in 1886, he was appointed minister of ways and com-
munications. He devoted himself especially to the development
of the national railways, and the gigantic network of the Austro-
Hungarian railway system and its unification is mainly his work.
But his most original creation in this respect was the zone system,
which immensely facilitated and cheapened the circulation of all
wares and produce, and brought the remotest districts into direct
communication with the central point at Budapest. The amal-
gamation of the ministry of commerce with the ministry of ways
in 1889 further enabled Baross to realize his great idea of making
the trade of Hungary independent of foreign influences, of
increasing the commercial productiveness of the kingdom and
of gaining every possible advantage for her export trade by a
revision of tolls. This patriotic policy provoked loud protests
both from Austria and Germany at the conference of Vienna in
1890, and Baross was obliged somewhat to modify his system.
This was by no means the only instance in which his commercial
policy was attacked and even hampered by foreign courts. But
wherever he was allowed a free hand he introduced epoch-making
reforms in all the branches of his department, including posts,
telegraphs, &c. A man of such strength of character was not to
be turned from his course by any amount of opposition, and he
rather enjoyed to be alluded to as " the iron-handed minister."
The crowning point of his railway policy was the regulation of the
Danube at the hitherto impassable Iron-Gates Rapids by the con-
struction of canals, which opened up the eastern trade to Hungary
and was an event of international importance. It was while
inspecting his work there in March 1892 that he caught a chill,
from which he died on the 8th of May. The day of his burial was
a day of national mourning, and rightly so, for Baross had
dedicated his -whole time and genius to the promotion of his
country's prosperity.
See L4szlo Petrovics, Biography of Gabriel Baross (Hung. Eperies,
1892). (R. N. B.)
BAROTAC NUEVO, a town of the province of Iloilo, Panay,
Philippine Islands, near the Jalaur river, above its mouth on the
S.E. coast, and about 15 m. N.E. of Iloilo, the capital. Pop.
(1903) 9004; in 1903 after the census had been taken the
neighbouring town of Dumangas (pop. 12,428) was annexed to
Barotac Nuevo. The town lies in a fertile plain and deals in rice,
trepang and pina. Here, in what was formerly Dumangas, are
a fine church and convent, built of iron, pressed brick and marble.
Dumangas was destroyed by fire in June 1900, during a fight with
insurgents, but its rebuilding was begun in May 1901.
BAROTSE, BAROTSELAND, a people and country of South
Central Africa. The greater part of the country is a British
protectorate, forming part of Rhodesia. The Barotse are the
paramount tribe in the region of the Upper Zambezi basin, but
by popular usage the name is also applied to contiguous subject
tribes, Barotseland being the country over which the Barotse
paramount chief exercises authority. The present article treats
(i) of the people, (2) of the country, (3) of the establishment of
the British protectorate and of subsequent developments.
i. The Barotse. These people, originally known as Aalui, have
BAROTSE
425
occupied the extensive plain through which the Zambezi passes
from 14 35' S. to 16 25' S. throughout the reigns of twenty-two
successive paramount chiefs and therefore approximately since the
commencement of the 1 7 th century . Previously, for an indefinite
period, they dwelt \>n the Kabompo river, 200 m. to the N.E. of
their present country, and here the descendants of a section of the
tribe which did not migrate still remain, under the name Balok-
wakwa (men of the ambuscade), formerly known as Aalukolui.
That the Barotse at a still more remote period emigrated from the
far north-east is indicated by vague tradition as well as by a
certain similarity in type and language to some tribes living in
that direction, though the fact that natives from Mashonaland
can understand those at Lialui (the Barotse capital) has led to the
assumption by some writers that the Barotse are an offshoot of
the Mashona. The variety in type among the Mashona and the
homogeneity of the Barotse would rather point to an opposite
conclusion.
Early in the ipth century a section of the Basuto tribe known
as Makololo trekked from the south of what is now the Orange
River Colony and fought their way through Bechuanaland and
the Kalahari to the land of the Barotse, whom they ultimately
subdued. Their chief, Sebituane, who as. an administrator and
general was far in advance of his compeers, established the rule
of his house for some forty years, until about 1865 an organized
rebellion of the Barotse led to the almost complete extinction of
this Makololo oligarchy and the reinstatement of the original
dynasty. It was the Makololo who gave the Barotse their present
name (Rotse, plain .Bwrotse, country of the plain Murotse,
man of the plain Ifarotse, people of the plain, the latter being
inaccurately rendered .Barotse, Ba being the equivalent of Ma
in certain other languages).
The Barotse proper are comparatively few in number, but
as is inferred from the fact that for many generations they have
held in sway a country two and a half times the size of Great
Britain, they are the intellectual and physical superiors of the
vast majority of the negro races of Africa. Very black, tall
in stature, deep in chest and comparatively speaking refined
in feature, a Barotse is readily distinguishable amidst a mixed
group of natives. Being numerically small they form an oligarchy
in which, with few exceptions, each man holds rank in a chief-
tainship of which there are three grades. Next to the chiefs
rank their descendants who have not themselves acquired chief's
rank and hold an intermediate position as freeborn; all others,
whether members of the subject-tribes or prisoners of war, being,
up to 1906, mere slaves. This class was also graded. Slaves
might own slaves who in their turn might own slaves, the highest
grade always being* directly responsible to some Barotse chief.
As a reward of gallantry or ability the paramount chief occasion-
ally conferred chief's rank on individuals not of Barotse birth,
and these ipso facto assumed the name and privileges of the
Barotse. It was a counterpart of the feudal system of Europe
in which every grade from king to serf found a place. In 1906
the paramount chief, by proclamation, abolished the state of
slavery, an act which, however, left untouched the predominant
position of the Barotse and their rights to chieftainship. The
paramourit chief shares with a queen (Mokwai) his authority
and prerogatives. The Mokwai is not the wife but the eldest
sister of the ruling chief. With his death her privileges lapse.
Theoretically, these co-rulers are equal, neither may promulgate
a national decree without the assent of the other, but each has
a capital town, councillors and absolute authority in a province,
the two having joint authority over all other provinces. In
their code of laws the Barotse show an advance on the standard
of probably any other African negro state. By right, an accused
chief is tried by his peers, each of whom in rotation from junior
to senior gives his verdict, after which the president reports
the finding of the court to the paramount chief, who passes
sentence. As to their religious beliefs the Barotse imagine the
sun to be the embodiment of a great god whose sole care is for
the amelioration of man. Him they worship, though more pains
are taken to appease evil spirits, in whose existence they also
believe, to whom every evil to which man is heir is attributed.
The spirits of ancestors especially of deceased chiefs are also
objects of worship. Christianity, of a Protestant evangelical
type, was first introduced into the country in 1884 by Francois
Coillard and has made some progress among the people, among
the converts being Letia, eldest son and heir of Lewanika, the
paramount chief.
2. Barolseland. This term includes, in the sense of the
country in which the authority of the paramount Barotse chief
is acknowledged, not only the lands of the Barotse proper, but
the territory of fifteen contiguous and subject tribes. This
vast territory extends approximately from the Kwito river in
the west to the Kafue river in the east, and from the Congo-
Zambezi watershed in the north to the Linyante or Kwando
river and Zambezi in the south, and may be divided into three
groups:
(a) Central provinces directly administered by the paramount
chief from the capital Lialui (a town on the Zambezi), by the
Mokwai from Nalolo, and by two chiefs of the blood from
Sesheke;
(b) Outlying provinces over which, in the absence of a central
local system of government, Barotse chiefs administer districts
under the direction of the paramount chief; and
(c) Tribes over which the local chiefs are permitted to retain
their position subject to the payment of annual tribute and to
their doing homage in person at Lialui when called upon to do so.
With the publication of the king of Italy's award in 1905 in
the Anglo- Portuguese Barotse Boundary dispute (see below),
the term Barotseland may be said to have acquired a second
meaning. By this award the western and part of the northern
section of Barotseland as described above were declared to be
outside the dominion of the paramount chief and therefore not
in the British sphere of influence, while tribal boundaries were
complicated by the introduction of a longitudinal and latitudinal
frontier. Though this award altered the political boundaries,
ethnologically Barotseland remains much as above described.
The area of the country under British protection is about
182,000 sq. m.
Excluding the ridge of high ground running east and west
which, culminating at a height of 5000 ft., forms the Congo-
Zambezi water-parting, the extreme east (Batoka) and the district
in the immediate vicinity of the Victoria Falls (q.v.) throughout
which, with local variations, a red laterite day predominates,
the main physical features of Barotseland may be described as
a series of heavy white sand undulations covered with sub-
tropical forest vegetation. These are intersected by alluvium-
charged valleys through which streams and rivers flow inwards
towards the central basin of the Upper Zambezi. There is
evidence that this has at one time been the site of a large lake.
These valleys, which towards the close of the wet season become
inundated, afford rich cattle pasture, the succulence of which
prevents cattle losing condition towards the end of the dry
season, as is the case in many parts of Africa. There seems to
be little or no indication of mineral wealth in the white sand
area, but in the north and east there is not only every prospect
of a great agricultural and pastoral future but also of consider-
able mining development. Though basalt predominates in the
neighbourhood of the Victoria Falls and large fields of granite
crop up on the Batoka plateau and elsewhere, there is every
indication of the existence of useful minerals in these districts.
Gold, copper, tin, lead, zinc and iron have been discovered.
Much of the area of Barotseland is within the healthy zone,
the healthiest districts being the Batoka and Mashikolumbwe
plateaus in the east with extreme altitudes of 4400 and 4150 ft.
respectively, and the line of the Congo-Zambezi watershed which
rises to 5000 ft. in many places. The Zambezi valley from the
Victoria Falls (3000 ft.) to the Kabompo confluence (3500 ft.),
though involving little or no risk to health to the traveller,
cannot be considered suitable for white settlement. Taking
into consideration the relative value of altitude to latitude,
the plateauland of Barotseland compares very favourably with
existing conditions elsewhere, being several degrees more
temperate than would be expected. Approximately the mean
426
BAROUCHE BARRACKPUR
maximum and minimum temperatures stand at 80 and 55 F.
respectively, with an extreme range of 100 to 35 and a
mean annual temperature of 68 to 70. The rainfall varies
according to district from 22 to 32 in. a year and has shown
extraordinary stability. Since 1884, the first year hi which
a record was taken by Francois Coillard, Barotseland has known
no droughts, though South Africa has suffered periodically in this
respect.
The Zambezi, as would be expected, forms a definite boundary
line in the distribution of many species of fauna and flora. In
these respects, as well as from an ethnological standpoint,
Barotseland essentially belongs not to South but to Central
Africa. The great river has also served to prevent the spread
from South Africa into Barotseland of such disastrous cattle
diseases as tick fever and lung sickness.
3. The Establishment of British Suzerainty. By the charter
granted to the British South Africa Company in October 1889,
the company was allowed to establish its rule in the regions north
of the Middle Zambezi not included in the Portuguese dominions,
and by a treaty of the nth of June 1891 between Great Britain
and Portugal it was declared that the Barotse kingdom was
within the British sphere of influence. The dispute between the
contracting powers as to what were the western limits of Barotse-
land was eventually referred to the arbitration of the king of
Italy, who by his award of the 3oth of May 1905, fixed the
frontier at the Kwando river as far north as 22 E., then that
meridian up to the 13 S., which parallel it follows as far east as
24 E., and then that meridian to the Belgian Congo frontier.
In the meantime the British South Africa Company had entered
into friendly relations with Lewanika (q.v.), the paramount chief
of the Barotse, and an administrator was appointed on behalf of
the company to reside in the country. A native police force
under the command of a British officer was raised and magistrates
and district commissioners appointed. In the internal affairs
of the Barotse the company did not interfere, and the relations
between the British and Barotse have been uniformly friendly.
The pioneers of Western civilization were not, however, the agents
of the Chartered Company, but missionaries. F. S. Arnot, an
Englishman, spent two years in the country (1882-1884) and in
1884 a mission, fruitful of good results, was established by the
Societ6 des Missions Evangeliques de Paris. Its first agent was
Francois Coillard (1834-1904), who had previously been engaged
in mission work in Basutoland and who devoted the rest of his
life to the Barotse. Though always an admirer of British
institutions and anxious that the country should ultimately fall
under British jurisdiction, Coillard in the interests of his mission
was in the first instance anxious to delay the advent of white
men into the country. It was contrary to his advice that
Lewanika petitioned the " Great White Queen " to assume a
protectorate over his dominions, but from the moment Great
Britain assumed responsibility and the advance of European
civilization became inevitable, all the influence acquired by
Coillard's exceptional personal magnetism and singleness of
purpose was used to prepare the way for the extension of British
rule. Only those few pioneers who knew the Barotse under the
old conditions can fully realise what civilization and England
owe to the co-operation of this high-minded Frenchman.
Under the Chartered Company's rule considerable progress has
been made in the development of the resources of the country,
especially in opening up the mining districts in the north. The
seat of the administration, Kalomo, is on the " Cape to Cairo "
railway, about midway between the Zambezi and Kafue rivers.
The railway reached the Broken Hill copper mines, no m. N. of
the Kafue in 1906, and the Belgian Congo frontier hi 1910. From
Lobito Bay in Portuguese West Africa a railway was being built
in 1909 which would connect with the main line near the Congo
frontier. This would not only supply Barotseland with a route to
the sea alternative to the Beira and Cape Town lines, but while
reducing the land route by many hundred miles would also supply
a seaport outlet 1700 m. nearer England than Cape Town and
thus create a new and more rapid mail route to southern
Rhodesia and the Transvaal. The Zambezi also, with Kebrabasa
as its one bar to navigation between Barotseland and the sea,
will supply a cheap line of communication. (See RHODESIA.)
See David Livingstone, Missionary Travels and Researches in
South Africa (London, 1857) ; Major Serpa Pinto, How I crossed
Africa (London, 1881); F. Coillard, On the Threshold of Central
Africa (London, 1897) ; Major A. St H. Gibbons, Exploration and
Hunting in Central Africa (London, 1898), Africa South to North
through Marolseland (London, 1904); "Journeys in Marotseland,"
Geographical Journal, 1897; " Travels in the Upper Zambezi Basin,"
Geographical Journal, 1901; A. Bertrand, Aux pays des Barotse,
hautZambeze (Paris, 1898); Col. Colin Harding, In Remotest Barotse-
land (London, 1905) ; C. W. Mackintosh, Coillard of the Zambesi
(London, 1907), with a bibliography; L. Decle, Three Years in Savage
Africa (London, 1898). Consult also theannual reports of the British
South Africa Company, published in London. (A. ST H. G.)
BAROUCHE (Ger. barutsche, Span, barrocho, Ital. baroccio; from
Lat. bi-rotus, double- wheeled), the name of a sort of carriage,
with four wheels and a hood, arranged for two couples to sit
inside facing one another.
BARQUISIMETO, a city of western Venezuela, capital of the
state of Lara, on the Barquisimeto river, 101 m. by rail S.W. of
Tucacas, its port on the Caribbean coast. Pop. (est. 1899) 40,000.
It is built in a small, fertile valley of the Merida Cordilleras,
1985 ft. above sea-level, has a temperate, healthy climate with
a mean annual temperature of 78 F., and is surrounded by a
highly productive country from which are exported coffee, sugar,
cacao and rum. It is also an important distributing centre for
neighbouring districts. The city is the seat of a bishopric, is
regularly laid out and well built, and is well provided with
educational and charitable institutions. Barquisimeto was
founded in 1522 by Juan de Villegas, who was exploring the
neighbourhood for gold, and it was first called Nueva Segovia
after his native city. In 1807 its population had risen to 15,000,
principally through its commercial importance, but on the 26th
of March 1812 it was totally destroyed by an earthquake, and
with it 1500 lives, including a part of the revolutionary forces
occupying the town. It was soon rebuilt and is one of the few
cities of Venezuela which have recovered from the ravages of the
war of independence and subsequent disorders.
BARR, a town of Germany, in the imperial province of Alsace-
Lorraine, on the Kirneck, 13 m. N. from Schlettstadt by rail. It
has an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic church and consider-
able tanneries. There is an active trade in wine and timber.
Pop. (1900) 5243.
BARRA, or B ARRAY (Scand. Baraey, isle of the ocean), an
island of the outer Hebrides, Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 2362. It lies about 5 m. S.W. of South Uist, is 8 m. in
length and from 2 to 4 m. in breadth, save at the sandy isthmus
2 m. below Scurrival Point, where it is only a few hundred yards
broad. The rock formation is gneiss. The highest hill is Heaval
(1260 ft.) and there are several small lochs. The chief village
is Castlebay, at which the Glasgow steamer calls once a week.
This place derives its name from the castle of Kishmul standing
on a rock in the bay, which was once the stronghold of the
M'Neills of Barra, one of the oldest of Highland clans. There
are remains of ancient chapels, Danish duns and Druidical
circles on the island. There is communication by ferry with
South Uist. The parish comprises a number of smaller islands
and islets among them Frida, Gighay, Hellisay, Flodda
to the N.E., and Vatersay, Pabbay, Mingalay (pop. 135) and
Berneray to the S.E. and contains 4000 acres of arable
land and 18,000 acres of meadow and hill pasture. The cod,
ling and herring fisheries are important, and the coasts abound
with shell-fish, especially cockles, for which it has always been
famous. On Barra Head, the highest point of Berneray, and also
the most southerly point of the outer Hebrides chain, is a light-
house 680 ft. above high water.
BARRACKPUR, a town and magisterial subdivision of
British India, in the district of Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal.
The town is the largest cantonment in Lower Bengal, having
accommodation for two batteries of artillery, the wing of a
European regiment and two native battalions. Its name is said
to be derived from the fact of troops having been stationed here
since 1772. It is a station on the Eastern Bengal railway. Job
BARRACKS
427
Charriock, the founder of Calcutta, erected a bungalow and
established a small bazaar here in 1689. The cantonment is
situated on the left bank of the Hugli; it has also a large bazaar
and several large tanks, and also a parade ground. To the south
of the cantonment is situated the park, created by the taste and
public spirit of Lord Wellesley. Within the park is situated the
Government House, a noble building begun by Lord Minto, and
enlarged into its present state by the marquess of Hastings. The
park is beautifully laid out, and contains a small menagerie. Its
most interesting feature is now Lady Canning's tomb. Barrack-
pur played an important part in the two Sepoy mutinies of 1824
and 1857, but the details of these belong to the general history
of British rule in India. North Barrackpur had a population in
1901 of 12,600 and south Barrackpur of 19,307.
Barrackpur subdivision was formed in 1904. It contains an
area of 190 sq. m., which, at the census of 1901, had a population of
206,311, a large proportion being workers in the mills on the left
bank of the Hugli.
BARRACKS (derived through the French from the Late Lat.
barra, a bar), the buildings used for the accommodation of
military or naval forces, including the quarters for officers,
warrant officers, non-commissioned officers and men, with their
messes and recreation establishments, regimental offices, shops,
stores, stables, vehicle sheds and other accessory buildings for
military or domestic purposes. The term is usually applied to
permanent structures of brick or stone used for the peace
occupation of troops; but many hut barracks of corrugated
iron lined with wood have been built, generally in connexion with
a training ground for troops, and in these the accommodation
given is somewhat less than in permanent barracks, and con-
ditions more nearly approach those of a military encampment.
British System. The accommodation to be given in British
military barracks is scheduled in the Barrack Synopsis, which
contains" statements of particulars, based upon decisions which
have, from time to time, been laid down by authority, as
regards the military buildings authorized for various units,
and the accommodation and fittings to be provided in connexion
therewith." Each item of ordinary accommodation is described
in the synopsis, and the areas and cubic contents of rooms
therein laid down form the basis of the designs for any new
barrack buildings. Supplementary to the synopsis is a series of
" Standard Plans," which illustrate how the accommodation
may be conveniently arranged; the object of the issue of these
plans is to put in convenient form the best points of previous
designs, and to avoid the necessity of making an entirely fresh
design for each building that is to be erected, by using the standard
type modified to suit local conditions. External appearance
is considered with regard to the materials to be used, and the
position the buildings are to occupy; convenience of plan and
sound sanitary construction being the principal objects rather
than external effect, designs are usually simple, and depend for
architectural effect more on the grouping and balance of the
parts than on ornamentation such as would add to expense. The
synopsis and standard plans are from time to time revised, and
brought up to date as improvements suggest themselves, and
increases in scale of accommodation are authorized, after due
consideration of the financial effect; so that systematic evolution
of barrack design is carried on.
Modern British Barracks. A description of a modern barrack
for a battalion of infantry will give an idea of the standard of
accommodation which is now authorized, and to which older
barracks are gradually remodelled as funds permit. The un-
married soldiers are quartered in barrack-rooms usually planned
to contain twelve men in each; this number forms a convenient
division to suit the organization of the company, and is more
popular with the men than the larger numbers which were
formerly the rule in each barrack-room; there is a greater
privacy, whilst the number is not too small to keep up the feeling
of barrack-room comradeship which plays an important part
in the soldier's training. The rooms give 600 cub. ft. of air per
man, and have windows on each side: the beds are spaced
between the windows so that only one bed comes in a corner, and
not more than two between any two windows: inlet ventilators
are fixed high up in the side walls, and an extract shaft wanned
by the chimney flue keeps up a circulation of air through the
room: the door is usually at one end of the room and the fire-
place at the opposite end: over each man's bed is a locker and
shelf where he keeps his kit, and his rifle stands near the head of
his bed. Convenient of access from the door to the barrack-room
is the ablution-room with basins and foot-bath; also disconnected
by a lobby isa water-closet and urinal for night use, othersfor day
use being provided in separate external blocks. Baths are usually
grouped in a central bath-house adjacent to the cook-house, and
have hot water laid on. For every two or four barrack-rooms,
a small single room is provided for the occupation of the sergeant
in charge, who is responsible for the safety of a small store,
where men may leave their rifle and kit when going on furlough.
Adjacent to the barrack blocks and next to the cook-house are
arranged the dining-rooms where the men assemble for their
meals; no food is now served in the barrack-rooms, and the air
in them is thus kept much purer and fresher than under the old
Double Company Block
8 Barrack rooms on each floor
~LJ
U
u
system. The dining-rooms are lofty and well ventilated, and
are warmed by hot water; tables and forms are arranged so as
to make the most of the space, and room is provided for all the
men to dine simultaneously.
Next to the dining-room is the cook-house where the meals for
a half battalion are cooked, and served direct to the dining-rooms
on each side. Wash-up rooms are arranged off the serving-lobby
with plate-racks and shelves for the storage of the crockery after
it has been washed. The cooking apparatus is designed for
economical use of coal fuel, and, if carefully used, consumes little
more than $ Ib of coal per man per day. The cook-house
is well lighted and ventilated by a top lantern; tables, dressers,
and pastry slab are provided for preparing and serving the meals,
and a sink for washing kitchen utensils. Under the kitchen block
is a basement containing the boiler for heating the dining-rooms
and another for the supply of hot water to baths and sinks, with
in some cases also a hot-air furnace for heating drying-rooms, for
drying the men's clothing when they come in wet from a route-
march or field day. Not far from the barrack blocks is placed the
recreation establishment or soldiers' club, where the rank and file
may go for relaxation and amusement when off duty; this
establishment has, on the ground floor, a large and lofty room with
a stage at one end for lectures or entertainments, and at the other
428
BARRACKS
end is a supper bar, extending across the room, where mineral
waters and other light refreshments are sold; tables are also
arranged for suppers. A grocery shop is provided where the men
and their families may purchase goods bought under regimental
arrangements at wholesale prices, and sold without more profit
than is necessary to keep the institution self-supporting. On the
first floor are billiard and games room, reading-room and library,
and writing-room. The manager's quarter and kitchen premises
complete the establishment. Near the recreation establishment
is the canteen, devoted solely to the sale of beer, and not per-
mitted to vie in attractiveness with the recreation establishment.
A bar is provided for the soldiers, a separate room for corporals,
and a jug department for the supply of the families; this building
also has a manager's quarter attached to it, and an office for the
checking of accounts.
For the senior non-commissioned officers a sergeants' mess is
provided, containing dining-room, reading-room and billiard-
room, with kitchen premises and liquor store, which also has a
jug department for the sergeants' families. The single non-
commissioned officers have all their meals in this mess, and
the married members also use it as a club. The warrant officers,
and the proportion of non-commissioned officers and men who are
on the married establishment, are provided with accommodation
at some little distance from the men's barracks. In all recent
schemes, on open sites, self-contained cottages have been built,
and these are more popular than the older pattern of tenement
buildings approached by common staircases or verandahs. The
warrant officers are allowed a living-room, kitchen, and scullery,
with three bedrooms and a bathroom. The married soldiers
have a living-room, scullery, and one, two, or three bedrooms
according to the size of their families. A laundry is provided
adjacent to the married quarters, equipped with washing- troughs,
wringer, drying-closet, and ironing-room; and the women are
encouraged to use this in preference to doing washing in their
cottages.
Officers' Quarters. At a little distance from the men's barracks,
and usually looking over the parade or cricket ground, is the
officers' mess. This building has an entrance-hall with band
alcove, where the band plays on guest nights; on one side of the
hall is the mess-room (or dining-room), and on the other the ante-
room (or reading-room), whilst the billiard-room and kitchen are
kept to the back so that lantern lights can be arranged for. A
mess office is provided, and all the accessories required for the
mess waiters' department, including pantry, plate-closet and
cellarage, and for the kitchen or mess-man's department, with
also a quarter for the mess-man . The officers' quarters are usually
arranged in wings extending the frontage of the mess building, and
in a storey over the mess itself. Each officer has a large room,
part of which is partitioned off for a bedroom, and the field
officers are allowed two rooms. The soldier servant, told off to
each officer, has a small room allotted for cleaning purposes, and
bathrooms, supplied with hot water from the mess kitchen, are
centrally situated. A detached house, containing three sitting-
rooms, seven bed- and dressing-rooms, bathroom, kitchen, serv-
ants' hall, and the usual accessories, is provided for the command-
ing officer: also a smaller house, having two sitting-rooms, four
bedrooms, bath, kitchen, &c., for the quartermaster. Other regi-
mental married officers are not provided for, and have to arrange
to house themselves, a lodging allowance being usually granted.
Regimental Accessories. Apart from the buildings providing
accommodation, others are required for administrative and
military purposes. These are the guard house and regimental
offices, the small-arm ammunition store, the fire-engine house,
the drill and gymnastic hall, a"nd the medical inspection block with
dispensary, where the sick are seen by a medical officer and either
prescribed for or sent into hospital, as may be necessary. Stables
are provided for the officers' and transport horses, and a vehicle
shed and storehouse for the mobilization equipment. Stores are
required for bread, meat, coal, clothing, and for musketry,
signalling, and general small stores under the quartermaster's
charge also workshops for armourers, carpenters, plumbers,
painters and glaziers, shoemakers, and tailors. Mention of the
fives court, recreation ground and parade ground completes -the
description of a battalion barrack.
Cavalry Barracks. The accommodation provided for cavalry
is very similar to that already described for infantry. The
barrack blocks are arranged to suit the organization of the
regiment, and are placed so that the men can turn out readily and
get to their horses. Detached buildings are provided for cavalry
troop stables, one block for the horses of each troop. Formerly
stables were often built for convenience with the barrack-rooms
over them; but this system has been abandoned on sanitary
grounds, to the benefit of both men and horses. Each horse is
given 1 500 cub. ft. of air space, the horses' heads are turned to the
outer walls, and provision is made, by traversed air-ducts below
the mangers, for fresh air to be supplied to the horses while lying
down. Above the horses' heads are windows which are arranged
to open inwards, being hinged at the bottom and fitted with
hopper cheeks to avoid direct draught. Ridge ventilation and
skylights are given, so that all parts of the stable are well lighted
and airy.
Cast-iron mangers and hay-racks are provided, and the horses
are separated by bails, with chains to manger brackets and heel
posts; saddle brackets are fixed to the heel posts. Each stable
has a troop store, where spare saddles and gear are kept ; also an
expense forage store, in which the day's ration, after issue in bulk
from the forage barn, is kept until it is given out in feeds. The
stables are paved with blue Staffordshire paving bricks, graded
to a collecting channel carrying the drainage well clear of the
building, before it is taken into a gully.
The space between the blocks of stables is paved with cement
concrete to form a yard, and horse-troughs, litter-sheds and
dung-pits are provided. Officers' stables are built in separate
blocks, and usually have only one row of stalls; the stalls are
divided by partitions, and separate saddle-rooms are provided.
Stalls and loose boxes in infirmary stables give 2000 cub. ft. of
air space per horse and are placed at some distance from the troop
stables in a separate enclosure. A forge and shoeing shed is
provided in a detached block near the troop stables. A forage
barn and granary is usually built to hold a fortnight's supply,
and a chaff-cutter driven by horse power is fixed close by.
Cavalry regiments each have a large covered riding school, and
a number of open maneges, for exercise and riding instruction.
Artillery, &c. The accommodation provided for horse and field
artillery is arranged to suit their organization in batteries and
brigades, and is generally similar to that already described, with
the addition of vehicle sheds for guns and ammunition wagons,
and special shops for wheelers and saddlers. Accommodation
for other units follows the general lines already laid down,
but has to be arranged to suit the particular organization and
requirements of each unit.
Garrison Accessories. In every large military station in
addition to the regimental buildings which have been described,
a number of buildings and works are required for the service of
the garrison generally. Military hospitals are established at
home and abroad for the treatment of sick officers and soldiers as
well as their wives and families. Military hospitals are classified
as follows: First-grade hospitals are large central hospitals
serving important districts. These hospitals are complete in
themselves and fully equipped for the carrying out of operations
of all kinds; they generally contain wards for officers, and may
have attached to them separate isolation hospitals for the treat-
ment of infectious cases, and military families' hospitals for
women and children. Second-grade hospitals are smaller in size
and less fully equipped, but are capable of acting independently
and have operation rooms. Third-grade hospitals or reception
stations are required for small stations principally, to act as
feeders to the large hospitals, and to deal with accident and non-
transportable cases. The principles of construction of military
hospitals do not differ materially from the best modern civil
practice; all are now built on the pavilion system with connect-
ing corridors arranged so as to interfere as little as possible with
the free circulation of air between the blocks. The site is carefully
selected and enclosed with railings. The administration block
BARRACKS
429
is centrally placed, with ward blocks on each side, and accessory
buildings placed where most convenient; the isolation wards
are in a retired position and divided off from the hospital
enclosure. Ward blocks usually have two storeys, and the
ordinary large wards provide 1200 cub. ft. of air space per
patient. A due proportion of special case and other special
wards is arranged in which the space per patient is greater or
less, as necessary.
Army schools are built to give slightly more liberal accommoda-
tion than is laid down as the minimum by the Board of Education,
but the principles of planning are much the same as in civil
elementary schools. Schools are usually placed between the
married quarters and the barracks, so as to serve both for the
instruction of the men , when working for educational certificates,
and for the education of the children of the married soldiers.
Garrison churches are built when arrangements for the troops
to attend divine service at neighbouring places of worship
cannot well be made. Only two military prisons now remain,
viz. Dover and Curragh, and these are for soldiers discharged
from the service with ignominy. For ordinary sentences detention
barracks and branch detention barracks are attached to the mili-
tary commands and districts: these are constructed in accord-
ance with the home office regulations; but crime in the army
fortunately continues to decrease, and little accommodation has
recently been added. Barrack expense stores for the issue of
bedding, utensils and other stores for which the troops depend
upon the Army Service Corps, are necessary in all barracks; and
in large stations a supply depot for the issue of provisions, with
abattoir and bakery attached to it, may be necessary. An
engineer office with building yard and workshops to deal with the
ordinary duties in connexion with the upkeep of War Department
property is required at every station, and for large stations such
as Aldershot, it may be necessary to undertake special water
supply schemes, works for disposal of sewage, and for the supply
of electricity or gas for lighting the barracks. The system of
roads, pipes and mains within the barracks are in all cases
maintained by the Royal Engineers, as well as the buildings
themselves. District and brigade offices are necessary for the
administration of large units, and quarters for the general officer
commanding and the headquarters staff may sometimes be
required.
Location of Barracks. The selection of a healthy site for a
barrack building or new military station is a matter of great
importance. ' In the earlier days of barrack construction, barracks
were, for political reasons, usually built in large towns, where
troops would be at hand for putting down disturbances, and
cramped and inconvenient buildings of many storeys, were
erected on a small piece of ground often surrounded by the worst
slums of the city; such, for example, were the Ship Street
barracks in Dublin, and the cavalry barracks at Hulme, Man-
chester. Worse still were cases where an existing building,
such as the Linen Hall in Dublin, was purchased, and converted
into barracks with little regard for the convenience of the
occupants, and a total disregard for the need of a free circulation
of pure air in and about the buildings, which is the first condition
of health. In the present day, except in a few cases where strong
local influence is allowed to prevail to retain troops in towns,
where their presence, and perhaps the money they spend, are
appreciated for patriotic or other motives, every opportunity is
taken to move troops from the vicinity of crowded towns, and
quarter them in barracks or hutments built in the open country.
Due regard can then be given to sanitary location, and military
training can more effectively be carried out. With improvements
in communication by rail, road and telegraph, support to the
civil power in case of disturbance can always be afforded in
good time, without permanently stationing troops in the actual
locality where their assistance may be needed. It has been
recognized ever since the Crimean War, that the leading principle
of barrack policy must, in the future, be to facilitate in peace
time the training of the army for war, and that this can only be
done by quartering troops in large bodies, including all branches
of the service, in positions where they have space for training,
gun and rifle practice, and manoeuvring. The camps at Alder-
shot, Colchester, Shomcliffe and Curragh were accordingly
started between 1856 and 1860, and the same policy has since
been continued by the acquisition of Strensall Common, near
York, Kilworth domain, near Fennoy, the lease of a portion of
Dartmoor and a large area at Glen Imaal in Co. Wicklow, and
the purchase of the Stobs estate in Scotland and of a large part
of Salisbury Plain.
Barrack Construction. The history of barrack construction
in Great Britain is an interesting study, but can only be touched
on briefly. As long as operations in the field were carried on by
troops levied especially for the war in hand, no barracks apart
from fortifications were required, except those for the royal
bodyguard; and even after the standing army exceeded those
limits, the necessity for additional barracks was often avoided
by having recourse to the device of billeting, i.e. quartering
the soldiers on the populations of the towns where they were
posted. This, however, was a device burdensome to the people,
subversive of discipline, and prejudicial to military efficiency
in many ways, while it exposed the scattered soldiers to many
temptations to disloyalty. Hence barracks were gradually pro-
vided, at first in places where such an arrangement was most
necessary owing to the paucity of the population, or where con-
centration of troops was most important, owing to the dis-
affection of some of the inhabitants. The earliest barracks
of which there is any record as regards England, were those for
the foot guards, erected in 1660. Among the earliest of those
still existing are the Royal Barracks at Dublin, dating from 1700,
and during the i8th century barracks were built in several parts
of Ireland; but in England it was at the end of the iSth and
beginning of the igth century that most of the earlier barracks
were constructed. So long as barracks were mainly in connexion
with fortresses their construction naturally fell to the duty of the
King's Engineers, afterwards the Corps of Engineers, working
under the master-general of the ordnance. About 1 706, however,
a special civil department was formed under the commissioners
for the affairs of barracks, to deal with barracks apart from
fortifications. In 1816 we find a warrant appointing a civilian
comptroller of the barrack department to deal with the erection
and upkeep of barracks and barrack hospitals not within fortified
places. This warrant gives one of the earliest records of the
nature of accommodation provided, and a few extracts from
it are worth notice. No definite regulations as to cubic or floor
space per man are laid down; but in the infantry, twelve men,
and in the cavalry, eight men are allotted to one room. " Bed-
steads or berths " are allowed, " a single one to each man, or
a double one to two men," or " hammocks where necessary-."
The married soldier's wife is barely recognized, as shown by the
following extract: " The comptroller of the barrack department
may, if he sees fit, and when it in no shape interferes with or
straitens the accommodation of the men, permit (as an occasional
indulgence, and as tending to promote cleanliness, and the con-
venience of the soldier) four married women per troop or company
of sixty men, and six per troop or company of a hundred men,
to be resident within the barracks; but no one article shall
on this account be furnished by the barrack-masters, upon any
consideration whatever. And if the barrack-masters perceive
that any mischief, or damage, arises from such indulgence, the
commanding officer shall, on their representation, displace such
women. Nor shall any dogs be suffered to be kept in the rooms
of any barrack or hospital." Another regulation says: " Where
kitchens are provided for the soldiers, they shall not be allowed
to dress their provisions in any other places." In about 1818
the civil barrack department was abolished on account of abuses
which had grown up, and the duke of Wellington as master-
general of the ordnance and commander-in-chief transferred
to the corps of Royal Engineers the duties of construction and
maintenance of barracks. In 1826 a course of practical archi-
tecture was started at the school of military engineering at
Chatham under Lieutenant-Colonel (afterwards Sir Charles)
Pasley, the first commandant of the school, who himself wrote
an outline of the course. Wellington interested himself in the
430
BARRACKS
barrack question, and under his orders single iron bedsteads
were substituted for the wooden berths, two tiers high, in which
two men slept in the same bed, then a certain cubical space per
man was allotted, and cook-houses and ablution-rooms were
added. Next, sergeants' messes were started, and ball courts
allowed for the recreation of the men. It was not, however,
till after the Crimean War that public attention was directed
by the report dated 1857 of the royal commission on the
sanitary state of the army, to the high death-rate, and certain
sanitary defects in barracks and hospitals, such as overcrowding,
defective ventilation, bad drainage and insufficient means of
cooking and cleanliness, to which this excessive mortality was
among other causes assigned.
In 1857 a commission appointed for improving the sanitary
condition of barracks and hospitals made an exhaustive inspec-
tion of the barracks in the United Kingdom, and reported in
1 86 1. This was followed by similar commissions to examine
the barracks in the Mediterranean stations and hi India. These
commissions, besides making valuable recommendations for the
improvement of almost every barrack inspected by them, laid
down the general sanitary principles applicable to the arrange-
ment and construction of military barracks and hospitals; and
in spite of the lapse of time, the reports repay close study by
any one interested in sanitary science as applied to the construc-
tion and improvement of such buildings. The names of Sidney
Herbert (afterwards Lord Herbert of Lea), Captain (afterwards
Sir Douglas) Gallon, R.E., and John Sutherland, M.D., stand
out prominently among those who contributed to the work.
The commission was constituted a standing body in 1862, and
continues its work to the present day, under the name of the Army
Sanitary Committee, which advises the secretary of state for
war on all sites for new barracks or hospitals, also upon type
plans, especially as to sanitary details, and principles of sanitary
construction and fitments. A definite standard of accommoda-
tion was laid down, which formed the basis of the first issue of
the Barrack Synopsis in 1865. A general order dated 1845 had
directed that a space of 450 to 500 cub. ft. per man should be
provided in all new barracks at home stations; but this had
not been applied in existing barracks or buildings appropriated
as such, and when detailed examination was made, it was found
that some men had actually less than 250 cub. ft., and out of
accommodation for nominally 76,813 soldiers, 2003 only had
600 cub. ft. per man, which was the minimum scale now laid
down by the royal commission of 1857. To give every soldier
his allotted amount of 600 cub. ft., meant a reduction hi accom-
modation of the barracks by nearly one-third the number.
Many buildings were condemned as being entirely unsuitable for
use as barracks; in other cases improvements were possible by
alterations to buildings and opening-up of sites. Ventilation of
the rooms was greatly improved, cook-houses, ablution-rooms
and sanitary accessories were carefully examined and a proper
scale laid down. Separate quarters for the married soldiers did
not exist in many barracks, and in some instances married men's
beds were found in the men's barrack-rooms without even a
screen to separate them; in other cases, married people were
accommodated together in a barrack-room, with only a blanket
hung on a cord as a screen between the different families. The
recommendations of the committee resulted in a single room
being allotted to all married soldiers, and this accommoda-
tion has gradually improved up to the comfortable cottage now
provided.
From the time of this first thorough inquiry into barrack
accommodation, steady and systematic progress has been made.
Although lack of funds has always hampered rapid progress,
and keeps the accommodation actually existing below the
standard aimed at, much has been done to improve the soldiers'
condition in this respect. Numerous regimental depots and other
barracks were built under the Military Forces Localization Act
of 1872. The Barracks Act of 1890 replaced the worn-out huts
at Aldershot, Colchester, Shomcliffe and Curragh by convenient
and sanitary permanent buildings, and further additions and
improvements have been made under the Military Works Acts
of 1897, 1899 and 1901. As some evidence of the practical result
of the care and money that has been expended on this work,
it is interesting to note that while, in 1857, the annual rate
of mortality in the army at home per 1000 men was 17-5 (com-
pared with 9-2 for the civil male population of corresponding
age), forty years later, in 1897, the rate of mortality in the
army was only 3-42 per 1000. No doubt, improved barrack
accommodation contributed greatly to this result. Barrack con-
struction work remained in the hands of the Corps of Royal
Engineers until 1904, when a civil department was again formed
under an architect styled " director of barrack construction," to
deal with the construction of barracks at home stations, and
the construction and maintenance of military hospitals.
British Colonial. Barracks at colonial stations are governed
by the general scale of accommodation in the Barrack Synopsis,
modified according to the climate of the station, in the
direction of increase in floor area and height of rooms. In the
planning of rooms for occupation in tropical or sub-tropical
countries provision has to be made 'for the freest possible
circulation of air through the buildings. The walls have to be
protected by verandahs from the direct rays of the sun, and the
special local domestic arrangements have to be taken into con-
sideration. For example, in hot countries it is usually undesir-
able to have kitchens directly attached to the dwelling-houses,
sanitary arrangements vary according to the methods adopted,
and in some cases it is necessary to provide a free circulation
of air below the ground floors of all inhabited buildings by raising
them off the ground some 4 ft. The aspect of the buildings will
usually be arranged so as to catch the prevailing wind, and the
mode of construction varies greatly according to the custom
and resources of the country.
Indian Barracks. In India, barracks for the British troops are
built by the Royal Engineer officers detailed for military work
duties, assisted by military foremen, who pass through the civil
engineering colleges, and by a native subordinate staff. The
scale of accommodation to be provided is laid down in the Indian
army regulations, and is for the private soldier more liberal than
is allowed by the home government for any of the colonial
stations. The barrack-rooms are lofty and airy, with verandahs
all round, and clerestory windows. Roofs are usually of double
tiling. The allowance of space is 90 sq. ft. per man in rooms 16
ft. high, with, in addition, a day room adjoining for the use of the
men for their meals or as a sitting-room. Recreation establish-
ments are liberally provided for, and other means of recreation,
such as bowling and skittle alleys, fives courts, plunge baths and
cricket grounds, are given. Separate blocks of married quarters
are provided, and schools for the children. Hospital accommo-
dation on a higher scale than at home is necessary; but hill
sanatoria have in recent years done much to improve the health
of the troops by giving change of air, during the hot weather, to
a large proportion of the men and families. Piped water supplies
have replaced the old wells at many stations, and attention is
being directed to improved cooking and sanitary arrangements.
Naval Barracks. In recent years, large naval barracks have
been built, notably at Portsmouth, Chatham and Devonport.
These differ from military barracks principally in that they keep
up the system of board-ship life to which the men are accustomed.
Large barrack-rooms are provided with caulked floors like ships'
decks, and have rows of hammocks slung across them; these are
stowed in the day-time, when the rooms are used as mess-rooms.
Ablution and sanitary arrangements are grouped together on the
basement floors. Fine recreation establishments and canteens
have been built. The officers' messes have splendid public rooms,
but the officers' quarters are not so large as hi military barracks,
though no doubt spacious to the naval officer, accustomed as he
is to a small cabin. Married quarters for the men are not provided
except in co'nnexion with coastguard stations.
Other Countries. A great number of the German and French
barracks are erected in the form of a large block of three or four
storeys containing all the accommodation and accessories for
officers, married and single non-commissioned officers and men,
of a complete battalion or regiment in one building. Some of the
BARRANDE BARRAS
modem barracks, however, are arranged more on the pavilion
system with separate blocks; but the single block system is well
liked on account of its compactness and the facility it gives for
supervision; it is also more satisfactory from the architectural
point of view. The system of allotment and arrangement of
accommodation for these two great armies does not differ much,
except in detail, from that adopted by the British army. The
floor and cubic space allotted per man is a little less; accommoda-
tion for officers is not usually provided, except to a limited extent,
unless the barracks are on a country site. The German army,
however, now provides every regiment with a fine officers' mess-
house furnished at the public expense. Married quarters for
some of the non-commissioned officers are provided, but not for
privates. American barracks are interesting, as providing for
perhaps a higher class of recruit than usual; they are well
designed and superior finish internally is given. The barracks are
arranged usually on the separate block system, and centre round
a post-exchange or soldiers' club, which is a combined recreation
establishment, gymnasium and sergeants' mess, with bath-house
attached. Canteens for the sale of liquor were abolished in 1901.
See The Barrack Synopsis (1905); The Handbook of Design and
Construction of Military Buildings (1905); The Army Regulations,
India, vol. xii. (E. N. S.)
BARRANDE, JOACHIM (1790-1883), Austrian geologist and
palaeontologist, was born at Saugues, Haute Loire, on the nth
of August 1 799, and educated in the Ecole Poly technique at Paris.
Although he had received the training of an engineer, his first
appointment was that of tutor to the due de Bordeaux (afterwards
known as the comte de Chambord), grandson of Charles X., and
when the king abdicated in 1830, Barrande accompanied the
royal exiles to England and Scotland, and afterwards to Prague.
Settling in that city in 1831, he became occupied in engineering
works, and his attention was then attracted to the fossils from the
Lower Palaeozoic rocks of Bohemia. The publication in 1839 of
Murchison's Silurian System incited Barrande to carry on syste-
matic researches on the equivalent strata in Bohemia. For ten
years (1840-1850) he made a detailed study of these rocks,
engaging workmen specially to collect fossils, and in this way
he obtained upwards of 3500 species of graptolites, brachiopoda,
mollusca, Crustacea (particularly trilobites) and fishes. The
first volume of his great work, Systeme silurien du centre de la
Boheme (dealing with trilobites), appeared in 1852; and from
that date until 1881, he issued twenty -one quarto volumes of
text and plates. Two other volumes were issued after his death
in 1887 and 1894. It is estimated that he spent nearly 10,000
on these works. In addition he published a large number of
separate papers. In recognition of his important researches
the Geological Society of London in 1855 awarded to him the
Wollaston medal.
The term Silurian was employed by Barrande, after Murchison,
in a more comprehensive sense than was justified by subsequent
knowledge. Thus the Silurian rocks of Bohemia were divided
into certain stages (A to H) the two lowermost, A and B without
fossils (Azoic), succeeded by the third stage, C, which included
the primordial zone, since recognized as part of the Cambrian of
Sedgwick. The fourth stage (Etage D), the true lower Silurian,
was described by Barrande as including isolated patches of strata
with organic remains like those of the Upper Silurian. These
assemblages of fossils were designated " Colonies," and regarded
as evidence of the early introduction into the area of species from
neighbouring districts, that became locally extinct, and reappeared
in later stages. The interpretation of Barrande was questioned
in 1854 by Edward Forbes, who pointed to the disturbances,
overturns and crumplings in the older rocks as affording a more
reasonable explanation of the occurrence of strata with newer
fossils amid those containing older ones. Other geologists sub-
sequently questioned the doctrine of " Colonies." In 1880 Dr
J. E. Marr, from a personal study in the field, brought forward
evidence to show that the repetitions of the fossiliferous strata
on which the " Colonies " were based were due to faults. The
later stages of Barrande, F, G and H, have since been shown by
Emanuel Friedrich Heinrich Kayser (b. 1845) to be Devonian.
Despite these modifications in the original groupings of the strata,
it b recognized that Barrande " made Bohemia classic ground for
the study of the oldest fossiliferous formations." He died at
Frohsdorf on the 5th of October 1883.
See " Sketch of the Life of Joachim Barrande," Ceol. Mag. (1883),
p. 529 (with portrait).
BARRANQUILLA, a city and port of Colombia, South America,
capital of a province of the same name in the department of
Atlantico, on the left bank of the Magdalena river about 7 m.
above its mouth and i8j m. by rail from its seaport, Puerto
Colombia. Pop. (est. 1902) 31,000. Owing to a dangerous bar
at the mouth of the Magdalena the trade of the extensive territory
tributary to that river, which is about 60 % of that of the entire
country, must pass in great part through Barranquilla and its
seaport, making it the principal commercial centre of the republic.
Savanilla was used as a seaport until about 1890, when shoals
caused by drifting sands compelled a removal to Puerto Colombia,
a short distance westward, where a steel pier, 4000 ft. in length,
has been constructed to facilitate the handling of freight. The
navigation of the Magdalena is carried on by means of light-
draught steamboats which ascend to Yeguas, 14 m. below Honda,
where goods are transhipped by rail to the latter place, and thence
by pack animals to Bogota, or by smaller boats to points farther
up the river. Barranquilla was originally founded in 1629, but
attracted no attention as a commercial centre until about the
middle of the igth century, when efforts were initiated to secure
the trade passing through Cartagena. The city is built on a low
plain, is regularly laid out, and has many fine warehouses, public
buildings and residences, but its greater part, however, consists
of mud-walled cabins supported by bamboo (guadua) framework
and thatched with rushes. The water-supply is drawn from the
Magdalena, and the city is provided with telephone, electric light
and tram services. Owing to periodical inundations, the sur-
rounding country is but little cultivated, and the greater part of
the population, which is of the mixed type common to the low-
lands of Columbia, is engaged in no settled productive occupation.
BARRAS, PAUL FRANCOIS NICOLAS, COMTE DE (1755-
1829), member of the French Directory of 1795-1799, was
descended from a noble family of Provence, and was born at
Fox-Amphoux. At the age of sixteen he entered the regiment
of Languedoc as "gentleman cadet," but embarked for India in
1776. After an adventurous voyage he reached Pondicherry and
shared in the defence of that city, which ended in its capitulation
to the British on the i8th of October 1778. The garrison being
released, Barras returned to France. After taking part in a
second expedition to the East Indies in 1782-1783, he left the
army and occupied the following years with the frivolities con-
genial to his class and to his nature. At the outbreak of the
Revolution in 1789, he espoused the democratic cause, and
became one of the administrators of the department of the Var.
In June 1792 he took his seat in the high national court at
Orleans; and later in that year, on the outbreak of war with the
kingdom of Sardinia, he became commissioner to the French
army of Italy, and entered the Convention (the third of the
national assemblies of France) as a deputy for the department
of the Var. In January 1793 he voted with the majority for the
death of Louis XVI. Much of his time, however, was spent in
missions to the districts of the south-east of France; and in this
way he made the acquaintance of Bonaparte at the siege of
Toulon. As an example of the incorrectness of the Barras
Memoirs we may note that the writer assigned 30,000 men to the
royalist defending force, whereas it was less than 12,000; he also
sought to minimize the share taken by Bonaparte in the capture
of that city.
In 1794 Barras sided with the men who sought to overthrow
the Robespierre faction, and their success in the coup d'etat of
9 Thermidor (27th of July) brought him almost to the front rank.
In the next year, when the Convention was threatened by the
malcontent National Guards of Paris, it appointed Barras to
command the troops engaged in its defence. His nomination of
Bonaparte as one of his subalterns led to the adoption of vigorous
measures, which ensured the dispersion of the royalists and
432
BARRATRY BARREL-ORGAN
malcontents in the streets near the Tuileries, 13 Vendemiaire
(5th of October 1795). Thereupon Barras became one of the
five Directors who controlled the executive of the French republic.
Owing to his intimate relations with Josephine de Beauharnais,
he helped to facilitate a marriage between her and Bonaparte;
and many have averred, though on defective evidence, that
Barras procured the appointment of Bonaparte to the command
of the army of Italy early in the year 1796. The achievements
of Bonaparte gave to the Directory a stability which it would not
otherwise have enjoyed; and when in the summer of 1797 the
royalist and constitutional opposition again gathered strength,
Bonaparte sent General Augereau (q.v.), a headstrong Jacobin,
forcibly to repress that movement by what was known as the
coup d'etat of 1 8 Fructidor (4th September). Barras and the
violent Jacobins now carried matters with so high a hand as to
render the government of the Directory odious; and Bonaparte
had no difficulty in overthrowing it by the coup d'etat of 18-19
Brumaire(9th-ioth of November). Barrassawtheneedofachange
and was to some extent (how far will perhaps never be known)
an accomplice in Bonaparte's designs, though he did not suspect
the power and ambition of their contriver. He was left on one
side by the three Consuls who took the place of the five Directors
and found his political career at an end. He had amassed a large
fortune and spent his later years in voluptuous ease. Among
the men of the Revolution few did more than Barras to degrade
that movement. His immorality in both public and private life
was notorious and contributed in no small degree to the downfall
of the Directory, and with it of the first French Republic.
Despite his profession of royalism in and after 1815, he remained
more or less suspect to the Bourbons; and it was with some
difficulty that the notes for his memoirs were saved from seizure
on his death on the 29th of January 1829.
Barras left memoirs in a rough state to be drawn up by his literary
executor, M. Rousselin de St Albin. The amount of alteration
which they underwent at his hands is not fully known; but M. George
Duruy, who edited them on their publication in 1895, has given
fairly satisfactory proofs of their genuineness. For other sources
respecting Barras see the Memoirs of Gohier, Larevelli^re-Lepeaux
and de Lescure; also Sciout, Le Directoire (4 vols., Paris, 1895-
1897), A. Sorel, L'Europe el la Revolution fran^aise (esp. vols. v. and
vi., Paris, 1903-1904), and A. Vandal, L'Avenement de Bonaparte
(Paris, 1902-1904). (J. HL. R.)
BARRATRY (O. Fr. bareter, barater, to barter or cheat), in
English criminal law, the offence (more usually called common
barratry) of constantly inciting and stirring up quarrels in dis-
turbance of the peace, either in courts or elsewhere. It is an
offence both at common law and by statute, and is punishable
by fine and imprisonment. By a statute of 1726, if the person
guilty of common barratry belonged to the profession of the law,
he was disabled from practising in the future. It is a cumulative
offence, and it is necessary to prove at least three commissions of
the act. For nearly two centuries there had been no record of an
indictment having been preferred for this offence, but in 1889 a
case occurred at the Guildford summer assizes, R. v. Bellgrove
(The Times, 8th July 1889). As, however, the defendant was
convicted of another offence, the charge was not proceeded upon.
(See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law; Russell,
Crimes and Misdemeanours; Stephen, Criminal Law.)
In marine insurance barratry is any kind of fraud committed
upon the owner or insurers of a ship by a master with the inten-
tion of benefiting himself at their expense. Continental jurists
give a wider meaning to barratry, as meaning any wilful act by
the master or crew, by whatever motive induced, whereby the
owners or charterers are damnified. In bills of lading it is usual
to except it from the shipowners' liability (see AFFREIGHTMENT).
In Scotland, barratry is the crime committed by a judge who
is induced by bribery to pronounce judgment.
BARRE, ISAAC (1726-1802), British soldier and politician,
was born at Dublin in 1 7 26, the son of a French refugee. He was
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, entered the army, and in
1759 was with Wolfe at the taking of Quebec, on which occasion
he was wounded in the cheek. His entry into parliament in 1761
under the auspices of Lord Shelburne, who had selected him "as
a bravo to run down Mr Pitt," was characterized by a virulent
attack on Pitt, of whom, however, he became ultimately a
devoted adherent. A vigorous opponent of the taxation of
America, his mastery of invective was powerfully displayed in his
championship of the American cause, and the name " Sons of
Liberty," which he had applied to the colonists in one of his
speeches, became a common designation of the American
organizations directed against the Stamp Act, as well as of later
patriotic clubs. His appointment in 1782 to the treasurership of
the navy, which carried with it a pension of 3 200 a year, at a
time when the government was ostensibly advocating economy,
caused great discontent; subsequently, however, he received
from the younger Pitt the clerkship of the pells in place of the
pension, which thus was saved to the public. Becoming blind,
he retired from office in 1790 and died on the 2oth of July 1802.
BARRE, a city of Washington county, Vermont, U.S.A., in
the north central part of the state, about 6 m. S.E. of Montpelier.
Pop. (1890) 4146; (1900) 8448, of whom 2831 were foreign-born;
(iqio, census) 10,734. It is served by the Central Vermont
and the Montpelier & Wells River railways, and is connected by
electric street railways with Montpelier. Barre is an important
seat of the granite industry, and manufactures monuments and
tombstones, stone-cutting implements and other machinery.
In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at $3,373,046, of
which 86-9 % was the value of the monuments and tombstones
manufactured. Among its institutions are the Aldrich public
library and Goddard Seminary (1870; Universalist). There is
a beautiful granite statue of Burns (by J. Massey Rhind), erected
in 1899 by the Scotsmen of Barre. The water- works are owned
and operated by the municipality. Settled soon after the close
of the War of Independence, the township of Barre (pop. in 1910,
4194) was organized in 1793 and named in honour of Isaac Barre
(1726-1802), a defender of American rights in the British parlia-
ment. The present city, chartered in 1894, was originally a part
of the township.
BARREL (a word of uncertain origin common to Romance
languages ; the Celtic forms, as in the Gaelic baraill, are derived
from the English), a vessel of cylindrical shape, made of staves
bound together by hoops, a cask; also a dry and liquid measure
of capacity, varying with the commodity which it contains
(see WEIGHTS AND MEASURES). The term is applied to many
cylindrical objects, as to the drum round which the chain is
wound in a crane, a capstan or a watch; to the cylinder studded
with pins in a barrel-organ or musical-box; to the hollow shaft
in which the piston of a pump works; or to the tube of a gun.
The "barrel" of a horse is that part of the body lying between
the shoulders and the quarters. For the system of vaulting
in architecture known as " barrel- vaulting " see VAULT.
BARREL-ORGAN (Eng. "grinder-organ," "street-organ,"
"hand-organ," "Dutch organ"; Fr. orgue de Barbaric, orgue
d'Allemagne, orgue mecanique, cabinet d' orgue, serinette; Ger.
Drehorgel, Leierkasten; Ital. organelto a manovella, organo tedesco),
a small portable organ mechanically played by turning a handle.
The barrel-organ owes its name to the cylinder on which the tunes
are pricked out with pins and staples of various lengths, set at
definite intervals according to the scheme required by the music.
The function of these pins and staples is to raise balanced keys
connected by simple mechanism with the valves of the pipes,
which are thus mechanically opened, admitting the stream of
air from the wind-chest. The handle attached to the shaft sets
the cylinder in slow rotation by means of a worm working in
a fine-toothed gear on the barrel-head; the same motion works
the bellows by means of cranks and connecting reds on the shaft.
The wind is thereby forced into a reservoir, whence it passes
into the wind-chest, on the sides of which are grouped the pipes.
The barrel revolves slowly from back to front, each revolution
as a rule playing one complete tune. A notch-pin in the barrel-
head, furnished with as many notches as there are tunes, enables
the performer to shift the barrel and change the tune. The
ordinary street barrel-organ had a compass varying from 24 to
34 notes, forming a diatonic scale with a few accidentals, generally
F#, G$, C#. There were usually two stops, one for the open pipes
of metal, the other for the closed wooden pipes. Barrel-organs
BARREL-ORGAN
433
have been made with as many as three or four cylinders set in
a circular revolving frame, but these more elaborate instruments
were mainly used in churches ' and chapels, a purpose for which
they were in great demand for playing hymns, chants and
voluntaries during the i8th and early igth centuries. A barrel-
organ was built for Fulham church by Wright, and a large
instrument with four barrels was constructed by Bishop for
Northallerton church in 1820.
The origin of the barrel-organ is now clearly established,
and many will doubtless be surprised to find that it must be
sought in the Netherlands as early as the middle of the I5th
century, and that accurate and detailed diagrams of every part
of the mechanism for a large stationary barrel-organ worked
by hydraulic power were published in 1615. There are letters
patent preserved in the archives of Belgium appointing a certain
organ-builder, Jehan van Steenken, dit Aren, " Master of organs
which play of themselves "; in the original Flemish Meester
van orgelen spelende bij hen selven? This organ was not a portable
one like English street-organs, but a more imposing instrument,
as we learn from other documents giving a detailed account
of the moneys paid to Maistre Jehan for conveying the organs
FIG. I. Large stationary barrel-organ worked by hydraulic power,
from Solomon de Caus, Les Raisons des forces mouvantes (Frankfort -
on-Main, 1615).
from Bruges to Brussels. 3 Steenken was, by virtue of the same
letters patent, awarded an annual pension of fifty Rhenish
florins in consideration of the services rendered to the duke of
Burgundy, and on condition of his submitting to his liege Philip
the Good all other instruments he might make in the future.
There is nothing singular in the early date of this invention, for
the i $th century was distinguished for the extraordinary impulse
which the patronage and appreciation of the dukes of Burgundy
1 This practice had evidently not been adopted in Germany, as
the following instance will show. The use of barrel-organs (Dreh-
orgeln) in country churches was seriously recommended by an
anonymous writer in two German papers at the beginning of the
I9th century (Beobachter an der Spree, Berlin, 22nd October 1821,
and in Markische Boten, Nos. 138 and 139, 1821). The organist
Wilke of Leipzig published in reply an article in the Allgem. musik.
Zeitung (1822, pp. 777 et seq.) in which " he very properly repudiated
such a laughable recommendation."
* Archives generales du royaume de Belgique, Chambre des Comptes,
No. 2, 449 r . cf. 52 r. ; and Edmund van der Straeten, La Musique
aux Pays-Bas, vol. vii. pp. 230-232.
' Van der Straeten, op. cit. p. 299.
gave to automatic contrivances of all kinds, carillons, clocks,
speaking animals and other curiosities due to Flemish genius.'
No contemporary illustration is forthcoming, but in 1615
Solomon de Caus, who avowedly owed his inspiration to Hero
and Vitruvius, describes a number of hydraulic machines,
amongst which is the barrel-organ,' illustrating his description
by means of several large drawings and diagrams very carefully
carried out. De Caus' organ, entitled " Machine par laquelle 1'on
fera sonner un jeu d'orgues par le moyen de 1'eau," was built
up on a wall a foot thick. In the illustrations the barrel is shown
to be divided into bars, and each bar into eight beats for the
quavers. The whole drum is pierced with holes at the inter-
secting points, the pins being movable, so that when the performer
grew tired of one tune, he could re-arrange the pins to form
another. The four bellows are set in motion by means of ropes
strained over pulleys and attached to four cranks on the rotating
shaft. Solomon de Caus lays no claim to the invention of this
organ, but only to the adaptation of hydraulic power for re-
volving the drum; on the contrary, in a dissertation on the
invention of hydraulic machines and organs, he states that
there was evidently some difference between the organs of the
ancients and those of his day, since there is no mention in the
classics of any musical wheel by means of which tunes could
be played in several parts the ancients, indeed, seem to have
used their fingers on the keyboard to sound their organs. The
eighteen keys drawn in one diagram bear names, beginning at
the left, D, C, B, A, G, F, F#, E, D, C, B, A, G, F, E, D, C, B;
De Caus states that only half the keyboard is given for want of
space; the compass, therefore, prob- .m.
ably was as shown, with a few acci- p
dentals. A barrel-organ, also worked ffi~
by hydraulic power, is somewhat
fantastically drawn by Robert Fludd in a work* published
two years after that of Solomon de Caus. This diagram is of
no value except as a curiosity, for the author betrays a very
imperfect knowledge of the mechanical principles involved.
The piece of music actually set on de Caus' barrel-organ, six
bars of which can be made out, 7 consists of a madrigal, " Chi
fara fed' al ciel," by Alessandro Striggio, written in organ
tablature by Peter Philips, organist of the Chapel Royal,
Brussels, at the end of the i6th century. 8 A French barrel--
organ 9 in the collection of the Brussels Conservatoire, bearing
the date " 5 Mars 1797," has the following compass with flats,
beginning at the left:
C :
Other evidences of theorigin of the barrel-organ are not wanting.
The inventory of the organs and other keyboard instruments
belonging to the duke of Modena, drawn up in 1598, contains
two entries of an organo Tcdesco. In England these organs
were also known as " Dutch organs," and the name clung to
the instrument even in its diminutive form of hand-organ of
the itinerant musician. In Jedediah Morse's description of the
4 Van der Straeten, op. cit. p. 231.
6 Solomon de Caus, Les Raisons des forces mouvantes (Frankfort,
1615), problems 25, 28, 29, 30.
* Historia utriusque cosmi (Oppenheim, 1617), t. i., experimentum
viii. p. 483.
1 Op. cit. problem 29 shows the arrangement of the bellows for
the wind-supply. In problem 30 is drawn a large section of the
barrel, showing six bars of music represented by the pin tablature,
which can be actually deciphered by the help of the keyboard in-
cluded in the drawing. These diagrams are admirably clear and of
real technical value. A copy of this work is in the library of the
British Museum.
8 See also E. van der Straeten, who has translated Philips' setting
into modern notation, op. cit. t. vi. pp. 506 and 510.
See V. C. Mahillon, Catalogue descriplif (Brussels, 1806), No. 1137,
p. 37, 1
10 Tedesco was applied by Italians to both German and Dutch.
Count V'aldrighi, Musurgiana I. Serandola, Pianoforte, Salterio
(Modena, 1879), pp. 27 and 28; and E. van der Straeten, op. cit.
vol. vi. p. 122.
434
BARREN ISLAND BARRETT
manners and customs of the Netherlands, 1 we find the following
allusion: " The diversions of the Dutch differ not much from
those of the English, who seem to have borrowed from them the
neatness of their drinking booths, skittle and other grounds . . .
which form the amusements of the middle ranks, not to mention
their hand-organs and other musical inventions." An illustration
of the hand-organ of that period is given in Knight's London, 2
being one of a collection of street views published by Dayes in
1789. In a description of Bartholomew Fair, as held at the
beginning of the i8th century, is a further reference to the Dutch
origin of the barrel-organ: " A band at the west-end of the
town, well known for playing on winter evenings before Spring
Garden Coffee House, opposite Wigley's great exhibition room,
consisted of a double drum, a Dutch organ, the tambourine,
violin, pipes and the Turkish jingle used in the army. This
band was generally hired at one of the booths of the fair." 3
Mr Thomas Brown relates that one Mr Stephens, a Poultry
author, proposed to parliament for any one that should presume
to keep an organ in a Publick House to be fined 20 and made
incapable of being an ale-draper for the future. 4 In 1737 Horace
Walpole writes 6 : "I am now in pursuit of getting the finest
piece of music that ever was heard; it is a thing that will play
eight tunes. Handel and all the great musicians say that it is
beyond anything they can do, and this may be performed by
the most ignorant person, and when you are weary of those
eight tunes, you may have them changed for any other that you
like." The organ was put in a lottery And fetched 1000.
. There was a very small barrel-organ in use during the i8th and
ipth centuries, known as the bird-organ (Fr. serinetle, turlutaine,
merline). One of these now in the collection of the Brussels
Conservatoire is described by V. C. Mahillon. 8 The instrument
is in the form of a book, on the back of which
^= is the title " Le chant des oiseaux, Tome vi."
There are ten pewter stopped pipes giving the
scale of G with the addition of Fb and A two
octaves higher. The whole instrument measures approximately
8 X s| X 2 Jin. and plays eight tunes. Mozart wrote an Andante 7
for a small barrel-organ.
For an illustration of the construction of the barrel-organ during
the i8th century, consult P. M. D. J. Engramelle, La Tonotechnie
ou I'art de noter les cylindres et tout ce qui est susceptible de notage
'dans les instruments de concerts mechaniques (Pans, 1775), with
engravings (not in the British Museum); and for a clear diagram
of the modern instrument the article on " Automatic Appliances
connected with Music," by Dr E. J. Hopkins, in Grove's Dictionary
of Music and Musicians, vol. i. (1904), p. 134. (K. S.)
BARREN ISLAND, a volcanic island in the Bay of Bengal. It
has an irregularly circular form of about 2 m. in diameter,
composed of an outer rim rising to a height of from 700 to 1000
ft., with a central cone the altitude of which is 1015 ft. This
cone rises from a depth of 800 fathoms below the sea. It was
active between 1789 and 1832, but has since been dormant.
BARRES, MAURICE (1862- ), French novelist and poli-
tician, was born at Charmes (Vosges) on the 22nd of September
1862; he was educated at the lycte of Nancy, and in 1883 went
to Paris to continue his legal studies. He was already a con-
tributor to the monthly periodical, Jeune France, and he now
issued a periodical of his own, Les Taches d'encre, which survived
for a few months only. After four years of journalism he went
to Italy, where he wrote Sous I' ceil des barbares (1888), the first
volume of a trilogie du moi, completed by Un Homme libre ( 1 889) ,
and Le Jardin de Berenice (1891). He divided the world into
moi and the barbarians, the latter including all those anti-
pathetic to the writer's individuality. These apologies for
1 Jedediah Morse American Geography, part ii. p. 334 (Boston,
Mass., 1796).
* Knight's London, vol. i. p. 144.
* Hone's Every Day Book, i. p. 1248.
* Collection of all the Dialogues written by Mr Thomas Brown
(London, 1704), p. 297.
1 Hone's Every Day Book, ii. pp. 1452-1453.
1 See Catalogue descriptif (Ghent, 1880), Nos. 461 and 462.
7 Breitkppf and Hatters Critically revised edition of Mozart's
Works, series x. no. 10.
individualism were supplemented by L'Ennemideslois (1892), and
an admirable volume of impressions of travel, Du sang, de la
volupte et de la mart (1893). His early books are written in an
elaborate style and are often very obscure. Barres carried his
theory of individualism into politics as an ardent partisan of
General Boulanger. He directed a Boulangist paper at Nancy,
and was elected deputy in 1889, retaining his seat in the legis-
lature until 1893. His play, Une Journie parlementaire, was
produced at the Come'die Francaise in 1894. In 1897 he began
his trilogy, Le Roman de I'energie nationale, with the publication
of Les Deracines. The series is a plea for local patriotism, and for
the preservation of the distinctive qualities of the old French
provinces. The first narrates the adventures of seven young
Lorrainers, who set out to conquer fortune in Paris. Six of
them survive in the second novel of the trilogy, L'Appelau soldat
(1900), which gives the history of Boulangism; the sequel,
Leurs figures (1902), deals with the Panama scandals. Later
works are: Scenes et doctrines du nationalisms (1902); Les
Amiliis franc.aises (1903), in which he urges the inculcation of
patriotism by the early study of national history; Ce que j'ai
vu d Rennes (1904); An service de I'Allemagne (1905), the
experiences of an Alsatian conscript in a German regiment;
Le Voyage de Sparte (1906). M. Barres was admitted to the
French Academy in 1906.
See also R. Doumic, Les Jeunes (1896) ; J. Lionnet, L' Evolution des
idees (1903); Anatole France, La Vie litteraire (4th series, 1892).
BARRETT, LAWRENCE (1838-1891), American actor, was
born of Irish parents in Paterson, New Jersey, on the 4th of April
1838. His family name was Brannigan. He made his first
stage appearance at Detroit as Murad in The French Spy in 1853.
In December 1856 he made his first New York appearance at the
Chambers Street theatre as Sir Thomas Clifford in J 'he Hunchback.
In 1858 he was in the stock company at the Boston Museum.
He served with distinction in the Civil War as captain in the
28th Massachusetts infantry regiment. From 1867 to 1870,
with John M'Cullough, he managed the California theatre, San
Francisco. Among his many and varied parts may be mentioned
Hamlet, Lear, Macbeth, Shylock, Richard III., Wolsey , Benedick,
Richelieu, David Garrick, Hemani, Alfred Evelyn, Lanciotto
in George Henry Boker's (1823-1890) Francesco da Rimini,
and James Harebell in The Man o' Airlie. He played Othello
to Booth's lago and Cassius to his Brutus. He acted in London
in 1867, 1881, 1883 and 1884, his Richelieu in Bulwer Lytton's
drama being considered his best part. He wrote a life of Edwin
Forrest in the American Actors Series (Boston, 1881), and an
admirable sketch of Edwin Booth in Edwin Booth and his
Contemporaries (Boston, 1886). He died on the aoth of March
1891.
BARRETT, LUCAS (1837-1862), Engh'sh naturalist and
geologist, was born in London on the i4th of November 1837,
and educated at University College school and at Ebersdorf.
In 1855 he accompanied R. McAndrew on a dredging excursion
from the Shetlands to Norway and beyond the Arctic Circle; and
subsequently made other cruises to Greenland and to the coast
of Spain. These expeditions laid the foundations of an extensive
knowledge of the distribution of marine life. In 1855 he was
engaged by Sedgwick to assist in the Woodwardian Museum at
Cambridge, and during the following three years he aided the
professor by delivering lectures. He discovered bones of birds
in the Cambridge Greensand, and he also prepared a geological
map of Cambridge on the one-inch Ordnance map. In 1859,
when twenty-two years of age, he was appointed director of
the Geological Survey of Jamaica. He there determined the
Cretaceous age of certain rocks which contained Hippurites, the
new genus Barrettia being named after him by S. P. Woodward;
he also obtained many fossils from the Miocene and newer strata.
He was drowned at the early age of twenty-five, on the i8th of
December 1862, while investigating the sea-bottom off Kingston,
Jamaica.
Obituary by S. P. Woodward in Geologist (Feb. 1863), p. 60.
BARRETT, WILSON (1846-1904), English actor, manager and
playwright, was born in Essex on the i8th of February 1846, the
BARRHEAD BARRIE, J. M.
son of a farmer. He made his first appearance on the stage at
Halifax in 1864, and then played in the provinces alone and with
his wife, Caroline Heath, in East Lynne. After managerial
experiences at Leeds and elsewhere, in 1879 he took the manage-
ment of the old Court theatre, where he introduced Madame
Modjeska to London, in an adaptation of Schiller's Maria Stuart,
Adrienne Lecouvreur, La Dame aux camelias and other plays. It
was not till 1881, however, when he took the Princess's theatre,
that he became well known to the public in the emotional drama,
The Lights o' London, by G. R. Sims. The play which made him
an established favourite was The Silver King by Henry Arthur
Jones, perhaps the most successful melodrama ever staged,
produced in 1882 with himself as Wilfred Denver, his brother
George (an excellent comedian) in the cast, and E. S. Willard
(b. 1853) as the " Spider," this being the part in which Mr
Willard, afterwards a well-known actor both in America and
England, first came to the front. Barrett played this part for
three hundred nights without a break, and repeated his London
success in W. G. Wills's Claudian which followed. In 1884 he
appeared in Hamlet, but soon returned to melodrama, and though
he had occasional seasons in London he acted chiefly in the
provinces. In 1886 he made his first visit to America, repeated
in later years, and in 1898 he visited Australia. During these
years the London stage was coming under new influences, and
Wilson Barrett's vogue in melodrama had waned. But in 1895
he struck a new vein of success with his drama of religious
emotion, The Sign of the Cross, which crowded his theatre with
audiences largely composed of people outside the ordinary circle
of playgoers. He attempted to repeat the success with other
plays of a religious type, but not with equal effect, and several
of his later plays were failures. He died on the 22nd of July
1904. Wilson Barrett was a sterling actor of a robust type and
striking physique, not remarkable for intellectual finesse, but
excelling in melodrama, and very successful as the central figure
on his own stage.
BARRHEAD, a police burgh of Renfrewshire, Scotland,
situated on the Levern, 7$ m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow
& South- Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9855. Founded in 1773,
it has gradually absorbed the villages of Arthurlie, Dovecothall
and Grahamston, and become a thriving town. The chief
industries include bleaching, calico-printing, cotton-spinning,
weaving, iron and brass founding, engineering and the manu-
facture of sanitary appliances. Neilston (pop. 2668), about 2 m.
S.W., has bleachfields and print-works, and 2 m. N. by E. lie
Hurlet, where are important manufactures of alum and other
chemicals, and Nitshill (pop. 1 242) with chemical works, quarries
and collieries.
BARRICADE, or BARRICADO (from the Span, barricada, from
barrica, a cask, casks filled with earth having been early used to
form barricades), an improvised fortification of earth, paving-
stones, trees or any materials ready to hand, thrown up, especially
across a street, to hinder the advance of an enemy; in the old
wooden warships a fence or wooden rail, supported by stanchions
and strengthened by various materials, extending across the
quarter-deck as a protection during action.
BARRIE, JAMES MATTHEW (1860- ), British novelist
and dramatist, was born at Kirriemuir, a small village in Forfar-
shire, on the 9th of May 1860. He was educated at the Dumfries
academy and Edinburgh University. He has told us in his
quasi-autobiographical Margaret Ogilvy that he wrote tales in
the garret before he went to school, and at Edinburgh wrote the
greater part of a three-volume novel, which a publisher pre-
sumed was the work of a clever lady and offered to publish for
100. The offer was not accepted, and it was through journalism
that he found his way to literature. After a short period of
waiting in Edinburgh, he became leader-writer on the Nottingham
Journal in February 1883. To this paper he contributed also
special articles and notes, which provided an opening and training
for his personal talent. He soon began to submit articles to
London editors, and on the i7th of November 1884 Mr Frederick
Greenwood printed in the Si James's Gazette his article on "An
Auld Licht Community." With the encouragement of this able
435
editor, more Auld Licht "Idylls" followed; and in 1885 Mr
Barrie moved to London. He continued to write for the St
James's Gazette and for Home Chimes (edited by Mr F. W.
Robinson). He was soon enlisted by Mr Alexander Riach for
the Edinburgh Evening Dispatch, which in turn led to his writing
(over the signature " Gavin Ogilvy ") for Dr Robertson Nicoll's
British Weekly. Later he became a contributor to the Scots
(afterwards National) Observer, edited by W. E. Henley, and also
to the Speaker, upon its foundation in 1890. In 1887 he pub-
lished his first book, Better Dead. It was a mere jeu d'esprit,
a specimen of his humorous journalism, elaborated from the
St James's Gazette. This was followed in 1888 by Auld Licht
Idylls, a collection of the Scots village sketches written for the
same paper. They portrayed the life and humours of his native
village, idealized as " Thrums," and were the fruits of early
observation and of his mother's tales. " She told me everything,"
Mr Barrie has written, " and so my memories of our little red
town were coloured by her memories." Kirriemuir itself was not
wholly satisfied with the portrait, but " Thrums " took its place
securely on the literary map of the world. In the same year
he published An Edinburgh Eleven, sketches from the British
Weekly of eminent Edinburgh students; also his first long story,
When a Man's Single, a humorous transcription of his experiences
as journalist, particularly in the Nottingham office. The book
was introduced by what was in fact another Thrums "Idyll," on
a higher level than the rest of the book. In 1889 came A Window
in Thrums. This beautiful book, and the Idylls, gave the full
measure of Mr Barrie's gifts of humanity, humour and pathos,
with abundant evidence of the whimsical turn of his wit, and of
his original and vernacular style. In 1891 he made a collection
of his lighter papers from the St James's Gazette and published
them as My Lady Nicotine. In 1891 appeared his first long novel,
The Little Minister, which had been first published serially in
Good Words. It introduced, not with unmixed success, extrane-
ous elements, including the winsome heroine Babbie, into the
familiar life of Thrums, but proved the author's possession of a
considerable gift of romance. In 1894 he published Margaret
Ogilvy, based on the life of his mother and his own relations with
her, most tenderly conceived and beautifully written, though too
intimate for the taste of many. The book is full of revelations
of great interest to admirers of Mr Barrie's genius. The following
year came Sentimental Tommy, a story tracing curiously the
psychological development of the " artistic temperament " in a
Scots lad of the people. R. L. Stevenson supposed himself to be
portrayed in the hero, but it may be safely assumed that the
author derived his material largely from introspection. The
story was completed by a sequel, Tommy and Grizel, published
in 1900. The effect of this story was somewhat marred by the
comparative failure of the scenes in society remote from Thrums.
In 1902 he published The Little While Bird, a pretty fantasy,
wherein he gave full play to his whimsical invention, and his
tenderness for child life, which is relieved by the genius of
sincerity from a suspicion of mawkishness. This book contained
the episode of " Peter Pan," which afterwards suggested the play
of that name. In the meantime Mr Barrie had been developing
his talent as a dramatist. In 1892 Mr Toole had made a great
success at his own theatre of Barrie's Walker, London, a farce
founded on a sketch in When a Man's Single. In 1893 Mr Barrie
married Miss Ansell (divorced in 1909), who had acted in Walker,
London. In this year he wrote, with Sir A. Conan Doyle, a play
called Jane Annie. He found more success, however, in The
Professor's Love-Story in 1895; and in 1897 the popularity of his
dramatized version of The Little Minister probably confirmed
him in a predilection for drama, evident already in some of his
first sketches in the Nottingham Journal. In 1000 Mr Bourchier
produced The Wedding Guest, which was printed as a supplement
to the Fortnightly Review in December of the same year. After
the publication of The Little White Bird, Mr Barrie burst upon
the town as a popular and prolific playwright. The struggling
journalist of the early 'nineties had now become one of the most
prosperous literary men of the day. In 1003 no fewer than three
plays from his hand held the stage Quality Street, The Admirable
43 6
BARRIE HARRINGTON, G.
Crichton and Little Mary. The year 1904 produced Peter Pan, a
kind of poetical pantomime, in which the author found scope for
some of his most characteristic and permanently delightful gifts.
In 1905 Alice-Sit-by-the-Firea.nd in 1908 What Every WomanKnows
were added to the list. As dramatist Mr Barrie brought, to a
sphere rather ridden by convention, a method wholly uncon-
ventional and a singularly fresh fancy, seasoned by a shrewd touch
of satirical humour; and in Peter Pan he proved himself a Hans
Andersen of the stage. In literature, the success of " Thrums "
produced a crop of imitations, christened in derision by W. E.
Henley the " Kailyard School," though the imitations were by
no means confined to Scotland. In this school the Auld Licht
Idylls and A Window in Thrums remained unsurpassed and
unapproached. The Scots village tale was no novelty in literature
witness John Gait, the Chronicles of Carlingford and George
MacDonald. Yet Mr Barrie, in spite of a dialect not easy to the
Southron, contrived to touch a more intimate and more responsive
chord. With the simplest materials he achieved an almost,
unendurable pathos, which yet is never forced; and the pathos
is salted with humour, while about the moving homeliness of his
humanity play the gleams of a whimsical wit. Stevenson, in a
letter to Mr Henry James, in December 1892, said justly of
Barrie that " there was genius in him, but there was a journalist
on his elbow." This genius found its most perfect and character-
istic expression in the humanity of " Thrums " and the bizarre
and tender fantasy of Peter Pan.
See also /. M. Barrie and His Books, by J. A. Hamerton (Horace
Marshall, 1902) ; and for bibliography up to May 1903, English
Illustrated Magazine, vol. xxix. (N.S.), p. 208. (W. P. J.)
BARRIE, the capital of Simcoe county, Ontario, Canada,
56 m. N. of Toronto, on Lake Simcoe, an important centre on the
Grand Trunk railway. It contains several breweries, carriage
factories, boat-building and railway shops, and manufactories
of woollens, stoves and leather. It is also a summer resort and
the starting-point for the numerous Lake Simcoe steamers.
Pop. (1901) 5949.
BARR1ERE, THEODORE (1823-1877), French dramatist, was
born in Paris in 1823. He belonged to a family of map engravers
which had long been connected with the war department, and
spent nine years in that service himself. The success of a
vaudeville he had .performed at the Beaumarchais and which
was immediately snapped up for the repertory of the Palais
.Royal, showed him his real vocation. During the next thirty
years he signed, alone or in collaboration, over a hundred plays;
among the most successful were: La Vie de boheme (1849),
adapted from Henri Murger's book with the novelist's help;
Manon Lescaut (1851); Les Filles de marbre (1853); L'Hiritage
de Monsieur Plumet (1858); Les Faux Bonshommes (1856) with
Ernest Capendu; Malheureuxvaincus(i&6$), which wasforbidden
by the censor; Le Gascon (1878). Barriere died in Paris on the
i6th of October 1877.
See also Revue des deux mondes (March 1859).
BARRIER TREATY, the name given first to the treaty signed
on 29th of October 1709 between Great Britain and the states-
general of the United Netherlands, by which the latter engaged
to guarantee the Protestant succession in England in favour of
the house of Hanover; while Great Britain undertook to procure
for the Dutch an adequate barrier on the side of the Netherlands,
consisting of the towns of Furnes, Nieuport, Ypres, Menin, Lille,
Tournai, Conde, Valenciennes, Maubeuge, Charleroi, Namur,
Halle, Damme, Dendermond and the citadel of Ghent. The
treaty was based on the same principle of securing Holland
against French aggression that had inspired that of Ryswick in
1698, by the terms of which the chief frontier fortresses of the
Netherlands were to be garrisoned by Dutch troops. A second
Barrier Treaty was signed between Great Britain and Holland on
29th of January 1713, by which the strong places designed for the
barrier were reduced to Furnes, the fort of Knocke, Ypres, Menin,
Tournai, Mons, Charleroi and the citadel of Ghent, and certain
fortresses in the neighbourhood of that city and of Bruges; Great
Britain undertaking to obtain the right for the Dutch to garrison
them from the future sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands. Its
terms were included in the treaty of Rastatt, between the
emperor and France, signed on the 7th of March 1714. A third
Barrier Treaty was signed in November 1715.
See Jean Dumont, Corps universel diplomatique, &c. (1726-1731),
vol. viii.
BARRIO, ANTONIO GIULIO (1836- ), Italian novelist,
was born at Savona, and was educated for the legal profession,
which he abandoned for journalism in Genoa. He was a volunteer
in the campaign of 1859 and served with Garibaldi in 1866 and
1867. From 1865 (Capitan Dodero) onwards he published a
large number of books of fiction, which had wide popularity,
his work being commonly compared with that of Victor Cher-
buliez. Some of the best of the later ones are Santa Cecilia
(1866), Come un Sogno (1875), and L'Olmo e I' Edera (1877). His
Raggio di Dio appeared in 1899. Barrili also wrote two plays
and various volumes of criticism, including II rinnovamento
letterario italiano (1890). He was elected to the Italian chamber
of deputies in 1876; and in 1889 became professor of Italian
literature at Genoa.
BARRING-OUT, a custom, formerly common in English
schools, of barring the master out of the school premises. A
typical example of this practice was at Bromfield school,
Cumberland, where William Hutchinson says " it was the
custom, time out of mind, for the scholars, at Fasting's Even
(the beginning of Lent) to depose and exclude the master from
the school for three days." During this period the school doors
were barricaded and the boys armed with mock weapons. If
the master's attempts to re-enter were successful, extra tasks
were inflicted as a penalty, and willingly performed by the boys.
On the third day terms of capitulation, usually in Latin verse,
were signed, and these always conceded the immediate right
to indulge in football and a cockfight. The custom was long
retained at Eton and figures in many school stories.
BARRINGTON, DAINES (i727-i8oo),Englishlawyer, antiquary
and naturalist, was born in 1727, fourth son of the first Viscount
Barrington. He was educated for the profession of the law, and
after filling various posts, was appointed a Welsh judge in 1757
and afterwards second justice of Chester. Though an indifferent
judge, his Observations on the Statutes, chiefly the more ancient,
from Magna Charta to 2ist James I., cap. 27, with an appendix,
being a proposal for new-modelling the Statutes (1766), had a high
reputation among historians and constitutional antiquaries. In
1773 he published an edition of Orosius, with Alfred's Saxon
version, and an English translation with original notes. His
Tracts on the Probability of reaching the North Pole (1775)
were written in consequence of the northern voyage of discovery
undertaken by Captain C. J. Phipps, afterwards Lord Mulgrave
(1744-1792). Barrington's other writings are chiefly to be found
in the publications of the Royal and Antiquarian Societies, of
both of which he was long a member, and of the latter vice-
president. Many of these were collected by him in a quarto
volume entitled Miscellanies on various Subjects (1781). He
contributed to the Philosophical Transactions for 1780 an account
of Mozart's visit at eight years of age to London. In his Miscel-
lanies on varied subjects he included this with accounts of four
other prodigies, namely, Crotch, Charles and Samuel Wesley, and
Garrett Wellesley, Lord Mornington. Among the most curious
and ingenious of his papers are his Experiments and Observations
on the Singing of Birds, and his Essay on the Language of Birds.
He died on the i4th of March 1800 and was buried in the
Temple church.
BARRINGTON, GEORGE (b. 1755), an Irishman with a curious
history, was born at Maynooth on the I4th of May 1755, the
son of a working silversmith named Waldron. In 1 7 7 1 he robbed
his schoolmaster at Dublin and ran away from school, becoming a
member of a touring theatrical company under the assumed
name of Barrington. At Limerick races he joined the manager of
the company in pocket-picking. The manager was detected and
sentenced to transportation, and Barrington fled to London,
where he assumed clerical dress and continued his pocket-
picking. At Covent Garden theatre he robbed the Russian
prince Orlov of a snuff-box, said to be worth 30,000. He was
BARRINGTON BARRISTER
437
detected and arrested, hut as Prince Orlov declined to prosecute,
was discharged, though subsequently he was sentenced to three
years' hard labour for pocket-picking at Drury Lane theatre. On
his release he was again caught at his old practices and sentenced
to five years' hard labour, but influence secured his release on
the condition that he left England. He accordingly went for a
short time to Dublin, and then returned to London, where he
was once more detected pocket-picking, and, in 1790, sentenced
to seven years' transportation. On the voyage out to Botany
Bay a conspiracy was hatched by the convicts on board to seize
the ship. Barrington disclosed the plot to the captain, and the
latter, on reaching New South Wales, reported him favourably
to the authorities, with the result that in 1792 Barrington
obtained a warrant of emancipation (the first issued), becoming
subsequently superintendent of convicts and later high constable
of Paramatta. In 1796 a theatre was opened at Sydney, the
principal actors being convicts, and Barrington wrote the
prologue to the first production. This prologue has obtained a
wide publicity. It begins:
" From distant climes, o'er widespread seas, we come,
Though not with much eclat or beat of drum ;
True patriots we, for, be it understood,
We left our country for our country's good."
Barrington died at a ripe old age at Paramatta, but the exact
date is not on record. He was the author of A Voyage to Botany
Bay (London, 1801); The History of New South Wales (London,
1802); The History of New Holland (London, 1808).
BARRINGTON, 'JOHN SHUTE, IST VISCOUNT (1678-1734),
English lawyer and theologian, was the son of Benjamin Shute,
merchant, and was born at Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, in 1678.
He received part of his education at the university of Utrecht;
and, after returning to England in 1698, studied law in the Inner
Temple. In 1 701 he published several pamphlets in favour of the
civil rights of Protestant dissenters, to which class he belonged.
On the recommendation of Lord Somers he was employed to
induce the Presbyterians in Scotland to favour the union of the
two kingdoms, and in 1 708 he was rewarded for this service by
being appointed to the office of commissioner of the customs.
From this, however, he was removed on the change of administra-
tion in 1 7 1 1 ; but his fortune had, in the meantime, been improved
by the bequest of two considerable estates, one of them left him
by Francis Barrington of Tofts, whose name he assumed by act
of parliament, the other by John Wildman of Becket. Barrington
now stood at the head of the dissenters. On the accession of
George I. he was returned to parliament for Berwick-upon-Tweed;
and in 1 7 20 the king raised him to the Irish peerage, with the title
of Viscount Barrington of Ardglass. But having unfortunately
engaged in the Harburg lottery, one of the bubble speculations of
the time, he was expelled from the House of Commons in 1723,
a punishment which was considered much too severe, and was
thought to be due to personal malice of Walpole. In 1725 he
published his principal work, entitled Miscellanea Sacra or a New
Method of considering so much of the History of the Apostles as
is contained in Scripture, 2 vols. 8vo, afterwards reprinted with
additions and corrections, in 3 vols. 8vo, 1770, by his son Shute.
In the same year he published An Essay on the Several Dispensa-
tions of God to Mankind. He died on the i4th of December 1734.
BARRINGTON, SAMUEL (1720-1800), British admiral, was
the fourth son of the ist Viscount Barrington. He entered the
navy at an early age and in 1 747 had worked his way to a post-
captaincy. He was in continuous employment during the peace
of 1748-1756, and on the outbreak of the Seven Years' War served
with Hawke in the Basque roads in command of the " Achilles "
(60). In 1759 the " Achilles " captured a powerful French priva-
teer, after two hours' fighting. In the Havre-de-Grace ex-
pedition of the same year Barrington's ship carried the flag of
Rear-Admiral Rodney, and in 1760 sailed with John Byron to
destroy the Louisburg fortifications. At the peace in 1763
Barrington had been almost continuously afloat for twenty-two
years. He was next appointed in 1768 to the frigate " Venus "
as governor to the duke of Cumberland, who remained with him
in all ranks from midshipman to rear-admiral. In 1778 the
duke's flag-captain became rear-admiral and went to the West
Indies, while in conjunction with the army he took the island of
Santa Lucia from the French, and repulsed the attempt of the
Comte d'Estaing to retake it. Superseded after a time by
Byron, he remained as that officer's second-in-command and
was present at Grenada and St. Kitts (6th and 2 2nd of July
1770). On his return home, he was offered, but refused, the
command of the Channel fleet. His last active service was the
relief of Gibraltar in October 1782. As admiral he flew his flag
for a short time in 1790, but was not employed in the French
revolutionary wars. He died in 1800.
See Ralfe, Naval Biographies, i. 120; Charnock, Biographia
Navalis, vi. 10.
BARRINGTON, SHUTE (1734-1826), youngest son of the ist
Viscount Barrington, was educated at Eton and Oxford, and after
holding some minor dignities was made bishop of Llandaff in
1769. In 1782 he was translated to Salisbury and in 1791 to
Durham. He was a vigorous Protestant, though willing to grant
Roman Catholics " every degree of toleration short of political
power and establishment." He published several volumes of
sermons and tracts, and wrote the political life of his brother,
Viscount Barrington.
BARRINGTON, WILLIAM WILDMAN SHUTE, 2ND VISCOUNT
(1717-1793), eldest son of the ist Viscount Barrington, was born
on the isth of January 1717. Succeeding to the title in 1734, he
spent some time in travel, and in March 1740 was returned to
parliament as member for Berwick-upon-Tweed. Having taken
his seat in the Irish House of Lords in 1 745, he was appointed one
of the lords commissioners of the admiralty in 1746, and was one
of the " managers " of the impeachment of Simon, Lord Lovat.
In 1754 he became member of parliament for Plymouth, in 1755
was made a privy councillor and secretary at war, and in 1761
was transferred to the office of chancellor of the exchequer. In
1762 he became treasurer of the navy, and in 1765 returned to
his former position of secretary at war. He retained this office
until December 1778, and during four months in 1782 was joint
postmaster-general. He married in 1 740 Mary, daughter of Mr
Henry Lovell, but left no children. He died at Becket on the ist
of February 1793, and was buried in Shrivenham church.
See Shute Barrington, Political Life of William Wildman, Viscount
Barrington (London, 1814).
BARRISTER, in England and Ireland the term applied to
the highest class of lawyers who have exclusive audience in all
the superior courts, the word being derived from the " bar "
(q.v.) in the law courts. Every barrister in England must be
a member of one of the four ancient societies called Inns of Court,
viz. Lincoln's Inn, the Inner and Middle Temples, and Gray's
Inn, and in Ireland, of the King's Inns. The existence of the
English societies as schools can be traced back to the I3th
century, and their rise is attributed to the clause in Magna
Carta, by which the Common Pleas were fixed at Westminster
instead of following the king's court, and the professors of law
were consequently brought together in London. Associations of
lawyers acquired houses of their own in which students were
educated in the common law, and the degrees of barrister (corre-
sponding to apprentice or bachelor) and sergeant (corresponding
to doctor) were conferred. These schools of law are now repre-
sented by the Inns of Court (q.v.).
Students are admitted as members of the Inns of Court, on
paying certain fees and on passing a general (elementary)
examination or (alternatively) producing evidence of having
passed a public examination at a university; their subsequent call
to the bar depends on their keeping twelve terms (of which there
are four in each year), and passing certain further examinations,
(see ENGLISH LAW ad fin.). A term is " kept " by dining six
times (three for a student whose name is on the books of a
university) in hall. This is a relic of the older system in which
examinations were not included, the only requisite being a
certificate from a barrister that the student had read for twelve
months in his chambers. Dining in hall then applied a certain
social test, which has now become unmeaning. The profession
of barrister is open to almost every one; but no person connected
BARROIS
with the law in any inferior capacity or who is a chartered or
professional accountant, can enter an Inn of Court as a student
until he has entirely and bona fide ceased to act or practise in
such capacity. Some of the Inns also make a restriction that
their members shall not be engaged in trade. A form of admission
has to be filled up, containing a declaration to this effect, and
mentioning inter alia the age, nationality, condition in life and
occupation of the applicant. Previous to the student's call this
declaration must be repeated, and he must further declare that
he is not in holy orders, has not held any clerical preferment
and has not performed any clerical functions during the year
preceding. Subject to the above, practising solicitors of not less
than five years' standing may be called to the bar without keep-
ing any terms, upon passing the necessary examinations, and,
per contra, a barrister of the same standing may, without any
period of apprenticeship, become a solicitor upon passing the
final examination for solicitors. Irish barristers of three years'
standing may be called to the English bar without passing any
examination upon keeping three terms, and so also may barristers
of those colonies where the professions of barrister and solicitor
are still kept distinct. No one can become a barrister till he is
twenty-one years old.
The benchers of the different Inns of Court have the right of
rejecting any applicant for membership with or without cause
assigned; and for sufficient reasons, subject to an appeal to
the common-law judges as visitors of the Inns, they may refuse
to call a student to the bar, or may expel from their society or
from the profession (" dis-bar " or " dis-bench ") even barristers
or benchers. The benchers appear to take cognizance of any
kind of misconduct, whether professional or not, which they may
deem unworthy of the rank of barrister. The grade of barrister
comprehends the attorney-general and solicitor-general (ap-
pointed by and holding office solely at the will of the government
of the day), who rank as the heads of the profession, king's
counsel and ordinary practitioners, sometimes technically known
as " utter barristers."
The peculiar business of barristers is the advocacy of causes
in open court, but in England a great deal of other business falls
into their hands. They are the chief conveyancers, and the
pleadings (i.e. the counter statements of parties previous to join-
ing issue) are in all but the simplest cases drafted by them.
There was formerly, indeed, a separate class of conveyancers and
special pleaders, being persons who kept the necessary number
of terms qualifying for a call but who, instead of being called,
took out licences, granted for one year only, but renewable,
to practise under the bar, but now conveyancing and special
pleading form part of the ordinary work of a junior barrister.
The higher rank among barristers is that of king's or queen's
counsel. They lead in court, and give opinions on cases sub-
mitted to them, but they do not accept conveyancing or pleading,
nor do they admit pupils to their chambers. Precedence among
king's counsel, as well as among outer barristers, is determined
by seniority. 1 The old order of serjeants-at-law (q.v.) who
ranked after king's counsel, is now extinct. Although every
barrister has a right to practise in any court in England, each
1 A king's counsel is appointed by letters patent to be " one of
His Majesty's counsel learned in the law." The appointment rests
with the lord chancellor, to whom the barrister desiring a silk
gown makes application. There is no definite time required to
elapse between call " and application for a seat within the bar,
but it is generally understood that a barrister must be of at least
ten years' standing before he is appointed a king's counsel. The first
king's counsel was Sir Francis Bacon, who was appointed by Queen
Elizabeth " queen's counsel extraordinary," and received a payment,
by way of pledge and fee," of 40 a year, payable half-yearly.
Succeeding king's counsel received a similar payment, until its
abolition in 1831. There was not another appointment of a king's
counsel until 1668, when Lord Chancellor Francis North was so
honoured. From 1775 king's counsel may be said to have become a
regular order. Their number was very small so late as the middle
of the igth century (20 in 1789; 30 in 1810; 28 in 1850), but at
the beginning of the 2oth century there were over 250. A king's
counsel may not, unless by special licence, take a brief against the
crown, but such a licence is never refused unless the crown desires
his services in the case.
special class of business has its own practitioners, so that the
bar may almost be said to be divided into several professions.
The most marked distinction is that between barristers practising
in chancery and barristers practising in the courts of common
law. The fusion of law and equity brought about by the
Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875 was expected in course of time
to break down this distinction; but to a large extent the separa-
tion between these two great branches of the profession remains.
There are also subordinate distinctions in each branch. Counsel
at common law attach themselves to one or other of the circuits
into which England is divided, and may not practise elsewhere
unless under special conditions. In chancery the king's counsel
for the most part restrict themselves to one or other of the courts
of the chancery division. Business before the court of probate,
divorce and admiralty, the privy council and parliamentary
committees, exhibits, though in a less degree, the same tendency
to specialization. In some of the larger provincial towns there
are also local bars of considerable strength. The bar of Ireland
exhibits in its general arrangements the same features as the
bar of England. For the Scottish bar, see under ADVOCATES,
FACULTY OF. There is no connexion whatever between the
Scottish and English bars. A distinctive dress is worn by
barristers when attending the courts, consisting of a stuff gown,
exchanged for one of silk (whence the expression " to take silk ")
when the wearer has attained the rank of king's counsel, both
classes also having wigs dating in pattern and material from the
1 8th century.
Counsel is not answerable for anything spoken by him relative
to the cause in hand and suggested in the client's instructions,
even though it should reflect on the character of another and
prove absolutely groundless, but if he mention an untruth of
his own invention, or even upon instructions if it be impertinent
to the matter in hand, he is then liable to an action from the
party injured. Counsel may also be punished by the summary
power of the court or judge as for a contempt, and by the benchers
of the inn to which he may belong on cause shown.
The rank of barrister is a necessary qualification for nearly
all offices of a judicial character, and a very usual qualification
for other important appointments. Not only the judgeships
in the superior courts of law and equity in England and in her
colonies, but nearly all the magistracies of minor rank recorder-
ships, county court judgeships, &c. are restricted to the bar.
The result is a unique feature in the English system of justice,
viz. the perfect harmony of opinion and interest between the
bar as a profession and all degrees of the judicial bench. Barristers
have the rank of esquires, and are privileged from arrest whilst
in attendance on the superior courts and on circuit, and also
from serving on juries whilst in active practice.
Revising Barristers are counsel of not less than seven years'
standing appointed to revise the lists of parliamentary voters.
Barristers cannot maintain an action for their fees, which are
regarded as gratuities, nor can they, by the usage of the profession ,
undertake a case without the intervention of a solicitor, except
in criminal cases, where a barrister may be engaged directly,
by having a fee given him in open court, nor is it competent
for them to enter into any contract for payment by their clients
with respect to litigation.
See J. R. V. Marchant, Barrister-al-law : an Essay on the legal
position of Counsel in England (1905).
BARROIS, CHARLES (1851- ), French geologist, was born
at Lille on the 2ist of April 1851, and educated at the college in
that town, where he studied geology under Prof. Jules Gosselet
and qualified as D. es Sc. To this master he dedicated his first
comprehensive work, Recherches sur le terrain cretace superieur
de I'Anglelerre et de I'Irlande, published in the Mtmoires de la
societe geologique du Nord in 1876. In this essay the palaeonto-
logical zones in the Chalk and Upper Greensand of Britain were
for the first time marked out in detail, and the results of Dr
Barrois's original researches have formed the basis of subsequent
work, and have in all leading features been confirmed. In 1876
Dr Barrois was appointed a collaborateur to the French Geo-
logical Survey, and in 1877 professor of geology in the university
BARROS BARROT
439
of Lille. In other memoirs, among which may be mentioned
those on the Cretaceous rocks of the Ardennes and of the Basin
of Oviedo, Spain; on the (Devonian) Calcaire d'Erbray; on the
Palaeozoic rocks of Brittany and of northern Spain; and on the
granitic and metamorphic rocks of Brittany, Dr Barrois has
proved himself an accomplished petrologist as well as palaeonto-
logist and field-geologist. In 1881 he was awarded the Bigsby
medal, and in 1901 the Wollaston medal by the Geological
Society of London. He was chosen member of the Institute
(Academy of Sciences) in 1904.
BARROS, JOAO DE (1496-1570), called the Portuguese Livy,
may be said to have been the first great historian of his country.
Educated in the palace of King Manoel, he early conceived the idea
of writing history, and, to prove his powers, composed, at the age
of twenty, a romance of chivalry, the Chronicle of the Emperor
Clarimundo, in which he is said to have had the assistance of
Prince John, afterwards King John III. The latter, on ascending
the throne, gave Barros the captaincy of the fortress of St George
of Elmina, whither he proceeded in 1522, and he obtained in 1325
the post of treasurer of the India House, which beheld until 1528.
The pest of 1530 drove him from Lisbon to his country house near
Pombal, and there he finished a moral dialogue, Rhopica Pneuma,
which met with the applause of the learned Juan Luis Vives. On
his return to Lisbon in 1532 the king appointed Barros factor of
the India and Mina House positions of great responsibility and
importance at a time when Lisbon was the European emporium
for the trade of the East. Barros proved a good administrator,
displaying great industry and a disinterestedness rare in that age,
with the result that he made but little money where his pre-
decessors had amassed fortunes. At this time, John III., wishful
to attract settlers to Brazil, divided it up into captaincies and gave
that of Maranhao to Barros, who, associating two partners in the
enterprise with himself, prepared an armada of ten vessels, carry-
ing nine hundred men, which set sail in 1539. Owing to the
ignorance of the pilots, the whole fleet suffered shipwreck, which
entailed serious financial loss on Barros, yet not content with
meeting his own obligations, he paid the debts of those who had
perished in the expedition. During all these busy years he had
continued his studies in his leisure hours, and shortly after the
Brazilian disaster he offered to write a history of the Portuguese
in India, which the king accepted. He began work forthwith,
but, before printing the first part, he again proved his pen by
publishing a Portuguese grammar (1540) and some more moral
Dialogues. The first of the Decades of his Asia appeared in
1552, and its reception was such that the king straightway
charged Barros to write a chronicle of King Manoel. His many
occupations, however, prevented him from undertaking this book,
which was finally composed by Damiao de Goes (q.v.). The
Second Decade came out in 1553 and the Third in 1563, but the
Fourth and final one was not published until 1615, long after the
author's death. In January 1568 Barros retired from his re-
munerative appointment at the India House, receiving the rank
olfidalgo together with a pension and other pecuniary emoluments
from King Sebastian, and died on the 2oth of October 1570. A
man of lofty character, he preferred leaving his children an
example of good morals and learning to bequeathing them a large
pecuniary inheritance, and, though he received many royal
benefactions, they were volunteered, never asked for. As an
historian and a stylist Barros deserves the high fame he has always
enjoyed. His Decades contain the early history of the Portuguese
in Asia and reveal careful study of Eastern historians and geo-
graphers, as well as of the records of his own country. They are
distinguished by clearness of exposition and orderly arrangement.
His style has all the simplicity and grandeur of the masters of
historical writing, and the purity of his diction is incontestable.
Though, on the whole, impartial, Barros is the narrator and
apologist of the great deeds of his countrymen, and lacks the
critical spirit and intellectual acumen of Damiao de Goes. Diogo
do Couto continued the Decades, adding nine more, and a modern
edition of the whole appeared in Lisbon in 14 vols. in
1778-1788. The title of Barros's work is Da Asia de Joao de
Barros, dos fcilos que os Portuguezes fizeram no descubrimento e
conquista dos mares e terras do Oriente, and the edition is accom-
panied by a volume containing a life of Barros by the historian
Manoel Severim de Faria and a copious index of all the Decades.
An Italian version in 2 vols. appeared in Venice in 1561-1562 and
a German in 5 vols. in 1821. Clarimundo has gone through the
following editions: 1522, 1555, 1601, 1742, 1791 and 1843, all
published in Lisbon. It influenced Francisco de Moraes (q.v.);
cf. Purser, Palmerin of England, Dublin, 1004, pp. 440 et seq.
The minor works of Barros are described by Innocencio da Silva:
Diccionario Bibliographico Portuguez, vol. iii. pp. 320-323 and vol. x.
pp. 187-189, and in Severim de Faria's Life, cited above. A com-
pilation of Barros's Varia was published by the visconde de Azevcdo
(Porto, 1869). (E. PR.)
BARROT, CAMILLE HYACINTHE ODILON (1791-1873),
French politician, was born at Villefort (Lozere) on the igth of
September 1791. He belonged to a legal family, his father, an
advocate of Toulouse, having been a member of the Convention
who had voted against the death of Louis XVI. Odilon Barrel's
earliest recollections were of the October insurrection of 1795.
He was sent to the military school of Saint-Cyr, but presently
removed to the Lyce'e Napoleon to study law and was called to
the Parisian bar in 1811. He was placed in the office of the
conventionel Jean Mailhe, who was advocate before the council
of state and the court of cassation and was proscribed at the
second restoration. Barrot eventually succeeded him in both
positions. His dissatisfaction with the government of the
restoration was shown in his conduct of some political trials.
For his opposition in 1820 to a law by which any person might
be arrested and detained on a warrant signed by three ministers,
he was summoned before a court of assize, but acquitted.
Although intimate with Lafayette and others, he took no actual
share in their schemes for the overthrow of the government, but
in 1827 he joined the association known as Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera.
He presided over the banquet given by the society to the 221
deputies who had signed the address of March 1830 to Charles X.,
and threatened to reply to force by force. After the ordinances
of the 26th of July 1830, he joined the National Guard and took
an active part in the revolution. As secretary of the municipal
commission, which sat at the hotel-de-ville and formed itself into
a provisional government, he was charged to convey to the
chamber of deputies a protest embodying the terms which the
advanced Liberals wished to impose on the king to be elected.
He supported the idea of a constitutional monarchy against the
extreme Republicans, and he was appointed one of the three
commissioners chosen to escort Charles X. out of France. On his
return he was nominated prefect of the department of the Seine.
His concessions to the Parisian mob and his extreme gentleness
towards those who demanded the prosecution of the ministers of
Charles X. led to an unflattering comparison with Jer6me Petion
under similar circumstances. Louis Philippe's government was
far from satisfying his desires for reform, and he persistently
urged the " broadening of the bases of the monarchy," while he
protested his loyalty to the dynasty. He was returned to the
chamber of deputies for the department of Eure in 1831. The
day after the demonstration of June 1832 on the occasion of the
funeral of General Lamarque, he made himself indirectly the
mouthpiece of the Democrats in an interview with Louis Philippe,
which is given at length in his Mtmoires. Subsequently, in
pleading before the court of cassation on behalf of one of the
rioters, he secured the annulling of the judgments given by the
council of war. The death of the duke of Orleans in 1842 was a
blow to Barrel's party, which sought to substitute the regency
of the duchess of Orleans for that of the duke of Nemours in the
event of the succession of the count of Paris. In 1846 Barrot
made a tour in the Near East, returning in time to take part a
second time in the preliminaries of revolution. He organized
banquets of the disaffected in the various cities of France, and
demanded electoral reform to avoid revolution. He did not
foresee the strength of the outbreak for which his eloquence had
prepared the way, and clung to the programme of 1830. He
tried to support the regency of the duchess in the chamber on
the 24th of February, only to find that the time was past for
440
half-measures. He acquiesced in the republic and gave his
adhesion to General Cavaignac. He became the chief of Louis
Napoleon's first ministry in the hope of extracting Liberal
measures, but was dismissed in 1849 as soon as he had served
the president's purpose of avoiding open conflict. After the
coup d'etat of December 1851 he was one of those who sought to
accuse Napoleon of high treason. He was imprisoned for a short
time and retired from active politics for some ten years. He was
drawn once more into affairs by the hopes of reform held out by
Emile Ollivier, accepting in 1869 the presidency of an extra-
parliamentary committee on decentralization. After the fall of
the empire he was nominated by Thiers, whom he had supported
under Louis Philippe, president of the council of state. But his
powers were now failing, and he had only filled his new office for
about a year when he died at Bougival on the 6th of August 1873.
He had been sufficiently an optimist to believe in the triumph of
the liberal but non-republican institutions dear to him under the
restoration, under Louis Philippe and Louis Napoleon succes-
sively. He was unable to foresee and unwilling to accept the
consequences of his political agitation in 1830 and 1848, and in
spite of his talents and acknowledged influence he thus failed to
secure the honours won by more uncompromising politicians.
He was described by Thureau-Dangin as " le plus solennel des
indecis, le plus meditatif des irreflechis, le plus heureux des
ambitieux, le plus austere des courtisans de la foule."
His personal relations with Louis Philippe and Napoleon, with
his views on the events in which he was concerned, are described in
the four volumes of his Memoires, edited by Duvergier de Hauranne
in 18751876. See also Thureau-Dangin, Hist, de la monarchic de
juillet.
BARROW, ISAAC (1630-1677), English mathematician and
divine, was the son of Thomas Barrow, a linen-draper in London,
belonging to an old Suffolk and Cambridgeshire family. His
uncle was Bishop Isaac Barrow of St Asaph (1614-1680). He was
at first placed for two or three years at the Charterhouse school.
There, however, his conduct gave but little hopes of his ever
succeeding as a scholar. But after his removal from this estab-
lishment to Felsted school in Essex, where Martin Holbeach
was master, his disposition took a happier turn; and having soon
made considerable progress in learning, he was in 1643 entered
at St Peter's College, and afterwards at Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, where he applied himself to the study of literature and
science, especially of natural philosophy. He at first intended
to adopt the medical profession, and made some progress in
anatomy, botany and chemistry, after which he studied chrono-
logy, geometry and astronomy. He then travelled in France
and Italy, and in a voyage from Leghorn to Smyrna gave proofs
of great personal bravery during an attack made by an Algerine
pirate. At Smyrna he met with a kind reception from the
English consul, Mr Bretton, upon whose, death he afterwards
wrote a Latin elegy. From this place he proceeded to Con-
stantinople, where he received similar civilities from Sir Thomas
fiendish, the English ambassador, and Sir Jonathan Dawes, with
whom he afterwards contracted an intimate friendship. While
at Constantinople he read and studied the works of St Chry-
sostom, whom he preferred to all the other Fathers. He resided in
Turkey somewhat more than a year, after which he proceeded
to Venice, and thence returned home through Germany and
Holland in 1659.
Immediately on his reaching England he received ordination
from Bishop Brownrig, and in 1660 he was appointed to the
Greek professorship at Cambridge. When he entered upon this
office he intended to have prelected upon the tragedies of
Sophocles; but he altered his intention and made choice of
Aristotle's rhetoric. His lectures on this subject, having been lent
to a friend who never returned them, are irrecoverably lost. In
July 1662 he was elected professor of geometry in Gresham
College, on the recommendation of Dr John Wilkins, master of
Trinity College and afterwards bishop of Chester; and in May
1663 he was chosen a fellow of the Royal Society, at the first
election made by the council after obtaining their charter. The
same year the executors of Henry Lucas, who, according to the
BARROW, I. BARROW, SIR J.
terms of his will, had founded a mathematical chair at Cambridge,
fixed upon Barrow as the first professor; and although his two
professorships were not inconsistent with each other, he chose
to resign that of Gresham College, which he did on the 2oth of
May 1664. In 1669 he resigned his mathematical chair to his
pupil, Isaac Newton, having now determined to renounce the
study of mathematics for that of divinity. Upon quitting his
professorship Barrow was only a fellow of Trinity College; but
his uncle gave him a small sinecure in Wales, and Dr Seth Ward,
bishop of Salisbury, conferred upon him a prebend in that church.
In the year 1670 he was created doctor in divinity by mandate;
and, upon the promotion of Dr Pearson to the see of Chester, he
was appointed to succeed him as master of Trinity College by the
king's patent, bearing the date of the i3th of February 1672.
In 1675 Dr Barrow was chosen vice-chancellor of the university.
He died on the 4th of May 1677, and was interred in Westminster
Abbey, where a monument, surmounted by his bust, was soon
after erected by the contributions of his friends.
By his English contemporaries Barrow was considered a
mathematician second only to Newton. Continental writers do
not place him so high, and their judgment is probably the more
correct one. He was undoubtedly a clear-sighted and able
mathematician, who handled admirably the severe geometrical
method, and who in his Method of Tangents approximated to the
course of reasoning by which Newton was afterwards led to
the doctrine of ultimate ratios; but his substantial contribu-
tions to the science are of no great importance, and his lectures
upon elementary principles do not throw much light on the
difficulties surrounding the border-land between mathematics
and philosophy. (See INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS.) His Sermons
have long enjoyed a high reputation; they are weighty pieces
of reasoning, elaborate in construction and ponderous in style.
His scientific works are very numerous. The most important are:
Euclid's Elements; Euclid's Data; Optical Lectures, read in the
public school of Cambridge; Thirteen Geometrical Lectures; The
Works of Archimedes, the Four Books of Apollonius's Conic Sections,
and Theodosius's Spherics, explained in a New Method ; A Lecture,
in which Archimedes' Theorems of the Sphere and Cylinder are
investigated and briefly demonstrated; Mathematical Lectures, read
in the public schools of the university of Cambridge. The above
were all written in Latin. His English works have been collected
and published in four volumes folio.
See Ward, Lives of the Gresham Professors, and Whewell's bio-
graphy prefixed to the gth volume of Napier's edition of Barrow's
Sermons.
BARROW, SIR JOHN (1764-1848), English statesman, was
born in the village of Dragley Beck in the parish of Ulverston
in Lancashire, on the igth of June 1764. He started in life as
superintending clerk of an iron foundry at Liverpool and after-
wards taught mathematics at a school in Greenwich. Through
the interest of Sir George Staunton, to whose son he taught
mathematics, he was attached on the first British embassy to
China as comptroller of the household to Lord Macartney. He
soon acquired a good knowledge of the Chinese language, on
which he subsequently contributed interesting articles to the
Quarterly Review, and the account of the embassy published
by Sir George Staunton records many of Barrow's valuable
contributions to literature and science connected with China.
Although Barrow ceased to be officially connected with Chinese
affairs after the return of the embassy in 1794, he always took
much interest in them, and on critical occasions was frequently
consulted by the British government. In 1797 he accompanied
Lord Macartney, as private secretary, in his important and
delicate mission to settle the government of the newly acquired
colony of the Cape of Good Hope. Barrow was entrusted with
the task of reconciling the Boers and Kaffirs and of reporting
on the country in the interior. On his return from his journey,
in the course of which he visited all parts of the colony, he was
appointed auditor-general of public accounts. He now decided
to settle in South Africa, married Anne Maria Triiter, and in
1800 bought a house in Cape Town. But the surrender of the
colony at the peace of Amiens (1802) upset this plan. He
returned to England in 1804, was appointed by Lord Melville
second secretary to the admiralty, a post which he held for
BARROW
44-1
forty years. He enjoyed the esteem and confidence of all the
eleven chief lords who successively presided at the admiralty
board during that period, and more especially of King William IV.
while lord high admiral, who honoured him with tokens of his
personal regard. Barrow was a fellow of the Royal Society,
and in 1821 received the degree of LL.D. from Edinburgh
University. A baronetcy was conferred on him by Sir Robert
Peel in 1835. He retired from public life in 1845 and devoted
himself to writing a history of the modern Arctic voyages of
discovery (1846), of which he was a great promoter, as well as
his autobiography, published in 1847. He died suddenly on
the 23rd of November 1848.
Besides the numerous articles in the Quarterly Review already
mentioned, Barrow published among other works, Travels in
China (1804); Travels into the Interior of South Africa (1806);
and lives of Lord Macartney (1807), Lord Anson (1839), Lord
Howe (1838). He was also the author of several valuable con-
tributions to the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica.
SeeJ/emoi'r of John Barlow, by G. F. Staunton (1852).
BARROW, a river of south-eastern Ireland. It rises in the
Slieve Bloom mountains, and flows at first easterly and then
almost due south, until, on joining the Suir, it forms the estuary
of the south coast known as Waterford Harbour. Including
the 12 m. of the estuary, the length of its valley is rather more
than loo m., without counting the lesser windings of the river.
The total area of drainage to Waterford Harbour (including
the basin of the Suir) is 3500 sq. m., and covers the whole of the
county Kilkenny, with parts of Waterford, Cork and Limerick,
Tipperary, Carlow, King's and Queen's counties. The chief
towns on the banks of the Barrow are Athy (where it becomes
navigable and has a junction with the Grand Canal), Carlow,
Bagenalstown and New Ross. The chief affluent is the Nore,
which it receives from the north-west a little above New Ross.
The scenery on its banks is in parts very beautiful.
BARROW (from A.S. beorh, a mount or hillock), a word
found occasionally among place-names in England applied to
natural eminences, but generally restricted in its modern applica-
tion to denote an ancient grave-mound. The custom of con-
structing barrows or mounds of stone or earth over the remains
of the dead was a characteristic feature of the sepulchral systems
of primitive times. Originating in the common sentiment of
humanity, which desires by some visible memorial to honour and
perpetuate the memory of the dead, it was practised alike by
peoples of high and of low development, and continued through
all the stages of culture that preceded the introduction of
Christianity. The primary idea of sepulture appears to have
been the provision of a habitation for the dead; and thus,
in its perfect form, the barrow included a chamber or chambers
where the tenant was surrounded with the prized possessions
of his previous life. A common feature of the earlier barrows
is the enclosing fence, which marked off the site from the sur-
rounding ground. When the barrow was of earth, this was
effected by an encircling trench or a low vallum. When the
barrow was a stone structure, the enclosure was usually a circle
of standing stones. Sometimes, instead of a chamber formed
above ground, the barrow covered a pit excavated for the
interment under the original surface. In later times the mound
itself was frequently dispensed with, and the interments made
within the enclosure of a trench, a vallum or a circle of standing
stones. Usually the great barrows occupy conspicuous sites;
but in general the external form is no index to the internal
construction and gives no definite indication of the nature of the
sepulchral usages. Thus, while the long barrow is characteristic
of the Stone Age, it is impossible to tell without direct examina-
tion whether it may be chambered or unchambered, or whether
the burials within it may be those of burnt or of unburnt
bodies.
In England the long barrow usually contains a single chamber,
entering by a passage underneath the higher and wider end of the
mound. In Denmark the chambers are at irregular intervals
along the body of the mound, and have no passages leading into
them. The long barrows of Great Britain are often from 200 to
400 ft. in length by 60 to 80 ft. wide. Their chambers are rudely
but strongly built, with dome-shaped roofs, formed by over-
lapping the successive courses of the upper part of the side walls.
In Scandinavia, on the other hand, such dome-roofed chambers
are unknown, and the construction of the chambers as a rule is
megalithic, five or six monoliths supporting one or more capstones
of enormous size. Such chambers, denuded of the covering mound,
or over which no covering mound has been raised, are popularly
known in England as " cromlechs " and in France as " dolmens "
(see STONE MONUMENTS). The prevailing mode of sepulture in
all the different varieties of these structures is by the deposit of
the body in a contracted position, accompanied by weapons and
implements of stone, occasionally by ornaments of gold, jet or
amber. Vessels of clay, more or less ornate in character, which
occur with these early interments of unburnt bodies, have been
regarded as food-vessels and drinking-cups, differing in character
and purpose from the cinerary urns of larger size in which the
ashes of the dead were deposited after cremation.
The custom of burning the body commenced in the Stone Age,
before the long barrow or the dolmen had passed out of use. While
cremation is rare in the long barrows of the south of England, it
is the rule in those of Yorkshire and the north of Scotland. In
Ireland, where the long barrow form is all but unknown, the round
barrow or chambered cairn prevailed from the earliest Pagan
period till the introduction of Christianity. The Irish barrows
occur in groups in certain localities, some of which seem to have
been the royal cemeteries of the tribal confederacies, whereof
eight are enumerated in an ancient Irish manuscript, the Leabhat
na h-Uidhfi, compiled c. A.D. noo. The best-known of these is
situated on the banks of the Boyne above Drogheda, and consists
of a group of the largest cairns in Ireland. One, at New Grange,
is a huge mound of stones and earth, over 300 ft. in diameter and
70 ft. in height. Around its base are the remains of a circle of
large standing stones. The chamber, which is 20 ft. high in the
centre, is reached by a passage about 70 ft. in length. In the
Loughcrew Hills, Co. Meath, there is a group of about thirty stone
barrows or cairns, mostly chambered, their bases measuring
from 5 or 6 to 60 yds. in diameter. They are unusually inter-
esting from the fact that many of the exposed slabs in the walls
of the chambers are ornamented with spirals and other devices,
rudely incised. As in the case of the long barrows, the traditional
form of the circular, chambered barrow was retained through
various changes in the sepulchral customs of the people. It was
the natural result of the practice of cremation, however, that it
should induce a modification of the barrow structure. The
chamber, no longer regarded as a habitation to be tenanted by
the deceased, became simply a cist for the reception of the urn
which held his ashes. The degradation of the chamber naturally
produced a corresponding degradation of the mound which covered
it, and the barrows of the Bronze Age, in which cremation was
common, are smaller and less imposing than those of the Stone
Age, but often surprisingly rich in the relics of the life and of the
art workmanship of the time. In addition to the varied and
beautiful forms of implements and weapons frequently orna-
mented with a high degree of artistic taste armlets and other
personal ornaments in gold, amber, jet and bronze are not
uncommon. The barrows of the bronze period, like some of
those of the Stone Age, appear to have been used as tribal or
family cemeteries. In Denmark as many as seventy deposits of
burnt interments have been observed in a single mound, indicat-
ing its use as a burying-place throughout a long succession of
years.
In the Iron Age there was less uniformity in the burial customs.
In some of the barrows in central France, and in the wolds of
Yorkshire, the interments include the arms and accoutrements
of a charioteer, with his chariot, harness and horses. In
Scandinavia a custom, alluded to in the sagas, of burying the
viking in his ship, drawn up on land, and raising a barrow over
it, is exemplified by the ship-burials discovered in Norway. The
ship found in the Gokstad mound was 78 ft. long, and had a mast
and sixteen pairs of oars. In a chamber abaft the mast the
viking had been laid, with his weapons, and together with him were
442
BARROWE
buried twelve horses, six dogs and a peacock. An interesting
example of the great timber-chambered barrow is that at
Jelling in Jutland, known as the barrow of Thyre Danebod,
queen of King Gorm the Old, who died about the middle of the
loth century. It is a mound about 200 ft. in diameter, and over
50 ft. in height, containing a chamber 23 ft. long, 8 ft. wide and
5 ft. high, formed of massive slabs of oak. Though it had been
entered and plundered in the middle ages, a few relics were found
when it was reopened, among which were a silver cup,ornamented
with the interlacing work characteristic of the time and some
personal ornaments. It is highly illustrative of the tenacity with
which the ancient sepulchral usages were retained even after the
introduction of Christianity that King Harold, son and successor
of Gorm the Old, who is said to have christianized all Denmark
and Norway, followed the pagan custom of erecting a chambered
tumulus over the remains of his father, on the summit of which
was placed a rude pillar-stone, bearing on one side the memorial
inscription in runes, and on the other a representation of the
Saviour of mankind distinguished by the crossed nimbus sur-
rounding the head. The so-called Kings' Hows at Upsala in
Sweden rival those of Jelling in size and height. In the chamber
of one, opened in 1829, there was found an urn full of calcined
bones; and along with it were ornaments of gold showing the
characteristic workmanship of the 5th and 6th centuries of the
Christian era. Along with the calcined human bones were bones
of animals, among which those of the horse and the dog were
distinguished.
Comparing the results of the researches in European barrows
with such notices of barrow-burial as may be gleaned from early
writings, we find them mutually illustrative.
The Homeric account of the building of the barrow of Hector
(II. xxiv.) brings vividly before us the scene so often suggested by
the examination of the tumuli of prehistoric times. During nine
days wood was collected and brought, in carts drawn by oxen, to
the site of the funeral pyre. Then the pyre was built and the
body laid upon it. After burning for twenty-four hours the
smouldering embers were extinguished with libations of wine.
The white and calcined bones were then picked out of the ashes
by the friends and placed in a metallic urn, which was deposited
in a hollow grave or cist and covered over with large well-fitting
stones. Finally, a barrow of great magnitude was heaped over
the remains and the funeral feast was celebrated. The obsequies
of Achilles, as described in the Odyssey, were also celebrated with
details which are strikingly similar to those observed in tumuli
both of the Bronze and Iron Ages. The body was brought to the
pile in an embroidered robe and jars of unguents and honey were
placed beside it. Sheep and oxen were slaughtered at the pile.
The incinerated bones were collected from the ashes and placed
in a golden urn along with those of Patroclus, Achilles's dearest
friend. Over the remains a great and shapely mound was raised
on the high headland, so that it might be seen from afar by future
generations of men.
Herodotus, describing the funeral customs of the Scythians,
states that, on the death of a chief, the body was placed upon a
couch in a chamber sunk in the earth and covered with timber,
in which were deposited all things needful for the comfort of the
deceased in the other world. One of his wives was strangled and
laid beside him, his cup-bearer and other attendants, his chario-
teer and his horses were killed and placed in the tomb, which was
then filled up with earth and an enormous mound raised high over
all. The barrows which cover the plains of ancient Scythia attest
the truth of this description. A Siberian barrow, described by
Demidov, contained three contiguous chambers of unhewn stone.
In the central chamber lay the skeleton of the ancient chief, with
his sword, his spear, his bow and a quiver full of arrows. The
skeleton reclined upon a sheet of pure gold, extending the whole
length of the body, which had been wrapped in a mantle broidered
with gold and studded with precious stones. Over it was extended
another sheet of pure gold. In a smaller chamber at the chief's
head lay the skeleton of a female, richly attired, extended upon
a sheet of pure gold and similarly covered with a sheet of the same
metal. A golden chain adorned her neck and her arms were
encircled with bracelets of pure gold. In a third chamber, at the
chief's feet, lay the skeleton of his favourite horse with saddle,
bridle and stirrups.
So curiously alike in their general features were the sepulchral
usages connected with barrow-burial over the whole of Europe,
that we find the Anglo-Saxon Saga of Beowulf describing the
chambered tumulus with its gigantic masonry "held fast on props,
with vaults of stone," and the passage under the mound haunted
by a dragon, the guardian of the treasures of heathen gold which
it contained. Beowulf's own burial is minutely described in terms
which have a strong resemblance to the parallel passages in the
Iliad and Odyssey. There is first the preparation of the pile,
which is hung round with helmets, shields and coats of mail.
Then the corpse is brought and laid in the midst; the pile is
kindled and the roaring flame rises, mingled with weeping, till
all is consumed. Then, for ten long days, the warriors labour at
the rearing of his mighty mound on the headland, high and broad,
to be seen afar by the passers-by on land and sea.
The pyramids of Egypt, the mausolea of the Lydian kings, the
circular, chambered sepulchres of Mycenae, and the Etruscan
tombs at Caere and Volci, are lineally descended from the
chambered barrows of prehistoric times, modified in construction
according to the advancement of architectural art at the period of
their erection. There is no country in Europe destitute of more
or less abundant proofs of the almost universal prevalence of
barrow-burial in early times. It can also be traced on both sides
of the basin of the Mediterranean, and from Asia Minor across
the continent to India, China and Japan.
In the new world as well as in the old, similar customs pre-
vailed from a very remote period. In the great plains of North
America the dead were buried in barrows of enormous magnitude,
which occasionally present a remarkable similarity to the barrows
of Great Britain. In these mounds cremation appears more
frequently than inhumation; and both are accompanied by
implements, weapons and ornaments of stone and bone. The
pottery accompanying the remains is often elaborately orna-
mented, and the mound builders were evidently possessed of a
higher development of taste and skill than is evinced by any of
the modern aboriginal races, by whom the mounds and their
contents are regarded as utterly mysterious.
It is not to be wondered at that customs so widely spread and
so deeply rooted as those connected with barrow-burial should
have been difficult to eradicate. In fact, compliance with the
Christian practice of inhumation in the cemeteries sanctioned by
the church, was only enforced in Europe by capitularies denounc-
ing the punishment of death on those who persisted in burying
their dead after the pagan fashion or in the pagan mounds. Yet
even in the middle ages kings of Christian countries were buried
with their swords and spears, and queens with their spindles and
ornaments; the bishop was laid in his grave with his crozier and
comb; the priest with his chalice and vestments; and clay
vessels filled with charcoal (answering to the urns of heathen
times) are found in the churches of France and Denmark.
AUTHORITIES. Canon W. Greenwell, British Barrows (London,
1877); Dr J. Thurnam, " On Ancient British Barrows," in Archaeo-
Ipgia, vols. 42, 43 (1869); J. R. Mortimer, Forty Years' Researches
in Burial Mounds of East Yorkshire (London, 1905) ; J. Anderson,
Scotland in Pagan Times (Edinburgh, 1886); Dr T. H. Bryce,
" Records of Explorations among the Cairns of Arran and Bute," in
Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, vols. 36, 37, 38
(1901-1903); W. C. Borfase, The Dolmens of Ireland (London,
1897); Dictionnaire archeologique de la Gaule (Paris, 1875); A. P.
Madsen, Gravhoie og Gravfund fra Stenalderen i Danmark (Copenhagen,
1900) ; S. Miiller, Nordische Altertumskunde aus Danemark una
Schleswig (Strassburg, 1897); O. Montelius, The Civilization of
Sweden in Heathen Times (London, 1888), and. Der Orient und
Europa (Stockholm, 1899); E. Cartailhac, Les Ages prehistorioues
de I'Espagne et du Portugal (Paris, 1886); W. Gowland, "The
Dolmens and Burial Mounds in Japan," in Archaeologia, vol. 55
(1897); C. Thomas, "Report on the Mound Explorations of the
Bureau of Ethnology " (Twelfth Annual Report for 1890-1891,
Washington, 1894.) (J. AN.)
BARROWE, HENRY (? 1550-1593), English Puritan and
Separatist, was born about 1550, at Shipdam, Norfolk, of a
family related by marriage to the lord keeper Bacon, and
BARROW-IN-FURNESS BARRY, SIR C.
443
probably to Aylmer, bishop of London. He matriculated at
Clare Hall, Cambridge, in November 1566, and graduated B.A.
in 1560-1570. Afterwards he "followed the court" for some
time, leading a frivolous if not licentious life. He was a member
of Gray's Inn for a few years from 1576, but was never called
to the bar. About 1580 or 1581 he was deeply impressed by a
sermon, whereupon he retired to the country, and was led by
study and meditation to the strictest form of Puritanism. Sub-
sequently, in what manner is not known, he came into intimate
relations with John Greenwood, the Separatist leader, whose
views (probably due, in part at least, to Browne's influence)
he adopted without reserve. Though not strictly resident in
London at this time, he was associated with " the brethren of
the Separation " there, in whose secret meetings his natural
earnestness and eloquence made him conspicuous. Greenwood
having been imprisoned in the Clink, Barrowe came from the
country to visit him, and on the igth of November 1586 was
detained by the gaoler and brought before Archbishop Whitgift.
He insisted on the illegality of this arrest, refused either to take
the ex officio oath or to give bail for future appearance, and was
committed to the Gatehouse. After nearly six months' detention
and several irregular examinations before the high commissioners,
he and Greenwood were formally indicted (May 1587) for re-
cusancy under an act originally directed against Papists. They
were ordered to find heavy bail for comformity, and to remain
in the Fleet Prison until it was forthcoming. Barrowe continued
a prisoner for the remainder of his life, nearly six years, sometimes
in close confinement, sometimes having " the liberty of the
prison." He was subjected to several more examinations, once
before the privy council at Whitehall on the i8th of March 1588,
as a result of petition to the queen. On these occasions he
vigorously maintained the principle of separatism, denouncing
the prescribed ritual of the Church as " a false worship," and
the bishops as oppressors and persecutors. During his imprison-
ments he was engaged in written controversy with Robert Browne
(down to 1588), who had yielded a partial submission to the
established order, and whom he therefore accounted a renegade.
He also wrote several vigorous treatises in defence of separatism
and congregational independency, the most important being:
A True Description of the Visible Congregation of the Saints, &c.
(1589); A Plain Refutation of Mr Gifford's Booke, intituled
A Short Treatise Gainst the Donatisles of England (1590-1591),
and A Brief Discovery of the False Church (1591). Others were
written in conjunction with his fellow-prisoner, Greenwood.
These writings were taken charge of by friends and mostly
printed in Holland. By 1590 the bishops thought it advisable
to try other means of convincing or silencing these indomitable
controversialists, and sent several conforming Puritan ministers
to confer with them, but without effect. At length it was
resolved to proceed on a capital charge of " devising and circu-
lating seditious books," for which, as the law then stood, it was
easy to secure a conviction. They were tried and sentenced
to death on the 23rd of March 1593. What followed is, happily,
unique in the history of English misrule. The day after sentence
they were brought out as if for execution and respited. On the
3ist of March they were taken to the gallows, and after the
ropes had been placed about their necks were again respited.
Finally they were hanged early on the morning of the 6th
of April. The motive of all this is obscure, but there is some
evidence that the lord treasurer Burghley endeavoured to
save their lives, and was frustrated by Whitgift and other
bishops.
The opinions of Browne and Barrowe had much in common,
but were not identical. Both maintained the right and duty of
the Church to carry out necessary reforms without awaiting the
permission of the civil power; and both advocated congrega-
tional independency. But the ideal of Browne was a spiritual
democracy, towards which separation was only a means.
Barrowe, on the other hand, regarded the whole established
church order as polluted by the relics of Roman Catholicism,
and insisted on separation as essential to pure worship and dis-
cipline (see further CONGREGATIONALISM). Barrowe has been
credited by H. M. Dexter and others with being the author of
the " Marprelate Tracts "; but this is improbable.
AUTHORITIES. H. M. Dexter, The Congregationalism of the Last
Three Hundred Years; F. J. Powicke, Henry Barrowe and the Exiled
Church. See also B. Brook, Lives of the Puritans; and Cooper,
Athenae Cantabrigienses (1861), vol. ii. _
BARROW-IN-FURNESS, a seaport and municipal, county
and parliamentary borough of Lancashire, England, 264$ m.
N.W. by N. from London, on the Furness railway. Pop. (1891)
51,712; (1901) 57,586. It lies on the seaward side of the
hammer-shaped peninsula forming part of the district of Furness,
between the estuary of the Duddon and Morecambe Bay, where
a narrow channel intervenes between the mainland and the long
low island of Walney, on which the erection of a strong fort was
undertaken by the War Office in 1904. In 1005 the connexion of
Walney with the mainland by a bridge was undertaken. In
the channel is Barrow Island (among others) which is connected
with the mainland, reclamation having been carried on until
only a narrow channel was left, which was utilized as docks.
Barrow is of modern and remarkably rapid growth. Its rise
was dependent primarily on the existence and working of the
veins of pure haematite iron ore in the district of Furness (q.v.).
At the outset Barrow merely exported the ore to the furnaces
of South Wales and the midlands. At the beginning of the I9th
century this export amounted at most to a few thousand tons,
and though by the middle of the century it had reached some
50,000 in 1847 the population of Barrow was only 325. In 1846
the first section of the Furness railway was opened, connecting
Barrow with the mines near Dalton; in the ensuing years a
great increase in trade justified the opening of further com-
munications, and in 1859 the iron works of Messrs Schneider
& Hannay were instituted. The Barrow Haematite Steel
Company (1866) absorbed this company, and a great output
of steel produced by the Bessemer process was begun. Other
industries followed. Of these the shipbuilding works have sur-
passed the steel works in importance, the celebrated firm of
Vickers, Sons & Maxim having a yard where they construct
numerous vessels of war as well as others. There are also a
petroleum storage establishment, a paper-pulp factory, jute
works, and engineering and wagon works.
The docks in the strait between Barrow Island and the main-
land were constructed in 1867, and named the Devonshire and
Buccleuch docks. The Ramsden docks are a subsequent exten-
sion. These are 24 ft. in depth. There are also a graving dock
500 ft. long, a depositing dock accommodating vessels of 16 ft.
draught, and two electric cranes each able to lift 150 tons.
The Furness railway company is the dock authority. Passenger
steamers run on weekdays to Belfast.
The town is laid out in rectangular form, and contains several
handsome churches, municipal buildings, exchange and other
public buildings. An electric tramway service connects the out-
skirts and the centre. There are statues of Lord Frederick
Cavendish (assassinated at Dublin, 1882), in front of the town-
hall, and of Sir James Ramsden (d. 1896), managing director
of the Furness railway and first mayor of Barrow, to whom,
together with the dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch, the town
owed much of its rise in the middle of the igth century. The
cottage inhabited by George Romney the painter from 1742
to 1755 has been preserved from demolition and retained as a
memorial. Educational institutions include a school of science
and art, a girls' high school and a technical school. Barrow is a
suffragan bishopric in the diocese of Carlisle. The parliamentary
borough (1885), falling within the North Lonsdale division of
the county, returns one member. The town was incorporated
in 1867, and became a county borough in 1888. The corporation
consists of a mayor, 8 aldermen and 24 councillors. Area,
11,023 acres.
BARRY, SIR CHARLES (1795-1860), English architect, was
born in London on the 23rd of May 1795, the son of a stationer.
He was articled to a firm of architects, with whom he remained
till 1817, when he set out on a three years' tour in Greece
and Italy, Egypt and Palestine for the purpose of studying
444
architecture. On his return to England in 1820 he settled in
London. One of the first works by which his abilities as an
architect became generally known was the church of St Peter at
Brighton, completed in 1826. He built many other churches ; but
the marked preference for Italian architecture, which he acquired
during his travels, showed itself in various important undertakings
of his earlier years. In 1831 he completed the Travellers' Club
in Pall Mall, a splendid work in the Italian style and the first of
its kind built in London. In the same style and on a grander
scale he built in 1837 the Reform Club. He was also engaged
on numerous private mansions in London, the finest being
Bridgewater House (1847). Birmingham possesses one of his
best works in King Edward's grammar school, built in the Tudor
style between 1833 and 1836. For Manchester he designed the
Royal Institution of Fine Arts (1824) and the Athenaeum (1836) ;
and for Halifax the town-hall. He was engaged for some years
in reconstructing the Treasury buildings, Whitehall. But his
masterpiece, notwithstanding all unfavourable criticism, is the
Houses of Parliament at Westminster (1840-1860). Barry was
elected A.R.A. in 1840 and R.A. in the following year. His
genius and achievements were recognized by the representative
artistic bodies of the principal European nations; and his name
was enrolled as a member of the academies of art at Rome,
Berlin, St Petersburg, Brussels and Stockholm. He was chosen
F.R.S. in 1849 and was knighted by Queen Victoria in 1852.
He died suddenly at Clapham near London on the 1 2th of May
1860, and his remains were interred in Westminster Abbey. As
a landscape gardener he was no less brilliant than as an architect,
and in connexion with the building of the Houses of Parliament
he formed schools of modelling, stone and wood carving, cabinet-
making, metal-working, glass and decorative painting, and of
encaustic tile-making. In 1867 appeared a life of him by his son
Bishop Alfred Barry. A claim was thereupon set up on behalf
of Pugin, the famous architect, who was dead and who had been
Barry's assistant, to a much larger share in the work of designing
the Houses of Parliament than was admitted in Dr Barry's
narrative. The controversy raged for a time, but without
substantiating Pugin's claim.
His second son, ALFRED BARRY (1826- ), was educated at
King's College, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, where
he was 4th wrangler and gained a first-class in the classical tripos
in 1848. He was successively sub-warden of Trinity College,
Glenalmond (1849-1854), head-master of Leeds grammar school
(1854-1862), principal of Cheltenham College (1862-1868), and
principal of King's College, London (1868-1883). He was canon
of Worcester from 1871 to 1881, and of Westminster from 1881
to 1884. From 1884 to 1889 he served as bishop of Sydney and
primate of Australia, and on his return to England he was
assistant bishop in the diocese of Rochester from 1889 to 1891,
and rector of St James's, Piccadilly, from 1895 to 1900. He was
appointed canon of Windsor in 1891 and assistant bishop in
West London in 1897. Besides the life of his father mentioned
above, he published numerous theological works.
Another son, EDWARD MIDDLETON BARRY (1830-1880), was
also an architect. He acted as assistant to his father during
the latter years of Sir Charles's life. On the death of his father,
the duty of completing the latter's unfinished work devolved
upon him. Amongst other buildings thus completed were the
Houses of Parliament at Westminster (see ARCHITECTURE, fig.
91, and Plate X. fig. 118), and Halifax town-hall (Id. fig. 90).
In 1861 he was elected an associate of the Royal Academy; and
in 1869 a full academician. From 1873 till his death he held the
Academy's professorship of architecture. Among other buildings
designed by him were Covent Garden theatre, Charing Cross and
Cannon Street hotels, the Birmingham and Midland Institute,
new galleries for the National Gallery and new chambers for the
Inner Temple. He died on the 27th of January, 1880.
The youngest son, SIR JOHN WOLFE WOLFE-BARRY (1836-
), the eminent engineer, who assumed the additional name of
Wolfe in 1898, was educated at Glenalmond, and was articled as
engineering pupil to Sir John Hawkshaw, with whom he was
associated in the building of the railway bridges across the
BARRY, E. BARRY, J.
Thames at Charing Cross and Cannon Street. In 1867 he began
to practise on his own account, and soon gained an extensive
connexion with railway companies, both in Great Britain and
in other countries. Among the works on which he was engaged
were extensions of the Metropolitan District railway, the St
Paul's station and bridge of the London, Chatham & Dover
railway, the Barry Docks of the Barry railway company near
Cardiff, and the Tower and new Kew bridges over the Thames.
On the completion of the Tower Bridge in 1894, he was made a
C.B., becoming K.C.B. three years later. He served on several
royal commissions, including those on Irish Public Works (1886-
1890), Highlands and Islands of Scotland (1889-1890), Accidents
to Railway Servants (1899-1900), Port of London (1900-1902),
and London Traffic (1903-1905). He was elected president of
the Institution of Civil Engineers in 1896, and published books on
Railway Appliances (1874), and, with Sir F. J. Branwell, on
Railways and, Locomotives (1882).
BARRY, ELIZABETH (1658-1713), English actress, of whose
early life the details are meagre. At first she was so unsuccessful
on the stage as to be more than once dismissed; but she was
coached by her lover the earl of Rochester, who had laid a wager
that in a short time he would make a first-rate actress of her, and
the results confirmed his judgment. Mrs Barry's performance
as Isabella, queen of Hungary, in the earl of Orrery's Muslapha,
was said to have caused Charles II. and the duke and duchess
of York so much delight that the duchess took lessons in English
from her, and when she became queen she gave Mrs Barry her
coronation robes in which to appear as Elizabeth in Banks's
Earl of Essex. Mrs Barry is said to have created over 100 parts,
and she was particularly successful in the plays of Thomas Otway.
Betterton says that her acting gave " success to plays that
would disgust the most patient reader." Dryden pronounced
her " always excellent." Gibber is authority for the statement
that it was on her behalf that benefits, which up to that time
were reserved for authors, were first established for actors by
command of James II. Mrs Barry had a child by Lord Rochester
and a second by Sir George Etheredge, both of whom were
provided for by their fathers. In 1709 she retired from the stage
and died on the 7th of November 1713.
BARRY, JAMES (1741-1806), English painter, was born at
Cork on the nth of October 1741. His father had been a builder,
and, at one time of his life, a coasting trader between the two
countries of England and Ireland. To this business of trader
James was destined, and he actually made when a boy several
voyages; but he manifested such an aversion to the life and
habits of a sailor as to induce his father to suffer him to pursue
his own inclinations, which led strongly towards drawing and
study. At the schools in Cork to which he was sent he was
regarded as a prodigy. About the age of seventeen he first
attempted oil-painting, and between that and the age of twenty-
two, when he first went to Dublin, he produced several large
pictures, which decorated his father's house, such as " Aeneas
escaping with his Family from the Flames of Troy," "Susanna and
the Elders," " Daniel in the Lions' Den," &c. At this period he
also produced the painting which first brought him into public
notice, and gained him theacquaintanceand patronageof Edmund
Burke. The picture was founded on an old tradition of the land-
ing of St Patrick on the sea-coast of Cashel, and of the conversion
and baptism of the king of that district by the patron saint of
Ireland. It was exhibited in London in 1762 or 1763.
By the liberality of Burke and his other friends, Barry in the
latter part of 1765 was enabled to go abroad. He went first to
Paris, then to Rome, where he remained upwards of three years,
from Rome to Florence and Bologna, and thence home through
Venice. His letters to the Burkes, giving an account of Raphael,
Michelangelo, Titian and Leonardo da Vinci, show remarkable
insight. Barry painted two pictures while abroad, an Adam and
Eve, and a Philoctetes, neither of them of any merit. Soon after
his return to England in 1771 he produced his picture of Venus,
which was compared, though with little justice, to the Galatea
of Raphael, the Venus of Titian and the Venus de Medici. In
1773 he exhibited his " Jupiter and Juno on Mount Ida." His
BARRY, SIR R. BARRY
445
" Death of General Wolfe," in which the British and French
soldiers are represented in very primitive costumes, was con-
sidered as a falling-off from his great style of art. His fondness
for Greek costume was assigned by his admirers as the cause of
his reluctance to paint portraits. His failure to go on with a
portrait of Burke which he had begun caused a misunderstanding
with his early patron. The difference between them is said to
have been widened by Burke's growing intimacy with Sir Joshua
Reynolds, and by Barry's feeling some little jealousy of the fame
and fortune of his rival " in a humbler walk of the art." About
the same time he painted a pair of classical subjects, Mercury
inventing the lyre, and Narcissus looking at himself in the water,
the last suggested to him by Burke. He also painted a historical
picture of Chiron and Achilles, and another of the story of
Stratonice, for which last the duke of Richmond gave him a
hundred guineas. In 1 7 73 i t was proposed to decorate the interior
of St Paul's with historical and sacred subjects; but the plan fell
to the ground, from not meeting with the concurrence of the
bishop of London and the archbishop of Canterbury. Barry was
much mortified at the failure, for he had in anticipation fixed
upon the subject he intended to paint the rejection of Christ by
the Jews when Pilate proposes his release. In 1773 he published
An Inquiry into the real and imaginary Obstructions to the Acquisi-
tion of the Arts in England, vindicating the capacity of the English
for the fine arts and tracing their slow progress hitherto to the
Reformation, to political and civil dissensions, and lastly to the
general direction of the public mind to mechanics, manufactures
and commerce. In 1774 a proposal was made through Valentine
Green to Reynolds, West, Cipriani, Barry, and other artists to
ornament the great room of the Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, Manufactures and Commerce in the Adelphi with historical
and allegorical paintings. This proposal was at the time rejected
by the artists themselves; but in 1777 Barry made an offer to
paint the whole on condition of being allowed the choice of his
subjects, and being paid by the society the expenses of canvas,
paints and models. His offer was accepted, and he finished the
series of pictures at the end of seven years to the entire satisfac-
tion of the members of the society, who granted him two exhibi-
tions, and at different periods voted him 50 guineas, their gold
medal and 200 guineas. Of the six paintings making up the
series, only one, that of the Olympic Games, shows any artistic
power.
Soon after his return from the continent Barry had been chosen
a member of the Royal Academy; and in 1782 he was appointed
professor of painting in the room of Mr Penny with a salary of
30 a year. Among other things, he insisted on the necessity of
purchasing a collection of pictures by the best masters as models
for the students, and proposed several of those in the Orleans
collection. This recommendation was not relished, and in 1799
Barry was expelled from the academy, soon after the appearance
of his Letter to the Dilettanti Society, a very amusing but eccentric
publication, full of enthusiasm for his art and at the same time of
contempt for the living professors of it. After the loss of his
salary, a subscription was set on foot by the earl of Buchan to
relieve him from his difficulties, and to settle him in a larger house
to finish his picture of Pandora. The subscription amounted to
1000, with which an annuity was bought, but on the 6th of
February 1806 he was seized with illness and died on the 22nd
of the same month. On the I4th of March his remains were
interred in St Paul's.
As an artist, Barry was more distinguished for the strength of
his conceptions, and for his resolute and persistent determination
to apply himself only to great subjects, than for his skill in
designing or for beauty in his colouring. His drawing is rarely
good, his colouring frequently wretched. He was extremely
impulsive and unequal; sometimes morose, sometimes sociable
and urbane; jealous of his contemporaries, and yet capable of
pronouncing a splendid eulogy on Reynolds.
BARRY, SIR REDMOND (1813-1880), British colonial judge,
son of Major-General H. G. Barry, of Ballyclough, Co. Cork, was
educated at a military school in Kent, and at Trinity College,
Dublin, and was called to the Irish bar in 1838. He emigrated
to Australia, and after a short stay at Sydney went to Melbourne,
with which city he was ever afterwards closely identified. After
practising his profession for some years, he became commissioner
of the court of requests, and after the creation in 1851 of the
colony of Victoria, out of the Port Phillip district of New South
Wales, was the first solicitor-general with a seat in the legisla-
tive and executive councils. Subsequently he held the offices of
judge of the Supreme Court, acting chief -justice and administrator
of the government. He represented Victoria at the London
International Exhibition of 1862 and at the Philadelphia
Exhibition of 1876. He was knighted in 1860 and was created
K.C.M.G. in 1877. Sir Redmond Barry was the first person
in Victoria to take an interest in higher education, and induced
the local government to expend large sums of money upon that
object. He was the founder of the university of Melbourne
(1853), of which he was the first chancellor, was president of the
Melbourne public library (1854), national gallery and museum,
and was one of the first to foster the volunteer movement in
Australia. To his exertions is due the prosperity of the two
institutions with which his memory is identified.
BARRY, SPRANGER (1719-1777), British actor, was born in
Dublin on the 23rd of November 1719, the son of a silversmith,
to whose business he was brought up. His first appearance on
the stage was at the Smock Alley theatre on the sth of February
1744, and his engagement at once increased its prosperity. His
first London appearance was made in 1 746 as Othello at Drury
Lane. Here his talents were speedily recognized, and in Hamlet
and Macbeth he alternated with Garrick, arousing the latter's
jealousy by his success as Romeo. This resulted in his leaving
Drury Lane for Covent Garden in 1750, accompanied by Mrs
Gibber, his Juliet. Both houses now at once put on Romeo and
Juliet for a series of rival performances, and Barry's impersona-
tion was preferred by the critics to Garrick's. In 1758 Barry
built the Crow Street theatre, Dublin, and later a new theatre
in Cork, but he was not successful as a manager and returned
to London to play at the Haymarket, then under the manage-
ment of Foote. As his second wife, he married in 1768 the
actress Mrs Dancer (1734-1801), and he and Mrs Barry played
under Garrick's management, Barry appearing in 1767, after
ten years' absence from the stage, in Othello, his greatest part.
In 1774 they both moved to Covent Garden ^ where Barry re-
mained until his death on the loth of January 1777. He was
a singularly handsome man, with the advantage of height which
Garrick lacked.
His second wife, ANN STREET BARRY, was born in Bath
in 1 734, the daughter of an apothecary. Early in life she married
an actor of the name of Dancer, and it was as Mrs Dancer that
she made her first recorded appearance in 1758 as Cordelia to
Spranger Barry's Lear at the Crow Street theatre. During the
next nine years she played all the leading tragic parts, but
without any great success, and it was not until she came to Drury
Lane with Barry that her reputation advanced to the high point
at which it afterwards stood. After his death, she remained at
Covent Garden and married a man much younger than herself,
named Crawford, being first billed as Mrs Crawford in 1778.
Her last appearance is said to have been as Lady Randolph in
Douglas at Covent Garden in 1798. This part, and that of
Desdemona, were among her great impersonations; in both she
was considered by some critics superior to Mrs Siddons, who
expressed her fear of her in one of her letters. She died on the
29th of November 1801 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
BARRY, an urban district and seaport of Glamorganshire,
Wales, on the Bristol Channel, 1 53 m. by rail from London and
8 m. S.W. from Cardiff. Its station is a terminus on the Barry
railway, which starts at Hafod in the Rhondda Valley, where
it joins the Taff Vale railway, having also junctions with the same
line for Aberdare and Merthyr at Treforest, and for Cardiff and
Penarth at Cogan, and with the Great Western main line at
Peterstone and St Fagans. A branch from the main line at
Tyn-y-caeau connects with the Rhymney railway, the London
& North-Western railway, and the Brecon & Merthyr
railway. The Vale of Glamorgan railway (which is worked by
44 6
BAR-SALIBI BART
the Barry company and has a junction with the Great Western
railway at Bridgend) affords a direct route to Barry from the
Llynvi, Ogmore and Garw coalfields. The urban district of
Barry, with a population in 1901 of 27,030, comprises the
ecclesiastical parishes of Barry, Cadoxton, Merthyr-Dovan,
and a portion of Sully in which is included Barry Island (194
acres), now, however, joined to the mainland. The total popu-
lation of this area in 1881 was only about 50) that of Barry
village alone being only 85. A small brook named Barn runs
here into the sea, whence the place was formerly known in Welsh
as Aber-Barri, but the name of both the river and the island is
supposed to be derived from Baruch, a Welsh saint of the 7th
century, who had a cell on the island. His chapel (which still
existed in Leland's time) was a place of pilgrimage in the middle
ages. According to Giraldus, his own family derived its name
de Barri from the island which they once owned. One of the
followers of Fitzhamon settled at Barry about the end of the
nth century, building there a castle of which only a gateway
remains. Besides the small old parish churches of Merthyr-
Dovan and Cadoxton, and the rebuilt parish church of Barry,
there are four modern churches (in one of which Welsh services
are held). There are about thirty nonconformist chapels,
in nearly a third of which the services are Welsh. There are
also a Roman Catholic church, and one for German and
Scandinavian seamen. The other public buildings are a county
intermediate school for 250 boys and girls, built in 1896, a free
library (opened in 1892) with four branch reading-rooms, a
seamen's institute, the Barry market, built in 1890 at a cost
of 3500 (but now used as a concert-hall), and Romilly hall
for public meetings.
Barry owes its seaport to the determination of a number of
colliery owners to secure an alternative port to Cardiff, with
an independent railway to it from the coalfields. After failing
in 1883, they obtained parliamentary powers for this purpose
in 1884, and the first sod of the new dock at Barry was cut in
November of that year. The docks are 114 acres in extent,
and have accommodation for the largest vessels afloat. Dock
No. i, opened on the i8th of July 1889, is 73 acres (with a basin
of 7 acres) and occupies the eastern side of the old 'channel
between the island and the mainland, having a well-sheltered
deep-sea entrance. There is good anchorage between Barry
and Sully islands'. Dock No. 2 (34 acres) was opened on the
loth of October 1898. There are 41 acres of timber-ponds
and three large graving-docks. For loading the coal there are
thirty fixed and seven movable coal-hoists. The total tonnage
of the exports in 1906 was 9,757,380 (all of which, except 26,491
tons, was coal), and of the imports 506,103 tons.
BAR-SALlBI, JACOB or DIONYSIUS, 1 the best-known and
most voluminous writer in the Syrian Jacobite church of the
1 2th century, was, like Bar-Hebraeus, a native of Malaga on the
Upper Euphrates. In 1154 he was created bishop of Mar'ash
by the patriarch Athanasius VIII.; a year later the diocese of
Mabbog was added to his charge. In 1166 Michael I., the
successor of Athanasius, transferred him to the metropolitan see
of Amid in Mesopotamia, and there he remained till his death
in 1171. A long account of his writings, with copious extracts
from some of them, has been given by Assemani (Bibl. Orient, ii.
pp. 156-211); and W. Wright (Syriac Literature, pp. 246-250) has
added further particulars 'as to the MSS. in which they are
contained. Probably the most important are his exhaustive
commentaries on the text of the Old and New Testaments, in
which he has skilfully interwoven and summarized the inter-
pretations of previous writers such as Ephrem, Chrysostom,
Cyril, Moses Bar-Kepha and John of D5.ra, whom he mentions
together in the preface to his commentary on St Matthew.
Among his other main works are a treatise against heretics,
containing inter alia a polemic against the Jews and the Mahom-
medans; liturgical treatises, epistles and homilies. His com-
mentaries on the Gospels were to some extent used by Dudley
Loftus in the I7th century. But the systematic editing of his
Jacob was his baptismal name; Dionysius he assumed when
consecrated to the bishopric.
works was only begun in 1903 with H. Labourt's edition and
translation of his Exposition of the Liturgy (Paris). His com-
mentaries on the Gospels have been edited and translated by
J. Sedlacek and J. B. Chabot (Fasc. I., Paris, 1906), and the
Syriac text of the treatise against the Jews has been edited by
J. de Zwaan (Leiden, 1906). Bar-Satibi was undoubtedly an
able theologian; his vigour combined with terseness in argument
is well seen, for instance, in the introductory sections of his
commentary on St Matthew. Of his originality it is hard to
judge, as he does not usually indicate in detail the sources of his
arguments and interpretations. He does not, however, claim
for himself to be more than a compiler, at least in his com-
mentaries. His Syriac style is good, considering the lateness of
the period at which he wrote. (N. M.)
BARSI, a town of British India, in the Sholapur district of
Bombay, lying within a tract entirely surrounded by the
Nizam's dominions. Pop. (1901) 24,242. Barsi is a flourishing
centre of trade, exporting to Bombay large quantities of cotton
and oil-seeds. It has several factories for ginning and pressing
cotton some on a large scale. It is connected with the main
line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway by a light railway.
BAR-SUR-AUBE, a town of north-eastern France, capital of
an arrondissement in the department of Aube, 34 m. E. by S. of
Troyes on the main line of the Eastern railway between that
town and Belfort. Pop. (1906) 4276. Bar-sur-Aube lies at the
foot of hills on the right bank of the Aube at its confluence with
the Bresse. A circle of boulevards occupies the site of the old
ramparts, fragments of which still remain. Of the ecclesiastical
buildings, the most noteworthy are St Pierre and St Maclou,
both dating mainly from the end of the I2th century. St Pierre
has wooden exterior galleries and two fine Gothic porches. The
sacristy of St Maclou is conjectured to have formed the chapel
of the castle of the counts of Bar, of which the square tower
flanking the north side of the church formed the entrance. The
town is the seat of a sub-prefect, and the public institutions
include a tribunal of first instance and a communal college.
Flour-milling, tanning, and the manufacture of brandy, hosiery
and agricultural implements are carried on. The wine of the
district is much esteemed.
Traces of a Roman settlement have been found on hills to the
south of the town. Under the domination of the counts of Cham-
pagne, it became the scene of important fairs which did not cease
till 1648. In 1814 several actions between the French and the
army of the allies took place at Bar-sur-Aube (see NAPOLEONIC
WARS).
BAR-SUR-SEINE, a town of eastern France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Aube, on the left bank of the
Seine, 20 m. S.E. of Troyes by the Eastern railway. Pop. (1906)
2812. The town lies at the foot of a wooded hill on which stand
the ruins of the castle of the counts of Bar, and is composed
chiefly of one long street, bordered in places by houses of the i6th
century. Its principal building is the church of St Etienne, of
the i6th and I7th centuries, which contains some fine stained
glass. Bar-sur-Seine has a sub-prefecture and a tribunal of
first instance. Tanning, dyeing, flour-milling, brandy-distilling
and the manufacture of glass are among the industries. The
Canal de la Haute-Seine begins at this point. The town was
devastated in 1359 by the English, when, according to Froissart,
no fewer than 900 mansions were burnt. Afterwards it suffered
greatly in the religious wars of the i6th century.
BART, JEAN (1651-1702), French naval commander, son of
a fisherman, was born in Dunkirk on the 2ist of October 1651.
He served when young in the Dutch navy, but when war broke
out between Louis XIV. and Holland in 1672 he entered the
French service. He gained great distinction in the Mediterranean,
where he held an irregular sort of commission, not being then able
from his low birth to receive a command in the navy. His
success was so great, however, that he was made a lieutenant in
1679. He rose rapidly to the rank of captain and then to that
of admiral. The peace of Ryswick put a close to his active
service. Many anecdotes are narrated of the courage and blunt-
ness of the uncultivated sailor, who became the popular hero
BARTAN EARTH
447
of the French naval service. The town of Dunkirk has honoured
his memory by a statue and by naming a public square after him.
See Richer, Vie de Jean Bart (1780), and many editions since;
Vanderest, Histoire de Jean Bart.
BARTAN, more correctly BARTIN, a town in the vilayet of
Kastamuni, Asiatic Turkey, retaining the name of the ancient
village Parthenia and situated near the mouth of the Bartan-su
(anc. Parthenius), which formed part of the boundary between
Bithynia and Paphlagonia. Various aetiological explanations
of the name Parthenius were given by the ancients, e.g. that the
maiden Artemis hunted on its banks, or that the flow of its waters
was gentle and maiden-like. The town, which is the residence
of a kaimakam, is built on two low limestone hills and its streets
are paved with limestone blocks. It is noted for the fine box-
wood grown in the vicinity, is a port of call for Black Sea coasting
steamers and carries on a considerable trade with Constantinople
which might be increased were it not for the obstruction of the
harbour by a bar. Pop. 8677, according to Cuinet, La Turquie
d'Asie (1894).
BARTELS, HANS VON (1856- ), German painter, was born
in Hamburg, the son of Dr N. F. F. von Bartels, a Russian
government official. He studied first under the marine painter
R. Hardorff in Hamburg, then under C. Schweitzer in Dusseldorf
and C. Oesterley in Hamburg, and finally at the Berlin School of
Art. After travelling extensively, especially in Italy, he settled
in Munich in 1885 and was appointed professor of painting in
1891. An oil painter of great power, he is one of the leading
German water-colour painters, mainly of marines and scenes of
fishing life, painted with rude vigour and a great display of
technical skill. He excels in storm scenes and in depicting the
strong, healthy fishing-folk of the northern coasts. He became
an honorary member of leading English, German, Dutch, Belgian
and Austrian art societies. Among his principal works are:
"Sturmflut" (Berlin Gallery); "Lonely Beach" (Hungarian
National Gallery); "Potato Harvest Rugen " (Prague);
" Storm Bornholm " (German emperor's collection) ; and
" Moonlight on the Zuyder Zee " (New Pinakothek, Munich).
BARTENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Prussia, on the Allc, 34 m. S. of Konigsberg by rail. Pop. (1900
6805. It has a considerable trade in corn and live stock, and its
industries comprise founding and carriage-building, tanneries,
breweries and potteries. Bartenstein is celebrated for the treaty
concluded here on the 26th of April 1807, between Prussia and
Russia.
BARTER (from Fr. baraler, to truck, to exchange), the ex-
change of commodities for commodities, in centra-distinction
to the exchange of commodities for money. Barter was the
simplest form of trading among primitive communities, but its
inconveniences led, at an early stage of civilization , to the adoption
of metals as mediums of exchange. Barter, however, is still very
common in dealings with uncivilized peoples, and traders in
many countries find that the most satisfactory method of
effecting exchange is to furnish themselves with such commodities
as weapons, tools and ornaments, which are more readily taken
than money.
For the history of barter and- the steps by which a system of
currency was gradually evolved, see MONEY. Consult also W. S.
Jevons, Money and the Mechanism of Exchange; A. Marshall,
Economics ; W. Ridgeway, Origin of Currency and Weight Standards.
BARTET (REGNAULT), JEANNE JULIA (1854- ), French
actress, was born in Paris and trained at the Conservatoire. In
1872 she began a successful career at the Vaudeville, and in 1879
was engaged at the Come'die Francaise, of which she became a
societaire in 1880. For many years she played the chief parts
both in tragedy and comedy, her grand style and exquisite
finesse making her supreme among the younger actresses on the
French stage. She had a season in London in 1908, when her
consummate art was displayed in a number of parts.
BARTH, HEINRICH (1821-1865), German explorer, was born
at Hamburg on the i6th of February 1821, and educated at
Berlin University, where he graduated in 1844. He had already
visited Italy and Sicily and had formed a plan to journey through
the Mediterranean countries. After studying Arabic in London
he set out on his travels in 1845. From Tangier he made his way
overland throughout the length of North Africa, visiting the
sites of the ancient cities of Barbary and Cyrenaica. He also
travelled through Egypt, ascending the Nile to Wadi Haifa and
crossing the desert to Berenice. While in Egypt he was attacked
and wounded by robbers. Crossing the Sinai peninsula he
traversed Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Turkey and Greece,
everywhere examining the remains cf antiquity; and returned
to Berlin in 1847. For a time he was engaged there as Privat-
docent, and in preparing for publication the narrative of his
Wanderungen durch die Kiistenlander des Mittelmeeres, which
appeared in 1849.
At the instance of Bunsen and other scientists, Barth and
Adolf Overweg, a Prussian astronomer, were appointed colleagues
of James Richardson, an explorer of the Sahara who had been
selected by the British government to open up commercial
relations with the states of the central and western Sudan. The
party left Tripoli early in 1850, but the deaths of Richardson
(March 1851) and Overweg (September 1852) left Barth to carry
on the mission alone. He returned to Europe in September 1855,
after one of the most fruitful expeditions ever undertaken in
inner Africa. In addition to journeys across the Sahara, Barth
traversed the country from Lake Chad and Bagirmi on the east
to Timbuktu on the west and Cameroon on the south, making
prolonged sojourns in the ancient sultanates or emirates of
Bornu, Kano, Nupe, Sokoto and Gando and at Timbuktu. He
studied minutely the topography, history, civilizations and
resources of the countries he visited. The story of his travels
was published simultaneously in English and German, under
the title Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa
(1857-1858, 5 vols.). For accuracy, interest, variety and extent
of information Earth's Travels have few rivals among works of
the kind. It is a book that will always rank as a standard
authority on the regions in question, of which a great part, under
the name of Nigeria, has since come under British rule. Except
a C.B., Barth himself received no recognition of his services from
the British government. He returned to Germany, where he
prepared a collection of Central African vocabularies (Gotha,
1862-1866). In 1858 he undertook another journey in Asia Minor,
and in 1862 visited Turkey in Europe. In the following year he
was appointed professor of geography at Berlin University and
president of the Geographical Society. He died at Berlin on the
25th of November 1865.
See Schubert's Heinrich Barth, der Bahnbrechcr der deutschen
Afrikaforschung (Berlin, 1897). An edition of the Travels in two
volumes was published in London in 1890 (Minerva Library of
Famous Books).
BARTH, KASPAR VON (1587-1658), German philologist, was
born at Kiistrin in the province of Brandenburg on the 2ist
of June 1587. He was an extremely precocious child, and
was looked upon as a marvel of learning. After studying at
Gotha, Eisenach, Wittenberg and Jena, he travelled extensively,
visiting most of the countries of Europe. Too independent to
accept any regular post, he lived alternately at Halle and on
his property at Sellerhausen near Leipzig. In 1636, his library
and MSS. at Sellerhausen having been destroyed by fire, he
removed to the Paulinum at Leipzig, where he died on the 1 7th
of September 1658. Barth was a very voluminous writer; his
works, which were the fruits of extensive reading and a retentive
memory, are unmethodical and uncritical and marred by want
of taste and of clearness. He appears to have been excessively
vain and of an unamiable disposition. Of his writings the most
important are; Adversaria (1624), a storehouse of miscellaneous
learning, dealing not only with classical but also with medieval
and modern writers; and commentaries on Claudian (1612, 1650)
and Statius (1664).
BARTH, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Prussia, on the
Barther Bodden, a lake connecting with the Baltic, ism. N.W.
from Stralsund by rail. Pop. (1900) 7070. It contains a fine
Gothic Protestant church (St Mary's) dating from the i3th
century and has several educational establishments, notably a
BARTHELEMY
school of seamanship. Its industries comprise iron-founding,
ship-building, brewing, and the manufacture of cigars, leather
and tinned fish. There is an active export trade in grain.
BARTHELEMY, ANATOLE JEAN-BAPTISTE ANTOINE DE
(1821-1904), French archaeologist and numismatist, was born
at Reims on the ist of July 1821, and died at Ville d'Avray on
the 27th of June 1904. In collaboration with J. Geslin de
Bourgogne he published ludes sur la revolution en Bretagne in
1838, and between 1855 and 1879 an exhaustive work in six
volumes on the Anciens hitches de Bretagne; histoire et monu-
ments. In 1880 appeared the Choix de documents inedits sur
I'hisloire de la ligue en Bretagne, by himself alone. But it was,
above all, his numismatical work which established his reputation.
This included several popular publications, such as the Nouveau
manuel complet de numismalique ancienne (1851; second edition,
revised, 1890), and the Nouveau manuel complet de numismatique
du moyen Age et moderne (1853; new edition revised by Adrien
Planchet), and a large number of monographs and articles in the
technical reviews. The following may be specially mentioned:
Numismatique meroiiingienne (1865); Essai sur la monnaie
parisis (1874); Note sur I'origine de la monnaie tournoise (1896);
and in the series of instructions issued by the Comite des travaux
historiques et scientifiques he edited the number on La Numis-
matique de la France (1891). In 1897 he was elected a member
of the Academic des Inscriptions et Belles-lettres.
His younger brother, EDOUARD MARIE, comte de Barthelemy,
who was born in Angers in 1830, has published a number of
documents upon the ancient French nobility and upon the
history of Champagne.
BARTHELEMY, AUGUSTS MARSEILLE (1796-1867), French
satirical poet, was born at Marseilles in 1796. His name can
hardly be separated from that of his friend and compatriot,
J. P. A. Mery (1798-1866), with whom he carried on so intimate
a collaboration that it is not possible to distinguish their person-
alities in their joint works. After having established some local
reputation as a poet, Barth61emy went to Paris, where by one of
his first efforts, Le Sacre de Charles X (1825) he gained the favour
of the court. His energies, however, were soon enlisted in the
service of the opposition party. In 1825 appeared a clever
political satire, Les Sidiennes, followed by La Villeliade ou la
prise du ckdleau de Rivoli (1827), La Corbiereide (1827), La
Peyronntide(i&2'j) ,the joint productions of Barth61emy and Mery.
The success was immediate and pronounced; fifteen editions of
the Villeliade were called for during the year. A rapid succes-
sion of political squibs and satires was now poured forth by
the authors, among the most remarkable being Biographic des
quaranle de I'academie framboise (1826) and Napoleon en gyple
(1828), which passed through nearly a dozen editions in a year.
In 1829 Barthelemy was imprisoned and fined 1000 francs for
the publication of their Fils de I'homme, a poem on the duke of
Reichstadt, Napoleon's son. The Revolution of 1830 liberated
him; and in company with Mery, he celebrated the triumph of
the people in one of their most brilliant efforts, L' Insurrection.
From March 1831 to April 1832 they produced a series of verse
satires issued weekly, the Nemesis, attacking the government
and ministers of Louis Philippe. The small pension of which
Barthelemy was the recipient was stopped. When the publica-
tion ceased there was a strong suspicion that Barthelemy had been
paid for his silence. In 1832 he published an anonymous poem,
supporting some acts of the government which were peculiarly
obnoxious to the Liberal party. This change of front destroyed
his influence and his later writings passed unnoticed. For the
next few years he enjoyed a handsome pension from the govern-
ment and refrained from all satirical writing. He again resumed
his old style in 1844 but without the former success. From
that date he contented himself with merely occasional poems.
Barthelemy died on the 23rd of August 1867 at Marseilles.
Joseph Mery was an ardent romanticist and wrote a great number
of stories now forgotten. He produced several pieces at the Paris
theatres, and also collaborated with Gerard de Nerval in adapta-
tions from Shakespeare and in other plays. He received a pension
from Napoleon III. and died in Paris on the i6th of June 1866.
The (Euvres of Barthelemy and Mery were collected, with a notice
by L. Reybaud, in 1831 (4 vols.). See also Barthelemy et Mery
etudies specialement dans leurs rapports avec la legende napoleonienne,
by Jules Garsou in vol. Iviii. of the Memoires of the Academic
Royale . . . de Belgique, which contains full information on both
authors.
BARTHELEMY, FRANCOIS, MARQUIS DE (1747 or 1750-
1830), French politician, was educated by his uncle the abbe Jean
Jacques Barthelemy for a diplomatic career, and after serving as
secretary of legation in Sweden, in Switzerland and in England,
was appointed minister plenipotentiary in Switzerland, in which
capacity he negotiated the treaties of Basel with Prussia and Spain
(1795). Elected a member of the Directory in May 1797, through
royalist influence, he was arrested at the coup d'etat of the 18
Fructidor (i?th of September 1797) and deported to French
Guiana, but escaped and made his way to the United States
and then to England. He returned to France after the 18
Brumaire, entered the senate in February 1800 and contributed
to the establishment of the consulship for life and the empire. In
1814 he abandoned Napoleon, took part in the drawing up of the
constitutional charter and was named peer of France. During
the Hundred Days he live.d in concealment, and after the second
Restoration obtained the title marquis, and in 1819 introduced a
motion in the chamber of peers tending to render the electoral law
more aristocratic.
His Papiers have been published by J. Kaulek, 4 vols. (Pans,
1886-1888). See A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Revolution fran^aise, iv.
(Paris, 1892) ; L. Sciout, Le Directoire (Paris, 1895).
BARTHELEMY, JEAN JACQUES (1716-1795) French writer
and numismatist, was born on the 2oth of January 1 7 1 6 at Cassis,
in Provence. He was educated first at the college of the Oratory
in Marseilles, and afterwards at that of the Jesuits in the same
city. While studying for the priesthood, which he intended to
join, he devoted much attention to oriental languages, and was
introduced by his friend M. Gary of Marseilles to the study of
classical antiquities, particularly in the department of numis-
matics. In 1744 he went to Paris with a letter of introduction to
M. Gros de Boze, perpetual secretary of the Academy of Inscrip-
tions andBelles-lettres and keeper of the royal collection of medals.
He became assistant to de Boze, on whose death (1753) he became
keeper of the medals. In 1755 he accompanied the French
ambassador, M. de Stainville, afterwards due de Choiseul, to
Italy, where he spent three years in archaeological research.
Choiseul had a great regard for Barthelemy, and on his return to
France, Barthelemy became an inmate of his house, and received
valuable preferments from his patron. In 1789, after the
publication of his Voyage du jeune Anacharsis, he was elected
a member of the French Academy. During the Revolution
Barthelemy was arrested as an aristocrat. The Committee of
Public Safety, however, were no sooner informed by the duchess
of Choiseul of the arrest, than they gave orders for his immediate
release, and in 1793 he was nominated librarian of the Biblio-
theque Nationale. He refused this post but resumed his old
functions as keeper of medals, and enriched the national collection
by many valuable accessions. Barthe'lemy died on the 3oth of
April 1795.
Barthelemy was the author of a number of learned works on
antiquarian subjects, but the great work on which his fame rests
is Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grece, vers le milieu du quatrieme
silde avant I'ere chretienne (4 vols., 1787). He had begun it in
1757 and had been working on it for thirty years. The hero, a
young Scythian descended from the famous philosopher Ana-
charsis, is supposed to repair to Greece for instruction in his early
youth, and after making the tour of her republics, colonies and
islands, to return to his native country and write this book in his
old age, after the Macedonian hero had overturned the Persian
empire. In the manner of modern travellers, he gives an account
of the customs, government and antiquities of the country he is
supposed to have visited; a copious introduction supplies what-
ever may be wanting in respect to historical .details; whilst
various dissertations on the music of the Greeks, on the literature
of the Athenians, and on the economy, pursuits, ruling passions,
manners and customs of the surrounding states supply ample
BARTHELEMY SAINT-HILAIRE BARTHOLOMEW 449
information on the subjects of which they treat. Modern
scholarship has superseded most of the details in the Voyage, but
the author himself did not imagine his book to be a register ol
accurately ascertained facts ; he rather intended to afford to his
countrymen, in an interesting form, some knowledge of Greek
civilization. The Charides of W. A. Becker is an attempt in a
similar direction, but, though superior in scholarship, it wants the
charm of style of the Anacharsis.
Barthfelemy's correspondence with Paolo Paciaudi, chiefly on
antiquarian subjects, was edited with the Correspondance inedite du
comte de Caylus in 1877 by Ch. Nisard; his letters to the comte de
Caylus were published by Antoine Serieys as Voyage en Italie (1801) ;
and his letters to Mine du Deffand, with whom he was on intimate
terms, in the Correspondance complete de Mme du Deffand avec la
duchesse de Choiseul, Vabbe Barthelemy el M. Craufurt (3 vols., 1866),
edited by the marquis de Sainte-Aulaire. See also Memoires sur la
vie de I'abbe Barthelemy, ecrits par lui-meme (1824), with a notice by
Lalande. His CEuvres completes (4 vols. 1821), contain a notice by
Villenave.
BARTHELEMY SAINT-HILAIRE, JULES (1805-1895), French
philosopher and statesman, was born at Paris on the igth of
August 1805. In his early years he was an active political
journalist, and from 1826 to 1830 opposed the reactionary policy
of the king in Le Globe. At the revolution of 1830 he signed the
protestation of the journalists on the 28th of July 1830. After
1830 he contributed to different newspapers Le Constitutionnel,
Le National and the Courrier franfais until 1833, when he gave
up politics in order to devote himself to the history of ancient
philosophy, undertaking a translation of Aristotle, which occupied
him the greater part of his life (1837-1892). The reputation
which he gained from this work won for him the chair of ancient
philosophy at the College de France (1838) and a seat at the
Academy of Moral and Political Science (1839). After the
revolution of 1848 he was elected as a republican deputy; but
was obliged to withdraw after the coup d'Mat of Louis Napoleon.
In 1855 he went as member of the international commission
to Egypt to report on the possibility of the proposed Suez canal,
and by the articles which he wrote he contributed largely
to making the project popular in France. Elected deputy
again in 1869, he joined the opposition to the Empire, and in 1871
bent all his efforts to the election of Thiers as president of the
republic, acting afterwards as his secretary. Appointed senator
for life in 1875, he took his place among the moderate republicans,
and from September 1880 to November 1881 was minister of
foreign affairs in the cabinet of Jules Ferry. The most important
event of his administration was the annexation of Tunis under the
form of a French protectorate, which he actively promoted. He
died on the 24th of November 1895. His principal works,
besides the translation of Aristotle and a number of studies
connected with the same subject, are Des Vedas (1854), Du
Bouddhisme (1856) and Mahomet et le Coran (1865).
BARTHEZ, or BARTERS, PAUL JOSEPH (1734-1806),
French physician, was born on the nth of December 1734 at
Montpellier. He was educated at Narbonne and Toulouse, and
began the study of medicine at Montpellier in 1750, taking his
doctor's degree in 1753. In 1756 he obtained the appointment
of physician to the military hospital in Normandy attached to
the army of observation commanded by Marshal d'Estre'es,
but a severe attack of hospital fever compelled him to leave
this post. In 1757 his services were required in the medical staff
of the army of Westphalia, where he had the rank of consulting
physician, and on his return to Paris he acted as joint editor
of the Journal des savants and the Encyclopedic methodique. In
1759 he obtained a medical professorship at Montpellier, and in
1774 he was created joint chancellor of the university. In 1778
he published his most famous work, Nouveaux elemens de la
science de I'homme, in which he employs the expression " vital
principle " as a convenient term for the cause of the phenomena
of life, without committing himself to either a spiritualistic or a
materialistic view of its nature. Taking the degree of doctor
of civil law in 1780, he secured the appointment of counsellor
to the Supreme Court of Aids at Montpellier, but he soon took
up his residence in Paris, having been nominated consulting
physician to the king.
in. 15
On the outbreak of the French Revolution he lost much of his
fortune a/id retired to Carcassonne, where he devoted himself
to the study of theoretical medicine. It was from this retreat
that he gave to the world his Nouvelle mtcanique des mowemens
de I'homme et des animaux, which appeared in 1798. In 1802 he
published his Traitement des maladies goutteuses, and he after-
wards occupied himself in preparing for the press a new edition
of his Siemens de la science de I'homme, of which he just lived to
see fhe publication. His health had been declining for some
years before his death, which took place soon after his removal
to Paris, on the isth of October 1806. He bequeathed his books
and manuscripts to J. Lordat, who published two volumes of his
Consultations de mldecine in 1810. His Traitt du beau was also
published posthumously in 1807.
BARTHOLINUS, OASPARD [CASPAR BERTHEtSEN], (1585-
1629), physician, was born in 1585 at MalmS, in Sweden. His
precocity was extraordinary; at three years of age he was able
to read, and in his thirteenth year he composed Greek and Latin
orations and delivered them in public. When he was about
eighteen he went to the university of Copenhagen and afterwards
studied at Rostock and Wittenberg. He then travelled through
Germany, the Netherlands, England, France and Italy, and was
received with marked respect at the different universities he
visited. In 1613 he was chosen professor of medicine in the
university of Copenhagen, and filled that office for eleven years,
when, falling into a dangerous illness, he made a vow that if he
should recover he would apply himself solely to the study of
divinity. He fulfilled his vow by becoming professor of
divinity at Copenhagen and canon of Roskilde. He died on the
i3th of July 1629 at Soro in Zeeland.
Of his sons, Thomas (1616-1680) was born at Copenhagen,
where, after a long course of study in various universities of
Europe, he was appointed successively professor of mathematics
(1647) and anatomy (1648). During his tenure of the latter
chair he distinguished himself by observations on the lymphatics.
In 1661 he retired to Hagestaed. In 1670 his house and library
were burnt, and in consideration of his loss he was appointed
physician to the king, with a handsome salary, and librarian
to the university of Copenhagen. He died at Hagestaed in 1680.
Another son, Erasmus (1625-1698), born at Roskilde, spent ten
years in visiting England, Holland, Germany and Italy, and
filled the chairs of mathematics and medicine at Copenhagen.
He discovered double refraction in Iceland spar (Experimenta
crystalli islandici disdiaclastici, Copenhagen, 1669). He died at
Copenhagen in 1698. In the third generation Caspar Thomeson
(1655-1738), son of Thomas, also taught anatomyat Copenhagen,
his name being associated with the description of one of the ducts
of the sublingual gland and of the glandulae Bartholim, while
his younger brother, Thomas (1659-1690), was a student of
northern antiquities who published Antiquitatum Danicarum
libri Ires in 1689.
BARTHOLOMEW, SAINT, one of the twelve apostles, regard-
ing whose early life we know nothing, unless in accordance with
a widely-spread belief he is to be identified with Nathanael (?..).
If so, Bartholomew is probably a patronymic, the apostle's full
name being Nathanael Bartolmai, i.e. the son of Tolmai. On the
other hand, according to a Syrian tradition, Bartholomew's
original name was Jesus, which he dropped owing to its being
the name of the Master Himself. In the synoptic gospels
Bartholomew is never mentioned except in the lists of the
apostles, where his name always appears after Philip's. He is
said to have gone, after the ascension of the Lord, on a missionary
tour to India (then a very wide geographical designation) where,
according to a story in Eusebius (H.E. v. 10), he left behind him
a copy of St Matthew's gospel. According to the traditional
account he was flayed alive and then crucified with his head
downwards, at Albanopolis in Armenia, or, according to Nice-
phorus, at Urbanopolis in Cilicia. In works of art he is generally
represented with a large knife, the instrument of his martyrdom,
or, as in Michelangelo's " Last Judgment," with his own skin
langing over his arm. The festival of St Bartholomew is cele-
brated on the 24th of August.
45
BARTHOLOMEW BARTOLOMMEI
Dr Nestle has drawn attention to the fact that in the Syriac
translation of Eusebius' history the name Tolmai, i.e. Bartholomew,
takes the place of Matthias, the apostle who was appointed in place
of Judas (i. 12, cf. ii. I, iii. 25 and 29). If this identification can be
made out there would, in the list of apostles as finally constituted,
be two men who bore the patronymic Bartholomew. See further
Expository Times, ix. pp. 566 ff. (1898).
BARTHOLOMEW, JOHN (1831-1893), Scottish cartographer,
was born at Edinburgh on the 25 th of December 1831. His father
had a cartographical establishment there and he was educated
in the work. He was subsequently assistant to the German
geographer August Petermann, until in 1856 he took up the
management of his father's firm. For this establishment, now
known as the Edinburgh Geographical Institute, Bartholomew
built up a reputation unsurpassed in Great Britain for the pro-
duction of the finest cartographical work. Among his numerous
publications mention may be specially made of the series of maps
of Great Britain reduced from the Ordnance Survey to scales of 5
in. and J in. to i m., with relief shown by contours and a systematic
scale of colours. The % in. series, which was extended (and its
principles applied to many other works) by Mr J. G. Bartholomew,
who succeeded his father in the business, is the finest of its kind
ever produced. John Bartholomew died in London on the agth
of March 1893.
BARTHOLOMEW FAIR, a fair held in West Smithfield,
London, on St Bartholomew's Day (24th of August, O.S.) from
1133 to 1855. The charter authorizing its holding was granted
by Henry I. to his former minstrel, Rahere, who had taken orders
and had founded the priory of St Bartholomew close by. For
many centuries the fair lasted a fortnight, but in 1691 it was
shortened to four days only. In 1641 it had become so large
that it involved no less than four parishes: Christ Church,
Great and Little St Bartholomew's and St Sepulchre's. It was
customary for the lord mayor of London to open the fair form-
ally on St Bartholomew's Eve, and on his way to stop at Newgate
where he received from the governor a cup of sack. In 1753,
owing to the change in the calendar, the fair was proclaimed
on the 3rd of September. During its earlier history the fair
grew to be a vast national market and the chief cloth sale in
the kingdom. Down to 1854 it was usual for the representative
of the Merchant Taylors' Gild to proceed to the cloth fair which
formed part of Bartholomew fair, and test the measures used
for selling cloth there by the company's silver yard. The fair
was finally closed in 1855.
For a full account see Prof. H. Morley, Memoirs of Bartholomew
Fair (1859).
BARTIZAN (according to the New English Dictionary, from
bertizene, a Scottish corruption of " bratticing " or " brattish-
ing." from O. Fr. bretesche, and meaning a battlemented parapet;
apparently first used by Sir Walter Scott), a small battlemented
turret, corbelled out at the angle of a wall or tower to protect
a warder and enable him to see around him. Bartizans generally
are furnished with oylets or arrow-slits.
BARTLETT, JOHN (1820-1905), American publisher and
compiler, was born in Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the I4th
of June 1820. He became a bookseller and publisher in Cam-
bridge, Mass., and from 1865 to 1889, when he retired, was a
member of the bookselling and publishing firm of Little, Brown
& Co., in Boston. In 1855 he published the first edition of his
Familiar Quotations, subsequently greatly expanded and long
the best-known collection of the sort, and in 1894 (although it had
been copyrighted five years before), after many years' labour, he
published his New and Complete Concordance or Verbal Index to
Words, Phrases and Passages in the Dramatic Works of Shake-
speare; with a Supplementary Concordance to the Poems sur-
passing any of its predecessors in the number and fulness cf its
citations from the poet's writings. In all of his work he was
greatly assisted by his wife, a daughter of Sidney Willard (1780-
1856), professor of Hebrew at Harvard from 1807 to 1831.
Bartlett died at Cambridge, Mass., on the 3rd of December 1905.
BARTLETT, JOHN RUSSELL (1805-1886), American histori-
cal and linguistic student, was born in Providence, Rhode Island,
on the 23rd of October 1805. From his first to his eighteenth
year he lived in Kingston, Canada; he was then in turn, from
1824 to 1836, a clerk in a dry goods store, a book-keeper and
a bank cashier at Providence, and for more than ten years after
1836 he was a bookseller in New York City, returning to Pro-
vidence in 1850. In 1850-1853 he was the commissioner on the
part of the United States for the survey of the boundary between
the United States and Mexico, but owing to the lack of funds
did not finish the work. After being superseded by another
commissioner upon the accession of 'President Franklin Pierce,
he published A Personal Narrative of Explorations and Incidents
in Texas, New Mexico, California, Sonora and Chihuahua (2 vols.,
1854), which contains much valuable scientific and historical
material concerning the south-west. From 1855 to 1872 he was
secretary of state of Rhode Island, and while serving in this
capacity thoroughly re-arranged and classified the state records,
and prepared various bibliographies and compilations, relating
chiefly to the history of the state. He is chiefly remembered
however, for his Dictionary of Americanisms (1848), a pioneer
work, which, although later dialect changes have, of course,
deprived it of completeness or final authoritativeness, is still
of value to students of language and remains the chief con-
tribution to the subject. He died in Providence on the 28th of
May 1886.
BARTLETT, 'PAUL WAYLAND (1865- ), American
sculptor, was born in New Haven, Connecticut, the son of Truman
H. Bartlett, an art critic and sculptor. When fifteen he began to
study at Paris under Fremiet, modelling from animals in the
Jardin des Plantes. He won a medal at the Paris Salon of 1887.
Among his principal works are: " The Bear Tamer," in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York; the equestrian statue
of Lafayette, in the Place du Carrousel, Paris, presented to the
French Republic by the school children of America; the power-
ful and virile Columbus and Michelangelo, in the Congressional
Library, Washington, D.C.; the " Ghost Dancer," in the
Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia; the " Dying Lion "; the
equestrian statue of McClellan in Philadelphia; and a statue of
Joseph Warren in Boston, Massachusetts. His bronze patinas
of reptiles, insects and fish are also remarkable.
BARTOLI, DANIELLO (1608-1685), Italian Jesuit priest, was
born at Ferrara and entered the Society of Jesus in 1623.
Debarred from the foreign mission field, he attained high dis-
tinction as a preacher and as a teacher of rhetoric in Genoa,
Florence and Rome. He wrote (in Italian) a book called The
Learned Man as a counterblast to the widespread reading of
romances, and also a history of his order in 6 vols. (Rome, 1650-
1673), which is particularly informing with regard to the early
work of the society in Asia. He died at Rome.
A collected edition of his works, in 12 vols., was published by Mari-
etti at Turin, 1825-1856; another in 50 vols. at Florence in 1826.
BARTOLINI, LORENZO (1777-1850), Italian sculptor, was
born in Vernio in Tuscany. After acquiring great skill and
reputation as a modeller in alabaster, he went in 1797 to Paris,
where he studied painting under Desmarets, and afterwards
sculpture under F. F. Lemot. The bas-relief " Cleobis and Biton,"
with which he gained the second prize of the Academy in 1803,
at once established his fame as a sculptor and gained for him a
number of influential patrons. He executed many minor pieces
for Denon, besides busts of Mehul and Cherubini. His great
patron, however, was Napoleon, for whom he executed a colossal
bust, and who sent him to Carrara to found a school of sculpture.
Here he remained till after the fall of Napoleon, and then took
up his residence in Florence, where he resided till his death.
His works are varied and include an immense number of busts.
The best are, perhaps, the group of Charity, the " Hercules and
Lichas " and the " Faith in God," which exemplify the highest
types of Bartolini's style. Popular opinion in Italy associates
his qualities as a sculptor with those of Thorwaldsen and Canova.
BARTOLOMMEI, MARQUIS FERDINANDO (1821-1869),
Italian revolutionist and statesman, who played an important
part in the political events of Tuscany from 1848 to 1860. From
the beginning of the revolutionary movement Bartolommei was
always an ardent Liberal, and although belonging to an old and
BARTOLOMMEO BARTOLUS
noble Florentine family his sympathies were with the democratic
party rather than with the moderately liberal aristocracy. In
1847-1 848 his house was a centre of revolutionary committees, and
during the brief constitutional regime he was much to the fore.
After the return of the grand duke Leopold II. in 1849 under
Austrian protection, Bartolommei was present at a requiem
service in the church of Santa Croce for those who fell in the late
campaign against Austria; on that occasion disorders occurred
and he was relegated to his country estate in consequence (1851).
Shortly afterwards he was implicated in the distribution of
seditious literature and exiled from Tuscany for a year. He
settled at Turin for a time and established relations with Cavour
and the Piedmontese liberals. He subsequently visited France
and England, and like many Italian patriots became enamoured
of British institutions. He returned to Florence in 1853; from
that time onward he devoted himself to the task of promoting
the ideas of Italian independence and unity among the people,
and although carefully watched by the police, he kept a secret
printing-press in his palace in Florence. Finding that the
nobility still hesitated at the idea of uncompromising hostility
to the house of Lorraine, he allied himself more firmly with
the popular party, and found an able lieutenant in the baker
Giuseppe Dolfi (1818-1869), an honest and whole-hearted
enthusiast who had great influence with the common people.
As soon as war between Piedmont and Austria appeared
imminent, Bartolommei organized the expedition of Tuscan
volunteers to join the Piedmontese army, spending large
sums out of his own pocket for the purpose, and was also
president of the Tuscan branch of the Sociela Nazionale (see
under LA FARINA and CAVOUR). He worked desperately hard
conspiring for the overthrow of the grand duke, assisted by all
the liberal elements, and on the 27th of April 1859, Florence rose
as one man, the troops refused to fire on the people, and the
grand duke departed, never to return. Sapristil pas un carreau
casst ! was the comment of the French minister to Tuscany on
this bloodless revolution. A provisional government was formed
and Bartolommei elected gonfaloniere. He had much opposition
to encounter from those who still believed that the retention of
the grand duke as a constitutional sovereign and member of an
Italian confederation was possible. In the summer elections
were held, and on the meeting of parliament Bartolommei's
Unitarian views prevailed, the assembly voting the resolution
that the house of Lorraine had forfeited its rights and that
Tuscany must be united to Italy under King Victor Emmanuel.
Bartolommei was made senator of the Italian kingdom and
received various other honours. His last years were spent in
educational and philanthropic work. He died on the isth of
June 1869, leaving a widow and two daughters.
The best biography of Bartolommei is contained in // Rivolgimento
Toscano e I'azione popolare, by his daughter Matilde Gioli (Florence,
1905)1 but the author attributes perhaps an undue preponderance
to her father in the Tuscan revolution, and is not quite fair towards
Bettino Ricasoli (q.v.) and other leaders of the aristocratic party.
Cf. Lettere e documenti di B. Ricasoli (Florence, 1887-1896), and
D. Zanichelli's Lettere politiche di B. Ricasoli, U. Peruzzi, N. Corsini,
e C. Ridolfi (Bologna, 1898).
BARTOLOMMEO DI PAGHOLO, FRA (1475-1517), the Italian
historical and portrait painter, known also as BACCIO (short for
Bartolommeo) BELLA PORTA (because he lived near the Porta
Romana), was born at Soffignano, near Florence, in 1475, and
died at Florence in 1517. He received the first elements of his
artistic education from Cosimo Roselli; and after leaving him,
devoted himself to the study of the great works of Leonardo da
Vinci. Of his early productions, which are distinguished for
their grace and beauty, the most important is the fresco of the
Last Judgment, in which he was assisted by his friend Mariotto
Albertinelli. While he was engaged upon some pieces for the
convent of the Dominican friars, he made the acquaintance of
Savonarola, who quickly acquired great influence over him, and
Bartolommeo was so affected by his cruel death, that he soon
after entered the convent, and for some years gave up his art.
He had not long resumed it, in obedience to his superior, when
Raphael came to Florence and formed a dose friendship with
him. Bartolommeo learned from the younger artist the rules of
perspective, in which he was so skilled, while Raphael owes to the
/rate the improvement in his colouring and handling of drapery,
which was noticeable in the works he produced after their
meeting. Some years afterwards he visited Rome, and was
struck with admiration and a feeling of his own inferiority when
he contemplated the masterpieces of Michelangelo and Raphael.
With the latter, however, he remained on the most friendly
terms, and when he departed from Rome, left in his hands
two unfinished pictures which Raphael completed. Fra Barto-
lommeo's figures had generally been small and draped. These
qualities were alleged against him as defects, and to prove that
his style was not the result of want of power, he painted the
magnificent figure of St Mark (his masterpiece, at Florence), and
the undraped figure of St Sebastian. The latter was so well
designed, so naturally and beautifully coloured, and so strongly
expressive of suffering and agony, that it was found necessary to
remove it from the place where it had been exhibited in the
chapel of a convent. The majority of Bartolommeo's composi-
tions are altar-pieces. They are remarkable for skill in the
massing of light and shade, richness and delicacy of colouring,
and for the admirable style in which the drapery of the figures is
handled, Bartolommeo having been the first to introduce and
use the lay-figure with joints.
BARTOLOZZI, FRANCESCO (1725-1815), Italian engraver,
was born at Florence. He was originally destined to follow the
profession of his father, who was a gold- and silver-smith; but
he manifested so much skill and taste in designing that he was
placed under the superintendence of two Florentine artists, who
instructed him in painting. After devoting three years to that
art, he went to Venice and studied engraving. He made very
rapid progress, and executed some works of considerable import-
ance at Venice. He then removed for a short time to Rome,
where he completed a set of engravings representing events from
the life of St Nilus, and, after returning to Venice, set out for
London in 1764. For nearly forty years he resided in London,
and produced an enormous number of engravings, the best being
those of Clytie, after Annibale Caracci, and of the Virgin and
Child, after Carlo Dolce. A great proportion of them are from
the works of Cipriani and Angelica Kauffmann. Bartolozzi also
contributed a number of plates to Boydell's Shakespeare Gallery.
In 1802 he was invited to Lisbon as director of the National
Academy. He remained in Portugal till his death. His son
Gaetano Stephano (1757-1821), also an engraver, was the father
of Madame Vestris.
BARTOLUS (1314-1357), Italian jurist, professor of the civil
law at the university of Perugia, and the most famous master of
the dialectical school of jurists, was born in 1314, at Sassoferrato,
in the duchy of Urbino, and hence is generally styled Bartolus
de Saxoferrato. His father was Franciscus Seven, and his
mother was of the family of the Alfani. He studied the civil law
first of all under Cinus at Perugia, and afterwards under Oldradus
and Jacobus de Belvisio at Bologna, where he was promoted to
the degree of doctor of civil law in 1334. His great reputation
dates from his appointment to a chair of civil law in the university
of Perugia, 1343, where he lectured for many years, raising the
character of the law school of Perugia to a level with that of
Bologna. He died in 1357 at Perugia, where a magnificent
monument recorded the interment of his remains in the church
of San Francisco, by the simple inscription of " Ossa Bartoli."
Bartolus left behind him a great reputation, and many writers
have sought to explain the fact by attributing to him the intro-
duction of the dialectical method of teaching law; but this
method had been employed by Odofredus, a pupil of Accursius,
in the previous 'century, and the successors of Odofredus had
abused it to an extent which has rendered their writings in many
instances unprofitable to read, the subject matter being overlaid
with dialectical forms. It was the merit of Bartolus, on the other
hand, that he employed the dialectical method with advantage
as a teacher, and discountenanced the abuse of it; but his great
reputation was more probably owing to the circumstance that he
revived the exegetical system of teaching law (which had been
452
BARTON, B. S. BARTON, ELIZABETH
neglected since the ascendancy of Accursius) in a spirit which
gave it new life, whilst he imparted to his teaching a practical
interest, from the judicial experience which he had acquired
while acting as assessor to the courts at Todi and at Pisa before
he undertook the duties of a professorial chair. His treatises On
Procedure and On Evidence are amongst his most valuable works,
whilst his Commentary on the Code of Justinian has been in some
countries regarded as of equal authority with the code itself.
BARTON, BENJAMIN SMITH (1766-1815), American natural-
ist, was born at Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in 1766, studied for
two years at Edinburgh, and afterwards graduated at Gottingen.
He settled at Philadelphia, and soon obtained a considerable
practice. In 1789 he was appointed professor of botany and
natural history in the College of Philadelphia, now the University
of Pennsylvania ; he was made professor of materia medico, in 1 795,
and on the death of Dr Benjamin Rush in 1813 he obtained the
chair of practical medicine. In 1802 he was chosen president of
the American Philosophical Society, of which he was a strong
supporter. Barton was the author of various works on natural
history, botany and materia, medica, his Elements of Botany (1803)
being the best known. He died at Philadelphia on the I9th of
December 1815.
BARTON, BERNARD (1784-1849), English poet, was bom
at Carlisle on the 3ist of January 1784. His parents were
Quakers, and he was commonly known as the Quaker poet.
After some experience of business, he became, in 1809, clerk to
Messrs Alexander's bank at Woodbridge, Suffolk, and retained
this post till his death. His first volume of verse Metrical
Effusions was published in 1812. It brought him into corre-
spondence with Southey, and shortly afterwards, through the
medium of a set of complimentary verses, he made the acquaint-
ance of Hogg. From this time onwards to 1828 Barton pub-
lished various volumes of verse. After 1828 his work appeared
but rarely in print, but his Household Verses published in 1845
secured him, on the recommendation of Sir Robert Peel, a Civil
List pension of 100 a year, 1200 having already been raised
for him by some members of the Society of Friends. Barton is
chiefly remembered for his friendship with Charles Lamb, which
arose, curiously enough, out of a remonstrance addressed by him
to the author of Essays of Elia on the freedom with which the
Quakers had been handled in that volume. When Barton
contemplated resigning his bank clerkship and supporting
himself entirely by literature, Lamb strongly dissuaded him.
" Keep to your bank," he wrote, " and the bank will keep you."
Barton died at Woodbridge on igth February 1849. His
daughter Lucy married Edward FitzGerald.
See Poems and. Letters of Bernard Barton, selected by Lucy Barton,
with a biographical notice by Edward FitzGerald (1849).
BARTON, CLARA (1821- ), American philanthropist,
was born in Oxford, Massachusetts, in 1821. She was educated
at the Clinton Liberal Institute (then in Clinton, New York).
Ill-health compelled her to give up the profession of teaching,
which she had taken up when she was only sixteen years old,
and from 1854 to 1857 she was a clerk in the Patent Office
at Washington. During the Civil War she distributed large
quantities of supplies for the relief of wounded soldiers; and at
its close she organized at Washington a bureau of records to aid in
the search of missing men for whom inquiries were made. In con-
nexion with this work, which was continued for about four years,
she identified and marked the graves of more than twelve thousand
soldiers in the National Cemetery at Andersonville, Georgia. In
1869 she went for her health to Switzerland. Upon her arrival
at Geneva she was visited by members of the International
Committee of the Red Cross, who sought her co-operation in the
work of their society. The United States had declined to become
a party to the treaty of Geneva on the basis of which the Red
Cross Society was founded, but upon the outbreak of the Franco-
Prussian War Miss Barton went with members of this society to the
seat of hostilities and assisted them in organizing their military
hospitals. In 1871 she superintended the distribution of relief to
the poor in Strassburg, and in 1872 performed a like service in
Paris. For her services she was decorated with the Iron Cross by
the German emperor. In 1873 she returned to the United States,
where she at once began her efforts to effect the organization of
the United States branch of the Red Cross and to bring her
country into the treaty of Geneva, which efforts were successful
in 1881-1882. She was the first president of the American Red
Cross, holding the position until 1904: and represented the United
States at the International conference held at Geneva, 1884;
Karlsruhe, 1887; Rome, 1892; Vienna, 1897; and St Petersburg,
1903. She was the author of the American amendment to the
constitution of the Red Cross which provides that the society
shall distribute relief not only in war but in times of such other
calamities as famines, floods, earthquakes, cyclones,and pestilence,
and in accordance with this amended constitution, she conducted
the society's relief for sufferers from the yellow fever in Florida
(1887), the flood at Johnstown, Pennsylvania (1889), the famine
in Russia (1891), the hurricane along the coast of South Carolina
(1893), the massacre in Armenia (1896), the Spanish-American
War in Cuba (1898), the hurricane at Galveston, Texas (1900),
and several other calamities. Upon her retirement from the
Red Cross she incorporated and became president of " The
National First Aid of America " for " first aid to the injured."
She wrote An Official History of the Red Cross (1882), The Red
Cross in Peace and War (1898), A Story of the Red Cross (1904),
and Story of my Childhood (1907).
BARTON, ELIZABETH (c. 1506-1534), " the maid of Kent,"
was, according to her own statement, born in 1506 at Aldington,
Kent. She appears to have been a neurotic girl, subject to
epilepsy, and an illness in her nineteenth year resulted in hysteria
and religious mania. She was at the time a servant in the house
of Thomas Cobb, steward of an estate near Aldington owned by
William Warham, archbishop of Canterbury. During her con-
valescence she passed into trances lasting for days at a time,
and in this state her ravings were of such " marvellous holiness
in rebuke of sin and vice " that the country folk believed her to
be inspired. Cobb reported the matter to Richard Masters,
the parish priest, who in turn acquainted Archbishop Warham.
The girl having recovered, and finding herself the object of local
admiration, was cunning enough, as she confessed at her trial,
to feign trances, during which she continued her prophecies. Her
fame steadily growing, the archbishop in 1526 instructed the
prior of Christ Church, Canterbury, to send two of his monks
to hold an inquiry into the case. One of these latter, Edward
Bocking, obtained her admission as a nun to St Sepulchre's
convent, Canterbury. Under Booking's instruction Barton's
prophecies became still more remarkable, and attracted many
pilgrims, who believed her to be, as she asserted, in direct com-
munication with the Virgin Mary. Her utterances were cun-
ningly directed towards political matters, and a profound and
widespread sensation Was caused by her declaration that should
Henry persist in his intention of divorcing Catherine he " should
no longer be king of this realm . . . and should die a villain's
death." Even such men as Fisher, bishop of Rochester, and Sir
Thomas More, corresponded with Barton. On his return from
France in 1532 Henry passed through Canterbury and is said
to have allowed the nun to force herself into his presence,
when she made an attempt to terrify him into abandoning his
marriage. After its solemnization in May 1533, her utterances
becoming still more treasonable, she was examined before
Cranmer (who had in March succeeded to the archbishopric on
Warham's death) and confessed. On the 25th of September
Bocking and another monk, Hadley, were arrested, and in
November, Masters and others were implicated. The maid and
her fellow prisoners were examined before the Star Chamber,
and were by its order publicly exposed at St Paul's Cross, where
they each read a confession. In January 1534 by a bill of
attainder the maid and her chief accomplices were condemned
to death, and were executed at Tyburn on the 2Oth of April.
It has been held that her confession was extracted by force,
and therefore valueless, but the evidence of her imposture seems
conclusive.
See Froude, History of England; Burnet, History of the Reforma-
tion; Lingard, History of England; F. A. Gasquet, Henry VIII.
BARTON BEDS BARUCH
453
and the English Monasteries (ch. iii. 1899 ed.); T. E. Bridgett,
Life of Blessed John Fisher (1888) ; vols. vi. and vii. of Letters and
Papers of Henry VIII.; James Gairdner, The English Church in
the i6th Century (1899); Strype, Memorials, I. i. 271, and Cranmer;
a detailed account of the case is contained in the published Act of
Attainder 25 Henry VIII. c. 12.
BARTON BEDS, in geology, the name given to a series of
softish grey and brown clays, with layers of sand, of Upper
Eocene age, which are found in the Hampshire Tertiary basin,
where they are particularly well exposed in the cliffs of Barton,
Hordwell, and in the Isle of Wight. Above the highly fossili-
ferous Barton Clay there is a sandy series with few fossils; these
are the Headon Hill or Barton Sands. Either of these names
is preferable to the term " Upper Bagshot Beds," which has been
applied to these sands. The Barton Beds are absent from the
London basin, and the Upper Bagshot Sands of that area are
probably at a lower horizon than the Barton Sands. The term
" Bartonien " was introduced by Mayer-Eymar in 1857 for the
Continental equivalents of the series.
Hampshire basin and u K.'
Isle of Wight.
Limestone of St Ouen.
Fusus longaevus ,V 'olutilithes luclalrix, Ostrea gigantea, Peclunculus
(Glycimeris) delela are characteristic fossils; fishes (Lamnn,
Arius, &c.) and a crocodile (Diplocynodon) are also found in the
Barton Clay. The sands are very pure and are used in glass
making.
See " Geology of the Isle of Wight," Mem. Geol. Survey (2nd ed.,
1889); and " The Geology of the Country around Southampton,"
Mem. Geol. Survey (1902). (J. A. H.)
BARTON-UPON-HUMBER, a market town in the N. Lindsey
or Brigg parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England, the
terminus of a branch of the Great Central railway, 44 m. N.
by E. of Lincoln. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5671. It lies
beneath low hills, on flat ground bordering the Humber, but the
centre of the town is a mile from the river. The church of
St Peter has a remarkable west tower of pre-Conquest workman-
ship, excepting the early Norman top storey. Against the
western face is a low building of the date of the lower tower-
storeys, measuring 15 ft. by 12, with rude, deeply-splayed
windows. The tower itself is arcaded in the two lower storeys,
having round arches in the lower and triangular in the upper,
and there is a round-headed S. doorway and a triangular-
headed N. doorway. The rest of the church is Decorated and
Perpendicular. The church of St Mary is fine Early English
with Perpendicular clerestory. Industries include brick-making,
malting, and rope-making. Barton appears in Domesday, when
the ferry over the Humber existed. As a port, moreover, it
subsequently rose into some importance, for it was able to supply
eight ships and men to the expedition of Edward III. to Brittany.
BARUCH, the name (meaning " Blessed " in Hebrew) of
a character in the Old Testament (Jer. xxxvi., xxxvii., xliii.),
associated with the prophet Jeremiah, and described as his
secretary and spokesman.
BOOK OF BARUCH. This deutero-canonical book of the Old
Testament is placed by the LXX. between Jeremiah and Lamen-
tations, and in the Vulgate after Lamentations. It consists of
several parts, which cohere so badly that we are obliged to
assume plurality of authorship.
Contents. The book consists of the following parts:
i. 1-14. The historical preface with a description of the origin
and purpose of the book.
i. is-ii. 5. A confession of sin used by the Palestinian
Remnant. This confession was according to i. 14 sent from
Babylon (i. 4, 7) to Jerusalem to be read " on the day of the
feast and on the days of the solemn assembly." The confession
is restricted to the use of the remnant at home (see next para-
graph). In this confession there is a national acknowledgment
of sin and a recognition of the Exile as a righteous judgment.
ii. 6-iii. 8. A confession of the captives in Babylon and a
prayer for restoration. This confession opens as the former
(in i. 15) with the words found also in Daniel ix. 7, " To the Lord
our God belongeth righteousness, &c." The confession is of
the Exiles and not of the remnant in Palestine, as Marshall has
pointed out. Thus it is the Exiles clearly who are speaking in
ii. 13, " We are but a few left among the heathen where thou
hast scattered MI "; ii. 14, " Give us favour in the sight of them
which have led us away captive "; iii. 7, " We will praise thee
in our captivity "; iii. 8, " We are yet this day in our captivity
where thou hast scattered us." On the other hand the speakers
in the confession in i. 1 5~ii. 5 are clearly the remnant in Jerusalem,
i. 15, " To the Lord our God belongeth righteousness, but unto
us confusion of face ... to the men of Judah and the inhabitants
of Jerusalem." The Exiles are mentioned by way of contrast
to the speakers; ii. 4, 5, " He hath given them to be in subjection
to all the kingdoms that are round about MS to be a reproach
among all the people round about where the Lord hath scattered
them. Thus were they cast down . . . because we sinned
against the Lord our God."
iii. 9-iv. 4. The glorification of wisdom, that is, of the Law.
Israel is bidden to walk in the light of it; it is the glory of Israel
and is not to be given to another.
iv. s~v. 9. Consolation of Israel with the promise of deliver-
ance and lasting happiness and blessing to Jerusalem.
Integrity. From the foregoing description it seems clear that
the book is derived from a plurality of authors. Most scholars,
such as Fritzsche, Hitzig, Kneucker, Hilgenfeld, Reuss, agree
in assuming that i.-iii. 8 and iii. o-v. 9 are from distinct writers.
But some critics have gone farther. Thus Rothstein (Kautzsch,
Apok. und Pseud, i. 213-215) holds that there is no unity in
iii. 9~v. 9, but that it is composed of two independent writings
iii. 9~iv. 4 and iv. s~v. 9. Marshall (Hastings' Bible Dictionary,
i. 251-254) gives a still more complex analysis. He finds in it the
work of four distinct writers: i. 1-14, i. is-iii. 8, iii. o-iv. 4,
iv. s~v. 9. The evidence for a fourfold authorship is strong
though not convincing. In any case i.-iii. 8 and iii. o-v. 9 must
be ascribed to different authors.
Original Language. (i) Some scholars, as Ewald, Kneucker,
Davidson, Rothstein and Konig, believe that the whole book
was originally written in Hebrew; (2) Fritzsche, Hilgenfeld,
Reuss, Gifford, Schurer, and Toy advocate a Hebrew original
of i.-iii. 8 and a Greek original of the rest; (3) Marshall argues
that i.-iii. 8 is translated from a Hebrew original, iii. o-iv. 4
from an Aramaic, and the rest from the Greek; (4) and lastly,
Bertholdt, Havernick and Noldeke regard the Greek as the primi-
tive text. The last view must be put aside as unworkable. For
the third no convincing evidence has been adduced, nor does
it seem likely that any can be. We have therefore to decide
between the two remaining theories. In any case we can hardly
err in admitting a Hebrew original of i.-iii. 8. For (i) we have
such Hebraisms as oC . . . lir" a6r<j>=i < Sy . . . TTK (ii. 26);
oD . . . CI = DB> . . . TTK (ii. 4, 13, 29; iii. 8); uv . . . T&
irvtvfM a&rcov=Dnn . . . tm (ii. 7). (2) We have meaningless
expressions which are really mistranslations of the Hebrew.
It is noteworthy that these mistranslations are for the most
part found in Jeremiah a fact which has rightly drawn
scholars to the conclusion that we owe the LXX of Baruch
i.-iii. 8, and of Jeremiah to the same translator. Thus in i. 9
we have SW^WTTJJ, "prisoner," where the text had -uop and
the Greek should have been rendered " locksmith." The same
mistranslation is found in Jer. xxiv. i, xxxvi. (xxix.) 2.
Next in ii. 4 we have frfta-rov, " wilderness," where the text had
x> and the translation should have liurraatv. The same
misrendering is found several times in Jeremiah. Again
/yydf r0<u is used in i. 22, ii. 21, 22,24 as a translation of -ay
in the sense of " serving," where SovXebttv ought to have
been the rendering. So also in Jer. xxxiv. (xxvii.) ii, xxxvii.
(xxx.) 8, &c. Again in ir6\euv 'lovSa KO.L iu8iv 'Itpoiva\r]n
the tw6ti> is a misrendering of msnna as in Jer. . 6, zl.
1 Toy (Jewish Enc. ii. 556) thinks that the " them" in ii. 4, 5
may be a scribal slip and that we have here not the confession of
the _ Palestinian remnant and that of the Exiles, but simply a juxta-
position of two forms of confession.
454
BARUCH
(xxxiii.) 10, &c., where the translator should have given
ir\a.Ttuav. l For f&rfiiavf (ii. 29) pen we should have TrXTJflos.
(3) Finally there are passages where by re-translation we dis-
cover that the translator either misread his text or had a
corrupt text before him. Thus finwa. in i. 10 is a corrupt
translation of nroo as elsewhere in a dozen passages of the LXX.
In iii. 4 Tt6vrjKQT(av='iy? which the translator should have read
as 'op =
From the above instances, which could be multiplied, we have
no hesitation in postulating a Hebrew original of i.-iii. 8.
As regards iii. o-v. 9 the case is different. This section is free
from such notable Hebraisms as we have just dealt with, and no
convincing grounds have been advanced to prove that it is a
translation from a Semitic original.
Date. The dates of the various constituents of the book are
quite uncertain. Ewald, followed by Gifford and Marshall, assigns
i.-iii. 8 to the period after the conquest of Jerusalem by Ptolemy I.
in 320 B.C.; Reuss to some decades later; and Fritzsche,
Schrade, Keil and Toy to the time of the Maccabees. Hitzig,
Kneucker and Schurer assume that it was written after A.D. 70.
Ryle and James (Pss. of Solomon, pp. Ixxii.-lxxvii.) hold that
iv. 3i-v. 9 is dependent on the Greek version of Ps. xi., and that,
accordingly, Baruch was reduced to its present form after A.D. 70.
The most probable of the above dates appears to be that main-
tained by Fritzsche, that is, if we understand by the Maccabean
times the early decades of the 2nd cent. B.C. For during the
palmy days of the Maccabean dynasty the Twelve tribes were
supposed to be in Palestine. The idea that the Jewish Kingdom
embraced once again the entire nation easily arose when the
Maccabees extended their dominion northwards over Samaria
and Galilee and eastwards beyond the Jordan. This belief
displaced the older one that the nine and a half tribes were still
in captivity. With the downfall of the Maccabean dynasty,
however, the older idea revived in the ist cent. A.D. To the
beginnings of the 2nd cent. A.D. the view of the dead given in
ii. 17 would point, where it is said that those whose spirits had
been taken from their bodies would not give glory unto the Lord.
The statement as to the desolate condition of the Temple in
ii. 26" is with Kneucker to be rejected as an interpolation.
Canonkity. The Book of Baruch was never accepted as
canonical by the Palestinian Jews (Baba Batra I4 b ), though the
Apostolic Constitutions, v. 10, state that it was read in public
worship on the loth day of the month Gorpiaeus, but this state-
ment can hardly be correct. It was in general use in the church'
till its canonicity was rejected by the Protestant churches and
accepted by the Roman church at the council of Trent.
Literature. Versions and Editions. The versions are the two
Latin, a Syriac, and an Arabic. The Latin one in the Vulgate
belongs to a time prior to Jerome, and is tolerably literal.
Another, somewhat later, was first published by Jos. Maria Caro
in 1688, and was reprinted by Sabatier, side by side with the
ante-Hieronymian one, in his Bibliorum Sacrorum Latinae
Versiones Antiquae. It is founded upon the preceding one, and
is less literal. The Syriac and Arabic versions, printed in the
London Polyglot, are literal. The Hexaplar-Syriac version
made by Paul, bishop of Telia, in the beginning of the 7th century
has been published by Ceriani.
The most convenient editions of the Greek text are Tischendorf's
in the second volume of his Septuagint, and Swete's in vol. iii. ;
Fritzsche's in Libri Apocryphi Veteris Testamenti Greece (1871).
The best editions of the book are Kneucker's Das Buck Baruch
(1879); Gifford's in the Speaker's Apoc. ii. See also the articles in
the Encyc. Biblica, Hastings' Bible Dictionary; Schurer, History of
Jewish People.
APOCALYPSE or BARUCH. The discovery of this long lost
apocalypse was due to Ceriani. This apocalypse has survived
only in the Syriac version of which Ceriani discovered a 6th
century MS. in the Milan library. Of this he published a Latin
translation in 1866 (Monumenta Sacra, I. ii. 73 98), which
Fritzsche reproduced in 1871 (Libri Apocryphi V.T., pp.6s4-699),
and the text in 1871 (Man. Sacra. V. ii.i 13-180), and subsequently
1 In ii. 25 we have the word irooToM) with the extraordinary
neaning of " plague " as in Jer. xxxix. (xxxii.) 36.
in photo-lithographic facsimile in 1883. Chaps. Ixxviii.-lxxxvi.,
indeed, of this book have long been known. These constitute
Baruchs epistle to the nine and a half tribes in captivity, and
have been published in Syriac and Latin in the London and
Paris Polyglots, and in Syriac alone from one MS. in Lagarde's
Libri V. T. Apocryphi Syr. (1861) ; and by Charles from ten MSS.
(Apocalypse of Baruch, 1896, pp. 124 167). The entire book was
translated into English by the last-named writer (op. cit.
pp. 1-167), and into German by Ryssel (Kautzsch's Apok. und
Pseud., 1900, ii. pp. 413-446).
The Syriac is translated from the Greek; for Greek words are
occasionally transliterated, and passages can be explained only
on the hypothesis that the wrong alternative meanings of certain
Greek words were followed by the translator. The Greek in
turn is derived from the Hebrew, for unintelligible expressions
in the Syriac can be explained and the text restored by retransla-
tion into Hebrew. Thus in xxi. 9, ii, 12, xxiv. 2, Ixii. 7 we
have an unintelligible antithesis, " those who sin and those who
are justified." The source of the error can be discovered by
retranslation. The Syriac in these passages is a stock rendering
of oiKaiovaOaj., and this in turn of fnx. But p"nt means not
only dtKouovaOoj. but also dkcuos elvat, and this is the very
meaning required by the context in the above passages: " those
who sin and those who are righteous." 2 Again xliv. 12 the text
reads: " the new world which does not turn to corruption those
who depart on its beginning and has no mercy on those who
depart to torment." Here " on its beginning " is set over
antithetically against " to torment," whereas the context requires
to its blessedness." The words " on its beginning " inro,
a corruption of VWK3 " to its blessedness." Again in Ivi. 6 it
is said that the fall of man brought grief, anguish, pain, trouble
and boasting into the world. The term " boasting " in this
connexion cannot.be right. The word = Ka{ix 7 )A"*= n '" in (?).
corrupt for nSno, " disease." A further ground for inferring
a Hebrew original is to be found in the fact that paronomasiae
not infrequently discover themselves in the course of retranslation
into Hebrew. One instance will suffice. In xlviii. 35, " Honour
will be turned into shame, strength humiliated into contempt
. . . and beauty will become a scorn " contains three such:
an 1 ? .TIT W in *?* -nv \y pSp 1 ? -jen- TOS (see Charles, Apoc.
Bar. pp. xliv.-liii). The necessity of postulating a Hebrew
original was first shown by the present writer, and has since been
maintained by Wellhausen (Skizzen u. Vorarbeilen, vi. 234), by
Ryssel (Apok. und Pseudepig. A. T., 1900, ii. 411), and Ginzberg
(Jewish Encyclopaedia, ii. 555).
Different Elements in the Book and their Dates. As there are
undoubtedly conflicting elements in the book, it is possible to
assume either a diversity of authorship or a diversity of sources.
The latter view is advocated by Ryssel and Ginzberg, the former
by Kabisch, de Faye, R. H. Charles and Beer (Herzog's Reat-
enc., art. " Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments," p. 250).
A short summary may here be given of the grounds on which the
present writer has postulated a diversity of authorship. If the
letter to the tribes in captivity (Ixxviii.-lxxxvi.) be disregarded,
the book falls into seven sections separated by fasts, save in one
case (after xxxv.) where the text is probably defective. These
sections, which are of unequal length, are (i) i.-v. 6; (2) v.
7-viii.; (3) ix.-xii. 4; (4) xii. s~xx.; (5) xxi.-xxxv.; (6) xxxvi.-
xlvi.; (7) xlvii.-lxxvii. These treat of the Messiah and the
Messianic kingdom, the woes of Israel in the past and the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem in the present, as well as of theological questions
relating to original sin, free will, works, the number of the saved,
the nature of the resurrection body, &c. The views expressed
on several of the above subjects are often conflicting. In
one class of passages there is everywhere manifest a vigorous
optimism as to Israel's ultimate well-being on earth, and the
blessedness of the chosen people in the Messianic kingdom is
sketched in glowing and sensuous colours (xxix., xxxix.-xL,
Ixiii.-lxxiv.). Over against these passages stand others of a
hopelessly pessimistic character, wherein, alike as to Israel's
* Ryssel has adopted Charles's restoration of the text in these
passages and practically also in xliv. 1 2 . but without acknowledgment.
BARUGO BARYATINSKY
455
present and future destiny on earth, there is written nothing save
" lamentation, and mourning, and woe." The world is a scene
of corruption, its evils are irremediable, its end is nigh, and the
advent of the new and spiritual world at hand. The first to draw
attention to the composite elements in this book was Kabisch
(JahrbUcher f. protest. Theol., 1891, pp. 66-107). This critic
regarded xxiv. 3~xxix., xxxvi.-xl. and liii.-lxxiv. as independent
sources written before the fall of Jerusalem, A.D. 70, and his
groundwork, which consists of the rest of his book, with the
exception of a few verses, as composed after that date. All
these elements were put together by a Christian contemporary
of Papias. Many of these conclusions were arrived at inde-
pendently by a French scholar, De Faye (Les Apocalypses juives,
1892, pp. 25-28, 76-103, 192-204). The present writer (Apoca-
lypse of Baruch, 1896, pp. liii.-lxvii.), after submitting the book
to a fresh study, has come to the following conclusions: The
book is of Pharisaic authorship and composed of six independent
writings A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , B 1 , B 2 , B J . The first three were composed
when Jerusalem was still standing and the Messiah and the
Messianic kingdom were expected: A 1 , a mutilated apocalypse
=xxvii.-xxx. i; A 2 , the Cedar and Vine Vision = xxxvi.-xl. ;
A', the Cloud Vision = liii.-lxxiv. The last three were written
after A.D. 70, and probably before 90. Thus B 3 = lxxxv. was
written by a Jew in exile, who, despairing of a national restoration,
looked only for a spiritual recompense in heaven. The rest of the
book is derived from B 1 and B 2 , written in Palestine after A.D. 70.
These writings belong to very different types of thought. In B 1
the earthly Jerusalem is to be rebuilt, but not so in B"; in the
former the exiles are to be restored, but not in the latter; in the
former a Messianic kingdom without a Messiah is expected, but
no earthly blessedness of any kind in the latter, &c. B 1 = i.-ix. i ,
xxxii. 2-4, xliii.-xliv. 7, xlv.-xlvi., Ixxvii.-lxxxii., Ixxxiv.,
bcxxvi.-lxxxvii. B 2 =ix.-xxv., xxx. 2-xxxv., xli.-xlii., xliv.
8-15, xlvii.-lii., Ixxv.-lxxvi., Ixxxiii. The final editor of the
work wrote in the name of Baruch the son of Neriah.
The above critical analyses were attacked and rejected by
Clemen (Slid, und Krit., 1898, 21 1 sqq.). He fails, however, in
many cases to recognize the difficulties at issue, and those which
cannot be ignored he sets down to the conflicting apocalyptic
traditions, on which the author was obliged to draw for his
subject-matter. Though Ryssel (Kautzsch, Apok. u. Pseud, des
A. T. ii. 409) has followed Clemen, neither has given any real
explanation of the disorder of the book as it stands at present.
Beer (op. cit.) agrees that xxxvi.-xl. and liii.-lxx. are of different
authorship from the rest of the book and belong to the earlier
date.
Relation to 4 Ezra. The affinities of this book and 4 Ezra are
so numerous (see Charles, op. cit. 170-171) that Ewald and Ryle
assumed identity of authorship. But their points of divergence
are so weighty (see op. cit. pp. Ixix.-lxxi.) that this view cannot
be sustained. Three courses still remain open. If we assume
that both works are composite, we shall perforce admit that some
of the constituents of 4 Ezra are older than the latest of Baruch,
and that other constituents of Baruch are decidedly older than
the remaining ones of 4 Ezra. On the other hand, if we assume
unity of authorship, it seems impossible to arrive at finality
on the chronological relations of these two works. Langen,
Hilgenfeld, Wieseler, Stahelin, Renan, Hausrath, Drummond,
Dillmann, Rosenthal, Gunkel, have maintained on various
grounds the priority of 4 Ezra; and Schurer, Bissell, Thomson,
Deane, Kabisch, De Faye, Wellhausen, and Ryssel the priority
of Baruch on grounds no less convincing.
Relation to Rabbinical Literature. A very close relation subsists
between our book and rabbinical literature. Indeed in some
instances the parallels are so close that they are almost word for
word. The description of the destruction of Jerusalem by angels
in vi.-viii. is found also in the Pesikta Rabbati 26 (ed. Friedmann
1313). By means of this passage we are, as Ginzberg has shown,
able to correct the corrupt reading " the holy Ephod " (vi. 7),
mpn -HBK into " the holy Ark," i.e. trnpn p-m. What might
be taken as poetic fancies in our text are recounted as historical
facts in rabbinical literature. Thus the words (x. 18):
" And ye priests, take ye the key* of the sanctuary,
And cast them into the height of heaven,
And give them to the Lord and say :
'Guard Thine own house ; for lo we are found unfaithful stewards,' "
are given in various accounts of the fall of Jerusalem. (See
Ta'anith, 293; Pesikt. R., loc. cit.; Yalqut Shim'oni on Is. xxi,
Aboth of Rabbi Nathan vii.). Even the statement that the
bodies of Sennacherib's soldiers were burned while their garments
and armour remained unconsumed has its parallel in Sank. 943.
Integrity of the Book. In Ixxvii. 19 it is said that Baruch wrote
two epistles, one to the nine and a half tribes and the other to the
two and a half at Babylon. The former is found in burviii.-
Ixxxvi.; the latter is lost, but is probably preserved either wholly
or in part in the Book of Baruch, iii. o-iv. 29 (see Charles, op. cit.) ;
pp. Lxv.-lxvii). On the other hand, it is not necessary to infer
from Ixxv. that an account of Baruch's assumption was to be
looked for in the book.
AUTHORITIES. The literature is fully cited in Schtirer, Gesch.
iii. 223-232, and R. H. Charles, Apocalypse of Baruch, pp. xxx.-xliii.
Ginzberg s article in the Jewish Encyclopaedia, ii. 551-556, is a fresh
and valuable contribution.
REST OF THE WORDS OF BARDCH. This book was undoubtedly
written originally by a Jew but was subsequently revised by a
Christian, as has been shown by Kohler in the Jewish Quarterly
Review (1893), pp. 407-409. It passed under a double name in
the Abyssinian Church, where it was known both as " the Rest of
the Words of Baruch " and " the Rest of the Words of Jeremiah."
Its Greek name is the latter rd irapa\tur6ntva. 'Itptfuov
irpo^rlfTOV. It has been preserved in Greek, Ethiopic, Armenian
and Slavonic. The Greek was first printed at Venice in 1609,
next by Ceriani in 1868 in his Man. Sacra, v. n-i8;by Harris,
The Rest of the Words of Baruch, in 1889; and Bassiliev, Artec.
Graeco-Byzantina, i. 308 sqq. (1893). The book begins like the
Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch with an account of the removal of
the sacred vessels of theTempIe before its capture by theChaldees.
Baruch remains in Jerusalem and Jeremiah accompanies the
Exiles to Babylon. After 66 years' exile Jeremiah brings back the
Jews to Jerusalem, but refuses to admit such as had brought with
them heathen wives. Then follows a vision of Jeremiah which is
Christian.
Harris regards the book in its present form as an eirenicon
addressed to the Jews by a Christian after the rebellion of Bar
Cochba (Barcochebas) and written about 136. Though the
original work was dependent on the Apocalypse of Baruch it
cannot have been written much before the close of the ist cent.
A.D. Its terminus ad quern is at present indeterminable.
(R. H. C.)
BARUGO, a town on the north coast of the province of Leyte,
island of Leyte, Philippine Islands, on Carigara Bay. Pop.
(1903) 12,360. It exports large quantities of hemp and copra,
and imports rice, petroleum, and cotton-goods.
BARWANI, a native state of India, in the Bhopawar agency
in central India. It lies in the Satpura mountains, south of the
Nerbudda. Area, 1178 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 76,136. Many of
the inhabitants are Bhils. The chief, whose title is Rana, is a
Rajput of the Sisodhyia clan, connected with the Udaipur family.
Though the family lost most ofitspossessions during theMahratta
invasion in the I4th century, it never became tributary to any
Malwa chief. The forests are under an English official. The town
of Barwani is situated near the left bank of the Nerbudda. The
population in 1901 was 6277.
BARYATINSKY, ALEXANDER IVANOVICH, PRINCE (1814-
1879), Russian soldier and governor of the Caucasus, wasprivately
educated, entered the school of the ensigns of the Guard in his
seventeenth year and, on the 8th of November 1833, received
his commission of cornet in the Life Guards of the cesarevich
Alexander. In 1835 he served with great gallantry in the
Caucasus, and on his return to St Petersburg was rewarded with
a gold sword " for valour." On the first of January 1836 he was
attached to the suite of Alexander, and in 1845 was again ordered
off to the Caucasus and again most brilliantly distinguished
himself, especially in the attack on Shamyl's stronghold, for
which he received the order of St George. In 1846 he assisted
456
BARYE BARYTOCALCITE
Fieldmarshal Paskievich to suppress the Cracow rising. From
1848 to 1856 he took a leading part in all the chief imlitary events
in the Caucasus, his most notable exploits being his victory at
Mezeninsk in 1850 and his operations against Shamyl at Chechen.
His energetic and at the same time systematic tactics inaugurated
a new era of mountain warfare. On the 6th of January 1853
be was appointed adjutant-general and, on July 5th of the same
year, chief of the staff. In 1854 he took part in the brilliant
Kuriik Dere campaign. On the ist of January 1856 he became
commander-in-chief of the Caucasian army, and, subsequently,
governor of the Caucasus. As an administrator he showed
himself fully worthy of his high reputation. Within three years
of his appointment, the whole of the eastern Caucasus was
subdued and the long elusive Shamyl was taken captive.
Baryatinsky also conquered many of the tribes of the western
Caucasus dwelling between the rivers Laba and Byelaya. For
these fresh services he was created a fieldmarshal. But his
health was now entirely broken by his strenuous labours, and
on the 6th of December 1862 he was, at his own request, relieved
of his post. He spent the last days of his life abroad and died at
Geneva, after forty-eight years of active service.
See A. L. Zisserman, Fieldmarshal Prince A. I. Baryatinski (Russ.)
(Moscow, 1888-1891).
BARYE, ANTOINE LOUIS (1796-1875), French sculptor, was
born in Paris on the 24th of September 1796. Like many of the
sculptors of the Renaissance he began life as a goldsmith. After
studying under Bosio, the sculptor, and Gros, the painter, he was
m 1818 admitted to the ficole des Beaux Arts. But it was not
till 1823, when he was working for Fauconnier, the goldsmith,
that he discovered his real bent from watching the wild beasts
in the Jardin des Plantes, making vigorous studies of them in
pencil drawings worthy of Delacroix and then modelling them
in sculpture on a large or small scale. In 1831 he exhibited his
"Tiger devouring a Crocodile," and in 1832 had mastered a style
of his own in the " Lion and Snake." Thenceforward Barye,
though engaged in a perpetual struggle with want, exhibited
year after year these studies of animals admirable groups which
reveal him as inspired by a spirit of true romance and a feeling
for the beauty of the antique, as in " Theseus and the Minotaur "
(1847), "Lapitha and Centaur"(i848), and numerous minorworks
now very highly valued. Barye was no less successful in sculpture
on a small scale, and excelled in representing animals in their
most familiar attitudes. As examples of his larger work we may
mention the Lion of the Column of July, of which the plaster
model was cast in 1839, various lions and tigers in the gardens of
the Tuileries, and the four groups War, Peace, Strength, and
Order (1854). In 1852 he cast his bronze " Jaguar devouring a
Hare." The fame he deserved came too late to the sculptor.
He was made professor at the museum in 1854, and was elected
to the Academy of Fine Arts in 1868. He died on the 25th of
June 1875. The mass of admirable work left to us by Barye
entitles him to be regarded as the greatest artist of animal life of
the French school, and as the creator of a new class of art which
has attracted such men as Fremiet, Peter, Cain, and Gardet, who
are regarded with justice as his worthiest followers.
AUTHORITIES. Emile Lame, Les Sculpteurs d'animaux; M. Barye
(Paris. 1856); Gustave Planche, " M. Barye," Revue des deux
raondes (July 1851); Theophile Silvestre, Histoires des artistes
vivants (Paris, 1856); Arsene Alexandre, " A. L. Barye," Les Artistes
celebres, ed. E. Muntz (Paris, 1889) (with a bibliog.) ; Charles DeKay,
Life and Works of A. L. Barye (1889), published by the Barye
Monument Assoc. of New York; Jules Claretie, Peintres et sculpteurs
contemporains (1882); Roger Ballu, L'fEuvre de Barye (1890);
Charles Sprague Smith, Barbizon Days (1903). (H. FR.)
BARYTES, a widely distributed mineral composed of barium
sulphate (BaSO 4 ). Its most striking feature and the one from
which it derives its name barytes, barite (from the Greek /3ap6s,
heavy) or heavy spar, is its weight. Its specific gravity of 4-5 is
about twice as great as that of salt and of many other colourless,
transparent and glassy minerals not unlike barytes in general
appearance. The mineral is usually found in a state of consider-
able chemical purity, though small amounts of strontium and
calcium sulphates may isomorphously replace the barium
sulphate: ammonium sulphate is also sometimes present, whilst
clay, silica, bituminous matter, &c., may be enclosed as
impurities.
Crystals of barytes are orthorhombic and isomorphous with
the strontium and lead sulphates (celestite and anglesite) ; they
are usually very perfectly developed and present great variety of
form. The simplest are rhomb-shaped tables (fig. i) bounded by
the two faces of the basal pinacoid (c) and the four faces of the
prism (m) ; the angle between the prism-faces (mm) is 78 23',
whilst that between c and m is 90. The mineral has a very
perfect cleavage parallel to the faces c and m, and the cleavage
surfaces are perfectly smooth and bright. The crystals of
prismatic habit represented in figs. 2 and 3 are bounded by the
domes d and/ and the basal pinacoid c; fig. 4 is a plan of a still
FIG. 3.
FIG. 4.
more complex crystal. Twinning is represented only by twin-
lamellae, which are parallel to the planes m and / and are of
secondary origin, having been produced by pressure.
Crystals of barytes may be transparent and colourless, or
white and opaque, or of a yellow, brown, bluish or greenish colour.
Well developed crystals are extremely common, but the mineral
occurs also in a granular, earthy, or stalactitic condition. It is
known as cawk in the Derbyshire lead mines. The " crested " or
" cock's comb " barytes occurs as rounded aggregations of thin
lamellar crystals.
Barytes is of common occurrence in metalliferous veins,
especially those which yield ores of lead and silver; some of the
largest and most perfect crystals of colourless barytes were
obtained from the lead mines near Dufton in Westmorland. It
is found also in beds of iron ore, and the haematite mines of the
Cleator Moor district in west Cumberland have yielded many
extremely fine crystals, specimens of which may be seen in all
mineral collections. In the neighbourhood of Nottingham, and
other places in the Midlands, barytes forms a cementing material
in the Triassic sandstones; amber-coloured crystals of the same
mineral are found in the fuller's earth at Nutfield in Surrey; and
the septarian nodules in London Clay contain crystals of barytes
as well as of calcite. Crystals are found as a rarity in the
amygdaloidal cavities of igneous rocks.
Artificially prepared crystals of barytes may be obtained by
allowing a solution of a soluble barium salt to diffuse slowly into
a solution of a soluble sulphate. Barium chloride is present in
some natural waters, and when this is the case the interaction of
sulphates results in a deposition of barytes, as has occurred in the
pipes and water-boxes of the Newcastle-on-Tyne coal mines.
Commercially, barytes is used in the preparation of barium
compounds, as a body for certain kinds of paper and cloth, and
as a white pigment (" permanent white "). The finely powdered
and washed mineral is too crystalline and consequently of
insufficient opacity to be used alone as a paint, and is therefore'
mixed with " white lead," of which material it is also used as an
adulterant. (L. J. S.)
BARYTOCALCITE, a rare mineral found only at Alston Moor
in Cumberland, where it occurs as diverging groups of white
transparent crystals lining cavities in the Mountain Limestone.
BARYTONE BASALT
457
The crystals belong to the monoclinic system and are usually
prismatic or blade-shaped in habit. The hardness is 4, and the
sp. gr. 3-65. There are perfect cleavages parallel to the prism
faces inclined at an angle of 73 6', and a less perfect cleavage
parallel to the basal plane, the angle
between which and the prism faces is
77 6'; the angles between these three
cleavages thus approximate to the
angles (74 55') between the three
cleavages of calcite, and there are
other points of superficial resem-
blance between these two minerals.
Chemically, barytocalcite is a double
salt of barium and calcium car-
bonates, BaCa(CO 3 ) 2 , thus differing
from the orthorhombic bromlite (<?..) which is an isomorphous
mixture of the two carbonates. (L. J. S.)
BARYTONE, or BARITONE (Ital. baritono, from Gr. fapbrovas,
deep sounding), a musical term for the male voice whose range
lies between those of the tenor and of the bass a high bass rather
than a low tenor; also the name of an obsolete stringed instru-
ment like the viola da Gamba, and of the small Bb or C saxhorn.
BASALT, in petrology, one of the oldest rock names, supposed to
be derived from an Ethiopian word basal, signifying a stone which
yields iron; according to Pliny, the first basalts were obtained in
Ethiopia. In current usage the term includes a large variety of
types of igneous rock belonging to the basic subdivision, dark in
colour weathering to brown, and comparatively rich in magnesia
and iron. Somebasalts are in large measure glassy (tachylites) , and
many are very fine grained and compact; but it is more usual
for them to exhibit porphyritic structure, showing larger crystals
of olivine, augite or felspar in a finely crystalline groundmass.
Olivine and augite are the commonest porphyritic minerals in
basalts, the former green or yellowish (and weathering to green
or brown serpentine), the latter pitch-black. Porphyritic
plagioclase felspars, however, are also very common, and may
be one or two inches in length, though usually not exceeding a
quarter of an inch; when fresh they are dark grey with smooth
lustrous cleavage surfaces; when decomposed they become
turbid, and assume grey or greenish shades. Basaltic lavas are
frequently spongy or pumiceous, especially near their surfaces;
and, in course of time, the steam cavities become filled with
secondary minerals such as calcite, chlorite and zeolites. Another
characteristic of this group of rocks is the perfection with which
many of them show prismatic or columnar jointing, a structure
often called " basaltic jointing."
The minerals of basaltic rocks have a fairly uniform character
throughout the whole group. In microscopic section the olivine is
pale green or colourless, and is very frequently more or less altered
to serpentine. The secondary mineral begins to form upon the
surfaces and along the cracks of the olivine, gradually producing
a mesh-work in the interstices of which small kernels of olivine
remain; and when the process is completed the mesh structure
persists in the resulting pseudomorph, giving a clear indication
as to its history. The augite is mostly brown, often with a
purplish tinge, hardly at all dichroic, but frequently showing
zonal or hour-glass structure, and various types of twinning. It
weathers to chlorite, uralite, calcite, &c. The plagioclase felspar,
if fresh, is transparent and appears simple in ordinary light, but
when polarized breaks up into a series of bars of different colours
owing to its complex twinned structure. Practically all varieties
of this mineral from anorthite to albite are known to occur in
basalt, but by far the commonest species are bytownite and
labradorite. Weathering destroys the limpid character of the
fresh mineral, producing turbid pseudomorphs containing
epidote, calcite, white micas, kaolin, &c. When these minerals
occur as phenocrysts their crystalline outlines may be very
perfect (though, especially in the olivine, corrosion and partial
resorption may give rise to rounded or irregular forms).
In the groundmass, or second generation of crystal, not only are
the ingredients smaller, but their crystals are less perfect; yet
in many basalts small lath-shaped felspars and minute prisms of
augite, densely crowded together, form the matrix. With these
there may be a greater or less amount of brown, isotropic glass.
Olivine rarely occurs as an ingredient of the groundmass. In
the vitreous basalts sometimes very few crystallized minerals are
observable; the greater part of the rock is a dark brown glassy
material, almost opaque even in the thinnest sections, and gener-
ally charged with black grains of magnetite, skeleton crystals
of augite or felspar, spherulites, perlitic cracks, or steam vesicles.
In other basaltic rocks no glassy material appears, but the
whole mass is thoroughly crystallized; rocks of this nature are
generally known to British petrologists as dolerites (q.v.). Till
recent years it was widely believed by continental geologists that
the pre-Tertiary basalts differed so fundamentally from their
Tertiary and recent representatives that they were entitled to
be regarded as a distinct class. For the older rocks the names
anamesite, diabase porphyrite, diabas-mandel-stein, or melaphyre
were used, and are still favoured by many writers, to indicate
varieties and states of more or less altered basalts and dolerites,
though no longer held to differ in any essential respects from the
better preserved basalts. Still older is the term trap, which is
derived from a Swedish word meaning " a stair," for in many
places superposed sheets of basalt weather with well-marked step-
like or terraced features. This designation is still used as a general
term for the whole suite of basaltic rocks by many geologists
and travellers (e.g. trap-dikes, the " traps " of the Deccan).
In the early years of the igth century a great controversy
convulsed the geological world as to the origin of the older basalts
or " floetz-traps." Werner, the Saxon mineralogist, and his school
held them to be of aqueous origin, the chemical precipitates
deposited in primeval seas, but Hutton and a number of French
geologists maintained that they were really volcanic rocks
emitted by craters now extinct (see GEOLOGY: Historical).
Of the less common minerals of basalt, a few may be mentioned.
Black hornblende, dark brown in thin sections, and often corroded,
is not uncommon, especially in intrusive basalts. Hypersthene
occurs also, usually replacing olivine. Black mica (biotite) is
not infrequently to be seen. Sapphire, garnet and zircon are
rare. Minerals of the felspathoid group occur in a large number
of basaltic rocks; nepheline and leucite are the most common,
but haiiyne is occasionally present. If nepheline entirely replaces
felspar, the rock is known as nepheline-basalt ; if the replacement
is only partial the term nepheline-basanite is used. Similarly
there are leucite-basalts and leucite-basanites. The nepheline
is in small six-sized prisms, and usually cannot be detected with
the unaided eye. Even with the help of the microscope nepheline
basalts are not always easy to determine, as the crystals may be
exceedingly small and imperfect, and they readily decompose
into analcite and zeolites. In some cases only the presence of an
anisotroptc substance, with weak double refraction and readily
attacked by acids (the so-called " nephelinitoid "), can be made
out. This substance may be imperfectly crystallized nepheline,
or a peculiar glass which is rich in soda. Most nepheline basalts
are fine grained, very dark coloured rocks, and belong to
the Tertiary period. They are fairly common in some parts of
Germany and occur also in Tripoli, Asia Minor, Montana, Cape
Verde Islands, &c. Leucite-basalts contain small rounded crystals
of leucite in place of plagioclase felspar. Rocks of this group
are well known in the Eifel, and other volcanic districts in
Germany, also in Bohemia, Italy, Java, Montana, Celebes, &c.
The minerals haiiyne, nosean, sodalite and melilite tend to occur
with some frequency in nepheline and leucite-basalts, though
rare in ordinary basalts. Melilite, a lime-alumina-silicate, is
characteristic of certain very basic rocks, the melilite-basalts.
It is pale yellow or colourless in thin sections, and yields peculiar
and characteristic dark blue polarization colours. This rare group
of rocks is known to occur in Bohemia, Swabia and South Africa.
Perofskite, in small dark brown cubic crystals, is a constant
accessory in these rocks. The augite is usually violet coloured,
and shows zonal and hour-glass structures. Green augite may
occur in the nepheline-basalts, and aegerine (soda-iron-augite)
is occasionally found in them.
The distribution of basalts is world- wide; and in some places
BASCOM BASE-BALL
they occur in immense masses, and cover great areas. In
Washington, Oregon, and Idaho many thousands of square miles
are occupied by basaltic-lava flows. In the Sandwich Islands
and Iceland they are the prevalent lavas; and the well-known
columnar jointed basalts of Skye, Staffa, and Antrim (Giant's
Causeway) form a southward extension of the Icelandic volcanic
province, with which they are connected by the similar rocks
of the Faeroe Islands. In the Deccan in India great basaltic
lava fields are known; and Etna and Vesuvius emit basaltic
rocks. In older geological periods they were not less common;
for example, in the Carboniferous in Scotland. (J. S. F.)
BASCOM, JOHN (1827- ), American educationalist and
philosophical writer, was born at Genoa, New York, on the ist
of May 1827. He graduated at Williams College in 1849 and at
the Andover Theological Seminary in 1855, was professor of
rhetoric at Williams College from 1855 to 1874, and was president
of the University of Wisconsin and professor of mental and moral
philosophy there from 1874 to 1887. In 1887-1891 and in 1901-
1903 he was lecturer in sociology, and in 1891-1901 professor
of economics in Williams College. He retired in 1903. Among
his publications may be mentioned: Aesthetics (1862); Philo-
sophy of Rhetoric (1865); Science, Philosophy and Religion
(1871); Philosophy of English Literature (1874); Philosophy
of Religions (1876); Problems in Philosophy (1885); The New
theology (1891); Social Theory (1895); Evolution and Religion
(1896); Growth of Nationality in the United States (1899); and
God and His Goodness (1901).
BASE, (i) (Fr. bos, Late Lat. bassus, low; cf. Gr. /3a0us)
an adjective meaning low or deep, and so mean, worthless, or
wicked. This sense of the word has sometimes affected the next,
which is really distinct. (2) (Gr. /3d<m, strictly "stepping,"
and so a foundation or pedestal) a term for a foundation or
starting point, used in various senses; in sports, e.g. hockey
and baseball; in geometry, the line or face on which a figure
or solid stands; in crystallography, e.g. "basal plane"; in
surveying, in the " base line," an accurately measured distance
between the points from which the survey is conducted; in
heraldry, in the phrase " in base," applied to any figure or em-
blem placed in the lowest part of a shield.
In chemistry the term denotes a substance which combines
with an acid to form a salt. In inorganic chemistry such com-
pounds are almost invariably oxides or hydroxides, and water
is eliminated during the combination; but in organic chemistry
many compounds exist, especially ammonia derivatives, which
directly combine with acids. Chemical bases are consequently
antithetical to acids; and an acid is neutralized by a base with
the production of a salt. They reverse certain colour reactions
of acids, e.g. turn red litmus blue; this is termed an " alkaline
reaction."
In architecture the " base " is the lowest member of a column
or shaft. In Egyptian and Greek architecture it is the raised
slab in stone or cement on which the primitive timber column
was placed, to keep it dry. Afterwards it was always reproduced
in Egypt, even although the column, being in stone, no longer
required it; a custom probably retained because, being of a
much larger circumference than the lower part of the column,
it gave increased stability. In Assyrian architecture, where
it served to carry wooden posts or columns, it took the form
of a large torus moulding with enrichments. In Persian archi-
tecture the base was much higher than in any other style, and
was elaborately carved. In primitive Greek work the base
consisted of the stone plinth as found in Crete and Tiryns, and
of three small steps at Mycenae. In archaic Greek work it has
already disappeared in the Doric order, but in the Ionic and
Corinthian orders it is more or less richly moulded, the most
elaborate examples being those found in the temple of Apollo
at Branchidae in Milesia. For the contour of the mouldings see
ORDERS. The Roman orders all have the favourite design known
as the Attic base. Romanesque bases were rude but vigorous
copies of the old classic base, and were often decorated with
projections or spurs (Fr. griffes) at the angles of the square dies,
thus connecting them with the square base. In the Early English
style, these spurs followed the conventional design of the period,
and about the same time the mouldings were deeply sunk and
occasionally cut downwards, so that they would have held water
if used externally. Later, the base becomes less bold in treat-
ment, but much more complex in its contours, and in the isth
century is given an unusual height with two stages, the lower
one constituting a kind of plinth, which is sometimes known
as the ground table, or the base course.
A BASE COURT (Fr. basse cour, i.e. the lower court), is the first
open space within the gates of a castle. It was used for exercising
cavalry, and keeping live stock during a siege. (See ENCEINTE).
THE BASE or A WALL or GROUND TABLE, in architecture,
is the mouldings round a building just above ground; they mostly
consist of similar members to those above described and run
round the buttresses. The flat band between the plinth and
upper mouldings is frequently panelled and carved with shields,
as in Henry VII. Chapel at Westminster.
BASE-BALL (so-called from the bases and ball used), the
national summer sport of the United States, popular also through-
out Canada and in Japan. Its origin is obscure. According to
some authorities it is derived from the old English game of
rounders (?..), several variations of which were played in
America during the colonial period; according to other authori-
ties, its resemblance to rounders is merely a coincidence, and
it had its origin in the United States, probably at Cooperstown,
New York, in 1839, when, it is said, Abner Doubleday (later a
general in the U.S. army) devised a scheme for playing it. About
the beginning of the igth century a game generally known as
" One Old Cat " became popular with schoolboys in the North
Atlantic states; this game was played by three boys, each
fielding and batting in turn, a run being scored by the batsman
running to a single base and back without being put out. Two
Old Cat, Three Old Cat, and Four Old Cat were modifications
of this game, having respectively four, six, and eight players.
A development of this game bore the name of town-ball, and
the Olympic Town-Ball Club of Philadelphia was organized
in 1833. Matches between organized base-ball clubs were first
played in the neighbourhood of New York, where the Washington
Baseball Club was founded in 1843. The first regular code
of rules was drawn up in 1845 by the Knickerbocker Baseball
Club and used in its matches with the Gotham, Eagle and Empire
clubs of New York, and the Excelsior, Putnam, Atlantic and
Eckford clubs of Brooklyn. In 1858 the first National Associa-
tion was organized, and, while its few simple laws were generally
similar to the corresponding rules of the present code, the ball
was larger and " livelier," and the pitcher was compelled to
deliver it with a full toss, no approach to a throw being allowed.
The popularity of the game spread rapidly, resulting in the
organization of many famous clubs, such as the Beacon and
Lowell of Boston, the Red Stockings of Cincinnati, the Forest
City of Cleveland and the Maple Leaf of Guelph, but, owing to
the sharp rivalry between the foremost teams, semi-profes-
sionalism soon crept in, although in those days a man who played
for a financial consideration always had some other means of
livelihood, as the income to be derived from playing ball in the
summer time was not enough to support him throughout the
year. In spite of its popularity, the game acquired certain
undesirable adjuncts. The betting and pool selling evils became
prominent, and before long the game was in thorough disrepute.
It was not only generally believed that the matches were not
played on their merits, but it was known that players themselves
were not above selling contests. At that time many of the
journals of the day foretold the speedy downfall of the sport.
A convention of those interested financially and otherwise in
the game, was held in 1867 in Philadelphia, and an effort was
made to effect a reformation. That the sport even then was
by no means insignificant can be seen from the fact that in that
convention some 500 organizations were represented. While
the work done at the convention did not accomplish all that
was expected, it did produce certain reforms, and the sport
grew rapidly thereafter both in the eastern and in the middle
western part of the United States. In the next five years the
BASE-BALL
459
interest in the game became so great that it was decided to send
a representation of American base-ball players to England;
and two clubs, the Bostons, who were the champions that year,
and the Athletics, former champions, crossed the Atlantic and
played several exhibition games with each other. While success-
ful in exciting some interest, the trip did not succeed in populariz-
ing base-ball in Great Britain. Fifteen years later two other
nines of representative American base-ball players made a
general tour of Australia and various other countries, completing
their trip by a contest in England. This too, however, had little
effect, and later attempts to establish base-ball in England have
likewise been unsuccessful. But in America the game continued
to prosper. The first entirely professional club was the Cincinnati
Red Stockings (1868). Two national associations were formed
in 1871, one having jurisdiction over professional clubs and the
other over amateurs. In 1876 was formed the National League,
of eight clubs under the presidency of Nicholas E. Young, which
contained the expert ball-players of the country. There were
so many people in the United States who wanted to see profes-
sional base-ball that this organization proved too small to furnish
the desired number of games, and hence in 1882 the American
Association was formed. For a time it seemed that there would
be room for both organizations; but there was considerable
rivalry, and it was not until an agreement was made between
the two organizations that they were able to work together in
harmony. They practically controlled professional base-ball
for many years, although there were occasional attempts to
overthrow their authority, the most notable being the formation
in 1890 of a brotherhood of players called the Players' League,
organized for the purpose of securing some of the financial
benefits accruing to the managers, as well as for the purpose of
abolishing black-listing and other supposed abuses. The Players'
League proved not sufficiently strong for the task, and fell to
pieces. For some years the National League consisted of twelve
clubs organized as stock companies, representing cities as far
apart as Boston and St Louis, but in 1900 the number was
reduced to eight, namely, Boston, Brooklyn, Chicago, Cincinnati,
New York, Pittsburg, Philadelphia and St Louis. Certain
aggressive and dissatisfied elements took advantage of this
change to organize a second great professional association under
the presidency of B. B. Johnson, the " American League,"
of eight clubs, six of them in cities where the National League
was -already represented. Most of the clubs of both leagues
flourish financially, as also do the many minor associations
which control the clubs of the different sections of the country,
among which are the Eastern League, the American Association,
Western League, Southern Association, New England League,
Pacific League and the different state leagues. Professional
base-ball has not been free from certain objectionable elements,
of which the unnecessary and rowdyish fault-finding with the
umpires has been the most evident, but the authorities of the
different leagues have lately succeeded, by strenuous legislation,
in abating these. Of authorities on base-ball, Henry Chadwick
(d. 1908) is the best known.
Amateur base-ball, in its organized phase, is played mostly
by school and university clubs as well as those of athletic associa-
tions. The first college league was formed in 1879 and comprised
Harvard, Princeton, Amherst, Brown and Dartmouth, Yale
joining a year later. The Eastern College League, with Columbia,
Harvard, Princeton and Yale, followed in 1887. This was after-
wards dissolved and at present the most important universities
of the eastern states are members of no league, although such
organizations exist in New England and different parts of the
west and south. Amateur base-ball has progressed along the
same lines as professional, although the college playing rules
formerly differed in certain minor points from those of the
professional leagues.
The following is a general description of the field and of the
manner in which the game is played, but as the game has become
highly complicated, situations may arise in playing in which
general statements do not strictly hold. Any smooth, level
field about 150 yds. long and 100 yds. broad will serve for a
base-ball ground. Upon this field is marked out with white chalk a
square, commonly called the diamond, smooth, like a cricket pitch,
the sides of which measure 30 yds. each, and the nearest corner
of which is distant about 30 yds. from the limit of the field.
This corner is marked with a white plate, called the home-base
or plate, five-sided in shape, two of the sides being i ft. long
and that towards the pitcher 17 in. At the other three corners
and attached to pegs are white canvas bags 15 in. square filled
with some soft material, and called, beginning at the right as
one looks towards the field, first-base, second-base and third-
base respectively. The lines from home-base to first, and from
home to third are indefinitely prolonged and called foul-lines.
The game is played by two sides of nine men each, one of these
taking its turn at the bat while the other is in the field endeavour-
ing, as provided by certain rules, to put out the side at bat.
Each side has nine turns, or innings, at bat, unless the side last
at bat does not need its ninth innings in order to win; a tie at
the end of the ninth innings makes additional innings necessary.
A full game usually takes from ij to 2 hrs. to play. Three
batsmen are put out in each innings, and the side scoring the
greatest number of runs (complete encircling of the bases without
being put out) wins. A runner who is not put out but fails to
reach home-base does not score a run, but is " left on base."
Implements of the Game. The ball, which is 9-9! in. in cir-
cumference and weighs 5-5$ oz., is made of yarn wound upon
a small core of vulcanized rubber and covered with white leather,
which may not be intentionally discoloured. The bat must be
round, not over 2$ in. in diameter at the thickest part, nor more
than 42 in. in length. It is usually made of ash or some other
hard wood, and the handle may be wound with twine. Three-
cornered spikes are usually worn on the players' shoes. The
catcher and first-baseman (v. infra) may wear a glove of any
size on one hand; the gloves worn by all other players may not
measure more than 14 in. round the palm nor weigh more than
10 oz.
The Players. The fielding side consists of (a) the pitcher
and catcher, called the battery, (6) the first-baseman, second-
baseman, third-baseman and short-stop, called infielders, and
(c) the left-fielder, centre-fielder and right-fielder, called out-
fielders.
The pitcher, who delivers the ball to the batsman, is the most
important member of the side. In the act of pitching, which is
throwing either over or underhand, he must keepone foot in contact
with a white plate, called the pitcher's plate, 24 in. long and 6 in.
wide, placed 60-5 ft. from the back of the home-base. Before
1875 the pitcher was obliged to deliver the ball with a full toss
only, but about that time a disguised underhand throw, which
greatly increased the pace, began to be used so generally that it
was soon legalized, and the overhand throw followed as a matter
of course. As long as the arm was held stiff no curve could be
imparted to the flight of the ball in the air, but with the increase
of pace came the possibility of doing this by a movement of the
wrist as the ball left the hand, the twist thus given causing the
ball, by the pressure on- the air, to swerve to one side or the other,
or downwards, according to the position of the hand and fingers
as the ball is let go. The commonest of these swerving deliveries,
and the first one invented, is the out-curve, the ball coming
straight towards the batsman until almost within reach of his
bat, when it suddenly swerves away from him towards the right,
if he be right-handed. The other important curves are the in-
curve, shooting sharply to the left, and the drop, with their many
variations, nearly every pitcher using some favourite curve.
Change of pace, disguised as well as possible, is also an important
part of pitching strategy, as well as variation of the delivery
and the play upon the known weaknesses or idiosyncrasies of
the batsman. Good control over the ball is a necessity, as four
" balls " called by the umpire, that is, balls not over the base,
or over the base and not between the shoulder and knee of the
batsman, entitle the batsman to become a base-runner and take
his first base. If the pitcher disregards the restrictions placed
upon him by the rules (e.g. he may not, while in position, make a
motion to deliver the ball to the batsman without actually
4.6
BASE-BALL
delivering it, or to first-base, while that base is occupied by a
runner, without completing the throw), he is said to have made a
balk, which permits a base runner to advance a base. In fielding
batted balls the pitcher takes all that come directly to him,
especially slow ones which the ether fielders cannot reach in
time. One of his duties is to " back up " the first-baseman in
order to stop balls thrown wide, and to cover first-base in place
of the baseman whenever that player has to leave his base to
field a ground ball. On occasion he also backs up other positions.
The catcher usually stands about i yd. behind the home plate,
and he must never be more than 10 ft. behind the home plate
when the pitcher delivers the ball to the batsman. He generally
catches the ball from the pitcher before it strikes the ground,
and, when a man of the opposing side has succeeded in getting
to a base, must be on the alert to head this opponent off should
he endeavour to steal the next base, i.e. run to it while the pitcher
is delivering the ball to the batsman. For this reason the catcher
must be a quick, strong and
accurate thrower. As the
catcher alone faces the
whole field, he is able to
warn the pitcher when to
throw to a base in order to
catch a runner napping off
the base, and by secretly
signalling to the pitcher
(usually by means of signs
with his fingers) he directs
what kind of a ball is to be
pitched, so that he 'may be
in the proper position to
receive the ball, be it high
or low, to left or right.
Some pitchers, however,
prefer to reserve* their
choice of balls and there-
fore do the signalling them-
selves. The catcher wears
a mask, a breast-pad, and
a large glove, without which
the position would be a very
dangerous one.
As every batsman upon
hitting the ball must run
for the first-base, the first-
baseman must be a sure
catch of balls thrown to
head runners off, even those
thrown too low, high or
wide. A tall man is usually
chosen for this position. The
second - baseman usually
stands about 30 ft. to the right of second-base and back of
the line between the bases, and attends to balls batted to
his side of the diamond. He also backs up any exposed position
and must be ready to cover second-base whenever a runner
tries to steal down from first-base, or whenever there is a runner
on second-base, .a duty which he shares with the short-stop,
whose position corresponds to that of the second-baseman on
the left side of the diamond. Short-stop must be a quick and
accurate thrower and a lively fielder, as he is required to back
up second-and third-base. Both he and the second-baseman must
field ground balls cleanly and are often called upon to catch
fly balls also. The requirements of third-baseman are very
similar, but he must be an exceptionally good thrower, as he
has the longest distance to throw to the first-base; and as he
plays nearer to the batsman than do the second-baseman and
the short-stop, the balls batted in his direction are apt to be
faster and more difficult to field. One of the third-baseman's
chief duties is to be ready to run in towards the batsman to
field " bunts," i.e. balls blocked by allowing them to rebound
from a loosely held bat. These commonly roll slowly in the
-><; or
Po9.fl
Cifitr*
Diagram of Base-ball Field.
direction of third-baseman, who, in order to get them to first-base
in time to put the runner out,^must run in, pick them up, usually
with one hand, so as to be in position to throw without the loss
of an instant, and " snap " them to the first-baseman, i.e. throw
them underhand without taking time to raise his body to an
erect position. Many of these bunts can be fielded either by
the pitcher or, if they drop dead in front of the home-plate,
by the catcher. The positions of the three outfielders can be
seen on the diagram. Their duties consist of catching all "'flies "
batted over the heads of the infielders (i.e. high batted balls
that have not touched the ground), stopping and returning ground
balls that pass the infield, and backing up the baseman. The
accompanying diagram indicates the territory roughly allotted
to the different fielders. " Backing up " is a very prominent
feature in fielding. Even the pitcher, for example, should run
behind the first-baseman when the ball is thrown to the latter
by another, in order to stop a widely thrown or missed ball,
which, if allowed to pass,
would enable the runner to
gain one or more additional
bases. Bases vacated by
their basemen while field-
ing balls must often, also,
be promptly covered by an-
other player. The general
rule of defence strategy is
similar to that in cricket,
namely, to have as many
men as possible at the
probable point of attack.
There is usually an infield
and an outfield captain for
the special purpose of call-
ing the name of the player
who is to take a certain fly
ball, to prevent collisions.
The batsman stands
three - quarters facing the
pitcher within a parallelo-
gram (" box ") 6 ft. long
and 4 ft. wide, the lines of
which he may not overstep,
on penalty of being declared
out. His object is to get to
first-base without being put
out. This he may do in
several ways, (i) He may
make a " safe-hit," i.e. one
that is " fair " but cannot
be caught, or fielded in time
to put him out. (2) He is
entitled to first-base if the
pitcher pitches four bad balls, at none of which he (the batsman)
has struck. (3) He may be unavoidably struck by a pitched ball,
in which case he is given his base. (4) He may, except in certain
specified cases, after a third strike, if the catcher has failed to
catch the third one, earn his base if he can reach it before the
catcher can throw the ball to the first-baseman, and the first-
baseman, with the ball in his possession, touch first-base. (5)
He may reach his base by an error of some fielder, which may be
either a muffed fly, a failure to stop and field a ground ball, a
muffed thrown ball or a bad throw. Only balls batted within
the foul-lines (see diagram) are fair. All others are " fouls,"
and the batsman cannot run on them. All foul-struck balls are
called strikes until two strikes have been called by the umpire,
after which fouls are not counted.
Batting, as in cricket, is a science by itself, although compara-
tively more stress is laid on fielding than in cricket. A good
batsman can place the ball in any part of the field he chooses by
meeting the ball at different angles. He may make a safe hit
either by hitting the ball on the ground directly through the
infield out of reach of the fielders, or so hard that it cannot be
O Petition of
Short SlOf
fotiti'o* air
trft HtHti-
BASEDOW
461
stopped. In the last case a failure to stop and field it does not
count as an " error " (mis-play) for the fielder, even though it
came straight at him, the decision as to errors appearing in the
score (v. infra) depending upon the official scorer of the home
club. The batsman may also hit safely by placing the ball over
the heads of the infielders, but not far enough to be caught by the
outfielders, or over the heads of the outfielders themselves, or he
may bunt successfully. A hit by which two bases can be made
(without errors by opponents) is a " two-base-hit," one for three
bases a " three-base-hit," and one for four bases a " home-run."
The batsman may be put out in various ways. For example, he
is out (i) if he fails to bat in the order named in the published
batting-list; (2) if he fails to take his position within one minute
after the umpire has summoned him; (3) if he makes a foul hit
which is caught before it strikes the ground (a ball barely ticked
by the bat ["foul-tip"] does not count); (4) if he oversteps the
batting-lines; (5) if he intentionally obstructs or interferes with
the catcher; (6) if he unsuccessfully attempts the third strike
and the ball hits his person or is caught by the catcher (under
certain conditions he is out whether the ball is so caught or not),
or, not being caught, is thrown to first-base and held there by an
opposing player before the batsman can get there; (7) if a fair
ball be caught before striking the ground; (8) if any fair ball is
fielded to first-baseman before he reaches the base. The batsman
becomes a base-runner the moment he starts for first-base. He
may, when he first reaches first-base, overrun his base (provided
he turns to his right in returning to it) without risk of being put out,
but thereafter can be put out by being touched with the ball in
the hands of a fielder unless some part of the runner's person is in
contact with the base. When a fair or foul ball struck by a
batsman on his side is caught on the fly, he must retouch his
base, or be put out if the baseman receives the ball before he can
do so. A runner on first-base is forced to run to second as soon
as a fair ball is batted, or, being on second with another runner
on first, he is forced to run to third. This is called being " forced
off his base." In such a situation the forced runner can be put
out if the ball is thrown to the baseman at the next base before
the runner gets there. He does not require to be touched with
the ball. The runner on first is entitled, however, to advance to
second without risk of being put out if the batsman becomes
similarly entitled to first-base (e.g. on being unavoidably struck
by the ball, or on four balls) . Frequently, if the ball is batted to
the infield while a runner is on first-base, the fielder tosses it to
second-baseman, putting out the runner, and the second-baseman
has still time to throw the ball to first-base ahead of the batsman,
thus completing a " double play." Triple plays are sometimes
made when there are runners on two or on all of the bases.
Base-running is one of the important arts of base-ball play. A
good base-runner takes as long a lead off the base as he dares,
starts to run the moment the pitcher makes the first movement
to deliver the ball, and if necessary throws himself with a slide,
either feet or head first, on to the objective base, the reason for
the slide being to make it more difficult for the baseman to touch
the runner, having to stoop in order to do so, thus losing time.
A base-runner is out if he interferes with an opponent while the
latter is fielding a ball or if he is hit by a batted ball. An example
of modern base-running is offered by the " double steal," carried
out, e.g., when there is a runner on first-base and a runner on
third-base. The runner on first starts for second leisurely in
order to draw a throw to second by the catcher. If the catcher
throws, the runner on third runs for the home-plate, the second-
baseman returning the ball to the catcher in order to put the
runner out. The play often results in a score, but the runner is
frequently caught if the throws are quick and accurate, or when
the catcher deceives the runner by throwing, not to the player
at second-base, but to a man stationed for the purpose much
nearer the home-plate, this man intercepting the ball and return-
ing it to the catcher if the runner on third is at tempting to score,
or letting it pass to the player on second-base, if the runner on
third does not make the attempt.
Team batting is the co-operation of batsman and base- runner.
The commonest example is the " hit; and run " play, e.g. when a
runner is on first-base. After the runner has ascertained by a
false start which infielder, whether second-baseman or short-stop,
will cover second-base, the batsman signals to the runner that
he will hit the next ball. As soon as the pitcher delivers the ball
the runner starts for second and the batsman hits the ball to
that part of the infield vacated by the fielder who has gone to
receive the ball at second from the catcher. If successful this
play results in a safe hit, while the runner not infrequently
makes, not only second, but third-base as well. Another instance
of team batting is when a runner is on third-base and the batsman
signals that he will hit the next ball. This enables the runner to
get a long start, making his scoring nearly certain if the batsman
succeeds in hitting the ball fairly. If the ball is hit without the
signal and consequent long start by the runner, the latter is
frequently put out at the plate, as the infielder who fields the
ball will ignore the batsman and throw the ball to the catcher
to head off the runner and prevent a run being scored. In close
games the " sacrifice-hit," a part of team batting, is an important
element. It consists, when a runner is on base, of a hit by the
batsman resulting in his own retirement but the advancement to,
the next base of the runner. The sacrifice-hit is most frequently
a bunt, as this gives the batsman the best chance of reaching
first-base safely, besides surely advancing the runner. Another
kind of sacrifice-hit is a long fly to the outfield. On such a hit a
runner on third-base (as on the other bases) must remain on the
base until after the ball is caught, but the distance from the
outfield to the home-plate is so great that a fast runner can
generally beat the ball and score his run. When men are on
bases, coaches are allowed to stand near first and third bases to
direct the runners.
One umpire, who has absolute jurisdiction over all points of
play, usually officiates in base-ball, but, in important games, two
umpires are often employed, one of them standing behind the
catcher and calling the good and bad balls pitched, and the other,
posted in the infield, giving decisions on plays at the bases.
In cases where the game is tied after nine innings, extra ones
are played, the umpire " calling " a game when it becomes too
dark to play. In case of rain, play is suspended by the umpire,
who calls the game if the rain continues for one half-hour.
Should play be permanently interrupted the game counts if five
innings have been completed by each side.
Scoring. The base-ball score shows, in vertical columns,
(i) how many times each player has been at bat (bases taken on
balls and sacrifice-hits not counted); (2) how many runs he
has scored; (3) how many base-hits he has made; (4) how many
sacrifice-hits he has made; (5) how many opponents he has put
out; (6) how many " assists," i.e. times he has assisted in putting
out (e.g. stopping a ground ball and throwing it to first-base) ;
(7) the number of errors he has made, wild pitches and " passed
balls," i.e. not held by the catcher, as well as balks and bases on
balls, not being counted as errors but set down under the regular
columns, together with the record of stolen bases, extra long
hits, double and triple plays, batsmen struck out by each pitcher,
the number of men struck by each pitcher with the ball, the time
of the game and the name of the umpire.
Careful record is kept of the batting, fielding, pitching and
base-running averages of both professional and amateur players.
To find the batting record of a player, divide the number of hits
made by the number of times at bat. To find a fielding record,
divide the number of accepted chances by the total chances, e.g.
A.B. put 1188 men out, and assisted sixty-four times, while
making fifteen errors; his fielding average is therefore 125*
divided by 1267, or 988, 1000 being perfect fielding.
See Spalding's Base-ball Guide, in Spalding's Athletic Library,
Eublished annually; How to Play Base-ball, oy T. H. Murnane,
palding's Athletic Library ; The Book of School and College Sports,
by R. H. Harbour (New York, 1904). (E. B.)
BASEDOW, JOHANN BERNHARD (1723-1790), German
educational reformer, was born at Hamburg on the nth of
September 1723, the son of a hairdresser. He was educated at
the Johanneum in that town, where he came under the influence
of the rationalist H. S. Reimarus ,(1694-1768), author of the
462
BASE FEE BASEL
famous Wolfenbiitleler Fragmente, published by Leasing. In
1744 he went to Leipzig as a student of theology, but gave him-
self up entirely to the study of philosophy. This at first induced
sceptical notions; a more profound examination of the sacred
writings, and of all that relates to them, brought him back to
the Christian faith, but, in his retirement, he formed his belief
after his own ideas, and it was far from orthodox. He returned
to Hamburg, and between 1749 and 1753 was private tutor in
a nobleman's family in Holstein. Basedow now began to exhibit
his really remarkable powers as an educator of the young, and
acquired so much distinction that, in 1753, he was chosen
professor of moral philosophy and belles-lettres in the academy
of Soro in Denmark. On account of his theological opinions
he was in 1761 removed from this post and transferred to Altona,
where some of his published works brought him into great
disfavour with the orthodox clergy. He was forbidden to give
further instruction, but did not lose his salary, and, towards
the end of 1767, he abandoned theology to devote himself with
the same ardour to education, of which he conceived the project
of a general reform in Germany. In 1768 appeared his Vorstel-
lung an Menschcnfreunde fur Schulen, nebst dem Plan eines
Elementarbuches der mensMichen Erkenntnisse, which was
strongly influenced by Rousseau's mile. He proposed the
reform of schools and of the common methods of instruction,
and the establishment of an institute for qualifying teachers,
soliciting subscriptions for the printing of his Elementarwerk,
where his principles were to be explained at length, and illus-
trated by plates. The subscriptions for this object amounted
to 15,000 Talers (2250), and in 1774 he was able to publish the
work in four volumes. It contains a complete system of primary
education, intended to develop the intelligence of the pupils
and to bring them, so far as possible, into contact with realities,
not with mere words. The work was received with great favour,
and Basedow obtained means to establish an institute for
education at Dessau, and to apply his principles in training
disciples, who might spread them over all Germany. The name
of Philanthropin which he gave to the institution appeared to
him the most expressive of his views; and he engaged in the
new project with all his accustomed ardour. But he had few
scholars, and the success by no means answered his hopes.
Nevertheless, so well had his ideas been received that similar
institutions sprang up all over the land, and the most prominent
writers and thinkers openly advocated the plan. Basedow, un-
fortunately, was little calculated by nature or habit to succeed in
an employment which required the greatest regularity, patience
and attention ; his temper was intractable, and his management
was one long quarrel with his colleagues. He resigned his direc-
torship of the institution in 1778, and it was finally closed in
1793. Basedow died at Magdeburg on the 25th of July 1790.
See H. Rathmann, Beitrdge zur Lebensgeschichte Basedows (Magde-
burg, 1791); J. C. Meyer, Leben, Charakter und Schriften Basedows
(2 vols., Hamburg, 1791-1792); G. P. R. Hahn, Basedow und sein
Verhaltnis zu Rousseau (Leipzig, 1885); A. Pinloche, Basedow et le
philanthropinisme (Paris, 1890) ; C. Gossgen, Rousseau und Basedow
(1891).
BASE FEE, in law, a freehold estate of inheritance which is
limited or qualified by the existence of certain conditions. In
modern property law the commonest example of a base fee is an
estate created by a tenant in tail, not in possession, who bars the
entail without the consent of the protector of the settlement.
Though he bars his own issue, he cannot bar any remainder or
reversion, and the estate (i.e. the base fee) thus created is deter-
minable on the failure of his issue in tail. An example of this
kind of estate was introduced by George Eliot into the plot of
Felix Holt. Another example of a base fee is an estate descend-
ible to heirs general, but terminable on an uncertain event; for
example, a grant of land to A and his heirs, tenants of the manor
of Dale. The estate terminates whenever the prescribed qualifi-
cation ceases. An early meaning of base fee was an estate held
not by free or military service, but by base service, i.e. at the will
of the lord.
BASEL (Fr. Bdle), one of the most northerly of the Swiss
cantons, and the only one (save Schaffhausen) that includes any
territory north of the Rhine. It is traversed by the chain of the
Jura, and is watered by the Birs and the Ergolz, both tributaries
(left) of the Rhine. It is traversed by railways from Basel to
Olten (25 m.) and to Laufen (14! m.), besides local lines from
Basel to Fltihen (8 m.) for the frequented pilgrimage resort of
Mariastein, and from Liestal to Waldenburg (8J m.). From
1803 to 1814 the canton wasoneof the six "Directorial" cantonsof
the Confederation. Since 1833 it has been divided into two half
cantons, with independent constitutions.
One is that of Basel Stadt or Bale Ville, including, besides the
city of Basel, the three rural districts (all to the north of the
Rhine) of Riehen, Bettingen and Klein Hiiningen (the latter
now united to the city). The total area of this half canton is
13-7 sq. m. only, of which n sq. m. are classed as " productive,"
forests occupying 1-5 sq. m., but its total population in 1900 was
112,227 (f whom 3066 inhabited the rural districts), mainly
German-speaking, and numbering 73,063 Protestants, 37,101
Romanists (including the Old Catholics), and 1897 Jews. The
cantonal constitution dates from 1889. The executive of seven
members and the legislature (Grossrat) of 130 members, as well
as the one member sent to the Federal Slander at and the six
sent to the Federal Nationalrat, are all elected by a direct
popular vote for the term of three years. Since 1875, 1000
citizens can claim a popular vote (facultative Referendum) on all
bills, or can exercise the right of initiative whether as to laws or
the revision of the cantonal constitution.
The other half canton is that of Basel Landschaft or Bale
Campagne, which is divided into four administrative districts
and comprises seventy-four communes, its capital being Liestal.
Its total area is 165 sq. m., of which all but 5 sq. m. is reckoned
" productive " (including 55-9 sq. m. of forests). In 1900 its
total population was 68,497, nearly all German-speaking, while
there were 52,763 Protestants, 15,564 Romanists, and 130 Jews.
The cantonal constitution dates from 1892. The executive of
5 members and the legislature or Landrat (one member per
800 inhabitants or fraction over 400), as well as the single
member sent to the Federal Standeral and the three sent to the
Federal Nationalrat, are all elected by a direct popular vote for
three years. The " obligatory Referendum " obtains in the case
of all laws, while 1500 citizens have the right of " initiative "
whether as to laws or the revision of the cantonal constitution.
Silk ribbon weaving, textile industries and the manufacture of
tiles are carried on. (W. A. B. C.)
BASEL (Fr. Bdle, but Basle is a wholly erroneous form; Ital.
Basilea), the capital of the Swiss half canton of Basel Stadt or
Bale Ville. It is now the second most populous (109,161 inhabit-
ants) town (ranking after Zurich) in the Swiss Confederation,
while it is reputed to be the richest, the number of resident
millionaires (in francs) exceeding that of any other Swiss town.
Both facts are largely due to the opening (1882) of the St Gotthard
railway, as merchandise collected from every part of north and
central Europe is stored in Basel previous to being redistributed
by means of that line. Hence the city has an extremely large
and flourishing transit trade, despite the rather dingy appearance
of its older portions. The city is divided by the Rhine into
Gross Basel (south) and Klein Basel (north), the former being by
far the larger. There are several bridges over the river, the old
wooden bridge having been replaced in 1905 by one built of stone.
The central or main railway station is in Gross Basel, while the
Baden station is in Klein Basel. The most prominent building
in the city is the cathedral or Miinster, built of deep red sand-
stone, on a terrace high above the Rhine. It was consecrated in
1019, but was mainly rebuilt after the disastrous earthquake of
1356 that nearly ruined the city. The public meetings of the
great oecumenical council (1431-1449) were held in the choir,
while the committees sat hi the chapter-house. Erasmus lived
in Basel 1521-1529, and on his death there (1536) was buried hi
the cathedral, attached to which are cloisters, hi which various
celebrated men are buried, e.g. Oecolampadius (d. 1 53 1 ) , Grynaeus
(d. 1541), Buxtorf (d. 1732). The 16th-century Rathaus or
town hall has recently been restored. In the museum is a fine
collection of works of art by Holbein (who lived in Basel from
BASEL, CONFESSION OF BASEL, COUNCIL OF
4 6 3
1528 to 1531), while the historical museum (in the old Franciscan
church) contains many treasures, and among them the fragments
of the famous Dance of Death, wrongly attributed to Holbein.
The university (founded by Pius II. in 1460) is the oldest in
Switzerland, and of late years has been extended by the con-
struction of detached buildings for the study of the natural
sciences, e.g. the Vesalianum and the Bernoullianum. The
university library is very rich, and contains the original MSS. of
the acts of the great oecumenical council. There are a number
of modern monuments in the city, the most important being that
set up to the memory of the Swiss who fell in the battle of St
Jakob (1444), won by the French. Basel is the seat of the chief
missionary society in Switzerland, the training school for mis-
sionaries being at St Chrischona, 6 m. out of the city.
The town was founded in A.D. 374 by the emperor Valentinian,
from whose residence there it takes its name. In the sth century
the bishop of Augusta Rauricorum (now called Kaiser Augst),
j\ m. to the east, moved his see thither. Henceforth the history
of the city is that of the growing power, spiritual and temporal,
of the bishops, whose secular influence was gradually supplanted
in the i4th century by the advance of the rival power of the
burghers. In 1356 the city was nearly destroyed by a great
earthquake. After long swaying between the neighbouring
Rhine cities and the Swiss Confederation, it was admitted into
the latter in 1501. It later became one of the chief centres of
the Reformation movement in Switzerland, so that the bishop
retired in 1525 to Porrentruy, where he resided till 1792, finally
settling at Soleure in 1828, the bishopric having been wholly
reorganized since 1814. As in other Swiss towns the trade
gilds got all political power into their hands, especially by the
i8th century. They naturally favoured the city at the expense
of the rural districts, so that in 1832 the latter proclaimed
their independence, and in 1833 were organized into the half
canton of Basel Landschaft, the city forming that of Basel Stadt.
See Easier Biographien (3 vols., 1900-1905); Easier Chroniken
(original chronicles), (5 vols., Leipzig, 1872-1890); H. Boos,
Geschichte von Basel, vol. i. (to 1501) alone published (1877); A.
Burckhardt, Bilder aus d. Geschichte von Basel (3 vols., 1869-1882) ;
Festschrift z. 4OOten Jahrestage d. ewig. Bundes zwisch. B. und den
Eidgenossen (1901); T. Geering, Handel und Industrie d. Stadt Basel
(1885) ; A. Heusler, Verfassungsgeschichte d. Stadt Basel im Mittelalter
(1860), and Rechtsquellen von Basel (2 vols., 1856^-1865); L. A.
Stocker, Easier Stadtbttder (1890); L. Stouff, Pouvoir temporel des
eveques de Bale (2 vols., Paris, 1891); R. Thommen, Gesch. d.
Universitdt B., 1532-1632 (1889); Urkundenbuch d. Landschaft B.
(pub. from 1881), and ditto for the city (pub. from 1890); W.
Vischer, Gesch. d. Universitdt B., 1460-1529 (1860) ; R. Wackernagel,
Gesch. d. Stadt Basel (3 vols., 1906 sqqO; K. Weber, Die Revolution
im Kanton Basel, 1830-1833 (1907); G. Gautherot, La Republique
rauracienne (1908).
(W. A. B. C.)
BASEL, CONFESSION OF, one of the many statements of
faith produced by the Reformation. It was put out in 1534
and must be distinguished from the First and Second Helvetic
Confessions, its author being Oswald Myconius, who based it
on a shorter confession promulgated by Oecolampadius, his
predecessor in the church at Basel. Though it was an attempt
to bring into line with the reforming party both those who still
inclined to the old faith and the anabaptist section, its publica-
tion provoked a good deal of controversy, especially on its
statements concerning the Eucharist, and the people of Strass-
burg even reproached those of Basel with celebrating a Christless
supper. Up to the year 1826 the Confession (sometimes also
known as the Confession of Muhlhausen from its adoption by
that town) was publicly read from the pulpits of Basel on the
Wednesday of Passion week in each year. In 1872 a resolution
of the great council of the city practically annulled it.
BASEL, COUNCIL OF. A decree of the council of Constance
(gth of October 1417) sanctioned by Martin V. had obliged the
papacy periodically to summon general councils. At the expiry
of the first term fixed by this decree, Martin V. did, in fact, call
together at Pavia a council, which it was necessary to transfer
almost at once to Siena, owing to an epidemic, and which had
to be dissolved owing to circumstances still imperfectly known,
just as it was beginning to discuss the subject of reform (1424).
The next council was due to assemble at the expiry of seven
years, i.e. in 1431; with his usual punctuality, Martin V. duly
convoked it for this date to the town of Basel, and selected to
preside over it the cardinal Julian Cesarini, a man of the greatest
worth, both intellectually and morally. Martin himself, however,
died before the opening of the synod.
From Italy, France and Germany the fathers were slow in
appearing at Basel. Cesarini devoted all his energies to the war
against the Hussites, until the disaster of Taus forced him
hastily to evacuate Bohemia. The progress of heresy, the
reported troubles in Germany, the war which had lately broken
out between the dukes of Austria and Burgundy, and finally,
the small number of fathers who had responded to the summons
of Martin V., caused that pontiff's successor, Eugenius IV., to
think that the synod of Basel was doomed to certain failure.
This opinion, added to the desire which he had of himself pre-
siding over the council, induced him to recall the fathers from
Germany, whither his health, impaired of late, probably owing
to a cerebral congestion, rendered it all the more difficult for
him to go. He commanded the fathers to disperse, and appointed
Bologna as their meeting-place in eighteen months' time, his
intention being to make the session of the council coincide with
some conferences with representatives of the Greek church, which
were to be held there with a view to union (i8th December 1431).
This order led to an outcry among the fathers of Basel and
incurred the deep disapproval of the legate Cesarini. The
Hussites, it was said, would think that the Church was afraid to
face them; the laity would accuse the clergy of shirking reform;
in short, this failure of the councils would produce disastrous
effects. In vain did the pope explain his reasons and yield certain
points; the fathers would listen to nothing, and, relying on the
decrees of the council of Constance, which amid the troubles
of the schism had proclaimed the superiority, in certain cases,
of the council over the pope, they insisted upon their right of
remaining assembled, hastily beat up the laggards, held sessions,
promulgated decrees, interfered in the government of the papal
countship of Venaissin, treated with the Hussites, and, as repre-
sentatives of the universal Church, presumed to impose laws
upon the sovereign pontiff himself. Eugenius IV. resolved to
resist this supremacy, though he did not dare openly to repudiate
a very widespread doctrine considered by many to be the actual
foundation of the authority of the popes before the schism.
However, he soon realized the impossibility of treating the
fathers of Basel as ordinary rebels, and tried a compromise; but
as time went on, the fathers became more and more intractable,
and between him and them gradually arose an impassable barrier.
Abandoned by a number of his cardinals, condemned by most
of the powers, deprived of his dominions by condottieri who
shamelessly invoked the authority of the council, the pope made
concession after concession, and ended on the isth of December
1433 by a pitiable surrender of all the points at issue in a bull,
the terms of which were dictated by the fathers of Basel, that
is, by declaring his bull of dissolution null and void, and recogniz-
ing that the synod had not ceased to be legitimately assembled.
It would be wrong, however, to believe that Eugenius IV.
ratified all the decrees coming from Basel, or that he made a
definite submission to the supremacy of the council. No express
pronouncement on this subject could be wrung from him, and
his enforced silence concealed the secret design of safeguarding
the principle of sovereignty.
The fathers, who were filled with suspicion, would only allow
the legates of the pope to preside over them on condition of
their recognizing the superiority of the council; the legates
ended by submitting to this humiliating formality, but in their
own name only, thus reserving the judgment of the Holy See.
Nay more, the difficulties of all kinds against which Eugenius
had to contend, the insurrection at Rome, which forced him to
escape by the Tiber, lying in the bottom of a boat, left him at
first little chance of resisting the enterprises of the council.
Emboldened by their success, the fathers approached the subject
of reform, their principal object being to curtail the power and
resources of the papacy. This is why, besides the disciplinary
4 6 4
BASEMENT BASHAN
measures which regulated the elections, the celebration of divine
service, the periodical holding of diocesan synods and provincial
councils, are found also decrees aimed at some of the " rights "
by which the popes had extended their power, and helped out
their finances at the expense of the local churches. Thus annates
(q.v.) were abolished, the abuse of "reservation" of the patron-
age of benefices by the pope was much limited, and the right
claimed by the pope of " next presentation " to benefices not yet
vacant (known as gratiae expectativae) was done away with
altogether. By other decrees the jurisdiction of the court of
Rome was much limited, and rules were even made for the
election of popes and the constitution of the Sacred College.
The fathers continued to devote themselves to the subjugation
of the Hussites; they also intervened, in rivalry with the pope,
in the negotiations between France and England which led only
to the treaty of Arras, concluded by Charles VII. with the duke
of Burgundy; finally, they investigated and judged numbers of
private cases, lawsuits between prelates, members of religious
orders and holders of benefices, thus themselves falling into one
of the serious abuses for which they had most blamed the court
of Rome.
The democratic character of the assembly of Basel was the
result both of its composition and of its organization; not only
was the number of prelates in it always small in comparison
with that of the doctors, masters, representatives of chapters,
monks or clerks of inferior orders, but the influence of the
superior clergy had all the less weight because, instead of being
separated into " nations," as at Constance, the fathers divided
themselves according to their tastes or aptitudes into four large
committees or "deputations" (deputationes) , one concerned
with questions of faith (fidei), another with negotiations for
peace (pacis), the third with reform (reformalorii), the fourth
with what they called " common concerns " (pro communibus).
Every decision made by three of these " deputations " and in
each of them the lower clergy formed the majority was ratified
for the sake of form in general congregation, and if necessary
led to decrees promulgated in session. It was on this account'
that the council could sometimes be called, not without exaggera-
tion, " an assembly of copyists " or even " a set of grooms and
scullions."
Eugenius IV., however much he may have wished to keep on
good terms with the fathers of Basel, was neither able nor willing
to accept or observe all their decrees. The question of the union
with the Greek church, especially, gave rise to a misunder-
standing between them which soon led to a rupture. The
emperor John Palaeologus, pressed hard by the Turks, showed
a great desire to unite himself with the Catholics; he consented
to come with the principal representatives of the Greek church
to some place in the west where the union could be concluded in
the presence of the pope and of the Latin council. Hence arose
a double negotiation between him and Eugenius IV. on the one
hand and the fathers of Basel on the other. The chief object of
the latter was to fix the meeting-place at a place remote from
the influence of the pope, and they persisted in suggesting Basel
or Avignon or Savoy, which neither Eugenius nor the Greeks
would on any account accept. The result was that Palaeologus
accepted the offers of the pope, who, by a bull dated the i8th of
September 1437, again pronounced the dissolution of the council
of Basel, and summoned the fathers to Ferrara, where on the
8th of January 1438 he opened a new synod which he later
transferred to Florence. In this latter town took place the
momentary union, which was more apparent than real, between
the Latin and the Greek church (6th July 1439). During this
time the council of Basel, though abandoned by Cesarini and
most of its members, persisted none the less, under the presidency
of Cardinal Aleman, in affirming its oecumenical character. On
the 24th of January 1438 it suspended Eugenius IV., and went
on in spite of the intervention of most of the powers to pronounce
his deposition (25th June 1439), finally giving rise to a new
schism by electing on the 4th of November Amadeus VIII.,
duke of Savoy, as pope, who took the name of Felix V.
This schism lasted fully ten years, although the antipope found
hardly any adherents outside of his own hereditary states, those
of Alphonso of Aragon, of the Swiss confederation and certain
universities. Germany remained neutral ; Charles VII. of France
confined himself to securing to his kingdom by the Pragmatic
Sanction of Bourges, which became law on the I3th of July 1438,
the benefit of a great number of the reforms decreed at Basel;
England and Italy remained faithful to Eugenius IV. Finally,
in 1447 Frederick III., king of the Romans, after negotiations
with Eugenius, commanded the burgomaster of Basel not to
allow the presence of the council any longer in the imperial city.
In June 1448 the rump of the council migrated to Lausanne.
The antipope, at the instance of France, ended by abdicating
(7th April 1449). Eugenius IV. died on the 23rd of February
1447, and the fathers of Lausanne, to save appearances, gave
their support to his successor, Nicholas V., who had already
been governing the Church for two years. Trustworthy evidence,
they said, proved to them that this pontiff accepted the dogma
of the superiority of the council as it had been defined at Con-
stance and at Basel. In reality, the struggle which they had
carried on in defence of this principle for seventeen years, with
a good faith which it is impossible to ignore, ended in a defeat.
The papacy, which had been so fundamentally shaken by the
great schism of the West, came through this trial victorious. The
era of the great councils of the isth century was closed; the
constitution of the Church remained monarchical.
AUTHORITIES. Mansi, vol. xxix.-xxxi.; Aeneas Sylvius, De
rebus Basileae gestis (Fermo, 1803); Hefele, Conciliengeschichte, vol.
vii. (Freiburg-im-Breisgau, 1874); O. Richter, Die Organisation und
Geschdftsordnung des Baseler KonzUs (Leipzig, 1877); Monumenta
Conciliorum generalium seculi xv., Scriptorum, vol. i., ii. and iii.
(Vienna, 1857-1895) ; J. Haller, Concilium Basiliense, vol. i.-v.
(Basel, 1896-1904) ; G. Perouse, Le Cardinal Louis Aleman, president
du concile de Bale (Paris, 1904). Much useful material win also be
found in J. C. L. Gieseler's Ecclesiastical History, vol. iv. p. 312, &c.,
notes (Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853). (N. V.)
BASEMENT, the term applied to the lowest storey of any
building placed wholly or partly below the level of the ground.
It is incorrectly applied to the ground storey of any building,
even when, as for instance in the case of Somerset House, London,
the ground floor is of plain or rusticated masonry, and the upper
storey which it supports is divided up and decorated with
columns or pilasters.
BASHAHR, or BISAHIR, a Rajput hill state, within the Punjab,
amid the Himalayan mountains, with an area of 3820 sq. m. and
a population in 1901 of 80,582. In 1898, the raja being of weak
intellect and without heir, the administration was undertaken by
a British official. In 1906 there were some local troubles owing
to the refusal of the people to pay taxes. The revenue is obtained
chiefly from land and forests, the latter being leased to the
British government.
BASHAN, a region lying E. of the Jordan, and towards its
source. Its boundaries are not very well defined, but it may be
said in general to have been north of the territory of Gilead.
The name first appears in Hebrew history in connexion with the
wanderings of the Israelites. According to Numbers xxi. 33,
the tribes after the rout of Sihon, king of the Amorites, turned
to go by the land of Bashan; and its king, Og, met them at
Edrei, and was there defeated and slain. The value of this
narrative is a matter of much dispute. The gigantic stature of
the king, and the curious details about his " bedstead " (Deut.
iii. n) are regarded as suggestive of legend; to say nothing of
the lateness of all the documents relating to the wars of Og, and
the remoteness of Bashan from the regions of the Israelites'
wandering. The story, however, had so firm a hold on Hebrew
tradition that it can hardly fail to have some basis in fact; and
an invasion by Israel of Bashan before coming to Jordan is by
no means an improbability.
The great stature of Og is explained in the passage of Deuter-
onomy mentioned by the statement that he was of the remnant
of the aboriginal Rephaim. This was a race distinguished by
lofty stature; and in Genesis xiv. 5 we find them estabh'shed
in Ashteroth-Karnaim (probably the same as Ashtaroth, which,
as we shall see, was an important city of Bashan) . The territory
BASHI-BAZOUK BASHKALA
465
was allotted on the partition of the conquered land to the
eastern division of the tribe of Manasseh (Numbers xxxiii. 33;
Josh. xiii. 29). One of the cities of refuge, Golan, was in Bashan
(Deut. iv. 43). By Solomon, Bashan, or rather " the region of
Argob in Bashan," containing " threescore great cities with
walls and brazen bars," was assigned to the administrative
district of Ben-Geber, one of his lieutenants (i Kings iv. 13,
compare ver. 19). In the days of Jehu the country was taken from
Israel by Hazael, king of Syria (2 Kings x. 33). This is the last
historical event related in the Old Testament of Bashan. In the
poetical and prophetic books it is referred to in connexion with
the products for which it was noted. From a passage in the
" Blessing of Moses " (Deut. xxxiii. 22) it seems to have been
inhabited by lions. Elsewhere it is referred to in connexion
with its cattle (Deut. xxxii. 14; Ezek. xxxix. 18), which seem to
have been proverbial for ferocity (Ps. xxii. 12); Amos (iv. i)
calls the wealthy women of Samaria, who oppressed the poor,
" kine of Bashan." It is also noted for its mountain (Ps. Ixviii.
15), and especially for oaks, which are coupled with the cedars
of Lebanon (Isa. ii. 13; compare xxxiii. 9; Zechariah xi. 2).
Oars were made from them (Ezek. xxvii. 6).
The boundaries of Bashan may to some extent be deduced
from the indications afforded in the earlier historical books.
Og dwelt at Ashteroth, and did battle with the Israelites at
Edrei (Deut. 1.4). In Deut. iii. 4, " the region of Argob " with
its threescore cities is mentioned; Mt. Hermon is referred to as
a northern limit, and Salecah is alluded to in addition to the other
cities already mentioned. Josh. xii. 4 and Josh. xiii. 29 confirm
this. Josephus (Ant. iv. 5. 3; Wars, ii. 6. 3) enumerates four
provinces of Bashan, Gaulanitis, Trachonitis, Auranitis and
Batanaea. Gaulanitis (which probably derived its name from
the city of refuge, Golan, the site of which has not yet been
discovered) is represented by the modern Jaulan, a province
extending from the Jordan lakes to the Haj Road. Josephus
(Wars, iv. 1. 1) speaks of it as divided into two sections, Gamalitis
and Sogana. Trachonitis (mentioned in Luke iii. i as in the
territory of Philip the tetrarch) adjoined the territory of
Damascus, Auranitis and Batanaea. This corresponds to the
Trachones of Strabo (xvi. 20), and the modern district of the
Leja; inscriptions have been found in the Leja. giving Trachon
as Its former name. Auranitis is the Hauran of Ezekiel xlvii. 16,
and of the modern Arabs. It is south of the Jaulan and north
of Gilead. According to Porter (Journal Sue. Lit., 1854, p. 303),
the name is locally restricted to the plain south of the Leja and
the narrow strip on the west; although it is loosely applied by
strangers to the whole country east of the Jaulan. The fourth
province, Batanaea, which still is remembered in the name
*Ard el-Bathaniyeh, lies east of the Leja and the Hauran plain,
and includes the Jebel ed-Druz or Hauran mountain.
The identification of Argob, a region of the kingdom of Og, is
a matter of much difficulty. It has been equated on philological
grounds to the Leja. But these arguments have been shown to
be shaky if not baseless, and the identification is now generally
abandoned. The confidence with which the great cities of Og
were identified with the extensive remains of ancient sites in the
Leja and Hauran has also been shown to be without justification.
All the so-called " giant cities of Bashan " without exception
are now known to be Greco-Roman, not earlier than the time
of Herod, and, though in themselves of very high architectural
and historical interest, have no connexion whatever with the
more ancient periods. No tangible traces of Og and his
people, or even of their Israelite supplanters, have yet been
found.
This fact somewhat weakens the various identifications that
have been proposed for the cities of Bashan enumerated by name.
Edrei for example is identified with Ed-Dera'a. This is perhaps
the most satisfactory comparison, for besides the Greco-Roman
remains there is an extensive subterranean city of unknown date,
which may be of great antiquity, though even this is still sub
judice. The other identifications that have commanded most
acceptance are as follows: Ashteroth Karnaim, also called
Ashtaroth and (Josh. xxi. 27) Be-eshterah, has been identified
with Busrah (Bostra), where are very important Herodian ruins,
but there is no tangible evidence yet adduced that the history
of this site is of so remote antiquity. From the similarity of
the names, it has also been sought at Tell Ashari and Tell
' A shttra. The true site can be determined, if at all, by excavation
only; identifications based on mere outward similarity of names
have always been fruitful sources of error. Salecah is perhaps
less doubtful; it is a remarkable name, and a ruin similarly
styled, Salkhat, is to be seen in the Hauran. It is inhabited by
Druses. Another town in eastern Manasseh, namely Kenath,
has been identified by Porter with Kanawat, which may be
correct.
In the later history Bashan became remarkable as a refuge for
outlaws and robbers, a character it still retains. The great sub-
terranean " city " at Ed-Dera'a has been partially destroyed by
the local sub-governor, in order to prevent it becoming a refuge
of fugitives from justice or from government requirements
(conscription, taxation, &c.). Strabo refers to a great cave in
Trachonitis capable of holding 4000 robbers. Arab tradition
regards it as the home of Job; and it is famous as being the centre
of the Ghassanid dynasty. The Hauran is one of the principal
habitations of the sect of the Druses (?..).
The physical characteristics of Bashan are noteworthy.
Volcanic in origin the Jebel ed-Druz is a group of extinct
volcanoes the friable volcanic soil is extraordinarily fertile.
It is said to yield wheat eighty-fold and barley a hundred. The
oaks for which the country was once famous still distinguish it in
places.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. In addition to books mentioned under PALESTINE
see the following: U. J. Seetzen, Reisen durch Syrien, Paldslina,
Phonicien, &c. (4 vols., 1854); Rev. J. L. Porter, Five Years in
Damascus (2 vols., 1855); The Giant Cities of Bashan (out of date,
but some of the descriptions good, 1865); J. G. Wetzstein, Reise-
bericht iiber Hauran und die Trachonen (Berlin, 1860); Sir R. F.
Burtonand C. F. T. Drake, Unexplored Syria (1872) ; G. Schumacher,
The Jaulan (1888); Abila, Pella and Northern Ailun (1800); Across
the Jordan (1886), (Palestine Exploration Fund); Rev. W. Ewing,
A Journey in the Hauran (with a large collection of inscriptions) ;
Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement, 1895; W. H.
Waddington's Inscriptions of Syria may also be consulted; Dussaud
(Rene) and Frederic Macler, Voyage archtologique au SafA et dans U
Djabel ed-Druz (1901). In 1900 an important survey of the Hauran
and neighbouring regions was made under American auspices, directed
by Dr Enno Littmann; the publication of the great harvest of results
was begun in 1906. (R. A. S. M.)
BASHI-BAZOUK, the name given to a species of irregular
mounted troops employed by the Turks. They are armed and
maintained by the government but do not receive pay. They
do not wear uniform or distinctive badges. They fight either
mounted or dismounted, chiefly the latter, but are incapable of
undertaking serious work, because of their lack of discipline.
Their uncertain temper has sometimes made it necessary for
the Turkish regular troops to disarm them by force, but they are
often useful in the work of reconnaissance and in outpost duty.
They are accused, and generally with justice, of robbery and
maltreatment of the civil population, resembling in those things,
as in their fighting methods and value, the Croats, Pandours
and Tolpatches of 18th-century European armies. The term is
also used of a mounted force, existing in peace time in various
provinces of the Turkish empire, which performs the duties of
gendarmerie.
BASHKALA, the chief town of a sanjak of the vilayet of Van
in Asiatic Turkey. It is a military station, situated at an eleva-
tion of 7500 ft. above sea-level in the valley of the Great Zab
river. It stands on the east slope of lofty bare mountains,
overlooking a wide valley on the farther side of which flows the
Zab. On a knoll above is a ruined fortress formerly occupied
by a Kurdish Bey. The population numbers some 10,000,
principally Kurds, but including 1500 Armenians and 1000
Jews. The place is important as the centre of the Hakkiari
sanjak, a very difficult mountain district to the south-west
containing numerous tribes of Kurds and Nestorian Christians,
and also the many Kurdish tribes along the Persian frontier.
The houses are well built of sun-dried brick, and the streets are
wide and fairly dean. Good smiths' and carpenters' work is
4 66
BASHKIRS BASIL
done. The bazaar is small, although a thriving trade is done
with the mountain districts. Owing to the great elevation the
winter is extremely severe, and the summer of short duration.
Wheat, barley, millet and sesame are cultivated on the plain,
but fruit and vegetables have mostly to be imported from
Persia. Roads lead to Van, Urmia in Persia and Mosul through
the Nestorian country. The Kurd and Nestorian tribes in the
wilder parts of the Hakkiari Mountains are under slight govern-
ment control, and are permitted to pay tribute and given self-
government in a large degree. (F. R. M.)
BASHKIRS, a people inhabiting the Russian governments of
Ufa, Orenburg, Perm and Samara, and parts of Vyatka, especi-
ally on the slopes and confines of the Ural, and in the neighbour-
ing plains. They speak a Tatar language, but some authorities
think that they are ethnically a Finnish tribe transformed by
Tatar influence. The name Bashkir or Bash-ktirt appears for
the first time in the beginning of the loth century in the writings
of Ibn-Foslan, who, describing his travels among the Volga-
Bulgarians, mentions the Bashkirs as a warlike and idolatrous
race. The name was not used by the people themselves in the
loth century, but is a mere nickname.
Of European writers, the first to mention the Bashkirs are
Joannes de Piano Carpini (c. 1200-1260) and William of Rubru-
quis (1220-1293). These travellers, who fell in with them in
the upper parts of the river Ural, call them Pascatir, and assert
that they spoke at that time the same language as the Hun-
garians. Till the arrival of the Mongolians, about the middle of
the I3th century, the Bashkirs were a strong and independent
people and troublesome to their neighbours, the Bulgarians
and Petchenegs. At the time of the downfall of the Kazan
kingdom they were in a weak state. In 1556 they voluntarily
recognized the supremacy of Russia, and, in consequence, the
city of Ufa was founded to defend them from the Kirghiz, and
they were subjected to a fur- tax. In 1676 they rebelled under a
leader named Seit, and were with difficulty reduced; and again
in 1707, under Aldar and Ktisyom, on account of ill-treatment
by the Russian officials. Their third and last insurrection was
in r 73S> at the time of the foundation of Orenburg, and it lasted
for six years. In 1786 they were freed from taxes; and in 1798
an irregular army was formed from among them. They are now
divided into cantons and give little trouble, though some differ-
ences have arisen between them and the government about land
questions. By mode of life the Bashkirs are divided into settled
and nomadic. The former are engaged in agriculture, cattle-
rearing and bee-keeping, and live without want. The nomadic
portion is subdivided, according to the districts in which they
wander, into those of the mountains and those of the steppes.
Almost their sole occupation is the rearing of cattle; and they
attend to that in a very negligent manner, not collecting a
sufficient store of winter fodder for all their herds, but allowing
part of them to perish. The Bashkirs are usually very poor,
and in winter live partly on a kind of gruel called yuryu, and
badly prepared cheese named skurt. They are hospitable but
suspicious, apt to plunder and to the last degree lazy. They
have large heads, black hair, eyes narrow and flat, small fore-
heads, ears always sticking out and a swarthy skin. In general,
they are strong and muscular, and able to endure all kinds of
labour and privation. They profess Mahommedanism, but know
little of its doctrines. Their intellectual development is low.
See J. P. Carpini, Liber Tartarorum, edited under the title Relations
des Mongols ou Tartares, by d'Avezac (Paris, 1838) ; Gulielmus de
Rubruquis, The Journey of William of Ruhr-tick to the Eastern Parts
of the World, translated by W. W. Rockhill (London, 1900) ; Semenoff,
Slovar Ross. Imp., s.v. ; FrShn, " De Baskiris," in Mem. de I'Acad. de
St-PetersboHrg (1822); Florinsky, in Westnik Evropi (1874); an d
Katarinskij, Dictionnaire Bashkir-Russe (1900).
BASHKIRTSEFF, MARIA CONSTANTINOVA [HARIE] (1860-
1884), Russian artist and writer, was born at Gavrontsi in the
government of Pultowa in Russia on the 23rd of November
1860. When Marie was seven years old, as her father (marshal
of the nobility at Pultowa) and her mother were unable through
incompatibility to live together, Madame Bashkirtseff with her
little daughter left Russia to spend the winters at Nice or in
Italy, and the summers at German watering-places. Marie
acquired an education superior to that given to most girls of her
rank. She could read Plato and Virgil in the original, and write
four languages with almost equal facility. A gifted musician,
she at first hoped to be a singer, and studied seriously in Italy
to that end; her voice, however, was not strong enough to
stand hard work and failed her. Meanwhile she was also learning
to draw. When she lost her voice she devoted herself to painting,
and in 1877 settled in Paris, where she worked steadily in
Tony Robert- Fleury's studio. In 1880 she exhibited in the
salon a portrait of a woman; in 1881 she exhibited the "Atelier
Julian/'; in 1882 "Jean et Jacques"; in 1884 the "Meeting,"
and a portrait in pastel of a lady her cousin now in the
Luxembourg gallery, for which she was awarded a mention
honorable. Her health, always delicate, could not endure the
labour she imposed on herself in addition to the life of fashion
in which she became involved as a result of her success as an
artist, and she died of consumption on the 3ist of October 1884,
leaving a small series of works of remarkable promise. From her
childhood Marie Bashkirtseff kept an autobiographical journal;
but the editors of these brilliant confessions (Journal de Marie
Bashkirtseff, 1890), aiming apparently at captivating the reader's
interest by the girl's precocious gifts and by the names of the
various distinguished persons with whom she came in contact, so
treated certain portions as to draw down vehement protest.
This, to some extent, has brought into question the stamp of
truthfulness which constitutes the chief merit of this extra-
ordinarily interesting book. A further instalment of Marie
Bashkirtseff literature was published in the shape of letters
between her and Guy de Maupassant, with whom she started a
correspondence under a feigned name and without revealing her
identity.
See Mathilde Blind, A Study of Marie Bashkirtseff (T. Fisher
Unwin, 1892) ; The Journal of Marie Bashkirtseff: an Exposure
and a Defence, by " S." (showing that there is throughout a mistake
of four years in the date of the diary) ; Black and White, 6th Feb.
and nth April 1891, pp. 17, 304; The Journal of Marie Bashkirtseff,
translated, with an Introduction, by Mathilde Blind (2 vols., London,
1890) ; The Letters of Marie Bashkirtseff (i vol.). (B. K.)
BASIL, 1 known as BASIL THE GREAT (c. 330-379), bishop of
Caesarea, a leading churchman in the 4th century, came of a
famous family, which gave a number of distinguished supporters
to the Church. His eldest sister, Macrina, was celebrated for her
saintly life; his second brother was the famous Gregory of
Nyssa; his youngest was Peter, bishop of Sebaste; and bis
eldest brother was the famous Christian jurist Naucratius.
There was in the whole family a tendency to ecstatic emotion
and enthusiastic piety, and it is worth noting that Cappadocia
had already given to the Church men like Firmilian and Gregory
Thaumaturgus. Basil was born about 330 at Caesarea in
Cappadocia. While he was still a child, the family icmoved to
Pontus; but he soon returned to Cappadocia to live with his
mother's relations, and seems to have been brought up by his
grandmother Macrina. Eager to learn, he went to Constantin-
ople and spent four or five years there and at Athens, where
he had Gregory (q.v.) of Nazianzus for a fellow-student. Both
men were deeply influenced by Origen, and compiled the well-
known anthology of his writings, known as Philocalia (edited by
J. A. Robinson, Cambridge, 1893). It was at Athens that he
seriously began to think of religion, and resolved to seek out the
most famous hermit saints in Syria and Arabia, in order to
learn from them how to attain to that enthusiastic piety in
1 The name Basil also belongs to several other distinguished
churchmen, (i) Basil, bishop of Ancyra from 336 to 360, a semi-
Arian, highly favoured by the emperor Constantine, and a great
polemical writer ; none of his works are extant. (2) Basil of Seleucia
(fl. 448-458), a bishop who shifted sides continually in the Eutychian
controversy, and who wrote extensively; his works were published
in Paris in 1622. (3) Basil of Ancyra, fl. 787; he opposed image-
worship at the second council of Nicaea, but afterwards retracted.
(4) Basil of Achrida, archbishop of Thessalonica about 1155; he
was a stanch upholder of the claims of the Eastern Church against
the widening supremacy of the papacy.
BASIL I. BASIL II.
467
which he delighted, and how to keep his body under by macera-
tion and other ascetic devices. After this we find him at the
head of a convent near Arnesi in Pontus, in which his mother
Emilia, now a widow, his sister Macrina and several other ladies,
gave themselves to a pious life of prayer and charitable works.
He was not ordained presbyter until 365, and his ordination was
probably the result of the entreaties of his ecclesiastical superiors,
who wished to use his talents against the Arians, who were
numerous in that part of the country and were favoured by the
Arian emperor, Valens, who then reigned in Constantinople. In
370 Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, died, and Basil was chosen to
succeed him. It was then that his great powers were called into
action. Caesarea was an important diocese, and its bishop was,
ex officio, exarch of the great diocese of Pontus. Hot-blooded
and somewhat imperious, Basil was also generous and sym-
pathetic. "His zeal for orthodoxy did not blind him to what
was good in an opponent; and for the sake of peace and charity
he was content to waive the use of orthodox terminology when
it could be surrendered without a sacrifice of truth." He died
in 379-
The principal theological writings of Basil are his De Spirilu
Sancto, a lucid and edifying appeal to Scripture and early Chris-
tian tradition, and his three books against Eunomius, the chief
exponent of Anomoian Arianism. He was a famous preacher,
and many of his homilies, including a series of lenten lectures on
the Hexaimeron, and an exposition of the psalter, have been
preserved. His ascetic tendencies are exhibited in the Moralia
and Regulae, ethical manuals for use in the world and the
cloister respectively. His three hundred letters reveal a rich
and observant nature, which, despite the troubles of ill-health
and ecclesiastical unrest, remained optimistic, tender and
even playful. His principal efforts as a reformer were directed
towards the improvement of the liturgy, and the reformation of
the monastic orders of the East. (See BASILIAN MONKS.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Editions of his works appeared at Basel (1532) ;
Paris, by J. Gamier and P. Maranus (1721-1730), and by L. de
Sinner (1839). Migne's Patrol, ser. grace. 29-32 ; De Spiritu Sancto,
ed. C. F. H. Johnston (Oxford, 1892) ; Liturgia, ed. A. Robertson
(London, 1894). See also the patrologies, e.g. that of O. Barden-
hewer, and the histories of dogma, e.g. those of A. Harnack and
F. Loofs.
BASIL I. (d. 886), known as the " MACEDONIAN ", Roman
emperor in the East, was born of a family of Armenian (not
Slavonic) descent, settled in Macedonia. He spent a part of his
boyhood in captivity in Bulgaria, whither his family was carried
by the Bulgarian prince Krum in 813. He succeeded in escaping
and was ultimately lucky enough to enter the service of Theo-
philitzes, a relative of the Caesar Bardas (uncle of Michael III.),
as groom. It seems that while serving in this capacity he visited
Patrae with his master, and gained the favour of Danielis, a very
wealthy lady of that place, who received him into her household,
and endowed him with a fortune. He earned the notice of
Michael III. by winning a victory in a wrestling match, and soon
became the emperor's boon companion and was appointed
chamberlain (parakoemdmenos) . A man of his stamp, advancing
unscrupulously on the road of fortune, had no hesitation in
divorcing his wife and marrying a mistress of Michael, Eudocia
Ingerina, to please his master. It was commonly believed that
Leo VI., Basil's successor and reputed son, was really the son of
Michael. The next step was to murder the powerful Caesar
Bardas, who, as the emperor was devoted to amusement, virtu-
ally ruled the empire; this was done with the emperor's consent
by Basil's own hand (April 866), and a few weeks later Basil was
raised to the imperial dignity. Hitherto few perhaps had divined
in the unprincipled adventurer, who shared in the debauches of
the imperial drunkard, the talents of a born ruler. On the
throne he soon displayed the serious side of his nature and his
exceptional capacities for administration. In September 867 he
caused his worthless benefactor to be assassinated, and reigned
alone. He inaugurated a new age in the history of the empire,
associated with the dynasty which he founded, " the Mace-
donian dynasty" it is usually called; it would be more instructive
to call it " Armenian." It was a period of territorial expansion,
during which the empire was the strongest power in Europe.
The great legislative work which Basil undertook and his suc-
cessor completed, and which may be described as a revival of
Justinianean law, entitles him to the designation of a second
Justinian (the Basilica, a collection of laws in sixty books; and
the manuals known as the Prochiron and Epanagoge. For this
legislation see BASILICA and ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER). His
financial administration was prudent. His ecclesiastical policy
was marked by a wish to keep on good terms with Rome. One
of his first acts was to exile the patriarch Photius and restore his
rival Ignatius, whose claims were supported by the pope. Yet
he had no intention of yielding to Rome's pretensions beyond a
certain point. The decision of the Bulgarian tsar Michael to
submit the new Bulgarian Church to the jurisdiction of Con-
stantinople was a great blow to Rome, who had hoped to secure
it for herself. In 877 Photius became patriarch again, and there
was a virtual though not a formal breach with Rome. Thus the
independence of the Greek Church may be said to date from the
time of Basil. His reign was marked by a troublesome war with
the Paulician heretics, an inheritance from his predecessor;
the death of their able chief Chrysochir led to the definite sub-
jection of this little state, of which the chief stronghold was
Tephrice on the upper Euphrates, and which the Saracens had
helped to bid a long defiance to the government of Constantinople.
There was the usual frontier warfare with the Saracens in Asia
Minor. Cyprus was recovered, but only retained for seven years.
Syracuse was lost, but Ban was won back and those parts of
Calabria which had been occupied by the Saracens. The last
successes opened a new period of Byzantine domination in
southern Italy. Above all, New Rome was again mistress of the
sea, and especially of the gates of the Adriatic. Basil reigned
nineteen years as sole sovereign. His death (zpth of August 886)
was due to a fever contracted in consequence of a serious accident
in hunting. A stag dragged him from his horse by fixing its
antlers in his belt. He was saved by an attendant who cut him
loose with a knife. His last act was to cause his saviour to be
beheaded, suspecting him of the intention to kill and not to
rescue. Basil is one of the most remarkable examples of a man,
without education and exposed to the most demoralizing in-
fluences, manifesting extraordinary talents in the government
of a great state, when he had climbed to the throne by acts of
unscrupulous bloodshed.
SOURCES. Vita Basilii, by his grandson Constantino VII. (bk.
v. of the Continuation of Theophanes, ed. Bonn) ; Genesius (ed.
Bonn) ; Vita Euthymii, ed. De Boor (Berlin, 1888). Of the Arabic
sources Tabari is the most important.
MODERN WORKS. Finlay, History of Greece, vol. ii. (Oxford,
1877); Gibbon, Decline and Fall, vols. v. and vi. (ed. Bury, London,
1898) ; Hergenrother, Photius, Patriarch von Constantino pel, vol. ii.
(Regensburg, 1867). (J. B. B.)
BASIL II. (c. 958-1025), known as BULGAROKTONOS (slayer of
Bulgarians) , Roman emperor in the East, son of Romanus II. and
Theophano, great-great-grandson of Basil I., was born about 958
and crowned on the 2 2nd of April 960. After their father's death
(963) he and his younger brother Constantine were nominal
emperors during the actual reigns of Nicephorus Phocas, their
stepfather, and John Tzimisces. On the death of the latter (loth
of January 976) they assumed the sovereignty without a colleague,
but throughout their joint reign Constantine exercised no power
and devoted himself chiefly to pleasure. This was in accordance
with the Byzantine principle that in the case of two or more
co-regnant basileis only one governed. Basil was a brave soldier
and a superb horseman; he was to approve himself a strong ruler
and an able general. He did not at first display the full extent of
his energy. The administration remained in the hands of the
eunuch Basileios (an illegitimate sonof Romanus I.), president of
the senate, a wily and gifted man, who hoped that the young
emperors would be his puppets. Basil waited and watched
without interfering, and devoted himself to learning the details
of administrative business and instructing himself in military
science. During this time the throne was seriously endangered
by the rebellion of an ambitious general who aspired to play the
part of Nicephorus Phocas or Tzimisces. This was Bardas
4 68
BASIL
Sclerus, whom the eunuch deposed from his post of general in the
East. He belonged to the powerful landed aristocracy of Asia
Minor, whose pretensions were a perpetual menace to the throne.
He made himself master of the Asiatic provinces and threatened
Constantinople. To oppose him, Bardas Phocas, another general
who had revolted hi the previous reign and been interned in a
monastery, was recalled. Defeated in two battles, he was vic-
torious hi a third and the revolt was suppressed (979). Phocas
remained general in the East till 987, when he rebelled and was
proclaimed emperor by his troops. It seems that the minister
Basileios was privy to this act, and the cause was dissatisfaction
at the energy which was displayed by the emperor, who showed
that he was determined to take the administration into his own
hands and personally to control the army. Phocas advanced to
the Hellespont and besieged Abydos. Basil obtained timely aid,
hi the shape of Varangian mercenaries, from his brother-in-law
Vladimir, the Russian prince of Kiev, and marched to Abydos.
The two armies were facing each other, when Basil galloped
forward, seeking a personal combat with the usurper who was
riding hi front of his lines. Phocas, just as he prepared to face him ,
fell from his horse and was found to be dead. This ended the
rebellion.
The fall of Basileios followed; he was punished with exile and
the confiscation of his enormous property. Basil made ruthless
war upon the system of immense estates which had grown up in
Asia Minor and which his predecessor, Romanus I., had en-
deavoured to check. (For this evil and the legislation which was
aimed at it see ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER.) He sought to protect
the lower and middle classes.
Basil gained some successes against the Saracens (995); but
his most important work in the East was the annexation of the
principalities of Armenia. He created in those highlands a
strongly fortified frontier, which, if his successors had been
capable, should have proved an effective barrier against the
invasions of the Seljuk Turks. The greatest achievement of the
reign was the subjugation of Bulgaria. After the death of
Tzimisces (who had reduced only the eastern part of the Bulgarian
kingdom), the power of Bulgaria was restored by the Tsar
Samuel, in whom Basil found a worthy foe. The emperor's first
efforts against him were unsuccessful (981), and the war was not
resumed till 996, Samuel in the meantime extending his rule along
the Adriatic coast and imposing his lordship on Servia. Eastern
Bulgaria was finally recovered in 1000; but the war continued
with varying successes till 1014, when the Bulgarian army suffered
an overwhelming defeat. Basil blinded 1 5,000 prisoners, leaving
a one-eyed man to every hundred to lead them to their tsar, who
faulted at the sight and died two days later. The last sparks of
resistance were extinguished in 1018, and the great Slavonic realm
lay in the dust. The power of Byzantium controlled once more
the Illyrian peninsula. Basil died hi December 102501 the midst
of preparations to send a naval expedition to recover Sicily from
the Saracens. .
Basil's reign marks the highest point of the power of the
Eastern empire since Justinian I. Part of the credit is due to
his predecessors Nicephorus and Tzimisces, but the greater
part belongs to him. He dedicated himself unsparingly to the
laborious duties of ruling, and he had to reckon throughout with
the ill-will of a rich and powerful section of his subjects. He was
hard and cruel, without any refinement or interest hi culture. In
a contemporary psalter (preserved hi the library of St Mark at
Venice) there is a portrait of him, with a grey beard, crowned and
robed hi imperial costume.
AUTHORITIES. Leo Diaconus (ed. Bonn, 1828); Psellus, History
(ed. Sathas, London, 1899) ; George Cedrenus (Chronicle, transcribed
from the work of John Scylitzes, vol. ii., ed. Bonn, 1839) ; Zonaras,
bk. xvii. (ed. Bonn, vol. iii., 1897); Cecaumenus, Stralegikon (ed.
Vasilievski and Jernstedt, St Petersburg, 1896); Yahya of Antioch
(contemporary Asiatic chronicle), extracts with Russian translation
by Rosen (St Petersburg, 1883); Al Mekin (Elmacinus), Historia
Saracenica (ed. with Latin translation by Erpenius, Leiden, 1625) ;
Laws (Navellae) of Basil " (ed. Zacharia von Lingenthal, in Jus
Graeco-Romanum, vol. iii., 1853); Finlay, Hist, of Greece; Gibbon,
Decline and Fall; G. Schlumberger, L' Epopee byzantine, part i. and
. part 11. (Paris, 1896, 1900). (J. B. B.)
BASIL (Russ. VASILY), the name of four grand-dukes of
Moscow and tsars of Muscovy.
BASIL I. DMITREVICH (1371-1425), son of Dmitri (Demetrius)
Donskoi, whom he succeeded hi 1389, married Sophia, the
daughter of Vitovt, grand-duke of Lithuania. In his reign
the grand-duchy of Muscovy became practically hereditary,
and asserted its supremacy over all the surrounding princi-
palities. Nevertheless Basil received his yarluik, or investiture,
from the Golden Horde and was compelled to pay tribute
to the grand khan, Tokhtamuish. He annexed the princi-
pality of Suzdal to Moscovy, together with Murom, Kozelsk
Peremyshl, and other places; reduced the grand-duchy of Rostov
to a state of vassalage; and acquired territory from the republic
of Great Novgorod by treaty. In his reign occurred the invasion
of Timur (1395), who ruined the Volgan regions, but did not
penetrate so far as Moscow. Indeed Timur's raid was of service
to the Russian prince as it all but wiped out the Golden Horde,
which for the next twelve years was in a state of anarchy. During
the whole of this time no tribute was paid to the khan, though
vast sums of money were collected hi the Moscow treasury for
military purposes. In 1408 the Mirza Edigei ravaged Muscovite
territory, but was unable to take Moscow. In 1412, however,
Basil found it necessary to pay the long-deferred visit of sub-
mission to the Horde. The most important ecclesiastical event
of the reign was the elevation of the Bulgarian, Gregory Tsamblak,
to the metropolitan see of Kiev (1425) by Vitovt, grand-duke of
Lithuania; the immediate political consequence of which was
the weakening of the hold of Muscovy on the south-western
Russian states. During Basil's reign a terrible visitation of the
" Black Death " decimated the population.
See T. Schiemann, Russland bis ins 17. Jahrhundert (Gotha,
1885-1887).
BASIL II., called TEMNY (" the BLIND ") (1415-1462), son of
the preceding, succeeded his father as grand-duke of Moscow hi
1425. He was a man of small ability and unusual timidity,
though not without tenacity of purpose. Nevertheless, during
his reign Moscow steadily increased hi power, as if to show that
the personality of the grand-dukes had become quite a subor-
dinate factor in its development. In 1430 Basil was seized by
his uncle, George of Halicz, and sent a prisoner to Kostroma;
but the nation, dissatisfied with George, released Basil and hi
1433 he returned hi triumph to Moscow. George, however, took
the field against him and Basil fled to Novgorod. On the death
of George, Basil was at constant variance with George's children,
one of whom, Basil, he had blinded; but hi 1445 the grand-duke
fell into the hands of blind Basil's brother, Shemyak, and was
himself deprived of his sight and banished to Uglich (1445).
The clergy and people, however, being devoted to the grand-duke,
assisted him not only to recover his throne a second time, but to
put Shemyak to flight, and to seize Halicz, his patrimony.
During the remainder of Basil II. 's reign he slowly and un-
obtrusively added district after district to the grand-duchy of
Muscovy, so that, in fine, only the republics of Novgorod and
Pskov and the principalities of Tver and Vereya remained
independent of Moscow. Yet all this time the realm was overrun
continually by the Tatars and Lithuanians, and suffered severely
from their depredations. Basil's reign saw the foundation of
the Solovetsk monastery and the rise of the khanate of the
Crimea. In 1448 the north Russian Church became virtually
independent of the patriarchal see of Constantinople by adopting
the practice of selecting its metropolitan from among native
priests and prelates exclusively.
See S. M. Solovev, History of Russia (Russ.), (Petersburg,! 1895).
BASIL III., IVANOVICH (1479-1533), tsar of Muscovy, son of
Ivan III. and Sophia Palaeologa, succeeded his father hi 1505.
A crafty prince, with all the tenacity of his race, Basil succeeded
in incorporating with Muscovy the last remnants of the ancient
independent principalities, by accusing the princes of Ryazan
and Syeversk of conspiracy against him, seizing their persons,
and annexing their domains (1517-1523). Seven years earlier
(24th of January 1510) the last free republic of old Russia, Pskov,
was deprived of its charter and assembly-bell, which were sent
BASILIAN MONKS
469
to Moscow, and tsarish governors were appointed to rule it.
Basil also took advantage of the difficult position of Sigismund
of Poland to capture Smolensk, the great eastern fortress of
Poland (1512), chiefly through the aid of the rebel Lithuanian,
Prince Michael Glinsky, who provided him with artillery and
engineers from western Europe. The loss of Smolensk was the
first serious injury inflicted by Muscovy on Poland and only the
exigencies of Sigismund compelled him to acquiesce in its
surrender (1522). Equally successful, on the whole, was Basil
against the Tatars. Although in 1510 he was obliged to buy off
the khan of the Crimea, Mahommed Girai, under the very walls
of Moscow, towards the end of his reign he established the
Russian influence on the Volga, and in 1530 placed the pre-
tender Elanyei on the throne of Kazan. Basil was the first
grand-duke of Moscow who adopted the title of tsar and the
double-headed eagle of the East Roman empire. By his second
wife, Helena Glinska, whom he married in 1526, Basil had a son
Ivan, who succeeded him as Ivan IV.
See Sigismund Herberstain, Rerum Moscoviticarum Commentarii
(Vienna, 1549); P. A. Byelov, Russian History Previous to the
Reforms of Peter the Great (Russ.), (Petersburg, 1895); E. I. Kash-
provsky, The War of Basil III. with Sigismund I. (Russ.), (Nyezhin,
1899).
BASIL IV., SHUISKY (d. 1612), tsar of Muscovy, was during the
reigns of Theodore I. and Boris Godunov, one of the leading
boyars of Muscovy. It was he who, in obedience to the secret
orders of Tsar Boris, went to Uglich to inquire into the cause of
the death of Demetrius, the infant son of Ivan the Terrible, who
had been murdered there by the agents of Boris. Shuisky
obsequiously reported that it was a case of suicide; yet, on the
death of Boris and the accession of his son Theodore II., the
false boyar, in order to gain favour with the first false Demetrius,
went back upon his own words and recognized the pretender as
the real Demetrius, thus bringing about the assassination of the
young Theodore. Shuisky then plotted against the false
Demetrius and procured his death (May 1606) also by publicly
confessing that the real Demetrius had been indeed slain and that
the reigning tsar was an impostor. This was the viler in him as
the pseudo-Demetrius had already forgiven him one conspiracy.
Shuisky 's adherents thereupon proclaimed him tsar (ipth of May
1606). He reigned till the igth of July 1610, but was never
generally recognized. Even in Moscow itself he had little or no
authority, and was only not deposed by the dominant boyars
because they had none to put in his place. Only the popularity
of his heroic cousin, Prince Michael Skopin-Shuisky, who led
his armies and fought his battles for him, and soldiers from
Sweden, whose assistance he purchased by a disgraceful cession
of Russian territory, kept him for a time on his unstable throne.
In 1610 he was deposed, made a monk, and finally carried off as
a trophy by the Polish grand hetman, Stanislaus Zolkiewski.
He died at Warsaw in 1612.
See D. I. Ilovaisky, The Troubled Period of the Muscovite Realm
(Russ.), (Moscow, 1894) : S. I. Platonov, Sketches of the Great Anarchy
in the Realm of Moscow (Petersburg, 1899); D. V. Tsvyeltev, Tsar
Vasily Shuisky (Russ.), (Warsaw, 1901-1903) ; R. Nisbet Bain,
Slavonic Europe, ch. viii. (Cambridge, 1907). (R. N. B.)
BASILIAN MONKS, those who follow the rule of Basil the
Great. The chief importance of the monastic rule and institute
of St Basil lies in the fact that to this day his reconstruction of
the monastic life is the basis of the monasticism of the Greek and
Slavonic Churches, though the monks do not call themselves
Basilians. St Basil's claim to the authorship of the Rules and
other ascetical writings that go under his name, has been ques-
tioned; but the tendency now is to recognize as his at any rate
the two sets of Rules. Probably the truest idea of his monastic
system may be derived from a correspondence between him and
St Gregory Nazianzen at the beginning of his monastic life, the
chief portions whereof are translated by Newman in the Church
of the Fathers, " Basil and Gregory," 4, 5. On leaving Athens
Basil visited the monasteries of Egypt and Palestine; in the
latter country and in Syria the monastic life tended to become
more and more eremitical and to run to great extravagances in
the matter of bodily austerities (see MONASTICISM). When
(c. 360) Basil formed his monastery in the neighbourhood of
Neocaesarea in Pontus, he deliberately set himself against these
tendencies. He declared that the cenobitical life is superior to
the eremitical; that fasting and austerities should not interfere
with prayer or work; that work should form an integral part of
the monastic life, not merely as an occupation, but for its own
sake and in order to do good to others; and therefore that
monasteries should be near towns. All this was a new departure
in monachism. The life St Basil established was strictly ceno-
bitical, with common prayer seven times a day, common work,
common meals. It was, in spite of the new ideas, an austere life,
of the kind called contemplative, given up to prayer, .the reading
of the Scriptures and heavy field-work. The so-called Rules (the
Longer and the Shorter) are catechisms of the spiritual life rather
than a body of regulations for the corporate working of a com-
munity, such as is now understood by a monastic rule. Appar-
ently no vows were taken, but obedience, personal poverty,
chastity, self-denial, and the other monastic virtues were strongly
enforced, and a monk was not free to abandon the monastic life.
A novitiate had to be passed, and ypung boys were to be educated
in the monastery, but were not expected to become monks.
St Basil's influence, and the greater suitability of his institute
to European ideas, ensured 'the propagation of Basilian
monachism; and Sozomen says that in Cappadocia and the
neighbouring provinces there were no hermits but only cenobites.
However, the eastern hankering after the eremitical life long
survived, and it was only by dint of legislation, both ecclesiastical
(council of Chalcedon) and civil (Justinian Code), that the
Basilian cenobitic form of monasticism came to prevail throughout
the Greek-speaking lands, though the eremitical forms have
always maintained themselves.
Greek monachism underwent no development or change for
four centuries, except the vicissitudes inevitable in all things
human, which in monasticism assume the form of alternations of
relaxation and revival. The second half of the 8th century seems
to have been a time of very general decadence; but about the
year 800 Theodore, destined to be the only other creative name in
Greek monachism, became abbot of the monastery of the Studium
in Constantinople. He set himself to reform his monastery and
restore St Basil's spirit in its primitive vigour. But to effect this,
and to give permanence to the reformation, he saw that there was
need of a more practical code of laws to regulate the details of the
daily life, as a supplement to St Basil's Rules. He therefore drew
up constitutions, afterwards codified (see Migne, Patrol. Grace.
xcix., 1704-1 757), which became the norm of the life at the Studium
monastery, and gradually spread thence to the monasteries of the
rest of the Greek empire. Thus to this day the Rules of Basil and
the Constitutions of Theodore the Studite, along with the canons
of the Councils, constitute the chief part of Greek and Russian
monastic law.
The spirit of Greek monachism, as regenerated by Theodore,
may best be gathered from his Letters, Discourses and Testa-
ment. 1 Under the abbot were several officials to superintend the
various departments; the liturgical services in the church took
up a considerable portion of the day, but Theodore seems to have
made no attempt to revive the early practice of the Studium in
this matter (see ACOEMETI); the rest of the time was divided
between reading and work; the latter included the chief handi-
crafts, for the monks, only ten in number, when Theodore became
abbot, increased under his rule to over a thousand. One kind of
work practised with great zeal and success by the Studite monks,
was the copying of manuscripts, so that to them and to the schools
that went forth from them we owe a great number of existing
Greek MSS. and the preservation of many works of classical and
ecclesiastical antiquity. In addition to this, literary and theo-
logical studies were pursued, and the mysticism of pseudo-
Dionysius was cultivated. The life, though simple and self-
denying and hard, was not of extreme austerity. There was a
division of the monks into two classes, similar to the division in
vogue in later time in the West into choir-monks and lay-brothers.
The life of the choir-monks was predominantly contemplative,
1 Specimen passages, and also a general picture of the life, will be
found in Miss Alice Gardner's Theodore of Studium, ch. v.
470
BASILICA
being taken up with the church services and private prayer and
study; the lay-brothers carried on the various trades and external
works. There is little or no evidence of works of charity outside
the monastery being undertaken by Studite monks. Strict per-
sonal poverty was enforced, and all were encouraged to approach
confession and communion frequently. Vows had been imposed
on monks by the council of Chalcedon (451). The picture of
Studite life is the picture of normal Greek and Slavonic monachism
to this day.
During the middle ages the centre of Greek monachism shifted
from Constantinople to Mount Athos. The first monastery to be
founded here was that of St Athanasius (c. 960), and in the course
of the next three or four centuries monasteries in great numbers
Greek, Slavonic and one Latin were established on Mount
Athos, some twenty of which still survive.
Basilian monachism spread from Greece to Italy and Russia.
Rufinus had translated St Basil's Rules into Latin (c. 400) and
they became the rule of life in certain Italian monasteries. They
were known to St Benedict, who refers his monks to " the Rule of
our holy Father Basil," indeed St Benedict owed more of the
ground-ideas of his Rule to St Basil than to any other monastic
legislator. In the 6th and yth centuries there appear to have
been Greek monasteries in Rome and south Italy and especially
in Sicily. But during the course of the 8th, gth and loth centuries
crowds of fugitives poured into southern Italy from Greece and
Sicily, under stress of the Saracenic, Arab and other invasions;
and from the middle of the gih century Basilian monasteries,
peopled by Greek-speaking monks, were established in great
numbers in Calabria and spread northwards as far as Rome.
Some of them existed on into the i8th century, but the only
survivor now is the monastery founded by St Nilus (c. 1000) at
Grottaferrata in the Alban Hills. Professor Kirsopp Lake has
(1903) written four valuable articles (Journal of Theological
Studies, iv., v.) on " The Greek monasteries of South Italy "; he
deals in detail with their scriptoria and the dispersal of their
libraries, a matter of much interest, in that some of the chief
collections of Greek MSS. in western Europe as the Bessarion
at Venice and a great number at the Vatican come from the
spoils of these Italian Basilian houses.
Of much greater importance was the importation of Basilian
monachism into Russia, for it thereby became the norm of
monachism for all the Slavonic lands. Greek monks played a
considerable part in the evangelization of the Slavs, and the first
Russian monastery was founded'at Kiev (c. 1050) by a monk from
Mount Athos. The monastic institute had a great development
in Russia, and at the present day there are in the Russian empire
some 400 monasteries of men and 100 of women, many of which
support hospitals, almshouses and schools. In the other Slavonic
lands there are a considerable number of monasteries, as also in
Greece itself, while in the Turkish dominions there are no fewer
than 100 Greek monasteries. The monasteries are of three kinds :
cenobia proper, wherein full monastic common life, with personal
poverty, is observed; others called idiorrhythmic, wherein the
monks are allowed the use of their private means and lead a
generally mitigated and free kind of monastic life; and the lauras,
wherein the life is semi-eremitical. Greek and Slavonic monks
wear a black habit. The visits of Western scholars in modern
times to Greek monasteries in search of MSS. notably to St
Catherine's on Mount Sinai, and to Mount Athos has directed
much attention to contemporary Greek monachism, and the
accounts of these expeditions commonly contain descriptions,
more or less sympathetic and intelligent, of the present-day life
of Greek monks. The first such account was Robert Curzon's in
parts iii. (1834) and iv. (1837) of the Monasteries of the Levant;
the most recent in English is Athelstan Riley's Athos (1887). The
life is mainly given up to devotional contemplative exercises; the
church services are of extreme length; intellectual study is little
cultivated; manual labour has almost disappeared; there are
many hermits on Athos (q.v.).
The ecclesiastical importance of the monks in the various
branches of the Orthodox Church lies in this, that as bishops
must be celibate, whereas the parochial clergy must be married,
the bishops are all recruited from the monks. But besides this
they have been a strong spiritual and religious influence, as is
recognized even by those who have scant sympathy with
monastic ideals (see Harnack, What is Christianity? Lect. xiii.,
end).
Outside the Orthodox Church are some small congregations
of Uniat Basilians. Besides Grottaferrata, there are Catholic
Basilian monasteries in Poland, Hungary, Galicia, Rumania;
and among the Melchites or Uniat Syrians.
There have been Basilian nuns from the beginning, St Macrina,
St Basil's sister, having established a nunnery which was under
his direction. The nuns are devoted to a purely contemplative
life, and in Russia, where there are about a hundred nunneries,
they are not allowed to take final vows until the age of sixty.
They are very numerous throughout the East.
AUTHORITIES. In addition to the authorities for different portions
of the subject-matter named in the course of this article, may be
mentioned, on St Basil and his Rules, Montalembert, Monks of the
West, second part of bk. ii., and the chapter on St Basil in James O.
Hannay's Spirit and Origin of Christian Monasticism (1903). On the
history and spirit of Basilian Monachism, Helyot, Hist, dcs Ordres
Religieux, i. (1714); Heimbucher, Orden und Kongrfgationen (1907),
i., II; Abbe Marin, Les Moines de Constantinople (1897); Karl
Holl, Enthusiasmus und Bussgewalt beim griechischen Monchtum
(1898); Otto Zockler, Askese und Monchtum, pp. 285-309 (1897).
For general information see Wetzer und Welte, Kirchenlexicon (ed.
ji.), art. " Basilianer," and Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopadie (ed.
iii.), in articles " Monchtum," " Orientalische Kirche," and " Athos-
berg," where copious references will be found. (E. C. B.)
BASILICA, a word of Greek origin (see below), frequently used
in Latin literature and inscriptions to denote a large covered
building that could accommodate a considerable number of
people. Strictly speaking, a basilica was a building of this kind
situated near the business centre of a city and arranged for the
convenience of merchants, litigants and persons engaged on the
public service; but in a derived sense the word might be used
for any large structure wherever situated, such as a hall of
audience (Vitruv. vi. 5. 2) or a covered promenade (St Jerome,
Ep. 46) in a private palace; a riding school (basilica equeslris
exercitaloria, C.I.L. vii. 965); a market or store for flowers
(basilica floscellaria [Notitia]), or other kinds of goods (basilica
vestiaria, C.I.L. viii. 20156), or a hall of meeting for a religious
body. In this derived sense the word came naturally to be
applied to the extensive buildings used for Christian worship
in the age of Constantine and his successors.
The question whether this word conveyed to the ancients any
special architectural significance is a difficult one, and some
writers hold that the name betokened only the use of the building,
others that it suggested also a certain form. Our knowledge of
the ancient basilica as a civil structure is derived primarily from
Vitruvius, and we learn about it also from existing remains and
from incidental notices in classical writers and in inscriptions.
If we review all the evidence we are led to the conclusion that
there did exist a normal form of the building, though many
examples deviated therefrom. This normal form we shall under-
stand if we consider the essential character of -the building in
the light of what Vitruvius tells us of it.
Vitruvius treats the basilica in close connexion with the forum,
to which in his view it is an adjunct. In the earlier classical
times, both in Greece and Italy, business of every kind, political,
commercial and legal, was transacted in the open forum, and
there also were presented shows and pageants. When business
increased and the numbers of the population were multiplied,
it was found convenient to provide additional accommodation for
these purposes. Theatres and amphitheatres took the per-
formances and games. Markets provided for those that bought
and sold, while for business of more important kinds accommoda-
tion could be secured by laying out new agorae or fora in the
immediate vicinity of the old. At Rome this was done by means
of the so-called imperial fora, the latest and most splendid of
which was that of Trajan. These fora corresponded to the later
Greek or Hellenistic agora, which, as Vitruvius tells us, was of
regular form and surrounded by colonnades in two stories, and
they had the practical use of relieving the pressure on the
BASILICA
47'
original forum (Cic., ad Att. iv. 16). The basilica was a structure
intended for the same purposes. It was to all intents and
purposes a covered forum, and in its normal form was constituted
by an arrangement of colonnades in two stories round a rect-
angular space, that was not, like the Greek agora, open, but
covered with a roof. Vitruvius writes of it as frequented by
merchants, who would find in it shelter and quiet for the trans-
action of their business. Legal tribunals were also set up in it,
though it is a mistake to suppose the basilica a mere law court.
The magistrates who presided over these tribunals had some-
times platforms, curved or rectangular in plan, provided as part
of the permanent fittings of the edifice.
According to Vitruvius (v. i. 4, cf. also vi. 3. 9) the building is
to be in plan a rectangle, not more than three times nor less than
twice as long as it is broad. If the site oblige the length to be
greater, the surplus is to be cut off to form what he calls
ckalcidica, by which must be meant open vestibules. The
interior is divided into a central space and side aisles one-third
the width of this. The ground plan of the basilica at Pompeii
(fig. i) illustrates this description, though the superstructure did
not correspond to the Vitruvian scheme. The columns between
nave and aisles, Vitruvius proceeds, are the same height as the
width of the latter, and the aisle is covered with a flat roof
forming a terrace (contignatio) on which people can walk. Sur-
rounding this on the inner side is a breastwork or parapet
(pluteum), which would conceal these promenaders from the
view of the merchants in the basilica below. On the top of this
parapet stood the upper row of columns, three-quarters as high
as the lower ones. The spaces between these columns, above the
FIG. I. Basilica at Pompeii, i, Portico (Chalcidicum) ; 2, hall of
basilica; 3, aisles; 4, altar; 5, tribunal; 6, offices.
top of the pluteum, would be left free for the admission of light
to the central space, which was covered by a roof called by
Vitruvius (v. i. 6) mediana testudo. Nothing is said about a
permanent tribunal or about an apse.
How far existing remains agree with the Vitruvian scheme will
be seen as we proceed. We have now to consider the derivation
of the word " basilica," the history of the form of building, and
its architectural scheme as represented in actual relics.
The word " basilica " is a Latinized form of the Greek adjective
0cunXuri7, " royal," and some feminine substantive, such as
domus, or stoa, must be understood with it. A certain building
at Athens, wherein the &pxw /SaatXtus transacted business and
the court of the Areopagus sometimes assembled, was called
jSairiXtuK (Trod, and it is an accredited theory, though it is by
no means proved, that we have here the origin of the later
basilica. It is difficult to see why this was called " royal "
except for some special but accidental reason such as can in this
case be divined. There are other instances in which a term that
becomes specific has been derived from some one specimen
accidentally named. " Labyrinth " is one case in point, and
" basilica " may be another. It is true that we do not know
what was the shape of the King Archon's portico, but the same
name (WiXetos a-ma) was given to the grand structure erected
by Herod the Great along the southern edge of the Temple
platform at Jerusalem, and this corresponded to the Vitruvian
scheme of a columned fabric, with nave and aisles and clerestory
lighting.
Whether the Roman basilicas, with which we are chiefly
concerned, were derived directly from the Athenian example,
or mediately from this through structures of the same kind
erected in the later Greek cities, is hard to say. We should
naturally look in that direction for the prototypes of the Roman
basilicas, but as a fact we are not informed of any very early
basilicas in these cities. The earliest we know of is the existing
basilica at Pompeii, that may date back into the and century
B.C., whereas basilicas made their appearance at Rome nearly
at the beginning of that century. The first was erected by M.
Porcius Cato, the censor, in 184 B.C., and was called after his
name Basilica Porcia. Cato had recently visited Athens and
had been struck by the beauty of the city, so that it is quite
possible that the importation was direct.
Rome soon obtained other basilicas, of which the important
Basilica Fulvia-Aemilia came next in point of time, till by the
age of Augustus there were at least five in the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the forum, the latest and most extensive being the
Basilica Julia, which ran parallel to its southern side, and is
shown in plan in fig. 2. The great Basilica Ulpia was built
FIG. 2. Plan of Basilica Julia, Rome.
(From Baedeker's Central Italy, by permission of Karl Baedeker.)
by Trajan in connexion with his forum about A.D. 112, and a
fragment of the Capitoline plan of Rome gives the scheme of
it (fig. 3), while an attempted restoration of the interior by
Canina is shown in fig. 4. The vaulted basilica of Maxen-
tius or Constantino on the Via Sacra dates from the beginning
of the 4th century, and fig. 5 gives the section of it. The
number of public basilicas we read of at Rome alone amounts to
about a score, while many private basilicas, for business or
recreation, must also have existed, that in the palace of Domitian
on the Palatine being the best known. In provincial cities in
Italy, and indeed all over the empire, basilicas were almost
universal, and in the case of Italy we have proof of this as early
as the date of the death of Augustus, for Suetonius (Aug. 100)
tells us that the body of that emperor, when it was brought from
Nola in Campania to Rome, rested " in basilica cujusque oppidi."
As regards existing examples, neither in the peninsula nor the
provinces can it be said that these give any adequate idea of
FIG. 3. Plan of Basilica Ulpia, from Capitoline plan of Rome.
the former abundance and wide distribution of basilicas.
Northern Africa contributes one or two examples, and a plan is
given of that at Timgad (fig. 6). The Gallic basilicas, which
must have been very numerous, are represented only by the
noble structure at Trier (Treves), which is now a single vast hall
180 ft. long, 90 ft. wide and ico ft. high, commanded at one end
by a spacious apse. There is reason to conjecture that this is
the basilica erected by Constantine, and some authorities believe
that originally it had internal colonnades. ' In England basilicas
remain in part at Silchester (fig. 7), Uriconium (Wroxeter),
472
BASILICA
FIG. 4. Interior view of Trajan's Basilica (Basilica Ulpia), as restored by Canina.
Chester (?) and Lincoln, while three others are mentioned in
inscriptions (C.I.L. vii. 287, 445, 965).
A comparison of the plans of existing basilicas shows con-
siderable variety in form. Some basilicas (Julia, Ulpia, Pompeii)
have the central space surrounded by galleries supported on
columns or piers, according to the normal scheme, and the
newly excavated Basilica Aemilia, north of the Roman forum,
agrees with these. In some North African examples, in the
palace basilica of Domitian, and at Silchester, there are colon-
nades down the long sides but not across the ends. Others
(Trier [?], Timgad) have no interior divisions. One (Maxentius)
is entirely a vaulted structure and in form resembles the great
halls of the Roman Thermae. At Pompeii, Timgad and Sil-
chester, there are fixed tribunals, while vaulted apses that may
FIG. 5. Section of the Basilica of Maxentius or Constantine
(Temple of Peace).
have contained tribunals occur in the basilica of Maxentius.
In the Basilica Julia there was no tribunal at all, though we
know that the building was regularly used for the centumviral
court (Quint, xii. 5. 6), and the same was the case in the Ulpia,
for the semicircular projection at the end shown on the Capitoline-
plan, was not a vaulted apse and was evidently distinct from
the basilica.
In view of the above it might be questioned whether it is safe
to speak of a normal form of the basilica, but when we consider
the vast number of basilicas that have perished compared to the
few that have survived, and the fact that the origins and tradi-
tions of the building show it to have been, as Vitruvius describes
it, essentially a columned structure, there is ample justification
for the view expressed earlier in this article. There can be little
doubt that the earlier basilicas, and the majority of basilicas
: taken as a whole, had a central space with galleries, generally
in two stories, round it, and some arrangement for clerestory
lighting. Later basilicas might vary in architectural scheme,
while affording the same sort of accommodation as the older ones.
The relation of the civil basilica of the Romans to the Christian
church has been extensively discussed, and the reader will find the
controversy ably summarized in Kraus's Geschichte der christlichen
Kunst, bk. 5. There is nothing remarkable in the fact that a large
church was called a basilica, for the term was applied, as we have
seen, to structures of many kinds, and we even find " basilica "
used for the meeting-place of a pagan religious association (Rom.
Mitt. 1891, p. 109). The similarity in some respects of the early
Christian churches to the normal form of the columned basilica is
so striking, that we can understand how the theory was once held
that Christian churches were the actual civil basilicas turned over
from secular to religious uses. There is no evidence for this in the
case of public basilicas, and it stands to reason that the demands
on these for secular purposes would remain the same whether
Christianity were the religion of the empire or not. Moreover,
though there are one or two civil basilicas that resemble churches,
the latter differ in some
most important respects |*[ Forum
from the form of the I* t t 9.
basilica that we have
recognized as normal.
The early Christian
basilicas, at any rate
in the west, had very
seldom, if ever, galleries
over the side aisles, and
their interior is always
dominated by the semi-
dome of an apse that
terminates the central
nave, whereas, with the
doubtful exception of
Silchester (Archaeologia,
liii. 549), there is no instance known of a vaulted apse in a
columned civil basilica of the normal kind.
When buildings were first expressly erected for Christian
worship, in the 3rd or perhaps already in the 2nd century A.D.
(Leclercq, Manuel, ch. iii. " Les edifices Chretiens avant la paix
de 1'eglise "), they probably took the form of an oblong interior
^--
^ m
1
G , ,' :
m
Nl
Mill
FIG. 6. Plan of Basilica adjoining
the Forum of the Roman city of Timgad,
in North Africa.
(From Gselt's Monuments antiques de I'AIgtrie,
by permission of A. Fontemoing.)
BASILICA
473
terminated by an apse. After the time of Constantine, when the
numbers of the faithful were enormously increased, side aisles
were added, and in this way the structure came to assume an
appearance similar to that of the civil basilica. A striking
confirmation of this view has recently come to light at S. Saba on
the Aventine at Rome, where a small and very early church,
without aisles, has been discovered beneath the floor of the
present basilica.
There are, on the other hand, instances in which private
basilicas in palaces and mansions were handed over to the
Christians for sacred uses. We know that to have been the case
with the basilicas of S. Croce in Gerusalemme and S. Maria
Maggiore at Rome, which originated in the halls of the Sessorian
and Liberian palaces respectively, granted by Constantine to the
Christians. We may adduce also as evidence of the same practice
a passage in bk. x. ch. 71 of the theological romance known as The
Recognitions of Clement, probably dating from the early half of the
3rd century, in which we are told that Theophilus of Antioch, on
his conversion by St Peter, made over " the basilica of his house "
for a church. But however this may have been, with, perhaps,
the single exception of S. Croce, the existing Christian basilicas
were erected from the ground for their sacred purpose. At
Rome .the columns, friezes and other materials of the desecrated
temples and public buildings furnished abundant materials for
their construction. The decadence of art is plainly shown by
the absence of rudimentary architectural knowledge in these
FIG. 7. Plan of Basilica adjoining the Forum of the
Roman city at Silchester, Hants.
(From Archaeologia, vol. liii.)
reconstructions. Not only are columns of various heights and
diameters made to do duty in the same colonnade, but even
different orders stand side by side (e.g. Ionic, Corinthian and
Composite at S. Maria in Trastevere) ; while pilasters assume a
horizontal position and serve as entablatures, as at S. Lorenzo
fuori le Mura. There being no such quarry of ready-worked
materials at Ravenna, the noble basilicas of that city are free from
these defects, and exhibit greater unity of design and harmony of
proportions.
An early Christian basilica may be thus described in its main
features: A porch supported on pillars (as at S. Clemente) gave
admission into an open court or atrium, surrounded by a colon-
naded cloister (S. Clemente, Old St Peter's, S. Ambrogio at Milan,
Parenzo). In the centre of the court stood a cistern or fountain
(cantharus, phiale), for drinking and ablutions. In close contiguity
to the atrium, often to the west, was the baptistery, usually
octagonal (Parenzo). The church was entered through a long
narrow porch (narthex), beyond which penitents, or those under
ecclesiastical censure, were forbidden to pass. Three or more
lofty doorways, according to the number of the aisles, set in
marble cases, gave admission to the church. The doors them-
selves were of rich wood, elaborately carved with scriptural
subjects (S. Sabina on the Aventine), or of bronze similarly
adorned and often gilt. Magnificent curtains, frequently
embroidered with sacred figures or scenes, closed the entrance,
keeping out the heat of summer and the cold of winter.
The interior consisted of a long and wide nave, sometimes as
much as 80 ft. across, terminating in a semicircular apse, with one
or sometimes (Sc Paul's, Old St Peter's, St John Lateran) two
aisles on each fide, separated by colonnades of marble pillars
supporting horizontal entablatures (Old St Peter's, S. Maria
Maggiore, S. Lc renzo) or arches (St Paul's, S. Agnese, S. Clemente,
the two basilicas of S. Apollinare at Ravenna). Above the pillars
the clerestory wall rose to a great height, pierced in its upper part
by a range of plain round-headed windows. The space between
the windows and the colonnade (the later triforium-space), was
usually decorated with a series of mosaic pictures in panels. The
colonnades sometimes extended quite to the end of the church
(the Ravenna basilicas), sometimes ceased seme little distance
from the end, thus admitting the formation of a transverse aisle
or transept (St Paul's, Old St Peter's, St John Lateran). Where
this transept occurred it was divided from the nave by a wide arch,
the face and soffit of which were richly decorated with mosaics.
Over the crown of the arch we often find a bust of Christ or the,
holy lamb lying upon the altar, and, on either side, the evangel-
istic symbols, the seven candlesticks and the twenty-four elders.
Another arch spanned the semicircular apse, in which the church
always terminated. From Carolingian times this was designated
the arch of triumph, because a cross was suspended from it.
The conch or semi-dome that covered the apse was always
covered with mosaic pictures, usually paintings of our Lord, either
seated or standing, with St Peter and St Paul, and other apostles
and saints, on either hand. The beams of the roof were sometimes
concealed by a flat ceiling, richly carved and gilt. The altar,
standing in the centre of the chord of the apse on a raised platform
reached by flights of steps, was rendered conspicuous by a lofty
canopy supported by marble pillars (ciborium, baldacchino) , from
which depended curtains of the richest materials. Beneath the
altar was the confessio, a subterranean chapel, containing the
body of the patron saint, and relics of other holy persons. This
was approached by descending flights of steps from the nave or
aisles. The confessio in some cases reproduced the original place
of interment of the patron saint, either in a catacomb-chapel or in
an ordinary grave, and thus formed the sacred nucleus round
which the church arose. We have good examples of this arrange-
ment at St Peter's and St Paul's at Rome, and S. Apollinare in
Classe, Ravenna. It was copied hi the original cathedral of
Canterbury. The bishop or officiating presbyter advanced from
his seat in the centre of the semicircle of the apse to the altar, and
celebrated the Eucharist with his face to the congregation below.
At the foot of the altar steps a raised platform, occupying the
upper portion of the nave, formed a choir for the singers, readers
and other inferior clergy. This oblong space was separated from
the aisles and from the western portion of the nave by low marble
walls or railings (cancelli). From these walls projected ambones
or pulpits with desks, also of marble, ascended by steps.
The exterior of the basilicas was usually of an extreme plain-
ness. The vast brick walls were unrelieved by ornament, save
occasionally by arcading as at S. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna,
and had no compensating grace of outline or beauty of proportion.
An exception was madefortheentrance front, which was sometimes
covered with plates of marble mosaics or painted stucco (Old St
Peter's, S. Lorenzo). But in spite of any decorations the external
FIG. 8. S. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna.
effect of a basilica must always have been heavy and unattractive.
S. Apollinare in Classe at Ravenna (fig. 8) affords a typical
474
BASILICA
example. The campanile is a later addition. Within, apart from
the beautiful mosaic decoration, a fine effect was produced by thi
arch of triumph and the apse, which terminated the nave am
dominated the whole vast space of the interior.
To pass from general description to individual churches, th
first place must be given, as the earliest and grandest examples
of the type, to the world-famous Roman basilicas; those of S
Peter, St Paul and St John Lateran, " omnium urbis et orbis
ecclesiarum mater et caput." It is true that no one of these exists
in its original form, Old St Peter's having been entirely removec
in the i6th century to make room for its magnificent successor
and both St Paul's and St John Lateran having been greatly
FIG. 9. Facade of old St Peter's, Rome.
injured by fire, and the last named being so completely modern-
ized as to have lost all interest. Of the two former, however,
we possess drawings and plans and minute descriptions, which
give an accurate conception of the original buildings. To com-
mence with St Peter's, from the illustrations annexed (figs. 9, 10,
n) it will be seen that the
church was entered through
a vast colonnaded atrium,
212 ft. by 235 ft., with a
fountain in the centre, the
atrium being preceded by a
porch mounted by a noble
flight of steps. The church
was 212 ft. wide by 380 ft.
long; the nave, 80 ft. in
width, was six steps lower
than the side aisles, of which
there were two on each side.
The four dividing colon-
nades were each of twenty-
two Corinthian columns.
Those next the nave sup-
ported horizontal entabla-
tures. The inner colonnades
bore arches, with a second
clerestory. The main clere-
story walls were divided into
two rows of square panels
containing mosaics, and had
windows above. The tran-
F'G-IO.- Ground-Plan of the original sept projected beyond the
Basilica of St Peter's at Rome. body of the c hurch,-a very
Atrium, ^fe^rn! 6 "^""^"^ 1 ' ThC
c, Cloisters. *, Bishop's throne in a P se ' of remarkably small
d, Narthex. centre of the apse. dimensions, was screened off
'.Nave, k, Sacristy. by a double row of twelve
V Bernf 8 ' rtZri? y? U A wreathed columns of Parian
g, isema. m, Uiurch of St Andrew. _ ,, , ..,. , , .
marble. The pontifical chair
was placed in the centre of the curve of the apse, on a platform
raised several steps above the presbytery. To the right and left
the seats of the cardinals followed the line of the apse. At the
centre of the chord stood the high altar beneath a ciborium.
resting on four pillars of porphyry. Beneath the altar was the
subterranean chapel, the centre of the devotion of so large a
FIG. ii. Sectional view of the old Basilica of St Peter, before
its destruction in the 1 6th century.
portion of the Christian world, believed to contain the remains
of St Peter; a vaulted crypt ran round the foundation wall of
the apse in which many of the popes were buried. The roof
showed its naked beams and rafters.
The basilica of St Paul without the walls, dedicated 324 A.D.,
rebuilt 388-423, remained in a
sadly neglected state, but sub-
stantially unaltered, till the disas-
trous fire of 1823, which reduced
the nave to a calcined ruin. Its
plan and dimensions (figs. 12, 13)
were almost identical with those of
St Peter's.
The only parts of the modernized
five-aisled basilica of St John
Lateran (of which we have a plan
in its original state, Agincourt, pi.
ixxiii. No. 22) which retain any
interest, are the double-vaulted
aisle which runs round the apse, a
most unusual arrangement, and
the baptistery. The latter is an
octagonal building standing some
ittle distance from the basilica to
he south. Its roof is supported
by a double range of columns, one
ibove the other, encircling the bap-
ismal basin sunk below the floor.
Of the three-aisled basilicas the
>est example is the Liberian or S.
tfaria Maggiore dedicated 365, and
econstructed 43 2 A.D. Its internal
ength to the chord of the apse is
250 ft. by ico ft. in breadth. The
FIG. 12. Ground-Plan of
St Paul's, Rome, before its
destruction by fire.
a, Narthex. d, Altar.
b, Nave. e, Bema.
c, c, Side aisles. /, Apse.
onic pillars of grey granite, uniform in style, twenty on each
ide, form a colonnade of great dignity and beauty, unfor-
unateiy broken towards the east by intrusive arches opening
nto chapels. The clerestory, though modern, is excellent in
FIG. 13. Section of the Basilica of St Paul, Rome.
tyle and arrangement. Corinthian pilasters ilivide the win-
ows, beneath which are very remarkable mosaic pictures of
ubjects from Old Testament history, generally supposed to
BASILICA
475
date from the pontificate of Sixtus III., 432-440. The face of
the arch of triumph presents also a series of mosaics illustrative
of the infancy of our Lord, of great value in the history of art.
The apse is of later date, reconstructed by Paschal I. in 818.
Of the remaining Roman basilicas that of S. Sabina on the
Aventine is of special interest as its interior, dating from about
A.D. 430, has preserved more of the primitive aspect than any
other. Its carved wooden doors of early Christian date are of
unique value, and in the spandrils of its inner arcades, upborne
by splendid antique Corinthian columns, are some good specimens
of opus sectile or mosaic of cut marble. The ancient roof is an
open one. The basilicas of S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura and S.
Agnese deserve particular notice, as exhibiting galleries corres-
ponding to those of the civil basilicas and to the later triforium,
carried above the aisles and returned across the entrance end.
It is doubtful, however, whether these galleries are part of the
original schemes. The architectural history of S. Lorenzo's is
curious. When originally constructed in A.D. 432, it consisted
of a short nave of six bays, with an internal narthex the whole
height of the building. In the I3th century Honorius III. dis-
orientated the church by pulling down the apse and erecting
a nave of twelve bays on its site and beyond it, thus converting
the original nave into a square-ended choir, the level being much
raised, and the magnificent Corinthian columns half buried. As
a consequence of the church being thus shifted completely round,
the face of the arch of triumph, turned away from the present
entrance, but towards the original one, is invested with the usual
mosaics (Agincourt, pi. xxviii. Nos. 29, 30, 31). The basilica of
S. Agnese, of which we give a section (fig. 14), is a small but
FIG. 14. Section of Basilica of S. Agnese at Rome.
interesting building, much like what S. Lorenzo must have been
before it was altered.
Though inferior in size, and later in date than most of the
basilicas already mentioned, that of S. Clemente is not surpassed
in interest by any one of them. This is due to its having retained
its original ritual arrangements and church-fittings more per-
fectly than any other. These fittings have been removed from
the earlier church, lying below the existing building, which at
some unknown date and for some unrecorded reason was
abandoned and filled up with earth, while a new building was
erected upon it as a foundation. The most probable account is
that the earlier church was so completely overwhelmed in the
ruin of the city in 1084, when Robert Guiscard burnt all the
public buildings from the Lateran to the Capitol, that it was
found simpler and more convenient to build a new edifice at a
higher level than to repair the old one. The annexed plan
(fig. 15) and view (fig. 16) show the peculiarities of the existing
building. The church is preceded by an atrium, the only perfect
example remaining in Rome, in the centre of which is the can-
tharus or fountain for ablutions. The atrium is entered by a
portico made up of earlier fragments very carelessly put together.
The chorus cantorum, which occupies about one-third of the nave,
is enclosed by a low marble screen, about 3 ft. high, a work of
the Qth century, preserved from the old church but newly
arranged. The white marble slabs are covered with patterns
in low relief, and are decorated with ribbons of glass mosaic of
the i3th century. These screen-walls stand quite free of the
pillars, leaving a passage between. On the ritual north stands
the gospel-ambo, of octagonal form, with a double flight of steps
westwards and eastwards. To the west of it stands the great
Paschal candlestick, with a spiral shaft, decorated with mosaic.
Opposite, to the south, is the epistle-ambo, square in plan, with
two marble reading-desks facing east and west, for the reading
of the epistle and the gradual respectively. The sanctuary is
raised two steps above the choir, from which it is divided by
another portion of the same marble screen. The altar stands
beneath a lofty ciborium, supported by marble columns, with a
FIG. 15. Plan of Basilica of S. Clemente in Rome.
1, Porch. 5, Aisle for women. 9, Epistle-ambo.
2, Atrium. 6, Chorus cantorum. 10, Confessio.
3, Nave. 7, Altar. u. Bishop's throne.
4, Aisle for men. 8, Gospel-ambo.
canopy on smaller shafts above. It retains the rods and rings
for the curtains to run on. Behind the altar, in the centre of the
curved line of the apse, is a marble episcopal throne, bearing
the monogram of Anastasius who was titular cardinal of this
church in 1 108. The conch of the apse is inlaid with mosaics of
quite the end of the I3th century. The subterranean church,
disinterred by the zeal of Father Mullooly, the prior of the
adjacent Irish Dominican convent, is supported by columns of
very rich marble of various kinds. The aisle walls, as well as
those of the narthex, are covered with fresco-paintings of various
dates from the yth to the nth century, in a marvellous state of
preservation. (See St Clement, Pope and Martyr, and his Basilica
in Rome, by Joseph Mullooly, O.P., Rome, 1873.)
The fullest lists of early Christian basilicas outside Rome are
given in Kraus's Realencyklopadie der chrisUichen Alterthiimer,
Freiburg i. B., 1882, art. " Basilica," and more recently in
Leclercq's Manuel d'archeologie chritienne, Paris 1907, vol. i.
App. i., " Essai de Classement des Principaux Monuments."
Only a few characteristic specimens in different regions can here
be noticed. In Italy, apart from Rome, the most remarkable
basilican churches are the two dedicated to S. Apollinare at
Ravenna. They are of smaller dimensions than those of Rome,
but the design and proportions are better. The cathedral of
this city, a noble basilica with double aisles, erected by Arch-
bishop Ursus, A.D. 400 (Agincourt, pi. xxiii. No. 21), was un-
fortunately destroyed on the erection of the present tasteless
building. Of the two basilicas of S. Apollinare, the earlier,
S. Apollinare Nuovo, originally an Arian church erected by
Theodoric, 493-525, measuring 315 ft. in length by 115 ft. in
breadth, has a nave 5 1 ft. wide, separated from the single aisles
by colonnades of twenty-two pillars, supporting arches, a small
FIG. 16. Interior of S. Clemente in Rome.
prismatic block bearing a sculptured cross intervening with
very happy effect between the capital and the arch. Below the
windows a continuous band of saintly figures, male on one side
and female on the other, advancing in stately procession towards
Our Lord and the Virgin Mother respectively, affords one of the
most beautiful examples of mosaic ornamentation to be found
BASILICA
in any church (fig. 17). The design of the somewhat later and
smaller church of S. Apollinare in Classe, A.D. 538-549, measur-
ing 216 ft. by 104 ft., is so similar that they must have pro-
ceeded from the same architect (Agincourt, pi. Ixxiii. No. 35).
The cathedral on the island of Torcello near Venice, originally
built in the ?th century, but largely repaired c. A.D. 1000,
deserves special attention from the
fact that it preserves, in a more
perfect state than can be seen else-
where, the arrangements of the seats
in the apse (fig. 18). The bishop's
throne occupies the centre of the arc,
approached by a steep flight of steps.
Six rows of stone benches for the
presbyters, rising one above another
like the seats in a theatre, follow
the curve on either side the whole
being singularly plain and almost
rude. The altar stands on a plat-
form; the sanctuary is divided from
the nave by a screen of six pillars.
The walls of the apse are inlaid with
plates of marble. The church is
FIG. 17. Arches of S. Apol
linare Nuovo, Ravenna.
125 ft. by 75 ft; The narrow aisles are only 7 ft. in width.
Another very remarkable basilica, less known than it deserves
to be, is that of Parenzo in Istria, c. A.D. 542. Few basilicas
have sustained so little alteration. From the annexed ground-
plan (fig. 19) it will be seen that it retains its atrium and a
baptistery, square without, octagonal within, to the west of it.
Nine pillars divide each aisle from the nave, some of them
borrowed from earlier buildings. The capitals are Byzantine.
The choir occupies the three easternmost bays. The apse, as at
Torcello, retains the bishop's throne and the bench for the
presbyters apparently unaltered. The mosaics are singularly
gorgeous, and the apse walls, as at Torcello, are inlaid with rich
marble and mother-of-pearl. The dimensions are small 121 ft.
by 32 ft. (See Kunstdenkmale des osterreichischen Kaiserreichs,
by Dr G. Heider and others.)
In the Eastern church, though the erection of St Sophia at
Constantinople introduced a new type which almost entirely
superseded the old one, the basilican form, or as it was then
termed dromical, from its shape being that of a race-course
(dromos), was originally as much the rule as in the West. The
earliest church of which we have any clear account, that of
Flo. 18. Apse of Basilica, Torcello, with Bishop's throne and
seats for the clergy.
(From a drawing by Lady Palgrave.)
Paulinus at Tyre, A.D. 3 1 3-3 2 2 , described by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl.
* 4 37), was evidently basilican, with galleries over the aisles,
and had an atrium in front. That erected by Constantine at
Jerusalem, on the side of the Holy Sepulchre, 333, followed the
same plan (Euseb., Vit. Const, iii. c. 29), as did the original
churches of St Sophia and of the Apostles at Constantinople.
Both these buildings have entirely passed away, but we have an
excellent example of an oriental basilica of the same date still
standing in the church of the Nativity at Bethlehem, rebuilt
FIG. 19. Ground-Plan of Cathedral of Parenzo, Istria.
a, Cloistered atrium, d, Chorus cantorum. h, Belfry.
+, Narthex. e, Altar. f, Chapel of St Andrew.
6, Nave. /, Bishop's throne.
c, c, Aisles. g, Baptistery.
by Justinian in the 6th century (fig. 20). Here we find an oblong
atrium, a vestibule or narthex, double aisles with Corinthian
columns, and a transept, each end of which terminates in an
apse, in addition to that in the usual position. Beneath the
centre of the transept is the subterranean church of the Nativity
(Vogu6, Les glises de la Terre Sainte, p. 46).
Constantinople preserved till recently a basilican church of the
5th century, that of St John Studios, 463, now a ruin. It had a
nave and side aisles divided by columns supporting a horizontal
entablature, with another order supporting arches forming a
gallery above. There was the usual apsidal termination. The
chief difference between the Eastern and Roman basilicas is
in the galleries. This feature is very rare in the West, and only
occurs in some few examples, the antiquity of which is questioned
at Rome but never at Ravenna. It is, on the other hand, a
characteristic feature of Eastern churches, the galleries being
intended for women, for whom privacy was more studied than in
the West (Salzenberg, Altchrist. Baudenkmale von Constantinople).
Other basilican churches in the East which deserve notice
are those of the monastery of St Catherine on Mt. Sinai built
by Justinian, that of Dana between Antioch and Bir of the same
date, St Philip at Athens, Bosra in Arabia, Xanthus in Lycia,
and the very noble church of St Demetrius at Thessalonica.
Views and descriptions of most of these may be found in Texier
and Pullan's Byzantine Architecture, Couchaud's Choix d'eglises
byzantines, and the works of the count de VogU6. In the Roman
province of North Africa there are
abundant remains of early Christian
churches, and S. Gsell, Les Monuments
antiques de VAlgerie, has noticed more
than 130 examples. Basilicas of strictly
early Christian date are not now to be
met with in France, Spain or Germany,
but the interesting though very plain
" Basse (Euvre " at Beauvais may
date from Carolingian times, while
Germany can show at Michelstadt in
the Odenwald an unaltered basilica of
the time of Charles the Great. The
fine-columned basilica of St Mauritius,
near Hildesheim, dates from the nth
century, and the basilican form has
been revived in the noble modern
basilica at Munich FjG 20 ._ Planof church
England can show more early o{ the Nativity, Bethle-
Christian survivals than France or hem. I, Narthex; 2, nave;
Germany. In the course of the ex- 3* 3> aisles,
cavation of the Roman city of Sil-
chester, there was brought to light in 1892 the remains of a
small early Christian basilica dating from the 4th century of
which fig. 21 gives the plan (Archaeologia, vol. liii.). It will be
BASILICA
477
noted that the apse is flanked by two chambers, of the nature of
sacristies, cut off from the rest of the church, and known in
ecclesiastical terminology as pro-
thesis anddiaconicon. These features,
rare in Italy, are almost universal
in the churches of North Africa and
Syria. Another existing English
basilica of early date is that of
Brixworth in Northamptonshire,
probably erected by Saxulphus,
abbot of Peterborough, c. A.D. 680.
FIG. 21 Plan of early It consisted of a nave divided from
Christian Basilica of about its aisles by quadrangular piers sup-
the 4th century at Silchester, porting arches turned in Roman
Hants. brick, with clerestory windows
(fnmArcl^eolof^.im.) aboye> &nd a short chance l ter .
minating in an apse, outside which, as at St Peter's at Rome,
ran a circumscribing crypt entered by steps from the chancel.
At the west end was a square porch, the walls of which were
carried up later in the form of a tower.
The first church built in England under Roman influence was
the original Saxon cathedral of Canterbury. From the annexed
ground-plan (fig. 22), as conjecturally restored from Eadmer's
description, we see that it was an aisled basilica, with an apse
at either end, containing altars standing on raised platforms
approached by steps. Beneath the eastern platform was a crypt,
or confessio, containing relics, " fabricated in the likeness of the
confessionary of St Peter at Rome " (Eadmer). The western
apse, dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, contained the bishop's
throne. From this and other indications Willis thinks that this
FIG. 22. Ground-Plan of the original Cathedral at Canterbury,
as restored by Willis.
A, High altar. G, Our Lady's altar.
B, Altar of our Lord. H, Bishop's throne.
C, C, Steps to crypt. K, South porch with altar.
D, Crypt. L, North porch containing
p | Chorus cantorum. M> A C rcn W shop Odo's tomb.
was the original altar end, tne eastern apse being a subsequent
addition of Archbishop Odo, c. 950, the church having been thus
turned from west to east, as at the already-described basilica oi
S. Lorenzo at Rome. The choir, as at S. Clemente's, occupied
the eastern part of the nave, and like it was probably enclosed
by breast-high partitions. There were attached porches to the
north and south of the nave. The main entrance of the church
was through that to the south. At this suthdure, according to
Eadmer, "all disputes from the whole kingdom, which could not
legally be referred to the king's court, or to the hundreds and
counties, received judgment." The northern porch contained a
school for the younger clergy.
AUTHORITIES. Vitruvius, De Architecture, v. I, vi. 3, 9; Huelsen
The Roman Forum (1906); Mau, Pompeii: its Life and Art; C
Lange, Ilaus und Halle; Canina, Edifizii di Roma Antica; Ciampini
Vetera Monimenta; Seroux d'Agincourt, L'Histoirede I' art par les
monumens; Bunsen and Planner, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom
Gutensohn and Knapp, Basiliken des christlichen Roms; Zestermann
Die antiken u. die christlichen Basiliken ; Hubsch, Die altchristlichen
Kirchen; Messmer, Uber den Ursprung, &c., der Basilica; Leta
rouilly, Edifices de Rome moderne; Von Quast, Altchristliche Bau
verke von Ravenna; Texier and Pullan, Byzantine Architecture;
/oglie, Eelises de la Terre Sainte; Syrie Centrale, Architecture, &c. ;
~puchaud, Choix d'felises bytantines; Dehio und von Bezold, Die
kirchliche Baukunst des Abendlandes; Holtzinger, Die altchrislliche
Architectur in systematischer Darstellung; Kraus, Geschichte der
christlichen Kunst; Leclercq, Manuel d'archtolorie chrftienne
(Paris, 1907). (E. V.;G. B. B.)
BASILICA, a code of law, drawn up in the Greek language,
with a view to putting an end to the uncertainty which prevailed
throughout the East Roman empire in the 9th century as to the
authorized sources of law. This uncertainty had been brought
about by the conflicting opinions of the jurists of the 6th century
as to the proper interpretation to be given to the legislation of
the emperor Justinian, from which had resulted a system of
teaching which had deprived that legislation of all authority,
and the imperial judges at last were at a loss to know by what
rules of law they were to regulate their decisions. An endeavour
had been made by the emperor Leo the Isaurian to remedy this
evil, but his attempted reform of the law had been rather calcu-
lated to increase its uncertainty; and it was reserved for Basil
the Macedonian to show himself worthy of the throne, which he
had usurped, by purifying the administration of justice and once
more reducing the law into an intelligible code. There has been
considerable controversy as to the part which the emperor Basil
took in framing the new code. There is, however, no doubt that
he abrogated in a formal manner the ancient laws, which had
fallen into desuetude, and the more probable opinion would seem
to be, that he caused a revision to be made of the ancient laws
which were to continue in force, and divided them into forty
books, and that this code of laws was subsequently enlarged and
distributed into sixty books by his son Leo the Philosopher. A
further revision of this code is stated to have been made by
Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the son and successor of Leo,
but this statement rests only on the authority of Theodorus
Balsamon, a very learned canonist of the 1 2th century, who, in
his preface to the Nomocanon of Patriarch Photius, cites passages
from the Basilica which differ from the text of the code as revised
by the emperor Leo. The weight of authority, however, is
against any further revision of the code having been made after
the formal revision which it underwent in the reign of the
emperor Leo, who appointed a commission of jurists under the
presidency of Sympathius, the captain of the body-guard, to
revise the work of his father, to which he makes allusion in the
first of his Novellae. This latter conclusion is the more probable
from the circumstance, that the text of the code, as revised by
the emperor Leo, agrees with the citations from the Basilica
which occur in the works of Michael Psellus and Michael Atta-
liatcs, both of them high dignitaries of the court of Constanti-
nople, who lived a century before Balsamon, and who are silent
as to any second revision of the code having taken place in the
reign of Constantine Porphyrogenitus, as well as with other
citations from the Basilica, which are found in the writings of
Mathaeus Blastares and of Constantine Harmenopulus, both of
whom wrote shortly after Balsamon, and the latter of whom
was far too learned a jurist and too accurate a lawyer to cite any
but the official text of the code.
Authors are not agreed as to the origin of the term Basilica,
by which the code of the emperor Leo is now distinguished.
The code itself appears to have been originally entitled The
Revision of the Ancient Laws (^ avaxaOapais TUV ToXeuioc
v6ituv)', next there came into use the title ifr ^r;/anTei/3tj3Xos,
derived from the division of the work into sixty books; and
finally, before the conclusion of the loth century, the code
came to be designated 6 /3a<7iXucos, or rd. Ja<nXi*a, being
elliptical forms of 6 /SacriXocds vo/uos and rd /ScurtXtxd v6fu.fia.,
namely the Imperial Law or the Imperial Constitutions. This
explanation of the term " Basilica " is more probable than the
derivation of it from the name of the father of the emperor Leo,
inasmuch as the Byzantine jurists of the nth and i2th centuries
ignored altogether the part which the emperor Basil had taken
in initiating the legal reforms, which were completed by his son;
besides the name of the father of the emperor Leo was written
, from which substantive, according to the genius of
BASILICATA BASILIDES
the ancient Greek language, the adjective /3eriXt(c6$ could not
well be derived.
No perfect MS. has been preserved of the text of the Basilica,
and the existence of any portion of the code seems to have been
ignored by the jurists of western Europe, until the important bearing
of it upon the study of the Roman law was brought to their attention
by Viglius Zuichemus, in his preface to his edition of the Greek
Paraphrase of Theophilus, published in 1533. A century, however,
elapsed before an edition of the sixty books of the Basilica, as far
as the MSS. then known to exist supplied materials, was published
in seven volumes, by Charles Annibal Fabrot, under the patronage
of Louis XIII. of France, who assigned an annual stipend of two
thousand livres to the editor during its publication, and placed at
his disposal the royal printing-press. This edition, although it was
a great undertaking and a work of considerable merit, was a very
imperfect representation of the original code. A newly-restored
and far more complete text of the sixty books of the Basilica was
published at Leipzig in six volumes (1833-1870), edited by K. W. E.
Heimbach and G. E. Heimbach. It may seem strange that so
important a body of law as the Basilica should not have come down
to us in its integrity, but a letter has been preserved, which was
addressed by Mark the patriarch of Alexandria to Theodorus Bal-
samon, from which it appears that copies of the Basilica were in the
I2th century very scarce, as the patriarch was unable to procure a
copy of the work. The great bulk of the code was an obstacle to
the multiplication of copies of it, whilst the necessity for them was in
a great degree superseded by the publication from time to time of
synopses and encheiridia of its contents, composed by the most
eminent jurists, of which a very full account will be found in the
Hisioire au droit byzantin, by the advocate Mortreuil, published in
Paris in 1846.
BASILICATA, a territorial division of Italy, now known as
the province of Potenza, which formed a part of the ancient
Lucania (q.v.). It is bounded N. by the province of Foggia,
N E. by those of Bari and Lecce, E. by the Gulf of Taranto (for a
distance of 24 m.), S. by the province of Cosenza, and W. by the
Mediterranean(for a distance of 10 m. only) , and by the provinces
of Salerno and Avellino. It has an area of 3845 sq. m.
The province is as a whole mountainous, the highest point being
the Monte Pollino (7325 ft.) on the boundary of the province of
Cosenza, while the Monte Vulture, at the N.W. extremity, is an
extinct volcano (4365 ft.). It is traversed by five rivers, the
Bradano, Basento. Cavone or Salandrella, Agri and Sinni. The
longest, the Bradano, is 104 m. in length; all run S.E. or E. into
the Gulf of Taranto. The province is traversed from W. to E. by
the railway from Naples to Taranto and Brindisi, which passes
through Potenza and reaches at Metaponto the line along the E.
coast from Taranto to Reggio di Calabria. A branch line runs N.
from Potenza via Melfi to Rocchetta S. Antonio, a junction for
Foggia, Gioia del Colle and Avellino (the second of these lines
runs through the province of Potenza as far as Palazzo S. Ger-
vasio), while a branch S. from the Naples and Taranto line at
Sicignano terminates at Lagonegro, on the W. edge of the
province. Communications are rendered difficult by the moun-
tainous character of the interior. The mountains are still to
some extent clothed with forests; in places the soil is fertile,
especially along the Gulf of Taranto, though here malaria is the
cause of inefficient cultivation. Olive-oil is the most important
product. The total population of the province was 490,705 in
1901. The chief towns are Potenza (pop. 1901, 16,186), Avig-
liana (18,3 13), Matera(i7, 237), Melfi (14,649), Rionero in Vulture
(11,809), Lauria (10,099).
BASILIDES, one of the most conspicuous exponents of
Gnosticism, was living at Alexandria probably as early as the
first decades of the 2nd century. It is true that Eusebius, in
his Chronicle, dates his first appearance from A.D. 133, but
according to Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. iv. 7 6-8, Agrippa
Castor, who lived under Hadrian (117-138), already wrote a
polemic against him, so that his activity may perhaps be set back
to a date earlier than 138. Basilides wrote an exegetical work
in twenty-four books on " his " gospel, but which this was is not
known. In addition to this there are certain writings by his son
Isidorus Hep! irpoa<t>vovs ij/v\fft; 'EfayriTiKo. on the prophet
Parchor (Hapxcbp); 'Hflui. The surviving fragments of these
works are collected and commented on in Hilgenfeld's Kelzer-
geschichte, 207-218. The most important fragment published by
Hilgenfeld (p. 207), part of the i3th book of the Exegetica, in
the Ada Archelai et Manetis c. 55, only became known in its
complete form later, and was published by L. Traube in the
Sitzungsbericht der Miinchener Akad., phil. histor. Kl. (1903),
PP- 533-549- Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. i. 24 3-7) gives a sketch
of Basilides' school of thought, perhaps derived from Justin's
Syntagma. Closely related to this is the account in the
Syntagma, of Hippolytus, which is preserved in Epiphanius,
Haer. 24, Pm'laster, Haer. 32, and Pseudo-Tertullian, Haer. 4.
These are completed and confirmed by a number of scattered
notices in the Stromateis of Clemens Alexandrinus. An essenti-
ally different account, with a pronounced monistic tendency,
is presented by the so-called Philosophumena of Hippolytus
(vii. 20-27; x. 14). Whether this last account, or that given
by Irenaeus and in the Syntagma of Hippolytus, represents the
original system of Basilides, has been the subject of a long
controversy. (See Hilgenfeld p. 205, note 337.) The most
recent opinion tends to decide against the Philosophumena; for,
in its composition, Hippolytus appears to have used as his
principal source the compendium of a Gnostic author who has
introduced into most of the systems treated by him, in addition
to the employment of older sources, his own opinions or those
of his sect. The Philosophumena, therefore, cannot be taken
into account in describing the teaching of Basilides (see also
H. Stachelin, " Die gnostischen Quellen Hippolyts " in Texte
und Untersuchungen, vi. 3; and the article GNOSTICISM). A
comparison of the surviving fragments of Basilides, moreover,
with the outline of his system in Irenaeus-Hippolytus (Syn-
tagma) shows that the account given by the Fathers of the
Church is also in the highest degree untrustworthy. The
principal and most characteristic points are not noticed by them.
If we assume, as we must needs do, that the opinions which
Basilides promulgates as the teaching of the " barbari " (Acta
Archelai c. 55) were in fact his own, the fragments prove him to
have been a decided dualist, and his teaching an interesting
further development of oriental (Iranian) dualism. Entirely
consistent with this is the information given by the Acta Archelai
that Basilides, before he came to Alexandria, had appeared
publicly among the Persians (fuit praedicator apud Persas);
and the allusion to his having appealed to prophets with oriental
names, Barkabbas and Barkoph (Agrippa in Eusebius Hist.
Eccl. iv. 7 7). So too his son Isidorus explained the pro-
phecies of a certain Parchor ( = Barkoph) and appealed to the
prophecies of Cham 1 (Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromat. vi. 6
53). Thus Basilides assumed the existence of two principles,
not derivable from each other: Light and Darkness. These
had existed for a long time side by side, without knowing any-
thing of each other, but when they perceived each other, the
Light had only looked and then turned away; but the Darkness,
seized with desire for the Light, had made itself master, not
indeed of the Light itself, but only of its reflection (species,
color). Thus they had been in a position to form this world:
unde nee perfectum bonum est in hoc mundo, et quod est, valde est
exiguum. This speculation is clearly a development of that
which the Iranian cosmology has to tell about the battles be-
tween Ahura-Mazda and Angro-Mainyu (Ormuzd and Ahriman).
The Iranian optimism has been replaced here by a strong pessim-
ism. This material world is no longer, as in Zoroastrianism,
essentially a creation of the good God, but the powers of evil
have created it with the aid of some stolen portions of light.
This is practically the transference of Iranian dualism to the
more Greek antithesis of soul and body, spirit and matter (cf.
Irenaeus i. 24 5: animae aulem eorum solam esse salutem,
corpus enim natura corruplibile existit). The fundamental
dualism of Basilides is confirmed also by one or two other
passages. In the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Basilides
saw the proof of naturam sine radice et sine loco rebus super-
venienlem (Acta Archelai). According to Clemens, Strom, iv.
12 83, &c., Basilides taught that even those who have not
sinned in act, even Jesus himself, possess a sinful nature. It is
possibly also in connexion with the dualism of his fundamental
1 =Nimrod = Zoroaster, cf. Pseudo-Clement, Homil. ix. 3.
Recogn. iv. 27.
BASILISK BASIM
479
views that he taught the transmigration of souls (Origen in
Ep. ad Rom. lib. v.; Opp. de la Rue iv. 549; cf. Clemens,
Excerpta ex Theodoto, 28). Isidorus set up celibacy, though in
a modified form, as the ideal of the perfect (Clemens, Strom, iii.
i i, &c.). Clemens accuses Basilides of a deification of the
Devil (dti&ftiv rdv 5iafio\ov), and regards as his two dogmas
that of the Devil and that of the transmigration of souls (Strom.
iv. 12 85: cf. v. n 75). It is remarkable too that Isidorus
held the existence of two souls in man, a good and a bad (Clemens,
Strom, ii. 20 113); with which may be compared the teaching
of Muni about the two souls, which it is impossible to follow
F. Ch. Baur in excluding, 1 and also the teaching of the Pistis
Sophia (translated by C. Schmidt, p. 182, &c.). According to
Clemens (Strom, ii. 20 112), the followers of Basilides spoke of
tnif.ijna.r6. TWO, irpoo-nprrnjiiva. rjj Xo-ywj; ^i>xfl Kara, nva rapaxov
(toi trbyxvaiv apxtKriv. that is to say, here also is assumed an
original confusion and intermingling. Epiphanius too tells us
that the teaching of Basilides had its beginning in the question
as to the origin of evil (Haer. xxiv. 6).
Now, of this sharply-defined dualism there is scarcely a trace in
the system described by the Fathers of the Church. It is there-
fore only with caution that we can use them to supplement our
knowledge of the true Basilides. The doctrine described by them
that from the supreme God (the innatus pater) had emanated
365 heavens with their spirits, answers originally to the astrono-
mical conception of the heavens with their 365 daily aspects
(Irenaeus i. 24. 7; Trecentorum autem sexaginta quinque caelorum
locales posiliones distribuunt similiter ut mathematici) . When,
therefore, the supreme God is called by the name A/3paaa or
A0paas, which contains the numerical value 365 , it is worthy
of remark that the name of the Persian god Mithras (Meiflpas)
also was known in antiquity to contain this numerical value
(Jerome in Amos 3; Opp. Vallarsi VI. i. 257). Speculations about
the Perso-Hellenistic Mithras appear to have been transferred to
the Gnostic Abraxas. Further, if the Pater innatus be surrounded
by a series of (from five to seven) Hypostases (according to
Irenaeus i. 24. 3; Now, A6yos, Qpbvriais, 2o</>ta, Awa/^is;
according to Clemens, Strom, iv. 25 164, AIKOUXTVVTI and
EJp^vTj may perhaps be added), we are reminded of the
Ameshas-spentas which surround Ahura-Mazda. Finally, in the
system of Basilides, the (seven ?) powers from whom this world
originates are accepted as the lowest emanations of the supreme
God. This conception which is repeated in nearly every Gnostic
system, of (seven) world-creating angels, is a specifically oriental
speculation. The seven powers which create and rule the world
are without doubt the seven planetary deities of the later
Babylonian religion. If, in the Gnostic systems, these become
daemonic or semi-daemonic forces, this points to the fact that a
stronger monotheistic religion (the Iranian) had gained the upper
hand over the Babylonian, and had degraded its gods to daemons.
The syncretism of the Babylonian and the Persian religion was
also the nursing-ground of Gnosticism. When, then, Basilides
identified the highest angel of the seven, the creator of the worlds,
with the God of the Jews, this is a development of the idea which
did not occur until late, possibly first in the specifically Christian
circles of the Gnostics. We may note in this connexion that the
system of Basilides ascribes the many battles and quarrels in the
world to the privileged position given to his people by the God of
the Jews. 2
It is at this point that the idea of salvation is introduced into
the system. The confusion in the world has meanwhile risen to
such a pitch that the supreme God sends his Nous, who is also
called Christ, into the world (Irenaeus i. 24. 4). According to
Clemens, the Saviour is termed irvtvfia 5io.KovoviJ.tvov (Strom.
ii. 8 36) or 5ia.Kovos (Excerpta ex Theodoto, 16). It is im-
'The materials are in Baur, Das manichaische Religionssystem
(1831), p. 162, &c.
2 Whether the myth of the creation of the first man by the angels,
which recurs in many Gnostic systems, found a place also in the
system of Basilides, cannot be determined with any certainty,
rhilastrius, however, says: hominem autem ab angelis factum
assent, while according to Epiphanus xxiv. 2, men are created by
the God of the Jews.
possible certainly to determine how Basilides conceived tli
relation of this Saviour to Jesus of Nazareth. Basilides himself
(Strom, iv. 12 83) knows of an earthly Jesus and denies the
principle of his sinlessness (see above). According to the account
given by Irenaeus, the Saviour is said to have appeared only as
a phantasm; according to the Excerpta ex Theodoto, 17, the
Diakonos descended upon Jesus at His baptism in the form of a
dove, for which reason the followers of Basilides celebrated the
day of the baptism of Jesus, the day of the eiri^wtia as a high
festival (Clemens, Strom, i. 21 18). The various attempts at
combination probably point to the fact that the purely mythical
figure of a god-saviour (Heros) was connected first by Basilides
with Jesus of Nazareth. As to what the conception of Basilides
was of the completion of the process of redemption, the available
sources tell us next to nothing. According to an allusion in
Clemens, Strom, ii. 8 36, with the mission of the Saviour begins
the great separation of the sexes, the fulfilment and the restora-
tion of all things. This agrees with the beginning of the specula-
tion of Basilides. Salvation consists in this, that that which was
combined for evil is once more separated.
Among the later followers of Basilides, actual magic played a
determining part. They hand down the names of the rulers of
the several heavens as a weighty secret. This was a result of the
belief, that whoever knew the names of these rulers would after
death pass through all the heavens to the supreme God. In
accordance with this, Christ also, in the opinion of these followers
of Basilides, was in the possession of a mystic name (Caulacau=
'P^ IP Jes. xxviii. 10) by the power of which he had descended
through all the heavens to earth, and had then again ascended to
the Father. Redemption, accordingly, could be conceived as
simply the revelation of mystic names. In this connexion the
name Abraxas and the Abraxas gems must be remembered.
Whether Basilides himself had already given this magic tendency
to Gnosticism cannot be decided.
Basilides, then, represents that form of Gnosticism that is
closest to Persian dualism in its final form. His doctrine is 'most
closely related to that of Satornil (Saturninus). From most of
the other Gnostic sects, with the exception perhaps of the Jewish-
Christian Gnosticism, he is distinguished by the fact that with
him the figure of the fallen female god (Sophia Achamoth), and,
in general, the idea of a fall within the godhead is entirely wanting.
So far as we can see, on the other hand, Basilides appears actually
to represent a further development of Iranian dualism, which
later produced the religious system of Mani.
Accounts of the teaching of Basilides are to be found in all the
more complete works on Gnosticism (see bibliography to the article
GNOSTICISM). The original sources are best reproduced in Hilgcnfcld,
Ketzergeschichte des Urchristentums (1884), pp. 195-230. See also
Kriiger, article " Basilides," in Herzog-Hauck, ReoJencyklopadie.
ed. 3. (W. Bo.)
BASILISK (the /SoffiXloxos of the Greeks, and Tsepha
(cockatrice) of the Hebrews), a name given by the ancients to a
horrid monster of their own imagination, to which they attributed
the most malignant powers and an equally fiendish appearance.
The term is now applied, owing to a certain fanciful resemblance,
to a genus of lizards belongingto the family Iguanidae,ihe speciesof
which are characterized by the presence.in the males, of an erectile
crest on the head, and a still higher, likewise erectile crest beset
with scales on the back, and another on the long tail. Basiliscus
americanus reaches the length of one yard; its colour is green and
brown, with dark crossbars, while the crest is reddish. This
beautiful, strictly herbivorous creature is rather common amidst
the luxuriant vegetation on the banks of rivers and streams of the
Atlantic hot lands of Mexico and Guatemala. The lizards lie
upon the branches of trees overhanging the water, into which they
plunge at the slightest alarm. Then they propel themselves by
rapid strokes of the hind limbs, beating the water in a semi-erect
position and letting the long rudder-like tail drag behind. They
are universally known as pasa-rios, i.e. ferrymen.
BASIH, a town of India, in the Akola district, Berar, 52 m.
S.S.E. from Akola station of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
Pop. (1901) 13,823. Until 1905 it was the headquarters of the
district of Basim, which had an area of 2949 sq. m. ; but in that
480
BASIN BASINGSTOKE
year the district was abolished, its component taluks being
divided between the districts of Akola and Yeotmal. Its western
portion, the Basim taluk, consists of a fertile tableland, about
icoo ft. above sea-level, sloping down westward and southward
to the rich valley of the Penganga; its eastern portion, the taluks
of Mangrul and Pasud, mainly of a succession of low hills covered
with poor grass. In the Pasud taluk, however, there are wide
stretches of woodland, while some of the peaks rise to a height of
2000 ft., the scenery (especially during the rains) being very
beautiful. The climate of the locality is better than that of the
other districts of Berar; the hot wind which blows during the day
in the summer months being succeeded at night by a cool breeze.
The principal crops are millet, wheat, other food grains, pulse,
oilseeds and cotton; there is some manufacture of cotton-cloth
and blankets, and there are ginning factories in the town. In
1901 the population was 353, 410, showing a decrease of n % in
the decade, due to the famine of 1899-1900, which was severely
felt in the district.
BASIN, THOMAS (1412-1491), bishop of Lisieux and historian,
was born probably at Caudebec in Normandy, but owing to the
devastation caused by the Hundred Years' War, his childhood
was mainly spent in moving from one place to another. In 1424
he went to the university of Paris, where he became a master
of arts in 1429, and afterwards studied law at Louvain and
Pavia. He attended the council of Ferrara, and was soon made
canon of the church at Rouen, professor of canon law in the new
university of Caen and vicar-general for the bishop of Bayeux.
In 1447 he became bishop of Lisieux. He was much involved
in the wars between the English and French and was employed
by Charles VII. of France, and by his successor Louis XL, at
whose request Basin drew up a memorandum setting forth the
misery of the people and suggesting measures for alleviating
their condition. In 1464 the bishop joined the league of the
Public Weal, and fell into disfavour with the king, who seized
the temporalities of his see. After exile in various places Basin
proceeded to Rome and renounced his bishopric. At this time
(1474) Pope Sixtus IV. bestowed upon him the title of arch-
bishop of Caesarea. Occupied with his writings Basin then
passed some years at Trier, and afterwards transferred his
residence to Utrecht, where he died on the 3rd of December 1491.
He was buried in the church of St John, Utrecht.
Basin's principal work is his Historiae de rebus a Carolo VII.
el Ludovico XI. Francorum regibus eorumque in tempore in
Gallia gestis. This is of considerable historical value, but is
marred to some extent by the author's dislike for Louis XI.
At one time it was regarded as the work of a priest of Lifige,
named Amelgard, but it is now practically certain that Basin
was the writer. He also wrote a suggestion for reform in the
administration of justice entitled Libellus de optima ordine
forenses lites audiendi et deferendi; an Apologia, written to
answer the charges brought against him by Louis XL; a Brevi-
loquium, or allegorical account of his own misfortunes; a
Peregrinatio; a defence of Joan of Arc entitled Opinio et
consilium super processu et condemnatione Johanne, dicte Puelle,
and other miscellaneous writings. He wrote in French, Advis
de Monseigneur de Lysieux au roi (Paris, 1677).
See the edition of the Historiae, by J. E. J. Quicherat (Paris,
1855-1859) ; also G. du F. de Beaucourt, Charles VII et Louis XI
d'apres Thomas Basin (Paris, 1858).
BASIN, or BASON (the older form bacin is found in many of
the Romanic languages, from the Late Lat. baccinus or bacchinus,
probably derived from bacca, a bowl), a round vessel for holding
liquids. Hence the term has various technical uses, as of a dock
constructed with flood-gates in a tidal-river, or of a widening
in a canal for unloading barges; also, in physical geography,
of the drainage area of a river and its tributaries.
In geology, " basin " is equivalent to a broad shallow syncline,
i.e. it is a structure proper to the bed rock of the district covered
by the term; it must not be confused with the physiographic
river basin, although it occasionally happens that the two
coincide to some extent. Some of the better known geological
basins in England are, the London basin, a shallow trough or
syncline of Tertiary, Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks; the Hamp-
shire basin, of similar formations; and the numerous coal basins,
e.g. the S. Wales coalfield, the Forest of Dean, N. Staffordshire
coalfield, &c. The Paris basin is made of strata similar to those
in the London and Hampshire basins. Strictly speaking, a
structural basin is formed of rock beds which exhibit a centro-
clinal dip; an elongated narrow syncline or trough is not a
basin. " Rock-basins " are comparatively small, steep-sided
depressions that have been scooped out of the solid rock in
mountainous regions, mainly through the agency of glaciers
(see CIRQUE). Lakes sometimes occupy basins that have been
caused by the removal in solution of some of the more soluble
constituents (rock salt, &c.) in the underlying strata; occasion-
ally lake basins have been formed directly by crustal movements.
BASINET (a diminutive of " basin "), a form of helmet or
headpiece. The original small basinet was a light open cap,
with a peaked crown. This was used alternately to, and even
in conjunction with, the large heavy heaume. But in the latter
half of the I3th century the basinet was developed into a com-
plete war head-dress and replaced the heaume. In this form
it was larger and heavier, had a vizor (though not always a
pivoted vizor like that of the later armet), and was connected
with the gorget by a " camail " or mail hood, the head and neck
thus being entirely covered. It is always to be recognized by
its peaked crown. The word is spelt in various forms,
" bassinet," " bascinet," " bacinet," or " basnet." The form
" bassinet " is used for the hooded wicker cradle or peram-
bulator for babies.
BASINGSTOKE, a market-town and municipal borough of
Hampshire, England, 48 m. W.S.W. from London by the London
& South- Western railway; served also by a branch of the
Great Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9793. The church of
St Michael and All Angels is a fine specimen of a late Perpen-
dicular building (principally of the time of Henry VIII.). The
chapel of the Holy Ghost is a picturesque ruin, standing in an
ancient cemetery, built for the use of the local gild of the Holy
Ghost which was founded in 1525, but flourished for less than
a century. Close to the neighbouring village of Old Basing
are remains of Basing House, remarkable as the scene of the
stubborn opposition of John, fifth marquess of Winchester, to
Cromwell, by whom it was taken after a protracted siege in 1645.
A castle occupied its site from Norman times. Numerous
prehistoric relics have been discovered in the district, and a large
circular encampment is seen at Winklebury Hill. Basingstoke
has considerable agricultural trade, and brewing, and the
manufacture of agricultural implements, and of clothing, are
carried on. The Basingstoke canal, which connects the town
with the river Wey and so with the Thames, was opened about
1794, but lost its trade owing to railway competition. It was
offered for sale by auction unsuccessfully in 1904, but was
bought in 1905. The municipal borough is under a mayor,
four aldermen and twelve councillors. Area, 4193 acres.
Basingstoke is a town of great antiquity, and excavations
have brought to light undoubted traces of Roman occupation.
The first recorded historical event relating to the town is a
victory won here by ./Ethelred and Alfred over the Danes in 871.
According to the Domesday survey it had always been a royal
manor, and comprised three mills and a market. A charter
from Henry III. ill 1256 granted to the men of Basingstoke the
manor and hundred of that name and certain other privileges,
which were confirmed by Edward III., Henry V. and Henry VI.
As compensation for loss sustained by a serious fire, Richard II.
in 1392 granted to the men of Basingstoke the rights of a corpora-
tion and a common seal. A charter from James I. dated 1622
instituted two bailiffs, fourteen capital burgesses, four justices
of the peace, a high steward and under steward, two serjeants-
at-mace and a court of record. Charles I. in 1641 changed the
corporation to a mayor, seven aldermen and seven burgesses.
Basingstoke returned two members to parliament in 1295, 1302
and 1306, but no writs are extant after this date. In 1202-1203
the market day was changed from Sunday to Monday, but in
1214 was transferred to Wednesday, and has not since been
BASIN-STANDBASKET
changed. Henry VI. granted a fair at Whitsun to be held near
the chapel of the Holy Ghost. The charter from James I.
confirmed another fair at the feast of St Michael the Archangel,
and that of Charles I. granted two fairs on Basingstoke Down
at Easter and on the loth and nth of September. The wool
trade flourished in Basingstoke at an early date, but later appears
to have declined, and in 1631 the clothiers of Basingstoke were
complaining of the loss of trade and consequent distress.
See Victoria County History Hants; F. G. Baigent and J. E.
Millard, History of Basingstoke (Basingstoke, 1889).
BASIN-STAND, a piece of furniture consisting of a small
stand, usually supported on three legs, and most commonly
made of mahogany or rosewood, for holding a wash-hand basin.
The smaller varieties were used for rose-water ablutions, or
for the operation of hair-powdering. The larger ones, which
possessed sockets for soap-dishes, were the predecessors of the
ample modern wash-hand stand. Both varieties, often of very
elegant form, were in extensive use throughout a large part of
the i8th century.
BASKERVILLE, JOHN (1706-1775), English printer, was born
at Wolverley in Worcestershire on the 28th of January 1706.
About 1726 he became a writing master at Birmingham, and he
seems to have had a great talent for calligraphy and for cutting
inscriptions in stone. While at Birmingham he made some
important improvements in the process of japanning, and gained
a considerable fortune. About the year 1750 he began to make
experiments in type-founding, producing types much superior
in distinctness and elegance to any that had hitherto been
employed. He set up a printing-house, and in 1757 published
his first work, a Virgil in royal quarto, followed, in 1758, by his
famous edition of Milton. In that year he was appointed
printer to the university of Cambridge, and undertook editions
of the Bible and the Book of Common Prayer. The Horace,
published in 1762, is distinguished even among the productions
of the Baskerville press for its correctness and for the beauty of
the paper and type. A second Horace appeared in 1 770 in quarto,
and its success encouraged Baskerville to publish a series of
quarto editions of Latin authors, which included Catullus,
Tibullus, Propertius, Lucretius, Terence, Sallust and Florus.
This list of books issued by Baskerville from his press lends some
irony to the allegation that he was a person of no education.
These books are admirable specimens of typography; and
Baskerville is deservedly ranked among the foremost of those
who have advanced the art of printing. . His contemporaries
asserted that his books owed more to the quality of the paper
and ink than to the type itself, but the difficulty in obtaining
specimens from the Baskerville press shows the estimation in
which they are now held. His wife, Sarah Baskerville, carried
on the business for some time after his death, which took place
on the 8th of January 1775.
BASKET, a vessel made of twigs, cane or rushes, as well as of
a variety of other materials, interwoven together, and used for
holding, protecting or carrying any commodity. The process
of interweaving twigs, rushes or leaves, is practised among the
rudest nations of the world; and as it is one of the most universal
of arts, so also does it rank among the most ancient industries,
being probably the origin of all the textile arts of the world.
Decorative designs in old ceramic ware are derived from the
marks left by the basket mould used before the invention of the
potter's wheel, and in the willow pattern on old china, and
the basket capitals or mouldings of Byzantine architecture, the
influence of the basketmaker's art is clearly traceable. Essenti-
ally a primitive craft, its relative importance is in inverse ratio
to the industrial development of a people.
The word " basket " has been generally identified with the
Latin bascauda, as in Martial (xiv. 99) :
" Barbara de pictis veni bascauda Britannis-
bed me iam mavult dicere Roma suam."
But its etymology is unknown, and the New English Dictionary
states that there is no evidence to connect basket with bascauda,
which denotes rather a tub, tray or brazen vessel,
in. 16
481
Among many uncivilized tribes, baskets of a superior order
are made and applied to various useful purposes. The North
American Indians prepare strong water-tight Wattape baskets
from the roots of a species of abies, and these they frequently
adorn with very pretty patterns made from the dyed quills of
their native porcupine, Erethizon dorsalum. Wealthy Americans
have formed collections of the beautiful ware treasured as heir-
looms in Indian families, and large prices have been paid for
baskets made by the few squaws who have inherited the tradi-
tions and practice of the art, as much as 300 having been given
for one specimen. It has been computed that baskets to the
value of 1,000,000 were recently drawn from California and
Arizona within two years. The Indians of South America weave
baskets equally useful from the fronds of the Carnahuba and
other palms. The Kaffirs and Hottentots of South Africa are
similarly skilful in using the Ilala reed and the roots of plants;
while the Abyssinians and the tribes of Central Africa display
great adroitness in the art of basket-weaving.
Basket-making, however, has by no means been confined to
the fabrication of those simple and useful utensils from which
its name is derived. Of old, the shields of soldiers were fashioned
of wicker-work, either plain or covered with hides. Xenophon,
in his story of the Thirty Tyrants at Athens, relates that the
exiled Greeks who had seized on the Peiraeus made themselves
shields of whitened osiers; and similar weapons of defence are
still constructed by modern savages. The huts of the earliest
settlers in Rome and in western Europe generally were made
of osier work plastered with clay. Some interesting remains
of British dwellings of this nature found near Lewes in 1877
were described by Major-General H. L.F.Pitt- Rivers in Archaeo-
logia, vol. xlvi. pp. 456-458. Boats of the same material, covered
with the skins of animals, attracted the notice of the Romans
in Britain; they seem to have been of the ordinary boat-shape.
The basketwork boats mentioned by Herodotus as being used
on the Tigris and Euphrates were round and covered with
bitumen. Boats of this shape are still used on these rivers, and
boats of analogous construction are employed in crossing the
rivers of India, in which the current is not rapid. Nor have
methods of making much changed. The strokes employed in
the construction of basket-work found in Etruscan tombs
and now exhibited in the Museo Etrusco at Florence, and in
similar articles discovered in Egyptian tombs, are the same
as those used by the English basket-maker to-day. General
Pitt-Rivers, on comparing the remains excavated near Lewes
with a modern hamper in his possession, found the method to
be identical.
Since about the middle of the ipth century the character of
basket-work in England has been greatly modified. The old
English cradle, reticule, and other small domestic wares, have
been driven out of the market by cheap goods made on the
continent of Europe, and the coarse brown osier packing and
hampers have been largely superseded by rough casks and cases
made from cheap imported timber. This loss has, however, been
more than counterbalanced by the production of work of a
higher class, such as finely made chairs, tables, lounges and
other articles of furniture; luncheon and tea-baskets and
similar requisites of travel. In addition to the foregoing the
chief categories of English manufacture are: vegetable and
fruit baskets, transit and travelling hampers, laundry and linen
baskets, partition baskets for wine, and protective wicker cases
for fragile ware such as glass carboys, stone and other bottles.
Wicker shields or cases made from cane pith, for the protec-
tion of shells, have been introduced by the English military
authorities. Some evidence of the above-mentioned develop-
ments is afforded by a comparison of the wages lists of the
London Union of Journeymen Basketmakers issued in 1865
and in 1896. The former consists of 87 printed pages; the
latter of 144 pages, and these more closely set.
No machinery is used in basket-making. A considerable
training and natural aptitude go to form the expert workman,
for the ultimate perfection of shape and beauty of texture de-
pend upon the more or less perfect conception of form in the
482
BASKET
craftsman's mind and on his power to impress it on a recal-
citrant material. In England at least, he rarely uses a mould;
every stroke made has a permanent effect on the symmetry of
the whole work and no subsequent pressure will alter it. Wages
in London vary from 255. to 505. per week according to aptitude.
The Basketmakers' Company is one of the oldest craft gilds of
the city of London and still exists.
Employment is given by the London Association for the
Welfare of the Bh'nd to a number of partially or wholly blind
workpeople, who are engaged in the making of some of the
coarser kinds of baskets; but the work, which bears obvious
traces of its origin, is not commercially remunerative, and the
association depends for partial support on the contributions
of the charitable, and on supplementary sales of fine or fancy
work produced under ordinary conditions and largely imported.
Similar associations exist in some English provincial towns, in
Edinburgh, in Dublin and Belfast, and in certain European cities.
The materials which are actually employed in the construction
of basket-work are numerous and varied, but it is from certain
species of willow that the largest supply of basket-making
materials is produced. Willows for basket-work are extensively
grown on the continent of Europe, whence large quantities are
exported to Great Britain and the United States; but no rods
surpass those of English growth for their tough and leathery
texture, and the finest of basket-making willows are now culti-
vated in England in Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire and the
valleys of the Thames and the Trent. In the early part of
the igth century, considerable attention was given in Britain
to the cultivation of willows suitable for basket-making, and
the industry was first stimulated by premiums offered by
the Society of Arts. Mr William Scaling of Basford, Notts,
was a most successful grower and published some admirable
pamphlets on the cultivation of willows. The most extensive
English willow plantation or salicetum (Lat. salix, willow)
of the present day is that planted by Mr W. P. Ellmore at
Thurmaston near Leicester, and consists of about 100 acres of
the finest qualities. Mr Ellmore, a practical basket-maker,
successfully introduced some valuable continental varieties
(see OSIER).
Willows are roughly classed by the basket-maker into " osier "
and " fine." The former consists of varieties of the true osier,
Salix viminalis; the latter of varieties of Salix triandra, S. pur-
purea and some other species and hybrids of tougher texture.
For the coarsest work, dried unpeeled osiers, known as " brown
stuff," are used; for finer work, " white (peeled) stuff " and
" buff " (willows stained a tawny hue by boiling them previous
to peeling). Brown stuff is sorted, before it reaches the work-
man, into lengths varying from 3% ft. to 8 or 10 ft., the smallest
being known in London and the home counties as " luke," the
largest as " great," and the intermediate sizes as " long small,"
" threepenny " and " middleboro." White and buff rods are
more carefully sorted, the smallest, about 2 ft. or less, being
known as " small tack," and rising sizes as " tack," " short
small," " small," " long small," " threepenny," " middleboro "
and " great." Rods of two to three years' growth, known as
" sticks," are used to form the rigid framework of the bottoms
and lids of square work. In every case, except the last, the stuff
is soaked in tanks to render it pliable before use brown from
three to seven days, white and buff from half-an-hour to half
a day. The rods are used whole for ordinary work, but for
baskets of slight and finer texture each is divided into " skains "
of different degrees of size. " Skains " are osiers cleft into three
or four parts, by means of an implement called a " cleaver,"
which is a wedge-shaped tool of boxwood inserted at the point
or top end of the rod and run down through its entire length.
They are next drawn through an implement resembling the
common spokeshave, keeping the grain of the split next the
iron or stock of the shave, while the pith is presented to the
steel edge of the instrument, and in order to bring the split into
a shape still more regular, it is passed through another implement
called an upright, consisting of a flat piece of steel, each end of
which is fashioned into a cutting edge, like that of an ordinary
chisel and adjusted to the required width by means of a thumb-
screw.
The tools required by a basket-maker are few and simple.
They consist, besides the foregoing, of a shop-knife for cutting
out material; a picking knife for cutting off the protruding
butts and tops of the rods after the work is completed; two or
three bodkins of varying sizes; a flat piece of iron somewhat
narrowly triangular in shape for driving the work closely to-
gether; a stout pair of shears and a " dog " or " commander "
for straightening sticks. The employer supplies a screw block
or vice for gripping the bottom and cover sticks of square work,
and a lapboard on which the workman fixes the upsetted bottom
while siding up the basket. This is the full kit. A common
round or oval basket may, however, be made with no other tools
than a shop-knife and a bodkin. On the continent of Europe
shapes or blocks are in use on which the fabric is in some cases
woven.
The technicalities of basket-making may be easily followed
by a glance at the illustration here reproduced by the courtesy
of the Society of Arts. 1 It will be seen that the " bye-stakes "
are merely inserted
in the " upsett,"
whereas the stakes
are driven in at each
side of the " bottom-
sticks " and pricked
up to form the rigid
framework of the side.
When the " bottom-
stick " and " stake "
are formed of one and
the same continuous
rod, it is termed a
"league." If the
bottom is made on
a hoop the butts
of the stakes are
" sliped," i.e. cut
away with a long cut
of the shop-knife, and
turned tightly round
the hoop; they are
then said to be " scal-
lomed " on. The chief
strokes used in con-
structing an ordinary
basket are : the
" slew " two or more
rods woven together;
the " rand," rods woven in singly; the " fitch," two rods
tightly worked alternately one under the other, employed for
skeleton work such as cages and waste-paper baskets; the
" pair," two rods worked alternately one over the other, used
for filling up bottoms and covers of round and oval baskets;
and the " wale," three or more rods worked alternately, forming
a string or binding course. Various forms of plaiting, roping
and tracking are used for bordering off or finishing.
An ordinary oval basket is made by preparing the requisite
number of bottom sticks, preserving their length greater than
the required width of the bottom. They are ranged in pairs on
the floor parallel to each other at small intervals, in the direction
of the longer diameter of the basket, thus forming what may
be called the " woof," for basket-work is literally a web. These
parallel rods are then crossed at right angles by two pairs of the
largest osiers, on the butt ends of which the workman places his
feet; and they are confined in their places by being each woven
alternately over and under the parallel pieces first laid down
and their own butts which form the end bottom sticks. The
whole now forms what is technically called the " slath," which
is the foundation of the basket. Next other rods are taken and
1 See the report of a paper by T. Okey, published in the Journal of
the Society of Arts, January nth, 1907.
BASKET-BALL
483
woven under and over the sticks all round the bottom until it be
of sufficient size, and the woof be occupied by them. Thus the
bottom or foundation on which the superstructure is to be
raised is finished. This latter part is accomplished by sharpen-
ing the large ends of as many long and stout osiers as may be
necessary to form the stakes or skeleton. These are forced
between the bottom sticks from the edge towards the centre,
and are turned up or " upset " in the direction of the sides;
then other rods are woven in and out between each of them,
until the basket is raised to the intended height, or, more
correctly speaking, the depth it is to receive. The edge or
border is finished by turning down the ends of the stakes, now
standing up, behind and in front of each other, whereby the
whole is firmly and compactly united, and it is technically
known as the " belly." A lid is constructed on the same plan
as that of the bottom, and tied on with hinges formed of twisted
rods; simple handles may be made by inserting similar rods by
the sides of two opposite stakes and looping them under the
border to form rope-like handles of three strands. This is the
most simple kind of basket, from which others differ only in
being made with finer materials and in being more nicely
executed; but in these there is considerable scope for taste and
fancy, and articles are produced of extreme neatness and in-
genuity in construction.
In addition to willows many other materials are employed in
the fabrication of wicker-work. Among the more important of
these is the stem of Calamus viminalis or other allied species
the cane or rattan of commerce which is used whole or made
into skains. Since 1880 the central pith of this material, known
as " cane-pulp " or " cane-pith," has been largely used in Great
Britain and on the continent of Europe in the manufacture of
furniture and other finer classes of work. About the same
period plaited rush and straw, often coloured, came into use
together with enamelled skains of cane. It must be admitted,
however, that basket-work in these developments has encroached
somewhat on the domain of cabinet-making; for wood and
nails are now much used in constructing basket-work chairs,
tables and other' furniture.
With splits of various species of bamboo the Japanese and
Chinese manufacture baskets of unequalled beauty and finish.
The bamboo wicker-work with which the Japanese sometimes
encase their delicate egg-shell porcelain is a marvellous example
of manipulation, and they and the Chinese excel in the applica-
tion of bamboo wicker-work to furniture. In India " Cajan "
baskets arc extensively made from the fronds of the Palmyra
palm, Borassus flabelliformis, and this manufacture has been
established in the Black Forest of Germany, where it is now an
important and characteristic staple. Among the other materials
may be enumerated the odorous roots of the khus-khus grass,
Anatherum muricalum,)a.nd the leaves of various species of
screw pine, used in India and the East generally. The fronds
of the palm of the Seychelles, Lodoicea sechellarum, are used for
very delicate basket-work in those islands. Strips of the New
Zealand flax plant, Phormium lenax, are made into baskets in
New Zealand. Esparto fibre is used in Spain and Algeria for
rude fruit baskets. Various species of Maranta yield basket
materials in the West Indies and South America; and the
Tirite, a species of Calathea, a member of the order Zingiberaceae,
is also employed similarly in Trinidad. Baskets are also fre-
quently made from straw, from various sedges (Cyperus), and
from shavings and splints of many kinds of wood.
The chief centres of English basket manufacture outside
London are Thurmaston near Leicester, Basford near Notting-
ham, and Grantham. Large but decreasing quantities of light
basket-work are made for the English market in Verdun, in the
department of the Aisne, and in other parts of France; and
great quantities of fancy and other work are produced in Belgium,
in the Netherlands and in Germany, notably at'Lichtenfels in
Bavaria, at Sonnefeld in Saxony and in the Black Forest.
The import and export values of baskets and basket-ware, and of
willows and rods for basket-making, have been enumerated in the
Board of Trade returns for the United Kingdom since 1900, in which
year basket-ware from foreign countries was imported to the value
f 239.402. In 1901 the imports increased to 264,183; then they
declined to 227,070 in 1905. The main sources of supply are shown
in this comparison of 1900 and 1905:
1900.
>905-
Belgium
Holland
France
Germany
Japan
Portugal
72.031
58,214
55.870
33.155
8,140
5,066
77.766
54.407
27.910
22,892
25.536
3.97
+5.735
- 3.807
-27,960
10,263
+ 17.396
1.095
1900.
>905-
Germany
Belgium .....
Holland
22,594
18,800
9.771
34.752
11,864
J2.750
+12,158
- 6,936
+ 2,979
The increase from Japan (for 1904. the value was 52,377) and the
decrease from France are remarkable.
The import values of foreign willows increased from 52,219 in
1900 to 62,286 in 1905, the most important exporting countries
being:
Small British re-exports of willows (1808 in 1900 and 371 in
1905) and of baskets (3785 in 1900 and 6633 in 1905) to foreign
parts and British possessions are tabulated. No particulars of
exports of British produce and manufacture are specified in the
returns. (T. O.)
BASKET-BALL, a game adapted to the open air, but usually
played upon the floor of a gymnasium and in the cold season.
It was the invention, in 1891, of James Naismith, an instructor
in the gymnasium of the Young Men's Christian Association
training-school at Springfield, Massachusetts. A demand had
arisen for a game for the gymnasium class, which would break
the monotony and take the place, during the winter months,
of football and baseball, and which was not too rough to be played
indoors. The idea of the game was first published in the Tri-
angle, the school paper. It soon became one of the most popular
indoor games of America, for girls as well as for men, and spread
to England and elsewhere.
Basket-ball is played on a marked-off space 60 ft. by 40 ft.
in extent, though in the open air the dimensions may be greater.
In the middle of each short side and 10 ft. above the floor or
ground, is placed a basket consisting of a net suspended from a
metal ring 18 in. in diameter, backed, at a distance of 6
in., by a back-board 6 ft. long and 4 ft. high. The object
of the game is to propel an inflated, leather-covered ball, 30
in. in circumference, into the opponents' basket, which is the
goal, by striking it with the open hands. The side wins that
scores most goals during two periods of play divided by an
interval of rest. Although there is practically no limit to the
number of players on each side, all indoor matches are played
by teams of five, in positions opposing one another as in lacrosse,
centre, right and left forwards and right and left guards (or
backs). A referee has the general supervision of the game and
decides when goals have been properly scored, and an umpire
watches for infringements of the rules, which constitute fouls.
There are also a scorer and timekeeper.
The game is started with the two opposing centres standing
within a 4-foot ring in the middle of the floor. The referee puts
the ball in play by tossing it into the air over the heads of the
centres, who jump into the air for its possession or endeavour
to bat it towards the opposing goal. From this moment the ball
is in play until it falls into a basket, or passes the boundary-lines,
or a foul is made. After a goal has been scored, the ball is again
put in play by the referee in the centre. Should it be thrown
across the boundary, a player of the opposing side, standing on
the line at the point where the ball went over, puts it in play by
passing or throwing it to one of his own side in any direction,
there being no off-side rule another point of similarity to
lacrosse. His opponents, of course, try to prevent the pass or
intercept the throw, thus securing the ball themselves. When
a foul has been called, a player of the opposing side is allowed
a " free throw " for his opponents' basket from a mark 15 ft.
distant from it and without interference. A goal scored from a
B ASN AGE B ASOCHE
free throw counts one point; one scored while the ball is in play-
counts two. Hacking, striking, holding and kicking are foul, but
a player may interfere with an opponent who has the ball so
long as he uses one arm only and does not hold. A player must
throw the ball from where he gets it, no running with it being
allowed excepting when continuously bounding it on the floor.
Basket-ball is an extremely fast game and admits of a high
degree of combination or team-play. The principal qualifica-
tions of a good player are quickness of movement and of judg-
ment, coolness, endurance, accuracy and self-control. Good
dodging, throwing, passing and team-play are the important
requisites of the game, which is looked upon as excellent winter
training for outdoor games. Basket-ball, with somewhat
modified rules, is extremely popular with young women.
See Spalding's Basket-Bali Guide; and George T. Hepbron, How
to Play Basket-Ball ; and Spalding's Basket-Bail Guide for Women.
BASNAGE, JACQUES (1653-1723), French Protestant divine,
was the eldest son of the eminent lawyer Henri Basnage, sieur
de Franquenay (1615-1695), and was born at Rouen in Nor-
mandy in 1653. He studied classical languages at Saumur and
afterwards theology at Geneva. He was pastor at Rouen (his
native place) from 1676 till 1685, when, on the revocation of the
edict of Nantes, he obtained leave of the king to retire to Holland.
He settled at Rotterdam as a minister pensionary till 1691,
when he was chosen pastor of the Walloon church. In 1709 the
grand pensionary A. Heinsius (1641-1720) secured his election
as one of the pastors of the Walloon church at the Hague, intend-
ing to employ him mainly in civil affairs. Accordingly he was
engaged in a secret negotiation with Marshal d'Uxelles, pleni-
potentiary of France at the congress of Utrecht a service
which he executed with so much success that he was entrusted
with several important commissions, all of which he discharged
with great ability. In 1716 Dubois, who was at the Hague at
the instance of the regent Orleans, for the purpose of negotia-
ting the Triple Alliance between France, Great Britain and
Holland, sought the advice of Basnage, who, in spite of the fact
that he had failed to receive permission to return to France on
a short visit the year before, did his best to further the negotia-
tions. The French government also turned to him for help in
view of the threatened rising in the Cevennes. Basnage had
welcomed the revival of the Protestant church due to the zeal
of Antoine Court; but he assured the regent that no danger of
active resistance was to be feared from it, and, true to the
principles of Calvin, he denounced the rebellion of the Camisards
(q.v.) in his Instructions pastorales aux Reformts de France sur
I'obeissance due aux souverains (Paris, 1720), which was printed
by order of the court and scattered broadcast in the south of
France. Basnage died on the 22nd of September 1723.
Basnage was a good preacher and a prolific writer. His works
include several dogmatic and polemical treatises, but the most
important are the historical. Of these may be mentioned
Histoire de la religion des fglises ref armies (Rotterdam, 1690),
the Histoire de I'eglise depuis Jfsus-Christ jusqu'd present (ib.
1699) both of them written from the point of view of Pro-
testant polemics and, of greater scientific value, the Histoire des
Juifs (Rotterdam, 1706, Eng. trans. 1708) and the Antiquiles
judaiques ou remarques critiques sur la republique des Hebreux
(1713). He also wrote short explanatory introductions and
notes to a collection of copper-plate engravings, much valued
by connoisseurs, called Histoires du Vieux et du Nouvcau
Testament, representecs par des figures gravies en taille-douce par
R. de Hooge (Amsterdam, 1704).
BASOCHE, or BAZOCHE, with the analogous forms BASOQUE,
BASOGUE and BAZOUGES; from the Lat. basilica, in the sense of
law courts, a French gild of clerks, from among whom legal
representatives (procureurs) were recruited. This gild was very
ancient, even older than the gild of the procureurs, with which
it was often at variance. It dated, no doubt, from the time
when the profession of procureur (procurator, advocate or legal
representative) was still free in the sense that persons rendering
that service to others when so permitted by the law were not
yet public and ministerial officers. For this purpose there was
established near each important juridical centre a group of
clerks, that is to say, of men skilled in law (or reputed to be so),
who at first would probably fill indifferently the rdles of repre-
sentative or advocate. Such was the origin of the Basoche of
the parlement of Paris; which naturally formed itself into a
gild, like other professions and trades in the middle ages. But
this organization eventually became disintegrated, dividing up
into more specialized bodies: that of the advocates, whose
history then begins; and that of legal representatives, whose
profession was regularized in 1344, and speedily became a sale-
able charge. The remnant of the original clerks constituted the
new Basoche, which thenceforward consisted only of those who
worked as clerks for the procureurs, the richer ones among them
aspiring themselves to attain the position of procureur. They all,
however, retained some traces of their original conditions. " They
are admitted," writes an iSth-century author, " to plead before
M. le lieutenant civil sur les referes 1 and before M. le juge
auditeur; so that the procureurs of these days are but the former
clerks of the Basoche, admitted to officiate in important cases in
preference to other clerks and to their exclusion." From its
ancient past the Basoche had also preserved certain picturesque
forms and names. It was called the " kingdom of the Basoche,"
and for a long time its chief, elected each year in general assembly,
bore the title of " king." This he had to give up towards the end
of the i6th century, by order, it is said, of Henry III., and was
thenceforth called the " chancellor." The Basoche had besides
its maitres des requetes, a grand court-crier, a referendary, an
advocate-general, a procureur-g&neral, a chaplain, &c. In early
days, and until the first half of the i6th century, it was organized
in companies in a military manner and held periodical reviews or
parades (montres), sometimes taking up arms in the king's service
in time of war. Of this there survived later only an annual
cavalcade, when the members of the Basoche went to the royal
forest of Bondy to cut the maypole, which they afterwards set up
in the court-yard of the Palais. We hear also of satirical and
literary entertainments given by clerks of the Palais de Justice,
and of the moralities played by them in public, which form an
important element in the history of the national theatre; but at
the end of the i6th century these performances were restricted to
the great hall of the Palais.
To the last the Basoche retained two principal prerogatives.
(i) In order to be recognized as a qualified procureur it was
necessary to have gone through one's " stage " in the Basoche, to
have been entered by name for ten years on its register. It
was not sufficient to have been merely clerk to a procureur during
the period and to have been registered at his office. This rule
was the occasion of frequent conflicts during the i?th and i8th
centuries between the members of the Basoche and the procureurs,
and on the whole, despite certain decisions favouring the latter,
the parlement maintained the rights of the Basoche. Opinion
was favourable to it because the certificats de complaisance issued
by the procureurs were dreaded. These certificats held good,
moreover, in places where there was no Basoche. (2) The
Basoche had judiciary powers recognized by the law. It had
disciplinary jurisdiction over its members and decided personal
actions in civil law brought by one clerk against another or by an
outsider against a clerk. The judgment, at any rate if delivered
by a mattre des requites, was authoritative, and could only be
contested by a civil petition before the ancient council of the
Basoche. The Chatelet of Paris had its special basoche, which
claimed to be older even than that of the Palais de Justice, and
there was contention between them as to certain rights. The
clerks of the procureurs at the cour des comptes of Paris had their
own Basoche of great antiquity, called the " empire de Galilee."
The Basoche of the Palais de Justice had in its ancient days the
right to create provostships in localities within the jurisdiction of
the parlement of Paris, and thus there sprang up a certain number
of local basoches. Others were independent in origin; among
such being the " regency " of Rouen and the Basoche of the
parlement of Toulouse.
1 A procedure for obtaining a provisional judgment on urgent
BASQUE PROVINCES BASQUES
485
See also Repertoire de jurisprudence des Guyol; Recueil des Statuts
du royaume de la basoche (Paris, 1654) ; L. A. Fabre, Etudes his-
toriques-sur Its clercs de la basoche (Paris, 1856). (J. P. E.)
BASQUE PROVINCES (Provincial Vascongadas), a division of
north-eastern Spain, comprising the three provinces of Alava,
Biscay or Vizcaya and Guipuzcoa. Pop. (1900) 603,596; area
2739 sq.m., the third in density in Spain. The territory occupied
by the Basque Provinces forms a triangle bounded on the west
and south by the provinces of Santander, Burgos and Logrono,
on the east by Navarre, on the north by France and the Bay of
Biscay. The French Pays Basque forms part of the arrondisse-
ments of Bayonne and Mauleon. For an account of the people,
their origin, customs and language, see BASQUES. Of the Pro-
vinces, Guipuzcoa is the only one which is wholly Basque,
Alava is the least so. Its capital, Vitoria, is said to have been
founded by the Gothic king Leovigild (581). Older than these
divisions, the date of which is uncertain, the ancient limits of
the dioceses of Pamplona, Bayonne and Calahorra, probably
corresponded more nearly to the boundaries of the ancient
tribes, the Autrigones, the Caristi, the Varduli and the Vascones,
with their still differing dialects, than do these civil provinces.
Leaving aside the legendary and uncertain portion of their
history, we find the Provinces in some districts dependent allies
of Navarre, in others of Castile. In Biscay the counts of Haro
were lords of Biscay from 1093 to 1350. There was a short union
with Castile under Pedro the Cruel, but the definitive union did
not take place till 1370. In Alava the ruling power was the con-
federation of Arriaga (so called after its meeting place), which
united the province to the crown of Castile in 1332. Guipuzcoa,
which had been dependent sometimes on Navarre, sometimes on
Castile, was definitively united to Castile in 1 200. From the year
1425 the provinces were desolated by party wars among the lesser
nobles (parientes may ores) but these came to an end in 1460-
1498, when Henry IV. and Ferdinand the Catholic strengthened
the power of the towns and forbade the erection of any
fortified house in the country. Though the three Basque
Provinces were thus united to the crown of Spain, they still
remained a land apart (tierra apartada). Their juntas acted
to some extent in common; and although no written federal
pact is known to have existed, they employed, as the symbol
of their unity, a seal with the word Iruracbat, " The Three One,"
engraved upon it. They preserved their own laws, customs,
fueros (see BASQUES), which the Spanish kings swore to observe
and maintain. Unless countersigned by the juntas the decrees
of Cortes and Spanish legislation or royal orders had no force
in the Provinces. In the junta of 1481 Guipuzcoa alone proposed
a treaty of friendship, peace and free trade for ten years with
England, and this was signed in Westminster, on the gth of
March 1482 (see Rymer, Foedera). The Basques still made
their own treaties with England and France and are mentioned
apart from Spain in the treaty of Utrecht (1713). They still
preserved in their municipal institutions the old style of re-
publicas derived from the cimtates and respublicae of ancient
Rome. This kind of independence and autonomy lasted un-
challenged until the death of Ferdinand VII. in 1833, when, in
default of male heirs, his brother Don Carlos claimed the throne,
confirmed the Basque fueros, and raised the standard of revolt
against his niece, Isabel II. A seven years' war followed, in
which an English legion under Sir George de Lacy Evans and
a naval force under Lord John Hay took part. It was ended by
the Convenio de Vergara (August 3ist, 1839) in which the con-
cession and modification of the fueros was demanded. The
troubled period which followed the expulsion of Isabel II. in
1868 gave opportunity for a second Carlist war from 1872 to
1876. This ended, unlike the former one, in the utter defeat
of the Carlist forces, and left the Provinces at the mercy of the
government, without terms or agreement. In general govern-
ment and legislation the Provinces were then assimilated to the
rest of the nation. After 1876, the Provincial parliaments
(diputaciones) were elected like the other provincial councils of
Spain, deprived of many privileges and subjected to the ordinary
interference of the civil governors. But their representatives,
assisted by the senators and deputies of the Basque Provinces
in the Cortes, negotiated successive pacts, each lasting several
years, securing for the three Provinces their municipal and
provincial self-government, and the assessment, distribution
and collection of their principal taxes and octroi duties, on the
understanding that an agreed sum should be paid annually to
the state, subject to an increase whenever the national taxation
of other provinces was augmented. In December 1906, after
long discussion, the contribution of the Basque Provinces to the
state, according to the law of the 2ist of July 1876, was fixed
for the next twenty years; for the first ten years at 8,500,000
pesetas, for the next ten an additional 500,000 pesetas, from
3ist December 1916 to 315! December 1926, the province of
Guipuzcoa paying in addition 700,000 pesetas to the treasury.
These pacts have hitherto been scrupulously observed, and as
the local authorities levy the contribution after their own local
customs, landed property and the industrial and commercial
classes are less heavily taxed in these territories than in the rest
of Spain. Enough is raised, however, besides the amount handed
over to the government, to enable the schools, roads, harbours
and public works of every kind to be maintained at a standard
which compares very favourably with other parts of Spain.
When the three provinces sent in their first contingent of con-
scripts in 1877, it was found that all but about sixty knew how
to read and write, and succeeding contingents have kept up this
high standard.
In agriculture the Basque Provinces and the Pays Basque
were great cider countries, but during the I9th century this was
gradually replaced by wine-growing. The chief industries of
the Basque Provinces are the sea fisheries and iron mining.
Some of the mines round Bilbao have been wprkcd from pre-
historic times. In 1905 the Basque Provinces produced 5,302,344
tons of iron, over five millions of which came from Biscay, out
of a total of 9,395,314 tons for the whole of Spain. More than
the half of this total 5,845,895 tons, was exported to England.
The swords of Mondragon in Guipuzcoa were renowned before
those of Toledo. Eibar in the same province has long been a
small-arms factory. There in the igth century Senor Zuloaga
successfully revived the artistic inlaying of gold and silver in
steel and iron.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of older works, though often uncritical, R. P.
Henao's Averiguaciones de las Antiguedades de Cantabria (Salamanca,
1688), is still valuable (new edition, 1894). For all that relates to
the manners and customs of the people, Corografia de Guipuzcoa, by
R. P. M. de Larramendi, S.J., is indispensable. Written about 1750,
it was first printed in Barcelona in 1882 (later edition, San Sebastian,
1896). There are excellent chapters on the Basque Provinces in the
Introduccwn a la Historia Natural, y a la Geografla Fisica de Espafia,
by D. Guillermo Bowles (Madrid, 1775). El Guipuzcoano instruido
(San Sebastian, 1780), in the form of a dictionary, gives full details
of the life, the rights, duties and obligations of a Basque citizen of
that date. The Diccionario Geografico-Historico de Espana, tome i.,
ii. El Reyno de Navarra Senorio de Vizcaya y Protrinctas de Alava y
Guipuzcoa (Madrid, 1802), is full of local information, but with a
strong bias in favour of the central government. The best works on
the various editions of the fueros are Historia de la Legislacion . . .
civil de Espafia, by A. Marichalar, Marques de Montesa, and Cayetano
Manrique; Fueros de Navarra Vizcaya, Guipuzcoa y Alava (Madrid,
2nd ed., 1868) ; and the Noticia de las cosas memorables de Guipuzcoa,
by D. Pablo de Gorosabel (Tolosa, 1899^-1901), the last volume of
which by C. de Echegaray, gives the legislative acts down to May
1900. Las Provincias Vascongadas a Fines de la Edad Media, by
D. Carmelo de Echegaray (San Sebastian, 1895), is excellent. There
is a Historia de Bizcaya, by Dr E. de Labayru, and a Compendia of
the same by Fermin Herran (Bilbao, 1903). D. Carmelo de Eche-
garay, Crpnista de las Provincias Vascongadas, with his colleagues
D. Serapio Mugica, F. Soraluce, and other historians, has ex-
amined, catalogued and indexed the municipal archives of all the
towns, without which no true history can be written. Several
discoveries of important missing documents and MSS. were thus
made. The development of the Basque mining industry is fully
described in Las Minas de kierro de la provincia de Vizcaya,
progresses realizados en esta region derde 1870 hasta 1899 (Bilbao,
1900). (W. WE.)
BASQUES, a people inhabiting the three Basque Provinces
Biscay, Alava and Guipfizcoa and Navarre in Spain, and the
arrondissement of Bayonne and Mauleon in France. The number
of those who can be considered in any sense pure Basques is
4 86
BASQUES
probably about 600,000 in Europe, with perhaps 100,000
emigrants in the Americas, chiefly in the region of La Plata in
South America. The word Basques is historically derived from
Vascones, which, written Wascones, has also given the name
Gascons to a very different race. The Basques call themselves
Eskualdunak, i.e. " those who possess the Eskuara," and their
country Eskual-Herria.
Language. The original and proper name of the language is
Eskuara (euskara, uskara), a word the exact meaning of which
has not yet been ascertained, but which probably corresponds
with the idea " clearly speaking." The language is highly
interesting and stands as yet absolutely isolated from the
other tongues of Europe, though from the purely grammatical
point of view it recalls the Magyar and Finnic languages. It is
an agglutinative, incorporating and polysynthetic system of
speech; in the general series of organized linguistic families it
would take an intermediate place between the American on the
one side and the Ugro-Altaic or Ugrian on the other.
Basque has no graphic system of its own and uses the Roman
character, either Spanish or French; a few particular sounds
are indicated in modern writings by dotted or accented letters.
The alphabet would vary according to the dialects. Prince L. L.
Bonaparte counts, on the whole, thirteen simple vowels, thirty-
eight simple consonants. Nasal vowels are found in some
dialects as well as " wet " consonants ty, dy, ny, &c. The
doubling of consonants is not allowed and in actual current
speech most of the soft consonants are dropped. The letter r can-
not begin a word, so that ralionem is written in Basque arrazoin.
Declension is replaced by a highly developed postpositional
system; first, the definite article itself a (plural ak) is a post-
position zaldi, " horse," zaldia " the horse," zaldiak, " the
horses." The declensional suffixes or postpositions, which, just
like our prepositions, may be added to one another, are postponed
to the article when the noun is definite. The principal suffixes
are k, the mark of the plural, and of the singular nominative
agent; n, " of " and " in "; i, " to "; z, " by "; ik, " some ";
ko, "from," "of" (Lat.a); tik, "from" (Lat. ex); tzat,
kotzat, tzako, " for "; kin, gaz, " with "; gatik, " for the sake of";
gana, " towards "; ra, rat, " to," " into," " at," &c. Of these
suffixes some are joined to the definite, others to the indefinite
noun, or even to both.
The personal pronouns, which to a superficial observer appear
closely related to those of the Semitic or Hamitic languages, are
ni, " I "; hi, " thou "; gu, " we "; zu, " you " in modern
times, zu has become a polite form of " thou," and a true plural
" you " (i.e. more than one) has been formed by suffixing the
pluralizing sign k zuek. The pronouns of the third person are
mere demonstratives. There are three: hura or kura, " that ";
hau or kau, " this "; on or kori, " this " or "that." Other
unexplained forms are found in the verbal inflexions, e.g. d, it,
and /, "I" or "me"; d-akus-t, " it see I " = I see it; d-arrai-t,
" it follows me." The demonstratives are used as articles:
gazl-en-or, " this younger one "; andre-ori, " this lady at some
distance." The reflective " self " is expressed by burn, " head."
The relative does not exist, and in its place is used as a kind of
verbal participle with the ending n: doa, " he goes "; doana,
" he who is going " ; in the modern Basque, however, by imitation
of French or Spanish, the interrogative zein, zoin, is used as
a relative. Other interrogatives are nor, " who "; zer, " what ";
zembait, "how much," &c. Bat, "one"; batzu, "several";
bakotch, "each"; norbait, "some one"; hanitz or hainitz,
"much"; elkar, "both"; are the most common indefinite
pronouns. The numeral system is vicesimal; e.g. 34 is hogoi la
hamalaur, " twenty and fourteen." The numbers from one to
ten are: i, bat; 2, bi; 3, hiru; 4, lau; 5, borlz or host; 6, sei;
7, zazpi; 8, zortzi; 9, bederatzi; 10, hamar; 20, hogoi or hogei;
40, berrogoi (i.e. twice twenty); 100, ehun. There is no genuine
word for a thousand.
The genders in Basque grammar are distinguished only in
the verbal forms, in which the sex of the person addressed is
indicated by a special suffix; so that eztakit means, " I do not
know it "; but to a woman one says also: eztakinat, " I do not
know it, oh woman!" To a man one says: eztakiat (for cz-
takikat), " I do not know it, oh man!" moreover, certain dialectic
varieties have a respectful form: eztakizut, " I do not know it,
you respectable one," from which also a childish form is derived,
eztakichut, "I do not know it, oh child!"
The Basque conjugation appears most complicated, since it
incorporates not only the subject pronouns, but, at the same
time, the indirect and direct complement. Each transitive form
may thus offer twenty-four variations" he gives it," " he
gives it to you," " he gives them to us," &c., &c. Primitively
there were two tenses only, an imperfect and a present, which
were distinguished in the transitive verb by the place of the
personal subject element: dakigu, "we are knowing it" (gu,
i.e. we), and ginaki, " we were knowing it "; in the intransitive
by a nasalization of the radical: niz, " I am "; nintz, " I was."
In modern times a conjectural future has been derived by adding
the suffix ke, dakiket, " I will, shall or probably can know it."
No proper moods are known, but subjunctive or conjunctive
forms are formed by adding a final n, as dakusat, " I am looking
at it "; dakusadan, " if I see it." No voices appear to have
been used in the same radical, so that there are separate transitive
and intransitive verbs.
In its present state Basque only employs its regular conjugation
exceptionally; but it has developed, probably under the influence
of neo-Latin, a most extensive conjugation by combining a few
auxiliary verbs and what may be called participles, in fact
declined nouns: ikusten dut, " I have it in seeing," " I see it ";
ikusiko dut, " I have it to be seen," " I will see it," &c. The
principal auxiliaries are: izan, " to be "; and ukan, " to have";
but edin, " to can "; eza, " to be able "; egin, " to make ";joan,
" to go "; eroan, " to draw," " to move," are also much used in
this manner.
The syntax is simple, the phrases are short and generally the
order of words is: subject, complement, verb. The determining
element follows the determined: gizon handia, " man great the "
the great man; the genitive, however, precedes the nomina-
tive gizonaren etchea, " the man's house." Composition is
common and it has caused several juxtaposed words to be
combined and contracted, so that they are partially fused with
one another a process called polysynthcticism; odei, " cloud,"
and ots, "noise," form odots, "thunder"; bclar, "forehead,"
and oin, " foot," give belaun, " knee," front of the foot. The
vocabulary is poor; general and synthetic words are often
wanting; but particular terms abound. There is no proper
term for " sister," but arreba, a man's sister, is distinguished
from ahizpa, a woman's sister. We find no original words for
abstract ideas, and God is simply " the Lord of the high."
The vocabulary, however, varies extremely from place to
place and the dialectic varieties are very numerous. They have
been summed up by Prince L. L. Bonaparte as eight; these
may be reduced to three principal groups: the eastern, com-
prising the Souletine and the two lower Navarrese; the central
formed by the two upper Navarrese, the Guipuzcoan and the
Labourdine; and the western, formed by the Biscayan, spoken
too in Alava. These names are drawn from the territorial
subdivisions, although the dialects do not exactly correspond
with them.
Ethnology and Anthropology. The earliest notices of the
geography of Spain, from the sth century B.C., represent Spain
as occupied by a congeries of tribes distinguished mainly as Iberi,
Celtiberi and Celts. These had no cohesion together, and unless
temporarily united against some foreign foe, were at war with
one another and were in constant movement; the ruder tribes
being driven northwards by the advancing tide of Mediterranean
civilization. The tribes in the south in Baetica had, according
to Trogus and Strabo, written laws, poems of ancient date and
a literature. Of this nothing has reached us. We have only
some inscriptions, legends on coins, marks on pottery and on
megalithic monuments, in alphabets slightly differing, and
belonging to six geographical districts. These still await an
interpreter; but they show that a like general language was once
spoken through the whole of Spain, and for a short distance on
BASQUES
487
the northern slope of the Pyrenees. The character of the letters
is clearly of Levant origin, but the particular alphabets, to
which each may be referred, and their connexion, if any, with
the Basque, are still undetermined. It was early remarked by
the classical scholars among the Basques after the Renaissance
that certain names in the ancient toponymy of Spain, though
transcribed by Greek and Latin writers, i.e. by foreigners,
ignorant of the language, yet bear a strong resemblance to actual
place-names in Basque (e.g. Iliberis, Iriberry) ; and in a few cases
(Mondiculeia, Mendigorry; Iluro, Oloron) the site itself shows
the reason of the name. Andres de Poza (1587), Larramendi
(1760), Juan B. Erro (1806) and others had noted some of these
facts, but it was W. von Humboldt (1821) who first aroused the
attention of Europe to them. This greater extension of a people
speaking a language akin to the Basque throughout Spain, and
perhaps in Sicily and Sardinia, has been accepted by the majority
of students, though some competent Basque scholars deny it;
and the certain connexion of the Basques, either with the
Iberians or Celtiberians, whether in race or language, cannot be
said to be conclusively proved as long as the so-called Celtiberian
inscriptions remain uninterpreted. (See also IBERIANS.)
After so many centuries of close contact and interpenetration
with other peoples, we can hardly expect to find a pure physical
type among the present Basques. All that we can expect is to
be able to differentiate them from their neighbours. The earliest
notice we have of the Basques, by Einhard (778), speaks of their
wonderful agility. The next, the pilgrim of the Codex Calixtinus
(izth century), says the Basques are fairer in face (facie candi-
diores) than the Navarrese.
Anthropologists no longer rely solely on craniology, and the
measurement of the skull, to distinguish race. The researches
of Aranzadi (1889 and 1905) and of Collignon (1899 ) show them
as less fair than northern Europeans, but fairer than any of
the southern races; not so tall as the Scandinavians, Teutons
or British, but taller than their neighbours of southern races.
There is no tendency to prognathism, as in some of the Celts.
The profile is often very fine; the carriage is remarkably upright.
Neither markedly brachycephalous nor dolichocephalous, the
skull has yet certain peculiarities. In the conjunction of the
whole physical qualities, says Collignon, there is a Basque type,
differing from all those he has studied in Europe and northern
Africa. There are differences of type among themselves, yet, when
they emigrate to South America, French and Spanish Basques are
known simply as Basques, distinct from all other races.
On the origin of the Basques, the chief theories are: (i) that
they are descended from the tribes whom the Greeks and Latins
called Iberi; (2) that they belong to some of the fairer Berber
tribes (" Eurafrican," Herve) and through the ancient Libyans,
from a people depicted on the Egyptian monuments; (3) the
Atlantic theory, that they belong to a lost Atlantic continent,
whose inhabitants were represented by the Guanches of the
Canary Islands, and by a fair race on the western coast of Africa;
(4) that they are an indigenous race, who have never had any
greater extension than their present quarters.
The remains of prehistoric races hitherto discovered in Spain
throw little light on the subject, but some skulls found in south-
eastern Spain in the age of metal resemble the Basque skulls of
Zaraus.
The megalithic remains, the dolmens, menhirs, cromlechs and
stone circles are said to resemble more closely those of northern
Africa than the larger remains of Brittany and of the British
Isles. Aristotle tells us that the Iberi fixed obelisks round the
tomb of each warrior in number equal to the enemies he had
slain (Polit. vii. c. 2. 6), but proof is wanting that these Iberi
were Basques.
Iberian inscriptions have been found on the so-called toros
de guisando, rude stone bulls or boars, on other monuments of
northern Spain and in ancient sepulchres; some of these
figures, e.g. at the Cerro de los Santos in Murcia, recall the
physical type of the modern Basques, but they are associated
with others of very varied types.
Of the religion of the Basques anterior to Christianity, little
is certainly known. The few notices we have point to a worship
of the elements, the sun, the moon and the morning star, and
to a belief in the immortality of the unburnt and unburied body.
The custom of the couvadc, attributed by Strabo to the Cantabri,
is unknown among the modern Basques. As elsewhere, the
Romans assimilated Basque local deities to their own pantheon,
thus we find Deo Baicorrixo (Baigorry) and Herauscorrtsehe
in Latin inscriptions. But the name which the Basques them-
selves give to the Deity is Jaincoa, Jaungoikoa, which may mean
lord or master, Lord of the high; but in the dialect of Roncal,
Goikoa means " the moon," and Jaungoikokoa would mean
" Lord of the moon." The term Jaun, lord or master, Elcheko
Jauna, the lord or master of the house, is applied to every
householder.
There is no aid to be got from folk- tales; none can be con-
sidered exclusively Basque and the literature is altogether too
modern. The first book printed in Basque, the Linguae Vas-
conum Primitiae, the poems of Bernard d'Echepare, is dated
1 545. The work which is considered the standard of the language
is the Protestant translation of the New Testament made by
Jean de Licarrague, under the auspices of Jeanne d'Albret, and
printed at La Rochelle in 1571. The pastorales are open-air
dramas, like the moralities and mysteries of the middle ages.
They are derived from French materials; but a dancing-chorus,
invariably introduced, and other parts of the mise-en-scene,
point to possibly earlier traditions. No MS. hitherto discovered
is earlier than the i8th century. The greater part of the other
literature is religious and translated. It is only recently that a
real literature has been attempted in Basque with any success.
In spite of this modernity in literature there are other matters
which show how strong the conservatism of the Basques really .
is. Thus, in dealing with the language, the only true measure
of the antiquity of the race, we find that all cutting instruments
are of stone; that the week has only three days. There are also
other survivals now fast disappearing. Instead of the plough,
the Basques used the laya, a two-pronged short-handled steel
digging fork, admirably adapted to small properties, where
labour is abundant. They alone of the peoples of western
Europe have preserved specimens of almost every class of dance
known to primitive races. These are (i) animal (or possibly
totem) dances, in which men personate animals, the bear, the
fox, the horse, &c.; (2) dances to represent agriculture and the
vintage performed with wine-skins; (3) the simple arts, such as
weaving, where the dancers, each holding a long coloured ribbon,
dance round a pole on which is gradually formed a pattern like a
Scotch tartan; (4) war-dances, as the sword-dance and others;
(5) religious dances in procession before the Host and before
the altar; (6) ceremonial dances in which both sexes take part
at the beginning and end of a festival, and to welcome dis-
tinguished people. How large a part these played in the life of
the people, and the value attached to them, may be seen in the
vehement defence of the religious dances by Father Larramendi,
S.J., in his Corografia de Guipuzcoa, and by the large sums paid
for the privilege of dancing the first Saul Basque on the stage at
the close of a Pastorale.
The old Basque house is the product of a land where stone and
timber were almost equally abundant. The front-work is of
wood with carved beams; the balconies and huge over-hanging
roof recall the Swiss chalet, but the side and back walls are of
stone often heavily buttressed. The cattle occupy the ground-
floor, and the first storey is reached often by an outside staircase.
The carven tombstones with their ornaments resemble those of
Celtic countries, and are found also at Bologna in Italy.
In customs, in institutions, in administration, in civil and
political life there is no one thing that we can say is peculiarly
and exclusively Basque; but their whole system taken together
marks them off from other people and especially from their
neighbours.
Character. The most marked features in the Basque character
are an intense self-respect, a pride of race and an obstinate
conservatism. Much has been written in ridicule of the claim
of all Basques to be noble, but it was a fact both in the laws of
4 88
BASQUES
Spain, in the fueros and in practice. Every Basque freeholder
(vecino) could prove himself noble and thus eligible to any office.
They are not a town race; a Basque village consists of a few
houses; the population lives in scattered habitations. They
do not fear solitude, and this makes them excellent emigrants
and missionaries. They are splendid seamen, and were early
renowned as whale fishermen in the Bay of Biscay. They were
the first to establish the cod-fishery off the coast of Newfound-
land. They took their full part hi the colonization of America.
Basque names abound in the older colonial families, and Basque
newspapers have been published in Buenos-Aires and in Los
Angeles, California. As soldiers they are splendid marchers;
they retain the tenacity and power of endurance which the
Romans remarked in the Iberians and Celtiberians. They are
better in defence than in attack. The failure to take Bilbao
was the turning-point in both Carlist wars. In civil institutions
and in the tenures of property the legal position of women was
very high. The eldest born, whether boy or girl, inherited the
ancestral property, and this not only among the higher classes
but among the peasantry also. In the fueros an insult done to
a woman, or in the presence of a woman, is punished more
severely than a similar offence among men. This did not
prevent women from working as hard as, or even harder than,
the men. All authors speak of the robust appearance of the
women-rowers on the Bidassoa, and of those who loaded and
unloaded the ships in Bilbao.
Institutions. In their municipal institutions they kept the old
Roman term respublica for the civitas and the territory belonging
to it. All municipal officers were elective hi some form or other,
and there is hardly any mode of election, from universal suffrage
to nomination by a single person chosen by lot, that the Basques
have not tried." The municipalities sent deputies to the juntas or
parliaments of each province. These assemblies took place
originally in the open air, as in other parts of the Pyrenees, under
trees, the most celebrated of which is the oak of Guernica hi
Biscay, or under copses, as the Bilzaar in the French Pays Basque.
The cortes of Navarre met at Pamplona. Delegates from the
juntas met annually to consider_the common interests of the three
provinces. Besides the separate municipalities and the juntas,
there were often associations and assemblies of three or five towns,
or of three or four valleys, to preserve the special privilege or for
the special needs of each. Hence was formed a habit of self-
government, the practice of legislative, judicial and administra-
tive functions, which resulted gradually in a code of written or
unwritten laws embodied in the fueros or fors of each province,
and the cartas-pueblos of the towns. In form these fueros or
charters are often grants from the lord or sovereign; in reality
they are only a confirmation or codification of unwritten cus-
tomary laws in practice among the people, the origin of which
is lost in antiquity. The kings of Castile, of Spain and of Navarre
were obliged at their accession, either hi person, or by deputy, to
swear to observe these fueros; and this oath was really kept.
While the cortes were trampled upon and absolutism reigned both
in Spain and in France, the Basque fueros were respected ; in
Spain to the middle of the ipth century and in France down to
the Revolution. The fueros thus observed made the Basque
provinces a land apart (una tierra apartada), a self-governing
republic (una verdadera autonomia), under an absolute monarchy,
to which, however, they were always loyal. And this independ-
ence was acknowledged, not only in local, but also in international
and European treaties, as in art. 15 of the treaty of Utrecht 1713.
So the act of the 3rd of June 1876, which assimilated the Basque
Provinces to the rest of Spain, acknowledged the true self-
government which they had enjoyed for centuries.
The circumstances and methods which enabled the Basques to
preserve this independence were, first, the isolation caused by
their peculiar language; next, the mountainous and easily-
defended nature of the country, its comparative poverty and the
possession of a sea-board. Then there were the rights and the
safeguards which the fueros themselves gave against encroach-
ments. The rights were : freedom of election to all offices and to
the juntas; exemption from all forced military service except for
the defence of the country and under their own officers; and
payment beforehand exacted for all service beyond their own
frontiers (this did not of course exclude voluntary service of
individuals in the Spanish or French armies). Then there was
free trade with foreign nations, and especially between the Basques
of both nations. The customs' frontier of Spain really began on
the Ebro. Then no decree or sentence of the royal authorities
could have effect in the provinces except countersigned by the
junta. Otherwise the resisting and even the killing of a royal
officer was no murder. But chiefest of all the safeguards was
the provision that no tax or contribution should be levied or paid
to the crown till all petitions had been heard and wrongs re-
dressed; that such a vote should be the last act of the junta or
cortes, and the money should be paid not as a demand of right or
a tax, but as a free gift and above all a voluntary one. It was
paid in a lump sum, and the repartition and levying were left
entirely hi the hands of the junta and the municipalities.
As a further precaution against the inroads of absolutism, no
lawyer was allowed to be a deputy to the junta and all clergy
were likewise excluded. The Basques considered that men of
these professions would be always on the side of tyranny. One
lawyer (letrado) was present at the juntas for consultation on the
points of law, but he was not allowed to vote. So strictly was
this observed that after the battle of Vitoria hi 1813, when it was
difficult to get together a quorum for the reorganization of the
country, the letrado, though one of the most active and influential
members in consultation, was not allowed to vote.
The relations between Church and State among the Basques
have been very remarkable. They are a highly religious people,
eminently conservative hi their religious practices. In religion
alone, through Ignatius de Loyola of Guipuzcoa and Francis
Xavier of Navarre, they have left their mark upon Europe. They
have kept the earliest form of Christian marriage and of the
primitive order of deaconesses, forgotten elsewhere hi the West.
The feast of Corpus Christi instituted by Pope Urban IV. (1262)
still appears in Basque almanacs as Phesta-berria, the New Feast.
The earliest notice that we have of them speaks of their liberality
to the clergy; yet with all this religious conservatism they have
never allowed themselves to be priest-ridden. They constantly
resisted the attempts of the crown to force upon them the
authority of the Spanish bishops. When Ferdinand the Catholic
came to Biscay hi 1477 to swear to the fueros, he was compelled
to send back the bishop of Pamplona whom he had brought with
him. No strange priest could enter the town when the junta was
sitting, and hi some places if a deputy was seen speaking to a
priest before a session he lost his vote for that day. The bishops
had no share in ecclesiastical patronage in Guipdzcoa ; all was in
the hands of the king, of the nobles or of the municipalities, or
else the priests were chosen by competitive examination or
elected by the people. They would not allow the priest to inter-
fere with the games or dances, and when the drama was forbidden
in all Spain in 1757 by the authority of the Spanish bishops, the
cortes of Navarre compelled the king to withdraw the order.
For a stranger coming from lands of larger farms and apparently
higher cultivation, the agriculture of the Basques seems poor, but
the old scattered homesteads show a sense of security that has
been lacking in many parts of Spain ; and the Basques have shown
great adaptability in suiting their agriculture to new conditions,
helped by the presence of the courts at San Sebastian and
Biarritz. When the old self-sufficient village industries declined,
in consequence of the invention of machinery and manufacture
elsewhere, the Basques entered at once upon emigration to the
agricultural parts of the Americas, and the result has been that
the Basque Provinces and the Pays Basque probably have never
been more prosperous than they are now, and perhaps a new
Eskual-herria and a new Eskuara are being built up in the distant
lands to which they are such valued immigrants.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. For so restricted a literature the Essai d'une
bibliographic de la lansue basque, by Julien Vinson (Paris, 1891),
with the volume of additions and corrections, 1898, is practically
exhaustive, and is a mine of information on the principal works.
See also for the language, A. Oihenart, Notitia utnusque Vasconiae
(Paris, 1638 and 1656), 410., ch. xiv. ; Fl. Lecluse, Manuel de la
BASRA BASS
489
langue basque (Toulouse, 1826); C. Ribary, Essai sur la langue
basque (1866), translated from the Hungarian by Julien Vinson
(Paris, 1877); W. J. Van Eys, Grammaire comparee des dialectes
basques (Paris, London, Amsterdam, 1879); Prince L. L. Bonaparte,
Le Verbs basque en tableaux (London, 1864-1869); I. Vinson,
articles in Revue de linguistique (Paris, 1867-1906); L'Abt>e
Ithurry, Grammaire basque (Bayonne, 1895-1906) ; Dr H. Schuc-
hardt, Die Entstehung der Bezugsformen des Baskischen (Wien, 1893) ;
W. J. Van Eys, Dicttonnaire basque-franfais (Paris, 1873); R. M. de
Azkue, Diccionario vascongado espanol-fran^ais (Tours, 1906) ;
Monumenta Linguae Ibericae, edidit Aermlius Hubner, fol. (Berlin,
1893) (texts and introduction good; analysis and interpretation
faulty). Other works of interest on various subjects are: Went-
worth Webster, Basque Legends (London, 1877 and 1879); Puyol y
Camps, " La Epigraphia Numismatica Iberica," in tomo xvi. of
Boletin de la Real Academia de la Historia (Madrid, 1890), (for geo-
graphical distribution of the alphabets) ; T. de Aranzadi, El Pueblo
Euskalduna. Estudio de Antropologia (San Sebastian, 1889); and
the same author's Existe una raza Euskara ? Sus caracteres antro-
pologicos (1905); La Tradition au fays basque (Paris, 1899), (a
collection of papers by local authorities); Julien Vinson, Les
Basques et le pays basque (Paris, 1882), a sufficient survey for the
general reader; the same author's Le Folk-Lore du pays basque
(Paris, 1883), treats of the Pastorales and embraces the whole
Folk-Lore; Le Codex de Saint- Jacques de Compostella, lib. iv. (Paris,
1882), by R. P. F. Fita and J. Vinson, gives the first Basque vocabu-
lary; Les Coutumes generates gardees et observers au pats &
haulage de Labourt (Bordeaux, 1700); G. Olphe-Galliard, Le Paysan
basque a travers les Ages (Paris, 1905) ; Pierre Yturbide, Le Pays de
Labourd avant 1789 (Bayonne, 1905), (for the time of the English
domination); Henry O'Shea, La Tombe basque (Pau, 1880), (valu-
able for the comparison of Basque and Celtic sepulchral ornament).
See also the bibliography to BASQUE PROVINCES. (W. WE. ; J. VN.)
BASRA (written also BUSRA, BASSORA and BUSSORA), the
name of a vilayet of Asiatic turkey, and of its capital. The vilayet
has an area of 16,470 sq. m., formed in 1884 by detaching the
southern districts of the Bagdad vilayet. It includes the great
marshy districts of the lower Euphrates and Tigris, and of their
joint stream, the Shatt el-Arab, and a sanjak on the western
shore of the Persian Gulf. A settled population is found only
along the river banks. Except the capital, Basra, there are no
towns of importance. Korna, at the junction of the two great
rivers; Amara on the Tigris; Shatra on fhe Shatt el-Hal canal,
connecting the Tigris and Euphrates; Nasrieh, at the junction
of that canal with the Euphrates and Suk esh-Sheiukh, on the
lower reaches of the Euphrates, are the principal settlements,
with a population varying from 3000 to 10,000 or somewhat
Jess. Along the Shatt el-Arab and the lower reaches of the
Tigris and Euphrates there are vast plantations of date-palms,
which produce the finest dates known. Here and there are found
extensive rice-fields; liquorice, wheat, barley and roses are also
cultivated . in places. But in general the ancient canals on
which the fertility of the country depends have been allowed to
go to ruin. The whole land is subject to inundations which
render settled agriculture impracticable, and the population
consists chiefly of nomadic and semi-nomadic tribes whose
wealth consists in herds of buffaloes, horses, sheep and goats.
The principal exports are wool, dates, cereals, gum, liquorice-
roqt and horses. The climate is humid and unhealthy. The
population is estimated at about 200,000 almost exclusively
Moslems, of whom three-quarters are Shi'ites. There are about
4000 Jews and perhaps 6000 Christians, among whom are
reckoned the remains of the curious sect of Sabaeans or
Mandaeans, whose headquarters are in the neighbourhood of
Suk esh-Sheiukh.
The capital of the vilayet, also called Basra, is situated in
47 34' E. long, and 32 N. lat., near the western bank of the
Shatt el-Arab, about 55 m. from the Persian Gulf. The town
proper lies on the canal el-'Assar about i^ to 2 m. W. of the Shatt
el-Arab. There are no public buildings of importance. The
houses are meanly built, partly of sun-dried and partly of burnt
bricks, with flat roofs surrounded by parapets. The bazaars
are miserable structures, covered with mats laid on rafters of
date trees. The streets are irregular, narrow and unpaved.
The greater part of the area of the town is occupied by gardens
and plantations of palm-trees, intersected by a number of little
canals, cleansed twice daily with the ebb and flow of the tide,
which rises here about 9 ft. These canals are navigated by small
boats, called bellem (plur. a Warn), resembling dug-outs in form,
but light and graceful. At high-tide, accordingly, the town
presents a very attractive appearance, but at low-tide, when the
mud banks are exposed, it seems dirty and repulsive, and the
noxious exhalations are extremely trying. The whole region is
subject to inundations. The town itself is unhealthy and
strangers especially are apt to be attacked by fever. Basra is
the port of Bagdad, with which it has steam communication by
an English line of river steamers weekly and also by a Turkish
line. The Shatt el-Arab is deep and broad, easily navigable for
ocean steamers, and there is weekly communication by passenger
steamer with India, while two or more freight lines, which also
take passengers, connect Basra directly with the Mediterranean,
and with European and British ports. It is the great date port of
the world, and the dates of Basra are regarded as the finest in the
market. Besides dates the principal articles of export are wool,
horses, liquorice, gum and attar of roses. The annual value of
the exports is approximately 1,000,000 and of the imports a
little more. The foreign trade is almost exclusively in the hands
of the English, but of late the Germans have begun to enter the
market, and the Hamburg-American line of steamers has estab-
lished direct communication. Since 1898 there has been a
British consul at Basra (before that time he was a representative
of the Indian government). France and Russia also maintain
consular establishments at Basra. The settled population of
Basra is probably under 50,009, but how much it is impossible
to estimate. It is a heterogeneous mixture of all the nations
and religions of the East Turks, Arabs, Persians, Indians,
Armenians, Chaldaeans and Jews. Of the latter there are about
1900, engaged in trade and commerce. Fewest in number are
the Turks, comprising only the officials. Most numerous are the
Arabs, chiefly Shi'ites. The wealthiest and most influential
personage in the capital and the vilayet is the nakib, or marshal
of the nobility (i.e. descendants of the family of the prophet,
who are entitled to wear the green turban). Basra is a station
of the Arabian mission of the Dutch Reformed Church of America.
History. The original city of Basra was founded by the
caliph Omar in A.D. 636 about 8 m. S.W. of its present site, on
the edge of the stony and pebbly Arabian plateau, on an ancient
canal now dry. The modern town of Zobeir, a sort of health
suburb, occupied by the villas of well-to-do inhabitants of
Basra, lies near the ruin mounds which mark the situation of
the ancient city. In the days of its prosperity it rivalled Kufa
and Wasit in wealth and size, and its fame is in the tales of the
Arabian Nights. With the decay of the power of the Abbasid
caliphate its importance declined. The canals were neglected,
communication with the Persian Gulf was cut off and finally
the place was abandoned altogether. The present city was
conquered by the Turks in 1668, and since that period has been
the scene of many revolutions. It was taken in 1777 after a
siege of eight months by the Persians under Sadik Khan. In
about a year it fell again into the hands of the Turks, who were
again deprived of it by the sheikh of the Montefik (Montafiq)
Arabs. The town was in the October following recovered by
Suleiman Pasha, who encountered the sheikh on the banks of
the Euphrates and put him to flight; it has since remained in
the hands of the Turks. (J. P. PE.)
BASS, the name of a family of English brewers. The founder
of the firm, William Bass (b. 1720), was originally a carrier,
one of his chief clients being Benjamin Printon, a Burton-on-
Trent brewer.' By 1777 Bass had saved a little money, and seeing
the growing demand for Burton beer he started as a brewer
himself. The principal market for Burton beer at that time was
in St Petersburg, whither the beer could be sent by water direct
from Burton via the Trent and Hull, and William Bass managed
to secure a tolerable share of Uje large Russian orders. But in
1822 the Russian government placed a prohibitory duty on
Burton ales, and the Burton brewers were forced into cultivating
the home market. William Bass opened up a connexion with
London, and established a fairly profitable home trade. A
misunderstanding between the East India Company and the
London brewers who were the proprietors of Hodgson's India
49
BASS BASSARAB
Pale Ale, at that time the standard drink of Englishmen in the
East, resulted in Bass being asked to supply a beer which would
withstand the Indian climate and be generally suitable to the
Indian market. After a series of experiments he produced
what is still known as Bass's pale ale. This new and lighter
beer at once became popular all over India, and Bass's firm
became the largest in Burton. After William Bass's death the
business was carried on by his son, M. T. Bass, and then by his
grandson, Michael Thomas Bass (1790-1884). In 1827 a vessel
laden with Bass's beer was wrecked in the Irish Channel. A
large proportion of the cargo was however salved and sold at
Liverpool, where it met with great approval in the local market,
and through this chance circumstance the firm opened up a
regular trade in the north-west of England and Ireland. " Bass "
was, however, little drunk in London till 1851, when it was
supplied on draught at the Exhibition of that year, since which
time its reputation has been world-wide. In 1880 the business
was turned into a limited liability company. Michael Thomas
Bass, besides actively conducting and extending the firm's
operations, was a man of great public spirit and philanthropy,
and the towns of Burton and Derby are largely indebted to his
munificence. He took a keen interest in all questions affecting
the welfare of the working classes, and was largely instrumental
in securing the abolition of imprisonment for debt. On his death,
prior to which he had taken into partnership Messrs Ratcliff and
Gretton, two of the leading officials of the brewery, converting
the business into a limited company known as Messrs Bass,
Ratcliff & Gretton, Ltd., the control of the firm passed to his
sons, Michael Arthur Bass and Hamar Bass (d. 1898). Michael
Arthur Bass (1837-1909), after twenty-one years in parliament as
member first for Stafford, then for two divisions of Staffordshire,
was in 1886 raised to the peerage as Baron Burton; by a special
patent of 1897 the peerage descended to his daughter, Nellie,
the wife of Mr J. E. Baillie of Dochfour, the baronetcy descend-
ing to his nephew W. A. Hamar Bass (b. 1879).
BASS (the same word as " base," and so pronounced, but
influenced in spelling by the Ital. basso), deep, low; especially in
music, the lower part in the harmony of a composition, the
lowest male voice, or the lowest-pitched of a class of instruments,
as the bass-clarinet.
Bass or bast (a word of doubtful origin, pronounced b&s) is the
fibrous bark of the lime tree, used in gardening for tying up
plants, or to make mats, soft plaited baskets, &c. Basswood is
the American lime-tree, Tilia Americana; white basswood is
T. heterophylla.
The name bass is also given to a fish closely resembling the perch .
BASSA, a province of the British protectorate of Northern
Nigeria, occupying the angle made by the meeting of the Benue
river with the Niger. It has an area of 7000 sq. m., with a
population estimated at about one and a half millions. It is
bounded N. by the Benue, W. by the Niger, S. by the frontier of
Southern Nigeria, and E. by the province of Muri. The province
is heavily forested, and is estimated to be one of the richest of
the protectorate in natural products. It has never been pene-
trated by Moslem influence, and is inhabited in the greater part
by warlike and unruly pagans. Early in the i6th century the
Igbira (Okpoto or Ibo) were one of the most powerful pagan
peoples of Nigeria and had their capital at Iddah. At a later
period the Bassas conquered the western portion of the state
and the Munshis the eastern, while the Okpoto still held the
south and a wedge-shaped district partially dividing the Munshis
and Bassas. The Bassas are a very remarkable pagan race who
permeate the entire protectorate of Northern Nigeria, and are to
be found in small colonies in almost every province. They are
clever agriculturists, naturally peaceful and industrious. The
Munshis, though also good agriculturists, are a warlike and most
unruly race, as are also the Okpoto.
The districts which now comprise the province of Bassa came
nominally under British control in 1900, but up to the year 1903
administrative authority was confined to the western half with
Dekina (in 7 3' E., 7 41' N.) for its capital. In December of
1903 a disturbance resulting in the murder of the British resident
led to the despatch of a military expedition, and as a result of
the operations the frontiers of the districts under control were
extended to the borders of the Munshi country in about 8 E.
The western portion of the province, occupied by friendly and
peaceful tribes upon the Niger, has been organized for administra-
tion on the same system as the rest of the protectorate. Courts
of justice are operative and taxes are peacefully collected. The
Okpoto, however, remain turbulent, as do their neighbours the
Munshis. Spirits, of which the importation is forbidden in
Northern Nigeria, are freely smuggled over the border from
Southern Nigeria. Arms and powder are also imported. The
slave-trade is still alive in this district, and an overland route for
slaves is believed to have been established through eastern Bassa to
the Benue. In consequence of the natural wealth of the province,
there are trading establishments of the Niger Company and of
Messrs Holt on the Niger and Benue, and colonies of native traders
have penetrated the country from the north. Roman Catholic
and Protestant missions are established at Dekina and Gbebe.
BASSANO, JACOPO DA PONTE (1510-1592), Venetian
painter, was born at Bassano. He was educated by his father,
who was himself an artist, and then completed his studies at
Venice. On the death of his father he returned to Bassano and
settled there. His subjects were generally peasants and villagers,
cattle and landscapes, with some portraits and historical designs.
His figures are well designed, and his animals and landscapes
have an agreeable air of simple nature. His compositions, though
they have not much eloquence or grandeur, have abundance of
force and truth; the local colours are well observed, the flesh-
tints are fresh and brilliant, and his chiaroscuro and perspective
are unexceptionable. He is said to have finished a great number
of pictures; but his genuine works are somewhat rare and
valuable many of those which are called originals being copies
either by the sons of Bassano or by others. Bassano's style
varied considerably during his lifetime. He naturally was at
first a copier of his father, but his productions in this style are
not of great value. He was then strongly attracted by the
lightness and beautiful colouring of Titian, and finally adopted
the style which is recognized as his own. Although he painted
few great pictures, and preferred humble subjects, yet his altar-
piece of the Nativity at Bassano is estimated highly by the best
judges, and in Lanzi's opinion is the finest work of its class.
BASSANO, a city of Venetia, Italy, in the province of Vicenza,
24 m. N.E. of Vicenza and 30 m. N. of Padua by rail, at the foot
of the Venetian Alps. Pop. (1901) town, 7553;commune, 15,097.
It is well situated upon the Brenta, which is here spanned by a
covered wooden bridge, and commands fine views. The castle,
erected by the Ezzelini in the I3th century, lies in the upper
portion of the town, above the river; a tower, erected by a
member of the same family, is a conspicuous feature. The
museum and cathedral and some of the other churches contain
pictures by the da Ponte family (i6th and early i7th century),
surnamed Bassano from their birth-place; Jacopo is the most
eminent of them. The museum also contains drawings and
letters of the ^culptor Antonio Canova. The church of S.
Francesco, begun in the i2th century in the Lombard Roman-
esque style, was continued in the i3th in the Gothic style.
Some of the houses have traces of paintings on their facades.
In the nth century Eccelin, a German, obtained fiefs in this
district from Conrad II. and founded the family of the Ezzelini,
who were prominent in the history of North Italy in the i3th
and i4th centuries. Bassano apparently came into existence
about A.D. looo. Its possession was disputed between Padua
and Vicenza; it passed for a moment under the power of Gian
Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, who fortified it. At the beginning
of the isth century it went over to Venice; its industries
flourished under Venetian government, especially its printing-
press and manufacture of majolica, the latter of which still
continues. On the 8th of September 1796 an action was fought
here between the French and the Austrians, in which the French
were victorious. (T. As.)
BASSARAB or BASSARABA, the name of a dynasty in Rumania,
which ruled Walachia from the dawn of its history until 1658.
BASS CLARINET
491
The origin of the name and family has not yet been explained.
It undoubtedly stands in dose connexion with the name of the
province of Bessarabia, which oriental chroniclers gave in olden
times to the whole of Walachia. The heraldic sign, three heads
of negroes in the Bassarab shield, seems to be of late western
origin and to rest on a popular etymology connecting the second
half of the word with Arabs, who were taken to signify Moors
(blacks). The other heraldic signs, the crescent and the star,
have evidently been added on the same supposition of an oriental
origin of the family. The Servian chroniclers connect its origin
with their own nationality, basing this view upon the identifica-
tion of Sarab with Sorb or Serbia. All this is mere conjecture.
It is, however, a fact that the first appearance of the Bassarabs
as rulers (knyaz, ban or voivod) is in the western part of Rumania
(originally called Little Walachia), and also in the southern parts
of Transylvania the old dukedoms of Fogarash and Almash,
which are situated on the right bank of the Olt (Aluta) and
extend south to Severin and Craiova. Whatever the origin of
the Bassarabs may be, the foundation of the Walachian princi-
pality is undoubtedly connected with a member of that family,
who, according to tradition, came from Transylvania and
settled first hi Campulung and Tirgovishtea. It is equally
certain that almost every one of the long line of princes and
voivods bore a Slavonic surname, perhaps due to the influence
of the Slavonic Church, to which the Rumanians belonged.
Starting from the i3th century the Bassarabs soon split into two
rival factions, known in history as the descendants of the two
brothers Dan and Dragul. The form Drakul devil by which
this line is known in history is no doubt a nickname given by the
rival line. It has fastened on the family on account of the
cruelties perpetrated by Vlad Drakul (1433-1446) and Vlad
Tsepesh (1456-1476), who figure in popular legend as representa-
tives of the most fiendish cruelty. The feud between the rival
dynasties lasted from the beginning of the isth century to the
beginning of the xyth.
The most prominent members of the family were Mircea
(1386-1418), who accepted Turkish suzerainty; Neagoe, the
founder of the famous cathedral at Curtea de Argesh (q.v.);
Michael, surnamed the Brave (1592-1601); and Petru Cercel,
famous for his profound learning, who spoke twelve languages
and carried on friendly correspondence with the greater scholars
and poets of Italy. He was drowned by the Turks in Constan-
tinople in 1590 through the intrigues of Mihnea, who succeeded
him on the throne of Walachia. The British Museum possesses
the oldest MSS. of the Rumanian Gospels, once owned by this
Petru Cercel, and containing his autograph signature. The text
was published by Dr M. Caster at the expense of the Rumanian
government. Mateiu Bassarab (1633-1654) established the first
printing-press in Rumania, and under his influence the first code
of laws was compiled and published in Bucharest in 1654. The
Bassarab dynasty became extinct with Constantine Sherban in
1658. See RUMANIA : Language and Literature. (M. G.)
BASS CLARINET (Fr. darinette basse; Ger. Bass-Klarinette;
Ital. clarinetto basso or clarone), practically the A, Bb or C clarinet
speaking an octave lower; what therefore has been said con-
cerning the fingering, transposition, acoustic properties and
general history of the clarinet (q.v.) also applies to the bass
clarinet. Owing to its greater length the form of the bass
clarinet differs from that of the clarinets hi that the bell joint
is bent up in front of the instrument, terminating in a large
gloxinea-shaped bell, and that the mouthpiece is attached by
means of a strong ligature and screws to a serpent-shaped crook
of brass or silver. The compass of the modern orchestral bass
clarinet is in the main the same as that of the higher clarinets in C,
Bb and A, but an octave lower, and therefore for the bass clarinet
inCis!
: ; for the bass clarinet in Bb the real sounds
are one tone, and for the bass clarinet in A ij tone lower,
although the notation is the same for all three.
Sometimes the treble clef is used in notation for thebassclarinet.
It must then be understood that the instrument in C speaks an
octave lower, the bass clarinet in Bb a major ninth and the bass
clarinet in A a minor tenth lower. The tenor clef is also fre-
quently used in orchestral works.
The quality of tone is less reedy in the bass clarinet than in
the higher instruments. It resembles the bourdon stop on the
organ, and in the lowest register, more especially, the tone is
somewhat hollow and wanting in power although mellower than
that of the bassoon. In the lowest octave the instrument speaks
slowly and is chiefly used for sustained bass or melody notes;
rapid passages are impossible.
The modern orchestral model may be fitted with almost every
kind of key-mechanism, including the Boehm, and the degree
of perfection and ingenuity attained has removed the all but
insuperable difficulties which stood hi the way of the original
inventors who, not understanding key-work, made many futile
attempts to bridge the necessarily great distance between the
finger-holes by making the bore serpentine, boring the holes
obliquely, &c.
The low pitch of the bass clarinet (8 ft. tone) contrasted with
the moderate length of the instrument whose bore measures
only some 42 to 43 inches from mouthpiece to bell, whereas that
of the bassoon, an instrument of the same pitch, is twice that
length is a puzzle to many. An explanation of the fact is to be
found in the peculiar acoustic properties of the cylindrical tube
played by means of a reed mouthpiece characterizing the clarinet
family, which acts as a closed pipe speaking an octave lower
than an open pipe of the same length, and overblowing a twelfth
instead of an octave. This is more fully explained in the articles
CLARINET and AULOS.
The construction of the bass clarinet demands the greatest
care. The bore should theoretically be strictly cylindrical
throughout its length from mouthpiece to bell joint; the
slightest deviation from mathematical accuracy, such as an
undue widening of the bell from the point where it joins the body
to the mouth of the bell, would tend to muffle the lower notes of
the instrument and to destroy correct intonation.
The origin of the bass clarinet must be sought in Germany,
where Heinrich Grenser of Dresden, one of the most famous
instrument-makers of his day, made the first bass clarinet in
1793. The basset horn (q.v.) or tenor clarinet, which had
reached the height of its popularity, no doubt suggested to
Grenser, who was more especially renowned for his excellent
fagottos, the possibility of providing for the clarinet a bass of
its own. One of these earliest attempts hi the form of a fagotto,
stamped " A. Grenser, Dresden," with nine square-flapped brass
keys working on knobs, is in the Grossherzogliches Museum at
Darmstadt and was lent to the Royal Military Exhibition,
London iSoo. 1 Two other early specimens, 1 belonging originally
to Adolphe Sax and to M. de Coussemaker, are now respectively
preserved hi the museums of the Brussels Conservatoire and of
the Berlin Hochschule (Snoeck Collection). The tubes are of
great thickness and the holes are bored obliquely through the
walls. Both instruments are hi A.
Attempts were made hi Italy to overcome the mechanical
difficulties by making the bore of the bass clarinet serpentine.
A specimen by Nicolas Papalini of Pavia* in the museum of the
Brussels Conservatoire has the serpentine bore pierced through
two slabs of pear- wood ; the two halves, each forming a vertical
section of the instrument, are fitted together with wooden pins.
The outside length is only 2 ft. 3^ in. and there are nineteen
finger-holes.
Joseph Uhlmann of Vienna 4 constructed a bass clarinet, also
termed " bass basset horn," with twenty-three keys and a com-
pass from Bb through four complete octaves with all chromatic
'See Captain C. R. Day, Descriptive Catalogue (London, 1891),
No. 266, p. 125.
1 See Victor Mahillon, Catalogue descriptif, vol. ii. (1896), pp. 224-
226, No. 940.
See Captain C. R. Day, op. tit. p. 123, pi. v. B. and p. 123,
No. 262.
4 See Dr SchafhSutl's report on the Munich exhibition, Bericht
der Beurtheilungscommission fur Musikinstrumente (Munich, 1855),
P- 153-
492
BASSEIN BASSES-PYRENEES
dim.
semitones. These instruments resemble the saxophones (q.v.),
having the bell joint bent up in front and the crook almost at
right angles backwards, but the bore of the saxophone is conical.
Georg Streitwolf (i 770-1837) , an ingenious musical instrument-
maker of Gottingen, produced in 1828 a bass clarinet with a com-
pass extending from Ab to F, nineteen keys and a fingering the
same as that of the clarinet with but few exceptions. In form it
resembled the fagotto and had a crook terminating in a beak
mouthpiece. The Streitwolf bass clarinet was adopted in 1 834 by
the Prussian infantry as bass to the wood-wind. 1 Streitwolf's
first bass clarinets were in C, but later he constructed instruments
in Bb as well. Like the basset horn, Streitwolf's instruments had
the four chromatic open keys extending the compass downwards
to Bb. The tone was of very fine quality. One of these instru-
ments is in the possession of Heir C. Kruspe of Erfurt, 2 and
another is preserved in the Berlin collection at the Hochschule.
It was, however, the successive improvements of Adolphe Sax
(Paris, 1814-1894), working probably from Grenser's and later
from Streitwolf's models, whichproduced the modern bass clarinet,
and following up the work of Halary and Buffet in the same field,
he secured its introduction into the orchestra at the opera. The
bass clarinet in C made its first appearance in opera in 1836 in
Meyerbeer's Huguenots, Act V., where in a fine passage the lower
register of the instrument is displayed to advantage, and later in
Dinorah {Le pardon de Ploermel). Two years later (1838) at the
theatre of Modena a bass clarinet by P. Maino of Milan, differing
in construction from the Sax model, was independently introduced
into the orchestra. 3 Wagner employed the bass clarinet in Bb and
C in Tristan und Isolde* where at the end of Act II. it is used with
great effect to characterize the reproachful utterance of King
Mark, thus:
-^-Z&^^-m . _ . ,. i.,. 7
etc.
(K. S.)
BASSEIN, a district and town in the Irrawaddy division of
Lower Burma, in the delta of the Irrawaddy. The district has been
reduced to 4127 sq. m., from 8954 sq. m. in 1871, having given
up a large tract to the district of Myaungmya formed in 1896.
A mountain range called the Anauk-pet Taungmyin stretches
through the district from N. to S. along the coast. The
principal river of the district is the Irrawaddy, which debouches
on the sea at its eastern extremity through a delta intersected
with salt water creeks, among which the Pyamalaw, Pyinzalu,
Kyunt&n, and Ngawun Shagegyi or Bassein river rank as im-
portant arms of the sea. Irrawaddy and Inyegyi are the only two
lakes in the district. The delta of the Irrawaddy forms, wherever
cultivable, a vast sheet of rice, with cotton, sesamum, and tobacco
as subsidiary crops. In 1901 the population was 391,427.
BASSEIN, the chief town and port, is the capital of the district
and division, and is situated on the eastern bank of the Bassein
river, one of the main arteries by which the waters of the Irra-
waddy discharge themselves into the sea. It forms an important
seat of the rice trade with several steam rice mills, and has great
capabilities both from a mercantile and a military point of view,
as it commands the great outlet of the Irrawaddy. It fell before
the British arms, in May 1852, during the second Burmese war.
In 1901 it had a population of 31,864. The vessels of the Irra-
waddy Flotilla Company ply between Rangoon and Bassein, &c.,
by inland waters, and a railway opened in 1903 runs north-
eastward through the centre of the district, to Henzada and
Letpadan.
BASSELIN, OLIVIER (c. i^oo-c. 1450), French poet, was born
in the Val-de-Vire in Normandy about the end of the I4th century.
He was by occupation a fuller, and tradition still points out the site
of his mill. His drinking songs became famous under the name
of Vaux-de-Vire, corrupted in modern times into " vaudeville."
From various traditions it may be gathered that Basselin was
1 See Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung (Leipzig, 1834), Bd. xxxvi.
March, p. 193.
1 See Wilhelm Altenburg, Die Klarinette (Heilbronn, 1904-1905),
P 33- ' See W. Altenburg, op. cit. p. 34.
4 Orchestral score, p. 284.
killed in the English wars about the middle of the century, possibly
at the battle of Formigny (1450). At the beginning of the i7th
century a collection of songs was published by a Norman lawyer,
Jean Le Houx, purporting to be the work of Olivier Basselin.
There sterns to be very little doubt that Le Houx was himself the
author of the songs attributed to Basselin, as well as of those he
acknowledged as his own.
It has been suggested that Basselin's name may be safely con-
nected with some songs preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale at
Paris, and published at Caen in 1866 by M. Armand Gaste. The
question is discussed in M. V. Patard's La Verite dans la question
Olivier Basselin et Jean le Houx d propos du Vau-de- Vire (1897). A.
Caste's edition (1875) of the Vaux-de-Vire was translated (1885)
by J. P. Muirhead.
B ASSES-ALPES, a department of south-eastern France, formed
in 1 790 out of the northern portion of Provence. It is bounded N.
by the department of the Hautes Alpes, E. by Italy and the
department of the Alpes Maritimes, S. by that of the Var, and
W. by those of Vaucluse and the Dr6me. Its area is about 2698
sq. m., while its greatest length is 895 m. and its greatest breadth
56 m. Pop. (1906) 113,126. The river Durance passes through
the western part of this department, receiving (left), as affluents,
the Ubaye, the Bleone and the Asse (the entire course of each of
these rivers is included within the department) as well as the
Verdon, the upper course of which is within the department, while
the lower course forms its southern limit. It is a poor and hilly
district, the highest summits (the loftiest is the Aiguille de
Chambeyron, 11,155 ft.) rising round the head waters of the
Ubaye. The department is divided into five arrondissements
(Digne, Barcelonnette, Castellane, Forcalquier, and Sisteron), 30
cantons and 250 communes. It forms the bishopric of Digne,
formerly in the ecclesiastical province of Embrun, but since 1802
in that of Aix-en- Provence. Its chief towns are Digne, Barcelon-
nette, Castellane, Forcalquier, and Sisteron. It is poorly supplied
with railways (total length 1095 m -), the main line from Grenoble
to Avignon running through it from Sisteron to Manosque, and
sending off two short branch lines to Digne (14 m.) and to
Forcalquier (9 m.). It is a poor department from the material
point of view, being very mountainous and containing many
mountain pastures. But these pastures have been much damaged
by the Provencal shepherds to whom they are let out, while the
forests have been very, much thinned (though extensive re-
afforestments are now being carried out) so that the soil is very
dry and made drier by exposure to the southern sun. From near
the head of the Ubaye valley the pass of the Col de PArgentiere
(6545 ft.) leads over from Barcelonnette to Cuneo, in Italy: it was
perhaps traversed by Hannibal, and certainly in 1 5 1 5 by Francis I.
See C. J. J. M. Feraud, Histoire, geographic et statistique du Departe-
ment des Basses-Alpes (Digne, 1861). (W. A. B. C.)
BASSES-PYRENEES, a department of south-western France,
at the angle of the Bay of Biscay, formed in 1790, two-thirds of
it from Beam and the rest from three districts of Gascony
Basse-Navarre, Soule and Labourd. The latter constitute the
Basque region of France (see BASQUES) and cover the west of
the department. Basses-Pyrenees is bounded N. by Landes
and Gers, E. by Hautes-Pyrenees (which has two enclaves
forming five communes within this department), S. by Spain,
and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1906) 426,817. Area,
2977 sq. m. The whole of the south of the department is occu-
pied by the western and lower summits of the Pyrenees. The
remainder consists of a region of heaths and plateaus to the north-
east of the Gave de Pau, and of hills divided by numberless
fertile valleys to the west of that river. The height of the
mountains of the southern frontier increases gradually from
west to east. The peak of the Rhune, to the south of St Jean de
Luz, rises only to 2950 ft.; and on the border of the Basque
country the mean height of the summits is not much greater.
The peak of Orhy alone, in the south of the valley of Maul6on,
reaches 6618 ft. But beyond that of Anie (8215 ft.), on the
meridian of Orthez, which marks the boundary of Beam, much
loftier elevations appear, Mourrous (9760 ft.), on the border of
Hautes-Pyrenees, and the southern peak of Ossau (9465 ft.).
The frontier between France and Spain, for the most part,
BASSET BASSET HORN
493
follows the crest-line of the main range. Forts guard the upper
valleys of the Nive and the Aspe, along which run important
passes into Spain. The general direction of the rivers of the
department is towards the north-west. The streams almost all
meet in the Adour through the Gave de Pau, the Bidouze, and
the Nive. In the north-east the two Luys flow directly to the
Adour, which they join in Landes. In the south-west the
Nivelle and the Bidassoa flow directly into the sea. The lower
course of the Adour forms the boundary between Basses-Pyre'-
nees and Landes; it enters the sea a short distance below
Bayonne over a shifting bar, which has often altered the position
of its mouth. The Gave de Pau, a larger stream than the Adour,
passes Pau and Orthez, but its current is so swift that it is only
navigable for a few miles above its junction with the Adour.
On the left it receives the Gave d'Oloron, formed by the Gave
d'Ossau, descending from the Pic du Midi, and the Gave d'Aspe,
which rises in Spain. An important affluent of the Gave
d'Oloron, the Saison or Gave de Mauleon, descends from the
Pic d'Orhy. From the Pic des Escaliers, which rises above the
forest of Iraty, the Bidouze descends northwards; while the
forest, though situated on the southern slope of the chain,
forms aj>art of French territory. The Nive, a beautiful river of
the Basque country, takes its rise in Spain; after flowing past
St Jean-Pied-de-Port, formerly capital of French Navarre and
fortified by Vauban to guard the pass of "Roncevaux, it joins the
Adour at Bayonne. The Nivelle also belongs only partly to
France and ends its course at St Jean-de-Luz. The Bidassoa,
which is only important as forming part of the frontier, contains
the lie des Faisans, where the treaty of the Pyrenees was con-
cluded (1659), and debouches between Hendaye (France) and
Fuenterrabia (Spain).
The climate of the department is mild and it has an abundant
rainfall, partly due to the west wind which drives the clouds
from the gulf of Gascony. The spring is rainy; the best seasons
are summer and autumn, the heat of summer being moderated
by the sea. The winters are mild. The air of Pau agrees with
invalids and delicate constitutions, and St Jean-de-Luz and
Biarritz are much frequented by winter visitors.
Despite extensive tracts of uncultivated land, the department
is mainly agricultural. Maize and wheat are the chief cereals;
potatoes, flax and vegetables are also produced. Pasture is
abundant, and horses, cattle, sheep and pigs are largely reared.
The vine is grown on the lower slopes sheltered from the north
wind, the wines of Jurancon, near Pau, being the most renowned.
Of the fruits grown, chestnuts, cider-apples, and pears are most
important. About one-thirteenth of the department consists of
woods, a very small proportion of which belong to the govern-
ment, the rest to the communes and private individuals.
The department furnishes salt, building-stone, and other quarry
products. There are mineral springs at Eaux-Bonnes, Eaux-
Chaudes, Cambo-les-Bains (resorted to by the Basques on St
John's Eve), St Christau, and Salies. At Le Boucau, 3 m. from
Bayonne, there are large metallurgical works, the Forges de
I' Adour, and chemical works. The manufactures of the depart-
ment include woollen caps and sashes, cord slippers, chocolate,
and paper, and there are also tanneries, saw- and flour-mills.
" Bayonne hams " and other table delicacies are prepared at
Orthez. There is a considerable fishing population at Bayonne
and St Jean-de-Luz. Bayonne is the principal port. Exports
consist chiefly of timber, mine-props, minerals, wine, salt and
resinous products. Coal, minerals, phosphates, grain and wool
are leading imports. The interior commerce of the department
is, however, of greater importance to its inhabitants; it takes
the form of exchange of products between the regions of mountain
and plain. The railway lines of Basses-Pyrenees, the chief of
which is that from Bayonne to Toulouse via Orthez and Pau,
belong to the Southern Company. The Adour, the Nive and
the Bidouze are navigable on their Iower_ courses. The depart-
ment has five arrondissements Pau, Bayonne, Oloron, Orthez
and Mauleon, divided into 41 cantons and 559 communes. It
constitutes the diocese of Bayonne, comes within the educational
circumscription (academic) of Bordeaux and belongs to the
district of the XVIII. army corps. Pau, the capital and seat
of a court of appeal, Bayonne, Oloron, Biarritz, Orthez, Eaux-
Bonnes, and St Jean-de-Luz are the principal towns. The
following places are also of interest: Lescar, which has a church
of the izth and i6th century, once a cathedral; Montaner, with
a stronghold built in 1380 by Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix
and viscount of Bfiarn; and Sauveterre, a town finely situ-
ated on the Gave d'Oloron, with an old bridge, remains of a
feudal castle, and a church in the Romanesque and Gothic
styles.
BASSET, or BASSETTE, a French game of cards played by five
persons with a pack of fifty-two cards. Once very popular, it is
now practically obsolete. It is said to be of Venetian origin
and to have been introduced into France by Justinian!, the
ambassador of Venice in the second half of the iyth century.
It resembles lansquenet (q.v.) in a general way, in that it is
played between a banker and several punters, the players winning
or losing according as cards turned up match those already
exposed or not.
BASSET HORN (Fr. Cor de Basset, or Cor de Bassette; Ger.
Basselhorn, Basshorn; Ital. Corno di Bassetto), a wood-wind
instrument, not a " horn," member of the clarinet family, of
which it is the tenor. The basset horn
consists of a nearly cylindrical tube
of wood (generally cocus or box- wood),
having a cylindrical bore and ter-
minating in a metal bell wider than
that of the clarinet. For convenience
in reaching the keys and holes, the
modern instrument is usually bent or
curved either near the mouthpiece or
at the bell, which is turned upwards.
The older models were bent in the
middle at an obtuse angle, and had at
the bottom of the lower joint, near
the bell, a wooden block, inside which
the bore was reflexed, and bent down
upon itself. 1 The basset horn has
the same fingering as the clarinet,
and corresponds to the tenor of that
instrument, being pitched a fifth below
the clarinet in C. The alto, clarinet in
Eb is often substituted for the basset
horn, especially in military bands,
but the instruments differ in three
particulars: (i) The basset horn has
a metal bell instead of the pear-
shaped contracted bell of the alto
clarinet. (2) The bore of the basset
horn is wider than that of the alto
clarinet in Eb, or of the tenor clarinet
in F. (3) The tube of the basset
horn is longer than that of the clarinet,
and contains four additional long
keys, worked by the thumb of the
right hand, which in the clarinet
is only used to steady the instru-
ment. These keys give the basset horn an extended
compass of two tones downwards to F ^?- E whereas the
FIG. i.
Eb clarinet only extends to G
and the F clarinet to
(actual sounds). This brings the compass
of the basset horn to a range of four octaves from
. I
actual sounds
1 An instrument of this type, stamped " H. Grenser, S. Wiesner,
Dresden," is in the collection of the Rev. F. W. Galpin, of Hatfield,
Broad Oak.
494
BASSI BASSIANUS
Like the clarinet, the basset horn is a transposing instrument,
its music being written a fifth higher than the actual sounds.
The treble clef is used in notation for all but the lowest register.
The technical capabilities of the basset horn are the same as for
the clarinet, except that the extra low notes from A to F (actual
sounds) can only be intoned slowly and staccato; the notes of
the upper register being better represented in the clarinet are
seldom used in orchestral music.
The tone of the basset horn is extremely reedy and rich,
especially in the medium and low registers; the tone colour is
similar to that of the clarinet without its brilliancy; it is mellow
and sensuous, but slightly sombre, and therefore well adapted for
music of an elegiac funereal character.
The basset horn flourished mainly in Germany, where at the
end of the i8th century it was the favourite solo instrument of
many celebrated instrumentalists, such as Czerny, David, Lotz,
Springer, &c. Among the great masters, Mozart seems to have
been foremost in his appreciation of this beautiful instrument.
In his Requiem, the reed family is represented by two basset
horns having independent parts, and two bassoons. Mozart has
also used the instrument with great effect in his opera La Clemenza
di Tito, where he has written a fine obbligato for it in the aria
"Non piu di Flori "; in Zauberflo'le; and in chamber music, viz.
short adagio for two basset horns and bassoon, and another for
two clarinets and three basset horns (Series 10 of Breitkopf &
Hartel's complete edition). Beethoven employed it in his
Prometheus overture. Mendelssohn used it in military music,
and in two concerted pieces for clarinet and basset horn with
pianoforte accompaniment, in F and D min., opp. 113 and 114,
dedicated to Heinrich and Carl Barmann.
The archetypes of the basset horn are the same as those of the
clarinet (q.v.). The basset horn was the outcome of the desire,
prevailing during the i6th and I7th centuries, to obtain complete
families of instruments to play in concert. The invention of the
basset horn in 1770 is attributed to a clarinet maker of Passau,
named Horn, whose name was given to the instrument; by a
misnomer, the basset horn became known in Italy as corno di
bassetto, and in France as cor de basset. In 1 782, Theodore Lotz of
Pressburg made some modifications in the instrument, which was
further improved by two instrumentalists of Vienna, Anton and
Johann Stadler, and finally in 1812 by Iwan Mueller, a famous
clarinettist, who invented the alto clarinet in El> from the basset
horn, by giving the latter a construction and fingering analogous
to those of the clarinet in B[>, which he took as his model, instead
of the clarinet in C.
See J. G. H. Backofen, Anweisung zur Klarinette, nebst einer
kurzen Abhandlung tiber das Basset-Horn, with illustration, p. 37
(Leipzig, Breitkopf & Hartel, 1803); Iwan Mueller, Anweisung
zu der neuen Clarinette und der Clarinelte-allo, nebst einigen Bemer-
kungen fur Instrumentenmacher (Leipzig, Freidrich Hofmeister,
1826, with illustrations; Gottfried Weber, " Uber Clarinette und
Bassethorn," Cdcilia, Band xi. pp. 35-37 (Mainz, 1834) ; Wilhelm
Altenburg, Die Clarinette, ihre Entstehung und Entwickelung bis zur
Jetztzeit in akustischer, technischer u, musikalischer Beziehung (Heil-
bronn, 1904), pp. 16-32; good heliogravures of early basset horns in
Descriptive Catalogue of the Musical Instruments at the Royal Military
Exhibition, London, 1890, compiled by Capt. C. R. Day (1891), pi. v.
(K. .)
BASSI, LAURA MARIA CATERINA (1711-1778), an Italian
lady eminently distinguished for her learning, was born at
Bologna in 1711. On account of her extraordinary attainments
she received a doctor's degree, and was appointed professor in the
philosophical college, where she delivered public lectures on
experimental philosophy till the time of her death. She was
elected member of many literary societies and carried on an
extensive correspondence with the most eminent European men of
letters. She was well acquainted with classical literature, as well
as with that of France and Italy. In 1738 she married Giuseppe
Verrati, a physician, and left several children. She died in
1778.
1 Cantor Lectures on Musical Instruments, their Construction and
Capabilities, by A. J. Hipkins, p. 15; Henri Lavoix, Histoire de
I instrumentation depuis le seizieme siecle jusqu'd nos jours (Paris,
1878), on p. 123 the date is given as 1777.
BASSI, UGO (1800-1849), Italian patriot, was born at Cento,
and received his early education at Bologna. An unhappy love
affair induced him to become a novice in the Barnabite order
when eighteen years old. He repaired to Rome, where he led a
life of study and devotion, and entered on his ministry in 1833.
It was as a preacher that he became famous, his sermons attract-
ing large crowds owing to their eloquence and genuine enthusiasm.
He lived chiefly at Bologna, but travelled all over Italy preaching
and tending the poor, so poor himself as to be sometimes almost
starving. On the outbreak of the revolutionary movements in
1848, when Pope Pius IX. still appeared to be a Liberal and an
Italian patriot, Bassi, filled with national enthusiasm, joined
General Durando's papal force to protect the frontiers as army
chaplain. His eloquence drew fresh recruits to the ranks, and he
exercised great influence over the soldiers and people. When the
pope discarded all connexion with the national movement, it was
only Bassi who could restrain the Bolognese in their indignation.
At Treviso, where he had followed Guidotti's volunteers against
the Austrians, he received three wounds, delighted to shed his
blood for Italy (lathof May, 1848). He was taken to Venice, and
on his recovery he marched unarmed at the head of the volunteers
in the fight at Mestre. After the pope's flight from Rome and the
proclamation of the Roman republic, Bassi took part with
Garibaldi's forces against the French troops sent to re-establish
the temporal power. ' He exposed his life many times while
tending the wounded under fire, and when Garibaldi was forced
to leave Rome with his volunteers the faithful monk followed him
in his wanderings to San Marino. When the legion broke up
Garibaldi escaped, but Bassi and a fellow-Garibaldian, Count
Livraghi, after endless hardships, were captured near Comacchio.
On being brought before the papal governor, Bassi said: " I am
guilty of no crime save that of being an Italian like yourself. I
have risked my life for Italy, and your duty is to do good to those
who have suffered for her." The governor would have freed the
prisoners; but he did not dare, and gave them over to an Austrian
officer. They were escorted to Bologna, falsely charged before a
court martial with having been found with arms in their hands
(Bassi had never borne arms at all) , and shot on the 8th of August,
1849. Bassi is one of the most beautiful figures of the Italian
revolution, a gentle unselfish soul, who, although unusually gifted
and accomplished, had an almost childlike nature. His execution
excited a feeling of horror all over Italy.
Countess Martinengo gives a charming sketch of his life in her
Italian Characters (2nd ed., London, 1901); see also Zironi, Vita
del Padre Ugo Bassi (Bologna, 1879); F. Venpsta, " Ugo Bassi,
Martire di Bologna," in the Pantheon dei Martiri Italiani (Milan,
1863). (L. V.*)
BASSIANUS, JOANNES, Italian jurist of the I2th century.
Little is known of his origin, but he is said by Corolus de Tocco to
have been a native of Cremona. He was a professor in the law
school of Bologna, the pupil of Bulgarus (q.v.), and the master of
Azo (q.v.). The most important of his writings which have been
preserved in his Summary on the Authentica, which Savigny
regarded as one of the most precious works of the school of the
Gloss-writers. Joannes, as he is generally termed, was remark-
able for his talent in inventing ingenious forms for explaining his
ideas with greater precision, and perhaps his most celebrated
work is his " Law-Tree," which he entitled Arbor Arborum, and
which has been the subject of numerous commentaries. The
work presents a tree, upon the branches of which the various
kinds of actions are arranged after the manner of fruit. The
civil actions, or actiones stricli juris, being forty-eight in number,
are arranged on one side, whilst the equitable or praetorian
actions, in number one hundred and twenty-one, are arranged on
the other side. A further scientific division of actions was made
by him under twelve heads, and by an ingenious system of
notation the student was enabled to class at once each of the
civil or praetorian actions, as the case might be, under its proper
head in the scientific division. By the side of the tree a few
glosses were added by Joannes to explain and justify his classifica-
tion. His Lectures on the Pandects and the Code, which were col-
lected by his pupil Nicolaus Furiosus,have unfortunately perished.
BASSOMPIERRE BASSOON
495
BASSOMPIERRE, FRANCOIS DE (1579-1646), French
courtier, son of Christophe de Bassompierre (1547-1596), was
born at the castle of Harrouel in Lorraine. He was descended
from an old family which had for generations served the dukes of
Burgundy and Lorraine, and after being educated with his
brothers in Bavaria and Italy, was -introduced to the court of
Henry IV. in 1598. He became a great favourite of the king and
shared to the full in the dissipations of court life. In 1600 he
took part in the brief campaign in Savoy, and in 1603 fought in
Hungary for the emperor against the Turks. In 1614 he assisted
Marie de' Medici in her struggle against the nobles, but upon her
failurein 1617 remained loyal totheKing Louis XIII. and assisted
the royalists when they routed Marie's supporters at Ponts-de-Ce
in 1620. His services during the Huguenot rising of 1621-22 won
for him the dignity of marshal of France. He was with the army
of the king during the siege of La Rochelle in 1628, and in 1629
distinguished himself in the campaign against the rebels of
Languedoc. In 1615 Bassompierre had purchased from Henri,
due de Rohan (1570-1638), the coveted position of colonel-
general of the Swiss and Grisons; on this account he was sent to
raise troops in Switzerland when Louis XIII. marched against
Savoy in 1629, and after a short campaign in Italy his military
career ended. As a diplomatist his career was a failure. In
1621 he went to Madrid as envoy extraordinary to arrange the
dispute concerning the seizure of the Valteline forts by Spain,
and signed the fruitless treaty of Madrid. In 1625 he was sent
into Switzerland on an equally futile mission, and in 1626 to
London to secure the retention of the Catholic ecclesiastics and
attendants of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I. The personal
influence of Henry IV. had deterred Bassompierre from a marriage
with Charlotte de Montmorency, daughter of the constable
Montmorency, afterwards princesse de Conde, and between 1614
and 1630 he was secretly married to Louise Marguerite, widow of
Francois, prince de Conti, and through her became implicated in
the plot to overthrow Richelieu on the " Day of Dupes " 1630.
His share was only a slight one, but his wife was an intimate
friend of Marie de' Medici, and her hostility to the cardinal
aroused his suspicions. By Richelieu's orders, Bassompierre was
arrested at Senlis on the 25th of February 1631, and put into the
Bastille, where, he remained until Richelieu's death in 1643. On
his release his offices were restored to him, and he passed most of
his time at the castle of Tillieres in Normandy, until his death on
the 1 2th of October 1646. He left a son, Francois de la Tour, by
the princesse de Conti, and an illegitimate son, Louis de Bassom-
pierre, afterwards bishop of Saintes. His M&moires, which are an
important source for the history of his time, were first pub-
lished at Cologne in 1665. He also left an incomplete account
of his embassies to Spain, Switzerland and England (Cologne,
1668) and a number of discourses upon various subjects.
The best edition of the Mimoires is that issued by the Societ6 de
1'Histoire de France (Paris, 1877) ; see also G. Tallemant des Reaux,
Historieltes de la princesse de Conti, et du marechal de Bassompierre
(Paris, 1854-1860).
BASSOON (Fr. basson; Ger. Fagott; Ital. fagotto), a wood-
wind instrument with double reed mouthpiece, a member of
the oboe (q.v.) family, of which it is the bass. The German and
Italian names of the instrument were bestowed from a fancied
resemblance to a bundle of sticks, the bassoon being the first
instrument of the kind to be doubled back upon itself; its direct
ancestor, the bass pommer, 6 ft. in length, was quite straight.
The English and French names refer to the pitch of the instru-
ment as the bass of the wood- wind.
The bassoon is composed of five pieces, which, when fitted
together, form a wooden tube about 8 ft. long (93 in.) with a
conical bore tapering from a diameter of if in., at the bell, to
i\ in. at the reed. The tube is doubled back upon itself, the
shorter joint extending to about two-thirds of the length of the
longer, whereby the height of the instrument is reduced to about
4 ft. The holes are brought into a convenient position for the
fingers by the device of boring them obliquely through the
thickness of the wood. The five pieces are: (i) the bell; (2)
the long joint, forming the upper part of the instrument when
played, although its notes are the lowest in pitch; (3) the wing
overlapping the long joint and having a projecting flap through
which are bored three holes; (4) the butt or lower end of the
instrument (when played) containing the double bore necessitated
by the abrupt bend of the tube upon itself. Both bores are
pierced in one block of wood, the prolongation of the double tube
being usually stopped by a flat oval pad of cork in the older
models, whereas the modern instruments have instead a
U-shaped tube; (5) the crook, a narrow curved metal tube
about 1 2 in. long, to which is attached the double reed forming
the mouthpiece.
The performer holds the instrument in a diagonal position;
the lower part of the tube (the butt joint) played by the right
hand resting against his right thigh, and the little bell, turned
upwards, pointing over his left shoulder; a strap round the neck
affords additional support. The
notes are produced by means of
seven holes and 16, 17, or 19
keys. The mechanism and finger-
ing are very intricate. Theo-
retically the whole construction
of the bassoon is imperfect and
arbitrary, important acoustic prin-
ciples being disregarded, but these
mechanical defects only enhance
its value as an artistic musical
instrument. The player is obliged
to rely very much on his ear in
order to obtain a correct intona-
tion, and next to the strings no
instrument gives greater scope to
the artist.
The bassoon has an eight foot
tone, the compass extending from
to Ab treble
or in modern
instruments by means of addi-
tional mechanism to C or even
These extra
high notes are from their extreme
sweetness called vox humana.
The pitch of the bassoon ap-
parently lies two octaves below
that of the oboe, since the lowest
note of both is B, but in reality
the interval is only a twelfth, as
may be ascertained by comparing
their fundamental scales. On the
bassoon the fundamental scale is r
, T, . . . , , Front view. Back view,
that of F mai., obtained by open- r
,,! ,-wlna. th~ IwjJ. t ^ FIG. I. Bassoon with 1 7 keys
ing and closing the holes; the
notes downwards from F to
Savary Model.
(Rudall. Cute & Co.)
are extra notes obtained by means of
interlocking keys on the long joint, worked by the left thumb;
they have no counterpart on the oboe and do not belong to
the fundamental scale of the bassoon. The fundamental scale of
the oboe is that of C, although the compass has been extended a
tone to Bt> fe j= . Therefore the difference in pitch be-
tween the bassoon and the oboe is a twelfth. In the first
1 At Wagner's instigation, the wind-instrument maker, W. Heckel
of Biebricn-am-Rhein, made bassoons with an extra key, extending
the compass downwards to A.
496
register of the bassoon, seven semitones
obtained, as stated above, by means of keys in the long joint and
bell; the next eight notes (holes and keys) each produce two
sounds the fundamental tone, and, by increased pressure of
the breath, its harmonic octave. The remaining notes are
obtained by cross fingering and by overblowing the notes of the
BASSOON
fundamental scale a twelfth as far as Ab jgfE
which
forms the normal compass. From A to Eb the vox humana notes
are produced by the help of small harmonic holes opened by
means of keys at the top of the wind joint; exceptional players
obtain, without additional keys, two or more higher harmonic
notes, which, however, are only used by virtuosi. This then
forms the intricate scheme of fingering for the bassoon, and in
order to appreciate the efforts of such instrument makers as
Carl Almenrader in Germany, Triebert and Jancourt in France,
Sax in Belgium, Cornelius Ward and Morton in England, to
introduce improvements based upon acoustic principles, it is
necessary to understand what these general principles are, and
why they have been disregarded in the bassoon. In all tubes
the note given by the vibrating air column is influenced directly
by the length of the tube, but very little, if at all, by the diameter
of the bore. The pitch, however, is greatly affected by the
diameter of the opening, whether lateral or at the bell, through
which the vibrating column of air is again brought into com-
munication with the outer air. The tube only sounds the normal
note in proportion to its length, when the diameter of the lateral
opening is equal to the internal diameter of the tube at the
opening. As in most of our early wood-wind instruments the
holes would in that case have been too large to be stopped by the
fingers, and key-mechanism was still primitive, instrument-
makers resorted to the expedient of substituting a hole of smaller
diameter nearer the mouthpiece for one of greater diameter in
the position the hole should theoretically occupy. This import-
ant principle was well understood by the Romans, and perhaps
even by the ancient Greeks, as is proved by existing specimens
of the aulos (q.v.) and by certain passages from the classics. 1
Another curious acoustic phenomenon bears upon the con-
struction of wind instruments, and especially upon the bassoon.
When the diameter of the lateral opening or bell is smaller than
that of the bore, the portion of the tube below the hole, which
should theoretically be as though non-existent, asserts itself,
lowering the pitch of the note produced at the hole and damping
the tone; this is peculiarly noticeable in the A of the bassoon
gF~J= whose hole is much too high and too small in
diameter. 2 To cite an example of the scope of Carl Almenrader's
improvements in the bassoon, he readjusted the position of the
A hole, stopped by the third finger of the right hand, boring
lower down the tube, not one large hole, but two of medium
diameter, covered by an open key to be closed by the same finger
from the accustomed position; one of these A holes communi-
cates with the narrower bore in the butt joint, and the other
with the wider bore. The effect is a perfectly clear, full and
accurate tone. Almenrader's other alterations were made on
the same principle, and produced an instrument more perfect
mechanically and theoretically than Savary's, but lacking some
of the characteristics of the bassoon. In Germany Almenrader's
improvements 3 have been generally adopted and his model
with 1 6 keys is followed by most makers, and notably by Heckel
of Biebrich. 4
1 Macrobius in Somn. Scip. lib. ii. cap. 4. 5.
1 Gottfried Weber, " Verbesserungen des Fagotts," in Cdcilia
(Mainz, 1825), vol. ii. p. 123.
3 See TraitS sur le perfectwnnemenl du basson, avec 2 tableaux, par
Charles Almenrader (Mayence, Schott), and also the above mentioned
article by Gottfried Weber in Cdcilia, whose explanations are
clearer than those of the inventor.
4 For a description of the modern instrument see Victor Charles
Mahillon, Catalogue descriptif et analytique du musee instrumental
du Conservatoire Royal de Musique (Bruxelles, 1896), vol. ii.
pp. 275-276, No. 999.
The unwieldy bass pommers of the isth and i6th centuries
led to many attempts to produce a more practical bass for the
orchestra by doubling back the long tube of the instrument.
Thus transformed, the pommer became a fagotto. The invention
of the bassoon or fagotto is ascribed to Afranio, a canon of
Ferrara, in a work by his nephew, Theseus Ambrosius Albonesius,
entitled Introductio in Chaldaicam Linguam . . . et descriptio
ac Simulacrum Phagoti Afranii (Pa via, 1539). The illustration
of the instrument, showing front and back views (p. 179), taken
i-n conjunction with the detailed description (pp. 33-38), at once
disposes of the suggestion that the phagotus of Afranio and the
fagotto or bassoon were in any way related; the author himself
is greatly puzzled as to the etymology of the word. The phagotus
in fact, resembles nothing so much as the musical curiosity
known as flute-a-bec a colonne? but double and played by bellows,
assigned by G. Chouquet to the i6th century. This flute con-
sisted of a column, with base and capital, both stopped, the vent
and the whistle being concealed within perforated brass boxes,
in the upper and lower parts of the column. Afranio's phagotus
consisted of two similar twin columns with base and capital
containing finger-holes and keys; between the columns in front
was a shorter column for ornament, and at the back of it another
still shorter whose capital could be lifted, and a sort of bellows
or bag-pipe inserted by means of which the instrument was
sounded. The first instrument was made, we are told, by
Ravilius of Ferrara, from Afranio's design. 6 Mersenne, 7 who
does not seem to have any difficulty in understanding the con-
struction of Afranio's phagotus, does not consider him the
inventor of the fagotto or bassoon, but of another kind of fagotto
which he classes with the Neapolitan sourdeline, a complicated
kind of musette 8 (see BAG-PIPE). Afranio's instrument consists,
he states, of two bassons as it were interconnected by tubes and
blown by bellows. As in the sourdeline, these only speak when
the springs (keys) are open. He disposes of Theseus Albonesius's
fanciful etymology of the name by showing it to be nothing but
the French word fagot, and that it was applied because the
instrument consists of two or more " flutes," bound or fagotfes
together. There is no evidence that the phagotus contained a
reed, which would account for Mersenne calling the pipes flutes.
Mersenne's statements thus seem to uphold the theory that
Afranio's phagotus was only a double flute a colonne with
bellows. Evidence is at hand that in 1555 a contrabass wind
instrument was well known as fagotto. In the catalogue of the
musical instruments belonging to the Flemish band of Marie de
Hongrie in Spain, we find the following: " Ala dicha princesa
y al dicho matoto dos ynstrumentos de musica contrabaxos, que
llaman fagotes, metidos en dos caos redondas como parege por
el dicho entrego." 9
Sigmund Schnitzer 10 of Nuremberg (d. 1578), a maker of wind
instruments who attained considerable notoriety, has been
5 As far as is known only three of these curious instruments are
in existence; two in the museum of the Conservatoire, Paris, and
one in Brussels; all three bear a trefoil as maker's mark; the
smallest, in F, is reproduced in the Catalogue of the Musical Instru-
ments exhibited at the Royal Military Exhibition, London, 1890, by
Capt.C. R. Day (London, 1891), pi. iv.F. It is also described (with-
out illustration) in Mahillon's Catalogue, p. 201, No. 180. The two
flutes in Paris, measuring 73 cm. and 94 cm., are described by
Gustave Chouquet, Le Musee du Conservatoire National de Musique
Catalogue descriptif et raisonne (Paris, 1884), Nos. 409 and 410,
p. 106.
* An Italian translation of the description is given by Count
L. F. Valdrighi in Musurgiana, No. 4 (Milano, 1881), " II Phagotus
di Afranio," p. 40 et seq. (without illustration). An illustration of
the phagotus is given by W. J. von Wasielewski in Gesch. d. In-
strumentalmusik im XVI. Jahrh. (Berlin, 1878), pi. v. and vi., text
P- 74-
7 See L'Harmonie universelle (Paris, 1636), part ii. p. 305.
' Ibid., illustrated and described, bk. v. p. 293.
* See Edm. van der Straeten, Hist, de la musique aux Pays-Bas,
vol. vii. pp. 433, 436, 448.
10 J- J- Quantz, Frederick the Great's flute-master, gives
France the credit of transforming the bombard (pommer) into
the bassoon, and the schalmey into oboe, see Versuch einer An-
weisung die Plate traversiere zu spielen (Berlin, 1752), p. 24 and again
p. 241, 6.
BASSO-RELIEVO BASS ROCK
497
named as the probable author of the transformation of pommer
into bassoon.
We learn from an historical work of the i8th century, that
he was renowned " almost everywhere " as a maker of fagolte
of extraordinary size, of skilful workmanship and pure intonation,
speaking easily. Schnitzer's instruments were so highly ap-
preciated not only all over Germany, but also in France and
Italy, that he was kept continually at work producing fagotte
for lovers of music. 1
An earlier chronicler of the artistic celebrities and craftsmen
of Nuremberg, Johann Neudorfer, writing in 1540,* names
Sigmund Schnitzer merely as Pfeifenmacher und Stadtpfeifer.
Had he been also noted as an inventor of a new form of instru-
ment, the fellow-citizen and contemporary chronicler would not
have failed to note the fact. If Schnitzer had been the first to
reduce the great length of the bass pommer by doubling the
tube back upon itself, he would hardly have been handed down
to posterity as the clever craftsman who made fagottos of extra-
ordinary size?, Doppelmaier, who chronicles in these eulogistic
terms, wrote nearly two centuries after the supposed invention
of the fagotto, the value of which was realized later by retro-
spection.
An explanation may perhaps be found in Eisel's statement
about the Deulscher Basson, which he distinguishes from the
Basson (our bassoon). " The Deutsche Bassons, Fagotte or
Bombardi, as our German ancestors termed them, before music
was clothed in Italian and French style, are no longer in use "
(Eisel wrote in 1738) " and therefore it is unnecessary to waste
paper on them." 3 This refers, of course, to the bombard or bass
pommer, the extraordinarily long instruments which Schnitzer
made so successfully. From this it would seem that our bassoon
was not of German origin. In the meanwhile we get a clue to
the early history of the pommer in transition, but we find it
under a different name in no way connected with fagotto. In
order to shorten the unwieldy proportions of the tenor pommer
in C, and to increase its portability, it was constructed out of a
block of wood of rather more than double the diameter of the
pommer, in which two bores were cut, communicating at the
bottom of the instrument which was flat. The bell and the crook
containing the double reed mouthpiece were side by side at the
top. This instrument, which had six holes in front and one at
the back as well as two keys, was known as the dulceian, dolcian,
doufaine, and : also in France as courtaud and in England as the
curtail, curtal* curtail, -&c., being mentioned in 1582 " The
common bleting musick of ye Drone, Hobius (Hautboy) and
Curtoll." The next step in the evolution produced the double
curtail, a converted bass pommer an octave below the single
curtail and therefore identical in pitch as in construction with
the early fagotto in C. The instrument is shown in fig. 2, the
reproduction of a drawing in the MS. of The Academy of Armoury
by Randle Holme, 6 written some time before 1688. At the side
of the drawing is the following description: " A double curtaile. 8
1 J. G. Doppelmaier, Hislorische Nachricht von den Nurnbergi-
schen Malhematicis und Kunstlern (Niirnberg, 1730), p. 293.
1 See " Nachrichten von Kunstlern und Werkleuten Niirnbergs
aus dem Jahre 1549," in R. Eitelberger von Edelberg's Quellen-
schriften fur Kunstgeschichte und Kunsttechnik des Mittelalters
(Vienna, 1875), vols. viii.-x.
* See t. J. Eisel, Musicus autodidaclus oder der sick selbst informie-
rende Musicus (Erfurt, 1738), pp. 104 and 100, and also J. Mattheson,
Das neu-erofnete Orchester (Hamburg, 1713), " Basson," from whom
Eisel borrowed.
4 See the New English Dictionary, and Bateman upon Bartholinus,
423, i, margin.
6 British Museum, Harl. MS. 2034, fol. 2076, a reference com-
municated by Augustus Hughes-Hughes from his valuable appendix
to part iii. (Instrumental Music and Works on Music) of a Catalogue
of MS. Music in the British Museum (London, 1908-1909). The
Appendix contains a list of typical musical instruments represented
in illuminated MSS., or descri bed mother MSS. in the British Museum,
with brief description and full references.
' Compare Randle Holme's double curtail with the dolcian in C,
pi. vi. H. of Cant. C. R. Day's catalogue, and with a dolcian or single
curtail by J.C. Denner in Paul de Wit s Katalog des Musikhistorischen
Museums von Paul de Wit (Leipzig, 1903), p. 127, No. 380, and
illust. p. 121 (Collection now.transferred to Cologne). Consult also
This is double the bigness of the single, mentioned ch. zvi. n. 6 "
(the MS. begins at ch. xvii. of bk. 3) " and is played 8 notes
deeper. It is as it were 2 pipes fixed in on(e) thick bass pipe,
one much longer than the other, from the top of the lower comes
a crooked pipe of brass in which is fixed a reed, through it the
wind passeth to make the instrument make a sound. It hath
6 holes on the outside and one on that side next the man or back
part and 2 brass keys, the highest called double La sol re, and the
other double -B mi."
We may therefore conclude that the satirical name fagotto,
presumably bestowed in Italy, since the French equivalent fagot
was never used for the basson, was not
necessarily applied to the new form of
pommer at the outset, but in any case
before 1555; that the very term Phagolo
d'Afranio, by which the instrument
was known during its short fabulous
existence, with its pretended Greek
etymology, presupposes the pre-exist-
ence in Italy of another fagotto with
which Afranio was acquainted, perhaps
imperfectly. Afranio's was the age of
ingenious mechanical devices applied
to musical instruments, many of which,
like Afranio's, being mere freaks, did
not survive the inventor. A document
selected from the valuable archives
published by Edm. van der Straeten 7
suggests a satisfactory clue. In 1426
Louis Willay, a musical instrument
maker of Bruges, sold to Philippe le
Bon a triple set of wood-wind instru-
ments, i.e. " 4 bombardes, 4 doucaines
and 4 flutes," to be sent as a gift to
Nicolas III., marquis of Ferrara. The
new instrument, the douc.aine, we may
imagine, by its unusual appearance provoked the satirical
wit of some courtier, and was henceforth known as fagotto.
Just a century later Ravilius of Ferrara made Afranio's first
phagotus from the inventor's design.
The bassoon has been a favourite with all the great masters,
excepting Handel. Beethoven uses the bassoon largely in his
symphonies, writing everywhere for it independent parts of
great beauty and originality. Bach, in his mass in B min., has
parts for two bassoons. Mozart wrote a concerto in Bb for
bassoon, with orchestra (Kochel, No. 191). Weber has also
written a concerto for bassoon in F (op. 75), scored for full
orchestra.
See also Etienne Ozi, Nouvelle Methode du Bassoon (Paris, 1788
and 1800); J. B. J. Willent-Bordogny, Gran Methodo complete per
il Fagotto (Milan, 1844), with illustrations of early bassoons (English
edition, London, J. R. Lafleur & Son); Joseph Frohlich, VoU-
stdndige Musikschule fur alle beym Orchester gebrauchliche wichtigere
FIG. 2. Old English
double curtail (before
1688).
(From Harl. MS. 2034 io
Brit. Mus.)
in Mendel's Musikalisches Conversations- Lexikon ; for the history of
the instrument, and of its prototypes, see OBOE and BOMBARD.
(K. S.)
BASSO-RELIEVO (Ital. for " low relief "), the term applied to
sculpture in which the design projects but slightly from the plane
of the background. The relief may not project at all from the
original surface of the material, as in the sunken reliefs of the
Egyptians, and may be nearly flat, as in the Panathenaic pro-
cession of the Parthenon. In the early I9th century the term
basso-relievo, or " low relief," came to be employed loosely for all
forms of relief, the term mezzo-relievo having already dropped
out of general use owing to the difficulty of accurate application.
BASS ROCK, THE, a small island in the Firth of Forth, about
2 m. from Canty Bay, Haddingtonshire, Scotland. It is circular
in shape, measuring a mile in circumference, and is 330 ft. high.
Mersenne, op. cit., and Michael Praetorius, Syntagma Musicum
(Wolfenbiittel, 1618), both of whom describe and figure these forms
of early bassoons. ' Op. cit. vol. vii. p. 38.
BASSUS BASTAR
On three sides the cliffs are precipitous, but they shelve towards
the S.W., where landing is effected. The Bass Rock is an in-
trusive mass of phonolitic trachyte or orthophyre. No nepheline
has been detected in the rock, but analcite is present in small
quantity together with abundant orthoclase and green soda-
augite. It bears a close resemblance to the eruptive masses of
North Berwick Law and Traprain Law, but is non-porphyritic.
It is regarded by Sir A. Geikie as a plug filling an old volcanic
vent, from which lava emanated during the Calciferous Sandstone
period. It used to be grazed by sheep, of which the mutton
was thought to be unusually good, but its principal denizens are
sea-birds, chiefly solan geese, which haunt the rock in vast
numbers. A lighthouse with a six-flash lantern of 39,000 candle
power was opened in 1902. For a considerable distance E. and
W. there runs through the rock a tunnel, about 15 ft. high,
accessible at low water. St Baldred, whose name has been
given to several of the cliffs on the shore of the mainland,
occupied a hermitage on the Bass, where he died in 756. In the
i4th century the island became the property of the Lauders,
called afterwards Lauders of the Bass, from whom it was
purchased in 1671 by government, and a castle with dungeons
was erected on it, in which many Covenanters were imprisoned.
Among them were Alexander Peden (1626-1686), for four years,
and John Blackadder (1615-1686), who died there after five
years' detention. At the Revolution four young Jacobites
captured the Rock, and having been reinforced by a few others,
held it for King James from June 1691 to April 1694, only
surrendering when threatened by starvation. Thus the island
was the last place in Great Britain to submit to William III.
Dismantled of its fortifications in 1701, the Bass passed into the
ownership of Sir Hew Dalrymple, to whose family it belongs. It
is let on annual rental for the feathers, eggs, oil and young of the
sea-birds and for the fees of visitors, who reach it usually from
Canty Bay and North Berwick.
BASSUS, AUFIDIUS, a Roman historian, who lived in the
reign of Tiberius. His work, which probably began with the
civil wars or the death of Caesar, was continued by the elder
Pliny, who, as he himself tells us, carried it down at least as far
as the end of Nero's reign. The Bellum Germanicum of Bassus,
which is commended, may have been either a separate work or
a section of his general history. The elder Seneca speaks highly
of him as an historian, but the fragments preserved in that
writer's Suasoriae (vi. 23) relating to the death of Cicero, are
characterized by an affected style.
Pliny, Nat. Hist., praefatio, 20; Tacitus, Dialogus de Oratoribus,
23; Quintilian, Instil, x. I. 103.
BASSUS, CAESIUS, a Roman lyric poet, who lived in the reign
of Nero. He was the intimate friend of Persius, who dedicated
his sixth satire to him, and whose works he edited (Schol. on
Persius, vi. i). He is said to have lost his life in the eruption of
Vesuvius (79). He had a great reputation as a poet; Quintilian
(Instil, x. i. 96) goes so far as to say that, with the exception of
Horace, he was the only lyric poet worth reading. He is also
identified with the author of a treatise De Metris, of which con-
siderable fragments, probably of an abbreviated edition, are ex-
tant (ed. Keil, 1885). The work was probably originally in verse,
and afterwards recast or epitomized in prose form to be used as
an instruction book. A worthless and scanty account of some
of the metres of Horace (in Keil, Grammatici Latini, vi. 305),
bearing the title Ars Caesii Bassi de Metris is not by him, but
chiefly borrowed by its unknown author from the treatise
mentioned above.
BASSUS, CASSIANUS, called SCHOLASTICUS (lawyer), one of the
geoponici or writers on agricultural subjects. He lived at the
end of the 6th or the beginning of the 7th century A.D. He
compiled from earlier writers a collection of agricultural literature
(Geoponica) which was afterwards revised by an unknown editor
and published about the year 950, in the reign of Constantine
Porphyrogenitus, to whom the work itself has been ascribed.
It contains a full list of the authorities drawn upon, and the
subjects treated include agriculture, birds, bees, horses, cattle,
sheep, dogs, fishes and the like.
COMPLETE EDITIONS. Needham (1704), Niclas (1781), Beckh
(1895); see also Gemoll in Berliner Studien, i. (1884); Oder in
Rheinisches Museum, xlv. (1890), xlviii. (1893), and De Raynal in
Annuaire de I'Assoc. pour I' Encouragement des Etudes Grecques, viii.
(1874).
BASSUS, SALEIUS, Roman epic poet, a contemporary of
Valerius Flaccus, in the reign of Vespasian. Quintilian credits
him with a vigorous and poetical genius (Instil, x. I. 90) and
Julius Secundus, one of the speakers in Tacitus Dialogus de
Oratoribus (5; see also 9) styles him a perfect poet and most
illustrious bard. He was apparently overtaken by poverty, but
was generously treated by Vespasian, who made him a present
of 500,000 sesterces. Nothing from his works has been pre-
served; the Laus Pisonis, which has been attributed to him, is
probably by Titus Calpurnius Siculus (J. Held, De Saleio Basso.
1834).
BASSVILLE, or BASSEVILLE, NICOLAS JEAN HU60N DE
(d. 1793), French journalist and diplomatist, was born at Abbe-
ville on the 7th of February 1753. He was trained for the
priesthood, taught theology in a provincial seminary and then
went to Paris. Here in 1784 he published Elements de mythologie
and some poems, which brought him into notice. On the recom-
mendation of the prince of Conde he became tutor to two young
Americans travelling in Europe. With them he visited Berlin,
made the acquaintance there of Mirabeau, and became a member
of the Berlin Academy Royal. At the outbreak of the Revolution
he turned to journalism, becoming editor of the Mercure inter-
national. Then, through the Girondist minister Lebrun-Tondu,
he entered the diplomatic service, went in May, 1792, as secretary
of legation to Naples and was shortly afterwards sent, without
official status, to Rome. Here his conduct was anything but
diplomatic. He at once announced himself as the protector of
the extreme Jacobins in Rome, demanded the expulsion of the
French emigres who had taken refuge there, including the
" demoiselles Capet," and ordered the fleur-de-lys on the
escutcheon of the French embassy to be replaced by a picture
of Liberty painted by a French art student. He talked at large
of the " purple geese of the Capitol " and met the remonstrances
of Cardinal Zelada, the papal secretary of state, with insults.
This enraged the Roman populace; a riot broke out on the i3th
of January 1793, and Bassville, who was driving with his family
to the Corso, was dragged from his carriage and so roughly
handled that he died. The affair was magnified in the Convention
into a deliberate murder of the " representative of the Republic "
by the pope's orders. In 1797 by an article of the treaty of
Tolentino the papal government agreed to pay compensation
to Bassville's family. Among his writings we may also mention
Memoires hisloriques, critiques et politiques sur la Revolution de
France (Paris 1790; English trans. London, 1790).
See F. Masson, Les Diplomates de la Revolution (Paris, 1882);
Silvagni, La Corte e la Sociela romana nei secoli XVIII. e XIX.
(Florence, 1881).
BASTAR, a feudatory state of British India, in the Chattis-
garh division of the Central Provinces; area, 13,062 sq. m. In
1901 the population was 306,501, showing a decrease of i %
compared with an apparent increase of 58% in the preceding
decade. Estimated revenue 22,000; tribute 1100. The
eastern part of Bastar is a flat elevated plateau, from 1800 to
2000 ft. above the level of the sea, the centre and N.W. portions
are very mountainous, and the southern parts consist of hills and
plains. On the plateau there are but few hills; the streams
run slowly and the country is a mixture of plain and undulating
ground covered by dense sal forests. Principal mountains of the
district: (i) a lofty range which separates it from the Sironcha
district; (2) a range of equal height called the Bela Dila lying
in the centre of the district; (3) a range running N. and S.
near Narayanpur; (4) Tangri Dongri range, running E. and W.;
(5) Tulsi Dongri, bordering on the Sabari river and the Jaipur
state. There is also a small range running from the river Indra-
vati to the Godavari. The Indravati, the Sabari and the Tal
or Talper, are the chief rivers of the district; all of them affluents
of the Godavari. The soil throughout the greater portion of
Bastar consists of light clay, with an admixture of sand, suited
BASTARD
499
for raising rice and wet crops. In the jungles the Marias, who
are among the aboriginal tribes of Gond origin, raise kosra
(Panicum italicum) and other inferior grains. Aboriginal races
generally follow the migratory system of tillage, clearing the
jungle on selected patches, and after taking crops for two or
three years abandoning them for new ground. They do not use
the plough; nor do they possess buffaloes, bullocks or cows;
their only agricultural implement is a long-handled iron hoe.
They are a timid, quiet, docile race, and although addicted to
drinking not quarrelsome. They inhabit the densest jungles
and are very shy, avoiding contact with strangers, and flying to
the hills on the least alarm ; but they bear a good character for
honesty and truthfulness. They are very scantily dressed,
wear a variety of trinkets, with a knife, hatchet, spear, bow and
arrows, the only weapons they use. Their hair is generally shaved,
excepting a topknot; and when not shaved it gets into a matted,
tangled mass, gathered into a knot behind or on the crown.
The Marias and the Jhurias are supposed to be a subdivision of
the true Gond family. All the aboriginal tribes of Bastar worship
the deities of the Hindu pantheon along with their own national
goddess Danteswari.
Bastar is divided into two portions that held by the Raja
or chief himself, and that possessed by feudatory chiefs under
him. The climate is unhealthy fever, smallpox, dysentery
and rheumatism being the prevailing diseases. Jagdalpur,
Bijapur, Madder and Bhupalpatnam are the only places of any
note in the dependency, the first (on the Indravati river) being
the residence of the raja and the chief people of the state. The
principal products are rice, oil-seeds, lac, tussur silk, horns, hides,
wax and a little iron. Teak timber is floated down the rivers
to the Madras coast. A good road has brought Jagdalpur into
connexion with the railway at Raipur.
BASTARD (O. Fr. bastard, mod. bdtard=fils de bast, " pack-
saddle child," from bast, saddle), a person born out of legal
wedlock. Amongst the Romans, bastards were classified as
nothi, children born in concubinage, and spurii, those not so
born. Both classes had a right of succession to their mother,
and the nolhi were entitled to support from their father, but had
no rights of inheritance from him. Both, however, had in other
respects most of the rights of citizenship. The Germanic law
was based upon an entirely different principle. It recognized
as legitimate only those whose parents were of the same social
rank. All others were regarded as bastards, and took the status
of the parent of inferior rank. The aim of all the Germanic codes
was to preserve purity of race, not to improve morals, for in-
cestuous unions are not censured. The influence of the Germanic
law lasted throughout the early feudal period, and bastards were
debarred rights of inheritance. In the i3th century the influence
of Roman law tended again to modify this severity. An excep-
tion was probably made in the case of those whose fathers were
of royal blood, in which case it even seems that no stigma was
attached to the accident of their birth, nor did they suffer from
the usual disabilities as to inheritance which attended those of
illegitimate birth (Gregory of Tours, v. 25). Among the Franks
we find Theodoric I., a natural son of Clovis, sharing the kingdom
with the legitimate sons; Zwentibold, natural son of Arnulf, was
created king of Lorraine by his father in 895; and even William
the Conqueror actually assumed the appellation of bastard.
In English law a bastard still retains certain disabilities. His
rights are only such as he can acquire; for civilly he can inherit
nothing, being looked upon as the son of nobody, and sometimes
called filius nullius, sometimes^/iwi populi. This, however, does
not hold as to moral purposes, e.g. he cannot marry his mother
or bastard sister. Yet he may gain a surname by reputation
though he has none by inheritance, and may even be made
legitimate and capable of inheriting by the transcendent power
of an act of parliament.
For poor-law purposes, all legitimate children take the settle-
ment of their father, but a bastard takes the settlement of its
mother. The mother of an illegitimate child is entitled to its
custody in preference to the father, and consequently the re-
sponsibility of its support falls primarily on her. But the
English law has always recognized the principle that to a certain
extent the father must share in that responsibility. This, how-
ever, was imposed not with the idea of furnishing the woman
with a civil remedy, nor to have a penal effect against the man,
but solely to prevent the cost of maintenance of the bastard child
from falling upon the parish. Indeed, the legislation upon the
subject, which dates back to 1576, was until 1845 an intimate
part of the poor law. The act of 1576, the basis of English
bastardy law, empowered justices to take order for the punish-
ment of the mother and reputed father of every bastard child
left to the care of the parish, and to charge the mother and
reputed father with the payment of a weekly sum or other
needful sustenance. Other acts were passed in 1609 and 1733,
enabling the mother of any child chargeable or likely to become
chargeable to the parish to secure the apprehension, and even
the imprisonment, of the father until he should indemnify the
parish, provisions which were made somewhat more stringent
by acts passed in 1809 and 1810. In 1832 a commission was
appointed to inquire into the operation of the poor laws, and
the commissioners in their report gave great attention to the
subject of bastardy. They reviewed the various acts from 1576
downwards and gave examples of their operation. The con-
clusion to which the commissioners came was that the laws
" which respect bastardy appear to be pre-eminently unwise,"
and that they gave rise to many abuses. For example, the
weekly payment recovered by the parish was usually transferred
to the mother; even in many cases guaranteed. The com-
missioners recommended that the mother alone should be re-
sponsible for the maintenance of the child. " This," they said,
" is now the position of a widow, and there can be no reason for
giving to vice privileges which we deny to misfortune." Acting
on the recommendation of the commissioners the Poor Law
Amendment Act of 1834 endeavoured to discourage the principle
of making the putative father contribute by introducing a some-
what cumbersome method of procedure. The trend of public
opinion proved against the discouragement of affiliation, and
an act of 1839 transferred jurisdiction in affiliation cases from
quarter-sessions to petty-sessions. A commission of inquiry on
the working of the bastardy acts in 1844 recommended " that
affiliation should be facilitated," and, accordingly, by the
Bastardy Act of 1845 effect was given to this recommendation
by giving the mother an independent civil remedy against the
putative father and dissociating the parish altogether from the
proceedings. Subsequently, legislation gave the parish the right
of attaching, and in some cases suing for, money due from the
putative father for the maintenance of the child. The existing
law is set out under AFFILIATION.
The incapacities attaching to a bastard consist principally in
this, that he cannot be heir to any one; for being nullius filius,
he is therefore of kin to nobody, and has no ancestor from whom
an inheritable blood can be derived. Therefore, if there be no
other claimant upon an inheritance than such illegitimate child,
it escheats to the lord. And as bastards cannot be heirs them-
selves, so neither can they have any heirs but those of their own
bodies; for as all collateral kindred consists in being derived
from the same common ancestor, and as a bastard has no legal
ancestor, he can have no collateral kindred, and consequently no
legal heirs, except such as claim by a lineal descent from himself.
And hence, if a bastard purchase land, and die seised therefor
without issue and intestate, the land escheats to the lord of the
fee. Originally a bastard was deemed incapable of holy orders,
and disqualified by the fact of his birth from holding any dignity
in the church ; but this doctrine is now obsolete, and in all other
respects there is no distinction between a bastard and another
man. By the law of Scotland a bastard is not only excluded
from his father's succession, because the law knows no father
who is not marked out by marriage; and from all heritable
succession, whether by the father or mother, because he cannot
be pronounced lawful heir by the inquest in terms of the brief;
but ajso from the movable succession of his mother, because he
is not her lawful child, and legitimacy is implied in all succession
deferred by the law. But a bastard, although he cannot succeed
5
BASTARNAE BASTIAT
jure sanguinis, may succeed by destination, where he is specially
called to the succession by entail or testament. In Scotland, as
in England, a bastard can have no legal heirs except those of his
own body; and hence, failing his lawful issue, the king succeeds
to him as last heir. Formerly bastards in Scotland without
issue of their own could not make a will, but this disability was
removed by a statute of 1835. If bastards or other persons
without kindred die intestate without wife or child, their effects
go to the king as ultimus haeres; but a grant is usually made of
them by letters patent, and the grantee becomes entitled to the
administration.
According to the common law, which is the law of England, a
bastard cannot be divested of his state of illegitimacy, unless
by the supreme power of an act of parliament. But in those
countries which have followed the Roman or civil law, a bastard's
status may be provisional, and he can be made legitimate by
the subsequent marriage of his parents. (See LEGITIMACY AND
LEGITIMATION; and, for statistics, ILLEGITIMACY.)
AUTHORITIES. Bacquet, Traite de la bdtardise (1608) ; Du Cange,
Gloss. Lat., infra "Bastardus"; L. G. Koenigswater, Histoire de
I' organisation de lafamille en France (1851), and Essai sur les enfants
nes hors mariage (1842); E. D. Glasson, Histoire des droits et des
institutions de I'Angleterre (6 vols., 1882-1883), Histoire du droit et
des institutions de la France (1887); Pollock and Maitland, History
of English Law (1898); Stephen's Commentaries: Nicholls and
Mackay, History of the English Poor Law (3 vols., 1898;.
BASTARNAE, the easternmost people of the Germanic race,
the first to come into contact with the ancient world and the
Slavs. Originally settled in Galicia and the Bukovina, they
appeared on the lower Danube about 200 B.C., and were used by
Philip V. of Macedon against his Thracian neighbours. Defeated
by these the Bastarnae returned north, leaving some of their
number (hence called Peucini) settled on Peuce, an island in the
Danube. Their main body occupied the country between the
eastern Carpathians and the Danube. As allies of Perseus and
of Mithradates the Great, and lastly on their own account, they
had hostile relations with the Romans who in the time of
Augustus defeated them, and made a peace, which was disturbed
by a series of incursions. In these the Bastarnae after a time
gave place to the Goths, with whom they seem to have amalga-
mated, and we last hear of them as transferred by the emperor
Probus to the right bank of the Danube. Polybius and the
authors who copy him regard the Bastarnae as Galatae; Strabo,
having learned of the Romans to distinguish Celts and Germans,
first allows a German element; Tacitus expressly declares their
German origin but says that the race was degraded by inter-
marriage with Sarmatians. The descriptions of their bodily appear-
ance, tribal divisions, manner of life and methods of warfare are
such as are applied to either race. No doubt they were an outpost
of the Germans, and so had absorbed into themselves strong
Getic, Celtic and Sarmatian elements. (E. H. M.)
BASTI, a town and district of British India, in the Gorakhpur
division of the United Provinces. The town, a collection of
villages, is on the river Kuana, 40 m. from Gorakhpur by railway.
The population in 1901 was 14,761. It has no municipality.
The district has an area of 2792 sq. m. It stretches out in one
vast marshy plain, draining towards the south-east, and traversed
by the Rapti, Kuana, Banganga, Masdih, Jamwar, Ami and
Katneihia rivers. The tract lying between these streams
consists of a rich alluvial deposit, more or less subject to inunda-
tions, but producing good crops of rice, wheat and barley. In
1901 the population was 1,846,153, showing an increase of 3 %
in the decade. A railway from Gorakhpur to Gonda runs through
the district, and the river Gogra is navigable. A large transit
trade is conducted with Nepal. The export trade of the district
itself is chiefly in rice, sugar and other agricultural produce.
BASTIA, a town and seaport on the eastern coast of the island
of Corsica, 98 m. N.N.E. of Ajaccio by rail. Pop. (1906) 24,509.
Bastia, the chief commercial town in Corsica, consists of the
densely-populated quarter of the old port with its labyrinth of
steep and narrow streets, and of a more modern quarter to the
north, which has grown up round the new port. La Traverse,
a fine boulevard, intersects the town from north to south. Rising
from the sea-shore like an amphitheatre, Bastia presents an
imposing appearance, which is enhanced by the loftiness of its
[louses; it has, however, little of architectural interest to offer,
Its churches, of which the largest is San Giovanni Battista, are
florid in decoration, as are the law-court, the theatre and the
tiotel-de-ville. The citadel, which dominates the old port, has a
keep of the i4th century. As capital of an .arrondissement,
Bastia is the seat of a tribunal of first instance and a sub-prefect,
while it is also the seat of the military governor of Corsica, of a
court of appeal for the whole island, of a court of assizes, and of
a tribunal and a chamber of commerce, and has a lycee, a branch
of the Bank of France, and a library with between 30,000 and
40,000 volumes. The town has active commerce, especially
with Italy. The new port has 1 100 ft. of quayage, served by a
railway, and with a depth alongside of 25 ft. The total number
of vessels entered in 1907 was 721 with a tonnage of 337,551,
of which 203,950 were French. The chief exports are chestnut
extract for tanning, cedrates, citrons, oranges, early vegetables,
fish, copper ore and antimony ore. Imports include coal, grain,
flour and wine. Industry consists chiefly in fishing (sardines, &c.,
and coral), the manufacture of tobacco, oil-distilling, tanning,
and the preparation of preserved citrons and of macaroni and
similar provisions.
Bastia dates from the building of the Genoese fortress or
" bastille " by Lionello Lomellino in 1383. Under the Genoese it
was long the principal stronghold in the north of the island, and
the residence of the governor; and in 1553 it was the first
town attacked by the French. On the division of the island in
1797 into the two departments of Golo and Liamone, Bastia
remained the capital of the former; but when the two were
again united Ajaccio obtained the superiority. The city was
taken by the English in 1745 and again in 1794.
BASTIAN, ADOLF (1826- ), German ethnologist, was
born at Bremen on the z6th of June 1826. He was educated as a
physician, but from his early years devoted himself to travel.
Proceeding to Australia in 1851 as surgeon on a vessel, he had
visited almost every part of the world before his return in 1859.
In 1861 he made an expedition to the Far East which lasted five
years. Upon his return he commenced the publication of his
great work on The Peoples of Eastern Asia, an immense store-
house of facts owing little to arrangement or style. He settled in
Berlin, where he was made professor of ethnology at the uni-
versity and keeper of the ethnological museum. He succeeded
R. Virchow as president of the Berlin Anthropological Society,
and to him was largely due the formation in 1878 of the German
Africa Society of Berlin, which did much to encourage German
colonization- in Africa. Later he undertook further scientific-
travels in Africa, South America and India. The results of
these explorations were made public in a long series of separate
publications comprising several on Buddhism, and on the psycho-
logical problems presented by native superstitions. Bastian also
edited the Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologic from 1869, in conjunction
with Virchow and Robert von Hartmann. On his seventieth
birthday, 1896 (during which year he started on an expedition
to Malaysia), he was presented with a volume of essays composed
by the most distinguished ethnologists in celebration of the event
and dedicated to him. Among his more important works may
be mentioned: Der Mensch in der Geschichte (Leipzig, 1860);
Die Volkerdes ostlichen Asien (Jena, 1866-1871); Ethnologische
Forschungen (Leipzig, 1871-1873); Die Kulturlander des alien
Amerika (Berlin, 1878); Der Buddhismus in seiner Psychologic
(Berlin, 1881); Indonesien (Leipzig, 1884); Der Fetisch an der
Kuste Guineas (Berlin, 1885); Die mikrontsischen Kolonien
(1899-1900); Die wechselnden Phasen im geschichllichen Sehkreis
und ihre Riickwirkung auf die Volkerkunde (1900).
BASTIAT, FRDRIC (1801-1850), French economist, was
the son of a merchant of Bayonne, and was born in that town on
the 29th of June 1801. Educated at the colleges of Saint-Sever
and of Soreze, he entered in 1818 the counting-house of his
uncle at Bayonne. The practical routine of mercantile life being
distasteful to him, in 1825 he retired to a property at Mugron,
of which he became the owner on the death of his grandfather.
BASTIDE
501
Here Bastiat occupied himself with farming, his leisure being
devoted to study and meditation. He welcomed with enthusiasm
the Revolution of 1830. In 1831 he became a juge de paix of his
canton, and in 183 2 a member of the conseil general of the Landes.
In 1834 he published his first pamphlet, and betweeni84i and 1844
three others, all on questions of taxation affecting local interests.
During this period an accidental circumstance led him to become
a subscriber to an English newspaper, the Globe and Traveller,
through which he was made acquainted with the nature and
progress of the crusade of the Anti-Corn-Law League against
protection. After studying the movement for two years, he
resolved to inaugurate a similar movement in France. To
prepare the way, he contributed in 1844 to the Journal des
ficonomistes an article " Sur 1'influence des tarifs anglais et
francais," which attracted great attention, and was followed by
others, including the first series of his brilliant Sophismes
Economiques.
In 1845 Bastiat came to Paris in order to superintend the
publication of his Cobden et la Ligue, ou I 'agitation anglaise pour
la liberte des (changes, and was very cordially received by the
economists of the capital. From Paris he went to London and
Manchester, and made the personal acquaintance of Cobden,
Bright and other leaders of the league. When he returned to
France he found that his writings had been exerting a powerful
influence; and in 1846 he assisted in organizing at Bordeaux the
first French Free-Trade Association (Association pour la Liberte
des Echanges) . The rapid spread of the movement soon required
him to abandon Mugron for Paris.
During the eighteen months which followed this change his
labours were prodigious. He acted as secretary of the central
committee of the association, organized and corresponded with
branch societies, waited on ministers, procured subscriptions,
edited a weekly paper, the Libre-Echange, contributed to the
Journal des Economistes and to three other periodicals, addressed
meetings in Paris and the provinces, and delivered a course of
lectures on the principles of political economy to students of the
schools of law and of medicine. The cause to which he thus devoted
himself at the expense of his health and life appeared for a time
as if it would be successful; but the forces in its favour were much
weaker and those opposed to it were much stronger in France than
in England, and this became more apparent as the struggle
proceeded, until it was brought to an abrupt end by the Revolu-
tion of February 1848. This event made the socialistic and
communistic principles, which had been gathering and spreading
during the previous thirty years, temporarily supreme. (See
NATIONAL WORKSHOPS.) In this grave crisis Bastiat nobly
performed his duty. Although exhausted by the far too heavy
labours in which he had been engaged, although robbed of his
voice by the malady which was preying upon him, so that he
could do but little to defend the truth from the tribune of the
Constituent Assembly, he could still suggest wise counsels in the
committee of finance of which he was vice-president, and he could
still use his pen with a vigour and dexterity which made him
capable of combating single-handed many opponents.
He wrote in rapid succession a series of brilliant and effective
pamphlets and essays, showing how socialism was connected with
protection, and exposing the delusions on which it rested. Thus
within the space of two years there appeared Propriete et Lot,
Justice el Fraternite, Propritle et Spoliation, L'Etat, Baccalaureat
et Socialisme, Proteclionisme et Communisms, Capital et Rente,
M audit Argent, Spoliation et Loi, Gratuite du Credit, and Ce qu'on
voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas. While thus occupied he was meditating
the composition of a great constructive work, meant to renovate
economical science by basing it on the principle that " interests,
left to themselves, tend to harmonious combinations, and to the
progressive preponderance of the general good." The first volume
of this work Les Harmonies economiques was published in the
beginning of 1 850. In the autumn of that year, when working on
the second volume, the increase of his malady compelled him to
go to Italy. After lingering at Pisa and Florence he reached
Rome, but only to die there on the 24th of December 1850 in the
fiftieth year of his age.
The life-work of Bastiat, in order to be fairly appreciated,
requires to be considered in three aspects, (i) He was the
advocate of free-trade, the opponent of protection. The general
principles of free-trade had, of course, been clearly stated and
solidly established before he was born, but he did more than
merely restate them. He showed, as no one before him had done,
how they were practically applicable to French agriculture, trade
and commerce; and in the Sophismes Economiques we have the
completest and most effective, the wisest and the wittiest
exposure of protectionism in its principles, reasonings and
consequences which exists in any language. (2) He was the
opponent of socialism. In this respect also he had no equal
among the economists of France. He alone fought socialism hand
to hand, body to body, as it were, not caricaturing it, not denounc-
ing it, not criticizing under its name some merely abstract theory,
but taking it as actually presented by its most popular represen-
tatives, considering patiently their proposals and arguments, and
proving conclusively that they proceeded on false principles,
reasoned badly and sought to realize generous aims by foolish
and harmful means. Nowhere will reason find a richer armoury
of weapons available against socialism than in the pamphlets
published by Bastiat between 1848 and 1830. (3) He attempted
to expound in an original and independent manner political
economy as a science. In combating, first, the Protectionists,
and, afterwards, the Socialists, there gradually rose on his mind a
conception which seemed to him to shed a flood of light over the
whole of economical doctrine, and, indeed, over the whole theory
of society, viz. the harmony of the essential tendencies of human
nature. The radical error, he became always more convinced,
both of protectionism and socialism, was the assumption that
human interests, if left to themselves would inevitably prove
antagonistic and anti-social, capital robbing labour, manufactures
ruining agriculture, the foreigner injuring the native, the consumer
the producer, &c. ; and the chief weakness of the various schools
of political economy, he believed, he had discovered in their
imperfect apprehension of the truth that human interests, when
left to themselves, when not arbitrarily and forcibly interfered
with, tend to harmonious combination, to the general good.
His CEuvres completes are in 7 vols. The first contains at inter-
esting Memoir by M. Paillottet.
BASTIDE, JULES (1800-1879), French publicist, was born at
Paris on the 22nd of November 1800. He studied law for a time,
and afterwards engaged in business as a timber merchant. In
1821 he became a member of the French Carbonari, and took a
prominent part in the Revolution of 1830. After the " July
Days " he received an artillery command in the national guard.
For his share in the emeute in Paris (sth of June 1832) on the
occasion of the funeral of General Maximilian Lamarque, Bastide
was sentenced to death but escaped to London. On his return
to Paris in 1834 he was acquitted, and occupied himself with
journalism, contributing to the National, a republican journal of
which he became editor in 1836. In 1847 he founded the Revue
nationals with the collaboration of P.J. Buchez (q.v.), with whose
ideas he had become infected. After the Revolution of February
1848, Bastide's intimate knowledge of foreign affairs gained for
him a secretarial post in the provisional government, and, after
the creation of the executive commission, he was made minister
of foreign affairs. At the close of 1848 he threw up his portfolio,
and, after the coup d'etat of December 1851, retired into private
life. He died on the 2nd of March 1879. His writings comprise
De I' education publique en France (1847); Histoire del' assemblte
legislative (1847); La Rtpublique franfaise et I'ltalie en 1848
(1858) ; Histoire des guerres religieuses en France (1859).
BASTIDE (Provencal bastida, building), a word applied to the
fortified towns founded in south-western France in the middle
ages, and corresponding to the miles neuves of northern France.
They were established by the abbeys, the nobles and the crown,
frequently by two of these authorities in co-operation, and were
intended to serve as defensive posts and centres of population
for sparsely-inhabited districts. In addition, they formed a
source of revenue and power for their founders, who on their
part conceded liberal charters to the new towns. They were
502
BASTIEN-LEPAGE BASTILLE
built on a rectangular plan, with a large central square and
straight thoroughfares running at right angles or parallel to one
another, this uniformity of construction being well exemplified
in the existing bastide of Monpazier (Dordogne) founded by the
English in 1284. Mont-de-Marsan, the oldest of the bastides,
was founded in 1141, and the movement for founding them
lasted during the i2th, i3th and I4th centuries, attaining its
height between 1250 and 1350.
See E. Menault, Les Villes Neuyes, leur origine et leur influence
dans le mouvement communal (Paris, 1868); Curie-Seimbres, Essai
sur les villes fondees dans le sud-ouest de la France sous le nom de
bastides (Toulouse, 1880).
BASTIEN-LEPAGE, JULES (1848-1884), French painter, was
born in the village of Damvillers, Meuse, France, on the ist of
November 1848 and spent his childhood there. He first studied
at Verdun, and prompted by a love of art went in 1867 to Paris,
where he was admitted to the Ecole des Beaux-arts, working
under Cabanel. After exhibiting in the Salons of 1870 and 1872
works which attracted no attention, in 1874 he made his mark
with his " Song of Spring," a study of rural life, representing a
peasant girl sitting on a knoll looking down on a village. His
" Portrait of my Grandfather," exhibited in the same year, was
not less remarkable for its artless simplicity and received a
third-class medal. This success was confirmed in 1875 by the
" First Communion," a picture of a little girl minutely worked
up as to colour, and a " Portrait of M. Hayem." In 1875 he
took the second Prix de Rome with his " Angels appearing to the
Shepherds," exhibited again in 1878. His next endeavour to
win the Grand Prix de Rome in 1876 with " Priam at the Feet of
Achilles " was again unsuccessful (it is in the Lille gallery), and
the painter determined to return to country life. To the Salon
of 1877 he sent a full-length " Portrait of Lady L." and " My
Parents "; and in 1878 a "Portrait of M. Theuriet" and "The
Hayfield." The last picture, now in the Luxembourg, is regarded
as a typical work from its stamp of realistic truth. Thenceforth
Bastien-Lepage was recognized in France as the leader of a
school, and his " Portrait of Mme Sarah Bernhardt " (1879),
painted in a light key, won him the cross of the Legion of Honour.
In 1880 be exhibited a small portrait of M. Andrieux and " Joan
of Arc listening to the Voices "; and in the same year, at the
Royal Academy, the little portrait of the " Prince of Wales."
In 1881 he painted " The Beggar " and the " Portrait of Albert
Wolf "; in 1882 " Le Pere Jacques "; in 1883 " Love in a
Village," in which we find some trace of Courbet's influence.
His last dated work is " The Forge " (1884). The artist, long
ailing, had tried in vain to re-establish his health in Algiers.
He died in Paris on the loth of December 1884, when planning a
new series of rural subjects. Among his more important works
may also be mentioned the portrait of " Mme J. Drouet "
(1883); " Gambetta on his death-bed," and some landscapes;
The Vintage " (1880), and " The Thames at London " (1882).
" The Little Chimney-Sweep " was never finished. An exhibition
of his collected works was opened in March and April 1885.
See A. Theuriet, Bastien-Lepaee (1885 English edition, 1892);
L. de Fourcaud, Bastien-Lepage (1885). (H. FR.)
BASTILLE (from Fr. bastir, now bdlir, to build), originally
any fortified building forming part of a system of defence or
attack; the name was especially' applied to several of the
principal points in the ancient fortifications of Paris. In the
reign of King John, or even earlier, the gate of Saint Antoine
was flanked by two towers; and about 1369 Hugues Aubriot,
at the command of Charles V., changed it into a regular bastille
or fort by the addition of six others of massive -structure, the
whole united by thick walls and surrounded by a ditch 25 ft.
wide. Various extensions and alterations were afterwards
effected; but the building remained substantially what it was
made by the vigorous provost, a strong and gloomy structure,
with eight stern towers. As the ancient fortifications of the city
were superseded, the use of the word bastille as a general designa-
tion gradually died out, and it became restricted to the castle of
Saint Antoine, the political importance of which made it practi-
cally, long before it was actually, the only bastille of Paris.
The building had originally a military purpose, and it appears
as a fortress on several occasions in French history. When
Charles VII. retook Paris from the English in 1436, his opponents
in the city took refuge in the Bastille, which they were prepared
to defend with vigour, but the want of provisions obliged them
to capitulate. In 1588 the duke of Guise took possession of the
Bastille, gave the command of it to Bussy-Leclerc, and soon
afterwards shut up the whole parlement within its walls, for
having refused their adherence to the League. When Henry IV.
became master of Paris he committed the command of the
Bastille to Sully, and there he deposited his treasures, which at
the time of his death amounted to the sum of 15,870,000 livres.
On the nth of January 1649 the Bastille was invested by the
forces of the Fronde, and after a short cannonade capitulated
on the I3th of that month. The garrison consisted of only
twenty-two men. The Frondeurs concluded a peace with the
court on the nth of March; but it was stipulated by treaty
that they should retain possession of the Bastille, which in fact
was not restored to the king till the 2ist of October 1651.
At a very early period, however, the Bastille was employed
for the custody of state prisoners, and it was ultimately much
more of a prison than a fortress. According to the usual account,
which one is tempted to ascribe to the popular love of poetical
justice, the first who was incarcerated within its walls was the
builder himself, Hugues Aubriot. Be this as it may, the duke
of Nemours spent thirteen years there in one of those iron cages
which Louis XL called his fillettes; and Jacques d'Armagnac,
Poyet and Chabot were successively prisoners. It was not till
the reign of Louis XIII. that it became recognized as a regular
place of confinement; but from that time till its destruction it
was frequently filled to embarrassment with men and women
of every age and condition. Prisoners were detained without
trial on lettres de cachet for different reasons, to avoid a scandal,
either public or private, or to satisfy personal animosities.
But the most frequent and most notorious use of the Bastille
was to imprison those writers who attacked the government or
persons in power. It was this which made it so hated as an
emblem of despotism, and caused its capture and demolition in
the Revolution.
Of the treatment of prisoners in the Bastille very various
accounts have been given even by those who speak from personal
experience, for the simple reason that it varied greatly in different
cases. The prisoners were divided into two main classes, those
who were detained on grounds of precaution or by way of
admonitory correction, and those who lay under presumption
or proof of guilt. The former were subject to no investigation
or judgment, and the length of their imprisonment depended
on the will of the king; the latter were brought to trial in the
ordinary courts or before special tribunals, such as that of the
Arsenal though even in their case the interval between their
arrest and their trial was determined solely by the royal decree,
and it was quite possible for a man to grow old in the prison
without having the opportunity of having his fate decided.
Until guilt was established, the prisoner was registered in the
king's name, and except in the case of state-prisoners of import-
ance, who were kept with greater strictness and often in absolute
isolation he enjoyed a certain degree of comfort and freedom.
Visitors were admitted under restrictions; games were allowed;
and, for a long time at least, exercise was permitted in open parts
of the interior. Food was both abundant and good, at least for
the better class of prisoners; and instances were not unknown
of people living below their allowance and, by arrangement with
the governor, saving the surplus. When the criminality of the
prisoner was established, his name was transferred to the register
of the " commission," and he became exposed to numerous
hardships and even barbarities, which however belonged not so
much to the special organization of the Bastille as to the general
system of criminal justice then in force.
Among the more distinguished personages who were confined
in this fortress during the reigns of Louis XIV., XV. and XVI.,
were the famous Man of the Iron Mask (see IRON MASK) , Foucquet ,
the marshal Richelieu, Le Maistre de Sacy, De Renneville,
Voltaire, ^Latude, Le Prev6t de Beaumont, Labourdonnais,
BASTINADO BASUTOLAND
503
Lally, Cardinal de Rohan, Linguet and La Chalotais. While
no detestation is too great for that system of " royal pantheism "
which led to the unjust and often protracted imprisonment of
even men of great ability and stainless character, it is unnecessary
to give implicit credence to all the tales of horror which found
currency during the excitement of the Revolution, and which
historical evidence, as well as a priori considerations, tends to
strip of their more dreadful features, and even in many cases to
refute altogether. Much light of an unexpected kind has in
modern times been shed on the history of the Bastille from the
pages of its own records. These documents had been flung out
into the courts of the building by the revolutionary captors, and
after suffering grievous diminution and damage were finally
stored up and forgotten in the vaults of the library of the (so-
called) Arsenal. Here they were discovered in 1840 by Francois
Ravaisson, who devoted himself to their arrangement, elucida-
tion and publication.
At the breaking out of the Revolution the Bastille was attacked
by the Parisians; and, after a vigorous resistance, it was taken
and razed to the ground on the i4th of July 1789. At the time
of its capture only seven prisoners were found in it. A very
striking account of the siege will be found in Carlyle's French
Revolution, vol. i. The site of the building is now marked by a
lofty column of bronze, dedicated to the memory of the patriots
of July 1789 and 1830. It is crowned by a gilded figure of the
genius of liberty.
See the Memoirs of Linguet (1783), and Latude (ed. by Thierry,
tome iii. l8mo, 1791-1793); also Francois Ravaisson, Les Archives
de la Bastille (16 vols. 8vo, 1866-1886); Delort, Histoire de la
detention des philosophes a la Bastille (3 vols., 1829); F. Bournon,
La Bastille (1893) ; Fr. Funck-Brentano, Les Lettres de cachet a Paris,
etude suivie d'une liste des prisonniers de la Bastille (1904) ; G. Lecocq,
La Prise de la Bastille (1881).
BASTINADO (Span, baston, Fr. bdton, a stick, cudgel), the
European name for a form of punishment common in the east,
especially in Turkey, Persia and China. It consists in blows
with a light stick or lath of bamboo upon the soles of the feet or
on the buttocks. The terror of the punishment lies not in the
severity of the blows, which are on the contrary scarcely more
than tapping, but in its long continuation. A skilful bastina-
doist can kill his victim after hours of torture.
BASTION (through the Fr. from late Lat. bastire, to build), a
work forming part of a line of fortifications. The general trace
of a bastion is similar to an irregular pentagon formed by a
triangle and a narrow rectangle, the base of the triangle coincid-
ing with the long side of the rectangle. The two sides of the
triangle form the " faces " of the bastion, which join at the
" salient " angle, the short sides of the rectangle form the
" flanks." Bastions were arranged so that the fire from the flanks
of each protected not only the front of the curtain but also the
faces of the adjacent bastions. A " tower bastion " is a case-
mated tower built in bastion form; a " demi-bastion " is a work
formed by half a bastion (bisected through the salient angle) and
by a parapet along the line of bisection; a " flat bastion " is a
bastion built on a curtain and having a very obtuse salient angle.
BASTWICK, JOHN (1593-1654), English physician and
religious zealot, was born at Writtle, in Essex, in 1593, and after
a brief education at Cambridge, wandered on the continent and
graduated in medicine at Padua. On his return he settled in
Colchester. His celebrity rests on his strong opposition to the
Roman Catholic ceremonial. About 1633 he printed in Holland
two Latin treatises, entitled Elenchus Religionis Papisticae, and
Flagellum Pontificis el Episcoporum Latialitim; and as Laud
and other English prelates thought themselves aimed at, he was
fined 1000 in the court of high commission, excommunicated
and prohibited from practising physic, while his books were
ordered to be burnt and the author himself consigned to prison.
Instead of recanting, however, he wrote Apologeticus ad Praesules
Anglicanos, and another book called The Litany, in which he
exclaimed vehemently against the proceedings of the court, and
charged the bishops with being the enemies of God and " the tail
of the beast." William Prynneand Henry Burton coming under
the lash of the star-chamber court at the same time, they were all
censured as turbulent and seditious persons, and condemned to
pay a fine of 5000 each, to be set in the pillory, to lose their ears,
and to undergo imprisonment for life in remote parts of the
kingdom, Bast wick being sent to Scilly. The parliament in 1640
reversed these proceedings, and ordered Bastwick a reparation
of 5000 out of the estates of the commissioners and lords who
had sentenced him. He joined the parliamentary army, but in
later years showed bitter opposition to the Independents. He
died in the latter part of 1654.
BASUTOLAND (officially "The Territory of Basutoland"),
an inland state and British crown colony of S.E. Africa, situated
between 28 35' and 30 30' S. and 27 and 29 25' E. It has an
area of 10,293 S Q- m -> being somewhat smaller than Belgium, and
is bounded S., S.E., and N.E. by the Drakcnsberg, N. and N.W.
by the Caledon river, S.W. by a range of low hills extending from
the Caledon above Wepener to the Orange river, and south of the
Orange by the Telle or Tees river to its source in the Drakensberg.
Its greatest length S.W. to N.E. is 145 m.; its greatest breadth
N. to S. 1 20 m. On every side it is surrounded by British colonies,
north by the Orange River Colony, south-west and south by
Cape Colony, and east by Natal.
Basutoland, or Lesuto (Lesotho) as the natives call it, forms
the south-eastern edge of the interior tableland of South Africa,
and has a rugged and broken surface with a mean elevation of
6000 ft. The Drakensberg (</.p.) forming the buttress of the
plateau seaward, attain their highest elevation on the Basuto-
Natal border. The frontier line follows the crest of the mountains,
three peaks some 10,000 or more ft. high Giant's Castle,
Champagne Castle or Cathkin Peak and Mont aux Sources-
towering high above the general level. Mount Hamilton, which
lies north of the waterparting, is over oooo ft. high. From
Mont aux Sources, table-shaped, and called by the Basutos
Potong (Antelope), a second range of mountains, the Maluti,
runs S.W. through the entire length of Basutoland. The crest of
the Maluti is in few places lower than 7000 ft. whilst Machacha,
the culminating point, is about 10.500 ft. From the tableland
north of the Maluti several isolated hills rise, the most noted being
the almost inaccessible Thaba Bosigo the rallying place of the
Basuto in many of their wars. Shut off from the adjacent
Indian Ocean by its mountain barrier, the drainage of the country
is westward to the distant Atlantic. As its name implies, the
chief rivers rise in Mont aux Sources. From the inner sides of
that mountain descend the Caledon and the Senku, whilst from
its seaward face the Tugela flows through Natal to the Indian
Ocean. The Caledon runs north of the Maluti, the Senku south
of that range. From the slopes of the Maluti descend many
streams, the largest being the Kornet Spruit, which joins the
Senku and other torrents from the Drakensberg to form the upper
Orange (q.v.). The Caledon also, sweeping southward, unites
with the Orange beyond the frontiers of Basutoland. Ordinarily
shallow, the rivers after heavy rain fill with great rapidity,
sweeping away everything in their path. In the richer soil they
cut deep channels; the denudation thus caused threatens to
diminish seriously the area of arable and pasture land. The
river beds contain dangerous quicksands.
The aspect of the country is everywhere grand, and often
beautiful, fully justifying the title, " The Switzerland of South
Africa," often applied to it. Viewed from a distance the
mountains appear as dark perpendicular barriers, quite impene-
trable; but narrow paths lead round the precipitous face of the
hills, and when the inner side is gained a wonderful panorama
opens out. In every direction can be seen luxuriant valleys
through which rivers thread their silvery way, wild chasms,
magnificent waterfalls that of Maletsunyane has an unbroken
leap of over 600 ft. and, above all, hill crest after hill crest in
seeming endless succession. In winter the effect is heightened
by the snow which caps all the higher peaks.
Geology. Basutoland is entirely occupied by the upper divi-
sion (Stormberg series) of the Karroo formation. The highest
strata (Volcanic group) form the rugged elevated spurs of the
Drakensberg mountains which extend along the eastern terri-
torial boundary. It has been suggested that these spurs represent
504
BASUTOLAND
the sites of vents or fissures of eruption. The upper part of
the Maluti range consists of flows of melaphyres and diabases
belonging to the volcanic beds. Among these lavas is the "pipe"
amygdaloid of which many blocks have been transported great
distances down the Vaal river. The amygdalss are three or four
inches long and about three-eighths of an inch in diameter.
Heulandite, with thomsonite, stilbite, scolecite, calcite and
chalcedony, occur as infilling minerals.
Climate. The climate is excellent, invigorating alike for
Europeans and natives. The mean annual temperature is about
60 F. The four seasons are distinctly marked, a rarity in South
Africa, where the transition from summer to winter is generally
very rapid. The heat of summer (December-March, which is
the rainy season) is tempered by cool breezes; winter (May-
September, inclusive) is dry, cold and bracing, and frost prevails
for prolonged periods. The average annual rainfall is about 30 in.
The general health conditions are good. Malaria is almost
unknown and chest complaints are rare. Epidemics of smallpox
and typhoid occur; and leprosy, imported from the Orange
River and Cape Colonies, has taken firm hold on the Basuto, of
whom about -91 per 1000 are sufferers from this disease.
Flora and Fauna. A few kloofs are wooded, but of forest land
there is none. Along the upper courses of the rivers are willows
and wild olive trees; round the chief settlements the eucalyptus
and the pine have been planted. Heaths, generally somewhat
rare in South Africa outside the Cape peninsula, are abundant
in Basutoland. The Alpine flora is very beautiful. There are
few wild animals; but the eland, hartebeest and smaller antelopes
are found, as well as the leopard and the jackal. Mountain hares,
partridges and quails afford good sport; baboons and great
hawks live hi the mountains. The few fish include the barbel.
Swarms of locusts occasionally visit the country; the locusts are
eaten by the Basuto.
Population and Towns. Considering the extensive area of
uninhabitable mountain land it contains, the Territory supports
a large population. The inhabitants increased from 128,206 in
1875 to 348,848 in 1904. The females outnumber the males by
about 20,000, which is, however, about the number of adult males
away from the country at any given period. The majority live
in the district between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon
river. The great bulk of the people are Basuto, but there are
some thousands of Barolong and other Kaffirs. The Basuto
proper are a branch of the Bechuana family of Bantu-Negroids.
The white inhabitants hi 1904 numbered 895, and there were
222 coloured persons other than natives. The seat of government
is Maseru, on the left bank of the Caledon, with a population of
about 1000 including some 100 Europeans. Mafeteng, in the
N.W. near the Cape frontier, is a thriving agricultural centre, as
is Butha Buthe hi the N.E. Morija, some 16 m. S.E. of Maseru,
is the oldest mission station in the Territory, having been founded
by the Paris Society about 1833. Three miles from Morija is
Matsieng, the kraal of the paramount chief Lerothodi (who
died in August 1905). There are numerous mission stations
throughout Basutoland, to several of which Biblical names have
been given, such as Shiloh, Hermon, Cana, Bethesda, Berea.
Agriculture and Trade. Basutoland is one of the greatest
grain-growing countries of South Africa. The richest tract of
land is that between the Maluti mountains and the Caledon
river. In summer the country appears as one waving field of
wheat, millet and mealies; whilst on the mountain slopes and
on their flat tops are large flocks of sheep, cattle and goats, and
troops of ponies. The Basuto ponies, said to be descended from
Shetland ponies which, imported to the Cape in 1840, strayed
into the mountains, are short-legged, strong-bodied, sure-footed,
and noted for their hardiness. Improvements in the breed have
been effected by the introduction of Arab stallions. Nearly
every Basuto is an agriculturist; there are no manufactories,
and the minerals, in accordance with the desire of the people,
are not worked. The land is wholly in the possession of the
natives, who hold it on the communal system. Whites and
Indians are allowed to establish trading stations on obtaining
special permits from the government, and the Indians absorb
much of the retail trade. The chief exports are wheat, mealies,
Kaffir corn, wool, mohair, horses and cattle. The great bulk of
the imports are textiles. The value of the trade depends on
regular rains, so that in seasons of drought the exports seriously
diminish. The average annual value of trade for the five years
ending the 3oth of June 1905 was: Exports 215,668, imports
203,026. Trade is almost entirely with Orange River Colony
and Cape Colony. The Territory is a member of the South
African Customs Union. Some 60,000 Basuto (annual average)
find employment outside the Territory, more than half of whom
seek farm and domestic service. A small proportion go to the
Johannesburg gold mines, and others obtain employment on the
railways.
Communication over the greater part of the Territory is by
road; none of the rivers is navigable. A state-owned railway,
163 m. long, starting from Maseru crosses the Caledon river and
joins the line connecting Bloemfontein and Ladysmith. This
railway follows, N.E. of Maseru, the right bank of the Caledon,
and affords a ready means of transport for the cereals raised on
the left or Basuto side of the river. Highroads, maintained by
the government, traverse every part of the country, and bridges
have been built across the Caledon. The usual mode of convey-
ance is by ox-waggon or light cart. Several passes through the
Drakensberg into Griqualand East and Natal exist, but are little
used. There is a complete postal and telegraphic service and a
telephone line connects all government stations.
Government and Finance. Basutoland is a crown colony, of
which the high commissioner for South Africa is governor. In
him resides the legislative power, exercised by proclamation.
The Territory is administered, under the direction of the
governor, by a resident commissioner, who is also the chief
judicial officer. He is aided by a government secretary and by
assistant commissioners. Under the British officials the country
is governed by hereditary native chiefs, over whom is a para-
mount chief. The chiefs have jurisdiction in cases affecting
natives, but there is a right of appeal to the courts of the com-
missioners, who try all cases in which any of the parties are
European. A national council (pitso), representative of all the
native tribes, meets annually for the free discussion of public
affairs. For administrative purposes the Territory is divided
into the seven districts of Maseru, Leribe, Mohales Hoek, Berea,
Mafeteng, Qu thing and Qacha's Nek, each of which is subdivided
into wards presided over by Basuto chiefs.
Revenue is obtained from a hut tax of i per hut; the
sale of licences to trade; customs and post office receipts.
Seven-eighths of the revenue comes from the hut tax and
customs. The average annual revenue for the five years 1901-
1905 was 96,880; the average annual expenditure 69,559.
Basutoland has no public debt.
Education and Social Condition. Education is given in schools
founded by missionary societies, of which the chief is the Societ6
des Missions Evangeliques de Paris. A large proportion of the
people can read and write Sesuto (as the Basuto language is
called) and English, and speak Dutch, whilst a considerable
number also receive higher education. Many Basuto at the
public examinations take higher honours than competitors of
European descent. There are over 200 schools, with an average
attendance exceeding 10,000. Nine-tenths of the scholars are in
the schools of the French Protestant Mission, which are conducted
by English, or English-speaking, missionaries. A government
grant is made towards the cost of upkeep. A government in-
dustrial school (opened in 1906) is maintained at Maseru, and
the Paris Society has an industrial school at Leloaleng. The
social condition of the people is higher than that of the majority
of South African natives. Many Basuto profess Christianity
and have adopted European clothing. Serious crime is rare
among them and "deliberate murder is almost unknown." 1
They are, like mountaineers generally, of a sturdy, independent
spirit, and are given to the free expression of their views, gener-
ally stated with good sense and moderation. These views found
a new medium of publicity in 1904 when an independent native
1 Report by resident-commissioner H. C. Sloley, for 1902-1903.
BASUTOLAND
505
newspaper was started, called Naledi ea Lesotho (Star of Basuto-
land). The publication of this paper was followed in 1906 by
the adoption of a uniform system of Sesuto orthography. A
book on national customs, the first work in the vernacular by
a South African native, was published in 1893. The brandy-
drinking habit, which, when the imperial government assumed
control of the administration in 1884, threatened the existence
of the nation, has been very largely checked. A strong beer,
brewed from Kaffir corn, is a favourite drink.
History. Until the beginning of the igth century Basutoland
appears to have been uninhabited save by wandering Bushmen,
whose rude rock pictures are to be found in several parts of the
Drakensberg. About 1800 the country was occupied by various
tribes of Bechuana, such as Batau, Basuto, Baputi, who then
possessed the greater part of what is now Orange River Colony.
They appear to have recognized the paramount authority of a
family descended from a chief named Monaheng. By the wars
of the Zulu chiefs Chaka, Matiwana and Mosilikatze, these
tribes were largely broken up and their power destroyed. One
tribe, living in the Maluti mountains, was reduced to cannibalism.
MosAesft From their chief Machacha mountain takes its name.
forms the At this period a young man named Moshesh (born
Basuto about 1790), who was of the family of Monaheng and
nation. already noted as hunter and warrior, gathered round
him the remnants of several broken clans, out of which he
welded the existing Basuto nation. He established himself in
1824 on the rock-fortress of Thaba Bosigo, where, in 1831, he
successfully defended himself against Mosilikatze; and there-
after became second only to that chief among the natives north
of the Orange River. In 1833 Moshesh invited the missionaries
of the Societe des Missions Evangeliques of Paris to settle in his
country, and from that day until his death proved their firm
friend. A few years later, in 1836-1837, large parties of emigrant
Boers settled north of the Orange, and before long disputes arose
between them and Moshesh, who claimed a great part of the land
on which the white farmers had settled. The Basuto acquired
an unenviable notoriety as a race of bold cattle lifters and
raiders, and the emigrant Boers found them extremely trouble-
some neighbours. At the same time, if the Basuto were eager
for cattle, the Boers were eager for land; and their encroach-
ments on the territories of the Basuto led to a proclamation in
1842 from Sir George Napier, the then governor of Cape Colony,
forbidding further encroachments on Basutoland. In 1843 a
treaty was signed with Moshesh on the lines of that already
arranged with Waterboer, the Griqua chief (see GRIQUALAND),
creating Basutoland a native state under British protection.
To the quarrels between Basuto and Boers were added inter-
minable disputes between the Basuto and other Bechuana tribes,
which continued unabated after the proclamation of British
sovereignty over the Orange river regions by Sir Harry Smith in
1848. In 1849, however, Moshesh was unwillingly induced by Sir
Harry to surrender his claims to part of the territory recognized
as his by the Napier treaty. The British continued to intervene
in the inter-tribal disputes, and in 1851 Major H. D. Warden led
against the Basuto a commando composed of British soldiers,
farmers and a native contingent. This commando was defeated
at Viervoet, near Thaba Nchu, by the Basuto, who thereafter
raided and plundered the natives opposed to them and the farmers
who had helped the British. Attempts were made to come to
terms with Moshesh and the justice of many of his complaints was
admitted. The efforts at accommodation failed, and in 1852
General Sir George Cathcart, who had succeeded Sir Harry Smith
as governor of Cape Colony, decided to take strong measures with
the tribe, and proceeded with three small divisions of troops
against Moshesh. The expedition was by no means a success,
but Moshesh, with that peculiar statecraft for which he was
famous, saw that he could not hope permanently to hold out
against the British troops, and followed up his successful skir-
mishes with General Cathcart by writing him a letter, in which
he said: " As the object for which you have come is to have a
compensation for Boers, I beg you will be satisfied with what you
have taken. You have shown your power, you have chastised ;
I will try all I can to keep my people in order in the future. 1 '
General Cathcart accepted the offer of Moshesh and peace was
proclaimed, the Basuto power being unbroken. Fourteen months
later (February 1854) Great Britain renounced sovereignty
over the farmers settled beyond the Orange, and Moshesh found
himself face to face with the newly constituted Free State.
Boundary disputes at once arose but were settled (1858) by the
mediation of Sir George Grey, governor of Cape Colony. In 1863
a fresh feud occurred between the Orange Free State Boers and
the Basuto. The latter applied to Sir Philip Wodehouse at the
Cape for protection, but he declined to interfere. The Boers
proved more successful than they had been in the past, and
occupied several of the Basuto strongholds. They also annexed
a certain fertile portion of Basuto territory, and finally terminated
the strife by a treaty at Thaba Bosigo, by which Moshesh gave up
the tract of territory taken by the Boers and professed himself a
subject of the Free State. Seeing that the struggle against the
Boers was hopeless, no fewer than 2000 Basuto warriors having
been killed, Moshesh again appealed for protection to the British
authorities, saying: " Let me and my people rest and live under
the large folds of the flag of England before I am no more." In
response to this request, the British authorities decided to take
over Basutoland, and a proclamation of annexation was issued on
the 1 2th of March 1868. At the same time the Boer commandoes
were requested to leave the country. The Free State strongly
resented the British annexation of Basutoland, but Aamxm-
after much negotiation the treaty of Aliwal North was tloo to
concluded (1869) between the Free State and the high Qntt
commissioner. This treaty defined the boundary be-
tween the Free State and Basutoland", whereby the fertile strip of
country west of the Caledon river, known as the Conquered
Territory, was finally transferred to the Free State, and the
remainder of Basutoland was recognized as a portion of the
British dominions.
Moshesh, who for nearly fifty years had led his people so skil-
fully and well, died in 1870. He was one of the rare instances
among the Kaffirs of a leader endowed with intellectual gifts
which placed him on a level with Europeans, and his life-work has
left a permanent mark on South African history. In diplomacy
he proved fully the equal of all white or black with whom he
had to deal, while he ruled with a rare combination of vigour
and moderation over the nation which he had created.
In 1871 Basutoland was annexed to Cape Colony, the area at
that time being given as 10,300 sq. m. The turbulent Basuto
warriors did not remain quiet for any length of time, and in 1879
Moirosi, a chief residing in the southern portion of Basutoland,
openly repudiated colonial rule. An expedition was despatched
from Cape Colony and severe fighting followed. Moirosi's
stronghold was captured and the chief himself was killed.
Immediately after the war, strife occurred among the Basuto
themselves over the question of the partition of Moirosi's territory,
which had been decided on as one of the results of the war. In
1880 the Cape government felt sufficiently strong to extend to
Basutoland the Cape Peace Preservation Act of 1878. This act
provided for the disarmament of natives, and had The
already been put in force successfully among some "gun"
of the Kaffir tribes on the Cape eastern frontier. Its
execution in Basutoland, however, proved an extremely difficult
task, and was never entirely accomplished. Desultory warfare
was carried on between the colonial troops and the Basuto until
1 88 1, when the intervention of the high commissioner, Sir
Hercules Robinson (afterward Lord Rosmead), was asked for.
Peace in Basutoland was not announced until the end of 1882.
In the following year a form of self-government was established,
but was once more followed by internal strife among the petty
chieftains.
The subjection of Basutoland to the control of the Cape govern-
ment had by this time proved unsatisfactory, both to the Basuto
and to Cape Colony. The Cape government therefore offered no
opposition to the appeal made by the Basuto themselves to the
imperial government to take them over, and, moreover, Cape
Colony undertook to pay towards the cost of administration an
BAT BATALHA
annual contribution of 18,000. Consequently, in 1884, Basuto-
land ceased to be a portion of the Cape Colony and became a
British crown colony. Native laws and customs were interfered
with as little as possible and the authority of the chiefs all
members of the Moshesh family was maintained. Moshesh had
been succeeded as paramount chief by his son, Letsie, and he in
turn was succeeded in 1891 by Lerothodi (c. 1837-1905). These
chieftains acted in concert with the British representative in the
country, to whom was given the title of resident commissioner.
The first commissioner was Sir Marshall Clarke, to whose tact and
ability the country owed much. The period of warfare over, the
Basuto turned their attention more and more to agricultural
pursuits and also showed themselves very receptive of missionary
influence. Trade increased, and in 1891 Basutoland was admitted
to the customs union, which already existed between Orange
Free State, Cape Colony and British Bechuanaland. When
Lord (then Sir Alfred) Milner visited Basutoland in 1898, on his
way to Bloemfontein, he was received by 15,000 mounted
Basuto. The chiefs also attended a large meeting at Maseru,
and gave expression to their gratitude for the beneficent
character of Queen Victoria's rule and protection. On the out-
break of the Boer War in 1899, these same chiefs, at a great meeting
held in the presence of the resident commissioner, gave a further
protestation of their loyalty to Her Majesty. They remained
passive throughout the war and the neutrality of the country was
respected by both armies. One chief alone sought to take ad-
vantage of the situation by disloyal action, and his offence was met
by a year's imprisonment. The conversion of Basuto-
coioay. land into a crown colony contributed alike to the pros-
perity of the Basuto, thesecurity of the property of neigh-
bouring colonists and a peaceful condition among the natives of
South Africa generally. In pursuance of the policy of encourag-
ing the self-governing powers of the Basuto, a national council
was instituted and held its first sitting in July 1903. In August
1905 the paramount chief Lerothodi died. In early life he had
distinguished himself in the wars with the Boers, and in 1880 he
took an active part in the revolt against the Cape government.
Since 1884 he had been a loyal supporter of the imperial authori-
ties, being unwavering in his adherence in critical times. Fearless
and masterful he also possessed high diplomatic gifts, and though
on occasion arbitrary and passionate he was neither revengeful nor
cruel. On the i9th of September following Lerothodi's death,
the national council, with the concurrence of the imperial govern-
ment, elected his son Letsie as paramount chief. The completion
in October 1905 of a railway putting Maseru in connexion with
the South African railway system proved a great boon to the
community. During the rebellion of the natives in Natal and
Zululand in 1906 the Basuto remained perfectly quiet.
AUTHORITIES. The Basutos (2 vols., London, 1909), a standard
history, and " Basutoland and the Basutos " in Jnl. Ryl. Col. Inst.
1901, both by Sir G. Lagden, resident-commissioner, 1893-1901;
E. Jacottet, ' Moeurs, coutumes et superstitions des Ba-Souts," in
Bull. Soc. neuch&teloise Geog., vol. ix. pp. 107-151, 1897; G. M. Theal,
Basutoland Records (Cape Town, 1883); E. Casafis, Les Bassutos
(Paris, 1859), a description of exploration, manners and customs,
the result of twenty-three years' residence in the country; Minnie
Martin, Basutoland: its Legends and Customs (London, 1903); Mrs
F. A. Barkly, Among Boers and Basutos (new ed., London, 1897), a
record, chiefly, of the Gun War of 1880-1882; C. W. Mackintosh,
Coillard of the Zambesi (London, 1907). For geology consult E.
Cohen, " Geognostisch-petrographische Skizzen aus Siid-Afrika,"
Neues Jahrb. f. Min., 1874, and N. Jahrb. Beil., Bd. v., 1887; D.
Draper, " Notes on the Geology of South-eastern Africa," Quart.
Journ. Ceol. Soc., vol. 1., 1894; Hatch-Corstorphine. The Geology
oj South Africa (London, 1905). For current information see the
annual report on Basutoland (Colonial Office, London). Many
books dealing with South Africa generally have chapters relating to
Basutoland, e.g. A. P. Hillier, South African Studies (London, 1900) ;
James Bryce, Impressions of South Africa (3rd ed., London, 1899).
Consult also Theal's History of South Africa (1908-9 ed.).
(F. R. C.; A. P. H.)
BAT, 1 a name for any member of the zoological order Chirop-
tera (q. v.). Bats are insectivorous animals modified for flight,
* M. E. bakke, the change to " bat " having apparently been
influenced by Lat. batta, blalta, moth. The word is thus distinct
from the other common term " bat," the implement for striking,
which is probably connected with Fr. battre, though a Celtic or
simply onomatopoetic origin has been suggested.
with slight powers of progression on the ground; the patagium
or " flying-membrane " of some squirrels and of Galeopithecus
(q.v.) probably indicates the way in which the modification was
effected. They are distributed throughout the world, but are
most abundant in the tropics and the warmer parts of the
temperate zones; within these limits the largest forms occur.
There is great variation in size; the Malay " flying-fox "
(Pteropus edulis) measures about a foot in the head and body,
and has a wing-spread of 5 ft.; while in the smaller forms the
head and body may be only about 2 in., and the wing-spread
no more than a foot. The colora'tion is generally sombre, but
to this there are exceptions; the fruit-bats are brownish yellow
or russet on the under surface; two South American species are
white; Blainville's chin-leafed bat is bright orange; and the
Indian painted bat (Cerivoula picta) with its deep orange dress,
spotted with black on the wing-membranes, has reminded
observers of a large butterfly. In habits bats are social, noc-
turnal and crepuscular; the insect-eating species feed on the
wing, in winter in the temperate regions they migrate to a
warmer climate, or hibernate, as do the British bats. The
sense-organs are highly developed; the wing-membranes are
exceedingly sensitive; the nose-leaf is also an organ of percep-
tion, and the external ear is specially modified to receive sound-
waves. Most bats are insect-eaters, but the tropical " flying
foxes " or fox-bats of the Old World live on fruit; some are
blood-suckers, and two feed on small fish. Twelve species are
British, among which are the pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pygmaeus,
or P. pip istrellus) , the long-eared bat (Plecotus avritus), the
noctule (Pipistrellus [Pterygistes] noctulus) the greater and
lesser horseshoe bats (Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum and R.
hipposiderus), &c. (See FLYING-FOX and VAMPIRE.)
BAT AC, a town of the province of Ilocos Norte, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, 10 m. S. of Laoag, the capital. Pop. (1903)
19,524; subsequently, in October 1903, the town of Banna
(pop. 4015) was annexed. Cacao, tobacco, cotton, rice and
indigo are grown in the neighbouring country, and the town
has a considerable trade in these and other commodities; it
also manufactures sugar, fans and woven fabrics. Batac was
founded in 1587. It is the birthplace and home of Archbishop
Gregorio Aglipay (b. 1860), the founder of an important sect of
Filipino Independent Catholics.
BATALA, a town of British India, in the Gurdaspur district of
the Punjab, with a station on a branch of the North- Western
railway, 24 m. from Amritsar. Pop. (1901) 27,365. It is an
important centre of trade, with manufactures of cotton and silk
goods, shawls, brass-ware, soap and leather. There are two
mission schools.
BATALHA (i.e. battle), a town of Portugal, in the district of
Leiria, formerly included in the province of Estremadura; 8 m.
S. of Leiria. Pop. (1900) 3858. Batalha, which occupies the
site of the medieval Canoeira, is chiefly interesting for its great
Dominican monastery of Santa Maria da Victoria (" St Mary of
the Victory ") , also known as Batalha. Both town and monastery
owe their names to the battle fought on the plain between
Canoeira and Aljubarrota, 9 m. S. W., in which John I. of Portugal
defeated John I. of Castile in 1385 and secured the independence
of his kingdom. The monastery is built of golden-brown lime-
stone, resembling marble, and richly sculptured. In size and
beauty it excels all the other buildings of Portugal in which
Gothic and Moorish architecture are combined. Its ground-
plan may be roughly described as a parallelogram, measuring
about 500 ft. from north to south, and 445 from east to west;
with the circular annexe of the royal mausoleum on the east,
and the Founder's chapel at the south-western corner. In the
centre is the royal cloister, which is flanked by the refectory,
now a museum, on the west; and by the chapter-house, on the
east. Two smaller cloisters, named respectively after Alphonso
V. and John III., form the northern division of the parallelo-
gram; its southern division is the Gothic church. The Founder's
chapel contains the tomb of John I. (d. 1433) and Philippa of
Lancaster (d. 1416), his queen, with the tomb of Prince Henry
the Navigator (d. 1460). Like the royal mausoleum, where
BATANGAS BAT A VIA
507
several later monarchs are buried, it is remarkable for the
intricacy and exquisite finish of its carved stonework. The
monastery was probably founded in 1388. Plans and masons
were procured from England by Queen Philippa, and the work
was entrusted to A. Domingues, a native architect, and Huetor
Houguet, an Irishman. Only the royal cloister, church and
Founder's chapel were included in the original design; and all
three show signs of English influence. Various additions were
made up to 1551, beginning with the royal mausoleum and ending
with the cloister of John III. Considerable damage was inflicted
by the earthquake of 1755; and in 1810 the monastery was
sacked by the French. It was secularized in 1834 and declared
a national monument in 1840. Thenceforward it was gradually
restored.
BATAN6AS, a town, port of entry, and the capital of the
province of Batangas, Luzon, Philippine Islands, near the
Batangas river, about i m. from its mouth on the E. coast of
the Gulf of Batangas, and about 65 m. S. by E. of Manila. Pop.
(1903) 33,131. The United States government has established
a military post here, and the town has numerous fine public
buildings and private residences. It is the most important port
of a province noted for the fertility of its soil and the industry of
its inhabitants. Its exports, which are large, include rice, coffee
of excellent quality, cacao, sugar, Indian corn, horses and cattle.
The horses of Batangas are unusually strong and active. Cotton
is produced, and is woven into fabrics by the women. The
language is Tagalog.
BATARNAY, IMBERT DE (? 1438-1523), French statesman,
was born of an old but obscure family in Dauphine, about the
year 1438. In consequence of a chance circumstance he entered
into relations with the dauphin Louis, at that time (1455) in
arms against the king his father; he attached himself to the
prince, and followed him on his retreat into Burgundy. From
the beginning of his reign Louis XI. loaded Batarnay with
favours: he married him to a rich heiress, Georgette de Mont-
chenu, lady of Le Bouchage; besides making him captain of
Mont Saint Michel and giving him valuable estates, with, later,
the titles of counsellor and chamberlain to the king. In 1469
Batarnay was sent to keep watch upon the duke of Guienne's
intrigues, which began to appear dangerous. As lieutenant-
general in Roussillon in 1475 he protected the countryside
against the wrath of the king, who wished to repress with cruel
severity a rebellion of the inhabitants. He was present at the
interview between Louis XI. and Edward IV. of England at
Picquigny, and was afterwards employed on negotiations with
the duke of Burgundy. In accordance with the recommenda-
tions of his father, Charles VIII. kept the lord of Le Bouchage
in his confidential service. During the differences that arose in
1485 between the regent, Anne of Beaujeu, and the dukes of
Orleans, Brittany and Alengon, Imbert de Batarnay kept the
inhabitants of Orleans faithful to the king. He proved his skill
in the negotiations concerning the marquisate of Saluzzo and
the town of Genoa. During the Naples expedition he was in
charge of the dauphin, Charles Orland, who died in 1495. He
treated with Maximilian of Austria to prevent him from entering
Picardy during the war with Naples, and then proceeded to
Castile to claim promised support. Under Louis XII. he took
part in the expedition against the Genoese republic in 1507.
Francis I. employed him to negotiate the proposed marriage of
Charles of Austria with Renee of France, daughter of Louis XII.,
and appointed him governor to the dauphin Francis in 1518.
He died on the I2th of May 1523.
SeealsoB. de Mandrot's Ymberlde Batarnay (Paris, 1886).
(M.P.*)
BATAVIA, a residency of the island of Java, Dutch East
Indies, bounded E., S. and W. by the residencies of Krawana,
Preanger and Bantam, and N. by the Java Sea. It also com-
prises a number of small islands in the Java Sea, including the
Thousand Islands group, with a total area of 24 sq. m. The
population in 1898 was 1,313,383, including 12,434 Europeans,
82,510 Chinese, 3426 Arabs and other Asiatic foreigners. The
natives belong to a Sundanese group, but in the north contain
a large admixture of Malays. The northern half of the province
is flat, and even marshy along the coast, and consists of a broad
band of alluvium formed by the series of parallel rivers descend-
ing from the south. The southern half on the other hand is
covered by a mountain range whose chief peaks are situated
along the southern border, namely Halimun mountain, the
volcanoes Salak, Pangerango and Cede, and the Megamendung.
The soil is fertile, and whereas rice is mainly grown on the low-
lands the highlands are especially suitable for the cultivation
of coffee, tea, tobacco, cinchona and vanilla. Extensive cocoanut
plantations are also found in the plains, and market-gardening
is practised in the neighbourhood of the towns. Sugar was
formerly cultivated. The government of the residency of
Batavia differs from that of the other residencies in having no
native regencies, the lands being privately owned. The divisions
of the residency are Batavia, town and surroundings, Tangerang,
Meester Cornelis and Buitenzorg, the first being directly governed
by a resident and the remainder by assistant residents. As
early as the second half of the i?th century the Dutch East
India Company began the practice of selling portions of the land
to private persons, and of granting other portions as the reward
of good services. A large strip of hill-country, almost correspond-
ing to the present southern or Buitenzorg division of the
residency, was appropriated by the governor-general in 1745
and attached to that office. In 1808, however, Marshal Daendels
disposed of this property to various purchasers, including the
Dutch government, and thus the whole of the residency gradually
passed into private hands. Hence the administration of the
residency is largely confined to police duties. The principal
towns are Batavia (?..), which is the capital of the residency,
as well as the seat of government of the whole Dutch East
Indies, Meester Cornelis, Tangerang, Bekasi and Buitenzorg
(?..) . Tangerang and Bekasi are important centres of trade.
The Buitenzorg hill-country is much visited on account of its
beauty, and cool and healthy climate. Gadok is a health resort
6 m. south-east of Buitenzorg.
BATAVIA, a city and seaport on the north coast of the island
of Java, and the capital of all the Dutch settlements in the East.
The population in 1880 was 96,957; in 1898, 115,567; including
9423 Europeans, 26,433 Chinese, 2828 Arabs and 132 other
Asiatic foreigners. It is situated on both sides of the river
Jacatra or Jilivong, in a swampy plain at the head of a capacious
bay. The streets are for the most part straight and regular,
and many of them have a breadth of from 100 to 200 ft. In
several cases there is a canal in the centre lined with stone, and
protected by low parapets or banks, while almost every street
and square is fringed with trees. The old town has greatly
changed from its condition in the i8th century. It was then
surrounded by strong fortifications, and contained a number of
important buildings, such as the town-house (built in 1652 and
restored in 1706), the exchange, the infirmary and orphan
asylum, and the European churches. But the ramparts were
long ago demolished; only natives, Malays, Arabs and Chinese
live here, and the great European houses have either fallen into
decay or been converted into magazines and warehouses. The
European inhabitants live principally in the new town, which
was gradually formed by the integration of Weltevreden (Well-
content), Molenvliet (Mill-stream), Rijswijk (Rice-town), Noord-
wijk (North-town), Koningsplein (King's square), and other
suburban villages or stations. The situation of this modern part
is higher and healthier. The imitation of Dutch arrangements
has been avoided, and the natural advantages of the situation and
climate have been turned to account. The houses, generally of a
single storey or two at most, are frequently separated from each
other by rows of trees. Batavia contains numerous buildings
connected with the civil and military organization of the govern-
ment. The governor-general's palace and the government build-
ings are the most important of these; in the district of Wel-
tevreden are also the barracks, and the artillery school, as well as
the military and civil hospital, and not far off is the Frederik-
Hendrik citadel built in 1837. Farther inland, at Meester
Cornelis, are barracks and a school for under-officers. The
508
BAT A VIA BATEMAN
Koningsplein is a large open square surrounded by mansions of
the wealthier classes. Noordwijk is principally inhabited by
lesser merchants and subordinate officials. There is an orphan
asylum in the district of Parapatna. Batavia has various .educa-
tional and scientific institutions of note. In 1851 the government
founded a medical school for Javanese, and in 1860 the " Gym-
nasium William III." in which a comprehensive education is
bestowed. A society of arts and sciences (which possesses an
excellent museum) was established in 1778, a royal physical
society in 1850, and a society for the promotion of industry'and
agriculture in 1853. In addition to the Transactions of fhese
societies many of which contain valuable contributions to their
respective departments in their relation to the East Indies a
considerable number of publications are issued in Batavia.
Among miscellaneous buildings of importance may be mentioned
the public hall known as the Harmonic, the theatre, club-house
and several fine hotels.
The population of Batavia is varied, the Dutch residents being
a comparatively small class, and greatly intermixed with Portu-
guese and Malays. Here are found members of the different
Indian nations, originally slaves; Arabs, who are principally
engaged in navigation, but also trade in gold and precious
stones; Javanese, who are cultivators; and Malays, chiefly
boatmen and sailors, and adherents of Mahommedanism. The
Chinese are both numerous and industrious. They were long
greatly oppressed by the Dutch government, and in 1740 they
were massacred to the number of 12,000.
Batavia Bay is rendered secure by a number of islands at its
mouth, but grows very shallow towards the shore. The con-
struction of the new harbour at Tanjong Priok, to the east of the
old one, was therefore of the first importance. The works,
begun in 1877 and completed in 1886, connect the town with
Tanjong (" cape ") Priok by a canal, and include an outer port
formed by two breakwaters, 6072 ft. long, with a width at
entrance of 408 ft. and a depth of 27 ft. throughout. The inner
port has 3282 ft. of quayage; its length is 3609 ft., breadth 573
ft. and depth 24 ft. There is also a coal dock, and the port has
railway and roadway connexion with Batavia. The river Jilivong
is navigable 2 m. inland for vessels of 30 or 40 tons, but the
entrance is narrow, and requires continual attention to keep it
open.
The exports from Batavia to the other islands of the archi-
pelago, and to the ports in the Malay Peninsula, are rice, sago,
coffee, sugar, salt, oil, tobacco, teak timber and planks, Java
cloths, brass wares, &c., and European, Indian and Chinese
goods. The produce of the Eastern Islands is also collected
at its ports for re-exportation to India, China and Europe
namely, gold-dust, diamonds, camphor, benzoin and other
drugs; edible bird-nests, trepang, rattans, beeswax, tortoise-
shell, and dyeing woods from Borneo and Sumatra; tin from
Banka; spices from the Moluccas; fine cloths from Celebes and
Bali; and pepper from Sumatra. From Bengal are imported
opium, drugs and cloths; from China, teas, raw silk, silk
piece-goods, coarse China wares, paper, and innumerable smaller
articles for the Chinese settlers. The tonnage of vessels clearing
from Batavia to countries beyond the archipelago had increased
from 879,000 tons in 1887 to nearly 1,500,000 tons by the end
of the century. The old and new towns are connected by steam
tramways. The Batavia-Buitenzorg railway passes the new
town, thus connecting it with the main railway which crosses
the island from west to east.
Almost the only manufactures of any importance are the
distillation of arrack, which is principally carried on by Chinese,
the burning of lime and bricks, and the making of pottery. The
principal establishment for monetary transactions is the Java
Bank, established in 1828 with a capital of 500,000.
Batavia owes its origin to the Dutch governor-general Pieter
Both, who in 1610 established a factory at Jacatra (which had
been bliilt on the ruins of the old Javanese town of Sunda
Calappa), and to his successor, Jan Pieters Coen, who in 1619
founded in its stead the present oity, which soon acquired a
flourishing trade and increased in importance. In 1699 Batavia
was visited by a terrible earthquake, and the streams were
choked by the mud from the volcano of Gunong Salak; they
overflowed the surrounding country and made it a swamp, by
which the climate was so affected that the city became notorious
for its unhealthiness, and was in great danger of being altogether
abandoned. In the twenty-two years from 1730 to 1752,
1,100,000 deaths are said to have been recorded. General
Daendels, who was governor from 1808 to 1811, caused the
ramparts of the town to be demolished, and began to form the
nucleus of a new city at Weltevreden. By 1816 nearly all the
Europeans had left the old town. In 1811 a British armament
was sent against the Dutch settlements in Java, which had been
incorporated by France, and to this force Batavia surrendered
on the 8th of August. It was restored, however, to the Dutch
by the treaty of 1814.
BATAVIA, a" village and the county-seat of Genesee county,
New York, U.S.A., about 36 m. N.E. of Buffalo, on the
Tonawanda Creek. Pop. (1890) 7221; (1900) 9180, of whom
1527 were foreign-born; (1910), 11,613. Batavia is served by
the New York Central & Hudson River, the Erie, and the
Lehigh Valley railways. It is the seat of the New York State
School for the Blind, and of St Joseph's Academy (Roman
Catholic) , and has a historical museum , housed in the Old Holland
Land Office (1804), containing a large collection of relics of the
early days of New York, and a memorial library erected in 1889
in memory of a son by Mary E. Richmond, the widow of Dean
Richmond; the building contained in 1908 more than 14,000
volumes. The public schools are excellent ; in them in 1898 Super-
intendent John Kennedy (b. 1846) introduced the method of
individual instruction now known as the " Batavia scheme,"
under which in rooms of more than fifty pupils there is, besides
the class teacher, an " individual " teacher who helps backward
children in their studies. Among Batavia's manufactures are
harvesters, ploughs, threshers and other agricultural implements,
firearms, rubber tires, shoes, shell goods, paper-boxes and inside
woodwork. In 1905 the city's factory products were valued at
$3,589,406, an increase of 39-5 % over their value in 1900.
Batavia was laid out in 1801 by Joseph Ellicott (1760-1826),
the engineer who had been engaged in surveying the land known
as the " Holland Purchase," of which Batavia was a part. The
village was incorporated in 1823. Here lived William Morgan,
whose supposed murder (1826) by members of the Masonic order
led to the organization of the Anti-Masonic party. Batavia was
the home during his last years of Dean Richmond (1804-1866), a
capitalist, a successful snipper and wholesaler of farm produce,
vice-president (1853-1864) and president (1864-1866) of the New
York Central railway, and a prominent leader of the Democratic
party in New York state.
See O. Turner, History of the Holland Purchase (Buffalo, 1850).
BATEMAN, HEZEKIAH LINTHICUM (1812-1875), American
actor and manager, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 6th
of December 1812. He was intended for an engineer, but in 1832
became an actor, playing with Ellen Tree (afterwards Mrs Charles
Kean) in juvenile leads. In 1855 he was manager of the St Louis
theatre for a few years and in 1859 moved to New York. In 1866
he was manager for his daughter Kate, and in 1871 returned to
London, where he took the Lyceum theatre. Here he engaged
Henry Irving, presenting him first in The Bells, with great success.
He died on the 22nd of March 1875.
His wife, SIDNEY FRANCES (1823-1881), daughter of Joseph
Cowell, an English actor who had settled in America, was also an
actress and the author of several popular plays, in one of which,
Self (1857), she and her husband made a great success. After her
husband's death Mrs Bateman continued to manage the Lyceum
till 1875. She later took the Sadler's Wells theatre, which she
managed until her death on the i3th of January 1881. She was
the first to bring to England an entire American company with an
American play, Joaquin Miller's The Daniles.
Mr and Mrs Bateman had eight children, three of the four
daughters being educated for the stage. The two oldest, Kate
Josephine (b. 1842), and Ellen (b. 1845), known as the" Bateman
children," began their theatrical career at an early age. In 1862
BATEMENT LIGHTS BATES, JOHN
Kate played in New York as Juliet and Lady Macbeth, and in
1863 had a great success in London as Leah in Augustin Daly's
adaptation of Mosenthal's Deborah. In 1866 she married George
Crowe, but returned to the stage in 1868, playing later as Lady
Macbeth with Henry Irving, and 'in 1875 in the title-part of
Tennyson's Queen Mary. When her mother opened the Sadler's
Wells theatre in 1879 MissBateman appeared as Helen Macgregor
in Rob Roy, and in 1881 as Margaret Field in Henry Arthur Jones'
His Wife. Her daughter, Sidney Crowe (b. 1871), also became
anactress. Virginia Bateman (b. 1854), a younger sister of Kate,
born in Cincinnati, Ohio, went on the stage as a child, and first
appeared in London in the title-part of her mother's play,
Fanchette, in 1871. She created a number of important parts
during several seasons at the Lyceum and elsewhere. She
married Edward Compton the actor. Another sister was Isabel
(b. 1854), well known on the London stage.
BATEMENT LIGHTS, in architecture the lights in the upper
part of a perpendicular window, abated, or only half the width of
those below.
BATES, HARRY (1850-1899), British sculptor, was born at
Stevenage, Herts, on the 26th of April 1850. He began his career
as a carver's assistant, and before beginning the regular study of
plastic art he passed through a long apprenticeship in architec-
tural decoration. In 1879 he came to London and entered the
Lambeth School of Art, studying under Jules Dalou and Rodin,
and winning a silver medal in the national competition at South
Kensington. In 1881 he was admitted to the Royal Academy
schools, where in 1883 he won the gold medal and the travelling
scholarship of 200 with his relief of " Socrates teaching the
People in the Agora," which showed grace of line and harmony of
composition. He then went to Paris and studied under Rodin.
A head and three small bronze panels (the " Odyssey,") executed
by Bates in Paris, were exhibited at the Royal Academy, and
selected for purchase by the Chantrey trustees; but the selec-
tion had to be cancelled because they had not been modelled
in England. His "Aeneas" (1885), "Homer" (1886), three
" Psyche " panels and " Rhodope " (1887) all showed marked
advance in form and dignity; and in 1892, after the exhibition of
his vigorously designed " Hounds in Leash," Bates was elected
A.R.A. This and his " Pandora," in marble and ivory, which
was bought in the same year for the Chantrey Bequest, are now
in the Tate Gallery. The portrait-busts of Harry Bates are good
pieces of realism strong, yet delicate in technique, and excellent
in character. His statues have a picturesqueness in which the
refinement of the sculptor is> always felt. Among the chief of
these are the fanciful " Maharaja of Mysore," somewhat overladen
with ornament, and the colossal equestrian statue of Lord
Roberts (1896) upon its important pedestal, girdled with a friese
of figures, now set up in Calcutta, and a statue of Queen Victoria
for Dundee. But perhaps his masterpiece, showing the sculptor's
delicate fancy and skill in composition, was an allegorical present-
ment of " Love and Life " a winged male figure in bronze, with
a female figure in ivory being crowned by the male. Bates died
in London on the 3Oth of January 1899, his premature death
robbing English plastic art of its most promising representative
at the time. (See SCULPTURE.)
BATES, HENRY WALTER (1825-1892), English naturalist
and explorer, was born at Leicester on the 8th of February 1825.
His father, a manufacturing hosier, intended him for business,
and for a time the son yielded to his wishes, escaping as often as
he could into the neighbouring country to gratify his love of
botany and entomology. In 1844 he met a congenial spirit in
Alfred Russel Wallace, and the result was discussion and execu-
tion of a plan to explore some then little-known region of the
globe. The banks of the Amazons was the district chosen, and in
April 1848 the two friends sailed in a trader for Para. They had
little or no money, but hoped to meet their expenses by the sale of
duplicate specimens. After two years Bates and Wallace agreed
to collect independently, Wallace taking the Rio Negro and the
upper waters of the Orinoco, while Bates continued his route up
the great river for 1400 m. He remained in the country eleven
years, during which time he collected no fewer than 8000 species
509
of insects new to science. His long residence in the tropics, with
the privations which it entailed, undermined his health. Nor had
the exile from home the compensation of freeing him from
financial cares, which hung heavy on him till he bad the good
fortune to be appointed in 1864 assistant-secretary of the Royal
Geographical Society, a post which, to the inestimable gain of the
society, and the advantage of a succession of explorers, to whom
he was alike Nestor and Mentor, he retained till his death on the
1 6th of February 1892. Bates is best known as the author of one
of the most delightful books of travel in the English language,
The Naturalist on the Amazons (1863), the writing of which, as the
correspondence between the two has shown, was due to Charles
Darwin's persistent urgency. " Bates," wrote Darwin to Sir
Charles Lyell, " is second only to Humboldt in describing a
tropical forest." But his most memorable contribution to
biological science, and more especially to that branch of it which
deals with the agencies of modification of organisms, was his paper
on the " Insect Fauna of the Amazon Valley," read before the
Linnaean Society in 1861 . He therein, as Darwin testified, clearly
stated and solved the problem of " mimicry," or the superficial
resemblances between totally different species and the likeness
between an animal and its surroundings, whereby it evades its
foes or conceals itself from its prey. Bates's other contributions
to the literature of science and travel were sparse and fugitive,
but he edited for several years a periodical of Illustrated Travels.
A man of varied tastes, he devoted the larger part of his leisure to
entomology, notably to the classification of coleoptera. Of these
he left an extensive and unique collection, which, fortunately for
science, was purchased intact by Rene Oberthur of Rennes.
BATES, JOHN. A famous case in English constitutional
history, tried before the court of exchequer in November 1606,
arose out of the refusal of a merchant of the Levant Company,
John Bates, to pay an extra duty of 55. per cwt. on imported
currants levied by the sole authority of the crown in addition to
the 2s. 6d. granted by the Statute of Tonnage and Poundage, on
the ground that such an imposition was illegal without the
sanction of parliament. The unanimous decision of the four
barons of the exchequer in favour of the crown threatened to
establish a precedent which, in view of the rapidly increasing
foreign trade, would have made the king independent of parlia-
ment. The judgments of Chief Baron Fleming and Baron Clark
are preserved. The first declares that " the king's power is
double, ordinary and absolute, and they have several laws and
ends. That of the ordinary is for the profit of particular sub-
jects, for the execution of civil justice ... in the ordinary
courts, and by the civilians is nominated jus privalum, and with
us common law; and these laws cannot be changed without
parliament. . . . The absolute power of the king is not that
which is converted or executed to private uses to the benefit of
particular persons, but is only that which is applied to the general
benefit of the people and is salus populi; and this power is not
guided by the rules which direct only at the common law, and is
most properly named policy or government; and as the con-
stitution of this body varieth with the time, so varieth this
absolute law, according to the wisdom of the king, for the
common good; and these being general rules, and true as they
are, all things done within these rules are lawful. The matter in
question is material matter of state, and ought to be ruled by
the rules of policy, and if it be so, the king hath done well to
execute his extraordinary power. All customs (i.e. duties levied
at the ports), be they old or new, are no other but the effects and
issues of trades and commerce with foreign nations; but all
commerce and affairs with foreigners, all wars and peace, all
acceptance and admitting for foreign current coin, all parties and
treaties whatsoever are made by the absolute power of the king;
and he who hath power of causes hath power also of effects."
Baron Clark, in his judgment, concurred, declaring that the
seaports were the king's ports, and that, since foreign merchants
were admitted to them only by leave of the crown, th6 crown
possessed also the right of fixing the conditions under which they
should be admitted, including the imposition of a money pay-
ment. Incidentally, Baron Clark, in reply to the argument that
BATES, JOSHUA BATH, W. P.
the king's right to levy impositions was limited by the statute of
1370-1371, advanced a principle still more dangerous to con-
stitutional liberty. " The statute of the 45 Edward III. cap. 4,"
he said, " which hath been so much urged, that no new imposition
shall be imposed upon wool-fells, wool or leather, but only the
custom and subsidy granted to the king this extends only to
the king himself and shall not bind his successors, for it is a
principal part of the crown of England, which the king cannot
diminish."
See State Trials (ed. 1779.). x>- PP- 30-32; excerpts m G. W.
Prothero, Statutes and Constitutional Documents (Clarendon Press,
1894); G. B. Adams and H. Morse Stephens, Select Documents of
Eng. Const. Hist. (New York, 1901); cf. T. P. Taswell-Langmead,
Eng,. Const. Hist. (London, 1905), p. 393. (W. A. P.)
BATES, JOSHUA (1788-1864), American financier, was born
in Weymouth, Massachusetts, on the icth of October 1788, of an
old Massachusetts family prominent in colonial affairs. After
several winters' schooling in his native town, he entered the
counting-house of William Gray & Son in Boston. In 1809 he
began business on his own account, but failed during the War
of 1812 and again became associated with the Grays, then the
largest shipowners in America, by whom a few years later he was
sent to London in charge of their European business. There he
came into relations with the Barings, and in 1826 formed a
partnership with John, a son of Sir Thomas Baring. Two years
later both partners were admitted to the firm of Baring Brothers
& Company, of which Bates eventually became senior partner,
occupying in consequence an influential position in the British
financial world. In 1853-1854 he acted with rare impartiality
and justice as umpire of the international commission appointed
to settle claims growing out of the War of 1812. In 1852-1855
he contributed $100,000 in books and in cash for a public library
in Boston, the money to be invested and the annual income to be
applied to the purchase of books. Upon his death the " upper
hall," or main reference-room (opened in 1861) in the building
erected in 1858 by the order of the library trustees, was named
Bates Hall; and upon -the opening of the new building in 1895
this name was transferred to its principal reading-room, one of
the finest library halls in the world. During the Civil War
Bates's sympathies were strongly with the Union, and besides
aiding the United States government fiscal agents in various
ways, he used his influence to prevent the raising of loans for
the Confederacy. He died in London on the 24th of September
1864.
See Memorial of Joshua Bates (Boston, 1865).
BATES, WILLIAM (1625-1699), English nonconformist
divine, was born in London in November 1625. He was admitted
to Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and removed thence to King's
College in 1644. Of Presbyterian belief, he held the rich living
of St Dunstan's-in-the-West, London. He was one of the com-
missioners at the conference in the Savoy, for reviewing the
public liturgy, and was concerned in drawing up the exceptions
to the Book of Common Prayer. Notwithstanding this he was
appointed chaplain to Charles II., and was offered the deanery
of Lichfield and Coventry, but he came out in 1662 as one of the
2000 ejected ministers. Bates was of an amiable character, and
enjoyed the friendship of the lord-keeper Bridgeman, the lord-
chancellor Finch, the earl of Nottingham and Archbishop
Tillotson. With other moderate churchmen he made several
efforts towards a comprehensive settlement, but the bishops
were uncompromising. He addressed William and Mary on
their accession in behalf of the dissenters. After some years of
pastoral service at Hackney he died there on the I4th of July
1699. Bates published Select Lives of Illustrious and Pious
Persons in Latin; and after his death all his works, except this,
were printed in i vol. fol. ; again in 1723; and in 4 vols. 8vo
in 1815. They treat of practical theology and include Con-
siderations on the Existence of God and the Immortality of the Soul
(1676), Four Last Things (1691), Spiritual Perfection (1699).
BATESON (BATSON or BETSON), THOMAS, an English writer
of madrigals in the early i7th century. He is said to have been
organist of Chester cathedral in 1599, and is believed to have
been the first musical graduate of Trinity College, Dublin. He
is known to have written church music, but his fame rests on his
madrigals, which give him an important place among Elizabethan
composers. He published a set of madrigals in 1 604 and a second
set in 1618, and both collections have been reprinted in recent
years. He died in 1630.
BATH, THOMAS THYNNE, IST MARQUESS or (1734-1796),
English politician, was the elder son of Thomas Thynne, 2nd
Viscount Weymouth (1710-1751), and the great-grandnephew
of Thomas Thynne (c. 1640-1714), the friend of Bishop Ken,
who was created Baron Thynne and Viscount Weymouth in
1682. His mother was Louisa (d. 1736), daughter of John
Carteret, ist Earl Granville, and a descendant of the family of
Granville who held the earldom of Bath from 1661 to 1711. The
Thynnes are descended from Sir John Thynne, the builder of
Longleat, the splendid seat of the family in Wiltshire. Sir John
owed his wealth and position to the favour of his master, the
protector Somerset; he was comptroller of the household of
the princess Elizabeth, and was a person of some importance
after the princess became queen. He died in April 1580.
Another famous member of this family was Thomas Thynne
(1648-1682), called on account of his wealth " Tom of Ten
Thousand." He is celebrated by Dryden as Issachar in Absalom
and Achitophel, and was murdered in London by some Swedes
in February 1682.
Born on the i3th of September 1734, Thomas Thynne succeeded
his father as 3rd Viscount Weymouth in January 1751, and was
lord-lieutenant of Ireland for a short time during 1765, although
he never visited that country. Having, however, become
prominent in English politics he was appointed secretary of
state for the northern department in January 1768; he acted
with great promptitude during the unrest caused by John
Wilkes and the Middlesex election of 1768. He was then attacked
and libelled by Wilkes, who was consequently expelled from the
House of Commons. Before the close of 1768 he was transferred
from the northern to the southern department, but he resigned
in December 1770 in the midst of the dispute with Spain over
the possession of the Falkland Islands. In November 1775
Weymouth returned to his former office of secretary for the
southern department, undertaking in addition the duties
attached to the northern department for a few months in 1779,
but he resigned both positions in the autumn of this year. In
1789 he was created marquess of Bath, and he died on the igth
of November 1796. Weymouth was a man of considerable
ability especially as a speaker, but according to more modern
standards his habits were very coarse, resembling those of his
friend and frequent companion, Charles James Fox. Horace .
Walpole refers frequently to his idleness and his drunkenness,
and in early life at least " his great fortune he had damaged by
such profuse play, that his house was often full of bailiffs." He
married Elizabeth (d. 1825), daughter of William Bentinck,
2nd duke of Portland, by whom he had three sons and ten
daughters. His eldest son Thomas (1765-1837) succeeded to
his titles, while the two younger ones, George (1770-1838) and
John (1772-1849), succeeded in turn to the barony of Carteret
of Hawnes, which came to them from their uncle, Henry
Frederick Thynne (1735-1826). Weymouth's great-grandson,
John Alexander, 4th marquess of Bath (1831-1896), the author
of Observations on Bulgarian affairs (1880), was succeeded as
5th marquess by his son Thomas Henry (b. 1862).
See B. Botfield, Stemmata Botevilliana (1858).
BATH, WILLIAM PULTENEY, IST EARL OF (1684-1764),
generally known by the surname of PULTENEY, English politician,
descended from an ancient family of Leicestershire, was the son
of William Pulteney by his first wife, Mary Floyd, and was born
in April 1684. The boy was sent to Westminster school, and
from it proceeded to Christ Church, Oxford, matriculating the
3 ist of October 1700. At these institutions he acquired his deep
classical knowledge. On leaving Oxford he made the usual tour
on the continent. In 1705 he was brought into parliament by
Henry Guy (secretary of the treasury, 1679-1688, and June 1691
to February 1695) for the Yorkshire borough of Hedon, and at
his death on the 23rd of February 1710 inherited an estate of
BATH
5 11
500 a year and 40,000 in cash. This seat was held by him
without a break until 1 734. Throughout the reign of Queen Anne
William Pulteney played a prominent part in the struggles of
the Whigs, and on the prosecution of Sacheverell he exerted
himself with great zeal against that violent divine. When the
victorious Tories sent his friend Robert Walpole to tl e Tower
in 1712, Pulteney championed his cause in the House of
Commons and with the leading Whigs visited him in his prison-
chamber. He held the post of secretary of war from 1714 to
1717 in the first ministry of George I., and when the committee
of secrecy on the Utrecht treaty was formed in April 1715 the
list included the name of William Pulteney. Two years later
(6th of July 1716) he became one of the privy council. When
Townshend was dismissed, in April 1717, from his post of lord-
lieutenant of Ireland, and Walpole resigned his places, they
were followed in their retirement by Pulteney. The crash of the
South Sea Company restored Walpole to the highest position,
but all that he offered to Pulteney was a peerage. The offer
was rejected, but in May 1723 Pulteney stooped to accept the
lucrative but insignificant post of cofferer of the household. In
this obscure position he was content for some time to await the
future; but when he found himself neglected he opposed the
proposition of Walpole to discharge the debts of the civil list, and
in April 1725 was dismissed from his sinecure. From the day of
his dismissal to that of his ultimate triumph Pulteney remained
in opposition, and, although Sir Robert Walpole attempted in
1730 to conciliate him by the offer of Townshend's place and of
a peerage, all his overtures were spurned. Pulteney's resent-
ment was not confined to his speeches in parliament. With
Bolingbroke he set on foot in December 1726 the well-known
periodical called the Craftsman, and in its pages the minister
was incessantly denounced for many years. Lord Hervey
published an attack on the Craftsman, and Pulteney, either
openly or behind the person of Amhurst, its editor, replied to the
attack. Whether the question at issue was the civil list, the
excise, the income of the prince of Wales, or the state of domestic
affairs Pulteney was ready with a pamphlet, and the minister
or one of his friends came out with a reply. For his " Proper
reply to a late scurrilous libel " (Craftsman, 1731), an answer to
" Sedition and defamation displayed," he was challenged to a
duel by Lord Hervey; for another, " An answer to one part of
an infamous libel entitled remarks on the Craftsman's indication
of his two honourable patrons," he was in July 1731 struck off
the roll of privy councillors and dismissed from the commission
of the peace in several counties. In print Pulteney was inferior
to Bolingbroke alone among the antagonists of Walpole, but in
parliament, from which St John was excluded, he excelled all his
comrades. When the sinking fund was appropriated in 1733
his voice was the foremost in denunciation; when the excise
scheme in the same year was stirring popular feeling to its lowest
depths the passion of the multitude broke out in his oratory.
Through Walpole's prudent withdrawal of the latter measure
the fall of his ministry was averted. Bolingbroke withdrew to
France on the suggestion, it is said, of Pulteney, and the opposi-
tion was weakened by the dissensions of the leaders.
From the general election of 1734 until his elevation to the
peerage Pulteney sat for Middlesex. For some years after this
election the minister's assailants made little progress in their
attack, but in 1738 the troubles with Spain supplied them with
the opportunity which they desired. Walpole long argued for
peace, but he was feebly supported in his own cabinet, and the
frenzy of the people for war knew no bounds. In an evil moment
for his own reputation he consented to remain in office and to
gratify popular passion with a war against Spain. His downfall
was not long deferred. War was declared in 1739; a new
parliament was summoned in the summer of 1741, and over the
divisions on the election petitions the ministry of Walpole fell to
pieces. The task of forming the new administration was after
some delay entrusted to Pulteney, who weakly offered the post
of first lord of the treasury to that harmless politician the earl
of Wilmington, and contented himself with a seat in the cabinet
and a peerage, thinking that by this action he would preserve
his reputation for consistency in disdaining office and yet retain
his supremacy in the ministry. At this act popular feeling broke
out into open indignation, and from the moment of his elevation
to the Upper House Pulteney's influence dwindled to nothing.
Horace Walpole asserts that when Pulteney wished to recall his
desire for a peerage it was forced upon him through the ex-
minister's advice by the king, and another chronicler of the times
records that when victor and vanquished met in the House of
Lords, the one as Lord Orford, the other as the earl of Bath, the
remark was made by the exulting Orford: " Here we are, my
lord, the two most insignificant fellows in England." On the
i4th of July 1742 Pulteney was created Baron Pulteney of
Hedon, Co. York, Viscount Pulteney of Wrington, Co. Somerset,
and earl of Bath. On the zoth of February he had been restored
to his rank in the privy council. At Wilmington's death in 1743
he made application to the king for the post of first lord of the
treasury, only to find that it had been conferred on Henry
Pelham. For two days, ioth-1 2th February 1 746, he was at the
head of a ministry, but in ".48 hours, three quarters, seven
minutes, and eleven seconds " it collapsed. An occasional
pamphlet and an infrequent speech were afterwards the sole
fruits of Lord Bath's talents. His praises whilst in retirement
have been sung by two bishops, Zachary Pearce and Thomas
Newton. He died on the 7th of July 1764, and was buried on
the 1 7th of July in his own vault in Islip chapel, Westminster
Abbey. He married on the 27th of December 1714 Anna Maria,
daughter and co-heiress of John Gumley of Isle worth, commissary-
general to the army who was often satirized by the wits of the
day (Notes and Queries, 3rd S. ii. 402-403, iii. 490). She died on
the I4th of September 1758, and their only son William died
unmarried at Madrid on the I2th of February 1763. Pulteney's
vast fortune came in 1767 to William Johnstone of Dumfries
(third son of Sir James Johnstone), who had married Frances,
daughter and co-heiress of his cousin, Daniel Pulteney, a bitter
antagonist of Walpole in parliament, and had taken the name of
Pulteney.
Pulteney's eloquence was keen and incisive, sparkling with
vivacity and with allusions drawn from the literature of his own
country and of Rome. Of business he was never fond, and the
loss in 1734 of his trusted friend John Merrill, who had supplied
the qualities which he lacked, was feelingly lamented by him in a
letter to Swift. His chief weakness was a passion for money.
Lord Bath has left no trace of the possession of practical
statesmanship.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Wm. Coxe's Memoirs of Sir Robert Walpole
(1816), and of Henry Pelham (1829) ; John Morley's Walpole (1889) ;
Walter Sichel's Bolingbroke (1901-1902); A. Ballantyne's Carteret
(1887) ; Eng. Hist. Rev. iv. 749-753, and the general political memoirs
of the time. (W. P. C.)
BATH, a city, municipal, county and parliamentary borough,
and health resort of Somersetshire, England, on the Great
Western, Midland, and Somerset & Dorset railways, 107$ m. W.
by S. of London. Pop. (1901) 49,839. Its terraces and crescents,
built mostly of grey freestone, cover the slopes and heights of
the abrupt hills which rise like an amphitheatre above the
winding valley of the river Avon, The climate is pleasant, and
the city, standing amidst fine scenery, itself possesses a number
of beautiful walks and gardens. Jointly with Wells, it is an
episcopal see of the Church of England. The abbey church
of St Peter and St Paul occupies the site of earlier Saxon and
Norman churches, founded in connexion with a 7th-century
convent, which was transferred for a time to a body of secular
canons, and from about 970 until the Dissolution, to Benedictine
monks. The present cruciform building dates from the isth
century, being a singularly pure and ornate example of late
Perpendicular work. From the number of its windows, it has
been called " The Lantern of the West," and especially note-
worthy is the great west window, with seven lights, and flanking
turrets on which are carved figures of the angels ascending and
descending on Jacob's Ladder. Within are the tombs of James
Quin, the actor, with an epitaph by Garrick; Richard Nash;
Thomas Malthus the economist; William Broomc the poet, and
many others. Some of the monuments are the work of Bacon,
512
BATH
Flaxman and Chantrey. Slight traces of the previous Norman
building remain. There are many other churches and chapels
in Bath, the oldest being that of St Thomas of Canterbury, and
one of the most interesting St Swithin's, which contains the tombs
of Christopher Anstey and Madame d'Arblay. Among educa-
tional institutions may be mentioned the free grammar school,
founded by Edward VI., the Wesleyan College, originally estab-
lished at Bristol by John Wesley, and the Roman (Catholic
College. The hospital of St John was founded in the i2th
century. The public buildings include a guild hall, assembly
rooms, Jubilee hall, art gallery and library, museum, literary
and scientific institute, and theatres. In the populous suburb
of Twerton (pop. 11,098), there are lias quarries, and bricks and
woollen cloths are manufactured. The parliamentary borough
returns two members. The city is governed by a mayor, 14
aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 3382 acres.
The mineral springs supply several distinct establishments.
The temperature varies in the different springs from 117 to
120 F., and the specific gravity of the hot baths is 1-002. The
principal substances in solution are calcium and sodium sulphates,
and sodium and magnesium chlorides. Traces of radium have been
revealed, and the gases contain argon and helium. The waters are
very beneficial in cases of rheumatism, gout, neuralgia, sciatica,
diseases of the liver, and cutaneous and scrofulous affections.
The highest archaeological interest, moreover, attaches to the
baths in view of the magnificent Roman remains testifying to
the early recognition of the value of the waters. It may here be
noted that two distinct legends ascribe the foundation of Bath
to a British king Bladud. According to Geoffrey of Monmouth
this monarch gave its healing power to the water by his spells.
According to a later version, he was banished as a leper, and
made the discovery leading to his cure, and to the origin of Bath,
whilst wandering as a swineherd in 863 B.C. This, at least, is
the date inscribed on a statue of Bladud placed in the Pump
Room in 1699. There is, however, no real evidence of a British
settlement. By the Romans Bath was named Aquae Sulis, the
name indicating the dedication to a British goddess Sul or Sulis,
whom the Romans considered the counterpart of Minerva.
There were a temple of the goddess and a few houses for priests,
officials and visitors, besides the large baths, and the place was
apparently walled; but it did not contain a large resident
population. Many relics have been disinterred, such as altars,
inscriptions, fragments of stone carvings and figures, Samian
ware, and others. The chief buildings were apparently grouped
near the later abbey churchyard, and included, besides two
temples, a magnificent bath, discovered when the duke of
Kingston pulled down the old priory in 1 755 to form the Kingston
Baths. Successive excavations have rendered accessible a
remarkable series of remains, including several baths, a sudarium,
and conduits. The main bath still receives its water (now for
the purpose of cooling) through the original conduit. The
fragmentary colonnade surrounding this magnificent relic still
supports the street and buildings beneath which it lies, the
Roman foundations having been left untouched. The remains
of the bath and of the temple are among the most striking Roman
antiquities in western Europe.
Bath (variously known as Achemann, Hat Bathun, Bathonea,
Batha) was a place of note in Saxon times, King Edgar being
crowned there in 973. It was a royal borough governed by a reeve,
with a burg mote in 907. Richard I. granted the first charter in
1189, which allowed the same privileges as Winchester to the
members of the merchant gild. This was confirmed by Henry III.
in 1236, 1247 and 1256, by charters giving the burgesses of Bath
the right to elect coroners, with freedom from arrest for the debts
of others, and from the interference of sheriffs or kings' bailiffs.
Charters were granted by succeeding kings in 1312, 1322, 1341,
J 382, 1399, 1414, 1432, 1447, 1466 and 1545. The existence of a
corporation being assumed in the earliest royal charter, and a
common seal having been used since 1 249, there was no formal
incorporation of Bath until the charter of 1590, 1794 and 1835.
Parliamentary representation began in 1297. Various fairs were
granted to Bath, to be held on the 2gth of August, the gth of
August, the 30th of June to the 8th of July (called Cherry Fair),
the ist of February to the 6th of February, in 1275, 1305, 1325
and 1 545 respectively. Fairs are now held on the 4th of February
and on the Monday after the gth of December. These fairs were
flourishing centres of the cloth trade in the middle ages, but
this industry has long departed. Bath " beaver," however, was
known throughout England, and Chaucer makes his " Wife of
Bath " excel the cloth-weavers " of Ypres and of Gaunt." The
golden age of Bath began in the i8th century, and is linked with
the work of the two architects Wood (both named John) , of Ralph
Allen, their patron, and of Richard Nash, master of the cere-
monies. Previously the baths had been ill-kept, the lodging poor,
the streets beset by footpads. All this was changed by the
architectural scheme, including Queen Square, the Royal Crescent
and the North and South Parades, which was chiefly designed by
the elder Wood, and chiefly executed by his son. Instead of the
booth which did duty as a gaming club and chocolate house, Nash
provided the assembly rooms which figure largely in the pages of
Fielding, Smollett, Burney, Dickens and their contemporaries.
Anstey published his New Bath Guide to ridicule the laws of taste
which " Beau " Nash dictated; but two royal visits, in 1734 and
1738, established Bath as a centre of English fashion. The
weekly markets granted on Wednesday and Saturday in 1305 are
still held.
See R. Warner, History and Antiquities of Bath (1801); C. E.
Davis, Ancient Landmarks of Bath; The Mineral Baths of Bath
(1883); Excavations of Roman Baths (1895), and The Saxon Cross
(1898); Sir G. Jackson, Archives of Bath (2 vols., 1873); R. E. M.
Peach, Rambles about Bath (1875), Bath Old and New (1888), Col-
lections of Books belonging to the City (1893), &c.; H. Scarth, Aquae
Solis, or Notices of Roman Bath (1864) ; A. Barbeau, Life and Letters
at Bath in the l8th Century (from the French Une Ville d eaux anglaise
au XVIII' siecle) (London, 1904); A. H. King, Charter of Bath
Corporation.
BATH, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Sagadahoc
county, Maine, U.S.A., on the W. bank of the Kennebec river, 12
m. from its mouth and 36 m. N.E. of Portland. Pop. (1890)
8723; (1900) 10,477, of whom 1759 were foreign-born; (1910,
census) 9396. It is served by the Maine Central railway, by
steamboat lines to Boston, and by inter-urban electric railway.
The city covers an area of about 9 sq. m., and extends along the
W. bank of the river for about 5 m. ; the business district is only
a few feet above sea-level, but most of the residences are on higher
ground. The streets are well shaded, chiefly with elms. At Bath
are the state military and naval orphan asylum, two homes for
the aged, and a soldiers' monument. Bath has a good harbour
and its principal industry is the building of ships, both of wood
and of iron and steel; several vessels of the United State? navy
BATH-CHAIR BATHORY
have been built here. In 1905 three-fourths of the city's wage-
earners were employed in this industry. Bath also manufactures
lumber, iron and brass goods, and has a considerable trade in ice,
coal, lumber and iron and steel. First settled about 1660, Bath
was a part of Georgetown until 1781, when it was incorporated as
a separate town; in 1789 it was made a port of entry, and in 1847
was chartered as a city.
BATH-CHAIR, a vehicle with a folding hood, which can be used
open or closed, and a glass front, mounted on three or four wheels
and drawn or pushed by hand. If required to be drawn by a
donkey or small pony it is then mounted on four wheels, with
the usual turning arrangement. James Heath, of Bath, who
flourished rather before the middle of the i8th century, was the
inventor.
BATHGATE, a municipal and police burgh of Linlithgowshire,
Scotland, 19 m. W. by S. of Edinburgh by the North British
railway. Pop. (1901) 7549. The district is rich in limestone, coal,
ironstone, shale and fireclay, all of which are worked. Silver also
was once mined. The manufactures include paraffin, paper, glass,
chemicals, flour and whisky, and freestone is quarried. The burgh
is a considerable centre for agricultural produce. Bathgate
became a burgh of barony in 1824 and a police burgh in 1865.
Although it was not until the development of its mineral wealth
that it attained to commercial importance, it is a place of some
antiquity, and formed the dowry of Marjory, Robert Bruce's
daughter, who married Walter, the hereditary steward of Scot-
land, in 1315.
BATHOLITE (from Gr. /3o0w, deep, and Xi06s, a stone), in
geology, a term given to certain intrusive rock masses.
Especially in districts which are composed principally of rocks
belonging to the older geological systems extensive areas of
granite frequently occur. By their relations to the strata
around them, it is clear that these granites have been forced into
their present positions in a liquid state, and under great pressure.
The bedding planes of stratified rocks are wedged apart and
tongues of granite have been injected into them, while cracks
have been opened up and filled with intrusions in the shape of
igneous veins. Great masses of the strata which the granite has
invaded are often floated off, and are found lying in the heart
of the granite much altered by the heat to which they have been
exposed, and traversed by the igneous rock in ramifying threads.
Such granite intrusions are generally known as bosses from their
rounded surfaces, and the frequency with which they form
Saltish dome-shaped hills, rising above the older rocks sur-
rounding them. At one time many geologists held that in
certain situations the granite had arisen from the complete
fusion and transformation of the stratified rocks over a limited
area of intense metamorphism. The chemical no less than the
structural relations of the two sets of rocks, howeyer, preclude
the acceptance of this hypothesis. Obviously the granite is an
intruder which has welled up from below, and has cooled gradu-
ally, and solidified in its present situation.
Regarding the mechanism of this process there are two
theories which hold the field, each having a large number of
supporters. One school considers that they are mostly " batho-
lites " or conical masses rising from great depths and eating up
the strata which lie above and around them. The frequency
of inclusions of the surrounding rocks, their rounded shapes
indicating that they have been partly dissolved by the igneous
magma, the intense alteration which they have undergone
pointing to a state approaching actual fusion, the extensive
changes induced in the rocks which adjoin the granite, the
abundance of veins, and the unusual modifications of the granite
which occur where it comes in contact with the adjacent strata,
are adduced as evidence that there has been absorption and
digestion of the country rock by the intrusive mass. These
views are in favour especially in France; and instances are
cited in which as the margins of the granite are approached
diorites and other rocks make their appearance, which are
ascribed to the effect which admixture with dissolved sedi-
mentary material has had on the composition of the granite
magma; at the same time the schists have been permeated
HI. 17
with felspar from the igneous rocks, and are said to have been
felspathized.
The opponents of this theory hold these granitic masses to be
" laccolites " (Gr.Xdxww, a cistern), or great cake-shaped
injections of molten rock, which have been pressed from below
into planes of weakness in the upper portions of the earth's
crust, taking the lines of least resistance, and owing their shape
to the varying flexibility of the strata they penetrated. The
modifications of the granite are ascribed to magmatic segregation
(chemical and physical processes which occasioned diffusion of
certain components towards the cooling surfaces). Absorption
of country rock is held to be unimportant in amount, and in-
sufficient to account for the great spaces in the schists which
are occupied by the granite. Those who support this theory
leave the question of the ultimate source of the granite un-
answered, but consider that it is of deep-seated origin, and the
bosses which now appear at the surface are only comparatively
superficial manifestations.
The bulk of the evidence is in favour of the laccolitic theory;
in fact it has been clearly demonstrated in many important
cases. Still it is equally clear that many granites are not merely
passive injections, but have assimilated much foreign rock.
Possibly much depends on the chemical composition of the
respective masses, and on the depths and temperatures at which
the intrusion took place. Increase of pressure and of temperature,
which we know to take place at great depths, would stimulate
resorption of sedimentary material, and by retarding cooling
would allow time for dissolved foreign . substances to diffuse
widely through the magma. (J. S. F.)
BATHONIAN SERIES, in geology. The typical Bathonian
is the Great Oolite series of England, and the name was derived
from the " Bath Oolite," so extensively mined and quarried
in the vicinity of that city, where the principal strata were first
studied by W. Smith. The term was first used by J. d'Omalius
d'Halloy in 1^43 (Precis Geol.) as a synonym for " Dogger "; but
it was limited in 1849 by A. d'Orbigny (Pal. Franc. Jur. i.
p. 607). In 1864 Mayer-Eymar (Tabl. Sync/iron.) used the word
" Bathien " = Bajocian+ Bathonian (sen. str.). According to
English practice, the Bathonian includes the following formations
in descending order: Cornbrash, Forest Marble with Bradford
Clay, Great or Bath Oolite, Stonesfield Slate and Fullers' Earth.
(The Fullers' Earth is sometimes regarded as constituting a
separate stage, the " Fullonian.") The " Bathonien " of some
French geologists differs from the English Bathonian in that
it includes 'at the base the zone of the ammonite Parkinsonia
Parkinsoni, which in England is placed at the summit of
the Inferior Oolite. The Bathonian is the equivalent of the
upper part of the " Dogger " (Middle Jurassic) of Germany,
or to the base of the Upper Brown Jura (substage " E " of
Quenstedt).
Rocks of Bathonian age arc well developed in Europe: in
the N.W. and S.W. oolite limestones are characteristically
associated with coral-bearing, crinoidal and other varieties,
and with certain beds of day. In the N. and N.E., Russia,
&c., clays, sandstones and ferruginous oolites prevail, some of
the last being exploited for iron. They occur also in the
extreme north of America and in the Arctic regions, Greenland,
Franz Josef Land, &c. ; in Africa, Algeria, German East Africa,
Madagascar and near the Cape (Enon Beds); in India. Raj-
putana and Gulf of Cutch, and in South America.
The well-known Caen stone of Normandy and " Haupt-
rogenstein " of Swabia, as well as the " Eisenkalk " of N.W.
Germany, and " Klaus-Schichten " of the Austrian Alps, are
of Bathonian age.
For a general account, sec A. de Lapparent, Traile de icologie (sth
ed., 1906), vol. ii.; see also the article JURASSIC. (J. A. H.)
BATHORY, SIGISMUND (ZSIGMOND), (1572-1613), prince of
Transylvania, was the son of Christopher, prince of Transylvania,
and Elizabeth Bocskay, and nephew of the great Stephen
Bathory. He was elected prince in his father's lifetime, but being
quite young at his father's death (1381), the government was
entrusted to a regency. In 1588 he attained his majority, and,
BATHOS BATHS
following the advice of his favourite councillor Alfonso Carillo,
departed from the traditional policy of Transylvania in its best
days (when friendly relations with the Porte were maintained
as a matter of course, in order to counterpoise the ever hostile
influence of the house of Habsburg), and joined the league of
Christian princes against the Turk. The obvious danger of such
a course caused no small anxiety in the principality, and the
diet of Torda even went so far as to demand a fresh coronation
oath from Sigismund, and, on his refusal to render it, threatened
him with deposition. Ultimately Bathory got the better of his
opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands (1595).
Nevertheless, if anybody could have successfully carried out an
anti-Turkish policy, it was certainly Bathory. He had inherited
the military genius of his uncle, and his victories astonished
contemporary Europe. In 1595 he subdued Walachia and
annihilated the army of Sinan Pasha at Giurgevo (October 28th).
The turning-point of his career was his separation from his wife,
the archduchess Christina of Austria, in 1599, an event followed
by his own abdication the same year, in order that he might take
orders. It was on this occasion that he offered the throne of
Transylvania to the emperor Rudolph II., in exchange for the
duchy of Oppeln. In 1600, however, at the head of an army of
Poles and Cossacks, he attempted to recover his throne, but was
routed by Michael, voivode of Moldavia, at Suceava. In February
1601 the diet of Klausenburg reinstated him, but again he was
driven out by Michael, never to return. He died at Prague in
1613. Bathory's indisputable genius must have been warped
by a strain of madness. His incalculableness, his savage cruelty
(like most of the princes of his house he was a fanatical Catholic
and persecutor) and his perpetual restlessness point plainly
enough to a disordered mind.
See Ignaz Acsady, History of (he Hungarian State (Hung.) vol. ii.,
(Budapest, 1904). (R. N. B.)
BATHOS (Gr. fiaOm), properly depth, the bottpm or lowest
part of anything. The current usage for an anticlimax, a descent
" from the sublime to the ridiculous," from the elevated to the
commonplace in literature or speech, is due to Pope's satire on
Bathos (Miscellanies, 1727-1728), " the art of sinking in poetry."
The title was a travesty of Longinus's essay, On the Sublime,
Iltpi DI//OW.
BATHS. In the ordinary acceptation of the word a bath is
the immersion of the body in a medium different from the
ordinary one of atmospheric air, which medium is usually
common water in some form. In another sense it includes the
different media that may be used, and the various arrangements
by which they are applied.
Ancient Baths. Bathing, as serving both for cleanliness and
for pleasure, has been almost instinctively practised by nearly
every people. The most ancient records mention bathing in the
rivers Nile and Ganges. From an early period the Jews bathed
in running water, used both hot and cold baths, and employed
oils and ointments. So also did the Greeks; their earliest and
commonest form of bathing was swimming in rivers, and bathing
in them was practised by both sexes. Warm baths were, accord-
ing to Homer, used after fatigue or exercise. The Athenians
appear for a long time to have had only private baths, but after-
wards they had public ones: the latter seem to have originated
among the Lacedaemonians, who invented the hot-air bath, at
least the form of it called after them the laconicum. Although
the baths of the Greeks were not so luxurious as those of some
other nations, yet effeminate people were accused among them
of using warm baths in excess; and the bath servants appear to
have been rogues and thieves, as in later and larger establish-
ments. The Persians must have had handsomely equipped
baths, for Alexander the Great admired the luxury of the bath
of Darius.
But the baths of the Greeks, and probably of all Eastern
nations, were on a small scale as compared with those which
eventually sprang up among the Romans. In early times the
Romans used after exercise to throw themselves into the Tiber.
Next, when ample supplies of water were brought into the city,
large piscinae, or cold swimming baths, were constructed, the
earliest of which appear to have been the piscina publica (312
B.C.), near the Circus Maximus, supplied by the Appian aqueduct,
the lavacrum of Agrippina, and a bath at the end of the Clivus
Capitolinus. Next, small public as well as private baths were
built; and with the empire more luxurious forms of bathing
were introduced, and warm became far more popular than cold
baths.
Public baths (balneae) were first built in Rome after Clodius
brought in the supply of water from Praeneste. After that date
baths began to be common both in Rome and in other Italian
cities; and private baths, which gradually came into use, were
attached to the villas of the wealthy citizens. Maecenas was one
of the first who built public baths at his own expense. After
his time each emperor, as he wished to ingratiate himself with
the people, lavished the revenues of the state in the construction
of enormous buildings, which not only contained suites of bathing
apartments, but included gymnasia, and sometimes even theatres
and libraries. Such enormous establishments went by the name
of thermae. The principal thermae were those of Agrippa 21 B.C.,
of Nero 65 A.D., of Titus 81, of Domitian -95, of Commodus 185,
of Caracalla 217, and still later those of Diocletian 302, and of
Constantine. The technical skill displayed by the Romans in
rendering their walls and the sides of reservoirs impervious to
moisture, in conveying and heating water, and in constructing
flues for the conveyance of hot air through the walls, was of the
highest order.
The Roman baths contained swimming baths, warm baths,
baths of hot air, and vapour baths. The chief rooms (which in
the largest baths appear to have been mostly distinct, whereas
in smaller baths one chamber was made to do duty for more
than a single purpose) were the following: (i) The apodyterium
or spoliatorium, where the bathers undressed; (2) the alipterium
or unctuarium, where oils and ointments were kept (although
the bathers often brought their own pomades), and where the
aliptae anointed the bathers; (3) the frigidarittm, or cool room,
cella frigida, in which usually was the colti bath, the piscina or
baptisterium; (4) the tepidarium, a room moderately heated, in
which the bathers rested for a time, but which was not meant
for bathing; (5) the calidarium or heating room, over the
kypocaustum or furnace; this in its commonest arrangement
had at one end a warm bath, the alveus or calida lavatio; at the
other end in a sort of alcove was (6) the sudatorium or laconicum,
which usually had a labrum or large vessel containing water,
with which bathers sprinkled themselves to help in rubbing off
the perspiration. In the largest baths the laconicum was prob-
ably a separate chamber, a circular domical room with recesses
in the sides, and a large opening in the top; but there is no
well-preserved specimen, unless that at Pisa may be so regarded.
In the drawing of baths from the thermae of Titus (fig. i), the
laconicum is represented as a small cupola rising in a corner of
the calidarium. It is known that the temperature of the laconi-
cum was regulated by drawing up or down a metallic plate or
clypeus. Some think that this clypeus was directly over the
flames of the hypocaustum, and that when it was withdrawn,
the flames must have sprung into the laconicum. Others, and
apparently they have Vitruvius on their side, think that the
clypeus was drawn up or down only from the aperture in the
roof, and that it regulated the temperature simply by giving
more or less free exit to the hot air. If the laconicum was only
one end of the calidarium, it is difficult to see how that end of
the room was kept so much hotter than the rest of it; on the
other hand, to have had flames actually issuing from the laconi-
cum must have caused smoke and soot, and have been very
unpleasant. The most usual order in which the rooms were
employed seems to have been the following, but there does not
appear to have been any absolute uniformity of practice then,
any more than in modern Egyptian and Turkish baths. Celsus
recommends the bather first to sweat a little in the tepidarium
with his clothes on, to be anointed there, and then to pass into
the calidarium; after he has sweated freely there he is not to
descend into the solium or cold bath, but to have plenty of water
poured over him from his head, first warm, then tepid, and then
BATHS
cold water the water being poured longer over his head than
on the rest of the body; next to be scraped with the strigil, and
lastly to be rubbed and anointed.
The warmest of the heated rooms, i.e. the calidarium and
laconicum, were heated directly from the hypocaustum, over
which they were built or suspended (suspensura) ; while from the
hypocaustum tubes of brass, or lead, or pottery carried the hot
air or vapour to the walls of the other rooms. The walls were
usually hollow, so that the hot air could readily circulate.
The water was heated ingeniously. Close to the furnace, about
4 in. off, was placed the calidarium, the copper (ahenum) for
boiling water, near which, with the same interval between them,
was the copper for warm water, the tepidarium, and at the
distance of 2 ft. from this was the receptacle for cold water, or
the frigidarium, often a plastered reservoir. A constant com-
munication was kept up between these vessels, so that as fast as
hot water was drawn off from the calidarium a supply wasobtained
from the tepidarium, which, being already heated, but slightly
reduced the temperature of the hotter boiler. The tepidarium,
again, was supplied from the frigidarium, and that from an
aqueduct.- In this way the heat which was not taken up by the
first boiler passed on to the second, and instead of being wasted,
helped to heat the second a principle which has only lately been
introduced into modern furnaces. In the case of the large thermae
the water of an aqueduct was brought to the castellum or top of
the building and was allowed to descend into chambers over the
hypocaustum, where it was heated and transmitted in pipes to the
central buildings. Remains of this arrangement are to be seen in
the baths of Caracalla. The general plan of such buildings may
be more clearly understood by the accompanying illustrations.
In the well-known drawing (fig. i) found in the baths of Titus, the
name of each part of the building is inscribed on it. The small
dome inscribed laconicum directly over the furnace, and having
FIG. I. Roman baths.
the clypeus over it, will be observed in the corner of the chamber
named concamerata sudatio. The vessels for water are inscribed,
according to their temperature, with the same names as some of
the chambers, frigidarium, tepidarium and calidarium.
The baths of Pompeii (as shown in fig. 2) were a double set, and
were surrounded with tabernae or shops, which are marked by a
lighter shade. There were streets on four sides; and the reservoir
supplying water was across the street in the building on the left
hand of the cut. There were three public entrances 2ia, 216,
2 ic to the men's baths and one to the women's. The furnaces
(9) heated water, which was conveyed on one side to the larger
baths of the men, on the other to the women's. Entering from
the street at 2ic there was a latrina on the left hand (22). From
this entrance it was usual to proceed to a court (20) surrounded by
pillars, where servants were in attendance. There is some doubt
as to the purpose to which the room (19) was devoted. Leaving
the hall a passage conducted to the apodyterium or dressing-room
(17), at one end of it is the frigidarium, baptisterium or cold
plunge bath (18). Entering out of the apodyterium is the
tepidarium or warming-room (15), which most probably was also
used as the alipterium or anointing-room. From it bathers
passed into the hot room or calidarium (12), which had at one end
the alveus or calida lavatio (13), at the other end the labrum (14).
This end of the calidarium served as the laconicum. The arrange-
ments of the women's baths were similar, but on a smaller scale.
The calidarium (5) had the labrum (7) at one end, and the alveus
(6) was in one side of the room. The general arrangements of a
FIG. 2. Ground plan of the baths of Pompeii,
calidarium are well illustrated by the accompanying section
(fig. 3) of a bath discovered at Tusculum. The disposition of the
parts is the same as at Pompeii. We here have the calidarium
supported on the pillars of the fornax, the suspensura. The alveus
(3) is at one end, and the labrum (4) at the other, (i) and (2)
are the vessels for water over
the fornax; and the passages
in the roof and walls for the
escape of heated air will be
observed.
A clear idea of the relative
position of the different rooms,
and some slight indication of
their ornamentation, will be
obtained from fig. 4. The
flues under the calidarium FIG. 3. Section of bath dis-
and the labrum (i) may be -covered at Tusculum, showing the
observed, as also the opening calidarium (hot room),
in the roof above. (2), (3)
and (4) mark the vessels for water which are placed between the
men's baths on the left and the women's on the right.
The arrangements of the thermae were mainly those of the
balneae on a larger scale. Some idea of their size may be gathered
FRIGIDARIUM TEPIDARIUM CALIDARIUM
FIG. 4. Section of baths of Pompeii.
from such facts as these, that in the baths of Diocletian one room
has been transmuted into a church of most imposing proportions,
5 i6
BATHS
and that the outside walls of the baths of Caracalla extend about a
quarter of a mile on each of the four sides. A visit to the remains
of the baths of Titus, of Diocletian, or of Caracalla impresses the
mind strongly with a sense of the vast scale on which they were
erected, and Ammianus's designation of them as provinces appears
scarcely exaggerated. It is said that the baths of Caracalla
contained 1600, and those of Diocletian 320x3 marble seats for the
use of the bathers. In the largest of the thermae there was a
stadium for the games of the young men, with raised seats for the
spectators. There were open colonnades and seats for philo-
sophers and literary men to sit and discourse or read their
productions aloud or for others to discuss the latest news. Near
the porticoes, in the interior open space, rows of trees were
planted. There was a sphaeristerium or place for playing ball,
which was often over the apodyterium; but it must be confessed
that the purposes of many portions of these large edifices have not
been made out in as satisfactory a way as those of smaller baths.
A more definite idea of the thermae can be best got by an examina-
tion of the accompanying plan of the baths of Caracalla (fig. 5).
A good deal of the plan is conjectural, the restorations being
marked by lighter shading.
At the bottom of the plan is shown a long colonnade, which faces
the street l behind which was a series of chambers, supposed to have
H!!ll!!!!l!!!!!!l!!!!!!!! I 11 !!!!!!!!!!!!! 1 ! 1 ! !H 8 .! I
FIG. 5. Ground plan of the baths of Caracalla.
been separate bathing-rooms. Entering by the opening in its centre,
the visitor passes what was probably an inner colonnade round the
main building. Passing in by either of the gates (2, 2), he reaches
the large chamber (3), which has been variously called the natatio
or large swimming-bath, or the tepidarium. The great central room
(4) in all probability was the calidarium, with two labra (6, 6) on
opposite sides, and with four alvei, one in each corner, represented
by small circular dots. (9) has been regarded by some as the laconi-
cum, although it appears very large for that purpose. The rooms
('5> '5) have been variously described as baptisteria and as laconica.
Most authors are agreed in thinking that the large rooms (13) and
(16) were the sphaeristeria or places for playing ball.
Returning to the outside, (i) and (18) and the corresponding
places on the other side are supposed to have been the exedrae for
philosophers, and places corresponding to the Greek xysti. (20) and
(19) have been considered to be servants' rooms. (22) was the
stadium, with raised seats for the spectators. The space between
this and the large central hall (9) was planted with trees, and at (21)
the aqueduct brought water into the castellum or reservoir, which
was on an upper storey. There were upper storeys in most portions of
the building, and in these probably were the libraries and small
theatres.
The piscinae were often of immense size that of Diocletian
being 200 ft. long and were adorned with beautiful marbles.
The halls were crowded with magnificent columns and were
ornamented with the finest pieces of statuary. The walls, it has
been said, were covered with exquisite mosaics that imitated the
art of the painter in their elegance of design and variety of colour.
The Egyptian syenite was encrusted with the precious green
marbles of Numidia. The rooms contained the works of Phidias
and Praxiteles. A perpetual stream of water was poured into
capacious basins through the wide mouths of lions of bright and
polished silver, water issued from silver, and was received on
silver. " To such a pitch of luxury have we reached," says Seneca,
" that we are dissatisfied if we do not tread on gems in our baths."
The richer Romans used every variety of oils and pomades
(smegmata) ; they scarcely had true soaps. The poorer class had
to be content with the flour of lentils, an article used at this day
for the same purpose by Orientals. The most important bath
utensil was the strigillus, a curved instru-
ment made of metal, with which the skin
was scraped and all sordes removed.
The bath servants assisted in anointing, [I
in using the strigillus and in various other"
menial offices. The poorer classes had to
use their strigils themselves. The various
processes of the aliptae seem to have been
carried on very systematically.
The hot baths appear to have been open
from i P.M. till dark. It was only one of
the later emperors that had them lighted
up at night. When the hot baths were
ready (for, doubtless, the plunge baths
were available at an earlier hour), a bell
or aes was rung for the information of the
people. Among the Greeks and Romans
the eighth hour, or i o'clock, before their F , ,
dinner, was the commonest hour for bathing, which are suspended
The bath was supposed to promote appetite, some of the articles
and some voluptuaries had one or more ' n use ' n the Alip-
baths after dinner, to enable them to begin t .? num>
eating again; but such excesses, as Juvelial tells us, occasionally
proved fatal. Some of the most effeminate of the emperors are
said to have bathed seven or eight times in the course of the
day. In early times there was delicacy of feeling about the
sexes bathing together even a father could not bathe with his
sons; but latterly, under most of the emperors, men and women
often used the same baths. There frequently were separate
baths for the women, as we see at Pompeii or at Badenweiler;
but although respectable matrons would not go to public
baths, promiscuous bathing was common during the Empire.
The public baths and thermae were under the more immediate
superintendence of the aediles. The charge made at a public
bath was only a quadrans or quarter of an as, about half a
farthing. Yet cheap though this was, the emperors used to
ingratiate themselves with the populace, by making the baths
at times gratuitous.
Wherever the Romans settled, they built public baths; and
wherever they found hot springs or natural stufae, they made
use of them, thus saving the expense of heating, as at the myrteta
of Baiae or the Aquae Sulis of Bath. In the cities there appear
to have been private baths for hire, as well as the public baths;
and every rich citizen had a set of baths attached to his villa,
the fullest account of which is given in the Letters of Pliny,
or in Ausonius's Account of a Villa on the Moselle, or in Statius's
De Balnco Etrusco. Although the Romans never wholly gave
up cold bathing, and that practice was revived under Augustus
by Antonius Musa, and again under Nero by Charmis (at which
later time bathing in the open sea became common), yet they
chiefly practised warm bathing (calida lavatio). This is the
most luxurious kind of bathing, and when indulged in to excess
is enervating. The women were particularly fond of these baths,
and were accused, at all events in some provincial cities, of
drunkenness in them.
The unbounded license of the public baths, and their connexion
1 The figure represents four strigils, in which the hollow for collect-
ing the oil or perspiration from the body may be observed. There
is also a small ampulla or vessel containing oil, meant to keep the
strigils smooth, and a small flat patera or drinking vessel, out of
which it was customary to drink after the bathing was finished.
BATHS
5'7
with modes of amusement that were condemned, led to their
being to a considerable extent proscribed by the early Christians.
The early Fathers wrote that bathing might be practised for the
sake of cleanliness or of health, but not of pleasure; and Gregory
the Great saw no objection to baths being used on Sunday.
About the sth century many of the large thermae in Rome fell
into decay. The cutting off of the aqueducts by the Huns,
and the gradual decrease of the population, contributed to this.
Still it is doubtful whether bathing was ever disused to the extent
that is usually represented. It was certainly kept up in the
East in full vigour at Alexandria and at Brusa. Hot bathing,
and especially hot air and vapour baths, were adopted by the
Mahommedans; and the Arabs brought them with them into
Spain. The Turks, at a later time, carried them high up the
Danube, and the Mahommedans spread or, it may be more
correct to say, revived their use in Persia and in Hindustan.
The Crusaders also contributed to the spread of baths in Europe,
and hot vapour baths were specially recommended for the leprosy
so prevalent in those days. After the commencement of the i3th
century there were few large cities in Europe without hot vapour
baths. We have full accounts of their regulations how the
Jews were only allowed to visit them once a week, and how there
were separate baths for lepers. In England they were called
hothouses. Erasmus, at the date of the Reformation, spoke
of them as common in France, Germany and Belgium; he gives
a lively account of the mixture of all classes of people to be found
in them, and would imply that they were a common adjunct to
inns. They seem after a time to have become less common,
though Montaigne mentions them as being still in Rome in his
day. In England the next revival of baths was at the close of
the iyth century, under the Eastern name of Hummums or the
Italian name of Bagnios. These were avowedly on the principle
of the Turkish baths described below. But there were several
considerable epochs in the history of baths, one in the commence-
ment of the i Sth century, when Floyer and others recalled
attention to cold bathing, of which the virtues had long been
overlooked. In the middle of the century also, Russell and
others revived sea-bathing in England, and were followed by
others on the continent, until the value of sea-bathing became
fully appreciated. Later in the same century the experiments
of James Currie on the action of complete or of partial baths
on the system in disease attracted attention; and though for-
gotten for a while, they bore abundant fruit in more recent
times.
Modern Baths. It is uncertain how far the Turkish and
Egyptian and even the Russian baths are to be regarded merely
as successors of the Roman baths, because the principle of
vapour baths has been known to many nations in a very early
period of civilization. Thus the Mexicans and Indians were
found using small vapour baths. The ancient inhabitants of
Ireland and of Scotland had some notion of their use, and the
large vapour baths of Japan, now so extensively employed,
are probably of independent origin.
The following accounts of Turkish and Russian baths illustrate
the practices of the ancient Roman and also of modern Turkish
baths. In Lane's On the Modern Egyptians we read: " The
building consists of several apartments, all of which are paved
with marble, chiefly white. The inner apartments are covered
with domes, which have a number of small glazed apertures
for the admission of light. Th bather, on entering, if he has
a watch or purse, gives them in charge to the keeper of the bath.
The servant of the bath takes off his shoes and supplies him
with a pair of wooden clogs. The first apartment has generally
three or four leewans (raised parts of the floor used as couches)
cased with marble, and a fountain of cold water, which rises
from an octagonal basement in the centre. One of the leewans,
which is meant for the higher classes, is furnished with cushions
or mats. In warm weather bathers usually undress in this
room; in winter they undress in an inner room, called the
beytowwal or first chamber, between which and the last apart-
ment there is a passage often with two or three latrines off it.
This is the first of the heated chambers. It generally has two
raised seats. The bather receives a napkin in which to put his
clothes and another to put round his waist this reaches to the
knees; a third, if he requires it, is brought him to wind round
his head, leaving the top of it bare; a fourth to put over his
chest; and a fifth to cover his back. When the bather has un-
dressed, the attendant opens to him the door of the inner and
principal apartment. This in general has four leewans, which
gives it the form of a cross, and in the centre a fountain of hoi
water rises from a small shallow basin. The centre room, with
the adjoining ones, forms almost a square. The beytowwal
already mentioned is one of them. Two small chambers which
adjoin each other, one containing a tank of hot water, the other
containing a trough, over which are two taps, one of hot and one
of cold water, occupy the two other angles; while the fourth
angle of the square is occupied by the chamber which contains
the fire, over which is the boiler. The bather having entered
this apartment soon perspires profusely from the humid, heat
which is produced by the hot water of tanks and fountains, and
by the steam of the boiler. The bather sits on one of the marble
seats, or lies on the leewan or near one of the tanks, and the
operator then commences his work. The operator first cracks
aloud every joint in the body. He makes the vertebrae of the
back and even of the neck crack. The limbs are twisted with
apparent violence, but so skilfully, that no harm is ever done.
The operator next kneads the patient's flesh. After this he rubs
the soles of the feet with a kind of rasp of baked clay. Then-
are two kinds of rasps, one porous and rough, one of fine smooth
clay. Those used by ladies are usually encased in thin embossed
silver. The next operation is rubbing the bather's flesh with a
small coarse woollen bag, after which the bather dips himself
in one of the tanks. He is next taken to one of the chambers
in the corner, and the operator lathers the bather with fibres of
the palm tree, soap and water. The soap is then washed off with
water, when the bather having finished washing, and enveloped
himself in dry towels, returns to the beytowwal and reclines.
Here he generally remains an hour to an hour and a half, sipping
coffee and smoking, while an attendant rubs the soles of the
feet and kneads the body and limbs. The bather then dresses
and goes out."
The following description of a Russian bath is from Kohl's
Russia (1842): " The passage from the door is divided into two
behind the check-taker's post, one for the male, one for the female
guests. We first enter an open space, in which a set of men are
sitting in a state of nudity on benches, those who have already
bathed dressing, while those who are going to undergo the pro-
cess take off their clothes. Round this space or apartment are
the doors leading to the vapour-rooms. The bather is ushered
into them, and finds himself in a room full of vapour, which is
surrounded by a wooden platform rising in steps to near the roof
of the room. The bather is made to lie down on one of the lower
benches, and gradually to ascend to the higher and hotter ones.
The first sensation on entering the room amounts almost to a
feeling of suffocation. After you have been subjected for some
time to a temperature which may rise to 145 the transpiration
reaches its full activity, and the sensation is very pleasant.
The bath attendants come and flog you with birchen twigs,
cover you with the lather of soap, afterwards rub it off, and then
hold you over a jet of ice-cold water. The shock is great, but is
followed by a pleasant feeling of great comfort and of alleviation
of any rheumatic pains you may have had. In regular establish-
ments you go after this and lie down on a bed for a time before
issuing forth. But the Russians often dress in the open air, and
instead of using the jet of cold water, go and roll themselves at
once in the snow."
Turkish baths have, with various modifications, become
popular in Europe. The Russian baths were introduced into
German towns about 1825. They had a certain limited amount
of popularity, but did not take firm root. Another class practi-
cally owes its origin to Dr Barter and David Urquhart. It pro-
fessed to be founded on the Turkish bath, but in reality it was
much more of a hot air bath, i.e. more devoid of vapour than
either Roman or Turkish baths ever were, for it is doubtful
5 i8
BATHS
whether in any case the air of the laconicum was free from
vapour. These baths, with their various modifications, have
become extremely popular in Great Britain, hi Germany and in
northern Europe, but have, curiously enough, never been used
extensively hi France, notwithstanding the familiarity of the
French with Turkish baths in Algiers.
In England hot air baths are now employed very extensively.
They are often associated with Turkish and electric baths.
Bathing among the ancients was practised in various forms.
It was sometimes a simple bath in cold or hi tepid water; but
at least, in the case of the higher orders, it usually included a
hot air or vapour bath, and was followed by affusion of cold or
warm water, and generally by a plunge into the piscina. In like
manner the order varies in which the different processes are gone
through in Turkish baths hi modern Europe. Thus hi the baths
in Vienna, the process begins by immersion hi a large basin of
warm water. Sudation is repeatedly interrupted by cold douches
at the will of the bathers, and after the bath they are satisfied
with a short stay hi the cooling-room, where they have only a
simple sheet rolled round them. In Copenhagen and hi Stock-
holm the Oriental baths have been considerably modified by
their association with hydropathic practices.
This leads us to notice the introduction of the curiously mis-
named system known as hydropathy (<?..). Although cold
baths were hi vogue for a time in Rome, warm baths were always
more popular. Floyer, as we have seen, did something to revive
their use hi England; but it was nearly a century and a half
afterwards that a Silesian peasant, Priessnitz, introduced, with
wonderful success, a variety of operations with cold water, the
most important of which was the packing the patient in a wet
sheet, a process which after a time is followed by profuse suda-
tion. Large establishments for carrying out this mode of bathing
and its modifications were erected in many places on the con-
tinent and hi Great Britain, and enjoyed at one time a large
share of popularity. The name " hydropathic " is still retained
for these establishments, though hydropathy so-called is no
longer practised within them to any extent.
But the greatest and most important development of ordinary
baths hi modern times was in England, though it has extended
gradually to some parts of the continent. The English had long
used affusion and swimming-baths freely hi India. Cold and hot
baths and shower baths have been introduced into private
houses to an extent never known before; and, since 1842, public
swimming-baths, besides separate baths, have been supplied
to the public at very moderate rates, in some cases associated
with wash-houses for the poorer classes. Their number has
increased rapidly in London and hi the principal continental
cities. Floating-baths in rivers, always known in some German
towns, have become common wherever there are flowing streams.
The better supply of most European cities with water has aided
in this movement. Ample enclosed swimming-baths have been
erected at many seaside places. When required, the water, if
not heated hi a boiler, is raised to a sufficient temperature by
the aid of hot water pipes or of steam. Separate baths used to
be of wood, painted; they are nrw most frequently of metal,
painted or lined with procelain enamel. The swimming-baths
are lined with cement, tiles or marble and porcelain slabs; and
a good deal of ornamentation and painting of the walls and
ceiling of the apartments, in imitation of the ancients, has been
attempted.
We have thus traced in outline the history of baths through
successive ages. The medium of the baths spoken of thus far
has been water, vapour or dry hot air. But baths of more
complex nature, and of the greatest variety, have been hi use
from the earliest ages. The best known media are the various
mineral waters and sea-water. Of baths of mineral substances,
those of sand are the oldest and best known; the practice of
arenation or of burying the body hi the sand of the seashore,
or hi heated sand near some hot spring, is very ancient, as also
that of apply ing heated sand to various parts of the body.
Baths of peat earth are of comparatively recent origin. The
peat earth is carefully prepared and pulverized, and then worked
up with water into a pasty consistence, of which the temperature
can be regulated before the patient immerses himself in it.
There are various terms that may be termed chemical, in which
chlorine or hydrochloric acid is added to the water of the bath,
or where fumes of sulphur are made to rise and envelop the body.
Of vegetable baths the number is very large. Lees of wine, hi a
state of fermentation, have been employed. An immense variety
of aromatic herbs have been used to impregnate water with.
At one time fuci or sea-weed were added to baths, under the idea
of conveying into the system the iodine which they contain;
but by far the most popular of all vegetable baths are those
made with an extract got by distilling certain varieties of pine
leaves.
The strangeness of the baths of animal substances, that have
been at various times hi use, is such that their employment
seems scarcely credible. That baths of milk or of whey might
be not unpopular is not surprising, but baths of blood, hi some
cases even of human blood, have been used; and baths of horse
dung were for many ages in high favour, and were even succeeded
for a short time by baths of guano.
Electrical baths are now largely used, a current being passed
through the water; and electrical massage, by the d'Arsonval or
other system, is colloquially termed a "bath."
Baths also of compressed air, in which the patient is subjected
to the pressure of two or three atmospheres, were formerly
employed in some places.
A sun bath (insolatio or heliosis), exposing the body tc the sun,
the head being covered, was a favourite practice among the
Greeks and Romans.
Some special devices require a few words of explanation.
Douches were used by the ancients, and have always been an
important mode of applying water to a circumscribed portion of
the body. They are, hi fact, spouts of water, varying in size and
temperature, applied by a hose-pipe with more or less force for
a longer or shorter time against particular parts. A douche
exercises a certain amount of friction, and a continued impulse
on the spot to which it is applied, which stimulate the skin and
the parts beneath it, quickening the capillary circulation. The
effects of the douche are so powerful that it cannot be applied
for more than a few minutes continuously. The alternation of
hot and cold douches, which for some unknown reason has got
the name of Ecossaise, is a very potent type of bath from the
strong action and reaction which it produces. The shower bath
may be regarded as a union of an immense number of fine douches
projected on the head and shoulders. It produces a strong effect
on the nervous system. An ingenious contrivance for giving
circular spray baths, by which water is propelled laterally hi
fine streams against every portion of the surface of the body, is
now common.
To all these modes of acting on the cutaneous surface and
circulation must be added dry rubbing, as practised by the
patient with the flesh glove, but much more thoroughly by the
bath attendants, if properly instructed (see also MASSAGE).
Action of Baths on the Human System. The primary operation
of baths is the action of heat and cold on the cutaneous surfaces
through the medium of water.
The first purpose of baths is simply that of abstersion and
cleanliness, to remove any foreign impurity from the surface, and
to prevent the pores from being clogged by their own secretions
or by desquamations of cuticle. It need scarcely be said that such
objects are greatly promoted by the action of the alkali of soaps
and by friction; that the use of warm water, owing to its im-
mediate stimulation of the skin, promotes the separation of sordes,
and that the vapour of water is still more efficient than water
itself.
It has been supposed that water acts on the system by being
absorbed through the skin, but, under ordinary circumstances, no
water is absorbed, or, if any, so minute a quantity as not to be
worth considering. No dissolved substances, under the ordinary
circumstances of a bath, are actually absorbed into the system;
although when a portion of skin has been entirely cleared of its
sebaceous secretion, it is possible that a strong solution of salts
BATHS
may be partially absorbed. In the case of medicated baths we
therefore only look (in addition to the action of heat and cold, or
more properly to the abstraction or communication and retention
of .heat) to any stimulant action on the skin that the ingredients
of the bath may possess.
The powerful influence of water on the capillaries of the skin,
and the mode and extent of that operation, depend primarily on
the temperature of the fluid. The human system bears changes
of temperature of the air much better than changes of the tempera-
ture of water. While the temperature of the air at 75 may be too
warm for the feelings of many people, a continued bath at that
temperature is felt to be cold and depressing. Again, a bath of
98 to 102 acts far more excitingly than air of the same tempera-
ture, both because, being a better conductor, water brings more
heat to the body and because it suppresses the perspiration which
is greatly augmented by air of that temperature. Further, a
temperature a few degrees below blood heat is that of indifferent
baths, which can be borne longest without natural disturbance of
the system.
Cold baths act by refrigeration, and their effects vary according
to the degree of temperature. The effects of a cold bath, the
temperature not being below 50, are these: there is a diminu-
tion of the temperature of the skin and of the subjacent tissues;
there is a certain feeling of shock diffused over the whole surface,
and if the cold is intense it induces a slight feeling of numbness in
the skin. It becomes pale and its capillaries contract. The
further action of a cold bath reaches the central nervous system,
the heart and the lungs, as manifested by the tremor of the limbs
it produces, along with a certain degree of oppression of the chest
and a gasping for air, while the pulse becomes small and sinks.
After a time reaction takes place, and brings redness to the skin
and an increase of temperature.
The colder the water is, and the more powerful and depressing
its effects, the quicker and more active is the reaction. Very cold
baths, anything below 50, cannot be borne long. Lowering of
the temperature of the skin may be borne down to 9, but a further
reduction may prove fatal. The diminution of temperature is
much more rapid when the water is in motion, or when the bather
moves about; because, if the water is still, the layer of
it in immediate contact with the body is warmed to a certain
degree.
A great deal depends on the form of the cold bath; thus one
may have (i) Its depressing operation, with a loss of heat,
retardation of the circulation, and feeling of weariness, when the
same water remains in contact with the skin, and there is contin-
uous withdrawal of heat without fresh stimulation. This occurs
with full or sitz baths, with partial or complete wrapping up the
body in a wet sheet which remains unchanged, and with frictions
practised without removing the wet sheets. (2) Its exciting
operation, with quickening of the action of the heart and lungs,
and feeling of glow and of nervous excitement and of increased
muscular power. These sensations are produced when the layer
of water next the body and heated by it is removed, and fresh cold
water causes fresh stimulus. These effects are produced by full
baths with the water in motion used only for a short time, by
frictions when the wet sheet is removed from the body, by douches,
shower baths, bathing in rivers, &c. The depressing operation
comes on much earlier in very cold water than in warmer; and in
the same way the exciting operation comes on faster with the
colder than with the warmer water. The short duration of the
bath makes both its depressing and its exciting action less; its
longer duration increases them ; and if the baths be continued too
long, the protracted abstraction of animal heat may prove very
depressing.
Tepid baths, 85 to 95. The effects of a bath of this tempera-
ture are confined to the peripheral extremities of the nerves, and
are so slight that they do not reach the central system. There is
no reaction, and the body temperature remains unchanged.
Baths of this kind can be borne for hours with impunity.
Warm baths from 96 to 104. In these the action of the heat
on the peripheral surface is propagated to the central system, and
causes reaction, which manifests itself in moderately increased
flow of the blood to the surface, and in an increased frequency of
pulse.
With a hot bath from 102 up to 1 10 the central nervous and
circulating systems are more affected. The frequency of the pulse
increases rapidly, the respiration becomes quickened, and is
interrupted by deep inspirations. The skin is congested, and
there is profuse perspiration.
Very hot baths. Everything above 110 feels very hot; any-
thing above 120 almost scalding. Baths of from 119 to 126
have caused a rise of 2 to 4$ in the temperature of the blood.
Such a bath can be borne for only a few minutes. It causes great
rapidity of the pulse, extreme lowering of the blood-pressure,
excessive congestion of the skin, and violent perspiration.
In the use of hot baths a certain amount of vapour reaches the
parts of the body not covered by the water, and is also inhaled.
Vapour baths produce profuse perspiration and act in deans-
ing the skin, as powerful hot water baths do. Vapour, owing to
its smaller specific heat, does not act so fast as water on the body.
A vapour bath can be borne for a much longer time when the
vapour is not inhaled. Vapour baths can be borne hotter than
water baths, but cannot be continued too long, as vapour, being a
bad conductor, prevents radiation of heat from the body. A
higher heat than 1 2 2 is not borne comfortably. The vapour bath
though falling considerably short of the temperature of the hot
air bath, raises the temperature much more.
Hot air baths differ from vapour baths in not impeding the
respiration as the latter do, by depositing moisture in the bron-
chial tubes. The lungs, instead of having to heat the inspired air,
are subjected to a temperature above their own. Hot air baths,
say of 135, produce more profuse perspiration than vapour baths.
If very hot, they raise the temperature of the body by several
degrees. Vapour baths, hot air baths, and hot water baths agree
in producing violent perspiration. As perspiration eliminates
water and effete matter from the system, it is obvious that its
regulation must have an important effect on the economy.
In comparing the general effects of cold and hot baths, it may
be said that while the former tend to check perspiration, the
latter favour it.
The warm bath causes swelling and congestion of the capillaries
of the surface in the first instance; when the stimulus of heat is
withdrawn their contraction ensues. A cold bath, again, first
causes a contraction of the capillaries of the surface, which is
followed by their expansion when reaction sets in. A warm bath
elevates the temperature of the body, both by bringing a supply
of heat to it and by preventing the radiation of heat from it. It
can be borne longer than a cold bath. It draws blood to the
surface, while a cold bath favours internal congestions.
But baths often produce injurious effects when used injudici-
ously. Long continued warm baths are soporific, and have, owing
to this action, often caused death by drowning. The effects of
very hot baths are swimming in the head, vomiting, fainting,
congestion of the brain, and, in some instances, apoplexy.
The symptoms seem to point to paralysis of the action of the
heart. It is therefore very evident how cautious those should be,
in the use of hot baths, who have weak hearts or any obstruction
to the circulation. Fat men, and those in whom the heart or
blood-vessels are unsound, should avoid them. Protracted
indulgence in warm baths is relaxing, and has been esteemed a
sign of effeminacy in all ages. Sleepiness, though it will not
follow the first immersion in a cold bath, is one of the effects of
protracted cold baths; depression of the temperature of the
surface becomes dangerous. The risk in cold baths is congestion
of the internal organs, as often indicated by the lips getting blue.
Extremely cold baths are always dangerous.
For the medical use of baths see BALNEOTHERAPEDTICS.
Public Baths. It was not till 1846 that it was deemed advis-
able in England, for the " health, comfort, and welfare" of the
inhabitants of towns and populous districts, to encourage the
establishment therein of baths by the local authority acting
through commissioners. A series of statutes, known collectively
as " The Baths and Wash-houses Acts 1846 to 1896," followed.
By the Public Health Act 1875, the urban authority was declared
520
BATHURST, EARLS
to be the authority having power to adopt and proceed under
the previous acts, and in 1878 provision was for the first time
expressly made for the establishment of swimming baths, which
might be used during the winter as gymnasia, and by an
amending act of 1899, for music or dancing, provided a licence
is obtained. By the Local Government Act 1894, it was provided
that the parish meeting should be the authority having exclusive
power of adopting the Baths and Wash-houses Acts in rural
districts, which should, if adopted, be carried into effect by the
parish council. Up to 1865 it seems as if only twenty-five
boroughs had cared to provide bathing accommodation for their
inhabitants. There is no complete information as to the number
of authorities who have adopted the acts since 1865, but a return
of reproductive undertakings presented to the House of Commons
in 1899 shows that no local authorities outside the metropolis
applied for power to raise loans to provide baths, of whom 48
applied before 1875 and 62 after 1875. In the year 1907 the
loans sanctioned for the purpose amounted to 53,026. The
revenues of parish councils are so limited that it has not been
possible for them to take much advantage of the acts. In the
metropolis, by the Local Government Act of 1894, the power
of working the act was given to vestries, and by the act of
1899 this power was transferred to the borough councils. There
are 35 parishes in London in which the acts have been adopted,
all of which except n have taken action since 1875. These
establishments, according to the return made in 1908, provided
3502 private baths and 104 swimming baths. The maximum
charge for a second-class cold bath is id., for a hot bath 2d.
In 1904-1905 the number of bathers was 6,342,158, of whom
3,064,998 were bathers in private baths and 3,277,160 bathers
in swimming baths. In 1896-1897 the gross total had been
only 2,000,000. In cases where the proportion between the sexes
has been worked out, it is found that only 18 % of the users of
private baths, and 10 % of the users of swimming baths, are
females. In 1898 the School Board was authorized to pay the
fees for children using the baths if instruction in swimming
were provided, and in 1007-1908 the privilege was used by
1,556,542 children. The cost of this public provision in London
-water being supplied by measure is over 80,000 a year. No
account can be given of the numbers using the ponds and lakes
in the parks and open spaces, but it is computed that on a hot
Sunday 25,000 people bathe in Victoria Park, London, some of
the bathers starting as early as four o'clock in the morning.
These returns show how great is the increase of the habit of
bathing, but they also show how even now the habit is limited
to a comparatively small part of the population. People require
to be tempted to the use of water, at any rate at the beginning.
There are still authorities in London responsible for 800,000
persons who have provided no baths, and those who have
made provision have not always done so in a sufficiently
liberal and tempting way. The comparison between English
great towns and those of the continent is not in favour of. the
former.
For the literature of baths in earlier periods we may refer to the
Architecture of Vitruvius, and to Lucian's Hippias; see art. " Bader"
in Pauly-Wissowa, Realeiicydopadie (1896), by A. Man ; " Balneum "
in Daremberg and Saglio, Dtct. des antiquites; J. Marquardt, Das
Priyatleben der Romer (1886), pp. 269-297; Becker's Callus, and the
article " Balneae " by Rich, in Dr Smith's Dictionary of Greek
and Roman Antiquities (rev. ed. 1890); also the bibliography to
HYDROPATHY.
BATHURST, EARLS. ALLEN BATHURST, ist Earl Bathurst
(1684-1775), was the eldest son of Sir Benjamin Bathurst
(d. 1704), by his wife, Frances (d. 1727), daughter of Sir Allen
Apsley of Apsley, Sussex, and belonged to a family which is said
to have settled in Sussex before the Norman Conquest. He was
educated at Trinity College, Oxford, and became member of
parliament for Cirencester in May 1705, retaining his seat until
December 1 71 1, when he was created Baron Bathurst of Battles-
den, Bedfordshire. As a zealous Tory he defended Atterbury,
bishop of Rochester, and in the House of Lords was an opponent
of Sir Robert Walpole. After Walpole left office in 1742 he was
made a privy councillor, and in August 1772 was created Earl
Bathurst, having previously received a pension of 2000 a year
chargeable upon the Irish revenues. He died on the i6th of
September 1775, and was buried in Cirencester church. In July
1704 Bathurst married his cousin, Catherine (d. 1768), daughter
of Sir Peter Apsley, by whom he had four sons and five daughters.
The earl associated with the poets and scholars of the time.
Pope, Swift, Prior. Sterne, and Congreve were among his friends.
He is described in Sterne's Letters to Eliza', was the subject of a
graceful reference on the part of Burke speaking in the House of
Commons; and the letters which passed between him and Pope
are published in Pope's Works, vol. viii. (London, 1872).
HENRY, 2nd Earl Bathurst (1714-1794), was the eldest
surviving son of the ist earl. Educated at Balliol College,
Oxford, he was called to the bar, and became a K.C. in 1745.
In April 1735 he had been elected member of parliament for
Cirencester, and was rewarded for his opposition to the govern-
ment by being made solicitor-general and then attorney-general
to Frederick, prince of Wales. Resigning his seat in parliament
in April 1754 he was made a judge of the court of common pleas
in the following month, and became lord high chancellor in
January 1771, when he was raised to the peerage as Baron
Apsley. Having become Earl Bathurst by his father's death in
September 1775, he resigned his office somewhat unwillingly in
July 1778 to enable Thurlow to join the cabinet of Lord North.
In November 1779 he was appointed lord president of the
council, and left office with North in March 1782. He died at
Oakley Grove near Cirencester on the 6th of August 1794.
Bathurst was twice married, and left two sons and four daughters.
He was a weak lord chancellor, but appears to have been just
and fair in his distribution of patronage.
HENRY, 3rd Earl Bathurst (1762-1834), the elder son of the
second earl, was born on the 22nd of May 1762. In April 1789
he married Georgiana (d. 1841), daughter of Lord George Henry
Lennox, and was member of parliament for Cirencester from
1783 until he succeeded to the earldom in August 1794. Owing
mainly to his friendship with William Pitt, he was a lord of the
admiralty from 1783 to 1789; a lord of the treasury from 1789
to 1791; and commissioner of the board of control from 1793
to 1802. Returning to office with Pitt in May 1804 he became
master of the mint, and was president of the Board of Trade and
master of the mint during the ministries of the duke of Portland
and Spencer Perceval, only vacating these posts in June 1812
to become secretary for war and the colonies under the earl of
Liverpool. For two months during the year 1809 he was in
charge of the foreign office. He was secretary for war and the
colonies until Liverpool resigned in April 1827; and deserves
some credit for improving the conduct of the Peninsular War,
while it was his duty to defend the government concerning its
treatment of Napoleon Bonaparte. Bathurst's official position
caused his name to be mentioned frequently during the agitation
for the abolition of slavery, and with regard to this traffic he
seems to have been animated by a humane spirit. He was lord
president of the council in the government of the duke of Wel-
lington from 1828 to 1830, and favoured the removal of the dis-
abilities of Roman Catholics, but was a sturdy opponent of the
reform bill of 1832. The earl, who had four sons and two
daughters, died on the 27th of July 1834. Bathurst was made a
knight of the Garter in 1817, and held several lucrative
sinecures.
His eldest son, HENRY GEORGE, 4th Earl Bathurst (1790-
1866), was member of parliament for Cirencester from 1812 to
1834. He died unmarried on the 25th of May 1866, and was
succeeded in the title by his brother, WILLIAM LENNOX, 5th Earl
Bathurst (1791-1878), member of parliament for Weobley from
1812 to 1816, and clerk of the privy council from 1827 to 1860,
who died unmarried on the 24th of February 1878.
ALLEN ALEXANDER, 6th Earl Bathurst (1832-1892), was the
son of Thomas Seymour Bathurst, and grandson of the 3rd earl.
He was member of parliament for Cirencester from 1857 until he
became Earl Bathurst in February 1878, and died on the 2nd of
August 1892, when his eldest son, SEYMOUR HENRY (b. 1864),
became 7th Earl Bathurst.
BATHURST BATRACHIA
521
BATHURST, a city of Bathurst county, New South Wales,
Australia, 144 m. by rail W.N.W. of Sydney on the Great
Western railway. Pop. (1901) 9223. It is situated on the south
bank of the Macquarie river, at an elevation of 2153 ft., in a
fertile undulating plain on the west side of the Blue Mountains.
Bathurst has broad streets, crossing one another at right angles,
with a handsome park in the centre of the town, while many of
the public buildings, specially the town hall, government build-
ings, and Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, are note-
worthy. Bathurst is the centre of the chief wheat-growing
district of New South Wales, while gold, copper and silver are
extensively mined in its vicinity. There are railway works,
coach factories, tanneries, breweries, flour-mills and manu-
factures of boots and shoes and other commodities. The town
was founded in 1815 by Governor Macquarie, taking its name
from the 3rd Earl Bathurst, then secretary of state for the
colonies, and it has been a municipality since 1862.
BATHVILLITE, a naturally occurring organic substance. It
is an amorphous, opaque, and very friable material of fawn-
brown colour, filling cavities in the torbanite or Boghead coal of
Bathville, Scotland. It has a specific gravity of i.oi, and is
insoluble in benzene.
BATHYBIUS (fiaOvs, deep, and jStos, life), a slimy substance
at one time supposed to exist in great masses in the depths of the
ocean and to consist of undifferentiated protoplasm. Regarding
it as an organism which represented the simplest form of life,
Huxley about 1868 named it Bathybius Haeckelii. But in-
vestigations carried out in connexion with the " Challenger "
expedition indicated that it was an artificial product, composed
of a flocculent precipitate of gypsum thrown down from sea-
water by alcohol, and the hypothesis of its organic character was
abandoned by most biologists, Huxley included.
BATHYCLES, an Ionian sculptor of Magnesia, was commis-
sioned by the Spartans to make a marble throne for the statue of
Apollo at Amyclae, about 550 B.C. Pausanias (iii. 18) gives us a
detailed description of this monument, which is of the greatest
value to us, showing the character of Ionic art at the time. It
was adorned with scenes from mythology in relief and supporting
figures in the round.
For a reconstruction, see Furtwangler, Meisterwerke der griech.
Plastik, p. 706.
BATLEY, a municipal borough in the West Riding of York-
shire, England, within the parliamentary borough of Dewsbury,
8 m. S.S.W. of Leeds, on the Great Northern, London & North
Western, and Lancashire & Yorkshire railways. Pop. (190x3)
30,321. Area 2039 acres. The church of All Saints is mainly
Perpendicular, and contains some fine woodwork, mostly of the
1 7th century, and some good memorial tombs. The market
square contains an excellent group of modern buildings, including
the town hall, public library, post office and others. The town is
a centre of the heavy woollen trade, and has extensive manu-
factures of army cloths, pilot cloths, druggets, flushings, &c.
The working up of old material as " shoddy " is largely carried on.
There are also iron foundries, manufactures of machinery, and
stone quarries. The town lies on the south-west Yorkshire
coalfield, and there are a number of collieries in the district.
The borough is governed by a mayor, six aldermen, and eighteen
councillors.
BATON (Fr. bdlon, baston, from Late Lat. baslo, a stick or
staff), the truncheon carried by a field marshal as a sign of
authority, by a police constable, &c.; in music, the stick with
which the conductor of an orchestra beats time; in heraldry, the
fourth part of a bend, frequently broken off short at the ends
so as to be shaped like a rod; in English coats of arms, only as a
mark of illegitimacy, the " baton sinister."
BATONI, POMPEO GIROLAMO (1708-1787), Italian painter,
was born at Lucca. He was regarded in Italy as a great painter
in the i8th century, and unquestionably did much to rescue the
art from the intense mannerism into which it had fallen during
the preceding century. His paintings, however, are not of the
highest order of merit, though they are generally graceful, well
designed, and harmoniously coloured. His best production is
thought to be his group of " Peace and War." Batoni painted an
unusual number of pictures, and was also celebrated for hi>
portraits.
BATON ROUGE, the capital of Louisiana, U.S.A., and of
East Baton Rouge parish, on the E. bank of the Mississippi river,
about 70 m. N.W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 10,478; (1000)
11,269, of whom 6596 were of negro descent; (1910 census)
14,897. It is served by the Yazoo & Mississippi Valley railway
and by the Louisiana Railway & Navigation Company; and
the Texas & Pacific enters Port Allen, just across the river.
The city lies on the river bluff, secure against the highest floods.
Old houses in the Spanish style give quaintness to its appearance.
The state capitol was built in 1880-1882, replacing another
burned in 1862. At Baton Rouge is the State University and
Agricultural and Mechanical College (1860), of which the
Audubon Sugar School, " for the highest scientific training
in the growing of sugar cane and in the technology of sugar
manufacture," is an important and 'distinctive feature. The
university grew out of the Louisiana State Seminary of Learning
and Military Academy, founded in 1855 near Alexandria and
opened in 1860 under the charge of W. T. Sherman. In 1869 tht
institution was removed to Baton Rouge, and in 1877 it was
united with the Agricultural and Mechanical College, established
in 1873 and in 1874 opened at New Orleans. The campus of
the university is the former barracks of the Baton Rouge garrison,
occupied by the college since 1886 and transferred to it by the
Federal government in 1902. The enrolment of the university
in 1907-1908 was 636. Other important institutions at Baton
Rouge are a State Agricultural Experiment Station, asylums
and schools for the deaf and dumb, for the blind, and for orphans,
and the state penitentiary. The surrounding bluff and alluvial
country is very rich. Sugar and cotton plantations and sub-
tropic fruit orchards occupy the front-lands on the river- The
manufactures include lumber and cotton seed products, and
sugar. The value of the city's factory products increased from
$717,368 in 1900 to $1,383,061 in 1005 or 92.8%. The city
is governed under a charter granted by the legislature in 1898.
This charter is peculiar in that it gives to the city council the
power to elect various administrative boards of police, finance.
&c. from which the legislative council of most cities is separated.
Baton Rouge was one of the earliest French settlements in
the state. As a part of West Florida, it passed into the hands
of the British in 1763, and in 1779 was captured by Bernardo
Galvez, the Spanish governor of Louisiana. The town was
incorporated in 1817. In 1849 it was made the state capital,
remaining so until 1862, when Shreveport became the Con-
federate state capital. In 1864 the Unionists made New Orleans
the seat of government. The Secession Ordinance of Louisiana
was passed on the 26th of January 1861 by a convention that
met at Baton Rouge. On the 2nd of May 1862 the city was
captured by the forces of the United States under Col. Benjamin
H. Grierson (b. 1826), who had led raiders thither from
Tennessee; on the I2th of May it was formally occupied by
troops from New Orleans, and was successfully defended by
Brig.-Gen. Thomas Williams (1815-1862) against an attack
by Confederate forces under General John C. Breckinridge on
the sth of August 1862; Gen. Williams, however, was killed
during the attack. Baton Rouge was soon abandoned for a
month, was then reoccupied, and was held throughout the rest
of the war. It became the state capital again in 1882, in accordr
ance with the state constitution of 1879. For several years
after 1840 Zachary Taylor made his home on a plantation near
Baton Rouge.
BATRACHIA. The arguments adduced by T. H. Huxley,
in his article on this subject in the ninth edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica, for applying the name Amphibia to those
lung-breathing, pentadactyle vertebrates which had been tirst
severed from the Linnaean Amphibia by Alexandre Brongniart,
under the name of Batrachia, have not met with universal
acceptance. Although much used in text-books and anatomical
works in Great Britain and in Germany, the former name has
been discarded in favour of the latter by the principal authors
522
BATRACHIA
on systematic herpetology, such as W. Peters, A. Giinther and
E. D. Cope, and their lead is followed in the present article.
Bearing in mind that Linnaeus, in his use of the name Amphibia,
was not alluding to the gill-breathing and air-breathing periods
through which most frogs and newts pass in the course of their
existence, but only wished to convey the fact that many of the
constituents of the group resort to both land and water (e.g.
crocodiles), it seems hard to admit that the term may be thus
diverted from its original signification, especially when such a
change results in discarding the name expressly proposed by
Brongniart to denote the association which has ever since been
universally adopted either as an order, a sub-class or a class.
Many authors who have devoted special attention to questions
of nomenclature therefore think Reptilia and Batrachia the
correct names of the two great classes into which the Linnaean
Amphibia have been divided, and consider that the latter term
should be reserved for the use of those who, like that great
authority, the late Professor Peters, down to the time of his death
in 1883, would persist in regarding reptiles and batrachians as
mere sub-classes (1). However extraordinary it may appear,
especially to those who bring the living forms only into focus,
that opposition should still be made to Huxley's primary division
of the vertebrates other than mammals into Sauropsida (birds
and reptiles) and Ichthyopsida (batrachians and fishes), it is
certain that recent discoveries in palaeontology have reduced
the gap between batrachians and reptiles to such a minimum
as to cause the greatest embarrassment in the attempt to draw
a satisfactory line of separation between the two; on the other
hand the hiatus between fishes and batrachians remains as wide
as it was at the time Huxley's article Amphibia (Encyclopaedia
Britannica, pth ed.) was written.
The chief character which distinguishes the Batrachians
from the reptiles, leaving aside the metamorphoses, lies in the
arrangement of the bones of the palate, where a large para-
sphenoid extends forwards as far or nearly as far as the vomers
and widely separates the pterygoids. The bones which bear the
two occipital condyles have given rise to much discussion, and
the definition given by Huxley in the previous edition " two
occipital condyles, the basi-occipital region of the skull either
very incompletely or not at all ossified " requires revision.
Some authors have held that the bone on which the occipital
condyles have been found most developed in some labyrintho-
donts (2) represents a large basi-occipital bearing two knobs
for the articulation with the first vertebra, whilst the skull
of the batrachians of the present day has lost the basi-occipital,
and the condyles are furnished by the exoccipitals. On the
other hand, some reptiles have the occipital condyle divided into
two and produced either by the basi-occipital or by the ex-
occipitals. But the recent find of a well preserved skull of a
labyrinthodont (Capitosaurus stantonensis) from the Trias of
Staffordshire has enabled A. S. Woodward (8) to show that, in
that form at any rate, the condyles are really exoccipital, although
they are separated by a narrow basi-occipital. It is therefore
very probable that the authors quoted in (2) were mistaken in
their identification of the elements at the base of the foramen
magnum. The fact remains, however, that some if not all of
the stegocephalous batrachians have an ossified basi-occipital.
As a result of his researches on the anomodont reptiles and
the Stegocephalia (4), as the extinct order that includes the
well known labyrinthodonts is now called, we have had the
proposal by H. G. Seeley (6) to place the latter with the reptiles
instead of with the batrachians, and H. Gadow, in his most
recent classification (6), places some of them among the reptiles,
others being left with the batrachians; whilst H. Credner,
basing his views on the discovery by him of various annectent
forms between the Stegocephalia and the Rhynchocephalian
reptiles, has proposed a class, Eoletrapoda, to include these forms,
ancestors of the batrachians proper on the one hand, of the
reptiles proper on the other. Yet, that the Stegocephalia,
notwithstanding their great affinity to the reptiles, ought to
be included in the batrachians as commonly understood, seems
sufficiently obvious from the mere fact of their passing through
a branchiate condition, i.e. undergoing metamorphosis (7).
The outcome of our present knowledge points to the Stegoce-
phalia, probably themselves derived from the Crossopterygian
fishes (8), having yielded on the one hand the true batrachians
(retrogressive series), with which they are to a certain extent
connected through the Caudata and the Apoda, on the other
hand the reptiles (progressive series), through the Rhyncho-
cephalians and the Anomodonts, the latter being believed, on
very suggestive evidence, to lead to the mammals (9).
The division of the class Amphibia or Batrachia into four
orders, as carried out by Huxley, is maintained, with, however,
a change of names: Stegocephalia, for the assemblage of minor
groups that cluster round
the Labyrinthodonta of R.
Owen, which name is re-
stricted to the forms for
which it was originally in-
tended; Peromela, Urodela,
Anura, are changed to
Apoda, Caudata, Eoaudata,
for the reason that (unless
obviously misleading, which
is not the case in the
present instance) the first
proposed name should sup-
ersede all others for higher
groups as well as for genera
and species, and the latter
set have the benefit of the
law of priority. In the
first subdivision of the ba-
trachians into two families by
C. Dum6ril in 1806 (Zoo/.
Anal. pp. 90-94) these are
termed " Anoures " and
" Urodeles " in French,
Ecaudati and Caudati in p fi
Latin. When Dumdril's n,
pupil, M. Oppel, in 1811
(Ordn. Kept. p. 72), added
the Caecilians, he named
the three groups Apoda,
FIG. I . Upper view of Archego-
saurus Decheni.
(Outlines after Gredner.)
Praemaxilla. st, Supratem-
Nasal.
Maxilla.
Lachrymal.
Praefrontal.
Frontal.
m <
l ',
'
poral.
sq, Squamosal.
pto, Postorbital.
qj, Quadrato-
Jugal.
The P'f< Postfrontal.
Parietal.
q, Quadrate.
o, Occipital.
pt, Post-tem-
poral.
Ecaudata and Caudata.
Latin form being the only
one entitled to recognition
in zoological nomenclature, it follows that the last-mentioned
names should be adopted for the three orders into which recent
batrachians are divided.
I. STEGOCEPHALIA (10). Tailed, lacertiform or serpentiform ba-
trachians, with the temporal region of the skull roofed over by
postorbital, squamosal, and supratemporal plates similar to the
same bones in Crossopterygian fishes, and likewise with paired
dermal bones (occipitals and post-temporals) behind the parietals
and supratemporals. A parietal foramen; scales or bony scutes
frequently present, especially on the ventral region, which is further
protected by three large bony plates interclavicle and clavicles,
the latter in addition to cleithra.
Extinct, ranging from the Upper Devonian to the Trias. Our
knowledge of Devonian forms is still extremely meagre, the only
certain proof of the existence of pentadactyle vertebrates at that
period resting on the footprints discovered in Pennsylvania and
described by O. C. Marsh (11) as Tinopus antiquus. Sundry remains
from Belgium, as to the identification of which doubts are still
entertained, have been regarded by M. Lohest (12) as evidence of
these batrachians in the Devonian. Over 200 species are now dis-
tinguished, from the Carboniferous of Europe and North America,
the Permian of Spitsbergen, Europe, North America and South
Africa, and the Trias of Europe, America, South Africa, India and
Australia. The forms of batrachians with which we are acquainted
show the vertebral column to have been evolved in the course of
time from a notochordal condition with segmented centra similar
to that of early bony ganoid fishes (e.g. Caturust Eurycormus), to
biconcave centra, and finally to the socket-and-ball condition that
prevails at the present day. However, owing to the evolution of the
vertebral column in various directions, and to the inconstant state
of things in certain annectent groups, it is not possible, it seems, to
apply the vertebral characters to taxonomy with that rigidity which
E. D. Cope and some other recent authors have attempted to enforce.
BATRACHIA
523
This is particularly evident in the case of the Stegocephalians; and
recent batrachians, tailed and tailless, show the mode of articulation
of the vertebrae.whether amphicoelpus, opisthocoelous or prpcoelous,
to be of but secondary systematic importance in dealing with these
lowly vertebrates. The following division of the Stegocephalians
into five sub-orders is therefore open to serious criticism; but it
seems on the whole the most natural to adopt in the light of our
present knowledge.
A. Rhachitomi, (figs. I, 2), in which the spinal cord rests on the
notochord, which persists uninterrupted and is surrounded by
three bony elements in addition to the neural arch: a so-called
pleurocentrum on each side, which appears to represent the centrum
proper of reptiles and mammals, and an intercentrum or hypo-
centrum below, which may extend to the neural arch, and probably
answers to the hypapophysis, as it is produced into chevrons in the
caudal region. Mostly large forms, of Carboniferous and Permian
age, with a more or less complex infolding of the walls of the teeth.
Families: ARCHEGOSAURIDAE, ERYOPIDAE, TRIMERORHACHIDAE,
DISSORHOPHIDAE. The last is remarkable for an extraordinary
endo- and exo-skeletal carapace, Dissorhophus being described by
Cope (13) as a " batrachian armadillo."
B. Embolomeri, with the centra and intercentra equally de-
veloped disks, of which there are thus two to each neural arch;
these disks perforated in the middle for the passage of the notochord.
This type may be directly derived from the precedine, with which
it appears to be connected by the genus Diplospondylus. Fam.:
CRICOTIDAE, Permian.
C. Labyrinthodonta, with simple biconcave vertebral disks, very
slightly pierced by a remnant of the notochord and supporting the
loosely articulated neural arch. This condition is derived from
no,./.
FIG. 2. A, Dorsal vertebrae. B, Caudal vertebra of Arche-
gosaurus. no.. Neural arch; ch, chorda; pi, pleurocentrum;
tc, intercentrum.
(Outline after Jackcl.)
that of the Rhachitomi, as shown by the structure of the vertebral
column in young specimens. Mostly large forms from the Trias
(a few Permian), with true labyrinthic dentition. Families:
LABYRINTHODONTIDAE, ANTHRACOSAURJDAE, DENDRERPETIDAE,
NYRANIIDAE.
D. Microsauria, nearest the reptiles, with persistent notochord
completely surrounded by constricted cylinders on which the neural
arch rests. Teeth hollow, with simple or only slightly folded walls.
Mostly of small size and abundant in the Carboniferous and Lower
Permian. Families: UROCORDYLIDAE, LIMNERPETIDAE, HYLONO-
MIDAE (fig. 3), MICRODRACHIDAE, DoncHOSOMATiDAE; the latter
serpentiform, apodal.
E. Branchiosauria, nearest to the true batrachians; with persistent
non-constricted notochord, surrounded by barrel-shaped, bony
cylinders formed by the neural arch above and a pair of intercentra
below, both these elements taking an equal share in the formation
of a transverse process on each side for the support of the rib. This
Clan of structure, apparently evolved out of the rhachitomous type
y suppression of the pleurocentra and the downward extension
of the neural arch, leads to that characteristic of frogs in which, as
development shows, the vertebra is formed wholly or for the greater
part by the neural arch (14). Small forms from the Upper Carboni-
ferous and Permian formations. A single family: BRANCHIO-
SAURIDAE.
II. APODA (15). No limbs. Tail vestigial or absent. Frontal
bones distinct from parietals; palatines fused with maxillaries.
Male with an intrpmittent copulatpry organ. Degraded, worm-like
batrachians of still obscure affinities, inhabiting tropical Africa,
south-eastern Asia and tropical America. Thirty-three species are
known. No fossils have yet been discovered. It has been attempted
of late to do away with this order altogether and to make the
Caecilians merely a family of the Urodeles. This view has originated
out of the very remarkable superficial resemblance between the
Ichthyophis-\arvA and the Amphiuma. Cope (16) regarded the Apoda
as the extremes of a line of degeneration from the Salamanders, with
Amphiuma as one of the annectent forms. In the opinion of P. and
F. Sarasin (17), whose great work on the development of Ichtkyophis
is one of the most im-
portant recent contribu-
tions to our knowledge
of the batrachians, Am-
phiuma is a sort of neo-
tenic Caecilian, a larval
form become sexually
mature while retaining
the branchial respiration.
If the absence of limbs
and the reduction of
the tail were the only
characteristic of the
group, there would be,
of course, no objection
to unite the Caecilians
with the Urodeles; but,
to say nothing of the
scales, present in many
genera of Apodals and
absent in all Caudates,
which have been shown
by H. Credner to be
identical in structure with _
those of Stegocephalians, FIG. 3. A. Dorwl vertebra of flytono-
the Caecilian skull pre - OT1 " ('* Y 1 ^* and front view). B, Dorsal
sents features which are vertebra of Broe*io5an (side 'view and
not shared by any of front v >ew)- , Neural canal; ch, chorda,
the tailed batrachians. (After Credner.)
G. M. Winslow (18), who
has made a study of the
chondrocranium of Ichthyophis, concludes that its condition could
not have been derived from a Urodele form, but points to some more
primitive ancestor. That this ancestor was nearly related to, if not
one of, the Stegocephalians, future discovery will in all probability
show.
III. CAUDATA (19). Tailed batrachians. with the f rentals distinct
from the parietals and the palatines from the maxillary. Some of
the forms breathe by gills throughout their existence, and were
formerly regarded as establishing a passage from the fishes to the
air-breathing batrachians. They are now considered as arrested
larvae descended from the latter. One of the most startling dis-
coveries of the decade 1890-1900 was the fact that a number of forms
are devoid of both gills and lungs, and breathe merely by the skin
and the buccal mucose membrane (20). Three blind cave-forms are
known : one terrestrial Typhlotriton, from North America,' and
two perennibranchiate Proteus in Europe and Typhlomolge in
North America.
This order contains about 150 species, referred to five families:
HYLAEOBATRACHIDAE, SALAMANDRIDAE, AMPHIUMIDAE, PROTEI-
DAE, SlRENIDAE.
Fossil remains are few in the Upper Eocene and Miocene of Europe
and the Upper Cretaceous of North America. The oldest Urodele
known is Hylaeobatrachus Dollo (21) from the Lower Wealden of
Belgium. At present this order is confined to the northern hemi-
sphere, with the exception of two Spelerpes from the Andes of Ecuador
and Peru, and a Plethodon from Argentina.
IV. ECAUDATA (22). Frogs and" toads. Four limbs and no tail.
Radius confluent with ulna, and tibia with fibula; tarsus (astragalus
and calcaneum) elongate, forming an additional segment in the hind
limb. Caudal vertebrae fused into a urostyle or coccyx. Frontal
bones confluent with parietals.
This order embraces about 1300 species, of which some 40 are
fossil, divided into two sub-orders ana sixteen families:
A. Aglossa, Eustachian tubes united into a single ostium
pharyngeum; no tongue. DACTYLETHRIDAE, PIPIDAE.
B. Phaneroglossa, Eustachian tubes separated; tongue
present. DlSCOGLOSSIDAE.PELOBATIDAE, HEMIPHRACTIDAE, AMPHI-
GNATHODONTIDAE, HYLIDAE, BUFONIDAE, DENDROPHRYNISCIDAE,
CYSTIGNATHIDAE, DYSCOPHIDAE.GENYOPHRYNIDAB, ENGYSTOMA-
TIDAE, CERATOBATRACHIDAE, RANIDAE, DENDROBATIDAH.
The Phaneroglossa are divided into two groups; Arcifera and
Firmislertiia, representing two stages of evolution. The family
characters are mainly derived from the dilatation or non-dilatation of
the sacral diapophyses, and the presence of teeth in one or both jaws,
or- their absence. The Discoglossidae are noteworthy for the presence
of short ribs to some of the vertebrae, and in some other points also
they approach the tailed batrachians; they may be safely regarded
as, on the whole, the most generalized of known Ecaudata. Distinct
ribs are present at an early age in the Aglossa, as discovered by
W. G. Ridewood (23). The recent addition of a third genus of
Aglossa, Hymenochirus (24) from tropical Africa, combining. char-
acters of Pipa and Xenopus, has removed every doubt as to the real
affinity which connects these genera. Hymenochirus is further re-
markable for the presence of only six distinct pieces in the vertebral
524
BATRACHIA
thus the most abbreviated among all the
column, which
vertebrata.
Frogs and toads occur wherever insect food is procurable, and
their distribution is a world- wide one, with the exception of many
islands. Thus New Caledonia, which has a rich and quite special
lizard-fauna, has no batrachians of its own, although the Australian
Hyla aurea has been introduced with success. New Zealand possesses
only one species (Liopelma hochstetteri) , which appears to be rare
and restricted to the North Island. The forest regions of southern
Asia Africa and South America are particularly rich in species.
According to our present knowledge, the Ecaudata can be traced
about as far back in time as the Caudata. An unmistakable
batrachian of this order, referred by its describer to Palaeobatrachus ,
a determination which is only provisional, has been discovered in
the Kimmeridgian of the Sierra del Montsech, Catalonia (25), in
a therefore somewhat older formation than the Wealden Caudata
Hylaeobatrachus.
Apart from a few unsatisfactory remains from the Eocene ot
Wyoming, fossil tailless batrachians are otherwise only known from
the Oligocene, Miocene and Pliocene of Europe and India. These
forms differ very little from those that live at the present day in the
same part of the world, and some of the genera (Discoglossus, Bufo,
Oxyglossus, Rana) are even identical. Palaeobatrachus (26), of which
a number of species represented by skeletons of the perfect form
and of the tadpole have been described from Miocene beds in Ger-
many, Bohemia and France, seems to be referable to the Pelo-
batidae ; this genus has been considered as possibly one of the Aglossa,
but the absence of ribs in the larvae speaks against such an
association.
Numerous additions have been made to our knowledge ot the
development and nursing habits, which are extremely varied, some
forms dispensing with or hurrying through the metamorphoses
and hopping out of the egg in the perfect condition (27).
Skeleton. In the earliest forms of this order, the Stegocephaha,
we meet with considerable variety in the constitution of the verte-
brae, and these modifications have been used for their classification.
All agree, however, in having each vertebra formed of at least two
pieces, the suture between which persists throughout life. In this
they differ from the three orders which have living representatives.
Even the inferior arches or chevrons of the tail of salamanders are
continuously ossified with the centra. As a matter of fact, these
vertebrae have no centra proper, that part which should correspond
with the centrum being formed, as a study of the development has
shown (H. Gadow, 14), by the meeting and subsequent complete
"co-ossification of the two chief dorsal and ventral pairs of elements
(tail- vertebrae of Caudata), or entirely by the pair of dorsal elements.
In the Ecaudata, the vertebrae of the trunk, are formed on two
different plans. In some the notochord remains for a long time
exposed along the ventral surface, and, owing to the absence of
cartilaginous formation around it, disappears without ever becom-
ing invested otherwise than by a thin elastic membrane ; it can be
easily stripped off below the vertebrae in larval specimens on the
point of metamorphosing. This has been termed the epichordal
type. In others, which represent the perichordal type, the greater
share of the formation of the whole vertebra falls to the (paired)
dorsal cartilage, but there is in addition a narrow ventral or hypo-
chordal cartilage which fuses with the dorsal or becomes connected
with it by calcified tissue; the notochord is thus completely sur-
rounded by a thick sheath in tadpoles with imperfectly developed
limbs. This mode of formation of both the arch and the greater
part or whole of the so-called centrum from the same cartilage
explains why there is never a neuro-central suture in these ba-
trachians.
During segmentation of the dorsal cartilages mentioned above,
which send out the transverse processes of diappphyses, there appears
between each two centra an intervertebral cartilage, out of which the
articulating condyle of the centrum is formed, and becomes attached
FIG. 4. The first two vertebrae of Necturus (X|). Vt l , Atlas; VP
second vertebrae; a, intercpndyloid process of the atlas; b, thi
articular surfaces for the occipital condyles. The ribs of the secpnc
vertebra are not represented. A, Dorsal ; B, ventral ; C, lateral view
either to the vertebra anterior (precocious type) or posterior (opis-
thocoelous type) to it, if not remaining as an independent, inter
vertebral, ossified sphere, as we sometimes find in specimens o
Pelobatidae.
In the Caudata and Apoda, cartilage often persists between
.he vertebrae; this cartilage may become imperfectly separated
nto a cup-and-ball portion, the cup belonging to the posterior end
of the vertebra. In such cases the distinction between amphicoelous
and opisthocoelous vertebrae rests merely on a question of ossi-
sy..
Js
SR 2
FIG. 5. Necturus. Posterior (A) FIG. 6. Vertebral
and ventral (B) views of the sacral column of Hymeno-
vertebrae (S.K.); S.R. 1 , S.R.*, sac- chirus (ventral view),
ral ribs; //, ilium; Is, ischium.
fication, and has occasionally given rise to misunderstandings in the
use of these terms.
Amphicoelous (bi-concave) vertebrae are found in the Apoda and
in some of the Caudata ; opisthocoelous (convexo-concave) verte-
brae in the higher Caudata and in the lower Ecaudata; whilst the
great majority of the Ecaudata have procoelous (concavo-convex)
vertebrae.
All living batrachians, and some of the Stegocephalia, have trans-
verse processes on the vertebrae that succeed the atlas (fig. 4), some
of which, in the Cau-
data, are divided into >..., ^ g3 _. p .
a dorsal and a ventral ^
portion. Ribs are
present in the lower
Ecaudata (Discoglos-
sidae and larval
Aglossa), but they are
never connected with a
sternum. It is in fact
doubtful whether the
so-called sternum of
batrachians, in most
cases a mere plate of
cartilage, has been cor-
rectly identified as such.
When limbs are present,
one vertebra, rarely two
(fig- 5) or three, are
distinguished as sacral,
giving attachment to
the ilia. In the Ecau-
data, the form of the
transverse processes of *L
the sacral vertebra
varies very consider-
Hu.J.
FIG. 7. Chondrocranium of Rana escu-
lenta ventral aspect.
, The rhinal process.
[/. The praenasal processes.
The alinasal processes, shown by the
removal of part of the floor of the
left nasal chamber,
ably, and has afforded AQ The antorbital process .
important characters to ., The dide of the suspe nsorium
the systematist. In f ,.
accordance with the
saltatorial habits of the
members of this order,
the vertebrae, which
continued into cv, the ventral crus
of the suspensorium.
cd. Its dorsal crus.
tf, The tegmen tympani.
SB, The sphen-ethmoid.
, -
number from 40 to 60 RO ' The e ^ occipita i s .
in the Caudata, to up- Q j The quad ^ atojuga l.
wards of 200 in the J r y yi Foramina J by wh ; c h the optic,
Apoda, have become trigemina | and ^(0 dura, and ab-
reduced to 10 as the ducens nerve s leave the skull,
normal number, viz.,
eight praecaudal, one sacral and an elongate coccyx or urostyle,
formed by coalescence of at least two vertebrae. In some genera
this coccyx is fused with the ninth vertebra, and contributes to the
BATRACHIA
525
sacrum, whilst in a few others the number of segments is still
further reduced by the co-ossification of one or two vertebrae
preceding that corresponding to the normal sacral and by the fusion
of the two first vertebrae, the extreme of reduction being found in
FIG. 8. The skull of Ichthyophis glutinosus. A, Dorsal; B,
ventral ; C, lateral view. The letters have the same signification as
below.
the genus Hymenochirus, the vertebral column of which is figured
here (fig. 6.)
As stated above in the definition of the order, the Stegocephalia
have retained most of the cranial bones which are to be found in the
Crossopterygian fishes, and it is worthy of note that the bones termed
post-temporals may give attachment to a further bone so prolonged
backwards as to suggest the probability of the skull being connected
with the shoulder-girdle, as in most teleostome fishes. This sup-
position is supported by a specimen from the Lower Permian of
Autun, determined as Actinodon frossardi, acquired in 1902 by the
British Museum, which shows a bone, similar to the so-called "epiotic
cornu " of the microsaurians, Ceraterpeton and Scincosaurus, to have
the relations of the supra-cleithrum of fishes, thus confirming a
suggestion made by C. W. Andrews (28). As in fishes also, the
sensory canal system must have been highly developed on the skulls
of many labyrinthodonts, and the impressions left by these canals
have been utilized by morphologists for homologizing the various
elements of the cranial roof with those of Crossopterygians. The
pineal foramen, in the parietal bones, is as constantly present as it
is absent in the other orders. Although not strictly forming part
of the skull, allusion should be made here to the ring of sclerotic
plates which has been found in many of the Stegocephalia, and
which is only found elsewhere in a few Crossopterygian fishes as well
as in many reptiles and birds.
In the orders which are still represented at the present day, the
bones of the skull are reduced in number and the " primordial
skull," or chondrocranium (fig. 7), remains to a greater or less extent
unossified, even in the adult. Huxley's figures of the skull of a
caecilian (Ichthyophis glutinosus), fig. 8, of a perennibranchiate
urodele (Necturus maculosus = Menobranchus lateralis), fig. 9, and of
a frog (Rana esculenta), fig. 10, are here given for comparison.
The skull, in the Apoda, is remarkably solid and compact, and it
possesses a postorbital or postfrontal bone (marked I in the figure)
which does not exist in any of the other living batrachians. The
squamosal bone is large and either in contact with the frpntals and
parietals or separated from them by a vacuity; "the orbit is some-
times roofed over by bone. The presence, in some genera, of a second
row of mandibular teeth seems to indicate the former existence of
a splenial element, such as exists in Siren among the Caudata and
apparently in the labyrinthodonts.
In the Caudata, the frontals remain likewise distinct from the
parietals, whilst in the Ecaudata the two elements are fused into
one, and in a few forms (Aglossa, some Pelobalidae) the paired con-
dition of these bones has disappeared in the adult. Prefrontal bones
are present in the Salamandridae and Amphiumidae, but absent (or
fused with the nasals) in the other Caudata and in the Ecaudata.
In most of the former the palatines fuse with the vomers, whilst they
remain distinct, unless entirely lost, in the latter. The vomer is single,
or absent, in the Aglossa. In the lower jaw of most of the Ecaudata
the symphysial cartilages ossify separately from the dentary bones,
forming the so-called mento-meckelian bones; but these symphysial
bones, so distinct in the frog, are less so in the Hylidae and Bufonidae,
almost indistinguishable in the Pelobalidae and Discoglossidae, whilst
in the Aglossa they do not exist any more than in the other orders
of batrachians.
No batrachian is known to possess an ossified azygous supra-
occipital.
Although there are four branchial arches in all the larval forms
of the three orders, and throughout life in the Sircnidae, the perenni-
v.*-*
Met.
FIG. 9. Lateral, dorsal and ventral views of the cranium of
Necturus maculosus. In the dorsal view, the bones are removed from
the left half of the skull; in the ventral view, the parasphenoid,
palato-pterygoid, and vomers are given in outline. The letters have,
for the most part, the same signification as before.
Vll.p, Posterior division of the a,
seventh nerve.
VII. Chorda tympani.
V'.V.V, First, second and third
divisions of the trigeminal.
s.s.l, Stapedio-suspensorial liga-
ment.
h.s.l, Hyo-suspensorial ligament.
m.h.l, Mandibulo-hyoid ligament.
of the
P,
?.
o,
Na,
Ascending process
suspense rium.
Pterygo-palatine process.
Quadrate process.
Otic process.
Posterior nares.
Mck, Meckel's cartilage.
Gl. (fig. 10), The position of the
glottis.
Bb\ Bb*, Basilbranchials.
branchiate Proteidae have only three (see fig. n). In the adult
Apoda these arches and the hyoid fuse into three transverse, curved
or angular bones (see fig. 13), the two posterior disconnected from
the hyoid. In the Ecaudata, as shown by E. Gaupp (29) and by
W. G. Ridewood (30), the whole hyobranchial apparatus forms a
cartilaginous continuum, and during metamorphosis the branchialia
disappear without a trace. The hyoid of the adult frog (fig. 12)
526
BATRACHIA
cesses on
consists of a plate of cartilage with two slender cornua, three pro-
each side, and two long bony rods behind, termed
the thyro-hyals, which
embrace the larynx.
In the Aglossa, which
are remarkable for the
large size and com-
plexity of the larynx,
the thyro-hyal bones
are incorporated into
the laryngeal appara-
tus, whilst the recently
discovered Hymeno-
chirus is further re-
markable for the large
size and ossification of
the hyoidean cornua
(ceratohyals), a feature
which, though not un-
common among the
salamanders, is unique
among the Ecaudata
(31).
The pectoral girdle
of the Stegocephalia is,
of course, only known
from the ossified ele-
ments, the identifica-
tion of which has given
rise to some diversity
of opinion. But C.
Gegenbaur's (32) inter-
pretation may be re-
garded as final. He
has shown that, as
in the Crossopterygian
and Chondrostean
ganoid fishes, there
are two clavicular ele-
ments on each side;
the lower corresponds
to the clavicle of rep-
tiles and higher verte-
brates, whilst the up-
per corresponds to
the clavicle of tcleos-
tean fishes, and has
been named by him
"cleithrum." Ass,tated
above, there is strong
evidence in favour of
the view that some
forms at least pos-
sessed in addition a
"supracleithrum," cor-
responding to the
supra-clavicle of bony
fishes. The element
often termed " cora-
coid " in these fossils
would be the scapula.
The clavicles rest on a
large discoidal, rhom-
boidal, or T-shaped
median bone, which
V,
FIG. 10. Dorsal,ventral,lateral and pos-
terior views of the skull of Rana csculenta.
The letters have the same signification
throughout.
Pmx, Premaxilla.
MX, Maxilla.
Vomer.
Nasal.
Sphen-ethmoid.
Frontal.
Parietal.
E.O, Exoccipital.
Ep, Epiotic process.
Pr.O, Pro-otic.
/./, Tegmentympani.
Squamosal.
Quadratp-jugal. V 1 .
Pterygoid, an-
terior process.
Internal process.
Posterior or exter-
nal process.
Columella auris.
Stapes.
Vo,
Na,
S.e,
Fr,
Pa,
%.
P.S, Parasphenoid.
An, Angulare.
D, Dentale.
Foramen of exit
of the trige-
minal.
Of the optic.
H,
X,
clearly corresponds to
the interclavicle of
Hy, Hyoidean cornu reptiles.
The pectoral girdle
of the living types of
batrachians is dis-
tinguishable into a
scapular, a coracoidal,
and a praecoracoidal
region. In most of the
)f the pneumo- Caudata the scapular
gastric and region alone ossifies,
glosso-pharyn- but in the Ecaudata
geal nerves. tne coracoid is bony
an d a clavicle is fre-
uently developed over
e praecoracoid car-
tilage. In these ba-
the fifth passes trachians the pectoral
to the nasal arcn f a ii s ; nto two dis-
cavity. tinct types the arci-
ferous, in which the
precoracoid (+clavicle) and coracoid are widely separated from
each other distally and connected by an arched cartilage (the epi-
coracoid), the right usually overlapping the left; and the firmi-
Pf,
Pt>,
Ca,
St,
Foramen by
which the or-
bito-nasal or
first division of
qu
the
FIG. ii. Hyoid and branchial
apparatus of Necturus maculosus.
Hh, Hypo-hyal. Ep.b\Ep.V,Ep.b\
Ch, Cerato-hyal. First, second
Bb 1 , First basi- and third epi-
branchial. branchials.
Bb*, Ossified second Gl, Glottis,
basibranchial.
sternal, in which both precoracoid and coracoid nearly abut on the
median line, and are only narrowly separated by the more or less
fused epicoracoids. The former type is exemplified by the toads
and the lower Ecaudata, whilst the latter is characteristic of the
true frogs (Ranidae), although when quite young these batrachians
present a condition similar to that which persists throughout life
in their lower relatives. A cartilage in the median line in front of
the precoracoids, sometimes
supported by a bony style,
is the so-called omosternum ;
a large one behind the cora-
coids, also sometimes pro-
vided with a bony style, has
been called the sternum.
But these names will prob-
ably have to be changed
when the homologies of
these parts are better under-
stood.
The pelvic arch of some
of the Stegocephalia con-
tained a well ossified pubic
element, whilst in all other
batrachians only the ilium,
or the ilium and the ischium
are ossified. In the Ecau-
data the ilium is greatly
elongated and the pubis and
ischium are flattened, dis-
coidal, and closely applied
to their fellows by their inner
surfaces; the pelvic girdle
looks like a pair of tongs.
The long bones of the
limbs consist of an axis of
cartilage; the extremities
of the cartilages frequently
undergo calcification and
are thus converted into epiphyses. In the Ecaudata the radius and
ulna coalesce into one bone. The carpus, which remains cartilagin-
ous in many of the Stegocephalia and Caudata, contains six to eight
elements when the manus is fully developed, whilst the number is
reduced in those forms which have only two or three digits. Except
in some of the Stegocephalia, there are only four functional digits
in the manus, but the Ecaudata have a more or less distinct rudi-
ment of pollex ; in the Caudata it seems to be the outer digit which
has been suppressed, as atavistic reappearance of a fifth digit takes
place on the outer side of thfi manus, as it does on the pes in those
forms in which the toes are reduced to four. The usual number of
phalanges is 2, 2, 3, 2 in the Stegocephalia and Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 3 in the
Ecaudata. I n the foot the digits usually number five, and the phalanges
2, 2, 3, 3, 2 in the Caudata, 2, 2, 3, 4, 3 in the Stegocephalia and
Ecaudata. There are occasionally intercalary ossifications between
the two distal phalanges (33). There are usually nine tarsal elements
in the Caudata; this number is reduced in the Ecaudata, in which
the two bones of the proximal row (sometimes coalesced) are much
elongated and form an additional segment to the greatly lengthened
hind-limb, a sort of crus^ secundarium. In the Ecaudata also, the
tibia and fibula coalesce into one bone, and two or three small bones
on the inner side of the tarsus form what has been regarded as a
rudimentary digit or " prehallux."
Integument. In all recent batrachians, the skin is naked, or if
small scales are present, as in many of the
Apoda, they are concealed in the skin. The
extinct Stegocephalia, on the other hand,
were mostly protected, on the ventral sur-
face at least, by an armour of overlapping
round, oval, or rhomboidal scales, often
very similar to those of Crossopterygian or
ganoid fishes, and likewise disposed in trans-
verse oblique lines converging forwards on
the middle line of the belly. Sometimes
these scales assumed the importance of
scutes and formed a carapace, as in the
" batrachian armadillo " discovered by E.
D. Cope. A few frogs have the skin of the
back studded with stellate bony deposits
Phyllomedusa, Nototrema), whilst two genera
are remarkable for possessing a bony dorsal
shield, free from the vertebrae (Ceratorphrys)
ankylosed to them (Brachycephalus).
FIG. 12. Ventral
view of the hyoid of
Rana escuknta. a, An-
terior; ft, lateral; c,
posterior processes ;
d, thyrohyals.
None of the Stegocephalia appears to have
been provided with claws, but some living
batrachians (Onychodactylus, Xenopus, Hymenochirus) have the tips
of some or all of the digits protected by a claw-like horny sheath.
The integument of tailed and tailless batrachians is remarkable
for the great abundance of follicular glands, of which there may
be two kinds, each having a special secretion, which is always more
or less acrid and irritating, and affords a means of defence against
the attacks of many carnivorous animals. A great deal has been
BATRACHIA
527
published on the poisonous secretion of batrachians (34), which is
utilized by the Indians of South America for poisoning their arrows.
Some of the poison-secreting glands attain a greater complication
of structure and are remarkable for their large size, such as the so-
called " parotoid " glands on the back of the
head in toads and salamanders.
In all larval forms, in the Caudata, and in
a few of the Ecaudata (Xenopus, for instance),
the epidermis becomes modified in relation
with the termination of sensory nerves, and
gives rise to organs of the same nature as
those of the lateral line of fishes. In addition
to diffuse pigment (mostly in the epidermis),
the skin contains granular pigment stored up
in cells, the chromatophores, restricted to the
cutis, which are highly mobile and send out
branches which, by contraction and expan-
sion, may rapidly alter the coloration, most
batrachians being in this respect quite com-
parable to the famous chameleons. Besides
white (guanine) cells, the pigment includes
black, brown, yellow and red. The green
and blue, so frequent in frogs and newts,
are merely subjective colours, due to inter-
ference. On the mechanism of the change of
colour, cf. W. Biedermann (35).
One of the interesting recent discoveries is
that of the " hairy " frog (Trichobatrachus), in
which the sides of the body and limbs are
covered with long villosities, the function of
which is still unknown (36).
The nuptial horny asperities with which
the males of many batrachians are provided,
for the purpose of clinging to the females, will
be noticed below, under the heading Pairing
and Oviposition.
Dentition. In the Microsauria and Branch-
iosauria among the Stegocephalia, as in the
other orders, the hollow, conical or slightly
curved teeth exhibit simple or only slightly
folded walls. But in the Labyrinthodonta,
grooves are more or less marked along the
teeth and give rise to folds of the wall which,
extending inwards and ramifying, produce the
complicated structure, exhibited by trans-
verse sections, whence these batrachians de-
rive their name; a somewhat similar com-
plexity of structure is known in some holop-
tychian (dendroflont) Crossopterygian fishes.
In the remarkable salamander Autodax, the
teeth in the jaws are compressed, sharp-edged,
lancet shaped. The teeth are not implanted
in sockets, but become ankylosed with the
bones that bear them, and are replaced by
_. ,. others developed at their bases. Teeth are
r IG. 13. Ventral present in the jaws of all known Stegocephalia
view of the head an d Apoda and of nearly all Caudata, Siren
and trunk of Ichthy- a i O ne presenting plates of horn upon the
ophis glutinosus. gingival surfaces of the preroaxitlae and of
Mn, Mandible. the dentary elements of the mandible. But
Hyl Hyoid. they are nearly always absent in the lower
Br 1 ', Br', Br 1 , Bran-J aw f the Ecaudata (exceptions in Hemi-
chial arches, phractus, Amphignathodon, Amphodus, Cerato-
Gl, Glottis. batrachus, the male of Dimorphognathus), many
TV, Trachea. f which (toads, for instance) are entirely
Ac, Inferior' vena edentulous.
cava. There is great variety in the distribution
V, Ventricle. f the teeth on the palate. They may occur
Ait, Auricles.' simultaneously on the vomers, the palatines,
Rsvc, Lsvc, right the pterygoids and the parasphenoid in
and left supe- some of the Stegocephalia (Dawsonia, Seeleya,
rior cavae. Acanthostoma), on the vomers, palatines and
Ta, Truncus ' ar- parasphenoid in many salamandrids (Pletho-
teriosus. dontinae and Desmognathinae), on the vomers,
Ao, Left aortic pterygoids and parasphenoid (some Pelobates) ,
arch, on the vomers and parasphenoid (Triprion,
P. A. Right pulmon- Amphodus), whilst in the majority of other
ary artery. The batrachians they are confined to the vomers
pericard'ium anc ' palatines or to the vomers alone (37).
(Tightly shaded) As regards the alimentary organs, it will
extends as far suffice to state, in this very brief sketch, that
as the bifurca- a " batrachians being carnivorous in their
tion of the perfect condition, the intestine is never very
synangium. I n g and its convolutions are few and simple.
But the larvae of the Ecaudata are mainly
herbivorous and the digestive tract is accordingly extremely elongate
and coiled up like the spring of a watch. The gullet is short, except
in the Apoda. The tongue is rudimentary in the perennibranchiate
Caudata, well developed, and often protrusile, in the Salamandridae
and most of the Ecaudata, totally absent in the Aglossa.
The organs of circulation cannot be dealt with here; the moat
important addition made to our knowledge in recent years being
found in the contributions of F. Hochstetter (38) and of G. B. Howes
(39), dealing with the azygous (posterior) cardinal veins in sala-
manders and some of the Ecaudata. The bean is situated quite
forward, in the gular or pectoral region, even in those tailed
batrachians which have a serpentiform body, whilst in the Apoda
(fig. 13) it is moved back to a distance which is comparable to that it
occupies in most of the snakes.
The Respiratory Organs. The larynx, which is rudimentary in
most of the Caudata and in the Apoda, is highly developed in the
Ecaudata, and becomes the instrument of the powerful voice with
which many of the frogs and toads are provided. The lungs are long
simple tubes in some of the perennibranchiate Caudata ; they gener-
ally shorten or become cellular in the salaraandrids, and attain their
highest development in the Ecaudata, especially in such forms as
the burrowing Pelobates. Although the lungs are present in such
forms as preserve the gills throughout life, it is highly remarkable
that quite a number of abranchiate salamanders, belonging mostly
to the subfamilies Desmognathinae and Plethodontinae, are devoid
of lungs and breathe entirely by the skin and by the bucco-pharyngeal
mucpse membrane (20). Some of the Salamandrinae show the inter-
mediate conditions which have led to the suppression of the trachea
and lungs. In the Apoda, as in many serpentiform reptiles, one of
the lungs, either the right or the left, is much less developed than the
other, often very short.
Urino-genital Organs. The genital glands, ovaries and testes, are
attached to the dorsal wall of the body-cavity, in the immediate
vicinity of the kidneys, with which the male glands are intimately
connected. The oviducts are long, usually more or less convoluted
tubes which open posteriorly into the cloaca, while their anterior
aperture is situated far forward, sometimes close to the root of the
lung; their walls secrete a gelatinous substance which invests the
ova as they descend. In most male batrachians the testes are
drained by transverse canals which open into a longitudinal duct,
which also receives the canals of the kidneys, so that this common
duct conveys both sperma and urine. In some of the discoglossid
frogs, however, the seminal duct is quite independent of the kidney,
which has its own canal, or true ureter. Many of the Ecaudata have
remnants of oviducts, or Mullerian ducts, most developed in Bujo,
which genus is also remarkable as possessing a problematic organ.
Bidder s organ, situated between the testis and the adipose or
fat-bodies that surmount it. This has been regarded by some
anatomists as a rudimentary ovary. Female salamandrids are
provided with a receptaculum seminis. Copulatory organs are absent,
except in the Apoda, in which a portion of the cloaca can be everted
and acts as a penis. The urinary bladder is always large.
The spermatozoa have received a great share of attention, on
the part not only of anatomists and physiologists, but even of sys-
tematic workers (40). This is due to the great amount of difference
in structure and size between these elements in the various genera,
and also to the fact that otherwise closely allied species may differ
very considerably in this respect. The failure to obtain hybrids
between certain species of Rana has been attributed principally to
these differences. The spermatozoa of Discoglossus are remarkable
for their great size, measuring three millimetres in length.
Pairing and Oviposition. Batrachians may be divided into four
categories under this head: (l) no amplexation; (2) amplexation
without internal fecundation; (3) amplexation with internal fecun-
dation; (4) copulation proper. The first category embraces many
aquatic newts, the second nearly all the Ecaudata, the third the rest
of the Caudata, and the fourth the Apoda.
In the typical newts (Molge) of Europe, the males are adorned
during the breeding season with bright colours and crests or other
ornamental dermal appendages, and, resorting to the water, they
engage in a lengthy courtship accompanied by lively evolutions
around the females, near which they deposit their spermatozoa in
bundles on a gelatinous mass, the spermatophore, probably secreted
by the cloacal gland. This arrangement facilitates the internal
fecundation of the female without copulation, the female absorbs
the spermatozoa by squeezing them out of the spermatophore
between the cloacal lips. Other newts, and many salamanders,
whether terrestrial or aquatic, pair, the male embracing the female
about the fore limbs or in the pelvic region, and the males of such
forms are invariably devoid of ornamental secondary sexual char-
acters; but in spite of this amplexation the same mode of fecun-
dation by means of a spermatopnore is resorted to, although it may
happen that the contents of the spermatophore are absorbed direct
from the cloaca of the male. The spermatozoa thus reach the eggs
in the oviducts, where they may develop entirely, some of the
salamanders being viviparous.
In all the tailless batrachians (with the exception of a single known
viviparous toad),the male clings to the female round the breast, at the
arm-pits, or round the waist, and awaits, often for hours or days,
the deposition of the ova, which are immediately fecundated by
several seminal emissions.
The fourth category is represented by the Apoda or Caecilians
in which, as we have stated above, the male is provided with an
intromittent organ. Some of these batrachians are viviparous.
In those species in which the embrace is of long duration the limbs
BATRACHIA
of the male, usually the fore limbs (pleurodele newt, Ecaudata),
rarely the hind limbs (a few American and European newts), accord-
ing to the mode of amplexation, acquire a greater development, and
are often armed with temporary horny excrescences which drop off
after the pairing season. These asperities usually form brush-like
patches on the inner side of one or more of the digits, but may extend
over the inner surface of the limbs and on the breast and chin;
the use of them on these parts is sufficiently obvious, but they are
sometimes also present, without apparent function, on various parts
of the foot, as in Discoglossus, Bombinator, and Pelodytes. In some
species of the South American frogs of the genus Leptodactylus the
breast and hands are armed with very large spines, which inflict
deep wounds on the female held in embrace.
In most of the Caudata, the eggs are deposited singly in the axils
of water plants or on leaves which the female folds over the egg with
her hind limbs. The eggs are also deposited singly in some of the
lower Ecaudata. In many of the Ecaudata, and in a few of the
Caudata and Apoda, the eggs are laid in strings or bands which are
twined round aquatic plants or carried by the parent; whilst in
other Ecaudata they form large masses which either float on the
surface of the water or. sink to the bottom.
A few batrachians retain the ova within the oviducts until the
young have undergone part or the whole of the metamorphosis. Vivi-
parous parturition is known among the Caudata (Salamandra,
Spelerpesfuscus), and the Apoda (Dermophis thomensis, Typhlonectes
compress icauda) ; also in a little toad (Pseudophryne vivipara) re-
cently discovered in German East Africa (41).
Development and Metamorphosis. In a great number of ba-
trachians, including most of the European species, the egg is small
and the food-yolk is in insufficient quantity to form an external
appendage of the embryo. But in a few European and North
American species, and in a great many inhabitants of the tropics,
the egg is large and a considerable portion of it persists for a long
time as a yolk-sac. Although the segmentation is always complete,
it is very irregular in these types, some of which make a distinct
approach to the meroblastic egg.
With the exception of a number of forms in which the whole
development takes place within the egg or in the body of the mother,
batrachians undergo metamorphoses, the young passing through
a free-swimming, gill-breathing period of considerable duration,
during which their appearance, structure, and often their regime,
are essentially different from those of the mature form. Even the
fossil Stegocephalia underwent metamorphosis, as we know from
various larval remains first described as Branchiosaurus. They are
less marked or more gradual in the Apoda and Caudata than in
Ecaudata, in which the stage known as tadpole is very unlike the
frog or toad into which it rather suddenly passes (see TADPOLE).
In the Caudata, external gills (three on each side) persist until the
close of the metamorphosis, whilst in the Apoda and Ecaudata
they exist only during the earlier periods, being afterwards replaced
by internal gills.
Many cases are known in which the young batrachian enters the
world in the perfect condition, as in the black salamander of the
Alps (Salamandra atra), the cave salamander (Spelerpes fuscus), the
caecilian Typhlonectes, and a number of frogs, such as Pipa, Rhino-
derma, Hylpdes, some Nototrema, Rana opislhodon, &c. A fairly-
complete bibliographical index to these cases and the most remark-
able instances of parental care in tailless batrachians will be found
in the interesting articles by Lilian V. Sampson (42), and by G.
Brandes and W. Schoenichen (43). It will suffice to indicate here
in a synoptic form, as was done by the present writer many years
ago, when our knowledge of these wonders of batrachian life was
far less advanced than it is now, the principal modes of protection
which are resorted to :
1. Protection by means of nests or nurseries.
A. In enclosures in the water. Hylafaber.
B. In nests in holes near the water. Rhacophorus, Lepto-
dactylus.
C. In nests overhanging the water. Rhacophorus, Chiro-
manlis, Phyllomedusa.
D. On trees or in moss away from the water. Rana opislho-
don, Hylodts, Hylella platycephala.
E. In a gelatinous bag in the water. Phrynixalus, Salaman-
drella.
2. Direct nursing by the parents.
A Tadpoles transported from one place to another.
Dendrobates, Phyllobates, Sooglossus.
B. Eggs protected by the parents who coil themselves round
or " sit " on them. Manlophryne, Desmognathus,
Autodax, Plethodon, Cryptobranchus, Amphiuma,
Ichthyophis, Hypogeophis, Siphonops.
^ggs carried by the parents.
(a) Round the legs, by the male. Alytes.
(b) On the back, by the female.
(1) Exposed. Uyla goeldii, II. evansii, Cerato-
hyla.
(2) In cell-like pouches. Pipa.
(3) In a common pouch. Nototrema, Amphi-
gnathodon.
C.
(c) On the belly.
(1) Exposed, by the female. Rhacophorus re-
ticulatus.
(2) In a pouch (the produced vocal sac), by the
male. Rhinoderma.
(d) In the mouth, by the female. Hylambates brevi-
rostris.
Geographical Distribution. If a division of the world according
to its batrachian faunae were to be attempted, it would differ very
considerably from that which would answer for the principal groups
of reptiles, the lizards especially. We should have four great
realms: (i) Europe and Northern and Temperate Asia, Africa
north of the Sahara (palaearctic region) and North and Central
America (nearctic region); (2) Africa and South-Eastern Asia
(Ethiopian and Indian region) ; (3) South America (neotropical
region); and (4) Australia (Australian region). The first would be
characterized by the Caudata, which are almost confined to it
(although a few species penetrate into the Indian and neotropical
regions), the Discoglossidae, mostly Europaeo-Asiatic, but one genus
in California, and the numerous Pelobatidae; the second by the
presence of Apoda, the prevalence of firmisternal Ecaudata and the
absence of Hylidae; the third by the presence of Apoda, the pre-
valence of arciferous Ecaudata and the scarcity of Ranidae, the
fourth by the prevalence of arciferous Ecaudata and the absence of
Ranidae, as well as by the absence of either Caudata or Apoda.
Madagascar might almost stand as a fifth division of the world,
characterized by the total absence of Caudata, Apoda, and arciferous
Ecaudata. But the close relation of its very rich frog-fauna to that
of the Ethiopian and Indian regions speaks against attaching too
great importance to these negative features. It may be noted here
that no two parts of the world differ so considerably in their Ecau-
data as dp Madagascar and Australia, the former having only
Firmisternia, the latter only Arcifera. Although there is much
similarity between the Apoda of Africa and of South America, one
genus being even common to both parts of the world, the frogs are
extremely different, apart from the numerous representatives of
the widely distributed genus Bufo. It may be said that, on the whole,
the distribution of the batrachians agrees to some extent with that
of fresh-water fishes, except for the much less marked affinity
between South America and Africa, although even among the former
we have the striking example of the distribution of the very natural
group of the aglossal batrachians, represented by Pipa in South
America and by Xenopus and Hymenockirus in Africa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. (1) On the use of the names Batrachia and
Amphibia, cf. E. D. Cope, Geol Mag. (3) ii., 1885, p. 575; G. Baur,
Science (2), vi., 1897, pp. 170, 372; B. G. Wilder, I.e. p. 295; T Gill,
I.e. p. 446; O. P. Hay, t.c. p. 773; T. Gill, Science (2), xx., 1900,
p. 730; L. Steineger, op. cil. xx., 1904, p. 924. (2) E. Fraas, " Die
Labyrinthpdonten der schwabischen Trias," Palaeontogr. xxxvi.,
1889, p. i. (3) Proc. Zool. Soc., 1904, ii. p. 170. (4) E. D. Cope,
" Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia of North America," Proc. Ac.
Philad., 1868, p. 208. (5) " Researches on the Structure, Organiza-
tion and Classification of the Fossil Reptilia, vii " Phil. Trans.
clxxxiii. (B), 1892, p. 311. (6) Cambridge Natural History, viii.
(1901). (7) " Die Urvierfiissler (Eotetrapoda) des sachsischen
Rotliegenden," Allgem. verstandl. naturh. Abh., Berlin, 1891, No. 15;
" Die Entwicklungsgeschichte von Branchiosaurus amblystomus,"
Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges., 1886, p. 576. (8) C. Emery, " Ober die
Beziehungen des Chiropterygium zum Ichthyopterygium," Zool-
Anz. x., 1887, p. 185; E. D. Cope, "On the Phylogeny of the
Vertebrata," Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. xxx., 1892, p. 280; H. B.
Pollard, " On the Anatomy and Phylogenetic Position of Polypterus,"
Zool. Jahrb. Anat. v., 1892, p. 414; G. Baur, "The Stegocephali :
a Phylogenetic Study," Anat. Anz. xi., 1896, p. 657; L. Dollo, " Sur
le phylogenie des dipneustes," Mem. soc. beige geol. ix., 1895,
p. 79; T. Gill, "On the Derivation of the Pectoral Member in
Terrestrial Vertebrates," Rep. Brit. Ass., 1897, p. 697. (9) E. D.
Cope, " The Origin of the Mammalia," Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.
xxii., 1884, p. 43; cf. Discussion on Origin of Mammals, Proc.
Intern. Congr. Zool., Cambridge, 1898; also H. Gadow, " The Origin
of the Mammalia," Z. f. Morphol. iv., 1902, p. 345; and R. Broom,
Rep. Brit. Ass., 1905, p. 437. (10) A. Fritsch, Fauna der GaskoUe und
der Kalksteine der Permformation Bohmens, vols. i. and ii (Prague,
1879-1885, 4to); H. Credner, " Die Stegpcephalen aus dem Rotlie-
genden des Plauenschen Grundes bei Dresden," Zeitschr. deutsch.
geol. Ges., 1881-1894; J- W. Dawson, "On the Results of Recent
Explorations of Erect Trees containing Animal Remains in the Coal
Formation of Nova Scotia," Phil. Trans, clxxiii., 1882, p. 621;
H. B. Geinitz and J. V. Deichmuller, " Die Saurier der unteren
Dyas von Sachsen," Palaeontogr. xxix., 1882, p. I; A. Gaudry, Les
Enchatnements du monde animal dans les temps geologiques, fossiles
primaires (Paris, 1883, 8vo), p. 251; E. D. Cope, " The Batrachia
of the Permian Period of North America," Amer. Nat. xviii., 1884,
p. 26; E. Fraas, " Die Labyrinthodonten der schwabischen Trias, '
Palaeontogr. xxxvi., 1889, p. I; L. v. Ammon, Die permischen
Amphibien der Rheinpfalz (Munich, 1880^-1891, Ato) ; R. Lydekker,
Catalogue of the Fossil Reptilia and Amphibia in tlte British Museum,
part iv. (London, 1890, 8vo); E. Fraas, Die schwabischen Trias-
Saurier nach dem Material der k. Naturalien-Sammlung in Stuttgart
zusammengestellt (Stuttgart, 1896, 410) ; O. Jaekel, " Die Organization
BATRACHOMYOMACHIA BATTANNI
529
von Archegosaurus," Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. xlviii., 1896,
p. 505; F. Broili, " Ein Beitrag zur Kenntnis von Eryops mega-
cephalus," Palaeontogr. xlvi., 1899, p. 6l. (11) "Amphibian Foot-
prints from the Devonian," Amer. Journ. Sci. ii., 1896, p. 374.
(12) " D6couverte du plus ancien amphibien connu . . . dans le
famcnnien superieur de Modavc," Bull. soc. beige geol. xv., 1888,
p. cxx. (13) " A Batrachian Armadillo," Amer. Nat. xxix., 1895,
p. 998. (14) C. Gegenbaur, Untersuchungen zur vergleichenden
Anatomic der Wirbelsdule bei Amphibien und Reptilien (Leipzig, 1862,
410) ; H. Gadow, " On the Evolution of the Vertebral Column of
Amphibia and Amniota," Phil. Trans, clxxxvii. (B), 1896, p. I.
(IS) R. Wiedersheim, Die Anatomic der Gymnophionen (Jena, 1879,
4to); W. Peters, " Ober die Eintcilung der Caecilien," Man.
Berl. Ac., 1879, p. 924; G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of Batrachia
Gradientia s. Caudata and Batrachia Apoda in the Collection of the
British Museum (London, 1882, 8vo), and "A Synopsis of the Genera
and Species of Apodal Batrachians," P.Z.S., 1895, p. 401. (16) " On
the Structure and Affinities of the Amphiumidae, Proc. Amer.
Philos. Soc. xxiii., 1886, p. 442. (17) Ergebnisse nalururissenschaft-
licher Forschungen auf Ceylon, ii. (Wiesbaden, 1887-1890, 410).
(18) " The Chondrocranium of the Ichthyopsida," Stud. Biol. Lab.
Tufts Coll. No. 5, 1898, p. 147. (19) G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue, &c.,
1882. (20) H. H. Wilder, "Lungenlose Salamandriden, Anal.
Anz. ix., 1894, p. 216; L. Camerano, " Ricerche anatomofisiologiche
intorno ai Salamandridi normalmente apneumoni," Atti Ace. Torin.
xxix., 1894, p. 705, and xxxi., 1896, p. 512; H. H. Wilder, " Lung-
less Salamanders," Anat. Anz. xii., 1896, p. 182; E. Loennberg,
" Notes on Tailed Batrachians without Lungs," Zool. Anz. xix., 1896,
p. 33. (21) " Note sur le batracien de Bernissart," Bull. mus. belg.
iii., 1884, p. 85. (22) G. A. Boulenger, Catalogue of Batrachia
Salientia s. Ecaudata in the Collection of the British Museum (London,
1882, 8vo). (23) " On the Development of the Vertebral Column in
Pipa and Xenopus," Anat. Anz. xiii., 1898, p. 359. (24) G. A.
Boulenger, " On Hymenochirus, a New Type of Aglossal Ba-
trachians," Ann. and Mag. N.H. (7), iv., 1899, p. 122. (25) L. M.
Vidal, Mem. Ac. Barcelona (3), iv., 1902, No. 18, pi. iv. (26) W.
Wolterstorff, "Ober fossile Frosche, insbesondere Palaeobatrachus,"
Jahrrsb. Nat. Ver. Magdeb., 1885 and 1886. (27) W. Peters, " Ober
die Entwickelung eines Batrachiers, Hylodes martinicensis, ohne
Metamorphose," Man. Berl. Ac., 1876, p. 709; A. Kappler, " Die
Ticrwelt im hollandischen Guiana, Das Ausland, 1885, p. 358;
G. A. Boulenger, " Reptiles and Batrachians of the Solomon Islands,"
Trans. Zool. Soc. xii., 1886, p. 51 ; H. v. Ihering, " On the Oviposition
of Phyllomedusa iheringii,' Ann. and Mag. N.H. (5), xvii., 1886,
p. 461 ; H. H. Smith, " On Oviposition and Nursing in the
poles," Amer. Nat. xxiii., 1889, p. 383; E. A. Goeldi, " Contribution
to the Knowledge of the Breeding Habits of some Tree-frogs of the
Serra dos Orgaos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil," P.Z.S., 1895. p. 89;
G. A. Boulenger, " On the Nursing Habits of two South American
Frogs," P.Z.S., 1895, p. 209; A. Brauer, " Ein neuer Fall von
Brutpflege bei Froschen," Zool. Jahrb. Syst. xi. ( 1898, p. 89; S. Ikeda,
" Notes on the Breeding Habit and Development of Rhacophorus
schlegelii," Annot. Zool. Japan, i., iSgS.p.ug; G. Brandes, " Larven
zweier Nototrema-Arten," Verh. deutsch. zoo/. Ges., 1899, p. 288;
L. v. Mehely, " Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Engystomatiden von
Neu-Guinea, ' Termes. Fuzetek, Budapest, xxiv., 1901, p. 216;
G. A. Boulenger, " Ceratohyla bubalus carrying eggs on its back,"
P.Z.S., 1903, ii. p. 115; Idem. " Description of a new Tree-frog
of the genus Hyla, from British Guiana, carrying eggs on the back,
op. cit., 1904, ii. p. 106; H. S. Ferguson, " Travancore Batrachians,"
J. Bombay N.H. Soc. xv., 1904, p. 499. (28) Geol. Mag. iv., ii.,
1895, p. 83. (29) " Das Hyobranchial-Skelett der Anura, Morph.
Arb. iii., 1894, p. 399. (30) " On the Structure and Development
of the Hyobranchial Skeleton of the Parsley Frog," P.Z.S., 1897,
P- 577- (31) W. G. Ridewood, " On the Hyobranchial Skeleton
and Larynx of Hvmenochirus ," /. Linn. Soc. xxviii., 1899, p. 454.
(32) Morphol. Jahrb. xxiii., 1895, p. I. (33) G. B. Howes and A. M.
Davies, P.Z.S., 1888, p. 495. (34) G. A. Boulenger, " The Poisonous
Secretion of Batrachians," Nat. Science, i., 1892, p. 185; F. Gidon,
Venins multiples et toxiciti humorale chez les batraciens (Paris, 1897,
8vo). (35) Arch. Ges. Physio!. Ii., 1892, p. 455. (36) G. A. Boulenger,
P.Z.S., 1900, p. 433, and 1901, ii. p. 709; H. Gadow, Anat. Anz.
xviii., 1900, p. 588. (37) G. A. Boulenger, " On the Presence of
Pterygoid Teeth in a Tailless Batrachian, with remarks on the
Localization of Teeth on the Palate," P.Z.S., 1890, p. 664. (38)
Morphol. Jahrb. xiii., 1887, p. 119. (39) P.Z.S., 1888, p. 122.
(40) G. A. Boulenger, Tailless Batrachians of Europe (1897), p. 75.
(41) G. Tornier, " Pseudophryne vivipara, cin lebendig gcbarender
Frosch," Sitzb. Ak. Ber. xxxix., 1905, p. 855. (42) " Unusual
Modes of Breeding and Development among Anura," Amer. Nat.
xxxiv., 1900, p. 405. (43) " Brutpflege der schwanzlosen
Batrachier." Abh. Nat. Ges., Halle, xxii., 1901, p. 395. (G. A. B.)
BATRACHOMYOMACHIA (Gr. /3dTpa X os, "frog," MW,
" mouse," and IJLO.XIJ, " battle "), the " Battle of Frogs and
Mice," a comic epic or parody on the Iliad, definitely attri-
buted to Homer by the Romans, but according to Plutarch (De
Herodoli Malignitatc, 43) the work of Pigres of Halicarnassus,
the brother (or son) of Artemisia, queen of Caria and ally of
Xerxes. Some modern scholars, however, assign it to an anony-
mous poet of the time of Alexander the Great.
Edition by A. Ludwich (1896).
BATTA, an Anglo-Indian military term, probably derived
from the Canarese bhatta (rice in the husk), meaning a special
allowance made to officers, soldiers, or other public servants in
the field.
BATTAGLIA, a town of Venetia, Italy, in the province of
Padua, ii m. S.S.W. by rail from Padua. Pop. (1001) 4456.
It lies at the edge of the volcanic Euganean Hills, and is noted
for its warm saline springs and natural vapour grotto. A fine
palace was erected in the I 'a Had i an style in the I7th century l>y
Marchese Benedetto Selvatico-Estensc, then owner of the
springs.
BATTAKHIN, African " Arabs " of Semitic stock. They
occupy the banks of the Blue Nile near Khartum, and it was
against them that General Gordon fought most of his battles
near the town. Their sheikh, El Obeid, routed Gordon's troops
on the 4th of September 1884, a defeat which led to the dose
investment of Khartum. In the i8th century James Bruce
described them as " a thieving, pilfering lot."
BATTALION, a unit of military organization consisting of four
or more companies of infantry. The term is used in nearly every
army, and is derived through Fr. from It. battaglione, Med. Lat.
battalia (see BATTLE). " Battalion " in the i6th and I7th centuries
implied a unit of infantry forming part of the line of battle,
but at first meant an unusually large battalia or a single large
body of men formed of several battalias. In the British regular
service the infantry battalion is commanded by a lieut.-colonel,
who is assisted by an adjutant, and consists at war strength of
about looo bayonets in eight companies. Engineers, train,
certain kinds of artillery, and more rarely cavalry are also
organized in battalions in some countries.
BATTAMBANG, or BATTAMBONG (locally Phratabong), the
chief town of the north-western division of Cambodia, formerly
capital of Monton Kmer, i.e. " The Cambodian Division," one of
the eastern provinces of Siam, now included in the French
protectorate of Cambodia. It is situated in 103 6' E., 13 6' N.,
in the midst of a fertile plain and on the river Sang Ke, which
flows eastwards and falls into the Tonle or Tale Sap, the great
lake of Cambodia. The town is a collection of bamboo houses of
no importance, but there is a walled enceinte of some historical
interest. Trade is small and is carried on by Chinese settlers,
chiefly overland with Bangkok, but to a small extent also by
water with Saigon. The population is about 5000, two-thirds
Cambodian and the remainder Chinese and Siamese. The
language is Cambodian.
Battambang was taken by the Siamese when they overran
the kingdom of Cambodia towards the end of the i8th century,
and was recognized by the French as belonging to Siam when
the frontier of Cambodia was adjusted by treaty in 1867-1872.
In another treaty in 1893, Siam bound herself to maintain no
armed forces there other than police, but this arrangement was
annulled by the treaty of 1904, by which Battambang was
definitely admitted to lie within the French sphere of influence.
Under a further treaty in March 1007 (see SIAM), the district of
Battambang was finally ceded to. the French.
BATTANNI, or BHITANI, a small tribe on the Waziri border of
the North-West Frontier Province of India. The Battannis
hold the hills on the borders of Tank and Bannu in the Dera
Ismail Khan district, from the Gabar mountain on the north to
the Gomal valley on the south. They are only 3000 fighting
men strong, and are generally regarded as the jackals of the
Waziris. Their chief importance arises from the fact that no
raids can be carried into British districts by the Mahsud Waziris
without passing through Battanni territory. A small British
expedition against the Battannis was led by Lt.-Col. Rynd
in 1880. Under the excitement caused by the preaching of a
fanatical mullah the Mahsud Waziris had attacked the town of
Gomal. The Battannis failed to supply information as to their
53
BATT AS BATTEN
movements, and gave them a passage through their lands. The
British troops accordingly stormed the Hinis Tangi defile in face
of opposition, and burned the village of Jandola.
BATT AS (Dutch Battaks), the inhabitants of the formerly
independent Batta country, in the central highlands of Sumatra,
now for the most part subjugated to the Dutch government.
The still independent area extends from 98-99 35' E., and
2-3 25' S. North-east of Toba Lake dwell the Timor Battas,
and west of it the Pakpak, but on its north (in the mountains
which border on the east coast residency) the Karo Battas form
a special group, which, by its dialects and ethnological character,
appears to be allied to the Gajus and Alias occupying the interior
of Achin. The origin of the Battas is doubtful. It is not known
whether they were settled in Sumatra before the Hindu period.
Their language contains words of Sanskrit origin and others
referable to Javanese, Malay and Tagal influence. Their domain
has been doubtless much curtailed, and their absorption into the
Achin and Malay population seems to have been long going on.
The Battas are undoubtedly of Malayan stock, and by most
authorities are affiliated to that Indonesian pre-Malayan race
which peopled the Indian Archipelago, expelling the aboriginal
negritos, and in turn themselves submitting to the civilized
Malays. In many points the Battas are physically quite different
from the Malay type. The average height of the men is 5 ft.
4 in. ; of the women 4 ft. 8 in. In general build they are rather
thickset, with broad shoulders and fairly muscular limbs. The
colour of the skin ranges from dark brown to a yellowish tint,
the darkness apparently quite independent of climatic influences
or distinction of race. The skull is rather oval than round. In
marked contrast to the Malay type are the large, black, long-
shaped eyes, beneath heavy, black or dark brown eyebrows. The
cheek-bones are somewhat prominent, but less so than among the
Malays. The Battas are dirty in their dress and dwellings and
eat any kind of food, though they live chiefly on rice. They are
remarkable as a people who in many ways are cultured and
possess a written language of their own, and yet are cannibals.
The more civilized of them around Lake Toba are good agri-
culturists and stock-breeders, and understand iron-smelting.
They weave and dye cotton, make jewellery and krisses which are
often of exquisite workmanship, bake pottery, and build pic-
turesque chalet-like houses of two storeys. They have an organ-
ized government, hereditary chiefs, popular assemblies, and a
written civil and penal code. There is even an antiquated postal
system, the letter-boxes being the hollow tree trunks at cross-
roads. Yet in spite of this comparative culture the Battas have
long been notorious for the most revolting forms of cannibalism.
(See Memoirs of the Life,&c., of Sir T. S. Raffles, 1830.)
The Battas are the only lettered people of the Indian Archi-
pelago who are not Mahommedans. Their religion is mainly
confined to a belief in evil spirits; but they recognize three
gods, a Creator, a Preserver and a Destroyer, a trinity suggestive
of Hindu influence.
Up to the publication of Dr H. N. van der Tuuk's essay, Over
schrift en uitspraak der Tobasche tad (1855), our knowledge of the
Batta language was confined to lists of words more or less com-
plete, chiefly to be found in W. Marsden's Miscellaneous Works,
in F. W. Junghuhn's Battalander, and in the Tijdschrijt van het
Bataviaasch Genootschap, vol. iii. (1855). By his exhaustive
works (Bataksch Leesboek, in 4 vols., 1861-1862; Bataksch-
nederduitsch Woordenboek, 1861; Tobasche Spraakkunst, 1864-
1867) van der Tuuk made the Batta language the most accessible
of the various tongues spoken in Sumatra. According to him,
it is nearest akin to the old Javanese and Tagal, but A. Schreiber
(Die Battas in ihrem Verhdltnis zu den Malaien von Sumatra,
1874) endeavoured to prove its closer affinity with the Malay
proper. Like most languages spoken by less civilized tribes,
Batta is poor in general terms, but abounds in terms for special
objects. The number of dialects is three, viz. the Toba, the
Mandailing and the Dairi dialects; the first and second have
again two subdivisions each. The Battas further possess six
peculiar or recondite modes of speech, such as the hata andung,
or language of the wakes, and the hata poda or the soothsayer's
language. A fair acquaintance with reading and writing is very
general among them. Their alphabet is said, with the Rejang
and Lampong alphabets, to be of Indian origin. The language
is written on bark or bamboo staves from bottom to top, the
lines being arranged from left to right. The literature consists
chiefly in books on witchcraft, in stories, riddles, incantations,
&c.. and is mostly in prose, occasionally varied by verse. 1
See also'" Reisen nach dem Toba See," Petermanns Mitteil. (1883) ;
Modigliani, Fra i Batacchi indipendenti (Rome, 1892) ; Neumann,
" Het Pane- en Bilastroomgebied," Tydschr. Aardr. Gen., 1885-1887 ;
Van Dijk in the same periodical (1890-1895) ; Wing Easton in the
Jaarboek voor het Mynwezen, 1894; Niemann in the Encyclopaedia
van Nederlandsch- Indie, under the heading Bataks, with very detailed
bibliography; Baron J. v. Brenner, Besuch bei den Kannibalen
Sumatras (Wurzburg, 1893); H. Breitenstein, 21 Jahre in Indien,
Java, Sumatra (Leipzig, 1899-1900); G. P. Rouffaer, Die Batik-
Kunst in niederlandisch-Indien und ihre Geschichte (Haarlem, 1899).
BATTEL, or BATTELS (of uncertain origin, possibly connected
with " battle," a northern English word meaning to feed, or
" batten "), a word used at Oxford University for the food
ordered by members of the college as distinct from the usual
" commons "; and hence college accounts for board and provi-
sions supplied from kitchen and buttery, and, generally, the
whole of a man's college accounts. " Batteler," now a resident
in a college, was originally a rank of students between commoners
and servitors who, as the name implies, were not supplied with
" commons," but only such provisions as they ordered for
themselves.
BATTEN, SIR WILLIAM (floruit 1626-1667), British sailor,
son of Andrew Batten, master in the royal navy, first appears as
taking out letters of marque in 1626, and in 1638 he obtained the
post of surveyor to the navy, probably by purchase. In March
1642 he was appointed second-in-command under the earl of
Warwick, the parliamentary admiral who took the fleet out of
the king's hands. It was Vice-Admiral Batten's squadron which
bombarded Scarborough when Henrietta Maria landed there.
He was accused (it appears unjustly) by the Royalists of directing
his fire particularly on the house occupied by the queen, and up
to the end of the First Civil War showed himself a steady partisan
of the parliament. To the end of the First Civil War, Batten
continued to patrol the English seas, and his action in 1647 in
bringing into Portsmouth a number of Swedish ships of war and
merchantmen, which had refused the customary salute to the
flag, was approved by parliament. When the Second Civil War
began he was distrusted by the Independents and removed from
his command, though he confessed his continued willingness to
serve the state. When part of the fleet revolted against the
parliament, and joined the prince of Wales in Holland, May
1648, Batten went with them. He was knighted by the prince,
but being suspected by the Royalists, was put ashore mutinously
in Holland and returned to England. He lived in retirement
during the Commonwealth period. At the Restoration Sir
William Batten became once more surveyor of the navy. In this
office he was in constant intercourse with Pepys, whose diary
frequently mentions him; but the insinuations of Pepys against
him must not be taken too seriously, as there is no evidence to
show that Batten in making a profit from his office fell below the
standards of the time. In 1661 he became M.P. for Rochester,
and in 1663 he was made master of the Trinity House. He died
in 1667.
There is no separate life of Batten, but many notices of him will
be found in Penn's Life of Sir W. Penn, and in Pepys' Diary.
BATTEN, (i) A term (a form of " baton ") used in joinery
(q.v.) for a board not more than 4 to 7 in. broad or 3 in. thick, used
for various purposes, such as for strengthening or holding together
laths and other wood-work; and specially, on board ship, a strip
of wood nailed to a mast to prevent rubbing, or fixing down a
tarpaulin over a hatchway, in rough weather, to keep out water.
(2) A verb (the root is found in words of several Teutonic languages
meaning profit or improvement, and also in the English "better"
1 Mr C. A. van Ophuijsen has published (in Bijd. tot Land-, Tool-
en Volken-Kunde, 1886) an interesting collection of Battak poetry.
He describes a curious leaf language used by Battak lovers, in which
the name of some leaf or plant is substituted for the word with
which it has greatest phonetic similarity.
BATTENBERG- BATTERY
and " boot ") meaning to improve in condition, especially in the
case of animals by feeding; so, to feed gluttonously; the word is
used figuratively of prospering at the expense of another.
BATTENBERG, the name of a family of German counts which
died out about 1314, whose seat was the castle of Kellerburg, near
Battenberg, a small place now in the Prussian province of Hesse-
Nassau. The title was revived in 1851, when Alexander (1823-
) , a younger son of Louis II. , grand-duke of Hesse, contracted
a morganatic marriage with a Polish lady, Countess Julia Theresa
von Haucke (1825-1895), who was then created countess of
Battenberg. Raised to the rank of a princess in 1858, the countess
and her children were allowed to style themselves princes and
princesses of Battenberg, with the addition of Durchlaucht or
Serene Highness. The eldest son of this union, Louis Alexander
(b. 1854), married in 1884 Victoria, daughter of Louis IV., grand-
duke of Hesse, and became an admiral in the British navy. The
second son, Alexander Joseph (q.v.), was prince of Bulgaria from
1879 to 1886. The third son, Henry Maurice, was born in 1858,
and married on the 23rd of July 1885 Beatrice, youngest
daughter of Victoria, queen of England. He died at sea on the
2oth of January 1896 when returning from active service with the
British troops during the Ashanti War, and left three sons and a
daughter, Victoria Eugenie, who was married in 1906 to Alphonso
XIII., king of Spain. The fourth son, Francis Joseph, born in
1861, married in 1897 Anna, daughter of Nicholas I., prince of
Montenegro, and is the author of Die volkswirtschaflliche
Entwickelung Bulgariens von 1879 bis zur Gegemvart (Leipzig,
1891). The only daughter of the princess of Battenberg, Marie
Caroline, born in 1852, was married in 1871 to Gustavus Ernest,
prince and count of Erbach-Schonberg.
BATTER, an architectural term of unknown origin, used of
the face of a wall which is slightly inclined to the perpendicular.
It is most commonly employed in retaining walls, the lower
courses of which are laid at right angles to the batter, so as to
resist the thrust of the earth inside. For aesthetic reasons it is
often adopted in the lowest or basement porticos of a great
building. From a historical point of view it is the most ancient
system employed, as throughout Egypt and Chaldaea all the
temples built in unburnt brick were perforce obliged to be thicker
at the bottom, and this gave rise to the batter or raking side which
was afterwards in Egypt copied in stone. For defensive purposes
the walls of the lower portions of a fortress were built with a batter
as in the case of the tower of David and some of the walls built by
Herod at Jerusalem. The Crusaders also largely adopted the
principle, which was followed in some of the castles of the middle
ages throughout Europe.
BATTERING RAM (Lat. aries, ram), a military engine used
before the invention of cannon, for beating down the walls of
besieged fortresses. It consisted of a long heavy beam of timber,
armed at the extremity with iron fashioned something like the
head of a ram. In its simplest form the beam was carried in the
hands of the soldiers, who assailed the walls with it by main force.
The improved ram was composed of a longer beam, in some cases
extending to 120 ft., shod with iron at one end, and suspended,
either by the middle or from two points, from another beam laid
across two posts. This is the kind described by Josephus as
having been used at the siege of Jerusalem (B.J. iii. 7. 19). The
ram was shielded from the missiles of the besieged by a penthouse
(vinea) or other overhead protection. It was often mounted on
wheels, which greatly facilitated its operations. A hundred
soldiers at a time, and sometimes even a greater number, were
employed to work it, and the parties were relieved in constant
succession. No wall could resist the continued application of the
ram, and the greatest efforts were always made to destroy it by
various means, such as dropping heavy stones on the head of the
ram and on the roof of the penthouse; another method being to
seize the ram head with grapnels and then haul it up to a vertical
position by suitable windlasses on the wall of the fortress.
Sometimes the besieged ran countermines under the ram pent-
house; this if successful would cause the whole engine to fall into
the excavation. In medieval warfare the low penthouse, called
cat, was generally employed with some form of ram.
BATTERSEA, a south-western metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded N. by the Thames, N.E. by Lambeth,
and S.E., S., and W. by Wandsworth. Pop. (1901) 168,007.
The principal thoroughfares are Wandsworth Road and Battersea
Park and York Roads from east to west, connected north and
south with the Victoria or Chelsea, Albert and Battersea bridges
over the Thames. The two first of these three are handsome
suspension bridges; the third, an iron structure, replaced a
wooden bridge of many arches which was closed in 1881, after
standing a little over a century. Battersea is a district mainly
consisting of artisans' houses, and there are several large factories
by the river. The parish church of St Mary , Church Road (1776),
preserves from an earlier building stained glass and monuments,
including one to Henry St John, Viscount Bolingbroke (d. 1751),
and his second wife, who had a mansion dose by. Of this a portion
remains on the riverside, containing a room associated with Pope,
who is said to have worked here upon the " Essay on Man."
Wandsworth Common and Clapham Common (220 acres) lie
partly within the borough, but the principal public recreation
ground is Battersea Park, bordering the Thames between Albert
and Victoria Bridges, beautifully laid out, containing a lake and
subtropical garden, and having an area of nearly 200 acres. It
was constructed with difficulty by embanking the river and
raising the level of the formerly marshy ground, and was opened
in 1858. Among institutions are the Battersea Polytechnic, the
Royal Masonic Institution for girls, founded in 1788, and Church
of England and Wesleyan Training Colleges. Battersea is in the
parliamentary borough of Battersea and Clapham, including the
whole of the Battersea division and part of the Clapham division.
The borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen and 54
councillors. Area, 2160-3 acres.
An early form of the name is Patricsey or Peter's Island; the
manor at the time of the Domesday survey, and until the sup-
pression of the monasteries, belonging to the abbey of St Peter,
Westminster. It next passed to the crown, and subsequently to
the family of St John and to the earls Spencer. York Road
recalls the existence of a palace of the archbishops of York,
occasionally occupied by them between the reigns of Edward IV.
and Mary. Battersea Fields, bordering the river, were formerly
a favourite resort, so that the park also perpetuates a memory.
The art of enamelling was introduced, c. 1 750, at works in Batter-
sea, examples from which are highly valued.
BATTERY (Fr. batterie, from battrt, to beat), the action of
beating, especially in law the unlawful wounding of another (see
ASSAULT). The term is applied to the apparatus used in batter-
ing, hence its use in military organization for the unit of mobile
artillery of all kinds. This consists of from four to eight guns
with their personnel, wagons and train. In the British service
the term is applied to field, horse, field-howitzer, heavy and
mountain artillery units. " Battery " is also used to imply a
mass of guns in action, especially in connexion with the military
history of the i8th and early igth centuries. In siegecraft, a
battery is simply an emplacement for guns, howitzers or mortars,
constructed for the purposes of the siege, and protected as a rule
by a parapet. In fortification the term is applied similarly to
permanent or semi-permanent emplacements for the artillery of
the defence. In all these senses the presence of artillery is implied
in the use of the word (see ARTILLERY, and FORTIFICATION AND
SIEGECRAFT). The word is also used -for the " pitcher " and
" catcher " in baseball; for a collection of utensils, primarily
of hammered copper or brass, especially in the French term
batterie de cuisine; and for the instruments of percussion in an
orchestra.
Electric Battery. This term was applied by the old electricians
to a collection of Leyden jars, but is now used of a device for
generating electricity by chemical action, or more exactly, of a
number of such devices joined up together. There are two main
classes of electric battery. In primary batteries, composed of a
number of galvanic or voltaic " cells," " couples " or " elements,"
on the completion of the interactions between the substances on
which the production of electricity depends, the activity of the
cells comes to an end, and can only be restored with the aid of
53
BATTERY
a fresh supply of those substances; in secondary batteries, also
called storage batteries or accumulators (g.v.), the substances
after the exhaustion of the cells can be brought back to a condi-
tion in which they will again yield an electric current, by means
of an electric current passed through them in the reverse direc-
tion. The first primary battery was constructed about 1799 by
Alessandro Volta. In one form, the "voltaic pile," he placed a
series of pairs of copper and zinc disks one above the other,
separating each pair from the one above it by a piece of cloth
moistened with a solution of common salt. In another form, the
" couronne de lasses," he took a number of vessels or cells con-
taining brine or dilute acid, and placed in each a zinc plate and a
copper plate ; these plates were not allowed to touch each other
within the vessels, but each zinc plate was connected to the
copper plate of the adjoining vessel. In both these arrangements
an electric current passes through a wire which is connected to
the terminal plates at the two ends of the series. The direction
of this current is from copper to zinc; within each cell itself it
is from zinc to copper. The plate to which the current flows
within the cell is the negative plate, and that from which it flows
the positive plate; but the point on the negative plate at which
the current enters the external wire is the positive pole, and the
point on the positive plate at which it leaves the external circuit
the negative pole. During the time that the external connexion is
maintained between the two poles and the current passes in
the wire, the zinc or positive plates are gradually dissolved, and
hydrogen gas is liberated at the surface of the copper or negative
plates; but when the external connexion is broken this action
ceases. If the materials used in the cells were perfectly pure,
probably the cessation would be complete. In practice, however,
only impure commercial zinc is available, and with this corrosion
continues to some extent, even though the external circuit is
not closed, thus entailing waste of material. This "local action"
is explained as due to the fact that the impurities in the zinc
plate form miniature voltaic couples with the zinc itself, thus
causing its corrosion by voltaic action; and an early improve-
ment in the voltaic cell was the discovery, applied by W. Sturgeon
in 1830, that the evil was greatly reduced if the surface of the zinc
plates was amalgamated, by being rubbed with mercury under
dilute sulphuric acid. Another disadvantage of the simple cell
composed of copper and zinc in dilute acid is that the current it
yields rapidly falls off. The hydrogen formed by the operation
of the cell does not all escape, but some adheres as a film to the
negative plate, and the result is the establishment of a counter
or reverse electromotive force which opposes the main current
flowing from the zinc plate and diminishes its force. This pheno-
menon is known as "polarization," and various remedies have
been tried for the evils it introduces in the practical use of
primary batteries. Alfred Smee in 1839 modified the simple
copper-zinc couple excited by dilute sulphuric acid by sub-
stituting for the copper thin leaves of platinum or platinized
silver, whereby the elimination of the hydrogen is facilitated;
and attempts have also been made to keep the plates free from
the gas by mechanical agitation. The plan usually adopted,
however, is either to prevent the formation of the film, or to
introduce into the cell some " depolarizer " which will destroy
it as it is formed by oxidizing the hydrogen to water (see also
ELECTROLYSIS).
The former method is exemplified in the cell invented by
J. F. Daniell in 1836. Here the zinc stands in dilute sulphuric
acid (or in a solution of zinc sulphate), and the copper in a
saturated solution of copper sulphate, the two liquids being
separated by a porous partition. The hydrogen formed by the
action of the cell replaces copper in the copper sulphate, and the
displaced copper, instead of the hydrogen, being deposited on the
copper plate polarization is avoided. The electromotive force is
about one volt. This cell has been constructed in a variety of
forms to suit different purposes. In a portable form, designed
by Lord Kelvin in 1858, the copper plate, soldered to a gutta-
percha covered wire, is placed at the bottom of a glass vessel
and covered with crystals of copper sulphate; over these wet
sawdust is sprinkled, and then more sawdust, moistened with
solution of zinc sulphate, upon which is placed the zinc plate.
The Minotto cell is similar, except that sand is substituted for
sawdust. In these batteries the sawdust or sand takes the place
of the porous diaphragm. In another class of batteries the
diaphragm is dispensed with altogether, and the action of gravity
alone is relied upon to retard the interdiffusion of the liquids.
The cell of J. H. Meidinger, invented in 1859, may be taken as
a type of this class. The zinc is formed into a ring which fits
the upper part of a glass beaker filled with zinc sulphate solution.
At the bottom of" the beaker is placed a smaller beaker, in which
stands a ring of copper with an insulated connecting wire. The
mouth of the beaker is closed by a lid with a hole in the centre,
through which passes the long tapering neck of a glass balloon
filled with crystals of copper sulphate; the narrow end of this
neck dips into the smaller beaker, the copper sulphate slowly
runs out, and being specifically heavier than the zinc sulphate it
collects at the bottom about the copper ring. In Lord Kelvin's
tray-cell a large wooden tray is lined with lead, and is covered
at the bottom with copper by electrotyping. The zinc plate is
enveloped in a piece of parchment paper bent into a tray shape,
the whole resting on little pieces of wood placed on the bottom
of the leaden tray. Copper sulphate is fed in at the edge of the
tray and zinc sulphate is poured upon the parchment. A
battery is formed by arranging the trays in a stack one above
the other.
Various combinations have been devised in which the hydrogen
is got rid of more or less completely by oxidation. Sir W. R.
Grove in 1839 employed nitric acid as the oxidizing agent, his
cell consisting of a zinc positive plate in dilute sulphuric acid,
separated by a porous diaphragm of unglazed earthenware from
a platinum negative immersed in concentrated nitric acid. Its
electromotive force is nearly two volts, but it has the objection of
giving off disagreeable nitrous fumes. R. W. von Bunsen modi-
fied Grove's cell by replacing the platinum with the much cheaper
material, gas carbon. Chromic acid is much used as a de-
polarizer, and cells in which it is employed are about as powerful
as, and more convenient than, either of the preceding. In its
two-fluid form the chromic acid cell consists of a porous pot
containing amalgamated zinc in dilute sulphuric acid, and a
carbon plate surrounded with sulphuric acid and a solution of
potassium or sodium bichromate or of chromic acid. But it is
commonly used in a one-fluid form, the porous pot being dis-
pensed with, and both zinc and carbon immersed in the chromic
acid solution. Since the zinc is dissolved even when the circuit
is not closed, arrangements are frequently provided by which
either the zinc plate alone or both plates can be lifted out of the
solution when the cell is not in use. In preparing the solution
the sodium salt is preferable to the potassium, and chromic acid
to either. In the cell devised by Georges Leclanche in 1868 a
solid depolarizer is employed, in the shape of manganese dioxide
packed with fragments of carbon into a porous pot round a
carbon plate. A zinc rod constitutes the positive plate, and the
exciting fluid is a solution of sal-ammoniac. Sometimes no
porous pot is employed, and the manganese dioxide and granu-
lated carbon are agglomerated into a solid block round the
carbon plate. The electromotive force is about one and a half
volt. The cell is widely used for such purposes as ringing electric
bells, where current is required intermittently, and for such
service it will remain effective for months or years, only needing
water to be added to the outer jar occasionally to replace loss by
evaporation. On a closed circuit the current rapidly falls off,
because the manganese dioxide is unable to oxidize all the
hydrogen formed, but the cell quickly recovers 'after polarization .
The so-called " dry cells," which came into considerable use
towards the end of the igth century, are essentially Leclanche
cells in which the solution is present, not as a liquid, but as
a paste formed with some absorbent material or gelatinized.
Black oxide of copper is another solid depolarizer, employed in
the Lalande cell. In the Edison-Lalande form the copper oxide
is suspended in a light copper frame. The exciting solution
consists of one part of caustic soda dissolved in three parts by
weight of water, and to prevent it from being acted on by the
BATTEUX BATTLE
533
carbonic acid of the air it is covered with a layer of petroleum
oil. Sodium zincate, which is soluble, is formed by the action '
of the cell, and the hydrogen produced is oxidized by oxygen
from the copper oxide. The electromotive force may be about
one volt initially, but in practice only about three-quarters of a
volt can be relied on.
Primary cells form a convenient means of obtaining electricity
for laboratory experiments, and for such light services as working
telegraphs, bells, &c.; but as a source of the heavy currents
required for electric lighting and traction they are far too
expensive in operation, apart from other considerations, to
compete with dynamoelectric machinery driven by steam or
water power. Certain forms, known as " standard cells," are
also used in electrical measurements as standards of electromotive
force (see POTENTIOMETER).
See W R Cooper, Primary Batteries (London, 1901); Park
Benjamin, The Voltaic Cell (New York, 1893) ; W. E. Ayrton, Prac-
tical Electricity (London, 1896).
BATTEUX, CHARLES (1713-1780), French philosopher and
writer on aesthetics, was born near Vouziers (Ardennes), and
studied theology at Reims. In 1739 he came to Paris, and after
teaching in the colleges of Lisieux and Navarre, was appointed
to the chair of Greek and Roman philosophy in the College de
France. In 1 746 he published his treatise Les Beaux- Arts reduits
d un mime principe, an attempt to find a unity among the various
theories of beauty and taste, and his views were widely accepted.
The reputation thus gained, confirmed by his translation of
Horace (1750)1 led to his becoming a member of the Academic
des Inscriptions (1754) and of the French Academy (1761). His
Cows de belles lettres (1765) was afterwards included with some
minor writings in the large treatise, Principes de la literature
(1774). The rules for composition there laid down are, perhaps,
somewhat pedantic. His philosophical writings were La Morale
d' Epicure tirfe de ses propres fcrits (1758), and the Histoire des
causes premieres (1769). In consequence of the freedom with
which in this work he attacked the abuse of authority in philo-
sophy, he lost his professorial chair. His last and most extensive
work was a Cours d'etudes a I'usage des eleves de I'ecole militaire
(45 vols.). In the Beaux-Arts, Batteux developed a theory which
is derived from Locke through Voltaire's sceptical sensualism.
He held that Art consists in the faithful imitation of the beautiful
in nature. Applying this principle to the art of poetry, and
analysing, line by line and even word by word, the works of
great poets, he deduced the law that the beauty of poetry con-
sists in the accuracy, beauty and harmony of individual expres-
sion. This narrow and pedantic theory had at least the merit of
insisting on propriety of expression. His Histoire des causes
premieres was among the first attempts at a history of philosophy,
and in his work on Epicurus, following on Gassendi, he defended
Epicureanism against the general attacks made against it.
See Dacier et Dupuy, " Eloges," in Memoires de I'Academie des
Inscriptions.
BATTHYANY, LOUIS (LAJOS), COUNT (1806-1849), Hungarian
statesman, was born at Pressburg in 1806. He supplied the
defects of an indifferent education while serving in garrison in
Italy as a lieutenant of hussars, and thenceforward adopted
all the new ideas, economical and political. According to
Szechenyi, he learnt much from a German tutor of the radical
school, but it was not till after his marriage with the noble-
minded and highly-gifted countess Antonia Zichy that he began
working earnestly for the national cause. When Szechenyi
drew nearer to the court in 1830-1840, Batthyany became the
leader of the opposition in the Upper House, where his social
rank and resolute character won for him great influence. Despite
his " sardanapalian inclinations," he associated himself un-
reservedly with the extremists, and spent large sums for the
development of trade and industry. In 1847 he fiercely opposed
the government, procured the election of Kossuth as the repre-
sentative of Pest, took part in the Great Deputation of the i jth
of March, and on the 3ist of March 1848 became the first
constitutional prime-minister of Hungary. His position became
extremely difficult when Jellachich and the Croats took up
arms. Convinced that the rigid maintenance of the constitution
was the sole panacea, he did his utmost, in his frequent journeys
to Innsbruck, to persuade the court to condemn Jellachich and
establish a strong national government at Pest. Unfortunately,
however, he was persuaded to consent to the despatch of Magyar
troops to quell the Italian rising, before the Croat difficulty had
been adjusted, and thenceforth, despite his perfect loyalty,
and his admirable services as Honved minister in organizing the
national forces, his authority in Hungary declined before the
rising star of Kossuth. When Jellachich invaded Hungary,
Batthyany resigned with the intention of forming a new ministry
excluding Kossuth, but this had now become impossible. Then
Batthyany attempted to mediate between the two extreme
parties, and subsequently raised a regiment from among his
peasantry and led them against the Croats. On the nth of
October he was incapacitated for active service by a fall from
his horse which broke his arm On his recovery he returned to
Pest, laboured hard to bring about peace, and was a member of
the deputation.from the Hungarian diet to Prince Windischgratz,
whom the Austrian commander refused to receive. A few days
later (8th of January 1849) he was arrested at Pest. As a
magnate he was only indictable by the grand justiciary, as a
minister he was responsible to the diet alone. At Laibach,
whither he was taken, he asked that Deak might be his advocate,
but this being refused he wrote his own defence. Sentence of
hanging was finally pronounced upon him at Olmtitz for violating
the Pragmatic Sanction, overthrowing the constitution, and
aiding and abetting the rebellion. To escape this fate he
stabbed himself with a small concealed dagger, and bled to
death in, the night of the 5th of October 1849.
See Bcrtalan Szemere, Batthydny, Kossuth, Gorget (Ger.), (Hamburg,
1853). (R- N. B.)
BATTICALOA, the provincial capital of the eastern province
of Ceylon, on the E. coast, 69 m. S.S.E. of Trincomalee, situated
on an island in lat. 7 44' N. and long. 81 52' E. It is of import-
ance for its haven and the adjacent salt lagoons. The population
of the town in 1901 was 9969; of the district (2872 sq. m.)
145,161. The old Dutch fort dates from 1682. Batticaloa is
the seat of a government agent and district judge; criminal
sessions of the supreme court are also held. Rice and cocoanuts
are the two staples of the district, and steamers trading round
the island call regularly at the port. The lagoon is famous for
its " singing fish," supposed to be shell-fish which give forth
musical notes. The district has a remnant of Veddahs or wild men
of the wood. The average annual rainfall is 55.5 in.; the average
temperature 80-4 F.
BATTISHILL, JONATHAN (1738-1801), one of the best
1 8th century English composers of church music. Until 1764
he wrote chiefly for the theatre (incidental songs, pantomime
music, and an opera in collaboration with Michael Arne, the son
of Thomas Arne), but his later compositions are chiefly glees,
part-songs and church music. In 1763 he had married a singer
at Covent Garden theatre where he was harpsichordist. She
retired from her profession when she married; and her death in
1777 so crushed him that he composed no more.
BATTLE, a market -town in the Rye parliamentary division
of Sussex, England, 54} m. S.E. by S. from London by the
South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 2996. It is pleasantly situated in an undulating well-
wooded district, 7 m. from the sea at Hastings. Its name is
derived from the conflict in 1066, which insured to William the
Norman the crown of England (see also BATTLK ABBEY ROLL).
Before the battle, in which King Harold fell, William vowed to
build an abbey on the spot if he should prove victorious, and in
1094 the consecration took place with great pomp. The gate-
house, forming a picturesque termination to the main street of
the town, is Decorated; and there also remain parts of the
foundations of the Norman church, of the Perpendicular cloisters,
and of the Early English refectory. A mansion occupies part of
the site, -and incorporates some of the ancient building. The
church of St Mary is of various dates, the earliest portions being
transitional Norman.
See Chronicles of Battle Abbey, 1066-1176, translated, &c., by
M. A. Lower (London, 1851).
534
BATTLE BATTLEMENT
BATTLE, a general engagement between the armed forces,
naval or military, of enemies. The word is derived from the
FT. bataille, and this, like the Ital. battaglia, and Span.
batallo, comes from the popular Lat. battalia for batlualia.
Cassiodorus Senator (48o-?575) says: Battualia quae vulgo
Batalia dicuntur . . . exercitationes mililum vel gladiatorum
significant (see Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. Batalia). The verb
battuere, cognate with " beat," is a rare word, found in Pliny, used
of beating in a mortar or of meat before cooking. Suetonius
(Caligula, 54. 3 2) uses it of fencing, batluebat pugnatoriis armis, i.e.
not with blunted weapons or foils. Battalia or batalia was used
for the array of troops for battle, and hence was applied to the
body jf troops so arranged, or to a division of an army, whence the
use of the word " battalion " (q.v.).
A "pitched battle," loosely used as meaning almost a decisive
engagement, is strictly, as the words imply, one that is fought on
ground previously selected (" pitched " meaning arranged in a
fixed order) and in accordance with the intentions of the com-
manders of both sides; the French equivalent is bataille arr angle,
opposed to bataille manoeuvre, which is prearranged but may
come off on any ground. With " battle," in its usual meaning of
a general engagement of hostile forces, are contrasted " skir-
mish,", 1 a fight between small bodies ("skirmishing" technically
means fighting by troops in extended or irregular order), and
" action," a more or less similar engagement between large
bodies of troops. (See also TACTICS and STRATEGY.)
BATTLE ABBEY ROLL. This is popularly supposed to have
been a list of William the Conqueror's companions preserved at
Battle Abbey, on the site of his great victory over Harold. It is
known to us only from i6th century versions of it published by
Leland, Holinshed and Duchesne, all more or less imperfect and
corrupt. Holinshed's is much the fullest, but of its 629 names
several are duplicates. The versions of Leland and Duchesne,
though much shorter, each contain many names found in neither
of the other lists. It was so obvious that several of the names had
no right to figure on the roll, that Camden, as did Dugdale after
him, held them to have been interpolated at various times by the
monks, "not without their own advantage." Modern writers
have gone further, Sir Egerton Brydges denouncing the roll as " a
disgusting forgery," and E. A. Freeman dismissing it as " a
transparent fiction." An attempt to vindicate the roll was made
by the last duchess of Cleveland, whose Battle Abbey Roll
(3 vols., 1889) is the best guide to its contents.
It is probable that the character of the roll has been quite
misunderstood. It is not a list of individuals, but only of family
surnames, and it seems to have been intended to show which
families had "come over with the Conqueror," and to have been
compiled about the I4th century. The compiler appears to have
been influenced by the French sound of names, and to have
included many families of later settlement, such as that of
Grandson, which did not come to England from Savoy till two
centuries after the Conquest. The roll itself appears to be
unheard-of before and after the i6th century, but other lists were
current at least as early as the isth century, as the duchess of
Cleveland has shown. In 1 866 a list of the Conqueror's followers,
compiled from Domesday and other authentic records, was set up
in Dives church by M. Leopold Delisle, and is printed in the
duchess' work. Its contents are naturally sufficient to show
that the Battle Roll is worthless.
See Leland, Collectanea; Holinshed, Chronicles of England;
Duchesne, Historia Norm. Scriptores; Brydges, Censura Literaria;
Thierry, Conquete de I'Angleterre, vol. ii. (1829); Burke, The Roll of
Battle Abbey (annotated, 1848); Blanche, The Conqueror and His
Companions (1874); duchess of Cleveland, The Battle Abbey Roll
(1889); Round, The Companions of the Conqueror" (Monthly
Review, 1901, iii. pp. 91-111). (J. H. R.)
BATTLE CREEK, a city of Calhoun county, Michigan, U.S.A.,
at the confluence of the Kalamazoo river with Battle Creek, about
48 m. S. of Grand Rapids. Pop. (1890) 13,197; (1900) 18,563,
This is the same word as " scrimmage," and is derived from the
Anglo-French eskrimir, modern escrimer, properly to fight behind
cover, now to fence. The origin of this is the Old High German
scirman, to fight behind a shield, scirm, Modern German Schirm.
of whom 1844 were foreign-born; (1910, census) 25,267. It is
served by the Michigan Central and the Grand Trunk railways,
and by interurban electric lines. Here are the hospital and
laboratories of the American Medical Missionary College (of
Chicago) and the Battle Creek Sanitarium, established in 1866,
which was a pioneer in dietetic reform, and did much to make
Battle Creek important in the manufacture of health foods, and
in the publication of diet-reform literature. Among the principal
buildings, besides, the hospital and the sanitarium, are several
fine churches, the central high school, the Post tavern and the
Post theatre. The city is a trading centre for the rich agricul-
tural and fruit-growing district by which it is surrounded, has
good water-power, and is an important manufacturing centre, its
chief manufactured products being cereal health foods, for which
it has a wide reputation, and the manufacture of which grew out
of the dietetic experiments made in the laboratories of the
sanitarium; and threshing machines and other agricultural
implements, paper cartons and boxes, flour, boilers, engines and
pumps. Extensive locomotive and car shops of the Grand Trunk
railway are here. In 1904 the total factory product of Battle
Creek was valued at $12,298,244, an increase of 95% over
that for 1900; and of the total in 1904 $5,191,655 was the value
of food preparations, which was 8-5% of the value of food
preparations manufactured in the United States, Battle Creek
thus ranking first among American cities in this industry. The
water-works are owned and operated by the municipality, the
water being obtained from Lake Goguac, a summer pleasure
resort about 2 m. from the city. Battle Creek, said to have been
named from hostilities here between some surveyors and
Indians, was settled in 1831, incorporated as a village ill 1850,
and chartered as a city in 1859, the charter of that year being
revised in 1900.
BATTLEDORE AND SHUTTLECOCK, a game played by two
persons with small rackets, called battledores, made of parchment
or rows of gut stretched across wooden frames, and shuttlecocks,
made of a base of some light material, like cork, with trimmed
feathers fixed round the top. The object of the players is to bat
the shuttlecock from one to the other as many times as possible
without allowing it to fall to the ground. There are Greek
drawings extant representing a game almost identical with
battledore and shuttlecock, and it has been popular in China,
Japan, India and Siam for at least 2000 years. In Europe it has
been played by children for centuries. A further development is
Badminton.
BATTLEMENT (probably from a lost Fr. form bastillement, cf.
mod. Fr. bastille, from Med. Lat. bastilia, towers, which is derived
from Ital. bastire, to build, cf. Fr. bdtir; the English word was,
however, early connected with " battle "), a term given to a
parapet of a wall, in which portions have been cut out at intervals
to allow the discharge of arrows or other missiles; these cut-out
portions are known as " crenels "; the solid widths between the
" crenels " are called " merlons." The earliest example in the
palace at Medinet-Abu at Thebes in Egypt is of the inverted
form, and is said to have been derived from Syrian fortresses.
Through Assyria they formed the termination of all the walls
surrounding the towns, as shown on bas reliefs from Nimrud and
elsewhere. Traces of them have been found at Mycenae, and
they are suggested on Greek vases. In the battlements of
Pompeii, additional protection was given by small internal
buttresses or spur walls against which the defender might place
himself so as to be protected completely on one side. In the
battlements of the middle ages the crenel was about one-third
of the width of the merlon, and the latter was in addition pierced
with a small slit. The same is also found in Italian battlements,
where the merlon is of much greater height and is capped in a
peculiar fashion. The battlements of the Mahommedans had a
more decorative and varied character, and were retained from
the i3th century onwards not so much for defensive purposes as
for a crowning feature to their walls. They may be regarded
therefore in the same light as the cresting found in the Spanish
renaissance. The same retention of the battlement as a purely
decorative feature is found throughout the Decorated and
BATTUE BAUAN
535
Perpendicular periods, and not only occurs on parapets but
on the transoms of windows and on the tie-beams of roofs and
on screens. A further decorative treatment was given in the
elaborate panelling of the merlons and that portion of the
parapet walls rising above the cornice, by the introduction of
quatrefoils and other conventional forms filled with foliage and
shields.
BATTUE (from Fr. battre, to beat), the beating of game from
cover under the sportsmen's fire; by analogy the word is used
to describe any slaughter of defenceless crowds.
BATTUS, the legendary founder of the Greek colony of Cyrene
in Libya (about 630 B.C.). The Greeks who accompanied him
were, like himself, natives of Thera, and descended partly from
the race of the Minyae. Various accounts are given both of the
founding of Cyrene and of the origin of the founder's name.
According to the Cyrenaeans (Herod, iv. 150-156), Battus,
having an impediment in his speech, consulted the oracle at
Delphi, and was told to found a colony in Libya; according to
the Theraeans, Battus was entrusted with this mission by their
aged king Grinus. In another version, there was civil war in
Thera; Battus, leader of one party, was banished, and, on
applying to the oracle, was recommended to take out a colony to
" the continent " (Schol. Pindar, Pyth. iv. 10). In any case
the foundation is attributed to the direct instructions of
Apollo. The name was connected by some with /SarToptfw,
("stammer"), but Herodotus (iv. 155) says that it was the
Libyan word for " king," that Battus was not called by the name
until after his arrival at Libya, and that the oracle addressed
him as " Battus " by anticipation. This, however, would imply
on the part of the oracle a knowledge of Libya, which was not
shared by the rest of Greece (Herod. I.e.), and it is noteworthy
that the name occurs in Arcadian and Messenian legends.*
Herodotus does not know his real name, but Pindar (Pyth. v. 1 16),
no doubt rightly, calls the founder of the colony Aristoteles,
while Justin (xiii. 7) gives his name as Aristaeus who was
worshipped at Cyrene. Four kings named Battus, alternating
with four named Arcesilaus, ruled in Cyrene (q.v.) till the fall of
the dynasty about 450 B.C.
See R. W. Macan's Herodotus IV. -VI. (1895), vol. i. pp. 104 seq.
and notes.
BATU, or ROCK ISLANDS (Dutch Baloe), a group of three
greater and forty-eight lesser islands in the Dutch East Indies,
W. of Sumatra, between o 10' N. to o 45' S. and 97 50'-
98 35' E., belonging to the Ayerbangi district of the lowlands of
Padang (Sumatra). They are separated by the strait of Sibirut
from the Mentawi group. The three chief islands, from N. to S.,
are Pini or Mintao, Masa, and Bala. The total land area of the
group is 445 sq. m. The islands are generally low, and covered
with forest, in which the cocoanut palm is conspicuous. There
is trade in cocoanuts, oil, and other forest produce. The natives,
about 3000 in number, are of Malayan or pre-Malayan stock,
akin to those of the island of Nias to the north-west. Only about
twenty of the smaller islands are inhabited.
BATUM, a seaport of Russian Transcaucasia, in the govern-
ment of and 90 m. by rail S.W. of the city of Kutais, on the S.E.
shore of the Black Sea, in 41 39' N. and 41 38' E. Pop. (1875)
2000; (1900) 28,512, very mixed. The bay is being filled up by
the sand carried into it by several small rivers. The town is
protected by strong forts, and the anchorage has been greatly
improved by artificial works. Batum possesses a cathedral,
finished in 1903, and the Alexander Park, with sub-tropical
vegetation. The climate is very warm, lemon and orange trees,
magnolias and palms growing in the open air; but it is at the
same time extremely wet and changeable. The annual rainfall
(90 in.) is higher than anywhere in Caucasia, but it is very un-
equally distributed (23 in. in August and September, sometimes
16 in. in a couple of days), and the place is still most unhealthy.
The town is connected by rail with the main Transcaucasian
railway to Tiflis, and is the chief port for the export of naphtha
and paraffin oil, carried hither in great part through pipes
laid down from Baku, but partly also in tank railway-cars;
other exports are wheat, manganese, wool, silkworm-cocoons,
liquorice, maize and timber (total value of exports nearly 5}
millions sterling annually). The imports, chiefly tin plates and
machinery, amount to less than half that total. Known as
Bathys in antiquity, as Vati in the middle ages, and as Bathumi
since the beginning of the iyth century, Batum belonged to the
Turks, who strongly fortified it, down to 1878, when it was
transferred to Russia. In the winter of 1905-1906 Batum was
in the hands of the revolutionists, and a " reign of terror "
lasted for several weeks.
BATWA, a tribe of African pygmies living in the mountainous
country around Wissmann Falls in the Kasai district of the
Belgian Congo. They were discovered in 1880 by Paul Pogge
and Hermann von Wissmann, and have been identified with Sir
H. M. Stanley's Vouatouas. They are typical of the negrito
family south of the Congo. They are well made, with limbs
perfectly proportioned, and are seldom more than 4 ft. high.
Their complexion is a yellow-brown, much lighter than their
Bantu-Negroid neighbours. They have short woolly hair and
no beard. They are feared rather than despised by the Baluba
and Bakuba tribes, among whom they live. They are nomads,
cultivating nothing, and keeping no animals but a small type of
hunting-dog. Their weapon is a tiny bow, the arrows for which
are usually poisoned. They build themselves temporary huts
of a bee-hive shape. As hunters they are famous, bounding
through the jungle growth " like grasshoppers " and fearlessly
attacking elephants and buffalo with their tiny weapons. Their
only occupation apart from hunting is the preparation of palm-
wine which they barter for grain with the Baluba. They are
monogamous and display much family affection. See further
PYGMY; AKKA; WOCHUA; BAMBUTE.
See A. de Quatrefages, The Pygmies (Eng. ed., 1895); Sir H. H.
Johnston, Uganda Protectorate (1902); Hermann von Wissmann,
My Second Journey through Equatorial Africa (London, 1891).
BATYPHONE (Ger. and Fr. Batyphon), a contrabass clarinet
which was the outcome of F. W. Wieprecht's endeavour to
obtain a contrabass for the reed instruments. The batyphone
was made to a scale twice the size of the clarinet in C, the divisions
of the chromatic scale being arranged according to acoustic
principles. For convenience in stopping holes too far apart to
be covered by the fingers, crank or swivel keys were used. The
instrument was constructed of maple-wood, had a clarinet
mouthpiece of suitable size connected by means of a cylindrical
brass crook with the upper part of the tube, and a brass bell.
The pitch was two octaves below the clarinet in C, the compass
being the same, and thus corresponding to the modern bass tuba.
The tone was pleasant and full, but not powerful enough for the
contrabass register in a military band. The batyphone had
besides one serious disadvantage: it could be played with facility
only in its nearly related keys, G and F major. The baty-
phone was invented and patented in 1839 by F. W. Wieprecht,
director general of all the Prussian military bands, and E. Skorra,
the court instrument manufacturer of Berlin. In practice the
instrument was found to be of little use, and was superseded by
the bass tuba. A similar attempt was made in 1843 by Adolphe
Sax, and met with a similar fate.
A batyphone bearing the name of its inventors formed part of
the Snoeck collection which was acquired for Berlin's collection
of ancient musical instruments at the Technische Hochschule
fur Musik. The description of the batyphone given above
is mainly derived from a MS. treatise on instrumentation by
Wieprecht, in 1909 in the possession of Herr Otto Lessmann
(Berlin), and reproduced by Capt. C. R. Day, in Descriptive
Catalogue of the Musical Instruments of the Royal Military
Exhibition, London, 1890 (London, 1891), p. 124. (K. S.)
BAUAN (or BAUN), a town of the province of Batangas, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, at the head of Batangas Bay, about 54 m.
S. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 39,094. A railway to connect the
town with Manila was under construction in 1908. Bauan has
a fine church and is known as a market for " sinamay " or hemp
cloth, the hemp and cotton being imported and dyed and woven
by the women in their homes. Palm-fibre mats and hats, fans,
bamboo baskets and cotton fish-nets are woven here. There is
536
BAUBLE BAUDELAIRE
excellent fishing in the bay. Hogs and horses are raised for the
Manila market. The surrounding country is fertile and grows
cacao, indigo, oranges, sugar-cane, corn and rice. The language
is Tagalog.
BAUBLE (probably a blend of two different words, an old
French baubel, a child's plaything, and an old English babyll,
something swinging to and fro), a word applied to a stick with
a weight attached, used in weighing, to a child's toy, and especi-
ally to the mock symbol of office carried by a court jester, a baton
terminating in a figure of Folly with cap and bells, and some-
times having a bladder fastened to the other end; hence a term
for any triviality or childish folly.
BAUCHI, a province in the highlands of the British pro-
tectorate of Northern Nigeria. It lies approximately between
11 15' and 9 1 5' N. and 1 1 1 5' and 8 30' E. Bauchi is bounded
N. by the provinces of Kano, Katagum and Bornu; E. by
Bornu, S- by Yola and Muri, and W. by the provinces of Zaria
and Nassarawa. The province has an area of about 2 1 ,000 sq. m .
The altitude rises from 1000 ft. above the sea in its north-eastern
corner to 4000 ft. and 6000 ft. in the south-west. The province
is traversed diagonally from N.E. to S.W. by a belt of mountain
ranges alternating with fertile plateaus. Towards the south the
country is very rugged and a series of extinct volcanic craters
occur.
Amongst the more important plateaus are the Assab or
Kibyen country, having a general level of upwards of 4000 ft.,
and the Sura country, also reaching to elevations of from 3000
to 5000 ft. Both these extensive plateaus are situated in the
south-west portion of the province. Their soil is fertile, they
possess an abundance of pure water, the air is keen and bracing,
and the climate is described as resembling in many respects that
of the Transvaal. They form the principal watershed not only
of the province of Bauchi, but of the protectorate of Northern
Nigeria. The Gongola, flowing east and south to the Benue,
rises in the Sura district, and from the Kibyen plateau streams
flow north to Lake Chad, west to the Kaduna, and south to the
Benue. The soil is generally fertile between the hills, and in the
volcanic districts the slopes are cultivated half-way up the
extinct craters. The climate in the western parts is temperate
and healthy. In the winter months of November and December
the thermometer frequently falls to freezing-point, and in the
hottest months the maximum on the Kibyen plateau has been
found to be rarely over 85.
The population of Bauchi is estimated at about 1,000,000 and
is of a very various description. The upper classes are Fula, and
there are some Hausa and Kanuri (Bornuese), but the bulk of
the people are pagan tribes in a very low state of civilization.
Sixty-four tribes sufficiently differentiated from each other to
speak different languages have been reported upon. Hausa is
the lingua franca of the whole. The pagan population has been
classified for practical purposes as Hill pagans and Plains pagans,
Mounted pagans and Foot pagans. The Foot pagans of the
plains were brought under the Fula yoke in the beginning of
the i pth century and have never cast it off. The Hill pagans
were partly conquered, but many remained independent or have
since succeeded in asserting their freedom. The Mounted pagans
are confined to the healthy plateaus of the south-west corner of
the province. They are independent and there is considerable
variety in the characteristics of the different tribes. The better
types are hardy, orderly and agriculturally industrious. They
are intelligent and have shown themselves peaceful and friendly
to Europeans. Others are, on the contrary, disposed to be
turbulent and warlike. Amongst the different tribes many are
cannibals. They all go practically naked. They are essentially
horsemen, and have a cruel habit of gashing the backs of their
ponies that they may get a good seat in the blood. They are
armed with bows and arrows, but depend almost entirely in
battle on the charges of their mounted spearmen.
The native name " Bauchi," which is of great antiquity,
signifies the " Land of Slaves," and from the earliest times the
uplands which now form the principal portion of the province
have been the hunting ground of the slave-raider, while the hill
fastnesses have offered defensible refuge to the population. So
entirely was slavery a habit of the people, that as late as 1905,
after the slave-trade had been abolished for three years, it was
found that, in consequence of a famine which rendered food
difficult .to obtain, a whole tribe (the Tangali) were selling
themselves as slaves to their neighbours. Children are readily
sold by their parents at a price varying from the equivalent of
one shilling to one and sixpence.
The province of Bauchi was conquered by the Fula at the
beginning of the igth century, and furnished them with a valu-
able slave preserve. But the more civilized portion had already,
under enlightened native rulers, attained to a certain degree of
prosperity and order. Mahommedanism was partly adopted by
the upper classes in the i8th century, if not earlier, and the son
of a Mahommedan native ruler, educated at Sokoto, accepted
the flag of Dan Fodio and conquered the country for the Fula.
The name of this remarkable soldier and leader was Yakoba
(Jacob) . His father's name was Daouad (David) , and his grand-
father was Abdullah, all names which indicate Arab or Mahom-
medan influence. The town of Bauchi and capital of the province
was founded by Yakoba in the year 1809, and the emirate
remained under Fula rule until the year 1902. In that year,
in consequence of determined slave-raiding and the defiant
misrule of the emir, a British expedition was sent against the
capital, which submitted without fighting. The emir was deposed,
and the country was brought under British control. A new emir
was appointed, but he died within a few months. The slave-trade
was immediately abolished, and the slave-market which was held
at Bauchi, as in all Fula centres, was closed. The Kano-Sokoto
campaign in 1903 rendered necessary a temporary withdrawal of
the British resident from Bauchi, and comparatively little pro-
gress was made until the following year. In 1904 the province
was organized for administration on the same system as the rest
of Northern Nigeria, and the reigning emir took the oath of
allegiance to the British crown. The province has been sub-
divided into thirteen administrative districts, which again have
been grouped into their principal divisions, with their respective
British headquarters at Bauchi, 'Kanan and Bukuru. The Fula
portion of this province, held like the other Hausa states under
a feudal system of large landowners or fief-holders, has been
organized and assessed for taxation on the system accepted by
the emirs throughout the protectorate, and the populations are
working harmoniously under British rule. Roads and telegraphs
are in process of construction, and the province is being gradually
opened to trade. Valuable indications of tin have been found to
the north of the Kibyen plateau, and have attracted the attention
of the Niger Company.
Bauchi is a province of special importance from the European
point of view because, with free communication from the Benue
assured, it is probable that on the Kibyen and Sura plateaus,
which are the healthiest known in the protectorate, a sanatorium
and station for a large civil population might be established under
conditions in which Europeans could live free from the evil
effects of a West African climate.
The emirate of Gombe, which is included in the first division
of the Bauchi province, is a Fula emirate independent of the
emirs of Bauchi. It forms a rich and important district, and its
chiefs held themselves in a somewhat sullen attitude of hostility
to the British. It was at Burmi in this district that the last
stand was made by the religious following of the defeated sultan
of Sokoto, and here the sultan was finally overthrown and killed
in July 1903. Gombe has now frankly accepted British rule.
(F. L. L.)
BAUDELAIRE, CHARLES PIERRE (1821-1867), French poet,
was born in Paris on the gth of April 1821. His father, who was
a civil servant in good position and an amateur artist, died in
1827, and in the following year his mother married a lieutenant-
colonel named Aupick, who was afterwards ambassador of France
at various courts. Baudelaire was educated at Lyons and at the
College Louis-le-Grand in Paris. On taking his degree in 1839
he determined to enter on a literary career, and during the next
two years pursued a very irregular way of life, which led his
BAUDIER BAUDRY
537
guardians, in 1841, to send him on a voyage to India. When he
returned to Paris, after less than a year's absence, he was of age;
but in a year or two his extravagance threatened to exhaust his
small patrimony, and his family obtained a decree to place his
property in trust. His salons of 1845 and 1846 attracted
immediate attention by the boldness with which he propounded
many views then novel, but since generally accepted. He took
part with the revolutionaries in 1848, and for some years in-
terested himself in republican politics, but his permanent con-
victions were aristocratic and Catholic. Baudelaire was a slow
and fastidious worker, and it was not until 1857 that he produced
his first and famous volume of poems, Fleurs du mal. Some of
these had already appeared in the Revue des deux mondes when
they were published by Baudelaire's friend Auguste Poulet
Malassis, who had inherited a printing business at Alencon. The
consummate art displayed in these verses was appreciated by a
limited public, but general attention was caught by the perverse
selection of morbid subjects, and the book became a by-word
for unwholesomeness among conventional critics. Victor Hugo,
writing to the poet, said, " Vous dotez le ciel de 1'art d'un rayon
macabre, vous creez un frisson nouveau." Baudelaire, the
publisher, and the printer were successfully prosecuted for
offending against public morals. The obnoxious pieces were
suppressed, but printed later as Les Epaves (Brussels, 1866).
Another edition of the Fleurs du mal, without these poems, but
with considerable additions, appeared in 1861.
Baudelaire had learnt English in his childhood, and had found
some of his favourite reading in the English " Satanic " romances,
such as Lewis's Monk. In 1846-1847 he became acquainted
with the works of Edgar Allan Poe, in which he discovered
romances and poems which had, he said, long existed in his own
brain, but had never taken shape. From this time till 1865 he
was largely occupied with his version of Poe's works, producing
masterpieces of the art of translation in Histoires extraordinaires
(1852), Nouvelles Histoires extraordinaires (1857), Adventures
d' Arthur Gordon Pym, Eureka, and Histoires grotesques et serieuses
(1865). Two essays on Poe are to be found in his (Euvres
completes (vols. v. and vi.). Meanwhile his financial difficulties
grew upon him. He was involved in the failure of Poulet
Malassis in 1861, and in 1864 he left Paris for Belgium, partly in
the vain hope of disposing of his copyrights. He had for many
years a liaison with a coloured woman, whom he helped to the
end of his life in spite of her gross conduct. He had recourse to
opium, and in Brussels he began to drink to excess. Paralysis
followed, and the last two years of his life were spent in maisons
de santi in Brussels and in Paris, where he died on the 3ist of
August 1867.
His other works include: Petits Poemes en prose; a series of
art criticisms published in the Pays, Exposition universelle;
studies on Gustave Flaubert (in L'artiste, i8th of October 1857) ;
on Theophile Gautier (Revue contemporaine, September 1858);
valuable notices contributed to Eugene Crepet's Poetes franfais;
Les Paradis artificiels opium el haschisch (1860) ; Richard Wagner
et TannhHuser a Paris (1861) ; Un Dernier Chapitre del' histoire des
iieuvres de Balzac (1880), originally an article entitled " Comment
on paye ses dettes quand on a du g6nie," in which his criticism
is turned against his friends H. de Balzac, Theophile Gautier,
and Gerard de Nerval.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. An edition of his Lettres (1841-1866) was issued
by the Soc. du Mercure de France in 1906. His (Euvres completes
were edited (1868-1870) by his friend Charles Asselineau, with a
preface by Theophile Gautier. Asselineau also undertook a vin-
dication of his character from the attacks made upon it in his Charles
Baudelaire, sa vie, son aeuvre (1869). He left some material of more
private interest in a MS. entitled Baudelaire. Sec Charles Baudelaire,
souvenirs, correspondance, bibliographie (1872), by Charles Cousin
and Spoelberch de Lovenjoul; Charles Baudelaire, ceuvres pos-
thumes et correspondences inedites (1887), containing ajournal entitled
Man ctsur mis a nu, and a biographical study by Eugene Crepet;
also Le Tombeau de Charles Baudelaire .(1896), a collection of pieces
unpublished or prohibited during the author's lifetime, edited by
S. Mallarme and others, with a study of the text of the Fleurs du
mal by Prince A. Ourousof ; Feli Gautier, Charles Baudelaire (Brussels,
1904), with facsimiles of drawings by Baudelaire himself; A. de la
Kitzeliere and G. Decaux, Charles Baudelaire (1868) in the series of
Essais de bibliographic conlemporaine ; essays by Paul Bourget,
Essais de psychology contemporaine (1883), and Maurice Spronck,
Les Artistes litteraires (1889). Among English translations from
Baudelaire are Poems in Prose, by A. Symons (1905), and a selection
for the Canterbury Poets (1904), by F. P. Sturm.
BAUDIER, MICHEL (c. 1589-1645), French historian, was
born in Languedoc. During the reign of Louis XIII. he was
historiographer to the court of France. He contributed to
French history by writing Histoire de la guerre de Plandre 1559-
1609 (Paris, 1615); Histoire de I' administration du cardinal
d'Amboise, grand ministre d'etat en France (Paris, 1634), a
defence of the cardinal; and Histoire de I' administration de
I'abbl Suger (Paris, 1645). Taking an especial interest in the
Turks he wrote Inventaire general de I'histoire des Turcs (Paris,
1619); Histoire generate de la religion des Turcs avec la vie de
leur prophete Mahomet (Paris, 1626); and Histoire generate du
serail et de la cow du grand Turc (Paris, 1626; English trans, by
E. Grimeston, London, 1635). Having heard the narrative of
a Jesuit who had returned from China, Baudier wrote Histoire
de la cour du roi de Chine (Paris, 1626; English trans, in vol. viii.
of the Collection of Voyages and Travels of A. and J. Churchill,
London, 1707-1747). He also wrote Vie du cardinal Ximtnes
(Paris, 1635), which was again published with a notice of the
author by E. Baudier (Paris, 1851), and a curious romance
entitled Histoire de ['incomparable administration deRomieu, grand
minislre d'etat de Raymond Birenger,comtedeProvence(Pacis, 1635).
See J. Lelong, Btbliotheque historique de la France (Paris, 1768-
1778) ; L. Moreri, Le Grand Dictionnaire historique (Amsterdam.
1740).
BAUDRILLART, HENRI JOSEPH LfiON (1821-1892), French
economist, was born in Paris on the z8th of November 1821.
His father, Jacques Joseph (1774-1832), was a distinguished
writer on forestry, and was for many years in the service of the
French government, eventually becoming the head of that
branch of the department of agriculture which had charge of the
state forests. Henri was educated at the College Bourbon,
where he had a distinguished career, and in 1852 he was appointed
assistant lecturer in political economy to M. Chevalier at the
College de France. In 1866, on the creation of a new chair of
economic history, Baudrillart was appointed to fill it. His first
work was an Eloge de Turgot (1846), which at once won
him notice among the economists. In 1853 he published an
erudite work on Jean Bodin et son temps; then in 1857 a Manuel
d' economic polilique; in 1860, Des rapports de la morale el de
I'economie polilique; in 1865, La Libertf du travail; and from
1878 to 1880, L'Histoire du luxe . . . depuis I'anliquitt jusqu'a
nos jours, in four volumes. At the instance of the Academic des
Sciences Morales et Politiques he investigated the condition of
the farming classes of France, and published the results in four
volumes (1885, et seq.). From 1855 to 1864 he directed the
Journal des economistes, and contributed many articles to the
Journal des debals and to the Revue des deux mondes. His
writings are distinguished by their style, as well as by their
profound erudition. In 1863 he was elected member of the
Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques; in 1870 he was
appointed inspector-general of public libraries, and in 1881 he
succeeded J. Gamier as professor of political economy at the
Ecole des Fonts et Chaussees. Baudrillart was made an officer
of the Legion of Honour in 1889. He died in Paris on the 24th of
January 1892.
BAUDRY, or BALDERICH, OF BOURGUEIL (1046 or 1047-
1 130), archbishop of Dol, historian and poet, was born at Meung-
sur-Loire, where he passed his early days. Educated at Meung
and at Angers, he entered the Benedictine abbey of Bourgucil.
and in 1079 became abbot of this place, but his time was devoted
to literary pursuits rather than to his official duties. Having
failed to secure the bishopric of Orleans in 1097, he became
archbishop of Dol in 1107, and went to Rome for his pallium in
1108. The bishopric of Dol had been raised to the rank of an
archbishopric during the loth century by Nomenoe. king of
Brittany, but this step had been objected to by the archbishops
of Tours. Consequently the position of the see was somewhat
ambiguous, and Baudry is referred to both as archbishop and as
BAUDRY BAUERNFELD
bishop of Dol. He appears to have striven earnestly to do
something for the education of the ignorant inhabitants of
Brittany but his efforts were not very successful, and he soon
abandoned the task. In 1116 he attended the Lateran council,
and in 1119 the council of Reims, after which he paid a visit
of two years' duration to England. Returning to France he
neglected the affairs of his diocese, and passed his time mainly
at St Samson-sur-Risle in Normandy. He died on the sth or
7th of January 1 130.
Baudry wrote a number of Latin poems of very indifferent
quality. The most important of these, from the historical point
of view, have beenpublished inihe Historiae FrancorumScriptores,
tome iv., edited by A. Duchesne (Paris 1639-1649). Baudry's
prose works are more important. The best known of these is his
Historiae Hierosolymitanae, a history of the first crusade from
1095 to 1099. This is a history in four books, the material for
which was mainly drawn from the anonymous Gesta Francorum,
but some valuable information has been added by Baudry.
It was very popular during the middle ages, and was used by
Ordericus Vitalis for his Historiae ecclesiasticae; by William,
archbishop of Tyre, for his Belli sacri historia; and by Vincent
of Beauvais for his Speculum historiale. The best edition is that
by C. Thurot, which appears in the Recueil des historiens des
croisad.es, tome iv. (Paris, 1841-1887). Other works probably by
Baudry are Epistola ad Fiscannenses monachos, a description of
the monastery of Fecamp; Vita Roberti de Arbrissello; Vita
S. Hugonis archiepiscopi Rothomagensis; Translatio capitis
Gemeticum et miracula S. Valentini martyris; Relalio de scuto
el gladio, a history of the arms of St. Michael; and Vita
S. Samsonis Dolensis episcopi. Other writings which on very
doubtful authority have been attributed to Baudry are Ada
S. Valeriani martyris Trenorchii; De visitatione infirmorum;
Vita S. Maglorii Dolensis episcopi et Vita S. Maclovii, Alec-
tensis episcopi; De revelatione abbatum Fiscannensium; and
Confirmatio bonorum monaslerii S. Florentii. Many of these are
published by J. P. Migne in the Patrologia Latina, tomes 160,
162 and 166 (Paris 1844).
See Histoire litteraire de la France, tome xi. (Paris, 1865-1869);
H. von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreutzuges (Leipzig, 1881);
A. Thurot, " Etudes critiques sur les historiens de la premiere
croisade; Baudri de Bourgueil " in the Revue historique (Paris,
1876).
BAUDRY, PAUL JACQUES AIMfi (1828-1886), French
painter, was born at La Roche-sur-Yonne (Vende'e). He studied
under Drolling, a sound but second-rate artist, and carried off
the Prix de Rome in 1850 by his picture of " Zenobia found on
the banks of the Araxes." His talent from the first revealed
itself as strictly academical, full of elegance and grace, but
somewhat lacking originality. In the course of his residence in
Italy Baudry derived strong inspiration from Italian art with
the mannerism of Coreggio, as was very evident in the two works
he exhibited in the Salon of 1857, which were purchased for
the Luxembourg: " The Martyrdom of a Vestal Virgin " and
" The Child." His " Leda," " St John the Baptist," and a
" Portrait of Beule," exhibited at the same time, took a first
prize that year. Throughout this early period Baudry com-
monly selected mythological or fanciful subjects, one of the most
noteworthy being " The Pearl and the Wave." Once only did
he attempt an historical picture, " Charlotte Corday after the
murder of Marat " (1861), and returned by preference to the
former class of subjects or to painting portraits of illustrious men
of his day Guizot, Charles Garnier, Edmond About. The
works that crowned Baudry's reputation were his mural decora-
tions, which show much imagination and a high artistic gift for
colour, as may be seen in the frescoes in the Paris Cour de
Cassation, at the chateau of Chantilly, and some private resid-
ences the hotel Fould and h6tel Paiva but, above all, in the
decorations of the foyer of the Paris opera house. These, more
than thirty paintings in all, and among them compositions
figurative of dancing and music, occupied the painter for ten
years. Baudry died in Paris in 1886. He was a member of the
Institut de France, succeeding Jean Victor Schnetz. Two of
his colleagues, Dubois and Marius Jean Mercie, co-operating
with his brother, Baudry the architect, erected a monument to
him in Paris (1890). The statue of Baudry at La Roche-sur-
Yonne (1897) is by Ger&me.
See H. Delaborde, Notice sur la vie et les out/rages de Baudry (1886) ;
Ch. Ephrussi, Baudry, sa vie et son ceuvre (1887). (H. FR.)
BAUER, BRUNO (1809-1882), German theologianand historian,
was born on the 6th of September 1809, the son of a painter in a
porcelain factory, at Eisenberg in Saxe-Altenburg. He studied
at Berlin, where he attached himself to the " Right " of the
Hegelian school under P. Marheineke. In 1834 he began to teach
in Berlin as a licentiate of theology, and in 1839 was transferred
to Bonn. In 1838 he published his Kritische Darstellung der
Religion des Alien Testaments (2 vols.), which shows that at that
date he was still faithful to the Hegelian Right. Soon afterwards
his opinions underwent a change, and in two works, one on the
Fourth Gospel, Kritik der evangelischen Geschichte des Johannes
(1840), and the other on the Synoptics, Kritik der evangelischen
Geschichte der Synoptiker (1841), as well as in his Herr Hengsten-
berg, kritische Briefe uber den Gegensatz des Gesetzes und des
Evangeliums, he announced his complete rejection of his earlier
orthodoxy. In 1842 the government revoked his license and he
retired for the rest of his life to Rixdorf, near Berlin. Hencefor-
ward he took a deep interest in modern history and politics, as
well as in theology, and published Geschichte der Politik, Kultur
und Aufklarung des iSten Jahrhunderts (4 vols. 1843-1845),
Geschichte der franzosischcn Revolution (3 vols. 1847), and
Disraelis romanlischer und Bismarcks socialistischerlmperialismus
(1882). Other critical works are: a criticism of the gospels and a
history of their origin, Kritik der Evangelien und Geschichte ihres
Ursprungs (1850-1852), a book on the Acts of the Apostles,
Apostelgeschichte (1850), and a criticism of the Pauline epistles,
Kritik der paulinischen Briefe (1850-1852). He died at Rixdorf
on the 1 3th of April 1882. His criticism of the New Testament
was of a highly destructive type. David Strauss in his Life of
Jesus had accounted for the Gospel narratives as half-conscious
products of the mythic instinct in the early Christian com-
munities. Bauer ridiculed Strauss's notion that a community
could produce a connected narrative. His own contention,
embodying a theory of C. G. Wilke (Der Urevangelist, 1838), was
that the original narrative was the Gospel of Mark; that this was
composed in the reign of Hadrian; and that after this the other
narratives were modelled by other writers. He, however,
" regarded Mark not only as the first narrator, but even as the
creator of the gospel history, thus making the latter a fiction
and Christianity the invention of a single original evangelist "
(Pfleiderer). On the same principle the four principal Pauline
epistles were regarded as forgeries of the 2nd century. He argued
further for the preponderance of the Graeco-Roman element, as
opposed to the Jewish, in the Christian writings. The writer of
Mark's gospel was " an Italian, at home both in Rome and
Alexandria " ; that of Matthew's gospel " a Roman, nourished
by the spirit of Seneca "; the Pauline epistles were written in
the West in antagonism to the Paul of the Acts, and so on.
Christianity is essentially " Stoicism triumphant in a Jewish
garb." This line of criticism has found few supporters, mostly
in the Netherlands. It certainly had its value in emphasizing the
importance of studying the influence of environment in the
formation of the Christian Scriptures. Bauer was a man of rest-
less, impetuous activity and independent, if ill-balanced, judg-
ment, one who, as he himself perceived, was more in place as a
free-lance of criticism than as an official teacher. He came in the
end to be regarded kindly even by opponents, and he was not
afraid of taking a line displeasing to his liberal friends on the
Jewish question (Die Judenfrage, 1843).
His attitude towards the Jews is dealt with in the article in the
Jewish Encyclopedia. See generally Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo-
pddie; and cf. Otto Pfleiderer, Development of Theology, p. 226;
Carl Schwarz, Zur Geschichte der neuesten Theologie, pp. 142 ff. ; and
F. Lichtenberger, History of German Theology in the iqtn Century
(1889), pp. 374-378.
BAUERNFELD, EDUARD VON (1802-1800), Austrian drama-
tist, was born at Vienna on the I3th of January 1802. Having
BAUFFREMONT BAUMGARTEN, A. G.
539
studied jurisprudence at the university of Vienna, he entered the
government service in a legal capacity, and after holding various
minor offices was transferred in 1843 to a responsible post on the
Lottery Commission. He had already embarked upon politics,
and severely criticized the government in a pamphlet, Pia
Desideria tines osterreichischen Schriftstellers (1842); and in 1845
he made a journey to England, after which his political opinions
became more pronounced. After the Revolution, in 1848, he
quitted the government service in order to devote himself entirely
to letters. He lived in Vienna until his death on the pth of August
1890, and was ennobled for his work. As a writer of comedies
and farces, Bauernfeld takes high rank among the German
playwrights of the century; his plots are clever, the situations
witty and natural and the diction elegant. His earliest essays,
the comedies Leicktsinn aus Liebe (1831); Das Liebes-Protoholl
(1831) and Die ewige Liebe (1834); BUrgerlich und Romantisch,
(1835) enjoyed great popularity. Later he turned his attention
to so-called Salonstucke (drawing-room pieces), notably Aus der
Gesellschaft (1866) ; Moderne Jugend (1869), and Der Landfrieden
(1860), in which he portrays in fresh, bright and happy sallies the
social conditions of the capital in which he lived.
A complete edition of Bauernfeld's works, Gesammelte Schriften,
appeared in 12 vols. (Vienna, 1871-1873) ; Dramatischer Nachlass, ed.
by F. von Saar (1893); selected works, ed. by E. Horner (4 vols.,
1005). See A. Stern, Bauernfeld, Bin Dichterportrdt (1890), R. von
Gottschall, " E. von Bauernfeld " (in Unsere Zeit, 1890), and E.
Horner, Bauernfeld (1900).
BAUFFREMONT, a French family which derives its name
from a village in the Vosges, spelt nowadays Beaufremont. In
consequence of an alliance with the house of Vergy the Bauffre-
monts established themselves in Burgundy and Franche-Comt6.
In 1448 Pierre de Bauffremont, lord of Charny, married Marie, a
legitimatized daughter of Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy.
Nicolas de Bauffremont, his son Claude, and his grandson Henri,
all played important parts in the states-general of 1576, 1588
and 1614, and their speeches have been published. Alexandre
Emmanuel Louis de Bauffremont (1773-1833), a prince of the
Holy Roman Empire, was created a peer of France in 1817, and
duke in 1818. After having served in the army of the princes he
returned to France under the Empire, and had been made a
count by Napoleon. (M. P.*)
BAUHIN, GASPARD (1560-1624), Swiss botanist and anato-
mist, was the son of a French physician, Jean Bauhin (1511-
1582), who had to leave his native country on becoming a
convert to Protestantism. He was born at Basel on the I7th of
January 1 560, and devoting himself to medicine, he pursued his
studies at Padua, Montpellier, and some of the celebrated schools
in Germany. Returning to Basel in 1580, he was admitted to
the degree of doctor, and gave private lectures in botany and
anatomy. In 1582 he was appointed to the Greek professorship
in that university, and in 1588 to the chair of anatomy and
botany. He was afterwards made city physician, professor of
the practice of medicine, rector of the university, and dean of
his faculty. He died at Basel on the sth of December 1624. He
published several works relative to botany, of which the most
valuable was his Pinax Theatri Botanici, seu Index in Theo-
phrasti, Dioscoridis, Plinii, et botanicorum qui a seculo scripserunt
opera (1596). Another great work which he planned was a
Theatrum Botanicum, meant to be comprised in twelve parts
folio, of which he finished three; only one, however, was pub-
lished (1658). He also gave a copious catalogue of the plants
growing in the environs of Basel, and edited the works of P. A.
Mattioli (1500-1577) with considerable additions. He likewise
wrote on anatomy, his principal work on this subject being
Theatrum Anatomicum infinitis locis auctum (1592).
His son, JEAN GASPARD BAUHIN (1606-1685), was professor
of botany at Basel for thirty years. His elder brother, JEAN
BAUHIN (1541-1613), after studying botany at Tubingen under
Leonard Fuchs (1501-1566), and travelling with Conrad Gesner,
began to practise medicine at Basel, where he was elected pro-
fessor of rhetoric in 1766. Four years later he was invited to
become physician to the duke of Wiirttemberg at Montb61iard,
where he remained till his death in 1613. He devoted himself
chiefly to botany. His great work, Historic plantarum nova et
absolutissima, a compilation of all that was then known about
botany, was not complete at his death, but was published at
Yverdon in 1650-1651, the Prodromus having appeared at the
same place in 1619. He also wrote a book De aquis medical is
(1605).
BAULK, or BALK (a word common to Teutonic languages,
meaning a ridge, partition, or beam), the ridge left unploughcd
between furrows or ploughed fields; also the uncultivated strip
of land used as a boundary in the " open-field " system of
agriculture. From the meaning of something left untouched
comes that of a hindrance or check, so of a horse stopping short
of an obstacle, of the " baulk-line " in billiards, or of the decep-
tive motion of the pitcher in baseball. From the other original
meaning, i.e. " beam," comes the use of the word for the cross
or tie-beam of a roof, or for a large log of timber sawn to a one
or one and a half foot square section (see JOINERY).
BAUMBACH, RUDOLF (1840-1905), German poet, was born
at Kranichfeld on the Ilm in Thuringia, on the 28th of September
1840, the son of a local medical practitioner, and received his
early schooling at the gymnasium of Mciningen, to which place
his father had removed. After studying natural science in
various universities, he engaged in private tuition, both inde-
pendently and in families, in the Austrian towns of Graz, Brlinn,
Gorz and Triest respectively. In Triest he caught the popular
taste with an Alpine legend, Zlatorog (1877), and songs of a
journeyman apprentice, Lieder eines fahrenden Gesellen (1878),
both of which have run into many editions. Their success
decided him to embark upon a literary career. In 1885 he
returned to Meiningen, where he received the title of Hofral,
and was appointed ducal librarian. His death occurred on the
i4th of September 1905.
Baumbach was a poet of the breezy, vagabond school, and
wrote, in imitation of his greater compatriot, Victor Scheffel,
many excellent drinking songs, among which Die Lindenwirtin
has endeared him to the German student world. But his real
strength lay in narrative verse, especially when he had the
opportunity of describing the scenery and life of his native
Thuringia. Special mention may be made of Frau Holde (1881),
Spielmannslieder (1882), Von der Landstrasse (1882), Thuringer
Lieder (1891), and his prose, Sommermarchen (1881).
BAUMfi, ANTOINE (1728-1804), French chemist, was born at
Senlis on the 26th of February 1728. He was apprenticed to
the chemist Claude Joseph Geoffrey, and in 1752 was admitted
a member of the Ecole de Pharmacie, where in the same year he
was appointed professor of chemistry. The money he made in a
business he carried on in Paris for dealing in chemical products
enabled him to retire in 1780 in order to devote himself to
applied chemistry, but, ruined in the Revolution, he was obliged
to return to a commercial career. He devised many improve-
ments in technical processes, e.g. for bleaching silk, dyeing,
gilding, purifying saltpetre, &c., but he is best known as the
inventor of the hydrometer associated with his name (often in
this connexion improperly spelt Beaum6). Of the numerous
books and papers he wrote the most important is his Siemens de
pharmacie thiorique et pratique (9 editions, 1762-1818). He
became a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1772, and an
associate of the Institute in 1796. He died in Paris on the isth
of October 1804.
BAUMGARTEN, ALEXANDER GOTTLIEB (1714-1762),
German philosopher, born at Berlin. He studied at Halle, and
became professor of philosophy at Halle and at Frankfort on the
Oder, where he died in 1762. He was a disciple of LcibniU and
Wolff, and was particularly distinguished as having been the
first to establish the Theory of the Beautiful as an independent
science. Baumgarten did good service in severing aesthetics
(q.v.) from the other philosophic disciplines, and in marking out
a definite object for its researches. The very name (Aesthetics),
which Baumgarten was the first to use, indicates the imperfect
and partial nature of his analysis, pointing as it does to an element
so variable as feeling or sensation as the ultimate ground of
judgment in questions pertaining to beauty. It is important
540
BAUMGARTEN, M. BAUR
to notice that Baumgarten's first work preceded those of Burke,
Diderot, and P. Andre, and that Kant had a great admiration
for him. The principal works of Baumgarten are the following:
Disputationes de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus (1735);
Aesthetica; Metaphysica (1739; ?th ed. 1779); Ethica philo-
sophica (1751, 2nd ed. 1763); Initia philosophiae practicae
primae (1760). After his death, his pupils published a Philo-
sophia Generalis (1770) and a Jus Naturae (1765), which he had
left in manuscript.
See Meier, Baumgarten's Leben (1763) ; Abbt, Baumgarten's Leben
and Charakter (1765) ; H. G. Meyer, Leibnitz und Baumgarten (1874) ;
J. Schmidt, Leibnitz und Baumgarten (Halle, 1875) ; and article
AESTHETICS.
His brother, SIEGMUND JACOB BAUMGARTEN (1706-1757),
was professor of theology at Halle, and applied the methods of
Wolff to theology. His chief pupil, Johann Salomo Semler (q.v.) ,
is sometimes called the father of German rationalism. Baum-
garten, though he did not renounce the Pietistic doctrine, began
the process which Semler completed. His works include Evan-
gelische Claubenslehre (1759); Auszug der Kirchengeschichte
(1743-1762); Primae lineae breviarii antiquitatum Christianarwn
(1747); Gesckichte der Religions parteien (1760); Nachricht von
merkuriirdigen Biichern (1752-1757); Nachrichten von einer hal-
lischen Bibliothek (1748-1751).
See life by Semler (Halle, 1758).
BAUMGARTEN, MICHAEL (1812-1889), German Protestant
theologian, was born at Haseldorf in Schleswig-Holstein on the
25th of March 1812. He studied at Kiel University (1832), and
became professor ordinarius of theology at Rostock (1850). A
liberal scholar, he became widely known in 1854 through a work,
Die Nachtgesichte Sacharjas. Eine Prophetenstimme aus der
Gegenwart, in which, starting from texts in the Old Testament
and assuming the tone of a prophet, he discussed topics of every
kind. At a pastoral conference in 1856 he boldly defended
evangelical freedom as regards the legal sanctity of Sunday.
This, with other attempts to liberalize religion, brought him into
conflict with the ecclesiastical authorities of Mecklenburg, and in
1858 he was deprived of his professorship. He then travelled
throughout Germany, demanding justice, telling the story of his
life (Christliche Selbstgesprdche, 1861), and lecturing on the life
of Jesus (Die Geschichte Jcsu. Fur das VerstUndniss der Gegen-
warl, 1859). In 1865 he helped to found the Deutsche Protes-
iantenverein, but withdrew from it in 1877. On several occasions
(1874, 1877 and 1878) he sat in the Reichstag as a member of the
progressive party. He died on the 2ist of July 1889. Other
works: A postelgeschichte oder Entwicklungsgang der Kirche von
Jerusalem bis Rom (2 vols. 2nd ed., 1859), and Doktor Martin
Luther, ein Volksbuch (1883).
H. H. Studt published his autobiography in 1891 (2 vols.); see
also C. Schwartz, Neueste Theologie (1869); Lichtenbergcr, Hist.
Germ. Theol., 1889; Calwer-Zeller, Kirchen-Lexikon.
BAUMGARTEN-CRUSIUS, LUDWIG FRIEDRICH OTTO
(1788-1842), German Protestant divine, was born at Merscburg.
In 1805 he entered the university of Leipzig and^tudied theology
and philology. After acting as Privatdocent at Leipzig, he was,
in 1812, appointed professor extraordinarius of theology at Jena,
where he remained to the end of his life, rising gradually to the
head of the theological faculty. He died on the 3ist of May
1842. With the exception of Church history, he lectured on all
branches of so-called theoretical theology, especially on New
Testament exegesis, biblical theology, dogmatic ethics, and the
history of dogma, and his comprehensive knowledge, accurate
scholarship and wide sympathies gave peculiar value to his
lectures and treatises, especially those on the development of
church doctrine. His published works are many, the most
important being: Lehrbuch der chrisllichen \Sittenlehre (1826);
Grundzu'ge der biblischen Theologie (1828); Lehrbuch der Dogmen-
geschichte (1832); Compendium der Dogmengeschichte (1840).
The last, perhaps his best work, was left unfinished, but was
completed from his notes in 1846 by Karl Hase.
BAUR, FERDINAND CHRISTIAN (1792-1860), leader of the
Tubingen school of theology, was born at Schmiden, near
Canstatt, on the 2ist of June 1792. After receiving an early
training in the theological seminary at Blaubeuren, he went in
1809 to the university of Tubingen. Here he studied for a time
under Ernst Bengel, grandson of the eminent New Testament
critic, Johann Albrecht Bengel, and at this early stage in his
career he seems to have been under the influence of the old
Tubingen school. But at the same time the philosophers
Immanuel Fichte and Friedrich Schelling were creating a wide
and deep impression. In 1817 Baur returned to the theological
seminary at Blaubeuren as professor. This move marked a
turning-point in his life, for he was now able to set to work upon
those investigations on which his reputation rests. He had
already, in 1817, written a review of G. Kaiser's Biblische
Theologie for Bengel's Archiv fur Theologie (ii. 656); its tone
was moderate and conservative. When, a few years after his
appointment at Blaubeuren, he published his first important
work, Symbolik und Mythologie oder die Naturreligion des Alter-
tums (1824-1825), it became evident that he had made a deeper
study of philosophy, and had come under the influence of
Schelling and more particularly of Friedrich Schleiermacher.
The learning of the work was fully recognized, and in 1826 the
author was called to Tubingen as professor of theology. It is
with Tubingen that his greatest literary achievements are
associated. His earlier publications here treated of mythology
and the history of dogma. Das manichaische Religionssystem
appeared in 1831, Apollonius wn Tyana in 1832, Die christliche
Gnosis in 1835, and Uber das Christliche im Platonismus oder
Socrates und Christus in 1837. As Otto Pfleiderer (Development
of Theology, p. 285) observes, " the choice not less than the treat-
ment of these subjects is indicative of the large breadth of view
and the insight of the historian into the comparative history of
religion." Meantime Baur had exchanged one master in philo-
sophy for another, Schleiermacher for Hegel. .In doing so, he
had adopted completely the Hegelian philosophy of history.
" Without philosophy," he has said, " history is always for me
dead and dumb." The change of view is illustrated clearly in
the essay, published in the Tiibinger Zeitschrift for 1831, on the
Christ-party in the Corinthian Church, Die Christusparlei in
der korinthischen Gemeinde, t der Gegensatz des paulinischen und
petrinischen in der altesten Kirche, der A pastel Petrus in Rom,
the trend of which is suggested by the title. Baur contends that
St Paul was opposed in Corinth by a Jewish-Christian party
which wished to set up its own form of Christian religion instead
of his universal Christianity. He finds traces of a keen conflict
of parties in the post-apostolic age. The theory is further
developed in a later work (1835, the year in which David Strauss'
Leben Jesu was published), Uber die sogenannlen Pastor albriefe.
In this Baur attempts to prove that the false teachers mentioned
in the Epistles to Timothy and Titus are the Gnostics, particu-
larly the Marcionites, of the second century, and consequently
that the Epistles were produced in the middle of this century
in opposition to Gnosticism. He next proceeded to investigate
the Pauline Epistles and the Acts of the Apostles in the same
manner, publishing his results in 1845 under the title Paulus, der
A pastel Jesu Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Brief 'e und
seine Lehre. In this he contends that only the Epistles to the
Galatians, Corinthians and Romans are genuinely Pauline, and
that the Paul of Acts is a different person from the Paul of these
genuine Epistles, the author being a Paulinist who, with an eye
to the different parties in the Church, is at pains to represent
Peter as far as possible as a Paulinist and Paul as far as possible
as a Petrinist. Thus it becomes clear that Baur is prepared to
apply his theory to the whole of the New Testament; in the
words of H. S. Nash, " he carried a sweeping hypothesis into the
examination of the New Testament." Those writings alone ho
considers genuine in which the conflict between Jewish-Christians
and Gentile-Christians is clearly marked. In his Kritischc
Untersuchungen Uber die kanonischen Evangelien, ihr Verhaltniss
zu einander, ihren Charakter und Ur sprung (1847) he turns his
attention to the Gospels, and here again finds that the authors
were conscious of the conflict of parties; the Gospels reveal
a mediating or conciliatory tendency (Tendenz) on the part of
the writers or redactors. The Gospels, in fact, are adaptations
BAUTAIN BAUTZEN
or redactions of an older Gospel, such as the Gospel of the
Hebrews, of Peter, of the Egyptians, or of the Ebionites. The
Petrine Matthew bears the closest relationship to this original
Gospel (Urevangelium); the Pauline Luke is later and arose
independently; Mark represents a still later development;
the account in John is idealistic: it " does not possess historical
truth, and cannot and does not really lay claim to it." Baur's
whole theory indeed starts with the supposition that Christianity
was gradually developed out of Judaism. Before it could become
a universal religion, it had to struggle with Jewish limitations and
to overcome them. The early Christians were Jewish-Christians,
to whom Jesus was the Messiah. Paul, on the other hand, repre-
sented a breach with Judaism, the Temple, and the Law. Thus
there was some antagonism between the Jewish apostles, Peter,
James and John and the Gentile apostle Paul, and this struggle
continued down to the middle of the 2nd century. In short,
the conflict between Petrinism and Paulinism is, as Carl Schwarz
puts it, the key to the literature of the ist and 2nd century.
But Baur was a theologian and historian as well as a Biblical
critic. As early as 1834 he published a strictly theological work,
Gegensatz des Katholicismus und Prolestantismus nach den
Prinzipien und Haupldogmen der beiden Lehrbegrijfe, a strong
defence of Protestantism on the lines of Schleiermacher's
Glaubenslchre, and a vigorous reply to J. Mohler's Symbolik
(1833). This was followed by his larger histories of dogma, Die
christliche Lehre von der Vcrsohnung in Hirer geschichtlichen
Entwicklung bis auf die neueste Zeit (1838), Die christliche
Lehre von der Dreieinigkeit und Menschtverdung Gotles in ihrer
geschichtlichen Entwicklung (3 vols., 1841-1843), and the
Lehrbuch der christlichen DogmengeschiMe (1847). The value
of these works is impaired somewhat by Baur's habit of making
the history of dogma conform to the formulae of Hegel's philo-
sophy, a procedure " which only served to obscure the truth
and profundity of his conception of history as a true develop-
ment of the human mind " (Pflelderer). Baur, however, soon
came to attach more importance to personality, and to distinguish
more carefully between religion and philosophy. The change is
marked in his Epochen der kirchlichen Geschichtschreibung (1852),
Das Christenthum und die christliche Kirche der drei ersten
Jahrhunderte (1853), and Die christliche Kirche von Anfang des
vierten bis zum Ende des sechsten Jahrhunderts (1859), works
preparatory to his Kirchengcschiclite, in which the change of view is
specially pronounced. The Kirchengeschichte was published in five
volumes during the years 1853-1863, partly by Baur himself,
partly by his son, Ferdinand Baur, and his son-in-law, Eduard
Zeller, from notes and lectures which the author left behind him.
Pfleiderer describes this work, especially the first volume, as
" a classic for all time." " Taken as a whole, it is the first
thorough and satisfactory attempt to explain the rise of Chris-
tianity and the Church on strictly historical lines, i.e. as a natural
development of the religious spirit of our race under the com-
bined operation of various human causes " (Development of
Theology, p. 288). Baur's lectures on the history of dogma,
Ausfiihrlichere Vorlesungen ilber die christliche Dogmengeschichte,
were published later by his son (1865-1868).
Baur's views were revolutionary and often extreme; but,
whatever may be thought of them, it is admitted that as a critic,
he rendered a great service to theological science. " One thing
is certain: New Testament study, since his time, has had a
different colour " (H. S. Nash). He has had a number of dis-
ciples or followers, who have in many cases modified his positions.
A full account of F. C. Baur's labours, and a complete list of his
writings will be found in the article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklo-
pddie, in which his work is divided into three periods: (l) " Philo-
sophy of Religion," (2) " Biblical criticism," (3) " Church History."
See also H. S. Nash, The History of the Higher Criticism of the New
Testament (New York, 1901); Otto Pfleiderer, The Development of
Theology in Germany since Kant (trans., 1890) ; Carl Schwarz, Zur
Geschichte der neuesien Theologie (Leipzig, 1869); R. W. Mackay,
The Tubingen School and its Antecedents (1863); A. S. Farrar, A
Critical History of Free Thought in reference to tlte Christian Religion
(Bampton Lectures, 1862); and cf. the article on "The Tubingen
Historical School," in Bibliotheca Sacra, vol. xix. No. 73, 1862.
(M. A. C.)
BAUTAIN, LOUIS EUGENE MARIE (1796-1867), French
philosopher and theologian, was born at Paris. At the Ecole
Normale he came under the influence of Cousin. In 1816 he
adopted the profession of higher teaching, and was soon after
called to the chair of philosophy in the university of Strassburg.
He held this position for many years, and gave a parallel course
of lectures as professor of the literary faculty in the same city.
The reaction against speculative philosophy, which carried
away De Maistre and Lamcnnais, influenced him also. In 1828
he took orders, and resigned his chair at the university. For
several years he remained at Strassburg, lecturing at the Faculty
and at the college of Juilly, but in 1849 he set out for Paris as
vicar of the diocese. At Paris he obtained considerable reputa-
tion as an orator, and in 1853 was made professor of moral
theology at the theological faculty. This post he held till his
death. Like the Scholastics, he distinguished reason and faith,
and held that revelation supplies facts, otherwise unattainable,
which philosophy is able to group by scientific methods. The-
ology and philosophy thus form one comprehensive science.
Yet Bautain was no rationalist; like Pascal and Newman he
exalted faith above reason. He pointed out, following chiefly
the Kantian criticism, that reason can never yield knowledge
of things in themselves. But there exists in addition to reason
another faculty which may be called intelligence, through which
we are put in connexion with spiritual and invisible truth.
This intelligence docs not of itself yield a body of truth; it
merely contains the germs of the higher ideas, and these are made
productive by being brought into contact with revealed facts.
This fundamental conception Bautain worked out in the depart-
ments of psychology and morals. The details of this theology
are highly imaginative. He says, for instance, that there is a
spirit of the world and a spirit of nature; the latter gives birth
to a physical and psychical spirit, and the physical spirit to the
animal and vegetable spirits. His theories may well be compared
with the arbitrary mysticism of van Helmont and the Gnostics.
The most important of his works are : Philosophie du Christia-
nisme (1835); Psychologie experimentale (1839), new edition
entitled Esprit humain et ses facultes (1859); Philosophie
morale (1840); Religion et liberte (1848); La Morale de I'ttan-
gile comparee aux divers systemes de morale (Strassburg, 1827;
Paris, 1855); De I'tducation publique en France an XIX'
siecle (Paris, 1876).
BAUTZEN (Wendish Budissin, " town "), a town of Germany,
in the kingdom of Saxony and the capital of Saxon Upper
Lusatia. Pop. (1890) 21,515; (1905) 29,412. It occupies an
eminence on the right bank of the Spree, 680 ft. above the level
of the sea, 32 m. E.N.E. from Dresden, on the Dresden-Gorlitz-
Breslau main line of railway, and at the junction of lines from
Schandau and Konigswartha. The town is surrounded by walls,
and outside these again by ramparts, now in great measure turned
into promenades, and has extensive suburbs partly lying on the
left bank of the river. Among its churches the most remarkable
is the cathedral of St Peter, dating from the i sth century, with a
tower 300 ft. in height. It is used by both Protestants and Roman
Catholics, an iron screen separating the parts assigned to each.
There are five other churches, a handsome town hall, an orphan-
asylum, several hospitals, a mechanics' institute, a famous
grammar school (gymnasium) , a normal and several other schools,
and two public libraries. The general trade and manufactures are
considerable, including woollen (stockings and cloth), linen
and cotton goods, leather, paper, saltpetre, and dyeing. It
has also iron foundries, potteries, distilleries, breweries, cigar
factories, &c.
Bautzen was already in existence when Henry I., the Fowler,
conquered Lusatia in 928. It became a town and fortress under
Otto I., his successor, and speedily attained considerable wealth
and importance, for a good share of which it was indebted to the
pilgrimages which were made to the " arm of St Peter," preserved
in one of the churches. It suffered greatly during the Hussite
war, and still more during the Thirty Years' War, in the course of
which it was besieged and captured by the elector of Brandenburg,
John George (1620), fell into the hands of Wailcnstcin (1633), and,
542
BAUXITE
in the following year was burned by its commander before being
surrendered to the elector of Saxony. At the peace of Prague in
1635 it passed with Lusatia to Saxony as a war indemnity.
The town gives its name to a great battle in which, on the 2oth
and sist of May 1813, Napoleon I. defeated an allied army of
Russians and Prussians (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS).
Zfutxea The position chosen by the allies as that in which to
1813. receive the attack of Napoleon ran S.W. to N.E. from
Bautzen on the left to the village of Gleina on the right.
Bautzen itself was held as an advanced . post of the left wing
(Russians), the main body of which lay 2 m. to the rear (E.) near
Jenkwitz. On the heights of Burk, 2^ m. N.E. of Bautzen, was
Kleist's Prussian corps, with Yorck's in support. On Kleist's
right at Pliskowitz (3 m. N.E. of Burk) lay Blucher's corps, and on
Blucher's right, formed at an angle to him, and refused towards
Gleina (7 m. N.E. by E. of Bautzen), were the Russians of Barclay
de Tolly. The country on which the battle was fought abounded
in strong defensive positions, some of which were famous as
battlegrounds of the Seven Years' War. The whole line was
covered by the river Spree, which served as an immediate defence
for the left and centre, and an obstacle to any force moving to
attack the right; moreover the interval between the river and
the position on this side was covered with a network of ponds and
watercourses. Napoleon's right and centre approached (on a
broad front owing to the want of cavalry) from Dresden by
Bischofswerda and Kamenz; the left under Ney, which was
separated by nearly 40 m. from the left of the main body at
Luckau, was ordered to march via Hoyerswerda, Weissig and
Klix to strike the allies' right. At noon on the 20th, Napoleon,
after a prolonged reconnaissance, advanced the main army against
Bautzen and Burk, leaving the enemy's right to be dealt with by
Ney on the morrow. He equally neglected the extreme left of the
allies in the mountains, judging it impossible to move his artillery
and cavalry in the broken ground there. Oudinot's (XII.) corps,
the extreme right wing, was to work round by the hilly country
to Jenkwitz in rear of Bautzen, Macdonald's (XI.) corps was to
assault Bautzen, and Marmont, with the VI. corps, to cross the
Spree and attack the Prussians posted about Burk. These three
corps were directed by Soult. Farther to the left, Bertrand's (IV.)
corps was held back to connect with Ney, who had then reached
Weissig with the head of his column. The Guard and other
general reserves were in rear of Macdonald and Marmont.
Bautzen was taken without difficulty; Oudinot and Marmont
easily passed the Spree on either side, and were formed up on the
other bank of the river by about 4 P.M. A heavy and indecisive
combat took place in the evening between Oudinot and the
Russian left, directed by the tsar in person, in which Oudinot's
men made a little progress towards Jenkwitz. Marmont's battle
was more serious. The Prussians were not experienced troops,
but were full of ardour and hatred of the French. Kleist made a
most stubborn resistance on the Burk ridge, and Bertrand's corps
was called up by Napoleon to join in the battle; but part of
Blucher's corps fiercely engaged Bertrand, and Burk was not
taken till 7 P.M. The French attack was much impeded by the
ground and by want of room to deploy between the river and the
enemy. But Napoleon's object in thus forcing the fighting in the
centre was achieved. The allies, feeling there the weight of the
French attack, gradually drew upon the reserves of their left and
right to sustain the shock. At nightfall Bautzen and Burk were
in possession of the French, and the allied line now stretched from
Jenkwitz northward to Pliskowitz, Bliicher and Barclay main-
taining their original positions at Pliskowitz and Gleina. The
night of the 2oth-2ist was spent by both armies on the battlefield.
Napoleon cared little that the French centre was almost fought
out; it had fulfilled its mission, and on the 2ist the decisive point
was to be Barclay's position. Soon after daybreak fighting was
renewed along the whole line; but Napoleon lay down to sleep
until the time appointed for Ney's attack. To a heavy counter-
stroke against Oudinot, which completely drove that marshal
from the ground won on the 2oth, the emperor paid no more heed
than to order Macdonald to support the XII corps. For in this
second position of the allies, which was far more formidable than
the original line, the decisive result could be brought about only
by Ney. That commander had his own (III) corps, the corps of
Victor and of Lauriston and the Saxons under Reynier, a total
force of 60,000 men. Lauriston, at the head of the column, had
been sharply engaged on the igth, but had spent the zoth in
calculated inaction. Early on the 2ist the flank attack opened;
Ney and Lauristofa moving direct upon Gleina, while Reynier and
Victor operated by a wide turning movement against Barclay's
right rear. The advance was carried out? with precision; the
Russians were quickly dislodged, and Ney was now closing upon
the rear of Blucher's corps at the village of Preititz. Napoleon at
once ordered Soult's four corps to renew their attacks in order to
prevent the allies from reinforcing their right. But at the critical
moment Ney halted; his orders were to be in Preititz at n A.M.
and he reached that place an hour earlie*. The respite of an hour
enabled the allies to organize a fierce counter-attack; Ney was
checked until the flanking columns of Victor and Reynier could
come upon the scene. At i P.M., when Ney resumed his advance,
it was too late to cut off the retreat of the allies. Napoleon now
made his final stroke. The Imperial Guard and all other troops
in the centre, 80,000 strong and covered by a great mass of
artillery, moved forward to the attack; and shortly the allied
centre, depleted of its reserves, which had been sent to oppose
Ney, was broken through and driven off the field. Bliicher, now
almost surrounded, called back the troops opposing Ney to make
head against Soult, and Ney's four corps then carried all before
them. Preparations had been made by the allies, ever since Ney's
appearance, to break off the engagement, and now the tsar ordered
a general retreat eastwards, himself with the utmost skill and
bravery directing the rearguard. Thus the allies drew off
unharmed, leaving no 'rophies in the hands of Napoleon, whose
success, tactically unquestionable, was, for a variety of reasons,
and above all owing to the want of cavalry, a coup manque
strategically. The troops engaged were, on the French side
163,000 men, on that of the allies about 100,000; and the losses
respectively about 20,000 and 13,500 killed and wounded. .
BAUXITE, a substance which has been considered to be a
mineral species, having the composition A1 2 O(OH)4 (correspond-
ing with alumina 73-0, water 26-1%), and thus to be distinct
from the crystallized aluminium hydroxides, diaspore (AIO(OH))
and gibbsite ( = hydrargillite, A1(OH) 3 ). It was first described by
P. Berthier in 1821 as " alumine hydratee de Beaux," and was
named beauxite by P. A. Dufrdnoy in 1847 and bauxite by
E. H. Sainte-Claire Deville in 1861; this name being derived
from the original locality, the village of Les Baux (or Beaux),
near Aries, dep. Bouches-du-Rh6ne in the south of France,
where the material has been for many years extensively mined as
an ore of aluminium. It is never found in a crystallized state,
but always as earthy, clay-like or concretionary masses, often
with a pisolitic structure. In colour it varies from white through
yellow and brown to red, depending on the amount and the
degree of hydration of the iron present. The specific gravity
also varies with the amount of iron; that of the variety known
as wocheinite (from near Lake Wochein, near Radmannsdorf, in
northern Carniola) is given as 2-55. The numerous chemical
analyses, which have mostly been made for technical purposes,
show that material known as bauxite varies very widely in
composition, the maximum and minimum percentages of each
constituent being as follows: alumina (Al z Oa) 33-2-76-9;
water (H 2 O) 8-6-31-4; iron oxide (Fe 2 s ) 0-1-48-8; silica
(SiOj) 0-3-37-8; titanic acid (TiO z ) up to 4. The material is
thus usually very impure, being mixed with clay, quartz-sand
and hydroxides of iron in variable amounts, the presence of
which may be seen by a microscopical examination. Analyses
of purer material often approximate to diaspore or gibbsite in
composition, and minute crystalline scales of these minerals
have been detected under the microscope.
Bauxite can therefore scarcely be regarded as a simple mineral,
but rather as a mixture of gibbsite and diaspore with various
impurities; it is in fact strikingly like laterite, both in chemical
composition and in microscopical structure. Laterite is ad-
mittedly a decomposition-product of igneous or other crystalline
BAVAI BAVARIA
543
rocks, and the same is no doubt also true of bauxite. The
deposits in Co. Antrim occur with pisolitic iron ore inter-
bedded with the Tertiary basalts, and similar deposits are met
with in connexion with the basaltic rocks of the Westerwald in
Germany. On the other hand, the more extensive deposits in
the south of France (departments Bouches-du-Rh6ne, Ariege,
He>ault, Var) and the southern United States (Georgia, Alabama,
Arkansas) are often associated with limestones; in this case the
origin of the bauxite has been ascribed to the chemical action of
solutions of aluminium sulphate on the limestones.
Bauxite is of value chiefly as a source of metallic aluminium
(q.v.); the material is first purified by chemical processes, after
which the aluminium hydroxide is reduced in the electric furnace.
Bauxite is also largely used in the manufacture of alum and
other aluminium salts used in dyeing. Its refractory qualities
render it available for the manufacture of fire-bricks and
crucibles. (L. J.S.)
BAVAI, a town of northern France in the department of Nord,
15 m. E.S.E. of Valenciennes by rail. Pop. (1906) 1622. The
town carries on the manufacture of iron goods and of fertil-
izers. Under the name of Bagacum or Bavacum it was the
capital of the Nervii and, under the Romans, an important centre
of roads, the meeting-place of which was marked by a milestone,
destroyed in the iyth century and replaced in the loth century
by a column. Bavai was destroyed during the barbarian
invasions and never recovered its old importance. It suffered
much during the wars of the I5th, i6th and lyth centuries.
BAVARIA (Ger. Bayern), a kingdom of southern Germany,
next to Prussia the largest state of the German empire in area
and population. It consists of two distinct and unequal portions,
Bavaria proper, and the Palatinate of the Rhine, which lie from
25 to 40 m. W. apart and are separated by the grand-duchies of
Baden and Hesse.
Physical Features. Bavaria proper is bounded on the S. by
the Alps, on the N.E., towards Bohemia, by a long range of
mountains known as the Bohmerwald, on the N. by the Fichtel-
gebirge and the Frankenwald, which separate it from the kingdom
of Saxony, the principality of Reuss, the duchies of Saxe-Coburg-
Gotha and Meiningen and the Prussian province of Hesse-Cassel.
The ranges seldom exceed the height of 3000 or 4000 ft.; but
the ridges in the south, towards Tirol, frequently attain an
elevation of 9000 or 10,000 ft. On the W. Bavaria is bounded
by Wurttemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt. The country
mainly belongs to the basins of the Danube and the Main; by
far the greater portion being drained by the former river, which,
entering from Swabia as a navigable stream, traverses the entire
breadth of the kingdom, with a winding course of 200 m., and
receives in its passage the Iller, the Lech, the Isar and the Inn
from the south, and the Naab, the Altmuhl and the Wornitz
from the north. The Inn is navigable before it enters Bavarian
territory, and afterwards receives the Salzach, a large river
flowing from Upper Austria. The Isar does not become navigable
till it has passed Munich; and the Lech is a stream of a similar
size. The Main traverses the northern regions, or Upper and
Lower Franconia, with a very winding course and greatly
facilitates the trade of the provinces. The district watered by
the southern tributaries of the Danube consists for the most
part of an extensive plateau, with a mean elevation of 2390 ft.
In the mountainous parts of the country there are numerous
lakes and in the lower portions considerable stretches of marshy
ground. The smaller or western portion, the Palatinate, is
bounded on the E. by the Rhine, which divides it from the grand-
duchy of Baden, on the S. by Alsace, and on the W. and N. by a
lofty range of hills, the Haardtgebirge, which separat.e it from
Lorraine and the Prussian Rhine province.
The climate of Bavaria differs greatly according to the character
of the region, being cold in the vicinity of Tirol but warm in the
plains adjoining the Danube and the Main. On the whole, the
temperature is in the winter months considerably colder than
that of England, and a good deal hotter during summer and
autumn.
Area and Population. Bavaria proper, or the eastern portion,
Provinces.
Capital.
Pop. of Province
in 1905.
Area in
q. m.
Upper Bavaria
Munich .
1,410,763
6,456
Lower Bavaria.
Landshut
706,345
4,152
Upper Palatinate .
Upper Franconia .
Middle Franconia
Regensburg
Bayreuth
Ansbach .
573.476
637.239
868,072
3.728
2,702
2,925
Lower Franconia .
Wtirzburg
680,769
3.243
Swabia
The Palatinate
Augsburg
Spires
750,880
885,280
3-792
2,288
Total . .
6,512,824
29,286
contains an area of 26,008 sq. m., and the Palatinate or western,
2288 sq. m., making the whole extent of the kingdom about
29,286 sq. m. The total population, according to the census of
1905, was 6,512,824. Almost a quarter of the inhabitants live
in towns, of which Munich and Nuremberg have populations
exceeding 100,000, Augsburg, Wtirzburg, FUrth and Ludwigs-
hafen between 50,000 and 100,000, while twenty-six other towns
number from 10,000 to 50,000 inhabitants.
Ethnographically, the Bavarians belong to various ancient
tribes; Germanized Slavs in the north-east, Swabians and
Franks in the centre, Franks towards the west, and, in the
Palatinate, Walloons. Politically, the country is divided into
eight provinces, as follows:
Religion. The majority of the inhabitants (about 70%) are
Roman Catholics. The Protestant-Evangelical Church claims
about 29 %, while Jews, and a very small number of other sects,
account for the remainder.
The districts of Lower Bavaria, Upper Bavaria and the
Upper Palatinate are almost wholly Roman Catholic, while in
the Rhine Palatinate, Upper Franconia, and especially Middle
Franconia, the preponderance is on the side of the Protestants.
The exercise of religious worship in Bavaria is altogether free.
The Protestants have the same civil rights as the Roman
Catholics, and the sovereign may be either Roman Catholic or
Protestant. Of the Roman Catholic Church the heads arc the
two archbishops of Munich-Freising and Bamberg, and the six
bishops of Eichstatt, Spires, Wiirzburg, Augsburg, Regensburg
and Passau, of whom the first three are suffragans of Bamberg.
The " Old Catholic " party, under the bishop of Bonn, has
failed, despite its early successes, to take deep root in the country.
Among the Protestants the highest authority is the general
consistory of Munich. The numbers of the different religions in
1900 were as follows: Roman Catholics, 4,357,133; Protestants,
1,749,206; Jews, 54,928.
Education. Bavaria, formerly backward in education, has
recently done much in this connexion. The state has two
Roman Catholic universities, Munich and Wttrzburg, and a
Lutheran, Erlangen; in Munich there are a polytechnic, an
academy of sciences and an academy of art.
Agriculture. Of the total surface of Bavaria about one-half
is under cultivation, one-third forest, and the remaining sixth
mostly pasture. The level country, including both Lower
Bavaria (extending northwards to the Danube) and the western
and middle parts of Franconia, is productive of rye, oats, wheat,
barley and millet, and also of hemp, flax, madder and fruit and
vines. The last are grown chiefly in the vicinity of the Lake of
Constance, on the banks of the Main, in the lower part of its
course, and in the Palatinate of the Rhine. Hops are extensively
grown in central Franconia; tobacco (the best in Germany)
round Nuremberg and in the Palatinate, which also largely
produces the sugar-beet. Potatoes are cultivated in ail the
provinces, but especially in the Palatinate and in the Spessart
district, which lies in the north-west within a curve of the Main.
The southern divisions of Swabia and Upper Bavaria, where
pasture-land predominates, form a cattle-breeding district and
the dairy produce is extensive. Here also horses are bred in
large numbers.
The extent of forest forms nearly a third of the total area of
Bavaria. This is owing to various causes: the amount of hilly
and mountainous country, the thinness of the population and
544
BAVARIA
the necessity of keeping a given extent of ground under wood
for the supply of fuel. More than a third of the forests are
public property and furnish a considerable addition to the
revenue. They are principally situated in the provinces of
Upper Bavaria, Lower Bavaria and the Palatinate of the Rhine.
The forests are well stocked with game, deer, chamois (in the
Alps), wild boars, capercailzie, grouse, pheasants, &c. being
plentiful. The greater proportion of the land throughout the
kingdom is in the hands of peasant proprietors, the extent of
the separate holdings differing very much in different districts.
The largest peasant property may be about 170 acres, and the
smallest, except in the Palatinate, about 50.
Minerals. The chief mineral deposits in Bavaria are coal,
iron ore, graphite and salt. The coal mines lie principally in
the districts of Amberg, Kissingen, Steben, Munich and the
Rhine Palatinate. Salt is obtained on a large scale partly from
brine springs and partly from mines, the principal centres being
Halle, Berchtesgaden, Traunstein and Rosenheim. The govern-
ment monopoly which had long existed was abolished in 1867
and free trade was established in salt between the members of
the customs-union. Of quicksilver there are several mines,
chiefly in the Palatinate of the Rhine; and small quantities of
copper, manganese and cobalt are obtained. There are numerous
quarries of excellent marble, alabaster, gypsum and building
stone; and the porcelain-clay is among the finest in Europe.
To these may be added emery, steatite, barytes, felspar and
ochre, in considerable quantities; excellent lithographic stone
is obtained at Solenhofen; and gold and silver are still worked,
but to an insignificant extent.
Manufactures and Trade. A great stimulus was given to
manufacturing industry in Bavaria by the law of 1868, which
abolished the last remains of the old restrictions of the gilds,
and gave the whole country the liberty which had been enjoyed
by the Rhine Palatinate alone. The chief centres of industry
are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg, Fiirth, Erlangen, Aschaffen-
burg, Regensburg, Wiirzburg, Bayreuth, Ansbach, Bamberg and
Hof in Bavaria proper, and in the Palatinate Spires and the
Rhine port of Ludwigshafen. The main centres of the hardware
industry are Munich, Nuremberg, Augsburg and Fiirth; the two
first especially for locomotives and automobiles, the last for tin-
foil and metal toys. Aschaffenburg manufactures fancy goods,
Augsburg and Hof produce excellent cloth, and Munich has a
great reputation for scientific instruments. In Franconia are
numerous paper-mills, and the manufacture of wooden toys is
largely carried on in the forest districts of Upper Bavaria. A
considerable quantity of glass is made, particularly in the Bohmer-
wald. Brewing forms an important industry, the best-known
breweries being those of Munich, Nuremberg, Erlangen and
Kulmbach. Other articles of manufacture are leather, tobacco,
porcelain, cement, spirits, lead pencils (Nuremberg), plate-glass,
sugar, matches, aniline dyes, straw hats and baskets. The
commerce of Bavaria is very considerable. The exports consist
chiefly of corn, potatoes, hops, beer, wine, cloth, cotton goods,
glass, fancy wares, toys, cattle, pigs and vegetables. The seat
of the hop-trade is Nuremberg; of wool, Augsburg. The imports
comprise sugar, tobacco, cocoa, coffee, oils, silk and pig iron.
Communications. Trade is served by an excellent railway
system and there are steamboat services on the navigable rivers,
to the east by way of Passau on the Danube, and to the west by
Ludwigshafen. The high roads of Bavaria, many of which are
military roads laid out at the beginning of the ipth century,
extend in all over about 10,000 m. There were 4377 m. of
railways in operation in 1904, of which about 3800 were in the
hands of the state, and about 440 m. belonged to the private
system of the Palatinate. The principal canal is the Ludwigs-
kanal, which connects the Rhine with the Danube, extending
from Bamberg on the Regnitz to Dietfurt on the Altmuhl.
There is an extensive network of telegraph and telephone lines.
All belong to the government post office, which forms an admini-
strative system independent of the imperial German post office.
Constitution and Administration. By the treaty of Versailles
(23rd November 1870) and the imperial constitution of the i6th
of April 1871, Bavaria was incorporated with the German
empire, reserving, however, certain separate privileges (Sonder-
rcchle) in respect of the administration of the army, the railways
and the posts, the excise duties on beer, the rights of domicile
and the insurance of real estate. The king is the supreme chief
of the army, and matters requiring adjudication in the adjutant-
general's court are referred to a special Bavarian court attached
to the supreme imperial military tribunal in Berlin. Bavaria
is represented in the Bundesrat by six votes and sends forty-eight
deputies to the imperial diet. The Bavarian constitution is
mainly founded on the constitutional act of the 26th of May
1818, modified by subsequent acts that of the 9th of March
1828 as affecting the upper house, and those of the 4th of June
1848 and of the 2ist of March 1881 as affecting the lower and
is a limited monarchy, with a legislative body of two houses.
The crown is hereditary in the house of Wittelsbach, according
to the rights of primogeniture, females being excluded from
succession so long as male agnates of equal birth exist. The
title of the sovereign is king of Bavaria, that of his presumptive
heir is crown-prince of Bavaria, and during the minority or
incapacity of the sovereign a regency is declared, which is vested
in the nearest male agnate capable of ascending the throne.
Such a regency began on the loth of June 1886, at first for King
Louis II., and after the i4th of the same month for King Otto I.,
in the person of the prince regent Luitpold. The executive
power resides in the king and the responsibility for the govern-
ment of the kingdom in his ministers. The royal family is Roman
Catholic, and the seat of government is Munich, the capital.
The upper house of the Bavarian parliament (Rammer der
Reichsrale) is composed of (i) the princes of the blood royal
(being of full age), (2) the ministers of the crown, (3) the arch-
bishops of Munich, Freising and Bamberg, (4) the heads of such
noble families as were formerly " immediate " so long as they
retain their ancient possessions in Bavaria, (5) of a Roman
Catholic bishop appointed by the king for life, and of the presi-
dent for the time being of the Protestant consistory, (6) of
hereditary counsellors (Reichsrale) appointed by the king, and
(7) of other counsellors appointed by the king for life. The
lower house (Kammer der Abgeordnelen) or chamber of repre-
sentatives, consists, since 1881, of 159 deputies, in proportion
of one reckoned on the census of 1875 to every 31,500 inhabit-
ants. A general election takes place every six years, and, under
the electoral law of 1906, is direct. Qualifications for the general
body of electors are full age of twenty-five years, Bavarian
citizenship of one year at least, and discharge of all rates and
taxes. Parliament must be assembled every three years, but as
the budget is taken every two years, it is regularly called together
within that period. No laws affecting the liberty or property of
the subject can be passed without the sanction of parliament.
Revenue. The following is a fairly typical statement of the
budget estimates (1902-1903), in marks (= i shilling sterling):
Receipts.
Mks.
Direct taxes . 38,199,000
Customs and indirect
taxes . . 50,900,990
State railways . 184,551,000
Posts and tele-
graphs . . 41,665,100
Forests and agri-
cultural dues . 37,395,000
Imperial assign-
ments . . 62,571,605
415,282,695
= 20,764,135
Disbursements,
Mks.
5,402,475
51,323,200
Civil list
State debt
Ministry of the
Royal house and
of Foreign dept. .
Ministry of justice .
Ministry of interior .
Public worship and
education
Minister of finance
Contribution to im-
perial exchequer.
688,398
20,615,299
30,055,338
34,667,673
6,696,780
72,647,090
222,296,253
= 11,114,813
The public debt amounts to about 95.000.000, of which over
75% was incurred for railways.
Army. The Bavarian army forms a separate portion of the
army of the German empire, with a separate administration,
but in time of war is under the supreme command of the German
BAVARIA
545
emperor. The regulations applicable to other sections of the
whole imperial army are, however, observed. It consists, on a
peace footing, of three army corps, ist, 2nd and 3rd Royal
Bavarian (each of two divisions), the headquarters of which
are in Munich, Nuremberg and Wiirzburg respectively. The
Bavarian army comprises sixty-seven battalions of infantry,
two battalions of rifles, ten regiments of cavalry (two heavy,
two Ulan and six Chevauxlegers) , a squadron of mounted
infantry (Jttger-zu-pfcrde), twelve field- and two foot-artillery
regiments, three battalions of engineers, three of army service,
and a balloon section; in all 60,000 men with 10,000 horses.
In time of war the total force is trebled. (P. A. A.)
HISTORY
The earliest known inhabitants of the district afterwards called
Bavaria were a people, probably of Celtic extraction, who were
subdued by the Romans just before the opening of the Christian
era, when colonies were founded among them and their land was
included in the province of Raetia. During the 5th century it
was ravaged by the troops of Odoacer and, after being almost
denuded of inhabitants, was occupied by tribes who, pushing
along the valley of the Danube, settled there between A.D. 488
and 520. Many conjectures have been formed concerning the
race and origin of these people, who were certainly a new and
composite social aggregate. Most likely they were descendants
of the Marcomanni, Quadi and Narisci, tribes of the Suevic or
Swabian race, with possibly a small intermixture of Gothic or
Celtic elements. They were called Baioarii, Baioviarii, Bawarii
or Baiuwarii, words derived most probably from Baja or Bay a,
corruptions of Bojer, and given to them because they came from
Bojerland or Bohemia. Another but less probable explanation
derives the name from a combination of the old high German
word uudra, meaning league, and bai, a Gothic word for both.
The Bavarians are first mentioned in a Prankish document of
520. and twenty years later Jordanes refers to them as lying east
of the Swabians. Their country bore some traces of Roman
influence, and its main boundaries were the Enns, the Danube,
the Lech and the Alps; but its complete settlement was a work
of time.
The Bavarians soon came under the dominion of the Franks,
probably without a serious struggle; and were ruled from 555
to 788 by dukes of the Agilolfing family, who were
influence, possibly of Prankish descent. For a century and a
half a succession of dukes resisted the inroads of
the Slavs on their eastern frontier, and by the time of Duke
Theodo I., who died in 717, were completely independent of the
feeble Prankish kings. When Charles Martel became the virtual
ruler of the Prankish realm he brought the Bavarians into strict
dependence, and deposed two dukes successively for contumacy.
Pippin the Short was equally successful in maintaining his
authority, and several marriages took place between the family
to which he belonged and the Agilolfings, who were united in a
similar manner with the kings of the Lombards. The ease with
which various risings were suppressed by the Franks gives colour
to the supposition that they were rather the outcome of family
quarrels than the revolt of an oppressed people. Between the
years 739 and 748 the Bavarian law was committed to writing
and supplementary clauses were afterwards added, all of which
bear evident traces of Prankish influence. Thus, while the
dukedom belongs to the Agilolfing family, the duke must be
chosen by the people and his election confirmed by the Prankish
king, to whom he owes fealty. He has a fivefold wergild,
summons the nobles and clergy for purposes of deliberation,
calls out the host, administers justice and regulates finance.
There are five noble families, possibly representing a former
division of the people, after whom come the freeborn, and then
the freedmen. The country is divided into gaus or counties,
under their counts, who are assisted by judges responsible for
declaring the law.
Christianity had lingered in Bavaria from Roman times;
but a new era set in when Rupert, bishop of Worms, came to
the county at the invitation of Duke Theodo I. in 696. He
in. ig
founded several monasteries, and a similar work was also per-
formed by St Emmeran, bishop of Poitiers; with the result
that before long the bulk of the people professed
Christianity and relations were established between Hy
Bavaria and Rome. The 8th century witnessed in-
deed a heathen reaction; but it was checked by the arrival in
Bavaria about 734 of St Boniface, who organized the Bavarian
church and founded or restored bishoprics at Salzburg, Freising,
Regensburg and Passau.
Tassilo III., who became duke of the Bavarians in 749,
recognized the supremacy of the Prankish king Pippin the Short
in 757, but soon afterwards refused to furnish a con-
tribution to the war in Aquitaine. Moreover, during
the early years of the reign of Charlemagne, Tassilo
gave decisions in ecclesiastical and civil causes in his own name,
refused to appear in the assemblies of the Franks, and in general
acted as an independent ruler. His position as possessor of the
Alpine passes, as an ally of the Avars, and as son-in-law of the
Lombard king Desiderius, was so serious a menace to the Prank-
ish kingdom that Charlemagne determined to crush him. The
details of this contest are obscure. Tassilo appears to have done
homage in 781, and again in 787, probably owing to the presence
of Prankish armies. But further trouble soon arose, and in 788
the duke was summoned to Ingelheim, where on a charge of
treachery he was sentenced to death. He was, however, par-
doned by the king; and he then entered a monastery and
formally renounced his duchy at Frankfort in 794. The country
was ruled by Gerold, a brother-in-law of Charlemagne, till
his death in a battle with the Avars in 799, when its administra-
tion was entrusted to Prankish counts and assimilated with
that of the rest of the Carolingian empire, while its condition
was improved by the measures taken by Charlemagne for the
intellectual progress and material welfare of his realm. The
Bavarians offered no resistance to the change which thus abol-
ished their dukedom; and their incorporation with the Prankish
dominions, due mainly to the unifying influence of the church,
was already so complete that Charlemagne did not find it
necessary to issue more than two capitularies dealing especially
with Bavarian affairs.
The history of Bavaria for the ensuing century is bound up
with that of the Carolingian empire. Given at the partition of
817 to the king of the East Franks, Louis the German, (/ B ^B wHb
it formed part of the larger territories which were Cmro-
confirmed to him in 843 by the treaty of Verdun. ""jfai
Louis made Regensburg the centre of his government, "****
and was active in improving the condition of "Bavaria, and pro-
viding for its security by numerous campaigns against the Slavs.
When he divided his possessions in 865 il passed to his eldest son,
Carloman, who had already undertaken its government, and
after his death in 880 it formed part of the extensive territories
of the emperor Charles the Fat. Its defence was left by this
incompetent emperor to Arnulf, an illegitimate son of Carloman,
and it was mainly owing to the support of the Bavarians that
Arnulf was able to take the field against Charles in 887, and to
secure his own election as German king in the following year.
Bavaria, which was the centre of the East Prankish kingdom,
passed in 899 to Louis the Child, during whose reign it was
constantly ravaged by the Hungarians. The resistance to these
inroads became gradually feebler, and it is said that on the
5th of Juiy 907 almost the whole of the Bavarian race perished
in battle with these formidable enemies. For the defence of
Bavaria the mark of Carinthia had been erected on the south-
eastern frontier, and during the reign of Louis the Child this was
ruled by Liutpold, count of Scheyern, who possessed large
domains in Bavaria. He was among those who fell in the great
fight of 907; but his son Arnulf, surnamed the Bad, rallied the
remnants of the race, drove back the Hungarians, and was
chosen duke of the Bavarians in 91 1, when Bavaria and Carinthia
were united under his rule. Refusing to acknowledge the
supremacy of the German king Conrad I., he was unsuccessfully
attacked by the latter, and in 920 was recognized as duke by
Conrad's successor, Henry I., the Fowler, who admitted his
546
BAVARIA
right to appoint the bishops, to coin money and to issue laws.
A similar conflict took place between Arnulf 's son and successor
Eberhard and Otto the Great; but Eberhard was
Part of the j ess succe ssful than his father, for in 938 he was driven
k*ngd*m. from Bavaria, which was given by Otto with reduced
privileges to the late duke's uncle, Bertold; and a
count palatine in the person of Eberhard's brother Arnulf was
appointed to watch the royal interests. When Bertold died in
947 Otto conferred the duchy upon his own brother Henry, who
had married Judith, a daughter of Duke Arnulf. Henry was
disliked by the Bavarians and his short reign was spent mainly
in disputes with his people. The ravages of the Hungarians
ceased after their defeat on the Lechfeld in 955, and the area of
the duchy was temporarily increased by the addition of certain
adjacent districts in Italy. In 955 Henry was succeeded by his
young son Henry, surnamed the Quarrelsome, who in 974 was
implicated in a conspiracy against King Otto II. The reason for
this rising was that the king had granted the duchy of Swabia
to Henry's enemy, Otto, a grandson of the emperor Otto the
Great, and had given the new Bavarian East Mark, afterwards
known as Austria, to Leopold I., count of Babenberg. The
revolt was, however, soon suppressed; but Henry, who on his
escape from prison renewed his plots, was formally deposed in
976 when Bavaria was given to Otto, duke of Swabia. At the
same time Carinthia was made into a separate duchy, the office
of count palatine was restored, and the church was made
dependent on the king instead of on the duke. Restored in
985, Henry proved himself a capable ruler by establishing
internal order, issuing important laws and taking measures to
reform the monasteries. His son and successor, who was chosen
German king as Henry II. in 1002, gave Bavaria to his brother-
in-law Henry of Luxemburg; after whose death in 1026 it
passed successively to Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III.,
and to another member of the family of Luxemburg, as Duke
Henry VII. In 1061 the empress Agnes, mother of and regent
for the German king Henry IV., entrusted the duchy to' Otto of
Nordheim, who was deposed by the king in 1070,
w ^ en l ^ e ^uchy was granted to Count Welf, a member
the Welts. f an influential Bavarian family. In consequence of
his support of Pope Greegory VII. in his quarrel with
Henry, Welf lost but subsequently regained Bavaria; and was
followed successively by his sons, Welf II. in 1 101 , and Henry IX.
in 1 1 20, both of whom exercised considerable influence among
the German princes. Henry was succeeded in 1126 by his son
Henry X., called, the Proud, who obtained the duchy of Saxony
in 1137. Alarmed at this prince's power, King Conrad III.
refused to allow two duchies to remain in the same hands; and,
having declared Henry deposed, he bestowed Bavaria upon
Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. When Leopold died in 1141,
the king retained the duchy himself; but it continued to be the
scene of considerable disorder, and in 1143 he entrusted it to
Henry II., surnamed Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria. The
struggle for its possession continued until 1156, when King
Frederick I. in his desire to restore peace to Germany persuaded
Henry to give up Bavaria to Henry the Lion, a son of Duke
Henry the Proud.
A new era of government set in when, in consequence of Henry
being placed under the imperial ban in 1 180, the duchy was given
by Frederick I. to Otto, a member of the old Bavarian
famil y of Wittelsbach (?..), and a descendant of the
counts of Scheyern. During the years following the
destruction of the Carolingian empire the borders of
Bavaria were continually changing, and for a lengthened period
after 955 this process was one of expansion. To the west the
Lech still divided Bavaria from Swabia, but on three
other sides the opportunities for extension had been
taken advantage of, and the duchy embraced an area
of considerable dimensions north of the Danube. During the
later years of the rule of the Welfs, however, a contrary tendency
had operated, and the extent of Bavaria had been reduced. The
immense energies of Duke Henry the Lion had been devoted to.
his northern rather than his southern duchy, and when the
Area of
Bavaria.
dispute over the Bavarian succession was settled in 1156 the
district between the Enns and the Inn had been transferred to
Austria. The increasing importance of the mark of Styria,
erected into a duchy in 1180, and the county of Tirol, had
diminished both the actual and the relative strength of Bavaria,
which was now deprived on almost all sides of opportunities for
expansion. The neighbouring duchy of Carinthia, the great
temporal possessions of the archbishop of Salzburg, as well as a
general tendency to independence on the part of both clerical
and lay nobles, were additional forces of similar influence.
When Otto of Wittelsbach was invested with Bavaria at
Altenburg in September 1180 the duchy was bounded by the
Bohmerwald, the Inn, the Alps and the Lech; and
the power of the duke was practically confined to his Kule ot the
extensive private domains aroundWittelsbach.Kelheim '
and Straubing. Otto only enjoyed his new dignity for
three years, and was succeeded in 1183 by his son Louis I., who
took a leading part in German affairs during the earlier years of
the reign of the emperor Frederick II., and was assassinated at
Kelheim in September 1231. His son Otto II., called the
Illustrious, was the next duke, and his loyalty to the Hohen-
staufen caused him to be placed under the papal ban, and
Bavaria to be laid under an interdict. Like his father, Otto
increased the area of his lands by purchases; and he had con-
siderably strengthened his hold upon the duchy before he died
in November 1253. The efforts of the dukes to increase their
power and to give unity to the duchy had met with a fair measure
of success; but they were soon vitiated by partitions among
different members of the family which for 250 years made the
history of Bavaria little more than a jejune chronicle
of territorial divisions bringing war and weakness in Division
their train. The first of these divisions was made in
1255 between Louis II. and Henry I., the sons of Duke
Otto II., who for two years after their father's death had ruled
Bavaria jointly; and by it Louis obtained the western part of
the duchy, afterwards called Upper Bavaria, and
Henry secured eastern or Lower Bavaria. In the
course of a long reign Louis, who was called the Stern,
became the most powerful prince in southern Germany. He was
the uncle and guardian of Conradin of Hohenstaufen, and when
this prince was put to death in Italy in 1 268, Louis and his brother
Henry inherited the domains of the Hohenstaufen in Swabia and
elsewhere. He supported Rudolph, count of Habsburg, in his
efforts to secure the German throne in 1273, married the new
king's daughter Mechtild, and aided him in campaigns in
Bohemia and elsewhere. For some years after Louis' death in
1294 his sons Rudolph I. and Louis, afterwards the emperor
Louis IV., ruled their duchy in common; but as their relations
were never harmonious a division of Upper Bavaria was made in
1310, by which Rudolph received the land east of the Isar
together with the town of Munich, and Louis the district between
the Isar and the Lech. It was not long, however, before this
arrangement led to war between the brothers, the outcome of
which was that in 1317, three years after he had been chosen
German king, Louis compelled Rudolph to abdicate, and for
twelve years ruled alone over the whole of Upper Bavaria. But
in 1329 a series of events induced him to conclude the treaty of
Pavia with Rudolph's sons, Rudolph and Rupert, to whom he
transferred the Palatinate of the Rhine, which had been in the
possession of the Wittelsbach family since 1214, and also a por-
tion of Upper Bavaria north of the Danube, which was afterwards
called the Upper Palatinate. At the same time it was decided
that the electoral vote should be exercised by the two lines alter-
nately, and that in the event of either branch of the family be-
coming extinct the surviving branch should inherit its possessions.
Henry I. of Lower Bavaria spent most of his time in quarrels
with his brother, with Ottakar II. of Bohemia and with various
ecclesiastics. When he died in February 1290 Lower
Bavaria was ruled by his three sons, Otto III., Louis
III. and Stephen I. Louis died childless in 1296;
Stephen left two sons at his death in 1310, namely, Henry II.
and Otto IV., and Otto, who was king of Hungary from 1305 to
BAVARIA
547
1308, died in 1312, leaving a son, Henry III. Lower Bavaria
was governed by these three princes until 1333, when Henry III.
died, followed in 1334 by his cousin Otto; and as both died
without sons the whole of Lower Bavaria then passed to Henry II.
Dying in 1339, Henry left an only son, John I., who died childless
in the following year, when the emperor Louis IV., by
secur ' D 8 Lower Bavaria for himself, united the whole
duchy. of the duchy under his sway. The consolidation of
Bavaria under Louis lasted for seven years, during
which the emperor was able to improve the condition of the
country. When he died in 1347 he left six sons to share his
possessions, who agreed upon a division of Bavaria in 1349. Its
history, however, was complicated by its connexion with Branden-
burg, Holland and Tirol, all of which had also been left by
the emperor to his sons. All the six brothers exercised some
authority in Bavaria; but three alone left issue, and of these
the eldest, Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, died in 1361;
and two years later was followed to the grave by his only son
Meinhard, who was childless. The two remaining brothers,
Stephen II. and Albert I., ruled over Bavaria-Landshut and
Bavaria-Straubing respectively, and when Stephen died in 1375
his portion of Bavaria was governed jointly by his three sons.
In 1392, when all the lines except those of Stephen and Albert
had died out, an important partition took place, by which the
greater part of the duchy was divided among Stephen's three
sons, Stephen III., Frederick and John II., who founded respec-
tively the lines of Ingolstadt, Landshut and Munich. Albert's
duchy of Bavaria-Straubing passed on his death in 1404 to his
son William II., and in 1417 to his younger son John, who
resigned the bishopric of Li6ge to take up his new position.
When John died in 1425 this family became extinct, and after
a contest between various claimants Bavaria-Straubing was
divided between the three remaining branches of the family.
The main result of the threefold division of 1392 was a suc-
cession of civil wars which led to the temporary eclipse of Bavaria
as a force in German politics. Neighbouring states
'tadMoa encroac hed upon its borders, and the nobles ignored
1392. the authority of the dukes, who, deprived of the elec-
toral vote, were mainly occupied for fifty years with
intestine strife. This condition of affairs, however, was not
wholly harmful. The government of the country and the control
of the finances passed mainly into the hands of an assembly
called the Landtag or Landschafl, which had been organized in
1392. The towns, assuming a certain independence, became
strong and wealthy as trade increased, and the citizens of
Munich and Regensburg were often formidable antagonists to
the dukes. Thus a period of disorder saw the growth of repre-
sentative institutions and the establishment of a strong civic
spirit. Stephen III., duke of Bavaria-Ingolstadt, was distin-
guished rather as a soldier than as a statesman; and his rule
was marked by struggles with various towns, and with his
brother, John of Bavaria-Munich. Dying in 1413 he
' was Allowed by his son, Louis, called the Bearded,
a restless and quarrelsome prince, who before his
accession had played an important part in the affairs of France,
where his sister Isabella was the queen of King Charles VI.
About 1417 he became involved in a violent quarrel with his
cousin, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, fell under both the papal
and the imperial ban, and in 1439 was attacked by his son Louis
the Lame. This prince, who had married a daughter of Frederick
I. of Hohenzollern, margrave of Brandenburg, was incensed at
the favour shown by his father to an illegitimate sou. Aided by
Albert Achilles, afterwards margrave of Brandenburg, he took
the elder Louis prisoner and compelled him to abdicate in 1443.
When Louis the Lame died in 1445 his father came into the power
of his implacable enemy, Henry of Bavaria-Landshut, and died
in prison in 1447. The duchy of Bavaria-Ingolstadt passed to
Henry, who had succeeded his father Frederick as duke of
Bavaria-Landshut in 1393, and whose long reign was almost
entirely occupied with family feuds. He died in July 1450, and
was followed by his son, Louis IX. (called the Rich), and about
this time Bavaria began to recover some of its former importance.
Louis IX. expelled the Jews from his duchy, did something for
the security of traders, and improved both the administration of
justice and the condition of the finances. In 1472 he founded
the university of Ingolstadt, attempted to reform the monasteries,
and was successful in a struggle with Albert Achilles of Branden-
burg. On his death in January 1479 he was succeeded by his son
George, also called the Rich; and when George, a faithful
adherent of the German king Maximilian I., died without sons in
December 1503, a war broke out for the possession of his duchy.
Bavaria-Munich passed on the death of John II. in 1397 to his
sons Ernest and William III., but they only obtained possession of
their lands after a struggle with Stephen of Bavaria-Ingolstadt.
Both brothers were then engaged in warfare with the other
branches of the family and with the citizens of Munich. William,
a loyal servant of the emperor Sigismund, died in 1435, leaving an
only son, Adolf, who died five years later; and Ernest, distin-
guished for his bodily strength, died in 1438. In 1440 the whole
of Bavaria-Munich came to Ernest's son Albert, who had been
estranged from his father owing to his union with the unfortunate
Agnes Bernauer (q.v.). Albert, whose attempts to reform the
monasteries earned for him the surname of Pious, was almost
elected king of Bohemia in 1440. He died in 1460, leaving five
sons, the two elder of whom, John IV. and Sigismund, reigned in
common until the death of John in 1463. The third brother,
Albert, who had been educated for the church, joined his brother
in 1465, and when Sigismund abdicated two years later became
sole ruler in spite of the claims of his two younger brothers.
Albert, who was called the Wise, added the district of Abensberg
to his possessions, and in 1 504 became involved in the war which
broke out for the possession of Bavaria-Landshut on the Wgf over
death of George the Rich. Albert's rival was George's thetuc-
son-in-law, Rupert, formerly bishop of Freising, and son t***ton to
of Philip, count palatine of the Rhine; and the emperor *
Maximilian I., interested as archduke of Austria and
count of Tirol, interfered in the dispute. Rupert died in 1304,
and the following year an arrangement was made at the diet of
Cologne by which the emperor and Philip's grandson, Otto Henry,
obtained certain outlying districts, while Albert by securing the
bulk of George's possessions united Bavaria under his rule. In
1506 Albert decreed that the duchy should pass un- n e iraMof
divided according to the rules of primogeniture, and Albert the
endeavoured in other ways also to consolidate Bavaria,
He was partially successful in improving the condition
of the country; and in 1500 Bavaria formed one of the
six circles into which Germany was divided for the maintenance
of peace. He died in March 1 508, and was succeeded by his son,
William IV., whose mother, Runigunde, was a daughter of the
emperor Frederick III. In spite of the decree of 1 506 William was
compelled in 1516, after a violent quarrel, to grant a share in the
government to his brother Louis, an arrangement which lasted
until the death of Louis in 1545.
William followed the traditional Wittelsbach policy, opposition
to the Habsburgs, until in 1534 he made a treaty at Linz with
Ferdinand, king of Hungary and Bohemia. This was strengthened
in 1 546, when the emperor Charles V. obtained the help of the duke
during the war of the league of Schmalkalden by promising him
in certain eventualities the succession to the Bohemian throne,
and the electoral dignity enjoyed by the count palatine of the
Rhine. William also did much at a critical period to secure
Bavaria for Catholicism. The reformed doctrines had pommo
made considerable progress in the duchy when the duke CfthoU-
obtained from the pope extensive rights over the
bishoprics and monasteries, and took measures to re-
press the reformers, many of whom were banished; while the
Jesuits, whom he invited into the duchy in 1541, made the uni-
versity of Ingolstadt their headquarters for Germany. William,
whose death occurred in March 15 so, was succeeded by his son
Albert IV., who had married a daughter of Ferdinand of Habsburg,
afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I. Early in his reign Albert
made some concessions to the reformers, who were still strong in
Bavaria; but about 1563 he changed his attitude, favoured the
decrees of the council of Trent, and pressed forward the work of
BAVARIA
the Counter-Reformation. As education passed by degrees into
the hands of the Jesuits the progress of Protestantism was
effectually arrested in Bavaria. Albert IV. was a great patron of
art. His court at Munich was the resort of artists of all kinds, and
the city was enriched with splendid buildings; while artistic
works were collected from Italy and elsewhere. The expenses of
a magnificent court led the duke to quarrel with the Landschaft,
to oppress his subjects, and to leave a great burden of debt when
he died in October 1579. The succeeding duke was Albert's son,
William V. (called the Pious) , who was educated by the Jesuits and
was keenly attached to their tenets. He secured the archbishopric
of Cologne for his brother Ernest in 1583, and this dignity
remained in the possession of the family for nearly 200 years. In
1597 he abdicated in favour of his son Maximilian I.,
a'f" an( * retired into a monastery, where he died in 1626.
miitan I. Maximilian found the duchy encumbered with debt and
and the filled with disorder, but ten years of his vigorous rule
T r hlr ^, effected a remarkable change. The finances and the
War. judicial system were reorganized, a classof civil servants
andanationalmilitiafounded,and several smalldistricts
were brought under the duke's authority. The result was a unity
and order in the duchy which enabled Maximilian to play an im-
portant part in the Thirty Years' War; during the earlier years
of which he was so successful as to acquire the Upper Palatinate
and the electoral dignity which had been enjoyed since 1356 by the
elder branch of the Wittelsbach family. In spite of subsequent
reverses these gains were retained by Maximilian at the peace of
Westphalia in 1648. During the later years of this war Bavaria,
especially the northern part, suffered severely. In 1632 it was
invaded by the Swedes, and, when Maximilian violated the treaty
of Ulm in 1647, was ravaged by the French and the Swedes.
After repairing this damage to some extent, the elector died at
Ingolstadt in September 1651, leaving his duchy much stronger
than he had found it. The recovery of the Upper Palatinate made
Bavaria compact; the acquisition of the electoral vote made it
influential; and the duchy was able to play a part in European
politics which intestine strife had rendered impossible for the past
four hundred years. (A. W. H.*)
Whatever lustre the international position won by Maximilian
I. might add to the ducal house, on Bavaria itself its effect during
the next two centuries was more dubious. Maxi-
o/moderfl niilian's son, Ferdinand Maria (1651-1679), who was a
period. minor when he succeeded, did much indeed to repair
the wounds caused by the Thirty Years' War, en-
couraging agriculture and industries, and building or restoring
numerous churches and monasteries. In 1669, moreover, he
again called a meeting of the diet, which had been suspended
since 1612. His good work, however, was largely undone by his
son Maximilian II. Emmanuel (1679-1726), whose far-reaching
ambition set him warring against the Turks and, on the side of
France, in the great struggle of the Spanish succession. He
shared in the defeat at Hochstadt on the r3th of August T7O4;
his dominions were temporarily partitioned between Austria
and the elector palatine, and only restored to him, harried and
exhausted, at the peace of Baden in 1714. Untaught by Maxi-
milian Emmanuel's experience, his son, Charles Albert (1726-
1745), devoted all his energies to increasing the European
prestige and power of his house. The death of the emperor
Charles VI. was his opportunity; he disputed the validity of the
Pragmatic Sanction which secured the Habsburg succession to
Maria Theresa, allied himself with France, conquered Upper
Austria, was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague and, in 1742,
emperor at Frankfort. The price he had to pay, however, was
the occupation of Bavaria itself by Austrian troops; and,
though the invasion of Bohemia in 1744 by Frederick II. of
Prussia enabled him to return to Munich, at his death on the
20th of January 1745 it was left to his successor to make what
terms he could for the recovery of his dominions. Maximilian
III. Joseph (1745-1777), by the peace of Fiissen signed on the
22nd of April 1745, obtained the restitution of his dominions in
return for a formal acknowledgment of the Pragmatic Sanction.
He was a man of enlightenment, did much to encourage agri-
culture, industries and the exploitation of the mineral wealth of
the country, founded the Academy of Sciences at Munich, and
abolished the Jesuit censorship of the press. At his death,
without issue, on the 3oth of December 1777, the Bavarian line
of the Wittelsbachs became extinct, and the succession passed
to Charles Theodore, the elector palatine. After a separation of
four and a half centuries, the Palatinate, to which the
duchies of Julich and Berg had been added, was thus (f/"^"'^/.
reunited with Bavaria. So great an accession of atiaate.
strength to a neighbouring state, whose ambition she
had so recently had just reason to fear, was intolerable to Austria,
which laid claim to a number of lordships forming one-third of
the whole Bavarian inheritance as lapsed fiefs of the Bohemian,
Austrian, and imperial crowns. These were at once occupied by
Austrian troops, with the secret consent of Charles Theodore
himself, who was without legitimate heirs, and wished to obtain
from the emperor the elevation of his natural children to the
status of princes of the Empire. The protests of the next heir,
Charles, duke of Zweibriicken (Deux-Ponts), supported by the
king of Prussia, led to the war of Bavarian succession. By the
peace of Teschen (May i3th, 1779) the Inn quarter was ceded to
Austria, and the succession secured to Charles of Zweibriicken.
For Bavaria itself Charles Theodore did less than nothing. He
felt himself a foreigner among foreigners, and his favourite
scheme, the subject of endless intrigues with the Austrian
cabinet and the immediate cause of Frederick II. 's League of
Princes (Furstenbund) of 1785, was to exchange Bavaria for the
Austrian Netherlands and the title of king of Burgundy. For the
rest, the enlightened internal policy of his predecessor was
abandoned. The funds of the suppressed order of Jesus, which
Maximilian Joseph had destined for the reform of the educational
system of the country, were used to endow a province of the
knights of St John of Jerusalem, for the purpose of combating the
enemies of the faith. The government was inspired by the
narrowest clericalism, which culminated in the attempt to
withdraw the Bavarian bishops from the jurisdiction of the great
German metropolitans and place them directly under that of the
pope. On the eve of the Revolution the intellectual and social
condition of Bavaria remained that of the middle ages.
In 1792 the revolutionary armies overran the Palatinate; in
1795 the French, under Moreau, invaded Bavaria itself, advanced
to Munich where they were received with joy by the
long-suppressed Liberals and laid siege to Ingolstadt.
Charles Theodore, who had done nothing to prevent wars.
or to resist the invasion, fled to Saxony, leaving a
regency, the members of which signed a convention with Moreau,
by which he granted an armistice in return for a heavy contribu-
tion (September 7th, 1796). Immediately afterwards he was
forced to retire.
Between the French and the Austrians, Bavaria was now in
an evil case. Before the death of Charles Theodore (February
i6th, 1799) the Austrians had again occupied the country,
preparatory to renewing the war with France. Maximilian IV.
Joseph (of Zweibriicken), the new elector, succeeded to a difficult
inheritance. Though his own sympathies, and those of his all-
powerful minister, Max Josef von Montgelas (q.v.), were, if
anything, French rather than Austrian, the state of the Bavarian
finances, and the fact that the Bavarian troops were scattered
and disorganized, placed him helpless in the hands of Austria;
on the 2nd of December 1800 the Bavarian arms were involved
in the Austrian defeat at Hohenlinden, and Moreau once more
occupied Munich. By the treaty of Luneville (February gth,
1801) Bavaria lost the Palatinate and the duchies of Zweibriicken
and Julich.
In view of the scarcely disguised ambitions and intrigues of
the Austrian court, Montgelas now believed that the interests of
Bavaria lay in a frank alliance with the French re-
public; he succeeded in overcoming the reluctance of
Maximilian Joseph; and, on the 24th of August, a
separate treaty of peace and alliance with France was signed at
Paris. By the third article of this the First Consul undertook
to see that the compensation promised under the 7th article
BAVARIA
549
of the treaty of LuneVille for the territory ceded on the left bank
of the Rhine, should be carried out at the expense of the Empire
in the manner most agreeable to Bavaria (de Martens, RectteU,
vol. vii. p. 365). In 1803, accordingly, in the territorial re-
arrangements consequent on Napoleon's suppression of the
ecclesiastical states, and of many free cities of the Empire,
Bavaria received the bishoprics of Wiirzburg, Bamberg, Augs-
burg and Freisingen, part of that of Passau, the territories of
twelve abbeys, and seventeen cities and villages, the whole
forming a compact territory which more than compensated for
the loss of her outlying provinces on the Rhine. 1 Montgelas'
ambition was now to raise Bavaria to the rank of a first-rate
power, and he pursued this object during the Napoleonic epoch
with consummate skill, allowing fully for the preponderance of
France so long as it lasted but never permitting Bavaria to
sink, like so many of the states of the confederation of the
Rhine, into a mere French dependency. In the war of 1805, in
accordance with a treaty of alliance signed at Wiirzburg on the
23rd of September, Bavarian troops, for the first time since
Charles VII., fought side by side with the French, and by the
treaty of Pressburg, signed on the 26th of December, the princi-
pality of Eichstadt, the margraviate of Burgau, the lordship of
Vorarlberg, the countships of Hohenems and Konigsegg-Rothen-
fels, the lordships of Argen and Tetnang, and the city of Lindau
with its territory were to be added to Bavaria. On the other
hand Wiirzburg, obtained in 1803, was to be ceded by Bavaria
to the elector of Salzburg in exchange for Tirol. By the ist
article of the treaty the emperor acknowledged the assumption
by the elector of the title of king, as Maximilian I. 2 The price
which Maximilian had reluctantly to pay for this accession of
dignity was the marriage of his daughter Augusta with Eugene
Beauharnais.
For the internal constitution of Bavaria also the French
alliance had noteworthy consequences. Maximilian himself
was an " enlightened " prince of the 18th-century type, whose
tolerant principles had already grievously offended his clerical
subjects; Montgelas was a firm believer in drastic reform
" from above," and, in 1803, had discussed with the rump of
the old estates the question of reforms. But the revolutionary
changes introduced by the constitution proclaimed on the ist of
May 1808 were due to the direct influence of Napoleon. A clean
sweep was made of the medieval polity surviving in the somnolent
local diets and corporations. In place of the old system of
privileges and exemptions were set equality before the law,
universal liability to taxation, abolition of serfdom, security of
person and property, liberty of conscience and of the press. A
representative assembly was created on paper, based on a narrow
franchise and with very limited powers, but was never summoned.
In 1809 Bavaria was again engaged in war with Austria on
the side of France, and by the treaty signed at Paris on the
28th of February 1810 ceded southern Tirol to Italy and some
small districts to Wiirttemberg, receiving as compensation
parts of Salzburg, the quarters of the Inn and Hausriick and
the principalities of Bayreuth and Regensburg. So far the policy
of Montgelas had been brilliantly successful; but the star of
Napoleon had now reached its zenith, and already the astute
opportunist had noted the signs of the coming change. The
events of 1812 followed; in 1813 Bavaria was summoned to
join the alliance against Napoleon, the demand being passionately
backed by the crown prince Louis and by Marshal Wrede; on
Treaty of ^ e 8t ^ of October was signed the treaty of Ried, by
Hied. which Bavaria threw in her lot with the Allies. Mont-
gelas announced to the French ambassador that he
had been compelled temporarily to bow before the storm, adding
" Bavaria has need of France." (For Bavaria's share in the
war see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS.)
Immediately after the first peace of Paris (1814), Bavaria
ceded to Austria Tirol and Vorarlberg; by the congress of
1 See Reels de la deputation de I' empire . . . du 2$ few. 1803, &c.,
?II. vol. vii. p. 453 of G. F. de Martens, Recueildes Traitts, &c.
Gottingue, 1831).
1 Text in de Martens' Recueil, viii. p. 388.
Vienna it was decided that she was to add to these the greater
part of Salzburg and the quarters of the Inn and Hausrtick,
receiving as compensation, besides WUrzburg and
Aschaffenburg, the Palatinate on the left bank of the
Rhine and certain districts of Hesse and of the former
abbacy of Fulda. But with the collapse of France the old
fear and jealousy of Austria had revived in full force, and Bavaria
only agreed to these cessions (treaty of Munich, April i6th,
1816) on Austria promising that, in the event of the powers ignor-
ing her claim to the Baden succession in favour of that of the
line of the counts of Hochberg, she should receive also the
Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine. The question was
thus left open, the tension between the two powers remained
extreme, and war was only averted by the authority of the
Grand Alliance. At the congress of Aix (1818) the question of
the Baden succession was settled in favour of the Hochberg line,
without the compensation stipulated for in the treaty of Munich;
and by the treaty of Frankfort, signed on behalf of the four great
powers on the 2oth of July 1819, the territorial questions at
issue between Bavaria and Austria were settled, in spite of the
protests of the former, in the general sense of the arrangement
made at Vienna. A small strip of territory was added, to connect
Bavaria with the Palatinate, and Bavarian troops were to garrison
the federal fortress of Mainz.
Meanwhile, on the ist of February 1817, Montgelas had been
dismissed; and Bavaria had entered on a new era of constitutional
reform. This implied no breach with the European
policy of the fallen minister. In the new German
confederation Bavaria had assumed the r61e of de- igig"
fender of the smaller states against the ambitions of
Austria and Prussia, and Montgelas had dreamed of a Bavarian
hegemony in South Germany similar to that of Prussia in the
north. It was to obtain popular support for this policy and for
the Bavarian claims on Baden that the crown prince pressed
for a liberal constitution, the reluctance of Montgelas to concede"
it being the cause of his dismissal. On the 26th of May 1818 the
constitution was proclaimed. The parliament was to consist
of two houses; the first comprising the great hereditary land-
owners, government officials and nominees of the crown; the
second, elected on a very narrow franchise, representatives
of the small land-owners, the towns and the peasants. By
additional articles the equality of religions was guaranteed
and the rights of Protestants safeguarded, concessions which
were denounced at Rome as a breach of the Concordat, which
had been signed immediately before. The result of the con-
stitutional experiment hardly justified the royal expectations;
the parliament was hardly opened (February 5th, 1819) before
the doctrinaire radicalism of some of its members, culminating
in the demand that the army should swear allegiance to the
constitution, so alarmed the king, that he appealed to Austria
and Germany, undertaking to carry out any repressive measures
they might recommend. Prussia, however, refused to approve
of any coup d'etat; the parliament, chastened by the conscious-
ness that its life depended on the goodwill of the king, moderated
its tone; and Maximilian ruled till his death as a model con-
stitutional monarch. On the I3th of October 1825, he was
succeeded by his son, Louis I., an enlightened patron of the arts
and sciences, who transferred the university of Landshut to
Munich, which, by his magnificent taste in building, he trans-
formed into one of the most beautiful cities of the continent.
The earlier years of his reign were marked by a liberal spirit and
the reform, especially, of the financial administration; but the
revolutions of 1831 frightened him into reaction, which was
accentuated by the opposition of the parliament to his ex-
penditure on building and works of art. In 1837 the Ultra-
montanes came into power with Karl von Abel (1788-1859)
as prime minister. The Jesuits now gained the upper hand;
one by one the liberal provisions of the constitution were modified
or annulled; the Protestants were harried and oppressed; and
a rigorous censorship forbade any free discussion of internal
politics. The collapse of this regime was due, not to popular
agitation, but to the resentment of Louis at the clerical
550
BAVARIA
opposition to the influence of his mistress, Lola Montez. On the
iyth of February 1847, Abel was dismissed, for publishing his
memorandum against the proposal to naturalize Lola,
Aionte* who was an Irishwoman; and the Protestant Georg
Ludwig von Maurer (q.v.) took his place. The new
ministry granted the certificate of naturalization; but riots,
in which ultramontane professors of the university took part,
were the result. The professors were deprived, the parliament
dissolved, and, on the 27th of November, the ministry dismissed.
Lola Montez, created Countess Landsfeld, was supreme in the
state; and the new minister, Prince Ludwig von Oettingen-
Wallerstein (1791-1870), in spite of his efforts to enlist Liberal
sympathy by appeals to pan-German patriotism, was powerless
to form a stable government. His cabinet was known as -the
" Lolaministerium "; in February 1848, stimulated by the
news from Paris, riots broke out against the countess; on the
nth of March the king dismissed Oettingen, and on the 2oth,
realizing the force of public opinion against him, abdicated in
favour of his son, Maximilian II.
Before his abdication Louis had issued, on the 6th of March, a
proclamation promising the zealous co-operation of the Bavarian
government in the work of German freedom and
Prussian unity. To the spirit of this Maximilian was faithful,
policy. accepting the authority of the central government
at Frankfort, and (ipth of December) sanctioning the
official promulgation of the laws passed by the German parlia-
ment. But Prussia was henceforth the enemy, not Austria. In
refusing to agree to the offer of the imperial crown to Frederick
William IV., Maximilian had the support of his parliament.
In withholding his assent to the new German constitution,
by which Austria was excluded from the Confederation, he ran
indeed counter to the sentiment of his people; but by this time
the back of the revolution was broken, and in the events which
led to the humiliation of Prussia at Olmiitz in 1851, and the
restoration of the old diet of the Confederation, Bavaria was
safe in casting in her lot with Austria (see GERMANY: History).
The guiding spirit in this anti-Prussian policy, which characterized
Bavarian statesmanship up to the war of 1866, was Ludwig
Karl Heinrich von der Pfordten (181 1-1880) , who became minister
for foreign affairs on the ipth of April 1849. His idea for the
ultimate solution of the question of the balance of power in
Germany was the so-called Trias, i.e. a league of the Rhenish
states as a counterpoise to the preponderance of Austria and
Prussia. In internal affairs his ministry was characterized by
a reactionary policy less severe than elsewhere in Germany,
which led none the less from 1854 onward to a struggle with the
parliament, which ended in the dismissal of Pfordten's ministry
on the 27th of March 1859. He was succeeded by Karl Freiherr
von Schrenk auf Notzing (1806-1884), an official of Liberal
tendencies who had been Bavarian representative in the diet
of the Confederation. Important reforms were now introduced,
including the separation of the judicial and executive powers
and the drawing up of a new criminal code. In foreign affairs
Schrenk, like his predecessor, aimed at safeguarding the in-
dependence of Bavaria, and supported the idea of superseding
the actual constitution of the Confederation by a supreme
directory, in which Bavaria, as leader of the purely German states,
would hold the balance between Prussia and Austria. Bavaria
accordingly opposed the Prussian proposals for the reorganiza-
tion of the Confederation, and one of the last acts of King
Maximilian was to take a conspicuous part in the assembly of
princes summoned to Frankfort in 1863 by the emperor Francis
Joseph (see GERMANY).
Maximilian was succeeded on the xoth of March 1864 by his
son Louis II., a youth of eighteen. The government was at first
carried on by Schrenk and Pfordten in concert. Schrenk soon
retired, when the Bavarian government found it necessary, in
order to maintain its position in the Prussian Zollverein, to
become a party to the Prussian commercial treaty with France,
signed in 1862. In the complicated Schleswig-Holstein question
(q.v.) Bavaria, under Pfordten's guidance, consistently opposed
Prussia, and headed the lesser states in their support of Frederick
of Augustenburg against the policy of the two great German
powers. Finally, in the war of 1866, in spite of Bismarck's
efforts to secure her neutrality, Bavaria sided actively with
Austria.
The rapid victory of the Prussians and the wise moderation
of Bismarck paved the way for a complete revolution in Bavaria's
relation to Prussia and the German question. The Vnion
South German Confederation, contemplated by the with
6th article of the treaty of Prague, never came into German
being; and, though Prussia, in order not prematurely m P>"-
to excite the alarm of France, opposed the suggestion that the
southern states should join the North German Confederation,
the bonds of Bavaria, as of the other southern states, with the
north, were strengthened by an offensive and defensive alliance
with Prussia, as the result of Napoleon's demand for " compensa-
tion " in the Palatinate. This was signed at Berlin on the 22nd
of August 1866, on the same day as the signature of the formal
treaty of peace between the two countries. The separatist
ambitions of Bavaria were thus formally given up; she had no
longer "need of France"; and in the war of 1870-71, the
Bavarian army marched, under the command of the Prussian
crown prince, against the common enemy of Germany. It was
on the proposal of King Louis II. that the imperial crown was
offered to King William.
This was preceded, on the 23rd of November 1870, by the
signature of a treaty between Bavaria and the North German
Confederation. By this instrument, though Bavaria became an
integral part of the new German empire, she reserved a larger
measure of sovereign independence than any of the other con-
stituent states. Thus she retained a separate diplomatic service,
military administration, and postal, telegraph and railway
systems. The treaty was ratified by the Bavarian chambers
on the 2ist of January 1871, though not without considerable
opposition on the part of the so-called " patriot " party. Their
hostility was increased by the Kulturkampf, due to the promulga-
tion in 1870 of the dogma of papal infallibility. Munich Uni-
versity, where Bellinger (q.v.) was professor, became the centre
of the opposition to the new dogma, and the " old Catholics "
(q.v.) were protected by the king and the government. The
federal law expelling the Jesuits was proclaimed in Bavaria on
the 6th of September 1871 and was extended to the Redemp-
torists in 1873. On the 3ist of March 1871, moreover, the bonds
with the rest of the empire had been drawn closer by the
acceptance of a number of laws of the North German Confedera-
tion, of which the most important was the new criminal code,
which was finally put into force in Bavaria in 1879. The
opposition of the " patriot " party, however, reinforced by the
strong Catholic sentiment of the country, continued powerful,
and it was only the steady support given by the king to suc-
cessive Liberal ministries that prevented its finding disastrous
expression in the parliament, where it remained in a greater or
less majority till 1887, and has since, as the " centre," continued
to form the most compact party in an assembly made up of
" groups."
Meanwhile the royal dreamer, whose passion for building palaces
was becoming a serious drain on the treasury, had been declared
insane, and, on the 7th of June 1886, the heir-presumptive,
Prince Luitpold, was proclaimed regent. Six days later, on the
i3th of June, Louis committed suicide. His brother, Otto I.,
being also insane, the regency was confirmed to Prince Luitpold.
Since 1871 Bavaria has shared to the full in the marvellous
development of Germany; but her " particularism," founded
on traditional racial and religious antagonism to the Prussians,
was by no means dead, though it exhibited itself in no more
dangerous form than the prohibition, reissued in 1900, to display
any but the Bavarian flag on public buildings on the emperor's
birthday; a provision which has been since so far modified as
to allow the Bavarian and imperial flags to be hung side by side.
AUTHORITIES. Monumenta Boica (44 vols., Munich, 1763-1900);
G. T. Rudhart, Aelteste Geschichte Bayerns (Hamburg, 1841); A.
Quitzmann, Abstammung, Ursitz, und dlteste Geschichte der Batrwaren
(Munich, 1857), and Die dlteste Geschichte der Baiern bis gn
BAVENO BAXTER, R.
(Brunswick, 1873) ; S. Riezler, Geschichte Bayerns (Gotha, 1878-1 809) ;
Ad. Brecher, Darstellung der geschichtlichen Entvrickelung des bay-
rischen Staatsgebiets, map (Berlin, 1890); E. Rosenthal, Geschichte
des Gcrichtswesens und der Verwaltungsorganisation Bayerns (WUrz-
burg, 1889); A. Buchner, Geschichte von Baiern (Munich, 1820-
1853); Forschungen zur Geschichte Bayerns, edited by K. von
Reinhardstottner (Berlin, 1897 fol.). Much valuable detail will be
found in the lives of Bavarian princes and statesmen in the A Ugemeine
deutsche Biographie (Leipzig, 1875-1906 in progr.) (W. A. P.)
BAVENO, a town of Piedmont, Italy, in the province of
. Novara, on the west shore of Lago Maggiore, 13 m. N.N.W. of
Arona by rail. Pop. (1901) 2502. It is much frequented as a
resort in spring, summer and autumn, and has many beautiful
villas. To the north-west are the famous red granite quarries,
which have supplied the columns for the cathedral of Milan,
the church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura at Rome, the Galleria
Vittorio Emanuele at Milan, and other important buildings.
BAWBEE (of very doubtful origin, the most plausible con-
jecture being that the word is a corruption from the name of
the mint master Sillebawby, by whom they were first issued,
c. 1541), the Scottish name for a halfpenny or other small coin,
and hence used of money generally. A writer in 1573, quoted
in Tytler's History of Scotland, speaks of " a coin called a
bawbee, . . . which is in value English one penny and a
quarter." The word was sometimes written " babie," and has
therefore been identified merely with a " baby coin," but ^his
etymology is less probable.
BAXTER, ANDREW (1686-1750), Scottish metaphysician,
was born in Aberdeen and educated at King's College. He
maintained himself by acting as tutor to noblemen's sons.
From 1741 to 1747 he lived with Lord Blantyre and Mr Hay of
Drummelzier at Utrecht, and made excursions in Flanders,
France and Germany. Returning to Scotland, he lived at
Whittingehame, near Edinburgh, till his death in 1750. At Spa
he had met John Wilkes, then twenty years of age, and formed
a lasting friendship with him. His chief work, An Inquiry into
the Nature of the Human Soul (editions 1733, 1737 and 1745;
with appendix added in 1750 in answer to an attack in Mac-
laurin's Account of Sir I. Newton's Philosophical Discoveries, and
dedication to John Wilkes), examines the properties of matter.
The one essential property of matter is its inactivity, vis inertiae
(accepted later by Monboddo). All movement in matter is,
therefore, caused by some immaterial force, namely, God. But
the movements of the body are not analogous to the movements
of matter; they are caused by a special immaterial force, the
soul. The soul, as being immaterial, is immortal, and its con-
sciousness does not depend upon 'its connexion with the body.
The argument is supported by an analysis of the phenomena of
dreams, which are ascribed to direct spiritual influences. Lastly
Baxter attempted to prove that matter is finite. His work is an
attack on Toland's Letters to Serena (1704), which argued that
motion is essential to matter, and on Locke and Berkeley. His
criticism of Berkeley (in the second volume) is, however, based
on the common misinterpretation of his theory (see BERKELEY).
Sir Leslie Stephen speaks of him as a curious example of " the
effects of an exploded metaphysics on a feeble though ingenious
intellect."
Beside the Inquiry, Baxter wrote Matho sive Cosmotheoria
Puerilis (an exposition in Latin of the elements of astronomy
written for his pupils editions in English 1740, 1745 and 1765,
with one dialogue re- written); Evidence of Reason in Proof of
the Immortality of the Soul (published posthumously from MSS.
. by Dr Duncan in 1779).
See life in Biographia Britannica ; McCosh's Scottish Philosophy,
pp. 42-49.
BAXTER, RICHARD (1615-1691), English puritan divine,
called by Dean Stanley " the chief of English Protestant School-
men," was born at Rowton, in Shropshire, at the house of his
maternal grandfather, in November (probably the izth) 1615.
His ancestors had been gentlefolk, but his father had reduced
himself to hard straits by loose living. About the time of
Richard's birth, however, he changed decisively for the better.
The boy's early education was poor, being mainly in the hands
of the illiterate and dissolute clergy and readers who held the
neighbouring livings at that time. He was better served by
John Owen, master of the free school at Wroxeter, where he
studied from about 1629 to 1632, and made fair progress in
Latin. On Owen's advice he did not proceed to Oxford (a step
which he afterwards regretted), but went to Ludlow Castle to
read with Richard Wickstead, the council's chaplain there.
Wickstead neglected his pupil entirely, but Baxter's eager mind
found abundant nourishment in the great library at the castle.
He was persuaded against his will to turn his attention to a
court life, and he went to London under the patronage of Sir
Henry Herbert, master of the revels, to follow that course; but
he very soon returned home with a fixed resolve confirmed by
the death of his mother to study divinity. After three months'
schoolmastering for Owen at Wroxeter he read theology, and
especially the schoolmen, with Francis Garbet, the local clergy-
man. About this time (1634) he met Joseph Symonds and
Walter Cradock, two famous Nonconformists, whose piety and
fervour influenced him considerably. In 1638 he was nominated
to the mastership of the free grammar school, Dudley, in which
place he commenced his ministry, having been ordained and
licensed by John Thornborough, bishop of Worcester. His
success as a preacher was, at this early period, not very great;
but he was soon transferred to Bridgnorth (Shropshire), where,
as assistant to a Mr Madstard, he established a reputation for
the vigorous discharge of the duties of his office.
He remained at Bridgnorth nearly two years, during which
time he took a special interest in the controversy relating to
Nonconformity and the Church of England. He soon, on some
points, especially matters of discipline, became alienated from
the Church; and after the requirement of what is called " the
el cetera oath," he rejected episcopacy in its English form. He
could not, however, be called more than a moderate Noncon-
formist; and such he continued to be throughout his life.
Though commonly denominated a Presbyterian, he had no
exclusive attachment to Presbyterianism, and often manifested
a willingness to accept a modified Episcopalianism. All forms
of church government were regarded by him as subservient to
the true purposes of religion.
One of the first measures of the Long Parliament was to effect
the reformation of the clergy; and, with this view, a committee
was appointed to receive complaints against them. Among the
complainants were the inhabitants of Kidderminster, a town
which had become famous for its ignorance and depravity.
This state of matters was so clearly proved that an arrangement
was agreed to on the part of the vicar (Dance), by which he
allowed 60 a year, out of his income 200, to a preacher who
should be chosen by certain trustees. Baxter was invited to
deliver a sermon before the people, and was unanimously elected
as the minister of the place. This happened in April 1641, when
he was twenty-six years of age.
His ministry continued, with very considerable interruptions,
for about nineteen years; and during that time he accomplished
a work of reformation in Kidderminster and the neighbourhood
which is as notable as anything of the kind upon record. Civilized
behaviour succeeded to brutality of manners; and, whereas the
professors of religion had been but small exceptions to the mass,
the unreligious people became the exceptions in their turn.
He formed the ministers in the country around him into an
association for the better fulfilment of the duties of their calling,
uniting then! together irrespective of their differences as Presby-
terians, Episcopalians and Independents. The spirit in which
he acted may be judged of from The Reformed Pastor, a book
published in relation to the general ministerial efforts he pro-
moted. It drives home the sense of clerical responsibility with
extraordinary power. The result of his action is that, to this
day his memory is cherished as that of the true apostle of the
district where he laboured.
The interruptions to which his Kidderminster life was subjected
arose from the condition of things occasioned by the civil war.
Baxter blamed both parties, but Worcestershire was a cavalier
county, and a man in his position was, while the war continued,
exposed to annoyance and danger in a place like Kidderminster.
552
BAXTER, RICHARD
He therefore removed to Gloucester, and afterwards (1643-
1645) settled in Coventry, where he preached regularly both to
the garrison and the citizens. After the battle of Naseby he
took the situation of chaplain to Colonel Whalley's regiment,
and continued to hold it till February 1647. During these
stormy years he wrote his Aphorisms of Justification, which on its
appearance in 1649 excited great controversy.
Baxter's connexion with the Parliamentary army was a very
characteristic one. He joined it that he might, if possible,
counteract the growth of the sectaries in that field, and maintain
the cause of constitutional government in opposition to the
republican tendencies of the time. He regretted that he had not
previously accepted an offer of Cromwell to become chaplain to
the Ironsides, being confident in his power of persuasion under
the most difficult circumstances. His success in converting the
soldiery to his views does not seem to have been very great, but
he preserved his own consistency and fidelity in a remarkable
degree. By public disputation and private conference, as well
as by preaching, he enforced his doctrines, both ecclesiastical
and political, and shrank no more from urging what he conceived
to be the truth upon the most powerful officers than he did from
instructing the meanest followers of the camp. Cromwell dis-
liked his loquacity and shunned his society; but Baxter having
to preach before him after he had assumed the Protectorship,
chose for his subject the old topic of the divisions and distractions
of the church, and in subsequent interviews not only opposed
him about liberty of conscience, but spoke in favour of the
monarchy he had subverted. There is a striking proof of Baxter's
insight into character in his account of what happened under
these circumstances. Of Cromwell he says, " I saw that what
he learned must be from himself." It is worthy of notice that
this intercourse with Cromwell occurred when Baxter was
summoned to London to assist in settling " the fundamentals of
religion," and made the memorable declaration, in answer to the
objection that what he had proposed as fundamental " might be
subscribed by a Papist or Socinian," " So much the better, and
so much the fitter it is to be the matter of concord." In 1647
he was staying at the home of Lady Rouse of Rouse-Lench, and
there, in much physical weakness, wrote a great part of his
famous work, The Saints' Everlasting Rest (1650). On his
recovery he returned to his charge at Kidderminster, where he
also became a prominent political leader, his sensitive conscience
leading him into conflict with almost every one of the contending
parties in state and church. His conduct now, as at all times,
did " credit to his conscientiousness rather than to his wisdom."
After the Restoration in 1660 Baxter, who had helped to bring
about that event, settled in London. He preached there till the
Act of Uniformity took effect in 1662, and was employed in seek-
ing for such terms of comprehension as would have permitted the
moderate dissenters with whom he acted to have remained in the
Church of England. In this hope he was sadly disappointed.
There was at that time on the part of the rulers of the church no
wish for such comprehension, and their object in the negotiations
that took place was to excuse the breach of faith which their
rejection of all reasonable methods of concession involved. The
chief good that resulted from the Savoy conference was the
production of Baxter's Reformed Liturgy, a work of remarkable
excellence, though it was cast aside without consideration. The
same kind of reputation which Baxter had obtained in the country
he secured in the larger and more important circle of the metro-
polis. The power of his preaching was universally felt, and his
capacity for business placed him at the head of his party. He
had been made a king's chaplain, and was offered the bishopric of
Hereford, but he could not accept the offer without virtually
assenting to things as they were. This he could not do, and after
his refusal he was not allowed, even before the passing of the Act
of Uniformity, to be a curate in Kidderminster, though he was
willing to serve that office gratuitously. Bishop Morley even
prohibited him from preaching in the diocese of Worcester.
Baxter, however, found much consolation in his marriage on the
24th of September 1662 with Margaret Charlton, a woman like-
minded with himself. She died in 1681.
From the ejectment of 1662 to the indulgence of 1687, Baxter's
life was constantly disturbed by persecution of one kind or
another. He retired to Acton in Middlesex, for the purpose of
quiet study, and was dragged thence to prison for keeping a
conventicle. The mittimus was pronounced illegal and irregular,
and Baxter procured a habeas corpus in the court of common
pleas. He was taken up for preaching in London after the
licences granted in 1672 were recalled by the king. The meeting-
house which he had built for himself in Oxendon Street was closed
against him after he had preached there but once. He was, in
1680, seized in his house, and conveyed away at the risk of his
life; and though he was released that he might die at home, his
books and goods were distrained. He was, in 1684, carried three
times to the sessions house, being scarcely able to stand, and
without any apparent cause was made to enter into a bond for
40x3 in security for his good behaviour.
But his worst encounter was with the chief justice, Sir George
Jeffreys, in May 1685. He had been committed to the king's
bench prison on the ridiculous charge of libelling the Church in
his Paraphrase on the New Testament, and was tried before
Jeffreys on this accusation. The trial is well known as among the
most brutal perversions of justice which have occurred in England,
though it must be remembered that no authoritative report of the
trial exists. If the partisan account on which tradition is based
is fo be accepted, it would appear that Jeffreys himself acted like
an infuriated madman. (See JEFFREYS, SIR GEORGE.) Baxter
was sentenced to pay 500 marks, to lie in prison till the money was
paid, and to be bound to his good behaviour for seven years. It
was even asserted at the time that Jeffreys proposed he should be
whipped at the cart's tail through London. The old man, for he
was now seventy, remained in prison for eighteen months, when
the government, vainly hoping to win his influence to their side,
remitted the fine and released him.
During the long time of oppression and injury which followed
the ejectment, Baxter was sadly afflicted in body. His whole life
was indeed one continued illness, but in this part of it his pain and
languor had greatly increased. Yet this was the period of his
greatest activity as a writer. He was a most voluminous author,
his separate works, it is said, amounting to 168. They are as
learned as they are elaborate, and as varied in their subjects as
they are faithfully composed. Such treatises as the Christian
Directory, the Methodus Theologiae Christianae, and the Catholic
Theology, might each have occupied the principal part of the life
of an ordinary man. His Breviate of the Life of Mrs Margaret
Baxter records the virtues of his wife, and reveals on the part of
Baxter a tenderness of nature which might otherwise have been
unknown. His editors have contented themselves with re-
publishing his " Practical Works," and his ethical, philosophical,
historical and political writings still await a competent- editor.
The remainder of Baxter's life, from 1687 onwards, was passed
in peace and honour. He continued to preach and to publish
almost to the end. He was surrounded by attached friends, and
reverenced by the religious world. His saintly behaviour, his
great talents, and his wide influence, added to his extended age,
raised him to a position of unequalled reputation. He helped to
bring about the downfall of James II. and complied with the
Toleration Act under William and Mary. He died in London on
the 8th of December 1691, and his funeral was attended by
churchmen as well as dissenters. A similar tribute of general
esteem was paid to him nearly two centuries later, when a statue
was erected to his memory at Kidderminster in July 1875.
Baxter was possessed by an unconquerable belief in the power
of persuasive argument. He thought every one was amenable to
reason bishops and levellers included. And yet he was as far as
possible from being a quarrelsome man. He was at once a man of
fixed belief and large appreciation, so that his dogmatism and his
liberality sometimes came into collision. His popularity as a
preacher was deservedly pre-eminent; but no more diligent
student ever shut himself up with his books. He was singularly
fitted for intellectual debate, but his devotional tendency was
equally strong with his logical aptitude. Some of his writings,
from their metaphysical subtilty, will always puzzle the learned;
BAXTER, R. D. BAYAMO
553
but he could write to the level of the common heart without loss
of dignity or pointedness. His Reasons for the Christian Religion
is still, for its evidential purpose, better than most works of its
kind. His Poor Man's Family Book is a manual that continues
to be worthy of its title. His Saints' Everlasting Rest will always
command the grateful admiration of pious readers. It is also
charged with a robust and manly eloquence and a rare and
unsought felicity of language that make it a masterpiece of style.
Perhaps no thinker has exerted so great an influence upon
nonconformity as Baxter has done, and that not in one direction
only, but in every form of development, doctrinal, ecclesiastical
and practical. He is the type of a distinct class of the Christian
ministry that class which aspires after scholarly training,
prefers a broad to a sectarian theology, and adheres to rational
methods of religious investigation and appeal. The rational
element in him was very strong. He had a settled hatred of
fanaticism. Even Quakerism he could scarcely endure. Religion
was with him all and in all that by which all besides was
measured, and to whose interests all else was subordinated. Isaac
Barrow said that " his practical writings were never minded, and
his controversial ones seldom confuted," and John Wilkins, bishop
of Chester, asserted that " if he had lived in the primitive time he
had been one of the fathers of the church."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Our most valuable source is Baxter's auto-
biography, called Reliquiae Baxterianae or Mr Richard Baxter's
Narrative of the most memorable Passages of his Life and Times
(published by Matthew Sylvester in 1696). Edmund Calamy
abridged this work (1702). The abridgment forms the first volume
of the account of the ejected ministers, but whoever refers to it
should also acquaint himself with the reply to the accusations which
had been brought against Baxter, and which will be found in the
second volume of Calamy 's Continuation. William Orme's Life and
Times of Richard Baxter appeared in 2 vols. in 1830; jt also forms
the first volume of " Practical Works " (1830, reprinted 1868).
Sir James Stephen's interesting paper on ^Baxter, contributed
originally to the Edinburgh Review, is reprinted in the second volume
of his Essays. More recent estimates of Baxter are those given by
John Tulloch in his English Puritanism and its Leaders, and by
Dean Stanley in his address at the inauguration of the statue to
Baxter at Kidderminster (see Macmillan's Magazine, xxxii. 385).
There is a good portrait of Baxter in the Williams library, Gordon
Square, London.
BAXTER, ROBERT DUDLEY (1827-1875), English economist
and statistician, was born at Doncaster in 1827. . He was educated
privately and at Trinity College, Cambridge. He studied law and
entered his father's firm of Baxter & Co., solicitors, with which he
was connected till his death. Though studiously attentive to
business, he was enabled, as a member of the Statistical and other
learned societies, to accomplish much useful economic work. His
principal economic writings were The Budget and the Income Tax
(1860), Railway Extension and its Results (1866), The National
Income (1868), The Taxation of the United Kingdom (1869),
National Debts of the World (1871), Local Government and
Taxation (1874), and his purely political writings included
The Volunteer Movement (1860), The Redistribution of Seats
and the Counties (1866), History of English Parties and Con-
servatism (1870), and The Political Progress of the Working
Classes (1871).
BAXTER, WILLIAM (1650-1723), British antiquarian, critic
and grammarian, nephew of Richard Baxter, the divine, was born
at Llanllugan, Montgomeryshire. When he went to Harrow
school, at the age of eighteen, he was unable to read, and could
speak no language except Welsh. His progress must have been
remarkable, since he published his Latin grammar about ten
years afterwards. During the greater part of his life Baxter was
a schoolmaster, and was finally headmaster of the Mercers' school,
where he remained till shortly before his death on the 3ist of May
1723. He was an accomplished linguist, and his learning was
undoubtedly very great. His published works are: De Analogia
(1679), an advanced Latin grammar; Anacreontis Teii Carmina,
including two odes of Sappho (1695; reprinted in 1710, " with
improvements," which he was accused of having borrowed from
the edition of Joshua Barnes); Horace (1701 and subsequent
editions, regarded as remarkable for its abuse of Bentley);
Glossarium Antiquilatum Britannicarum (1719); and Glossarium
Antiquitatum Romanarum (1826). The last two works were
published by the Rev. Moses Williams, the second (which goes no
farther than the letter A) under the title of Reliquiae Baxterianae,
including an autobiographical fragment. Baxter also contributed
to a joint translation of Plutarch's Moralia, and left notes on
Juvenal and Persius.
BAY, a homonymous term of which the principal branches are
as follows, (i) The name of the sweet laurel (Laurus nobilis) or
bay tree (see L AUKKI.) ; this word is derived through the O. Fr.
bate, from Lat. baca, berry, the bay bearing a heavy crop of dark
purple berries. The leaves of the bay were woven in garlands to
crown poets, and hence the word is often used figuratively in the
sense of fame and reward. (2) A wide opening or indentation in
a coast line. This may be of the same origin as " bay," in the
architectural sense, or from a Latin word which is seen in the place
name Baiae. (3) The name of a colour, of a reddish brown,
principally used of the colour in horses; there are various shades,
light bay, bright bay, &c. This word is derived from the Latin
badius, which is given by Varro (in Nonnius, pp. 80-82) as one of
the colours of horses. The word is also seen in baize (q.v.). (4)
The deep bark of dogs. This word is also seen in the expression
" at bay," properly of a hunted animal who at the last turns on
the " baying " hounds and defends itself. The origin of the word
is the O.Fr. bayer, abayer, Lat. badare, properly to gape, open wide
the mouth. (5) An architectural term (Fr. Iravte, Ital. com-
partimento, Ger. Abteilung) for any division or compartment of
an arcade, roof, &c. Each space from pillar to pillar in a
cathedral, church or other building is called a " bay " or
" severy." This word is also to be referred to bayer, to gape.
A " bay-window " or " bow-window " is a window projecting
outwards and forming a recess in the apartment. Bay-windows
may be rectangular, polygonal or semicircular in plan, in the
last case being better known as bow-windows. The bay-window
would seem to have been introduced in the i sth century, but the
earliest examples of importance are those which were built during
the reign of Edward IV.(i46i-i483),when it was largely employed
in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge and in the feudal castles
of the period. Examples are found in the palace at Eltham,
Cowdray Castle in Sussex, Thornbury Castle in Gloucestershire,
and in the George Inn at Glastonbury; one of the finest of a later
date is that of the Banqueting Hall at Hampton Court, some 50
ft. high. In the great entrance halls of ancient mansions the floor
of the last bay of the hall was generally raised two or three steps,
and this portion was reserved for the lord of the manor and his
guests, and was known as the dais. The usual position of the bay-
window is at one end of this dais, and occasionally but rarely at
both ends. The sills of the windows are at a lower level than
those in the hall, and, raised on one or two steps, are seats in the
recess. The recess of the bay-window was generally covered with a
ribbed vault of elaborate design, and the window itself subdivided
by mullions and transoms. In some of the larger windows such
as those at Cowdray and Hampton Court there are no fewer than
five transoms, and this sub-division gave great scale to the design.
The same feature when employed in an upper storey and supported
by corbels or brackets is known as an oriel window. (See also
DAIS and HALL.)
BAYAMO, an old inland city on the N. slope of the Sierra
Maestra in Santiago province, Cuba. Pop. (1907) 4102. It lies
on a plain by the Bayamo river, in a fertile country, but isolated
from sea and from railway. Its older parts are extraordinarily
irregular. The streets are of all widths, and of all degrees of
crookedness, and run in all directions. Bayamo was the third of
the seven cities founded by Diego Velazquez, and was established
in 1513. During much of the i6th century it was one of the most
important agricultural and commercial settlements of the island.
Its inland situation gave it relative security against the pirates
who then infested West Indian seas, and the misfortunes of
Santiago were the fortunes of Bayamo. Down the river Cauto,
then open to the sea for vessels of 200 tons, and through Manza-
nillo, Bayamo drove a thriving contraband trade that made it at
the opening of the I7th century the leading town of Cuba. A
tremendous flood, in 1616, choking the Cauto with trees and
554
BAYARD, P. T. BAYARD, T. F.
wrecked vessels, cut it off from direct access to the sea; but
through Manzanillo it continued a great clandestine traffic with
Curacao, Jamaica, and other foreign islands all through the lyth
and i8th centuries. Bayamo was then surrounded by fine
plantations. It was a rich and turbulent city. In the war of
1868-78 it was an insurgent stronghold;' near it was fought one
of the most desperate conflicts of the war, and it was nearly
destroyed by the opposing parties. Bayamo was the birthplace
and the home of Carlos Manuel de Cespedes (1819-1874), first
president of the " first " Cuban republic, and was also the
birthplace and home of Tomas Estrada Palma (1835-1908), first
president of the present Cuban republic.
BAYARD, PIERRE TERRAIL, SEIGNEUR DE (1473-1524),
French soldier, the descendant of a noble family, nearly every
head of which for two centuries past had fallen in battle, was born
at the chateau Bayard, Dauphine (near Pontcharra, Isere), about
1473. He served as a page to Charles I., duke of Savoy, until
Charles VIII. of France, attracted by his graceful bearing, placed
him among the royal followers under the seigneur (count) de Ligny
(1487). As a youth he was distinguished for comeliness, affability
of manner, and skill in the tilt-yard. In 1494 he accompanied
Charles VIII. into Italy, and was knighted after the battle of
Fornova (1495), where he had captured a standard. Shortly
afterwards, entering Milan alone in ardent pursuit of the enemy,
he was taken prisoner, but was set free without a ransom by
Lodovico Sforza. In 1502 he was wounded at the assault of
Canossa. Bayard was the hero of a celebrated combat of thirteen
French knights against an equal number of Germans, and his
restless energy and valour were conspicuous throughout the
Italian wars of this period. On one occasion it is said that, single-
handed, he made good the defence of the bridge of the Garigliano
against about 200 Spaniards, an exploit that brought him such
renown that Pope Julius II. sought to entice him into the papal
service, but unsuccessfully. In 1508 he distinguished himself
again at the siege of Genoa by Louis XII., and early in 1509 the
king made him captain of a company of horse and foot. At the
siege of Padua he won further distinction, not only by his valour,
but also by his consummate skill. He continued to serve in the
Italian wars up to the siege of Brescia in 1512. Here his intre-
pidity in first mounting the rampart cost him a severe wound,
which obliged his soldiers to carry him into a neighbouring house,
the residence of a nobleman, whose wife and daughters he pro-
tected from threatened insult. Before his wound was healed, he
hurried to join Gaston de Foix, under whom he served in the
terrible battle of Ravenna (1512). In 1513, when Henry VIII. of
England routed the French at the battle of the Spurs (Guinegate,
where Bayard's father had received a lifelong injury in a battle of
1479), Bayard in trying to rally his countrymen found his escape
cut off. Unwilling to surrender, he rode suddenly up to an
English officer who was resting unarmed, and summoned him to
yield; the knight complying, Bayard in turn gave himself up
to his prisoner. He was taken into the English camp, but his
gallantry impressed Henry as it had impressed Lodovico, and the
king released him without ransom, merely exacting his parole not
to serve for six weeks. On the accession of Francis I. in 1515
Bayard was made lieutenant-general of Dauphine; and after
the victory of Marignan, to which his valour largely contributed,
he had the honour of conferring knighthood on his youthful
sovereign. When war again broke out between Francis I. and
Charles V., Bayard, with 1000 men, held Mezieres, which had
been declared untenable, against an army of 35,000, and after
six weeks compelled the imperial generals to raise the siege. This
stubborn resistance saved central France from invasion, as the
king had not then sufficient forces to withstand the imperialists.
All France rang with the achievement, and Francis gained time
to collect the royal army which drove out the invaders (1521).
The parlement thanked Bayard as the saviour of his country;
the king made him a knight of the order of St Michael, and
commander in his own name of 100 gens d'armes, an honour till
then reserved for princes of the blood. After allaying a revolt at
Genoa, and striving with the greatest assiduity to check a
pestilence in Dauphine, Bayard was sent, in 1523, into Italy with
Admiral Bonnivet, who, being defeated at Robecco and wounded
in a combat during his retreat, implored Bayard to assume the
command and save the army. He repulsed the foremost pursuers,
but in guarding the rear at the passage of the Sesia was mortally
wounded by an arquebus ball (April 3oth, 1524). He died in the
midst of the enemy, attended by Pescara, the Spanish com-
mander, and by his old comrade the constable de Bourbon. His
body, was restored to his friends and interred at Grenoble.
Chivalry, free of fantastic extravagance, is perfectly mirrored in
the character of Bayard. As a soldier he was one of the most
skilful commanders of the age. He was particularly noted for the
exactitude and completeness of his information of the enemy's
movements; this he obtained both by careful reconnaissance
and by a well-arranged system of espionage. In the midst of
mercenary armies Bayard remained absolutely disinterested, and
to his contemporaries and his successors he was, with his romantic
heroism, piety and magnanimity, the fearless and faultless knight,
le chevalier sans peur et sans reproche. His gaiety and kindness
won him, even more frequently, another name bestowed by his
contemporaries, le ban chevalier.
Contemporary lives of Bayard are the following: " Le loyal
serviteur " (? Jacques de Maille) ; La tres joyeuse, plaisante, et
recreative histoire . . . des faiz, gestes, triumphes et prouesses du ban
chevalier sans paour et sans reproche, le gentil seigneur de Bayart
(original edition printed at Paris, 1527 ; the modern editions are very
numerous, those of M. J. Roman and of L. Larchey appeared in
1878 and 1882); Symphorien Champier, Les Gestes, ensemble la vie
du preulx chevalier Bayard (Lyons, 1525) ; Aymar du Rivail, Histoire
des Allobroges (edition of de Terrebasse, 1844); see Bayard in
Repertoire des sources historiques, by Ulysse Chevalier, and in
particular A. de Terrebasse, Hist, de Pierre Terrail, seigneur de
Bayart (ist ed., Paris, 1828; 5th ed., Vienna, 1870).
BAYARD, THOMAS FRANCIS (1828-1898), American diplo-
matist, was born in Wilmington, Delaware, on the 29th of
October 1828. His great-grandfather, Richard Bassett (1745-
1815), governor of Delaware; his grandfather, James Asheton
Bayard (1767-1815), a prominent Federalist, and one of the
United States commissioners who negotiated the treaty of Ghent
with Great Britain after the War of 1812; his uncle, Richard
Henry Bayard (1796-1868); and his father, James Asheton
Bayard (1799-1880), a well-known constitutional lawyer, all
represented Delaware in the United States Senate. Intending
to go into business, he did not receive a college education; but
in 1848 he began the study of law in the office of his father, and
was admitted to the bar in 1851. Except from 1855 to 1857, when
he was a partner of William Shippen in Philadelphia, he practised
chiefly in Wilmington. He was a United States senator from
Delaware from 1869 to 1885, and in 1881 was (October loth to
1 3th) president pro tempore of the Senate. His abilities made
him a leader of the Democrats in the Senate, and his views on
financial and legal questions gave him a high reputation for
statesmanship. He was a member of the electoral commission of
1877. In the Democratic national conventions of 1872, 1876,
1880 and 1884 he received votes for nomination as the party
candidate for the presidency. He was secretary of state, 1885-
1889, during the first administration of President Cleveland,
and pursued a conservative policy in foreign affairs, the most
important matter with which he was called upon to deal being
the Bering Sea controversy. As ambassador to Great Britain,
1893-1897, his tall dignified person, unfailing courtesy, and
polished, if somewhat deliberate, eloquence made him a man of
mark in all the best circles. He was considered indeed- by many
Americans to have become too partial to English ways; and, for
the expression of some criticisms regarded as unfavourable to
his own countrymen, the House of Representatives went so far
as to pass, on the 7th of November 1895, a vote of censure on
him. The value of Mr Bayard's diplomacy was, however, fully
recognized in the United Kingdom, where he worthily upheld
the traditions of a famous line of American ministers. He was
the first representative of the United States in Great Britain to
hold the diplomatic rank of an ambassador. He died in Dedham,
Massachusetts, on the 28th of September 1898.
See Edward Spencer, Public Life and Services of T. F. Bayard
(New York, 1880).
BAYAZID BAYEUX TAPESTRY
555
BAYAZID, or BAJAZET, a border fortress of Asiatic Turkey,
chief town of a sanjak of the Erzerum vilayet, situated close to
the frontiers of Russia and Persia, and looking across a marshy
plain to the great cone of Ararat, at a general altitude of 6000 ft.
It occupies a site of great antiquity, as the cuneiform inscriptions
on the neighbouring rocks testify; it stands on the site of the
old Armenian town of Pakovan. It is picturesquely situated in
an amphitheatre of sharp, rocky hills. The great trade route
from Trebizond by Erzerum into N.W. Persia crosses the frontier
at Kizil Dize a few miles to the south and does not enter the
town. A knoll above the town is occupied by the half-ruined
fort or palace of former governors, built for Mahmud Pasha by
a Persian architect and' considered one of the most beautiful
buildings in Turkey. It contains two churches and a monastery,
the Kasa Kilissa, famous for its antiquity and architectural
grandeur. The cuneiform inscriptions are on the rock pinnacles
above the town, with some rock chambers, indicating a town
or fortress of the Vannic period. The population has lately
decreased and now numbers about 4000. A Russian consul
resides here and the town is a military station. It was captured
during the Russian campaigns of 1828 and 1854, also in 1878,
but was then recaptured by the Turks, who subjected the Russian
garrison to a long siege; the place was ultimately relieved, but
a massacre of Christians then took place in the streets. Bayazid
was restored to Turkey by the treaty of Berlin.
BAYBAY, a town of the province of Leyte, island of Leyte,
Philippine Islands, on the W. coast. Pop. (1903) 22,990. The
town proper is situated at the mouth of the Pagbanganan river,
45 m. S.S.W. of Tacloban, the provincial capital. A superior
grade of hemp is exported. Other products are rice, corn, copra,
cacao, sugar, cattle and horses. The Cebu dialect of the Visayan
language is spoken.
BAY CITY, a city and the county seat of Bay county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on the Saginaw river, about 2 m. from its
entrance into Saginaw Bay and about 108 m. N.N.W. of Detroit.
Pop. (1890) 27,839; (1900) 27,628, of whom 8485 were foreign-
born, including 2413 English-Canadians, 1743 Germans, 1822
Poles the city has a Polish weekly newspaper and 1075 French-
Canadians; (1910, census) 45,166. Bay City is served by the
Michigan Central, the Pere Marquette, the Grand Trunk and
the Detroit & Mackinac railways, and by lake steamers. The
city extends for several miles along both sides of the river, and
is in a good farming district, with which it is connected by stone
roads. Among the public buildings are the Federal building,
the city hall and the public library. The city has lumber and
fishing interests (perch, whitefish, sturgeon, pickerel, bass, &c.
being caught in Saginaw Bay), large machine shops and
foundries (value of products in 1905, $1,743,155, or 31 % of
the total of the city's factory products), and various manu-
factures, including ships (wooden and steel), wooden ware, wood-
pipe, veneer, railroad machinery, cement, alkali and chicory.
A salt basin underlies the city, and, next to the lumber industry,
the salt industry was the first to be developed, but its importance
has dwindled, the product value in 1905 being $20,098 out of
$5,620,866 for all factory products. Near the city are valuable
coal mines, and there is one within the city limits. At Essexville
(pop. in 1910, 1477), N.E., at Banks, N.W., and at Salzbury,
S.W. of Bay City, are beet-sugar factories sugar beets are
extensively grown in the vicinity. Alcohol is made from the
refuse molasses obtained from these beet-sugar factories. The
municipality owns and operates the water-works and electric-
lighting plant. The settlements of Lower Saginaw and Ports-
mouth were made in 1837, and were later united to form Bay
City, which was incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered
as a city in 1865. In 1905 West Bay City (pop. 1900, 13,119)
and Bay City were consolidated.
BAYEUX, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Calvados, 18 m. N.W. of
Caen on the Western railway. Pop. (1906) 6930. Bayeux is
situated on the Aure, 5 m. from the English Channel. Its
majestic cathedral was built in the i3th century on the site of a
Romanesque church, to which the lateral arcades of the nave
and the two western towers with their high stone spires belonged.
A third and still loftier tower, the upper part of which, in the
florid Gothic style, is modern, surmounts the crossing. The
chancel, surrounded with radiating chapels, is a fine example
of early Gothic. Underneath it there is a crypt of the nth
century restored in the isth century. The oak stalls in the
choir are fine examples of late 16th-century carving. The former
bishop's palace, parts of which are of great age though the
main building is of the i8th century, serves as law-court and
hotel de villc. Bayeux possesses many quaint, timbered houses
and stone mansions in its quiet streets. The museum contains
the celebrated Bayeux tapestry (see below). The town is the seat
of a bishop and of a sub-prefect; it has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, an ecclesiastical seminary, a communal college
and a chamber of arts and manufactures. Dyeing, leather-
dressing, lace-making and the manufacture of porcelain for
household and laboratory purposes are carried on.
Till the 4th century Bayeux bore the name of Auguslodurum,
but afterwards, when it became the capital of the two tribes of
the Baiocasses and Viducasses, took the name of Civitas Baio-
cassium. Its bishopric dates from the latter half of the 4th
century. Before the Norman invasion it was governed by
counts. Taken in 890 by the Scandinavian chief, Rollo, it was
soon after peopled by the Normans and became a residence of
the dukes of Normandy, one of whom, Richard I., built about
960 a castle which survived till the i8th century. During the
quarrels between the sons of William the Conqueror it was pillaged
and sacked by Henry I. in 1106, and in later times it underwent
siege and capture on several occasions during the Hundred Years'
War and the religious wars of the i6th century. Till 1790 it was
the capital of the Bessin, a district of lower Normandy.
BAYEUX TAPESTRY, THE. This venerable relic consists of a
band of linen, 231 ft. long and 20 in. wide, now light brown with
age, on which have been worked with a needle, in worsteds of
eight colours, scenes representing the conquest of England by
the Normans. Of these scenes there are seventy-two, beginning
with Harold's visit to Bosham on his way to Normandy, and
ending with the flight of the English from the battle of Hastings,
though the actual end of the strip has perished. Along the top
and the bottom run decorative borders with figures of animals,
scenes from fables of Aesop and of Phaedrus, from husbandry
and the chase, and occasionally from the story of the Conquest
itself (see EMBROIDERY, Plate I. fig. 7). Formerly known as the
Toile de St Jean, it was used on certain feast days to decorate
the nave of Bayeux cathedral. Narrowly escaping the perils of
the Revolution, it was exhibited in Paris, by Napoleon's desire,
in 1803-1804, and has since been in civil custody at Bayeux,
where it is now exhibited under glass. In the Franco-German
War (1871) it was hastily taken down and concealed.
" The noblest monument in the world relating to our old
English history," as William Stukeley described it in 1746, it
has been repeatedly described, discussed and reproduced, both
in France and in England since 1730. The best coloured re-
production is that by C. A. Stothard in 1818, published in
the sixth volume of Vetttsta Monumenla; but in 1871-1872
the " tapestry " was photographed for the English education
authorities by E. Dossetter.
Local tradition assigned the work to the Conqueror's wife.
F. Pluquet, in his Essai historique sur la title de Bayeux (Caen,
1829), was the first to reject this belief, and to connect it with the
Conqueror's half-brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and this view,
which is now accepted, is confirmed by the fact that three of the
bishop's followers mentioned in Domesday Book are among the
very few named figures on the tapestry. That Odo had it
executed for his cathedral seems tolerably certain, but whether
it was worked by English fingers or not has been disputed,
though some of the words upon it have been held to favour that
view. Freeman emphatically pronounced it to be " a con-
temporary work," and historically " a primary authority . . .
in fact the highest authority on the Norman side." As some
of its evidence is unique, the question of its authority is im-
portant, and Freeman's conclusions have been practically
556
BAYEZID I. BAYLE
confirmed by recent discussion. In 1902 M. Marignan questioned,
on archaeological grounds, the date assigned to the tapestry,
as the Abbe de la Rue had questioned it ninety years before;
but his arguments were refuted by Gaston Paris and M. Lanore,
and the authority of the tapestry was vindicated. The famous
relic appears to be the solitary survivor of a class, for Abbot
Baudri described in Latin verse a similar work executed for
Adela, daughter of the Conqueror, and in earlier days the widow
of Brihtnoth had wrought a similar record of her husband's
exploits and death at the hard-fought battle of Maldon (991).
See E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest, vol. iii. (ed. 1875), with
summary of the discussion to date; Archaeologia, vols. xvii.-xix. ;
Dawson Turner, Tour in Normandy (1820); C. A. Stothard's illus-
trations in Vetusta Monumenta, vol. vi. ; Gentleman's Magazine,
1837; Bolton Corney, Researches and Conjectures on the Bayeux
Tapestry (1836-1838); A. de Caumont, " Un mot sur ... la tapis-
sene de Bayeux," in Bulletin monumental de I'institut des provinces,
vol. viii. (1841) ; J. Laffetay, Notice historique et descriptive sur la
tapisserie . . . (1874); J. Comte, Tapisserie de Bayeux; F. R.
Fowke, The Bayeux Tapestry (ed. 18^8); Marignan, Tapisserie de
Bayeux (1902); G. Pans, Tapisserie de Bayeux," in Romania,
vof. xxxi. ; Lanore, "La Tapisserie de Bayeux," in Bibliotheque
de I'ecole des chartes, vol. Ixiv. (1903); and I. H. Round, "The
Bayeux Tapestry," in Monthly Review, xvii. (1904). (J. H. R.)
BAYEZID I. (1347-1403), Ottoman sultan, surnamed YIL-
DERIM or " LIGHTNING," from the great rapidityof his movements,
succeeded his father Murad I. on the latter's assassination on the
field of Kossovo, 1389, and signalized his accession by ordering
at once the execution of his brother Yakub, who had distinguished
himself in the battle. His arms were successful both in Europe
and Asia, and he was the first Ottoman sovereign to be styled
" sultan," which title he induced the titular Abbasid caliph to
confer on him. After routing the chivalry of Christendom at the
battle of Nikopoli in 1396, he pursued his victorious career in
Greece, and Constantinople would doubtless have fallen before
his attack, had not the emperor Manuel Palaeologus bought him
off by timely concessions which reduced him practically to the
position of Bayezid's vassal. But his conquests met with a
sudden and overpowering check at the hands of Timur (Tamer-
lane). Utterly defeated at Angora by the Mongol invader,
Bayezid became his prisoner, and died in captivity some months
later, in March 1403.
Bayezid first married Devlet Shah Khatun, daughter of the
prince of Kermian, who brought him in dowry Kutaiah and its
dependencies. Two years before his accession he also married a
daughter of the emperor John Palaeologus.
BAYEZID II. (1447-1512), sultan of Turkey, was the son of
Mahommed II., whom he succeeded in 1481, but only after
gaining over the janissaries by a large donative, which hence-
forth became for centuries the invariable prerogative of that
undisciplined body on the accession of a new sultan. Before he
could establish himself on the throne a long struggle ensued with
his brother Prince Jem. Being routed, Jem fled for refuge to
the knights of St John at Rhodes, who, in spite of a safe-conduct
granted to him, accepted a pension from Bayezid as the price
for keeping him a close prisoner. (See AUBUSSON, PIERRE D'.)
So long as Jem lived he was a perpetual menace to the sultan's
peace, and there was considerable rivalry among the sovereigns
of Europe for the possession of so valuable an instrument for
bringing pressure to bear upon the Porte for the purpose of
extracting money or concessions. By common consent the
prince was ultimately entrusted to Pope Innocent VIII., who
used him not only to extract an annual tribute out of the sultan,
but to prevent the execution of Bayezid's ambitious designs in
the Mediterranean. His successor, Alexander VI., used him for
a more questionable purpose, namely, not only to extract the
arrears of the pension due for Jem's safe-keeping, but, by enlarg-
ing on Charles V.'s intention of setting him up as sultan', to
persuade Bayezid to aid him against the emperor. There
appears, however, to be no truth in the report that Bayezid
succeeded in bribing the pope to have Jem poisoned. The
prince, who had lived on excellent terms with Alexander, died
at Naples in February 1495, possibly as the result of excesses
in which he had been deliberately encouraged by the pope.
Whether as a result of his fear of the rivalry of Jem, or of
his personal character, Bayezid showed little of the aggressive
spirit of his warlike predecessors; and Machiavelli said that
another such sultan would cause Turkey to cease being a menace
to Europe. He abandoned the attack on Rhodes at the first
check, made concessions, for the sake of peace, to Venice and
reduced the tribute due from Ragusa. His wars were of the
nature of raids, on the Dalmatian coast and into Croatia,
Hungary, Moldavia and Poland. The threat of the growing
power in the Aegean of Venice, which had acquired Cyprus in 1489,
at last roused him to a more serious effort; and in 1499 the war
broke out with the republic, which ended in 1502 by the annexa-
tion to Turkey of Lepanto and Modon, Coron and Navarino in
the Morea. Bayezid himself conducted the siegeof Modonin 1500.
The comparative inactivity of Bayezid in the direction of
Europe was partly due to preoccupation elsewhere. In the
south he was threatened by the dangerous rivalry of Kait Bey,
the Mameluke sultan of Egypt, who had extended his power
northwards as far as Tarsus and Adana. In 1488 he gained a
great victory over the Ottomans, and in 1491 a peace was made
which was not again broken till after Bayezid's death. On the
side of Persia too, where the decisive battle of Shurur (1502)
had raised to power Ismail, the first of the modern line of shahs,
danger threatened the sultan, and the latter years of his reign
were troubled by the spread, under the influence of the new
Persian power, of the Shi'ite doctrine in Kurdistan and Asia
Minor. The forces destined to maintain his authority in Asia
had been entrusted by Bayezid to his three sons, Ahmed, Corcud
and Selim; and the sultan's declining years were embittered
by their revolts and rivalry. Soon after the great earthquake
of 1509, which laid Constantinople in ruins, Selim, the ungovern-
able pasha of Trebizond, whose vigorous rule in Asia had given
Europe an earnest of his future career as sultan, appeared before
Adrianople, where Bayezid had sought refuge. The sultan had
designated Ahmed as his successor, but Selim, though tem-
porarily defeated, succeeded in winning over the janissaries.
On the 25th of April 1512 Bayezid was forced to abdicate in
his favour, and died a few days later.
See J. B. Bury in the Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. chap. iii.
and bibliography p. 700.
BAY ISLANDS (!SLAS DE LA BAHTA), a small archipelago in
the Caribbean Sea, off the coast of Honduras, of which country
it forms an administrative district. Pop. (1905) about 3000,
including 500 Indians. The archipelago consists of Roatan or
Ruatan, Guanaja or Bonacca, Utilla, Barbareta, Helena, Moral,
the Puercos or Hog Islands, and many cays or islets. The Bay
Islands have a good soil, a fine climate and an advantageous
position. Roatan, the largest, is about 30 m. long by 9 m.
broad, with mountains rising to the height of 900 ft., covered
with valuable woods and abounding with deer and wild hogs.
Its chief towns are Coxen Hole and Puerto Real. Its trade is
chiefly with New Orleans in plantains, cocoa-nuts, pineapples
'and other fruit. Guanaja is 9 m. long by 5 m. broad; it lies
15 m. E.N.E. of Roatan. Wild hogs abound in its thickly-
wooded limestone hills. The other islands are comparatively
small, and may, in some cases, be regarded as detached parts of
Roatan, with which they are connected by reefs. Guanaja was
discovered in 1502 by Columbus, but the islands were not
colonized until the I7th century, when they were occupied by
British logwood cutters from Belize, and pearlers from the
Mosquito Coast. Forts were built on Roatan in 1742, but
abandoned in 1749. In 1852 the islands were annexed by Great
Britain. In 1859 they were ceded to Honduras.
BAYLE, PIERRE (1647-1706), French philosopher and man
of letters, was born on the i8th of November 1647, at le Carla-
le-Comte, near Pamiers (Ariege). Educated by his father, a
Calvinist minister, and at an academy at Puylaurens, he. after-
wards entered a Jesuit college at Toulouse, and became a Roman
Catholic a month later (1669). After seventeen months he
resumed his former religion, and, to avoid persecution, fled to
Geneva, where he became acquainted with Cartesianism. For
some years he acted under the name of Bele as tutor in various
BAYEUX TAPESTRY
PLATE I.
i. SIEGE OF DINANT. Note the wooden castle on a mound, and the knight handing over the keys on his lance tip.
-I
2. THE FUNERAL OF EDWARD THE CONFESSOR AT WESTMINSTER ABBEY.
1
13. .CORONATION OF HAROLD.
.4. APPEARANCE OF HALLEY'S COMET.
s: fcl hTC" t
RhVMT:CARRV
5. THE NORMANS CARRY THEIR ARMS TO THE SHIPS.
(By permission of G. Bell & Sons.)
III. 556-
PLATE II.
BAYEUX TAPESTRY
6. THE NORMANS CROSS TO PEVENSEY.
7. BUILDING OF HASTINGS CASTLE.
8. HAROLD'S ADVANCE ANNOUNCED TO WILLIAM.
THE BURNING OF HASTINGS.
9. THE NORMAN CAVALRY ATTACKS THE ENGLISH SHIELD WALL.
10. WILLIAM RAISES HIS HELMET TO RALLY HIS MEN. 11. ODO, BISHOP OF BAYEUX, WIELDING HIS MACE.
(By permission of G. Bell & Sons.)
BAYLO BAYONET
557
Parisian families, but in 1673 he was appointed to the chair
of philosophy at the Protestant university of Sedan. In 1681
the university at Sedan was suppressed, but almost immediately
afterwards Bayle was appointed professor of philosophy and
history at Rotterdam. Here in 1682 he published his famous
Penstes diverse* sur la comete de 1680 and his critique of Maim-
bourg's work on the history of Calvinism. The great reputation
achieved by this critique stirred the envy of Bayle's colleague,
P. Jurieu, who had written a book on the same subject. In 1684
Bayle began the publication of his Nouvelles de la rtpublique
des lettres, a kind of journal of literary criticism. In 1690
appeared a work entitled Avis important aux refugies, which
Jurieu attributed to Bayle, whom he attacked with animosity.
After a long quarrel Bayle was deprived of his chair in 1693.
He was not depressed by this misfortune, especially as he was
at the time closely engaged in the preparation of the Historical
and Critical Dictionary (Dictionnaire historique et critique). The
remaining years of Bayle's life were devoted to miscellaneous
writings, arising in many instances out of criticisms made upon
his Dictionary. He died in exile at Rotterdam on the 28th of
December 1706. In 1906 a statue in his honour was erected at
Pamiers, " la reparation d'un long oubli." Bayle's erudition,
despite the low estimate placed upon it by Leclerc, seems to have
been very considerable. As a constructive thinker, he did little.
As a critic he was second to none in his own time, and even yet
one can admire the delicacy and the skill with which he handles
his subject. The Nouvelles de la rfpublique des lettres (see Louis
P. Betz, P. Bayle und die Nouvelles de la republique des lettres,
Zurich, 1896) was the first thorough-going attempt to popularize
literature, and it was eminently successful. The Dictionary,
however, is Bayle's masterpiece.
EDITIONS. Historical and Critical Dictionary (1695-1697; 1702,
enlarged; best that of P. des Maizeaux, 4 vols., 1740); Les (Euvres
de Bayle (3 vols., The Hague); see des Maizeaux, Vie de Bayle;
L. A. Feuerbach, Pierre Bayle (1838) ; Damiron, La Philosophie en
France au XVII' siecle (1858-1864); Sainte-Beuve, " Du genie
critique et de Bayle " (Revue des deux mondes, 1st Dec. 1835) ; A. Des-
champs, La Genese du scepticisme erudit chez Bayle (Liege, 1878) ;
I. Denis, Bayle et Jurieu (Paris, 1886); F. Brunetiere, La Critique
litteraire au XVIII' siecle (vol. i., 1890), and La Critique de Bayle
(1893); Emile Gigas, Choix de la correspondence inedite de Pierre
Bayle (Paris, 1890, reviewed in Revue critique, 22nd Dec. 1890);
de Bude, Lettres inedites adressees a J. A. Turretini (Paris,i887);
J. F. Stephen, Horae Sabbaticae (London, 1892, 3rd ser. pp. 174-
192) ; A. Cazes, P. Bayle, sa vie, ses idees, &c. (1905).
BAYLO (Lat. bajulus or baillivus; cf. Ital. balio, Fr. bailli,
Eng. bailiff), in diplomacy, the title borne by the Venetian
representative at Constantinople. His functions were originally
in the nature of those of a consul-general, but from the i6th
century onwards he had also the rank and functions of a diplo-
matic agent of the first class. " Under the name of bayle,"
says A. de Wicquefort, " he performs also the functions of consul
and judge; not only between members of his own nation, but
also between all the other merchants who trade in the Levant
under the flag of St Mark." (See DIPLOMACY.)
BAYLY, THOMAS HAYNES (1797-1839), English song-
writer and dramatist, was born at Bath on the I3th of October
1797. He was educated at Winchester and at St Mary Hall,
Oxford, with a view to entering the church. While on a visit
to Dublin, however, he discovered his ability to write ballads,
and on his return to England in 1824 he quickly gained a wide
reputation with " I'd be a butterfly," following this up with
" We met 'twas in a crowd," " She wore a wreath of roses,"
" Oh, no, we never mention her," and other light and graceful
songs for which his name is still remembered. He set some of
his songs to music himself; a well-known example is " Gaily
the troubadour." Bayly also wrote two novels, The Aylmers
and A Legend of Killarney, and numerous plays. His most
successful dramatic piece was Perfection, which was produced
by Madame Vestris and received high praise from Lord Chester-
field. Bayly had married in 1826 an Irish heiress, but her estates
were mismanaged and the anxiety caused by financial difficulties
undermined his health. He died on the 22nd of April 1839.
His Collected Works (1844) contain a memoir by his wife.
BAYNES. THOMAS SPENCER (1823-1887), English editor
and man of letters, the son of a Baptist minister, was born at
Wellington, Somerset, on the 24th of March 1823. He studied
at Edinburgh University, where he was a pupil of Sir William
Hamilton, whose assistant he became and of whose views on
logic he became the authorized exponent. This teaching was
embodied in his Essay on the New Analytic of Logical Forms,
published in 1850, the same year in which he took his London
University degree. This was followed in the next year by a
translation of Arnauld's Port Royal Logic. In 1850 he had
become editor of the Edinburgh Guardian, but after four years'
work his health gave way. He spent two years in Somerset and
then went to London, becoming, in 1858, assistant editor of the
Daily News. In 1864 he was appointed professor of logic,
metaphysics and English literature at the university of St
Andrews, and in 1873 the editorship of the ninth edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica was entrusted to him. He conducted
it singly until 1881, when the decline of his health rendered it
necessary to provide him with a coadjutor in the person of
Prof. W. Robertson Smith. Baynes, however, continued to be
engaged upon the work until his death on the 3ist May 1887,
shortly before its completion. His article on Shakespeare
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed.) was republished in 1894,
along with other essays on Shakespearian topics and a memoir
by Prof. Lewis Campbell.
BAYONET, a short thrusting weapon, fixed to the muzzle
or fore-end of a rifle or musket and carried by troops armed with
the latter weapons. The origin of the word is disputed, but
there is some authority for the supposition that the name is
derived from the town of Bayonne, where the short dagger called
bayonnette was first made towards the end of the isth century.
The elder Puys6gur, a native of Bayonne, says (in his Memoirs,
published posthumously in Paris, 1747) that when he was
commanding the troops at Ypres in 1647 his musketeers used
bayonets consisting of a steel dagger fixed in a wooden haft,
which fitted into the muzzle of the musket in fact plug-bayonets.
Courts-martial were held on some English soldiers at Tangier
in 1663-1664 for using their daggers on their comrades. As
bayonets were at first called daggers, and as there were few or
no pikemen in Tangier until 1675, the probable conclusion is
that the troops in Tangier used plug-bayonets. In 1671 plug-
bayonets were issued to the French regiment of fusiliers then
raised. They were issued to part of an English dragoon regiment
raised in 1672 and disbanded in 1674, and to the Royal Fusiliers
when raised in 1685. The danger incurred by the use of this
bayonet (which put a stop to all fire) was felt so early that the
younger Puysfigur saw a ring-bayonet in 1678 which could be
fixed without stopping the fire. The English defeat at Killie-
crankie in 1689 was due (among other things) to the use of the
plug-bayonet; and shortly afterwards the defeated leader,
General Mackay, introduced a ring-bayonet of his own invention.
A trial with badly-fitting socket or zigzag bayonets was made
after the battle of Fleurus, 1690, in the presence of Louis XIV.,
who refused to adopt them. Shortly after the peace of Ryswick
(1697) the English and Germans abolished the pike and intro-
duced these bayonets, and plates of them are given in Surirey
de St Remy's Mfmoires d'Artillerie, published in Paris in that
year; but owing to a military cabal they were not issued to
the French infantry until 1703. Henceforward the bayonet
became, with the musket or other firearm, the typical weapon of
infantry. This bayonet remained in the British service until
1805, when Sir John Moore introduced a bayonet fastened to
the musket by a spring clip. The triangular bayonet (so called
from the cross-section of its blade) was used in the British army
until the introduction of the magazine rifle, when it was replaced
by the sword-bayonet or dagger-bayonet. Sword-bayonets
weapons which could be used as sword or dagger apart from the
rifle had long been in use by special troops such as engineers
and rifles, and many ingenious attempts have been made to
produce a bayonet fitted for several uses. A long curved sword-
bayonet with a saw-edged back was formerly used by the Royal
Engineers, but all troops are now supplied with the plain sword-
558
BAYONNE
bayonet. The bayonet is usually hung in a scabbard on the belt
of the soldier and only fixed during the final stages of a battle;
the reason for this is that the " jump " of the rifle due to the
shock of explosion is materially altered by the extra weight at
the muzzle, which thus deranges the sighting. In the short
Lee-Enfield rifle of 1903, the bayonet, not being directly attached
to the barrel, does not influence accuracy, but with the long
rifles, when the bayonet is fixed, the sight must be raised by
two or three graduations to ensure correct elevation. In the
Russian army troops almost invariably carry the bayonet
(triangular) fixed; the model (1891) of Italian carbine has an
inseparable bayonet; the United States rifle (the new short
model of 1903) has a knife bayonet, the model of 1905, which is
20-5875 in. long, with the lower edge of the blade sharpened along
its entire length and the upper edge sharpened 5 in. from the
point; this bayonet is carried in a wooden and leather scabbard
attached to the cartridge belt. The British bayonet (pattern
1903) has a blade i ft. in length. The length of the rifle and
bayonet together, considered as an arme blanche, varies consider-
ably, that of the French Lebel pattern of 1886 being 6 ft., as
against the 4 ft. 8J in. of the British short Lee-Enfield of 1903.
The German rifles (i898)have a length with bayonet of 5 ft. 9$ in. ;
the Russian (1894) 5 ft. 9 in.; and the Japanese 5 ft. 55 in.
In 1908 a new British bayonet was approved, 5 in. longer than
its predecessor of 1903, the shape of the point being modified
to obtain the thrusting effect of a spear or lance head.
BAYONNE, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Basses-Pyrenees, 66 m.
W.N.W. of Pau on the Southern railway. Pop. (1906) 21,779.
Bayonne, a first-class fortified place, is situated at the confluence
of the Adour and its left-hand tributary, the Nive, about 3 m.
from the sea. The two rivers divide the town into three nearly
equal parts, communicating with each other by bridges. Grand
Bayonne lies on the left bank of the Nive; the two squares
which lie close together at the mouth of that river constitute
the most animated quarter of the town. Petit Bayonne lies
between the right bank of the Nive and the Adour; Saint Esprit,
dominated by a citadel which is one of the finest works of Vauban,
occupies the right bank of the Adour. The last is inhabited
partly by a colony of Jews dating at least from the early i6th
century. To the north-west of the town are the Alices Marines,
fine promenades which border the Adour for a mile and a quarter,
and the Allees Paulmy, skirting the fortifications. The cathedral
of Ste Marie in Grand Bayonne is an imposing Gothic structure
of the I3th, i4th and i5th centuries. It consists of a choir with
deambulatory and apsidal chapels (the oldest part of the church),
a transept, nave and aisles. The towers at the west end were
only completed during the general restoration which took place
in the latter half of the igth century. A fine cloister of the i3th
century adjoins the south side of the church. Ste Marie contains
glass windows of the isth and i6th centuries and other rich
decoration. The Vieux-Chateau, also in Grand Bayonne, dates
from the i2th and isth centuries and is built upon a portion of
the old Roman fortifications; it is used for military purposes.
The Chateau Neuf (isth and i6th centuries) serves as barracks
and prison. Bayonne is the seat of a bishopric and of a sub-
prefect; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a
chamber of commerce, a lycee, a school of music, a library, an
art museum with a large collection of the works of the painter
Leon Bonnat, and a branch of the Bank of France. There are
consulates of the chief nations of Europe, of the United States
of America and of several Central and South American republics.
The town also possesses an important military arsenal and
military hospital. The commerce of Bayonne is much more
important than its industries, which include the manufacture
of leather and of chocolate. The port consists of an outer
harbour, the so-called " rade " (roadstead) and the port proper,
and occupies the course of the Adour from its mouth, which is
obstructed by a shifting bar, to the Pont St Esprit, and the
course of the Nive as far as the Pont Mayou. Above these two
bridges the rivers are accessible only to river navigation. Vessels
drawing from 16 to 22 ft. can make the port in normal weather.
In the five years 1901-1905 the average value of the imports was
502,000, of the exports 572,000; for the five years 1896-1900
the average value of imports was 637,000, of exports 634,000.
Exports include timber, mine-props, turpentine, resinous
material from the Pyrenees and Landes and zinc ore; leading
imports are the coal and Spanish minerals which supply the
large metallurgical works of Le Boucau at the mouth of the river,
the raw material necessary for the chemical works of the same
town, wine, and the cereals destined for the flour mills of Pau,
Peyrehorade and Orthez. During the early years of the 2oth
century the shipping of the port increased considerably in
tonnage. In 1900 there entered 741 Vessels, tonnage 277,959; an d
cleared 743, tonnage 276,992. In 1907 there entered 661 vessels,
tonnage, 336,773! cleared 650, tonnage 335,849.
In the 3rd century Bayonne (Lapurdum) was a Roman military
post and the principal port of Novempopulana. In the middle
ages it belonged to the dukes of Aquitaine and then to the kings
of England, one of whom, John, granted it full communal rights
in 1216. In 1451 it offered a strenuous opposition to the French,
by whom it was eventually occupied. By this time its maritime
commerce had suffered disaster owing to the silting up of its
port and the deflection of the Adour. New fortifications were
constructed under Louis XII. and Francis I., and in 1523 the
town was able to hold out against a Spanish army. In 1565 it
was the scene of an interview between Charles IX. and Catherine
de' Medici on the one hand and Elizabeth, queen of Spain, and
the duke of Alva on the other. It is thought that on this occasion
the plans were formed for the massacres of St Bartholomew, a
crime in which Bayonne took no part, in 1572. In 1808 Napoleon
met Charles IV., king of Spain, and his son Ferdinand at the
Chateau de Marrac, near the town, and induced them to renounce
their rights to the crown of Spain, which fell to Napoleon's
brother Joseph. In 1814, after a severe siege, Bayonne was
occupied by the English (see PENINSULAR WAR).
See J. Balasque and E. Dulaurens, Etudes historiques sur la mile
de Bayonne (3 vols., Bayonne, 1862-1875); E. Ducere, Bayonne
historique et pittoresque (Bayonne, 1893), Histoire topographique et
anecdotique des rues de Bayonne (Bayonne, 1894) ; H. Leon, Histoire
des juifs de Bayonne (Paris, 1893).
BAYONNE, a city of Hudson county, New Jersey, U.S.A.,
occupying the peninsula (about 55 m. long and about \ m. wide)
between New York harbour and Newark Bay, and immediately
adjoining the south boundary of Jersey Ci ty, from which it is partly
separated by the Morris Canal. It is separated from Staten
Island only by the narrow strip of water known as the Kill van
Kull, and it has a total water frontage of about 10 m. Pop.
(1890) 19,033; (1900) 32,722, of whom 10,786 were foreign-
born (3168 Irish, 1868 Russian, 1656 German); (1910)
55,545. Land area about 4 sq. m. Bayonne is served by
the Central of New Jersey and by the Lehigh Valley railways
(the latter for freight only), and by electric railway lines
to Newark and Jersey City. The principal public buildings
are the city hall, the public library, the post-office and the city
hospital. Besides having a considerable share in the commerce
of the port of New York, Bayonne is an important manufacturing
centre; among its manufactures are refined petroleum, refined
copper and nickel (not from the ore), refined borax, foundry and
machine-shop products, tubular boilers, electric launches and
electric motors, chemicals (including ammonia and sulphuric
and nitric acids), iron and brass products, wire cables and silk
goods. In 1905 the value of its factory product was $60,633,761,
an increase of 57-1 % over that of 1900, Bayonne ranking third
in 1905 among the manufacturing cities of the state. It is the
principal petroleum-distributing centre on the Atlantic seaboard,
the enormous refineries and storehouses of the Standard Oil
Company, among the largest in the world, being located here;
there are connecting pipe lines with the Ohio and Pennsylvania
oil fields, and with New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia and
Washington. Much coal is shipped from the city. Bayonne,
which comprises several former villages (Bayonne, Bergen Point,
Pamrapo and Centerville) , was settled about 1665-1670 by the
Dutch. Originally a part of Bergen, it was set off as a town-
ship in 1861. It was chartered as a city in 1869.
BAYOU BAZAINE
559
BAYOU (pronounced bai-yoo, probably a corruption of Fr.
boyau, gut), an " ox-bow " lake left behind by a river that has
abandoned its old channel in the lower stages of its course.
Good examples are found in Palmyra Lake, in the Mississippi
valley below Vicksburg, and in Osage river, Missouri. As a river
swings from side to side in a series of curves which widen laterally
where the current is slow and the country more or less level,
there is a tendency in flood times for the water to impinge more
strongly upon the convex bank where the curve leaves the main
channel. This bank will be eaten away, and the process will be
repeated until the base of the " isthmus " is cut through, and the
descending channel meets the returning curve, which is thus
left stranded and filled with dead water, while the stream runs
directly past it in the shorter course cut by the flood waters that
deepen the new channel, and leave an isolated ox-bow lake in
the old curve.
BAYREUTH, or BAIREUTH, a town of Bavaria, Germany,
district of Upper Franconia, 58 m. by rail N.N.E. from Nurem-
berg. Pop. (1900) 29,384. In Richard-Wagner-strasse is
Wagner's house, with his gra,ve in the garden. Franz Liszt
(1811-1886) is buried here, as well as Jean Paul Friedrich
Richter, who is commemorated by a monument (1841). His
house was in Friedrichstrasse. Most of the buildings are of
comparatively modern date, the city having suffered severely
from the Hussites in 1430 and from a conflagration in 1621.
There should be mentioned the palace of Duke Alexander of
Wtirttemberg, the administrative offices, the statue of King
Maximilian II. (1860) and the collections of the historical society.
Among the ecclesiastical buildings, the Stadt-Pfarrkirche,
dating from 1439, and containing the monuments of the mar-
graves of Bayreuth, is the most important. Bayreuth is a
railway junction and has an active trade, chiefly in grain and
horses. It manufactures woollen, linen and cotton goods,
leather, delft and other earthenware, and tobacco, and has also
several breweries and distilleries. The village of St Georgen is a
suburb to the north-east noted for its marble works; and about
2 m. to the east is the Hermitage, a fanciful building, erected in
1715 by the margrave George William (d. 1726), with gardens
containing terraces, statues and fountains. Bayreuth was
formerly the capital of a principality of the same name, which
was annexed in 1791 to the kingdom of Prussia. In 1807 it
was ceded by Prussia to France, which kept possession of it
till 1810, when it was transferred to Bavaria.
The Wagner Theatre. Among the many advantages which
Wagner gained from his intimacy with Ludwig II., king of
Bavaria, not the least was the practical support given to his
plan of erecting a theatre for the ideal performance of his own
music-dramas. The first plan of building a new theatre for the
purpose in Munich itself was rejected, because Wagner rightly
felt that the appeal of his advanced works, like the Nibelungen
trilogy, would be far stronger if the comparatively small number
of people who wished to hear them were removed from the dis-
tractions of a large capital; Bayreuth possessed the desired
seclusion, being on a line of railway that could not be approached
from any quarter without changing. The municipality furthered
Wagner's scheme in every way, and in May 1872 the founda-
tion stone of the Festspielhaus was laid, the event being com-
memorated by a notable performance of Beethoven's Choral
Symphony in the old opera-house. The funds for the erection
of the theatre were raised in part by the issue of 1000 certificates
of patronage (Patronatsscheine), but the bulk of the sum was
raised by founding " Wagner Societies " from St Petersburg
to Cairo, from London to New York; these societies sprang
up with such success that the theatre was opened in the summer
of 1876 with the first complete performance of Der Ring des
Nibelungen. The theatre, which stands on a height a little
under a mile from the town, is built from the plans of Gustav
Semper, the idea of the design being Wagner's own, an experi-
ment indeed, but one which succeeded beyond all expectation.
The seats are arranged on a kind of sloping wedge, in such
a manner that every one has an almost equally good view of
the stage, for there are no boxes, and the only galleries are quite
at the back, one, the Fiirstenlogc, being reserved for distinguished
guests, the other, above it, for the townspeople. Immediately
in front of the foremost row of seats a hood or sloping screen
of wood covers a part of the orchestra, and another hood of
similar shape starts from the front of the stage at a slightly
lower level. Thus there is left a space between the two hoods
through which the sound of the orchestra ascends with wonder-
fully blended effect; the conductor, sitting at the highest point
of the orchestra, though under the screen, has a complete view
of the stage as well as of his instrumentalists, and the sound of
the orchestra is sent most forcibly in the direction of the stage,
so that the voices are always well supported.
As an important addition to the work of the theatre, a permanent
school has been established at Bayreuth for the sake of training
young musicians to take part in the festival performance*, which
were at first exclusively, and then partially, undertaken by artist*
from other German and foreign theatres. The special feature upon
which most stress has been laid, ever since Wagner's death in 1883,
has been not so much the musical as the dramatic significance of
the works; it is contended by the inmost circle of Wagnerian
adherents that none but they can fully realize the master's intentions
or hand down his traditions. What is called the " Bayreuth Idea "
is set forth in much detail from this point of view by Houston Stewart
Chamberlain, in his Richard Wagner (1897 and 1900).
BAZA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Granada;
in the Hoya de Baza, a fruitful valley of the Sierra Nevada, not
far from the small river (iallego, and at the terminus of a railway
from Lorca. Pop. (1900) 12,770. The dome-shaped mountain
of Javaleon (4715 ft.) overlooks the town from the north-west.
The ancient collegiate church of San Maximo occupies the tradi-
tional site of a cathedral founded by the Visigothic king Reccared
about 600, and afterwards converted into a mosque. There is
a brisk local trade in farm produce, and in the linen, hempen
goods and pottery manufactured in Baza. The town nearly
doubled its population in the last quarter of the ipth century.
Sulphurous springs exist in the vicinity.
Baza is the Roman Basti, the medieval Basta or Bastiana;
and numerous relics of antiquity, both Roman and medieval,
have been found in the neighbourhood. Its bishopric was
founded in 306, Under Moorish rule (c. 713-1489) it was one of
the three most important cities in the kingdom of Granada,
with an extensive trade, and a population estimated at 50,000.
In 1489, after a stubborn defence lasting seven months, it was
captured by the Spaniards under Isabella of Castile, whose
cannon still adorn the Alameda or public promenade. On the
toth of August 1810 the French under Marshal Soult defeated a
large Spanish force close to the town.
BAZAAR (Pers. bazar, market), a permanent market or
street of shops, or a group of short narrow streets of stalls under
one roof. The word has spread westward into Arabic, Turkish
and, in special senses, into European languages, and eastward
it has invaded India, where it has been generally adopted. In
southern India and Ceylon bazaar means a single shop or stall.
The word seems to have early reached South Europe (probably
through Turkish), for F. Balducci Pegolotti in his mercantile
handbook (c. 1340) gives " bazarra " as a Genoese word for
market-place. The Malayan peoples have adopted the word as
pazar. The meaning of the word has been much extended in
English, where it is now equivalent to any sale, for charitable
or mere commercial purposes, of mixed goods and fancy work.
BAZAINE, ACHILLE FRANCOIS (1811-1888), marshal of
France, was born at Versailles on the I3th of February 1811.
He entered the army as a private soldier in 1831, with a view to
service in Algeria, and received a commission as sub-lieutenant
in 1833. By his gallantry in action he won the cross of the
Legion of Honour, and he was promoted lieutenant in 1835.
He served two campaigns with the Foreign Legion against the
Carlists in Spain in 1837-38, returning to Africa as captain in
1839. During the succeeding decade he saw continual active
service in Africa, and rose to be a brigadier-general with the
charge of the district of TIemgen. In the Crimean War he com-
manded a brigade, and maintained his reputation in the trenches
before Sevastopol. On the capture of the south side he was
appointed governor of the place, and was promoted general of
560
BAZAINE
division. He also commanded the French forces in the expedi-
tion to Kinburn. In Lombardy in 1859 he was wounded when
in command of a division at Melegnano, and took a conspicuous
part in the battle of Solferino. For his services in the campaign
he received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour, of which
he was already (1855) a commander. He commanded with
great distinction the first division under General (afterwards
marshal) Forey in the Mexican expedition in 1862, succeeded
him in supreme command in 1863, and became marshal and
senator of France in the following year. He at first pursued the
war with great vigour and success, entering Mexico in 1863 and
driving President Juarez to the frontier. The marshal's African
experience as a soldier and as an administrator stood him in
good stead in dealing with the guerrilleros of the Juarez party,
but he was less successful in his relations with Maximilian, with
whose court the French headquarters was in constant strife.
Here, as later in his own country, Bazaine's policy seems to have
been directed, at least in part, to his own establishment in the
r61e of a mayor of the palace. His own army thought that he
aspired to play the part of a Bernadotte. His marriage to a rich
Mexican lady, whose family were supporters of Juarez, still
further complicated his relations with the unfortunate emperor,
and when at the close of the American Civil War the United
States sent a powerful war-trained army to the Mexican frontier,
the French forces were withdrawn (see MEXICO, History).
Bazaine skilfully conducted the retreat and embarkation at Vera
Cruz (1867). On his return to Paris he was but coldly received
by his sovereign; public opinion was, however, in his favour,
and he was held to have been made a scapegoat for the faults of
others.
At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (<?..) Marshal
Bazaine was placed in command of the III. corps of the Army
of the Rhine. He took no part in the earlier battles, but
Napoleon III. soon handed over the chief command of the army
to him. How far his inaction was the cause of the disaster of
Spicheren is a matter of dispute. The best that can be said of his
conduct is that the evil traditions of warfare on a small scale and
the mania for taking up " strong positions," common to the
French generals of 1870, were in Bazaine's own case emphasized
by his personal dislike for the " schoolmaster " Frossard, lately
the Prince Imperial's tutor and now commander of the army
corps posted at Spicheren. Frossard himself, the leader of the
" strong positions " school, could only blame his own theories
for the paralysis of the rest of the army, which left the corps at
Spicheren to fight unsupported. Bazaine, indeed, when called
upon for help, moved part of his corps forward, but only to " take
up strong positions," not to strike a blow on the battlefield.
A few days later he took up the chief command, and his tenure of
it is the central act in the tragedy of 1870. He found the army
in retreat, ill-equipped and numerically at a great disadvantage,
and the generals and staffs discouraged and distrustful of one
another. There was practically no chance of success. The
question was one of extricating the army and the government
from a disastrous adventure, and Bazaine's solution of it was
to bring back his army to Metz. For the events which led up
to the battles before Metz and the investment of Bazaine's
whole army in the fortress, see FRANCO-GERMAN WAR and METZ,
Battles.
It seems to be clearly established that the charges of treason
to which later events gave so strong a colour had, as yet, no
foundation in fact. Nor, indeed, can his unwillingness to leave
the Moselle region, while there was yet time to slip past the
advancing enemy, be considered even as proof of special incom-
petence. The resolution to stay in the neighbourhood of Metz
was based on the knowledge that if the slow-moving French
army ventured far out it would infallibly be headed off and
brought to battle in the open by superior numbers. In " strong
positions " close to his stronghold, however, Bazaine hoped that
he could inflict damaging repulses and heavy slaughter on the
ardent Germans, and in the main the result justified the ex-
pectation. The scheme was creditable, and even heroic, but the
execution throughout all ranks, from the marshal to the battalion
commanders, fell far short of the idea. The minutely cautious
methods of movement, which Algerian experience had evolved
suitable enough for small African desert columns, which were
liable to surprise rushes and ambushes, reduced the mobility
of a large army, which had favourable marching conditions,
to 5 m. a day as against the enemy's rate of 15. When, before
he had finally decided to stay in Metz, Bazaine attempted half-
heartedly to begin a retreat on Verdun, the staff work and
organization of the movement over the Moselle was so ineffective
that when the German staff calculated that Bazaine was nearing
Verdun, the French had in reality barely got their artillery
and baggage trains through the town of Metz. Even on the
battlefield the marshal forbade the general staff to appear, and
conducted the fighting by means of his personal orderly officers.
After the cumbrous army had passed through Metz it encountered
an isolated corps of the enemy, which was commanded by the
brilliant leader Constantin von Alvensleben, and promptly
attacked the French. At almost every moment of the day
victory was in Bazaine's hands. Two corps of the Germans
fought all day for bare existence. But Bazaine had no con-
fidence in his generals or his troops, and contented himself
with inflicting severe losses on the most aggressive portions of
the German army. Two days later, while the French actually
retreated on Metz taking seven hours to cover 5 to 6 m. the
masses of the Germans gathered in front of him, intercepting his
communication with the interior of France. This Bazaine
expected, and feeling certain that the Germans would sooner or
later attack him in his chosen position, he made no attempt to
interfere with their concentration. The great battle was fought,
and having inflicted severe punishment on his assailants, Bazaine
fell back within the entrenched camp of Metz. But although he
made no appeals for help, public opinion, alarmed and excited,
condemned the only remaining army of France, Marshal Mac-
Mahon's " Army of Chalons," to rescue Bazaine at all costs.
The adventure ended at Sedan, and with Sedan the Third Empire
collapsed.
Up to this point Bazaine had served his country perhaps as
well as circumstances allowed, and certainly with enough skill
and a sufficient measure of success to justify his appointment.
His experience, wide as it was, had not fitted him for the com-
mand of a large army in a delicate position. Since his Mexican
expedition, moreover, he had himself fallen into a state of moral
and physical lethargy, which, imperceptible on the field of battle,
because his reputation for impassive bearing under fire was
beyond question, was only too obvious in the staff offices, where
the work of manoeuvring the army and framing plans and orders
was chiefly done. But, in spite of these defects, it cannot be
asserted that any one of Bazaine's subordinates would have done
better, with the possible exception of Ladmirault, and Ladmirault
was one of the junior corps commanders.
Bazaine, therefore, in the main justified his reputation for
ability. He was now to justify his reputation for intriguing and
underhand diplomacy. If in Mexico he aspired to the r6Ie of
mayor of the palace, it was far more so in Metz, where, as com-
mander of the only organized army of France, he conceived
himself to be the ruler of the country's destiny. Accordingly
he engaged in a series of diplomatic intrigues, some of which to
this day have never been properly cleared up. Negotiations
passed between the outer world and the besieged commander,
the purport of which remains still to some extent obscure, but
it is beyond question that he proposed with the permission of
the Germans to employ his army in "saving France from herself."
The scheme, however, collapsed, and the army of the Rhine
became prisoners of war to the number of 140,000. At the
moment of the surrender a week's further resistance would have
enabled the levies of the National Defence government to crush
the weak forces of the Germans on the Loire and to relieve Paris.
But the army of Prince Frederick Charles, set free by the sur-
render, hurried up in time to check and to defeat the great effort
at Orleans (q.v.). The responsibility for this crushing blow was
naturally enough, and justly enough, placed on Bazaine's
shoulders, and although, when he returned from captivity, the
BAZALGETTE BDELLIUM
561
marshal enjoyed a brief immunity, he was in 1873 brought to
trial before a military court. He was found guilty of negotiating
with and capitulating to the enemy before doing all that was
prescribed by duty and honour, and sentenced to degradation and
death, but very strongly recommended to mercy. His sentence
was commuted to twenty years' seclusion, and the humiliating
ceremonies attending degradation were dispensed with. He
was incarcerated in the lie Sainte-Margufirite and treated rather
as an exile than as a convict; thence he escaped in 1874 to Italy.
He finally took up his abode in Madrid, where he was treated
with marked respect by the government of Alfonso XII. He
died there on the zjrd of September 1888. He published
pisodes de la guerre de 1870 (Madrid, 1883). He also wrote
L'Armte du Rhin (Paris, 1872).
See the bibliography appended to the article FRANCO-GERMAN
WAR; also memoir by C. relletan in La Grande Encydopidie; for
Bazaine's conduct see Bazaine et I'armee du Rhin (1873) ; J. Valfrey,
Le Marechal et I'armte du Rhin (1873) ; Count A. de la Guerrontere,
L'Homme de Metz (1871) ; Rossel, Les Derniers Jours de Metz (1871).
See also the article BOURBAKI for the curious Regnier episode con-
nected with the surrender of Metz.
BAZALGETTE, SIR JOSEPH WILLIAM (1819-1891), English
engineer, was born at Enfield on the 28th of March 1819. At the
age of seventeen he was articled to an engineer, and a few years
later he began to practise successfully on his own account. His
name is best known for the engineering works he carried out in
London, especially for the construction of the main drainage
system and the Thames embankment. In 1848 the control of
London drainage, which had hitherto been divided among eight
distinct municipal bodies, was consolidated under twelve com-
missioners, who were in 1849 superseded by a second commission.
Under the latter Bazalgette accepted an appointment which he
continued to hold under the three successive commissions which
in the course of a year or two followed the second one, and when
finally in 1855 these bodies were replaced by the Metropolitan
Board of Works, he was at once appointed its chief engineer.
His plans were ready, but the work was delayed by official
obstruction and formality until 1858. Once begun, however, it
was vigorously pushed on, and in 1865 the system was formally
opened. It consisted of 83 m. of large intercepting sewers,
draining more than icosq. m. of buildings, and calculated to deal
with 420 million gallons a day. The cost was 4,600,000.
Almost simultaneously Bazalgette was engaged on the plans for
the Thames embankment. The section between Westminster
and Vauxhall on the Surrey side was built between 1860 and 1869,
and the length between Westminster and Blackfriars was
declared open by the prince of Wales in 1870. The Chelsea
embankment followed in 1871-1874, andin 1876 Northumberland
Avenue was formed. The total outlay on the scheme exceeded
2,000,000. Bazalgette was also responsible for various other
engineering works in the metropolitan area, designing, for
example, new bridges at Putney and Battersea, and the steam
ferry between north and south Woolwich. He also prepared
plans for a bridge over the river near the Tower and for a tunnel
under it at Blackwall, but did not live to see either of these
projects carried out. He died on the i$th of March 1891 at
Wimbledon.
HAZARD, AMAND (1791-1832), French socialist, the founder
of a secret society in France corresponding to the Carbonari
of Italy, was born at Paris. He took part in the defence of
Paris in 1815, and afterwards occupied a subordinate situa-
tion in the prefecture of the Seine. About 1820 he united some
patriotic friends into a society, called Amis de la vtrile. From
this was developed a complete system of Carbonarism, the
peculiar principles of which were introduced from Italy by two
of Bazard's friends. Bazard himself was at the head of the
central body, and, while taking a general lead, contributed
extensively to the Carbonarist journal, L' Aristarque. An
unsuccessful outbreak at Belfort ruined the society, and the
leaders were compelled to conceal themselves. Bazard, after
remaining for some time in obscurity in Paris, came to the con-
clusion that the ends of those who wished well to the people
would be most easily attained, not through political agitation,
but by effecting a radical change in their social condition. This
train of thinking naturally drew him towards the socialist
philosophers of the school of Saint-Simon, whom he joined. He
contributed to their journal, Le Producteur; and in 1828 began
to give public lectures on the principles of the school (see SAINT-
SIMON). His opposition to the emancipation of women brought
about a quarrel with Enfantin (q.v.) in 1831, and Bazard found
himself almost deserted by the members of the society. He
attacked Enfantin violently, and in a warm discussion between
them he was struck down by apoplexy. After lingering for a
few months he died on the agth of July 1832.
BAZAS, a town of south-western France, in the department
of Gironde, 38$ m. S.S.E. of Bordeaux by rail. Pop. (1006)
town, 2505; commune, 4684. The town, which was the seat
of a bishop from at least the beginning of the 6th century
till 1700, has a Gothic church (formerly the cathedral) dating
from the i3th to the i6th centuries. There are remains of
ramparts (i^th and i6th centuries) and several old houses
of the 1 6th century. The vineyards of the vicinity produce
white wine. The town is capital of an arrondissement, and
carries on tanning, &c., and trade in the well-known Bazadais
cattle.
Bazas (Cossio) was capital of the ancient tribe of the Vasaies,
and under the Romans one of the twelve cities of Novempopu-
lana. In later times it was capital of the district of Bazadais.
It was the scene of much bloodshed during the religious wars
of the 1 6th century.
BAZIGARS, a nomad gipsy-folk of India, found throughout
the peninsula, and variously known as Bazigars, Panchpiri,
Nats, Bediyas, &c. They live a life apart from the surround-
ing Hindu population, and still preserve a certain ethnical
identity, scarcely justified by any indications given by their
physique. They make a living as jugglers, dancers, basket-
weavers and fortune-tellers; and in true European gipsy fashion
each clan has its king.
BAZIN, RENE (1853- ), French novelist and man of
letters, was born at Angers on the 26th of December 1853. He
studied law in Paris, and on his return to Angers became pro-
fessor of law in the Catholic university there. He contributed
to Parisian journals a series of sketches of provincial life and
descriptions of travel, but he made his reputation by Une Tache
d'encre (1888), which received a prize from the Academy. Other
novels of great charm and delicacy followed: La Sarcelle bleue
(1892); Madame Corentine (1893); Humble Amour (1894);
De toule son dme (1897); La Terre gut meurt (1899); Les OberU
(1901), an Alsatian story which was dramatized and acted in the
following year; L'Ame alsacienne (1903); Donatienne (1903);
L'lsolte (1905); Le Bit qui leve (1907); Mtmoires d'u'ne tieille
fille (1908). La Terre qui meurt, a picture of the decay of peasant
farming and a story of La Vend6e, is an indirect plea for the
development of provincial France. A volume of Questions
litter aires et saddles appeared in 1 906. Ren6 Bazin was admitted
to the Acadefny on the 28th of April 1904.
BAZIRE, CLAUDE (1764-1794), French revolutionist, was
deputy for the C6te d'Or in the Legislative Assembly, and made
himself prominent by denouncing the court and the " Austrian
committee " of the Tuileries. On the 2oth of June 1 792 he spoke
in favour of the deposition of the king. In the Convention he sat
with the Mountain, opposed adjourning the trial of Louis XVI.,
and voted for his death. He joined in the attack upon the
Girondists, but, as member of the committee of general security,
he condemned the system of the Terror. He was implicated by
Francois Chabot in the falsification of a decree relative to the East
India Company, and though his share seems to have been simply
that he did not reveal the plot, of which he knew but part, he was
accused before the Revolutionary Tribunal at the same time as
Danton and Camille Desmoulins, and was executed on the sth
of April 1794.
BDELLIUM (05i\\iov, used by Pliny and Dioscorides as the
name of a plant which exuded a fragrant gum), a name applied to
several gums or gum-resins that simulate and are sometimes found
as adulterants of true myrrh (q.v.).
562
BEACH BEACON
BEACH, a word of unknown origin ; probably an old dialect
word meaning shingle, hence, by transference, the place covered
by shingle. Beach sometimes denotes the material thrown up by
the waves, sometimes the long resulting ridge, but more frequently
the area between high and low water, or even the area between
land and sea covered with material thrown up by exceptional
storms.
The actual character of beach material depends upon the
nature and structure of the rocks inshore, the strength and
direction of currents, and the force of the waves. The southern
shore of the Isle of Wight furnishes a good example. The island
ends westward in the well-known " Needles," consisting of chalk
with flints. The disintegration of this rock by wave action
separates the finer chalk, which is carried seawards hi suspension,
from the hard flint, which is piled in rough shingle upon the shore.
The currents sweep constantly eastward up channel, and the
rough flint shingle is rolled along by wave action toward the
Ventnor rampart, and ground finer and finer until it arrives as a
very fine flinty gravel at Ventnor pier. The sweep of Sandown
Bay follows, where the cliffs are composed for the most part of
greensand, and here the beach at low water is sandy and smooth.
The eastern end of the island is again composed of chalk with
flints, and here the beach material as at the. western end consists
of very coarse flint shingle. In this, as in similar cases, the material
has been dragged seawards from the land by constant action of
the undertow that accompanies each retreating tide and each
returning wave. The resulting accumulated ridge is battered by
every storm, and thrown above ordinary high-water mark in a
ridge such as the Chesil Bank or the long grass-grown mound that
has blocked the old channel of the Yar and diverted its waters
into Yaverland Bay. Sandown furnishes an instructive example
of the power of the eastward currents carrying high-storm waves.
The groins built to preserve the foreshore are piled to the top with
coarse shingle on the western side, while there is a drop of over
8 ft. on to the sands east of the wall, many thousands of tons of
shingle having been moved bodily by the waves and deposited
against each groin. The force of the waves has been measured on
the west coast of Scotland and found to be as much as 3 tons per
square foot. Against these forces the preservation of the shore
from the advance of the sea becomes an extremely difficult and
often a hopeless undertaking, since blocks of rock over 100 tons in
weight have been moved by the waves. The beach is therefore
unstable in its position. It advances in front of the encroaching
sea, burying former beaches under the sand and mud of the now
deeper water, or it retreats when the sea is withdrawn from the
land or the land rises locally, leaving the old shingle stranded in a
" raised beach," but its formation is in all cases due to the form
and structure of the shore, the sapping action of the waves, the
backward drag of the undertow plastering the shore with material,
which is in turn bombarded by waves and swept by currents that
cover the finer dbris of the undertow with a layer of coarse
fragments that are re-sorted by the daily action of currents and
tides.
BEACHY HEAD, a promontory on the coast of Sussex,
England, S.W. of Eastbourne, about 3 m. from the centre of the
town. It consists of a perpendicular chalk cliff 532 ft. high, and
forms the eastern termination of the hill-range known as the
South Downs. The old Bell Tout lighthouse, 285 ft. above high-
water mark, erected in 1831 on the second cliff to the westward,
in o 10' 18* E., 50 43' 30" N., has been superseded by a new
lighthouse built in the sea at the foot of the head itself.
Battle of Beachy Head. This naval battle, known to the
French as Bevisier (a corruption of Pevensey), was fought on the
30th of June 1690. An allied force of 37 British sail of the line,
under command of the earl of Torrington (Arthur Herbert), and
of 2 2 Dutch under C. Evertsen, was at anchor under the headland,
while a French fleet of over 70 sail, commanded by the comte
de Tourville, was anchored some miles off to the south-west.
The French fleet had orders to co-operate with an expected
Jacobite rising in England. Torrington, to whom the general
direction of the allied fleet belonged, was much disturbed by the
enemy's superiority in number, and on the 26th had written to
the Council of Regency suggesting that he ought to retire to the
Gunfleet at the mouth of the Thames, and observe the enemy
from a distance till he could be reinforced. The council, which
had the support of Admiral Russell, afterwards earl of Orford,
considered that a retreat to the Gunfleet would have fatal
consequences, by which they no doubt meant that it would
leave the French free to land troops for the support of the
Jacobites. They therefore ordered Herbert not to lose sight of
the enemy, but rather to fight if he could secure an advantage
of position. The admiral, who was on very bad terms with the
council, elected to treat this as a peremptory order to fight. At
daybreak on the 3oth he got under way and bore down on the
enemy. The wind was at north-east and gave him the weather-
gage. As his fleet was only 57 sail in all he was not able to en-
gage the enemy from end to end, but as the French were arranged
in a line from east to west he could have fallen on the end nearest
him, and could have guarded himself by telling off a part of his
ships to watch the remainder. Torrington preferred to bring
his fleet down in such a way that his van, consisting of the Dutch
ships, should be opposite the enemy's van, his centre opposite
their centre, and his rear should engage their rear. The
inferiority of the allies in numbers made it therefore inevitable
that there should be gaps between the different divisions. As
the fleets actually did come to action, the Dutch with a few
English ships pressed on the French van, their leading ship being
abreast of the ninth or tenth Frenchman. Torrington took his
station opposite the rear of the French centre, leaving a great
gap between himself and the ships in the van. Being appre-
hensive that the French centre would tack and pass this gap so
as to put him between two fires, he kept a long way off so as to
be free to manoeuvre against them if they made the attempt.
The English rear division, consisting of the English blue
squadron under Sir Ralph Delaval, fought a close action with
the French opposite to them. In the meantime the French
ships, ahead of the leading Dutchman, succeeded in turning to
windward and putting part of Evertsen's squadron between
two fires. The Dutch ships suffered heavily, and one of them
which was dismasted drifted among the French and was taken.
More severe loss would have followed if the better average
seamanship of the English and Dutch had not stood them in
good stead. The tide turned from flood to ebb during the action,
and the surface current which in the Channel sets to the west
with the ebb began to carry the fleets with it. The Dutch and
English dropped anchor. The French, who were not equally
alert, did not and were carried westward. When the tide turned
the allies retreated to the Thames, abandoning several of the
most damaged ships in Pevensey Bay. The pursuit of the
French was ineffective, for Tourville persisted in keeping his
ships in line of battle, which forced them to regulate their
speed by the slowest among them. Torrington was tried for his
conduct but acquitted.
A full account of the battle of" Beachy Head, written with
ample quotation of documents, and for the purpose of vindicating
Herbert, will be found in Admiral Colomb's Naval Warfare (London,
1899)- (D. H.)
BEACON (from the O. Eng. beam, a sign, cf. "beckon,"
another form of the same word), a signal, especially a fire lit on
a high hill, structure or building for the purpose of sending a
message of alarm or of important news over long distances.
Such was the courier-fire (ftyyapoJ irOp) that brought the news
of the fall of Troy to Argos (Aeschylus, Agamemnon), or the
chain of signals that told of the approach of the Spanish Armada,
or which circled the British Isles in the jubilee years of 1887 and
1897. The word occurs in many names for lofty and conspicuous
hills, such as Dunkery Beacon in Somerset, the highest point on
Exmoor. On many such hills the remains of old beacon towers
and cressets are still found. The word is used generally of a
lighthouse, but technically it means either a small unattended
light, a superstructure on a floating buoy, such as a staff and
cage, or staff and globe, or an unlighted structure, forming a
conspicuous object at sea, used in each case to guide or warn
sailors. (See LIGHTHOUSE and BUOY.)
BEACONSFIELD
5 6 3
BEACONSFIELD, BENJAMIN DISRAELI, EARL OF (1804-
1881), British statesman, second child and eldest son of Isaac
D'Israeli (q.v.) and Maria Basevi, who were married in 1802, was
born at No. 6 John Street, Bedford Row, on the 2ist of December
1804. Of Isaac D'Israeli's other children, Sarah was born in
1802, Naphtali in 1807, Ralph (Raphael) in 1809, and James
(Jacob) in 1813. None of the family was akin to Benjamin for
genius and character, except Sarah, to whom he was deeply
indebted for a wise, unswerving and sympathetic devotion,
when, in his earlier days, he needed it most. All Isaac D'Israeli's
children were born into the Jewish communion, in which, how-
ever, they were not to grow up. It is a reasonable inference
from Isaac's character that he was never at ease in the
ritual of Judaism. His father died in the winter of 1816, and
soon afterwards Isaac formally withdrew with all his household
from the Jewish church. His son Benjamin, who had been
admitted to it with the usual rites eight days after his birth, was
baptized at St Andrew's church in Holborn on the 3ist of July
1817. One of Isaac D'Israeli's reasons for quitting the tents of
his people was that rabbinical Judaism, with its unyielding
laws and fettering ceremonies, " cuts off the Jews from the great
family of mankind." Little did he know, when therefore he cut
off the D'Israeli family from Judaism, what great things he was
doing for one small member of it. The future prime minister
was then short of thirteen years old, and there was yet time to
provide the utmost freedom which his birth allowed for the
faculties and ambitions he was born with. Taking the worldly
view alone, of course, most fortunate for his aspirations in youth
was his withdrawal from Judaism in childhood. That it was
fully sanctioned by his intellect at maturity is evident; but the
vindication of unbiased choice would not have been readily
accepted had Disraeli abandoned Judaism of his own will at the
pushing Vivian Grey period or after. And though a mind like
Disraeli's might work to satisfaction with Christianity as "com-
pleted Judaism," it could but dwell on a breach of continuity
which means so much to Jews and which he was never allowed
to forget amongst Christians. With all, he was proud of his race
as truly, if not as vehemently, as his paternal grandmother
detested it. Family pride contributed to the feeling in his case;
for in his more speculative moods he could look back upon an
ancestry which was of those, perhaps, who colonized the shores
of the Mediterranean from before the time of the Captivity.
More definite is the history of descent from an ennobled Spanish
family which escaped from the Torquemada persecutions to
Venice, there found a new home, took a new name, and prospered
for six generations. The Benjamin D'Israeli, Lord Beacons-
field's grandfather, who came to England in 1748, was a younger
son sent at eighteen to try his fortune in London. " A man of
ardent character, sanguine, courageous, speculative, fortunate,
with a temper which no disappointment could disturb " (so
Lord Beaconsfield described him), he soon made the beginnings
of a handsome fortune and turned country gentleman. That his
grandson exaggerated his prosperity is highly probable; but
that he became a man of wealth and consideration is certain.
He married twice. His second wife was Sarah Siprout de Gabay,
" a beautiful woman of strong intellect " and importunate
ambitions, who hated the race she belonged to because it was
despised by others. She felt so keenly the social disabilities it
brought upon her, and her husband's indifference to them, that
" she never pardoned him his name." Her literary son Isaac
suffered equally or even more; for though he had ambitions he
had none that she could recognize as such. She could ridicule
him for the aspirations which he had not and for those which he
had; on the other hand, he never heard from her a tender word
" though she lived to be eighty." Nor did any other member of
her family, according to her grandson.
Isaac D'Israeli was devoted to the reading and writing of books
in domestic quiet; and his son Benjamin suffered appreciably
from his father's gentle preoccupations. As a child unruly
and disturbing no doubt he was sent to a school of small
account at Blackheath, and was there " for years " before he
was recalled at the age of twelve on the death of his grandfather.
Isaac D'Israeli was his father's sole heritor, but change of fortune
seems to have awakened in him no ambitions for the most hopeful
of his sons. At fifteen, not before, Benjamin was sent to a
Unitarian school at Walthamstow a well-known school,
populous enough to be a little world of emulation and conflict
but otherwise unfit. Not there, nor in any similar institution
at that illiberal time, perhaps, was a Jewish boy likely to make
a fortunate entry into " the great family of mankind." His
name, the foreign look of him, and some pronounced incom-
patibilities not all chargeable to young Disraeli (as afterwards
the name came to be spelt), soon raised a crop of troubles. His
stay at Walthamstow was brief, his departure abrupt, and he
went to school no more. With the run of his father's library,
and the benefits of that born bookman's guidance, he now set
out to educate himself. This he did with an industry stiffened
by matchless self-confidence and by ambitions fully mature
before he was eighteen. Yet he yielded to an attempt to make a
mati of business of him. He was barely seventeen when (in
November 1821) he was taken into the office of Messrs Swain,
Stevens and Co., solicitors, in Frederick's Place, Old Jewry.
Here he remained for three years " most assiduous in his
attention to business," said one of the partners, " and showing
great ability in the transaction of it." It was then determined
that he should go to the bar; and accordingly he was entered
at Lincoln's Inn in 1824. But Disraeli had found other studies
and an alien use for his pen. Though " assiduous in his attention
to business " in Frederick's Place, he found time to write for
the printer. Dr Smiles, in his Memoirs of John Murray, tells
of certain pamphlets on the brightening prospects of the Spanish
South American colonies, then in the first enjoyment of emancipa-
tion pamphlets seemingly written for a Mr Powles, head of a
great financial firm, whose acquaintance Disraeli had made. In
the same year, apparently, he wrote a novel his first, and never
published. Aylmer Papillon was the title of it, Dr Smiles
informs us; and he prints a letter from Disraeli to the John
Murray of that day, which indicates its character pretty clearly.
The last chapter, its authpr says, is taken up with " Mr Papillon's
banishment under the Alien Act, from a ministerial misconcep-
tion of a metaphysical sonnet." About the same time he edited
a History of Paul Jones, originally published in America, the
preface of the English edition being Disraeli's first appearance
as an author. Murray could not publish Aylmer Papillon,
but he had great hopes of its boyish writer (Isaac D'Israeli was
an old friend of his), " took him into his confidence, and related
to him his experiences of men and affairs." Disraeli had not
completed his twenty-first year when (in 1825) Murray was
possessed by the idea of bringing out a great daily newspaper;
and if his young friend did not inspire that idea he (<
keenly urged its execution, and was entrusted by Wepl ^.
Murray with the negotiation of all manner of prc-Mnut/ve."
liminaries, including the attempt to bring Lockhart
in as editor. The title of the paper, The Representative, was
Disraeli's suggestion. He chose reporters, looked to the setting-
up of a printing-office, busied himself in all ways to Murray's
great satisfaction, and, as fully appears from Dr Smiles's account
of the matter, with extraordinary address. But when these
arrangements were brought to the point of completion, Disraeli
dropped out of the scheme and had nothing more to do with it.
He was to have had a fourth share of the proprietorship, bringing
in a corresponding amount of capital. His friend Mr Powles,
whom he had enlisted for the enterprise, was to have had a
similar share on the same conditions. Neither seems to have paid
up, and that, perhaps, had to do with the quarrel which parted
Benjamin Disraeli and John Murray before a sheet of the luckless
Representative was printed. Many years afterwards (1853)
Disraeli took an active interest in The Press, a weekly journal
of considerable merit but meagre fortunes.
At the death of the elder Benjamin (1817), his son Isaac had
moved from the King's Road, Gray's Inn (now Theobald's Road) ,
to No. 6 Bloomsbury Square. Here he entertained the many
distinguished friends, literary and political, who had been
drawn to him by his " Curiosities " and other ingenious works,
BEACONSFIELD
and here his son Benjamin also had their acquaintance and
conversation. In Bloomsbury Square lived the Austens, and
to their house, a great resort of similar persons, Mrs Austen
cordially welcomed him. Murray's friendship and associations
'helped him in like manner, no doubt; and thus was opened
to Disraeli the younger a world in which he was to make a
considerable stir. The very much smaller society of that day
was, of course, more comprehensible to sight and hearing, when
once you were within its borders, than the society of this. Re-
verberations of the gossip of St James's and Mayfair extended
to Bloomsbury in those days. Yet Disraeli's range of observation
must have been not only brief but limited when he
sat d wn at twenty or twenty-one to write Vivian Grey.
It is therefore a probable conjecture that Mrs Austen,
a clever woman of the world, helped him from her knowledge.
His own strongly perceptive imagination (the gift in which
he was to excel every other politician of his time) and the bent
of political reading and aspiration from boyhood completed his
equipment; and so the wonder that so young a man in Disraeli's
social position should write a book like Vivian Grey is accounted
for. It was published in 1826. The success of this insolently
clever novel, the immediate introduction of its author to the
great world, and the daring eccentricities of dress, demeanour,
and opinion by which he fixed attention on himself there, have
always been among the most favourite morsels of Disraeli's
history. With them it began, and successive generations of
inquirers into a strange career and a character still shrouded
and baffling refer to them as settled starting-points of investiga-
tion. What was the man who, in such a society and with
political aspirations to serve, could thrive by such vagaries as
these, or in spite of them? If unaffected, what is to be thought
of them as keys to character? If affected, what then? Inquiry
still takes this shape, and when any part of Disraeli's career is
studied, the laces and essences, the rings over gloves, the jewelled
satin shirt-fronts, the guitareries and chibouqueries of his early
days are never remote from memory. The report of them
can hardly be doubted; and as the last relation was made
(to the writer of this article) not with intent to ridicule Mr
Disraeli's taste but to illustrate his conquering abilities, the
story is repeated here. One of Disraeli's first friends in the world
of fashion and genius was Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer. " And,"
said Sir Henry Bulwer (" Pelham's " brother), " we heard so
much at the time of Edward's amazingly brilliant new friend
that we were the less inclined to make his acquaintance." At
length, however, Sir Edward got up a little dinner-party to con-
vince the doubters. It was to meet at the early hour of those
days at one of the Piccadilly hotels. " There was my brother,
Alexander Cockburn, myself and (I think) Milnes; but for a
considerable time no Mr Disraeli. Waiting for Mr Disraeli did
not enhance the pleasure of meeting him, nor when he did arrive
did his appearance predispose us in his favour. He wore green
velvet trousers, a canary-coloured waistcoat, low shoes, silver
buckles, lace at his wrists, and his hair in ringlets." The descrip-
tion of the coat is forgotten. " We sat down. Not one of us
was more than five-and-twenty years old. We were all if you
will allow me to include myself on the road to distinction,
all clever, all ambitious, and all with a perfect conceit of ourselves.
Yet if on leaving the table we had been severally taken aside and
asked which was the cleverest of the party, we should have been
obliged to say ' the man in the green velvet trousers.' " This
story is a little lamp that throws much light. Here we see at
their sharpest the social prejudices that Disraeli had to fight
against, provocation of them carried to its utmost in every
way open to him, and complete conquest in a company of young
men less likely to admit superiority in a wit of their own years,
probably, than any other that could have been brought together
at that time.
Soon after the publication of Vivian Grey, Disraeli, who is said
by Froude to have been " overtaken by a singular disorder,"
marked by fits of giddiness (" once he fell into a trance, and did
not recover for a week ") , went with the Austens on a long summer
tour in France, Switzerland and Italy. Returning to a quiet life
at Bradenham an old manor-house near High Wycombe, which
his father had taken Disraeli put law in abeyance and resumed
novel-writing. His weakest book, and two or three other pro-
ductions, brief, but in every literary sense the finest of his works,
were written in the next two or three years. But for Ixion in
Heaven, The Infernal Marriage, and Popanilla, Disraeli could not
be placed among the greater writers of his kind ; yet none of his
imaginative books have been so little read as these. The
mysterious malady continued, and Disraeli set out with William
Meredith, who was to have married Sarah Disraeli, for Travel
a tour in southern Europe and the nearer East. He
saw Cadiz, Seville, Granada, Athens, Constantinople, Jerusalem,
Cairo, Thebes; played the corsair with James Clay on a yacht
voyage from Malta to Corfu; visited the terrible Reschid, then
with a Turkish army in the Albanian capital; landed in Cyprus,
and left it with an expectation in his singularly prescient mind
that the island would one day be English. These travels must
have profited him greatly, and we have our share of the advan-
tage; not so much, however, in The Wondrous Tale of Alroy or
Tancred, or the " Revolutionary Epic " which he was inspired to
write on " the windy plains of Troy," but in the letters he sent
home to his sister. These letters, written with the utmost freedom
and fullness to the one whose affection and intellect he trusted
more than any, are of the greatest value for interpreting the
writer. Together with other letters also published some time
after Disraeli's death, they tell more of him than anything that
can be found in print elsewhere. They show, for example, that
his extraordinary exuberances were unforced, leaping by natural
impulse from an overcharged source. They also show that his
Oriental fopperies were not so much " purposed affectation " as
Froude and others have surmised. That they were so in great
part is confessed again and again in these letters, but confessed in
such a way as to reveal that they were permitted for his own
enjoyment of them as much as planned. The " purposed
affectation" sprang from an unaffected delight in gauds of attire,
gauds of fancy and expression. It was not only to startle and
impress the world that he paraded his eccentricities of splendour.
His family also had to be impressed by them. It was to his sober
father that he wrote, at the age of twenty-six: " I like a sailor's
life much, though it spoils the toilette." It is in a letter from
Gibraltar to the same hand that we read of his two canes " a
morning and an evening cane " changed as the gun fires. And
the same correspondent must be told that " Ralph's handkerchief
which he brought me from Paris is the most successful thing I ever
wore." ,
When Disraeli returned to England in 1831, all thought of the
law was abandoned. The pen of romance was again taken up
the poet's also and the politician's. In the next five
years he wrote Contarini Fleming, the Revolutionary
Epick, Alroy, Henrietta Temple, What is He? (a uoa.
pamphlet expository of his opinions), the Runnymede
Letters, a Vindication of the British Constitution, and other matter
of less note. The epic, begun in great hope and confidence, was
ended in less, though its author was to the last unwilling that it
should be forgotten. The novels revived the success he had with
Vivian Grey, and restored him to his place among the brilliancies
and powers of the time. The political writing, too, much of it in
a garish, extravagant style, exercised his deeper ambitions, and
stands as witness to the working of original thought and foresight.
Both qualities are conspicuous in What is He ? and the Vindica-
tion, of which it has been truly said that in these pages he " struck
the keynote to the explanations he afterwards consistently offered
of all his apparent inconsistencies." Here an interpretation of
Tory principles as capable of running with the democratic idea,
and as called upon to do so, is ingeniously attempted. The
aristocratic principle of government having been destroyed by
the Reform Bill, and the House of Lords being practically
abrogated " by that measure, it became necessary that Toryism
should start from the democratic basis, from which it had never
been alien. The filched liberties of the crown and the people
should be restored, and the nation redeemed from the oligarchies
which had stolen from both. When at the beginning of all this
BEACONSFIELD
565
writing Disraeli entered the political arena as candidate for High
Wycombe (1832), he was nominated by a Tory and seconded by a
Radical in vain; and vain were two subsequent attempts in the
autumn of 1832 and in 1834. In the first he was recommended to
the electors by Daniel O'Connell and the Radical Hume. In his
last candidature at Wycombe he stood on more independent
ground, commending himself by a series of speeches which fully
displayed his quality, though the prescience which gemmed them
with more than one prophetic passage was veiled from his
contemporaries. Among Disraeli's great acquaintances were
many Lyndhurst at their head whose expectations of his
future were confirmed by the Wycombe speeches. He was
" thought of " for various boroughs, Marylebone among the
number, but his democratic Toryism seems to have stood in his
way in some places and his inborn dislike of Radicalism in others.
It was an impracticable situation no getting on from it; and so,
at Lyndhurst's persuasion, as he afterwards acknowledged, he
determined to side with the Tories. Accordingly, when in the
spring of 1835 a vacancy occurred at Taunton, Disraeli contested
the seat in the Tory interest with Carlton Club support. Here
again he failed, but with enhanced reputation as a fighting
politician and with other consequences good for notoriety. It
was at Taunton that Disraeli fell upon O'Connell, rather ungrate-
fully; whereupon the Liberator was roused to retort on his
assailant vehemently as " a liar," and humorously as a probable
descendant of the impenitent thief. And then followed the
challenge which, when O'Connell declined it, was fastened on his
son Morgan, and the interruption of the duel by seizure of Mr
Disraeli in his bed, and his famous appearance in the Marylebone
police court. He declared himself very well satisfied with this
episode, but nothing in it can really have pleased him, not even
the noise it made.
Here the first period of Disraeli's public life came to an end, a
period of preliminaries and flourishes, and of what he himself
called sowing his political wild oats. It was a more
mature Disraeli who in the general election of 1837 was
returned for Maidstone as the colleague of his provi-
dential friend Mr Wyndham Lewis. Though the
fortunes of the Tory party were fast reviving under Peel's
guidance, the victory was denied him on this occasion; but, for
once, the return of the Whigs to power was no great disappoint-
ment for the junior member for Maidstone. To gain a footing in
the House of Commons was all that his confident spirit ever asked ,
and Froude vouches for it that he succeeded only just in time to
avert financial ruin. His electioneering ventures, the friendly
backing of bills, and his own expense in keeping up appearances,
had loaded him with debt. Yet (mark his worldly wisdom) " he
had never entangled his friends in his financial dealings. He had
gone frankly to the professional money-lenders, who made
advances to him in a speculation on his success ": they were to
get their money back with large interest or lose it altogether.
Such conditions were themselves incitement enough to a prompt
redemption of the promise of parliamentary distinction, even
without the restless spurring of ambition. And Disraeli had
another promise to redeem: that which he uttered when he told
O'Connell that they would meet again at Philippi. Therefore
when, three weeks after the session began, a debate on Irish
election 'petitions gave him opportunity, Disraeli attempted that
first House of Commons speech which imagination still dwells
upon as something wondrous strange. That he should not have
known better, even by hearsay, than to address the House of
Commons in fantastic phrase from the mouth of a fantastic figure
is indeed remarkable, but not that he retained self-confidence
enough to tell the unwitting crew who laughed him down that a
time would come when they would hear him. It was one of the
least memorable of his prophecies. The speech was a humiliating
but not an oppressive failure. In about a week afterwards he
spoke again, which shows how little damage he felt, while the good
sense, brevity, and blameless manner of the speech (on a copy-
right bill) announced that he could learn. And for some time
thereafter he affected no importance in the House, though not as
withdrawing from attention.
Eaters
Parlia-
ment.
Meanwhile, consciously and unconsciously, as is the way
with men of genius, his mind was working upon problems of
government, the magnitude, the relations and the natural
developments of which he was more sensible of than any known
politician of his time. " Sensible of," we say, to mark the differ-
ence between one sort of understanding and another which
comes of labour and pains alone. Disraeli studied too, no doubt,
reading and inquiring and applying set thought, but such means
were insufficient to put into his mind all that he found there.
It seems that opinions may be formed of inquiry and study alone,
which are then constructive; but where intuitive perception or
the perceptive imagination is a robust possession, the fruits of
research become assimilative the food of a divining faculty
which needs more or less of it according to the power of divina-
tion. The better judgment in all affairs derives from this quality,
which has some very covetable advantages for its possessor.
His judgments may be held with greater confidence, which is
an intellectual advantage; and, standing in his mind not so
much an edifice as a natural growth, they cannot be
so readily abandoned at the call of ease or self-interest,
They may be denied assertion or even outraged for a
purpose, but they cannot be got rid of, which is a
moral advantage. Disraeli's mind and its judgments were of
this character. Its greatest gift was not the romantic imagina-
tion which he possessed abundantly and employed overmuch, but
the perceptive, interpretative, judicial or divining imagination,
without which there can be no great man of affairs. Breadth
of view, insight, foresight, are more familiar but less adequate
descriptions of a faculty which Disraeli had in such force that
it took command of him from first to last. Although he knew
and acted on the principle that " a statesman is a practical
character," whose business is to " serve the country according
to its present necessities," he was unable to confine his vision
to the nearer consequences of whatever policy, or course of
action, or group of conditions it rested on. Without effort, and
even without intention probably, it looked beyond first con-
sequences to the farther or the final outcome; and to complete
the operation, the faculty which detected the remoter conse-
quences did not allow them to remain in obscurity, but brought
them out as actualities no less than the first and perhaps far
more important than the first. Moreover, it did not allow him
to keep silence where the remoter consequences were of that
character, and ought to be provided for betimes. Of course
silence was always possible. These renderings to foresight
might be denied assertion either for the sake of present ease (and
Disraeli's prescience of much of his country's later troubles only
made him laughed at) or in deference to hopes of personal
advancement. But the same divining imagination which
showed him these things also showed him the near time when it
would be too late to speak of them, and when not to have spoken
would leave him irredeemably in the common herd of hand-to-
mouth politicians. Therefore he spoke.
Remembrance of these characteristics remembrance, too,
that his mind, which was neither English nor European, worked
in absolute detachment should accompany the traveller
through all the turns and incidents of Disraeli's long career.
They are sometimes puzzling, often speculative; yet nearly all
that is obscure in them becomes clear, much apparent contra-
diction disappears, when read by these persistent unvarying
lights. The command which his idiosyncrasies had upon him
is shown, for example, by reproachful speeches on the treatment
of Ireland, and by a startling harangue on behalf of the Chartists,
at a time when such irregularities could but damage him, a new
man, where he hoped for influence and office. At about the
same time his political genius directed him to open a resolute
critical campaign against the Conservatism of the party he
proposed to thrive in, and he could but obey. This
he did in writing Coningsby, a novel of the day and for
the day, but commended to us of a later generation
not only by the undimmed truth of its character-
portraits, but by qualities of insight and foresight which we who
have seen the proof of them can measure as his contemporaries
/o.,*J
5 66
BEACONSFIELD
could not. Sybil, which was written in the following year (1845),
is still more remarkable for the faculties celebrated in the pre-
ceding paragraph. When Sybil was written a long historic day
was ending in England, a new era beginning; and no eyes saw
so clearly as Disraeli's the death of the old day, the birth of the
new, or what and how great their differences would be. In
Con'ingsby the political conditions of the country were illustrated
and discussed from the constitutional point of view, and by light
of the theory that for generations before the passing of the
Reform Bill the authority of the crown and the liberties of the
people had been absorbed and extinguished in an oligarchic
system of government, itself become fossilized and soulless. In
Sybil were exhibited the social relations of rich and poor (the
" two nations ") under this regime, and under changes in which,
while the peasantry were neglected by a shoddy aristocracy
ignorant of its duties, factory life and a purblind gospel of
political economy imbruted the rest of the population. These
views were enforced by a startling yet strictly accurate repre-
sentation of the state of things in the factory districts at that
time. Taken from the life by Disraeli himself, accompanied by
one or two members of the Young England party of which he
was the head, it was the first of its kind; and the facts as there
displayed, and Disraeli's interpretation of them a marvel of
perceptive and prophetic criticism opened eyes, roused con-
sciences, and led direct to many reforms.
These two books, the Vindication, published in 1835, and his
speeches up to this time and a little beyond, are quite enough
to show what Disraeli's Tory democracy meant, how truly
national was its aim, and how exclusive of partisanship for the
"landed interest"; though he did believe the stability and
prosperity of the agricultural class a national interest of the
first order, not on economic grounds alone or even chiefly. And
if Disraeli, possessed by these views, became aggressively
insubordinate some time before Peel's proclaimed conversion
to Free Trade, we can account for it on reasonable and even
creditable grounds. Spite, resentment at being passed over
when Peel formed the 1841 government, is one explanation of
these outbreaks, and a letter to Peel, lately published, is proof
to many minds that Disraeli's denial to Peel's face in 1846 that
he had ever solicited office was daringly mendacious. The
letter certainly reads like solicitation in the customary half-
veiled form. All that can be said in doubt is that since the '41
government came into existence on the 6th of September, and
the letter was written on the 5th, its interpretation as complaint
of being publicly neglected, as a craving for some mark of recogni-
tion, is possible. More than possible it is if Disraeli knew on
the sth (as he very well might from his friend Lyndhurst, Peel's
lord chancellor) that the appointments were then complete.
The pecuniary need of office, if that comes into the question,
had been lightened, if not extinguished, two years before by his
marriage with Mrs Wyndham Lewis. Mrs Lewis a lady
fifteen years his senior brought him a considerable fortune
which, however, was but for her life. She lived to a great age,
and would gladly have lived longer, in any of the afflictions that
time brings on, to continue her mere money-worth to her
" Dizzy." Her devotion to him, and his devotion to her, is the
whole known story of their private life; and we may believe
that nothing ever gratified him more than offering her a coronet
from Mr Disraeli.
Disraeli made Peel's acquaintance early in his career and
showed that he was proud of it. In his Life of Lord George
Bentinck he writes of Peel fairly and even generously. But they
were essentially antipathetic persons; and it is clear that the
great minister and complete Briton took no pains to understand
the dazzling young Jew of whom Lyndhurst thought so much,
and wished to have little to do with him. Such men make such
feelings evident; and there is no reason for thinking that when,
after 1841, Disraeli charged at Peel in obedience to his principles,
he gave himself pain. It was not long after it had settled in
office that Peel's government, the creature of an anxious Con-
servative reaction, began to be suspected of drifting toward
Manchester. That it was forced in that direction we should
pu, ffi/ ,.
'
say rather, looking back, for it was a time of dire distress,
especially in the manufacturing districts of the north; so
that in his second session Peel had to provide some
relief by revising the corn laws and reducing import
dues generally. His measures were supported by
Disraeli, who understood that Protection must bend to the
menacing poverty of the time, though unprepared for total
abolition of the corn tax and strongly of opinion that it was
not for Peel to abolish it. In the next session (1843) he and his
Young England party took up a definitely independent r61e,
which became more sharply critical to the end. ' Disraeli's first
strong vote of hostility was on a coercion bill for perishing and
rebellious Ireland. It was repeated with greater emphasis in
the session of 1844, also in a condition-of-Ireland debate; and
from that time forth, as if foreseeing Peel's course and its effect
.on the country party, Disraeli kept up the attack. Meanwhile
bad harvests deepened the country's distress, Ireland was
approached by famine, the Anti-Corn-Law League became
menacingly powerful, and Peel showed signs of yielding to free
trade. Disraeli's opportunity was soon to come now; and in
1845, seeing it on the way, he launched the brilliantly destructive
series of speeches which, though they could not prevent the
abolition of the corn-laws, abolished the minister who ended
them. These speeches appeal more to admiration than to
sympathy, even where the limitations of Disraeli's protectionist
beliefs are understood and where his perception of the later
consequences of free trade is most cordially acknowledged. That
he remained satisfied with them himself is doubtful, unless for
their foresight, their tremendous effect as instruments of punish-
ment, and as they swept him to so much distinction. Within
three years, on the death of Lord George Bentinck, there was
none to dispute with him the leadership of the Conservative
party in the House of Commons.
In the parliament of 1841 he was member for Shrewsbury.
In 1847 he was returned for Buckinghamshire, and never again
had occasion to change his constituency. Up to this time his
old debts still embarrassed him, but now his private and political
fortunes changed together. Froude reports that he " received
a large sum from a private hand for his Life of Lord George
Bentinck " (published in 1852), " while a Conservative millionaire
took upon himself the debts to the usurers; the 3 % with which
he was content being exchanged for the 10 % under 'which
Disraeli had been staggering." In 1848 his father Isaac Disraeli
died, leaving to his son Benjamin nearly the whole of his estate.
This went to the purchase of Hughenden Manor not, of course,
a great property, but with so much of the pleasant and pictur-
esque, of the dignified also, as quite to explain what it was to the
affectionate fancy of its lord. About this time, too (1851), his
acquaintance was sought by an old Mrs Brydges Willyams
born a Spanish Jewess and then the widow of a long-deceased
Cornish squire who in her distant home at Torquay had
conceived a restless admiration for Benjamin Disraeli. She
wrote to him again and again, pressing for an appointment to
consult on an important matter of business: would meet him
at the fountain of the Crystal Palace in Hyde Park. Her impor-
tunity succeeded, and the very small, oddly-dressed, strange-
mannered old lady whom Disraeli met at the fountain became
his adoring friend to the end of her We. Gratitude for her
devotion brought him and his wife in constant intimacy
with her. There were many visits to Torquay; he gratified
her with gossiping letters about the great people with
whom and the great affairs with which the man who did so
much honour to her race was connected, that being the inspira-
tion of her regard for him. She died in 1863, leaving him all
her fortune, which was considerable; and, as she wished,
was buried at Hughenden, close to the grave where Disraeli
was to lie.
It is agreed that the first three years of Disraeli's leadership
in Opposition were skilfully employed in reconstructing the
shattered Tory party. In doing this he made it sufficiently
clear that there could be no sudden return to Protectionist
principles. At the same time, however, he insisted (as he did
BEACONSFIELD
567
Mouse of
Common*.
from first to last) on the enormous importance to the country, to
the character of its people no less than to its material welfare,
of agricultural contentment and prosperity; and he also obtained
A* leader a more general recognition of the fact that " the land "
la the had borne fiscal burdens under the old regime which
were unfair and unendurable under the new. So far he
did well; and when in 1852 he took office as chancellor
of the exchequer in Lord Derby's first administration, the
prospect was a smiling one for a man who, striving against
difficulties and prejudices almost too formidable for imagination
in these days, had attained to a place where he could fancy
them all giving way. That, however, they were not. New
difficulties were to arise and old prejudices to revive in full force.
His first budget was a quaint failure, and was thrown out by a
coalition of Liberals and Peelites which he believed was formed
against Mr Disraeli more than against the chancellor of the
exchequer. It was on this occasion that he exclaimed, " England
does not love coalitions." After a reign of ten months he was
again in Opposition, and remained so for seven years. Of the
Crimean War he had a better judgment than those whose weak-
ness led them into it, and he could tell them the whole truth of
the affair in twenty words: " You are going to war with an
opponent who does not want to fight, and whom you are un-
willing to encounter." Neither were they prepared; and the
scandals and political disturbances that ensued revealed him as
a party leader who could act on such occasions with a dignity,
moderation and sagacity that served his country well, maintained
the honour of party government and cost his friends nothing.
The mismanagement of the war broke down the Aberdeen
government in 1855, and then Disraeli had the mortification of
seeing a fortunate chance of return to office lost by the timidity
and distrust of his chief, Lord Derby the distrust too clearly
including the under-valuation of Disraeli himself. Lord Derby
wanted Lord Palmerston's help, Mr Gladstone's, Mr Sidney
Herbert's. This arrangement could not be made; Lord Derby
therefore gave up the attempt to form a ministry and Lord
Palmerston came in. The next chance was taken in less favour-
ing times. The government in which Disraeli was again financial
minister lasted for less than eighteen months (1858-1859), and
then ensued another seven years in the cold and yet colder shade
of Opposition. Both of these seven-year outings were bad, but
the second by far the worse. Parliamentary reform had become
a burning question and an embarrassing one for the Tory party.
An enormous increase of business, consequent upon the use of
steam machinery and free-trade openings to commerce, filled
the land with prosperity, and discredited all statesmanship but
that which steered by the star over Manchester. Mr Gladstone's
budgets, made possible by this prosperity, were so many triumphs
for Liberalism. Foreign questions arose which strongly excited
English feeling the arrangements of peace with Russia, Italian
struggles for freedom, an American quarrel, the " Arrow " affair
and the Chinese war, the affair of the French colonels and the
Conspiracy Bill; and as they arose Palmerston gathered into
his own sails (except on the last occasion) every wind of popular
favour. Amid all this the Tory fortunes sank rapidly, becoming
nearly hopeless when Lord Palmerston, without appreciable
loss of confidence on his own side, persuaded many Tories in and
out of parliament that Conservatism would suffer little while
he was in power. Yet there was great despondency, of course,
in the Conservative ranks; with despondency discontent; with
discontent rancour. The prejudice against Disraeli as Jew, the
revolt at his theatricalisms, the distrust of him as " mystery
man," which up to this time had never died out even among
men who were his nearest colleagues, were now more openly
indulged. Out of doors he had a " bad press," in parliament
he had some steady, enthusiastic friends, but more that were
cold. Sometimes he was seen on the front Opposition bench for
hours quite alone. Little conspiracies were got up to displace
him, and might have succeeded but for an unconquerable dread
of the weapon that destroyed Peel. In this state of things he
patiently held his ground, working for his party more carefully
than it knew, and never seizing upon false or discrediting
advantages. But it was an extremely bad time for Benjamin
Disraeli.
Though Lord Palmerston stumbled over his Foreign Conspiracy
Bill in 1858, his popularity was little damaged, and it was in no
hopeful spirit that the Tories took office again in that year. They
were perilously weak in the House of Commons, and affairs
abroad, in which they had small practice and no prestige, were
alarming. Yet the new administration did very well till, after
resettling the government of India, and recovering from a blunder
committed by their Indian secretary, Lord Ellcnborough, they
must needs launch a Reform Bill to put that dangerous question
out of controversial politics. The well-intended but fantastic
measure brought in for the purpose was rejected. The country
was appealed to, with good but insufficient results; and at the
first meeting of the new parliament the Tories were turned out on
a no-confidence vote moved by Lord Hartington. Foreign affairs
supplied the motive: failure to preserve the peace of Europe at
the time of the Italian war of independence. It is said that the
foreign office had then in print a series of despatches which would
have answered its accusers had they been presented when the
debate began, as for some unexplained reason they were not.
Lord Palmerston now returned to Downing Street, and while he
lived Disraeli and his colleagues had to satisfy themselves with
what was meant for useful criticism, though with small hope that
it was so for their own service. A Polish insurrection, the
Schleswig-Holstein question, a commercial treaty with France,
the Civil War in America, gave Disraeli occasions for speech that
was always forcible and often wiser than all could see at the time.
He never doubted that England should be strictly neutral in the
American quarrel when there was a strong feeling in favour of the
South. All the while he would have gladly welcomed any just
means of taking an animated course, for these were dull, dark
days for the Conservatives as a parliamentary party. Yet,
unperceived, Conservatism was advancing. It was much more
than a joke that Palmerston sheltered Conservative principles
under the Liberal flag. The warmth of his popularity, to which
Radical applause contributed nothing in his later days, created an
atmosphere entirely favourable to the quiet growth of Conservat-
ism. He died in 1865. Earl Russell succeeded him as prime
minister, Mr Gladstone as leader of the House of Commons. The
party most pleased with the change was the Radical; the party
best served was Disraeli's. Another Reform Bill, memorable for
driving certain good Liberals into a Cave of Adullam, broke up
the new government in a few months; Disraeli contributing to
the result by the delivery of opinions not new to him and of
lasting worth, though presently to be subordinated to arguments
of an inferior order and much less characteristic. " At this rate,"
he said in 1866," you will have a parliament that will entirely
lose its command over the executive, and it will meet with less
consideration and possess less influence." Look for declining
statesmanship, inferior aptitude, genius dying off. " Instead of
these you will have a horde of selfish and obscure mediocrities,
incapable of anything but mischief, and that mischief devised and
regulated by the raging demagogue of the hour." The Reform
legislation which promised these results in 1866 was thrown out.
Lord Derby's third administration was then formed in the
summer of the same year, and for the third time there was a Tory
government on sufferance. Its followers were still a minority in
the House of Commons; an angry Reform agitation was going
on; an ingenious resolution founded on the demand for an
enlarged franchise serviceable to Liberals might extinguish the
new government almost immediately; and it is pretty evident
that the Tory leaders took office meaning to seek a cure for this
desperate weakness by wholesale extension of the
suffrage. Their excuses and calculations are well
known, but when all is said, Lord Derby's statement of IMT.
its character," a leap in the dark," and of its intention,
" dishing the Whigs," cannot be bettered. Whether Lord Derby
or Mr Disraeli originated this resolve has been much discussed,
and it remains an unsettled question. It is known that Disraeli's
private secretary, Mr Ralph Earle, quarrelled with him violently
at about this time; and Sir William Fraser relates that, meeting
5 68
BEACONSFIELD
Premier,
1868.
Mr Earle, that gentleman said: " I know what your feelings must
be about this Reform Bill, and I think it right to tell you that it
was not Disraeli's bill, but Lord Derby's. I know everything
that occurred." Mr Earle gave the same assurances to the writer
of these lines, and did so with hints and half-confidences (quite
intelligible, however) as to the persuasions that wrought upon his
chief. Mr Earle's listener on these occasions confesses that he
heard with a doubting mind, and that belief in what he heard still
keeps company with Mahomet's coffin. One thing, however, is
clear. To suppose Disraeli satisfied with the excuses made for his
adoption of the " dishing " process is forbidden by the whole tenor
of his teaching and conduct . He could not have become suddenly
blind to the fallacy of the expectations derived from such a
course; and all his life it had been his distinction to look above
the transient and trafficking expedients of the professional
politician. However, the thing was done. After various
remodellings, and amid much perturbation, secession, violent
reproach, the Household Suffrage Bill passed in August 1867.
Another memorable piece of work, the confederation of Canada,
had already been accomplished. A few days after parliament met
in the next year Lord Derby's failing health compelled
him to resign, and Mr Disraeli became prime minister.
Irish disaffection had long been astir; the Fenian
menace looked formidable not only in Ireland but in England also.
The reconstructed government announced its intention of dealing
with Irish grievances. Mr Gladstone approved, proposing the
abolition of the Irish Church to begin with. A resolution to that
effect was immediately carried against the strong opposition of
the government. Disraeli insisted that the question should be
settled in the new parliament which the franchise act called for,
and he seems to have had little doubt that the country would
declare against Mr Gladstone's proposal. He was mistaken. It
was the great question at the polls; and the first elections by the
new constituencies went violently against the authors of their
being.
The history of the next five years is Mr Gladstone's. The Irish
Church abolished, he set to work with passionate good intention
on the Irish land laws. The while he did so sedition took courage
and flourished exceedingly, so that to pacify Ireland the constable
went hand in hand with the legislator. The abolition of the Irish
Church was followed by a coercion act, and the land act by
suspension of Habeas Corpus. Disraeli, who at first preferred
retirement and the writing of Lothair, came forward from time to
time to point the moral and predict the end of Mr Gladstone's
impulsive courses, which soon began to fret the confidence of his
friends. Some unpleasant errors of conduct the case of Sir R.
Collier (afterwards Lord Monkswell, q.v.), the Ewelme rectory
case, 1 the significant Odo Russell (Lord Ampthill) episode (to help
the government out of a scrape the ambassador was accused of
exceeding his instructions) told yet more. Above all, many
humiliating proofs that England was losing her place among the
nations came out in these days, the discovery being then new and
unendurable. To be brief, in less than four years the government
had well-nigh worn out its own patience with its own errors,
failures and distractions, and would gladly have gone to pieces
when it was defeated on an Irish university bill. But Disraeli,
having good constitutional reasons for declining office at the
moment, could not allow this. Still gathering unpopularity, still
offending, alarming, alienating, the government went on till 1874,
suddenly dissolved parliament, and was signally beaten, the
Liberal party breaking up. Like most of his political friends,
Disraeli had no expectation of such a victory little hope, indeed,
of any distinct success. Yet when he went to Manchester on a
brief political outing two years before, he was received with such
acclaim as he had never known in his life. He was then sixty-
eight years old, and this was his first full banquet of popularity.
The elation and confidence drawn from the Manchester meetings
1 The crown had in 1871 appointed the Rev. W. W. Harvey (1810-
1883), a Cambridge man, to the living of Ewelme, near Oxford, for
which members of the Oxford house of convocation were alone
eligible. Gladstone was charged with evading this limitation in
allowing Harvey to qualify for the appointment by being formally
admitted M.A. by incorporation.
were confirmed by every circumstance of the 1 874 elections. But
he was well aware of how much he owed to his opponents' errors,
seeing at the same time how safely he could lay his future course
by them. He had always rejected the political economy of his
time, and it was breaking down. He had always refused to accept
the economist's dictum without reference to other considerations
than the turnover of trade; and even Manchester could pardon
the refusal now. The national spirit, vaporized into a cosmo-
politan mist, was fast condensing again under mortification and
insult from abroad uncompensated by any appreciable percentage
of cash profit. This was a changing England, and one that
Disraeli could govern on terms of mutual satisfaction; but not if
the reviving " spirit of the country " ran to extremes of self-
assertion. At one of the great Manchester meetings he said, " Do
not suppose, because I counsel firmness and decision at the right
moment, that I am of that school of statesmen who are favourable
to a turbulent and aggressive diplomacy. I have resisted it
during a large part of my life."
But for the hubbub occasioned by the Public Worship Regula-
tion Act, the first two years of the 1874 administration had no
remarkable excitements till near the end of them. The Public
Worship Act, introduced by the archbishop of Canterbury, was
meant to restrain ritualism. Disraeli, who from first to last held
to the Reformed Church as capable of dispensing social good
as no other organization might, supported the Bill as " putting
down ritualism "; spoke very vehemently; gave so much
offence that at one time neither the bill nor the government
seemed quite safe. For some time afterwards there was so little
legislation of the kind called " enterprising " that even some
friends of the government began to think it too tame; but at
the end of the second year an announcement was made which
put that fear to rest. The news that the khedive's Suez Canal
shares had been bought by the government was uf
received with boundless applause. It was a courageous shares
thing to do; but it was not a Disraeli conception, nor
did it originate in any government department. It was suggested
from without at a moment when the possibility of ever acquiring
the shares was passing away. On the morning of the isth of
November 1875, Mr Frederick Greenwood, then editor of the
Pall Mall Gazette, went to Lord Derby at the foreign office,
informed him that the khedive's shares were passing into the
hands of a French syndicate, and urged arrest of the transaction
by purchase for England. (The shares being private property
their sale could not, of course, be forbidden.) Lord Derby
thought there must be a mistake. He could not believe that
bargaining of that kind could go on in Cairo without coming to
the knowledge of the British consul there. He was answered
that nevertheless it was going on. The difficulties of purchase
by England were then arrayed by Lord Derby. They were
more than one or two, and of course they had a formidable look,
but so also had the alternative and the lost opportunity. One
difficulty had already come into existence, and had to be met
at once. Lord Derby had either to make direct inquiry of the
khedive or to let the matter go. If he inquired, and there was
no such negotiation, his question might be interpreted in a very
troublesome way; moreover, we should put the idea of selling
the shares into the khedive's head, which would be unfortunate.
"There's my position, and now what do you say?" The
answer given, Lord Derby drafted a telegram to the British
consul-general at Cairo, and read it out. It instructed Colonel
Stanton to go immediately to the khedive and put the question
point blank. Meanwhile the prime minister would be seen, and
Lord Derby's visitor might call next day to hear the reply from
Cairo. It is enough to add here that on receipt of the answer
the purchase for England was taken up and went to a speedy
conclusion. 2
As if upon the impulse of this transaction, Disraeli opened
the next session of parliament with a bill to confer upon the
queen the title of empress of India a measure which offended
* For a detailed, if somewhat controversial, account of this affair,
see Lucien Wolf's article in The Times of December 26, 1905, and
Mr Greenwood's letters on the subject.
BEACONSFIELD
569
Eastern
question.
the instincts of many Englishmen, and, for the time, revived
the prejudices against its author. More important was the
revival of disturbances in European Turkey, which, in their
outcome, were to fill the last chapter of Disraeli's career. But
for this interruption it is likely that he would have given much
of his attention to Ireland, not because it was an attractive
employment for his few remaining years, but because he saw
with alarm the gathering troubles in that country. And his
mind was strongly drawn in another direction. In a remarkable
speech delivered in 1872, he spoke with great warmth of the
slighting of the colonies, saying that " no minister in this country
will do his duty who neglects any opportunity of reconstructing
as much as possible our colonial empire, and of responding to
those distant sympathies which may become the source of
incalculable strength and happiness to this island." However,
nothing was done in fulfilment of this duty in the first two years
from 1874, and early in the third the famous Andrassy
note, the Berlin memorandum, the Bashi-Bazouk
atrocities, and the accumulative excitement thereby
created in England, reopened the Eastern question with a
vengeance. The policy which Disraeli's government now took
up may be truly called the national policy. Springing from the
natural suggestions of self-defence against the march of a danger-
ous rivalry, it had the sanction of all British statesmanship for
generations, backed by the consenting instinct of the people.
It was quite unsentimental, being pro-Turkish or anti-Russian
only as it became so in being pro-British. The statesmen by
whom it was established and continued saw in Russia a power
which, unless firmly kept within bounds, would dominate Europe ;
more particularly that it would undermine and supersede
British authority in the East. And without nicely considering
the desire of Russia to expand to the Mediterranean, the Pacific
or in any other direction, they thought it one of their first duties
to maintain their own Eastern empire; or, to put it another
way, to contrive that Great Britain should be subject to Russian
ascendancy (if ever), at the remotest period allowed by destiny.
Such were the ideas on which England's Russian policy was
founded. In 1876 this policy revived as a matter of course in
the cabinet, and as spontaneously, though not upon a first
provocation, became popular almost to fury. And furiously
popular it remained. But a strong opposing current of feeling,
equally passionate, set in against the Turks; war began and
lasted long ; and as the agitation at home and the conflict
abroad went on, certain of Disraeli's colleagues, who were
staunch enough at the beginning, gradually weakened. It is
certainly true that Disraeli was prepared, in all senses of the
word, to take strong measures against such an end to the war
as the San Stefano treaty threatened. Rather than suffer that,
he would have fought the Russians in alliance with the Turks,
and had gone much farther in maturing a scheme of attack and
defence than was known at the time or is commonly known now.
That there was a master motive for this resolution may be taken
for granted; and it is to be found in a belief that not to throw
back the Russian advance then was to lose England's last chance
of postponing to a far future the predominance of a great rival
power in the East. How much or how little judgment shows
in that calculation, when viewed in the light of later days, we
do not discuss. What countenance it had from his colleagues
dropped away. At the end their voices were strong enough to
insist upon the diplomatic action which at no point falls back
on the sword; Lord Derby (foreign minister) being among the
first to make a stand on that resolution, though he was not the
first seceder from the government. Such diplomacy in such
conditions is paralytic. It cannot speak thrice, with whatever
affectation of boldness, without discovering its true character
to trained ears; which should be remembered when Disraeli's
successes at Berlin are measured. It should be remembered
that what with the known timidity of his colleagues, and what
with the strength and violence of the Russian party in England,
his achievement at Berlin was like the reclamation of butter
from a dog's mouth; as Prince Bismarck understood in acknow-
ledging Disraeli's gifts of statesmanship. It should also be
remembered, when his Eastern policy in 1876-1878 is denounced
as malign and a failure, that it was never carried out. Good or
bad, ill or well calculated, effective existence was denied to it;
and a man cannot be said to have failed in what he was never
permitted to attempt. The nondescript course of action which
began at the Constantinople conference and ended at Berlin
was not of his direction until its few last days. It only marked
at various stages the thwarting and suppression of his policy by
colleagues who were haunted night and day by memories of the
Crimean War, and not least, probably, by the fate of the states-
men who suffered for its blunders and their own. Disraeli also
looked back to those blunders, and he was by no means insensible
to the fate of fallen ministers. But just as he maintained at the
time of the conflict, and after, that there would have been no
Crimean War had not the British government convinced the
tsar that it was in the hands of the peace party, so now he
believed that a bold policy would prevent or limit war, and at
the worst put off grave consequences which otherwise would
make a rapid advance.
As if aware of much of this, the country was well content with
Disraeli's successes at Berlin, though sore on some points, he
himself sharing the soreness. Yet there were great days for him
after his return. At the Berlin conference he had established a
formidable reputation; the popularity he enjoyed at home was
affectionately enthusiastic; no minister had ever stood in more
cordial relations with his sovereign; and his honours in every
kind were his own achievement against unending disadvantage.
But he was soon to suffer irretrievable defeat. A confused and
unsatisfactory war in Afghanistan, troubles yet more unsatis-
factory in South Africa, conspired with two or three years of
commercial distress to invigorate " the swing of the pendulum "
when he dissolved parliament in 1880. Dissolution the year
before would have been wiser, but a certain pride forbade. The
elections went heavily against him. He took the blow with
composure, and sank easily into a comparative retirement. Yet
he still watched affairs as a great party leader should, and from
time to time figured vigorously in debate. Meanwhile he had
another novel to sit down to the poor though highly character-
istic Endymion; which, to his great surprise and equal pleasure,
was replaced on his table by a cheque for ten thousand pounds.
Yet even this satisfaction had its tang of disappointment; for
though Endymion was not wholly written in his last days, it was
in no respect the success that Lolhair was. This also he could
bear. His description of his grandfather recurs to us: " A man
of ardent character, sanguine, courageous and fortunate, with a
temper which no disappointment could disturb."
As earl of Beaconsfield (failing health had compelled him to
take refuge in the House of Lords in 1876) Benjamin Disraeli died
in his house in Curzon Street on the igth of April 1881. The
likelihood of his death was publicly known for some days before
the event, and then the greatness of his popularity and its
warmth were declared for the first time. No such demonstration
of grief was expected even by those who grieved the most. He
lies in Hughenden churchyard, in a rail-enclosed grave, with
liberty for the turf to grow between him and the sky. Within the
church is a marble tablet, placed there by his queen, with a
generous inscription to his memory. The anniversary of his death
has since been honoured in an unprecedented manner, the ipth of
April being celebrated as " Primrose Day " the primrose, for
reasons impossible accurately to define, being popularly supposed
to have been Disraeli's favourite flower. Even among his friends
in youth (Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer, for example), and
not improbably among the city men who wagered their
money in irrecoverable loans to him on the chance of
his success, there may have been some who compassed the
thought of Benjamin Disraeli as prime minister and peer; but at
no time could any fancy have imagined him remembered so
enduringly as Lord Beaconsfield has been. It is possible that
Sarah Disraeli (the Myra of Endymion), or that " the most severe
of critics but a perfect wife," may have had such dreams hardly
that they could have occurred to any mind but a devoted
woman's. Disraeli's life was a succession of surprises, but none
570
BEACONSFIELD
was so great as that he should be remembered after death more
widely, lastingly, respectfully, affectionately, than any other
statesman in the long reign of Queen Victoria. While he lived he
did not seem at all cut out for that distinction even as an Im-
perialist. Significant as was the common grief when he died, no
such consequence could be inferred from it, and certainly not
from the elections of 1 880. It stands, however, this high distinc-
tion, and with it the thought that it would have been denied to
him altogether had the " adventurer " and " mystery man " of
the 'sixties died at the age of threescore years and ten. We have
said that never till 1872 frid he look upon the full cup of popu-
larity. It might have been said that even at that time intrigue
to get rid of him had yet to cease in his own party; and but a few
years before, a man growing old, he was still in the lowest deeps
of his disappointments and humiliations. How, then, could it be
imagined that with six years of power from his seventieth year,
the Jew " adventurer," mysterious and theatrical to the last,
should fill a greater space in the mind of England twenty years
after death than Peel or Palmerston after five? Of course it can
be explained; and when explained, we see that Disraeli's good
fortune in this respect is not due entirely to his own merits. His
last years of power might have been followed by as long a period
of more acceptable government than his own, to the effacement
of his own from memory; but that did not happen. What did
follow was a time of universal turbulence and suspicion, in which
the pride of the nation was wounded again and again. To say
" Majuba " and " Gordon " recalls its deepest hurts, but not all
of them; and it may be that a pained and angry people, looking
back, saw in the man whom they lately displaced more than they
had ever seen before. From that time, at any rate, Disraeli has
been acknowledged as the regenerator and representative of the
Imperial idea in England. He has also been accused on the same
grounds ; and if the giver of good wine may be blamed for the
guest who gets drunk on it, there is justice in the accusation. It
is but a statement of fact, however, that Disraeli retains his hold
upon the popular mind on this account mainly. The rekindling
of the Imperial idea is understood as a timely act of revolt and
redemption: of revolt against continuous humiliations deeply
felt, redemption from the fate of nations obviously weak and
suspected of timidity. It has been called rescue-work deliver-
ance from the dangers of invited aggression and a philosophical
neglect of the means of defence. And its first achievement for
the country (this is again a mere statement of fact) was the
restoration of a much-damaged self-respect and the creation of a
great defensive fleet not a day too soon for safety. So much for
" the great heart of the people." Meanwhile political students
find to their satisfaction that he never courted popularity, and
never practised the art of working for " quick returns " of
sympathy or applause. As " adventurer," he should have done
so; yet he neglected the cultivation of that paying art for the
wisdom that looks to the long future, and bears its fruit, per-
chance, when no one cares to remember who sowed the seed. So
it is that to read some of his books and many of his speeches is to
draw more respect and admiration from their pages than could
have been found there originally. The student of his life under-
stands that Disraeli's claim to remembrance rests not only on the
breadth of his views, his deep insight, his long foresight, but even
more on the courage which allowed him to declare opinions
supplied from those qualities when there was no visible likelihood
of their justification by experience, and therefore when their
natural fate was to be slighted. His judgments had to wait the
event before they were absolved from ridicule or delivered from
neglect. The event arrives; he is in his grave; but his reputa-
tion loses nothing by that. It gains by regret that death was
beforehand with him.
" Adventurer," as applied to Disraeli, was a mere term of
abuse. " Mystery-man " had much of the same intention, but
in a blameless though not in a happy sense it was true of him to
the end of his days. Even to his friends, and to many near him,
he remained mysterious to the last. It is impossible to doubt
that some two or three, four or five perchance, were at home in
his mind, being freely admitted there; but of partial admissions
to its inner places there seem to have been few or none. Men
who were long associated with him in affairs, and had much of
his stinted companionship, have confessed that with every wish
to understand his character they never succeeded. Sometimes
they fancied they had got within the topping walls of the maze,
and might hope to gain the point whence survey could be made
of the whole; but as often they found themselves, in a moment,
where they stood at last and at first outside. His speeches
carry us but a little way beyond the mental range; his novels
rather baffle than instruct. It is commonly believed that
Disraeli looked in the glass while describing Sidonia in Coningsby.
We group the following sentences from this description for a
purpose that will be presently seen: (i) " He was admired by
women, idolized by artists, received in all circles with
great distinction, and appreciated for his intellect by
the very few to whom he at all opened himself." (2) " For,
though affable and generous, it was impossible to penetrate
him: though unreserved in his manners his frankness was
limited to the surface. He observed everything, thought ever,
but avoided serious discussion. If you pressed him for an opinion
he took refuge in raillery, and threw out some paradox with
which it was not easy to cope. The secret history of the world
was Sidonia's pastime. His great pleasure was to contrast the
hidden motive with the public pretext of transactions." (3)
" He might have discovered a spring of happiness in suscepti-
bilities of the heart; but this was a sealed fountain for Sidonia.
In his organization there was a peculiar, perhaps a great defici-
ency; he was a man without affection. It would be hard to say
that he had no heart, for he was susceptible of deep emotions;
but not for individuals. Woman was to him a toy, man a
machine." These sentences are separately grouped here for the
sake of suggesting that they will more truly illustrate Disraeli's
character if taken as follows: The first as representing his most
cherished social ambitions in whatever degree achieved. The
second group as faithfully and closely descriptive of himself;
descriptive too of a character purposely cloaked. The third as
much less simple; in part a mixture of truth with Byronic
affectation, and for the rest (and more significantly), as intimat-
ing the resolute exercise of extraordinary powers of control over
the promptings and passions by which so many capable ambitions
have come to grief. So read, Sidonia and Benjamin Disraeli are
brought into close resemblance by Disraeli himself; for what in
this description is untrue to the suspected fundamentals of his
character is true to his known foibles. But for a general inter-
pretation of Lord Beaconsfield and his career none serves so well
as that which Froude insists on most. He was thoroughly and
unchangeably a Jew. At but one remove by birth from
southern Europe and the East, he was an Englishman in nothing
but his devotion to England and his solicitude for her honour
and prosperity. It was not wholly by volition and design that
his mind was strange to others and worked in absolute detach-
ment. He had " none of the hereditary prepossessions of the
native Englishman." No such prepossessions disturbed his
vision when it was bent upon the rising problems of the time, or
rested on the machinery of government and the kind of men who
worked it and their ways of working. The advantages of
Sidonia's intellect and temperament were largely his, in affairs,
but not without their drawbacks. His pride in his knowledge
of the English character was the pride of a student; and we may
doubt if it ever occurred to him that there would have been less
pride but more knowledge had he been an Englishman. It is
certain that in shrouding his own character he checked the
communication of others to himself, and so could continue to
the end of his career the costly mistake of being theatrical in
England. There was a great deal too (though little to his blame)
in Lord Malmesbury's observation that he was not only disliked
in the House of Commons for his mysterious manner, but
prejudiced by a pronounced foreign air and aspect. Lord
Malmesbury does not put it quite as strongly as that, but he
might have done so with truth. No Englishman could approach
Disraeli without some immediate consciousness that he was in
the presence of a foreigner.
BEACONSFIELD BEALE
Lord Beaconsfield has been praised for his integrity in money
matters; the praise could have been spared it does not rise
high enough. 'It is also said to his honour that he " never
struck at a little man," and that was well; but it is explained
as readily by pride and calculation as by magnanimity. A man
of extraordinary coolness and self-control, his faults in every
kind were faults of excess: it is the mark of them all. But
whatever offence they gave, whatever mischief they did, was
soon exhausted, and has long since been pardoned.
AUTHORITIES. The writer's personal knowledge is largely repre-
sented in the above article. Among the biographical literature
available prior to the authoritative Life the following may be
cited: Lord Beaconsfield's Preface to 1849 edition of Isaac
D'Israeli's works; Correspondence with his Sister, and Home Letters,
edited by Ralph Disraeli ; Samuel Smiles, Memoirs and Correspond-
ence of John Murray; Life of the Earl of Beaconsfield, by F. Hitch-
man; Memoir by T. E. Kebbel; Memoir by J. A. Froude; Memoir
by Harold Gorst; Sir William Fraser's Disraeli and his Day; The
Speeches of Lord Beaconsfield, edited by T. E. Kebbel. In 1904,
however, the large collection of material for Lord Beaconsfield s
life, in the hands of his executors Lord Rowton and Lord Rothschild,
was acquired by The Times, and the task of preparing the biography
was assigned to Mr W. F. Monypenny, an assistant editor of The
Times (1894-1899), who was best known to the public as editor of
the Johannesburg Star during the crisis of 1899-1903. (F. G.)
BEACONSFIELD, a town of Devon county, Tasmania, on the
river Tamar, 28 m. direct N.W. of Launceston. Pop. (1901)
2658. From its port at Beauty Point, 3$ m. distant, with which
it is connected by a steam tramway, communication is main-
tained with Georgetown and Launceston. It is the centre of
the most important gold-field in the island.
BEACONSFIELD, a town of South Africa in Griqualand West,
about 3 m. S.W. of Kimberley, of which it is practically a suburb,
though possessing a separate municipality. Pop. (1904) 9378, of
whom 2780 were whites. Beaconsfield was founded in 1870
near the famous Dutoitspan diamond mine. The land on which
the town is built belongs to the De Beers Company. (See
KIMBERLEY.)
BEACONSFIELD, a town in the Wycombe parliamentary
division of Buckinghamshire, England, 23 m. W. by N. of London,
on the main road to Oxford, and on the Great Central & Great
Western joint railway. Pop. of urban district (1001) 1570. It
lies in a hilly well-wooded district above the valley of the small
river Wye, a tributary of the Thames. The broad Oxford road
forms its picturesque main street. It was formerly a posting
station of importance, and had a considerable manufacture of
ribbons. The Perpendicular church of St Mary and All Saints is
the burial place of Edmund Burke (d. 1797), who lived at
Gregories, or as he named it Butler's Court, near the town. He
would have taken his title from Beaconsfield had he survived to
enter the peerage. A monument to his memory was erected in
1898. Edmund Waller the poet owned the property of Hall Barn,
and died here in 1687. His tomb is in the churchyard. Benjamin
Disraeli chose the title of earl of Beaconsfield in 1876, his wife
having in 1868 received the title of Viscountess Beaconsfield.
The opening of railway communication with London in 1906
resulted in a considerable accretion of residential population.
BEAD, a small globule or ball used in necklaces, and made of
different materials, as metal, coral, diamond, amber, ivory, stone,
pottery, glass, rock-crystal and seeds. The word is derived from
the Middle Eng. bede, from the common Teutonic word for " to
pray," cf. German beten and English bedesman, the meaning being
transferred from " prayer " to the spherical bodies strung on a
rosary and used in counting prayers. Beads have been made
from remote antiquity, and are found in early Egyptian tombs;
variegated glass beads, found in the ground in certain parts of
Africa, as Ashantiland, and highly prized by the natives as aggry-
beads, are supposed to be of Egyptian or Phoenician origin.
Beads of the more expensive materials are strung in necklaces
and worn as articles of personal adornment, while the cheaper
kinds are employed for the decoration of women's dress. Glass
beads have long been used for purposes of barter with savage
tribes, and are made in enormous numbers and varieties,
especially in Venice, where the manufacture has existed from at
least the uth century. Glass, either transparent, or of opaque
coloured enamel (smalti), or having complex patterns produced
by the twisting of threads of coloured glass through a transparent
body, is drawn out into long tubes, from which the beads are
pinched off, and finished by being rotated with sand and ashes in
heated cylinders.
In architecture, the term " bead " is given to a small cylindrical
moulding, in classic work often cut into bead and reel.
BEADLE, also BEDEL or BEDELL (from A.S. bydel, from beodan,
to hid), originally a subordinate officer of a court or deliberative
assembly, who summoned persons to appear and answer charges
against them (see Du Cange, supra tit. Bedell f). As such, the
beadle goes back to early Teutonic times; he was probably
attached to the moot as its messenger or summoner, being under
the direction of the reeve or constable of the leet. After the
Norman Conquest, the beadle seems to have diminished in
importance, becoming merely the crier in the manor and forest
courts, and sometimes executing processes. He was also em-
ployed as the messenger of the parish, and thus became, to a cer-
tain extent, an ecclesiastical officer, but in reality acted more as
a constable by keeping order in the church and churchyard during
service. He also attended upon the clergy, the churchwardens
and the vestry. He was appointed by the parishioners in vestry,
and his wages were payable out of the church rate. From the
Poor Law Act of 1601 till the act of 1834 by which poor-law
administration was transferred to guardians, the beadle in
England was an officer of much importance in his capacity of
agent for the overseers. In all medieval universities the bedel
was an officer who exercised various executive and spectacular
functions (H. Rashdall, Hist, of Universities in the Middle Ages,
i. 193). He still survives in many universities on the con-
tinent of Europe and in those of Oxford and Cambridge, but
he is now shorn of much of his importance. At Oxford there are
four bedels, representing the faculties of law, medicine, arts and
divinity. Their duties are chiefly processional, the junior or
sub-bedel being the official attendant on the vice-chancellor,
before whom he bears a silver mace. At Cambridge there are
two, termed esquire-bedels, who both walk before the vice-
chancellor, bearing maces.
BEAK (early forms beke and bccke, from Fr. bee, late Lat. beccus,
supposed to be a Gaulish word ; the Celtic bee and beq, however,
are taken from the English), the horny bill of a bird, and so used
of the horny ends of the mandibles of the octopus, the duck-billed
platypus and other animals; hence the rostrum (q.v.) or orna-
mented prow of ancient war vessels. The term is also applied, in
classic architecture, to the pendent fillet on the edge of the corona
of a cornice, which serves as a drip, and prevents the rain from
flowing inwards.
The slang use of " beak " for a magistrate or justice of the peace
has not been satisfactorily explained. The earlier meaning,
which lasted down to the beginning of the igth century, was
" watchman " or " constable." According to Slang and its
Analogues (J. S. Farmer and W. E. Henley, 1800), the first
example of its later use is in the name of " the Blind Beak."
which was given to Henry Fielding's half-brother, Sir John
Fielding (about 1 750). Thomas Harman, in his book on vagrants,
Caveat or Warening for commen cursitors, Vulgarely called Vaga-
bones, 1573, explains harmans beck as " counstable," harman being
the word for the stocks. Attempts have been made to connect
" beak " in this connexion with the Old English btag, a gold
torque or collar, worn as a symbol of authority, but this could
only be plausible on the assumption that " magistrate " was the
earlier significance of the word.
BEAKER (Scottish bicker, Lat. bitarium. Ger. Becker, a
drinking-bowl) , a large wide-mouthed drinking-cup or laboratory
vessel. See DRINKING- VESSELS.
BEALE, DOROTHEA (1831-1006), English schoolmistress,
was born on the 2ist of March 1831 in London, her father being
a physician of good family and cultivated tastes. She had
already shown a strong intellectual bent and considerable force
of character when in 1848 she was one of the first to attend
lectures at the newly opened Queen's College for Ladies, London,
and from 1849 to 1856 she herself took classes there. In 1857
572
BEAM BEAN
for a few months she became head teacher of the Clergy
Daughters' school at Casterton, Westmoreland, but narrow
religious prejudices on the part of the governors led to her
retirement. In 1858 she was appointed principal of the Ladies
College at Cheltenham (opened 1854), then in very low water.
Her tact and strenuousness, backed by able financial manage-
ment, led to its success being thoroughly established by 1864,
and as the college increased in numbers new buildings were
erected from 1873 onwards. Under Miss Scale's headship it
grew into one of the great girls' schools of the country, and its
development and example played an important part in the
revolution effected in regard to the higher education of women.
Miss Beale retained her post till her death on the gth of November
1006. Strongly religious by nature, broad-minded and keenly
interested in all branches of culture, she exercised a far-reaching
influence on her pupils.
Her Life was written by Elizabeth Raikes (1908).
BEAM (from the 0. Eng. beam, cf. Ger. Baum, a tree, to which
sense may be referred the use of " beam " as meaning the rood
or crucifix, and the survival in certain names of trees, as horn-
beam), a solid piece of timber, as a beam of a house, of a plough,
a loom, or a balance. In the last case, from meaning simply the
cross-bar of the balance, " beam " has come to be used of the
whole, as in the expression " the king's beam," or " common
beam," which refers to the old English standard balance for
wholesale goods, for several hundred years in the custody of the
Grocers' Company, London. As a nautical term, " beam " was
transferred from the main cross-timbers to the side of the ship;
thus " on the weather-beam " means " to windward," and a
ship is said to be " wide in the beam " when she is wide horizon-
tally. The phrase " to be on one's beam-ends," denoting a
position of extreme peril or helplessness, is borrowed from the
position of a ship which has heeled over so far as to stand on the
ends of her horizontal beams. The meaning of " beam" for
shafts or rays of light comes apparently from the use of the word
to translate the Latin columna lucis, a pillar of light.
BEAN (a common Teutonic word, cf. Ger. Bohne), the seed of
certain leguminous plants cultivated for food all over the world,
and furnished chiefly by the genera Vicia, Phaseolus, Dolichos
and others. The common bean, in all its varieties, as cultivated
in Britain and on the continents of Europe and America, is the
produce of Vicia Faba. The French bean, kidney bean, or
haricot, is the seed of Phaseolus vulgaris; but in India several
other species of this genus of plants are raised, and form no small
portion of the diet of the inhabitants. Besides these there are
numerous other pulses cultivated for the food both of man and
domestic animals, to which the name bean is frequently given.
The common bean is even more nutritious than wheat; and it
contains a very high proportion of nitrogenous matter under the
form of legumin, which amounts on an average to 24%. It is,
however, a rather coarse food, and difficult of digestion, and is
chiefly used to feed horses, for which it is admirably adapted.
In England French beans are chiefly, almost exclusively, used
in the green state; the whole pod being eaten as a table vegetable
or prepared as a pickle. It is wholesome and nutritious; and
in Holland and Germany the pods are preserved in salt by almost
every family for winter and spring use. The green pods are cut
across obliquely, most generally by a machine invented for the
purpose, and salted in barrels. When wanted for use they are
steeped in fresh water to remove the salt, and broiled or stewed
they form an agreeable addition to the diet at a time when no
other vegetable may be had.
The broad bean Vicia Faba, or Faba vulgaris, as it is known
by those botanists who regard the slight differences which
distinguish it from the great majority of the species of the vetch
genus ( Vicia) as of generic importance is an annual which has
been cultivated from prehistoric times for its nuiritious seeds.
The lake-dwellers of Switzerland, and northern Italy in the
bronze age cultivated a small-fruited variety, and it was grown
in ancient Egypt, though, according to Herodotus, regarded
by the priests as unclean. The ancient Greeks called it Kiiajuos,
the Latins faba, but there is no suggestion that the plant is a
native of Europe. Alphonse de Candolle (Origin of Cultivated
Plants, p. 320) concludes that the bean was introduced into
Europe probably by the western Aryans at the time of their
earliest migrations. He suggests that its wild habitat was two-
fold some thousands of years ago, one of the centres being to the
south of the Caspian, the other in the north of Africa, and that
its area has long been in process of diminution and extinction.
The nature of the plant favours this hypothesis, for its seed has
no means of dispersing itself, and rodents or other animals can
easily make prey of it; the struggle for existence which was
going against this plant as against maize woujd have gradually
isolated it and caused it to disappear, if man had not saved it by
cultivation. It was introduced into China a little before the
Christian era, later into Japan and more recently into India,
though it has been suggested that in parts of the higher Hima-
layas its cultivation has survived from very ancient times. It
is a plant which will flourish in all ordinary good garden soil.
The seeds are sown about 4 in. apart, in drills z\ ft. asunder for
the smaller and 3 ft. for the larger sorts. The soil should,
preferably, be a rather heavy loam, deeply worked and well
enriched. For an early crop, seeds may be sown in November,
and protected during winter in the same manner as early peas.
An early crop may also be obtained by dibbling in the seeds in
November, sheltering by a frame, and in February transplanting
them to a warm border. Successional crops are obtained by
sowing suitable varieties from January to the end of June. All
the culture necessary is that the earth be drawn up about the
stems. The plants are usually topped when the pods have set,
as this not only removes the black aphides which often settle
there, but is also found to promote the filling of the pods.
The following are some of the best sorts: for early use,
Early Mazagan, Long-pod, Marshall's Early Prolific and Seville
Long-pod; for late use, Carter's Mammoth Long-pod and Broad
Windsor.
The horse-bean is a variety var. equina.
Cultivation of Field-bean. Several varieties of Vicia Faba
(e.g. the horse bean, the mazagan, the tick bean, the winter
bean) are cultivated in the field for the sake both of the grain,
which is used as food for live-stock, and of the haulm, which
serves for either fodder or litter. They are best adapted for
heavy soils such as clays or clayey loams. The time for sowing
is from the end of January to the beginning of March, or in the
case of winter beans from the end of September to the middle
of November. The bean-crop is usually interposed between two
crops of wheat or some other cereal. If spring beans are to be
sown, the land after harvest is dressed with farmyard manure,
which is then ploughed in. In January the soil is levelled with
the harrows, and the seed, which should be hard and light brown
in colour, is drilled in rows from 15 to 24 in. apart at the rate
of from 2 to 2^ bushels to the acre and then harrowed in. The
alternative is to " dibble " the seed in the furrow left by the
autumn ploughing and cover it in with the harrows; or the
land may be ridged with the double-breasted plough, manure
deposited in the furrows and the seed sown broadcast, the ridges
being then split back so as to cover both manure and seed.
After the plant shows, horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing between
the rows is carried on so long as the plant is small enough to
suffer no injury therefrom. The routine of cultivation for
winter beans hardly differs from that described except as regards
the time of sowing.
Beans are cut when the leaf is fallen and thfc haulm is almost
black either with the fagging hook or the reaping machine, though
the stoutness of the stalks causes a severe strain on the latter
implement. .They are tied and stocked, and are so left for a
considerable time before stacking. There is less fear of injury to
the crop through damp than in the case of other cereals. Their
value for feeding purposes increases in the stack, where they may
remain for a year or more before threshing. Pea and bean
weevils, both striped (Sitones linealus) and spotted (Sitones
crinitus), and the bean aphis (Aphis rumicis), are noted pests of
the crop. Winter beans come to maturity earlier than the
spring-sown varieties, and are therefore strong enough to resist
BEAN-FEASTBEAR
573
the attacks of the aphis by the end of June, when it begins its
ravages. Field-beans yield from 25 to 35 bushels to the acre.
Phaseolus vulgaris, the kidney, French or haricot bean, an
annual, dwarf and bushy in growth.is widely cultivated in temper-
ate, sub-tropical and tropical regions, but is nowhere known as
a wild plant. It was long supposed to be of Indian origin, an idea
which was disproved by Alphonse de Candolle, who sums up the
facts bearing on its origin as follows: Phaseolus vulgaris has not
been long cultivated in India, the south-west of Asia and Egypt,
and it is not certain that it was known in Europe before the dis-
covery of America. At the latter epoch the number of varieties
in European gardens suddenly increased, and all authors began
to mention them. The majority of the species of the genus exist
in South America, and seeds apparently belonging to the species
in question have been found in Peruvian tombs of an uncertain
date, intermixed with many species, all American. Hence it is
probable that the plant is of South American origin.
It is a tender annual, and should be grown in a rich light loamy
soil and a warm sheltered situation. The soil should be well
enriched with hot-bed dung. The earliest crop may be sown by
the end of March or beginning of April. If, however, the tem-
perature of the soil is below 45, the beans make but little pro-
gress. The main crops should be got in early in May; and a later
sowing may be made early in July. The earlier plantings may be
sown in small pots, and put in frames or houses, until they can be
safely planted out-of-doors. A light covering of straw or some
other simple shelter suffices to protect from late frosts. The seeds
should be covered 15 or 2 in. deep, the distance between the rows
being about 2 ft., or for the dwarfest sorts 18 in., and that between
plants from 4 to 6 in. The pods may be used as a green vegetable,
in which case they should be gathered whilst they are so crisp as
to be readily snapped in two when bent; but when the dry seeds
are to be used the pods should be allowed to ripen. As the green
pods are gathered others will continue to be formed in abundance,
but if old seed -form ing pods are allowed to remain the formation
of young ones will be greatly checked. There are numerous
varieties; among the best are Canadian Wonder, Canterbury
and Black Negro.
Phaseolus muliiflorus, scarlet runner, is nearly allied to P.
vulgaris, of which it is sometimes regarded as a variety, but
differs in its climbing habit. It is naturally perennial and has a
thick fleshy root, but is grown in Great Britain as a tender annual.
Its bright, generally scarlet flowers, arranged in long racemes, and
the fact that it will flourish in any ordinary good garden soil,
combine to make it a favourite garden plant. It is also of interest
as being one of the few plants that twine in a direction contrary
to the apparent motion of the sun. The seeds of the runner beans
should be sown in an open plot, the first sowing in May, another
at the beginning of June, and a third about the middle of June.
In the London market-gardens they are sown 8 to 12 in. apart, in
4 ft. rows if the soil is good. The twining tops are pinched or cut
off when the plants are from 2 to 25 ft. high, to save the expense
of staking. It is better, however, in private gardens to have the
rows standing separately, and to support the plants by stakes 6 or
7 ft. high and about a foot apart, the tops of the stakes being
crossed about one-third down. If the weather is dry when the
pods are forming abundantly, plenty of tepid water should be
supplied to the plants. In training the shoots to their supports,
they should be twined from right to left, contrary to the course
of the sun, or they will not lay hold. By frequently picking the
pods the plants are encouraged to form fresh blooms from which
pods may be picked until the approach of frost.
The ordinary scarlet runner is most commonly grown, but there
is a white-flowered variety which has also white seeds; this is
very prolific and of excellent quality. Another variety called
Painted Lady, with the flowers red and white, is very ornamental,
but not so productive. Carter's Champion is a large-podded
productive variety.
Another species P. lunatus, the Lima bean, a tall biennial with
a scimitar-shaped pod (whence the specific name) 2 to 3 in. long
containing a few large seeds, is widely cultivated in the warmer
parts of the world.
The young pods of another leguminous climbing herb, Ddichos
Lablab, as well as the seeds, are widely used in the tropics, as we
use the kidney bean. The plant is probably a native of tropical
Africa, but is now generally cultivated in the tropics. The word
Dolichos is of Greek origin, and was used by Theophrastus for the
scarlet runner.
Another species, D. biflorus, is the horse gram, the seed of
which is eaten by the poorer class of natives in India, and is also,
as are the pods, a food for horses and cattle.
The Soy bean, Glycine hispida, was included by Linnaeus in
the genus Dolichos. It is extensively cultivated in China and
Japan, chiefly for the pleasant-flavoured seed from which is
prepared a piquant sauce. It is also widely grown in India,
where the bean is eaten, while the plant forms a valuable fodder;
it is cultivated for the latter purpose in the United States.
Other references to beans will be found under special headings,
such as CALABAR BEAN, LOCUST-TREE. There are also several
non-leguminous seeds to which the popular name bean is attached.
Among these may be mentioned the sacred Egyptian or Pytha-
gorean bean (Nelumbium speciosum), and the Ignatius bean
(probably Strychnos multiflora), a source of strychnine.
Theancient Greeks and Romans madeuseof beans in gathering
the votes of the people, and for the election of magistrates. A
white bean signified absolution, and a black one condemnation.
Beans had a mysterious use in the lemur alia and parcnlalia,
where the master of the family, after washing his hands three
times, threw black beans over his head nine times, reiterating
the words " I redeem myself and my family by these beans."
BEAN-FEAST, primarily an annual dinner given by an em-
ployer to his workpeople, and then colloquially any jollification.
The phrase is variously derived. The most probable theory is
that which connects it with the custom in France, and afterwards
in Germany and England, of a feast on Twelfth Night, at which
a cake with a bean buried in it was a great feature. The bean-
king was he who had the good fortune to have the slice of cake in
which was the bean. This choosing of a king or queen by a bean
was formerly a common Christmas diversion at the English and
Scottish courts, and in both English universities. This monarch
was master of the revels like his congener the lord of misrule. A
clue to his original functions is possibly found in the old popular
belief that the weather for the ensuing twelve months was
determined by the weather of the twelve days from Christmas to
Twelfth Night, the weather of each particular month being prog-
nosticated from each day. Thus the king of the bean of Twelfth
Night may have originally reigned for the twelve days, his chief
duty being the performance of magical ceremonies for ensuring
good weather during the ensuing twelve months. Probably in
him and the lord of misrule it is correct to find the lineal descend-
ant of the old king of the Saturnalia, the real man who personated
Saturn and, when the revels ceased, suffered a real death in his
assumed character. Another but most improbable derivation for
bean-feast connects it with M.E. bene " prayer," "request," the
allusion being to the soliciting of alms towards the cost of their
Twelfth Night dinner by the workpeople.
See WAYZGOOSE; MISRULE, LORD OF; also J. Boemus, Mores,
leges et ritus omnivm gentium (Lyons, 1541), p. 222; Laisnel
de la Salle, Croyances et legendes du centre de la France, i. 19-29;
Lecceur, Esquisses du Bocage normand, ii. 125; Schmitz, Sitten und
Sagen des Eifler Volkes, i. 6; Brand, Popular Antiquities of Great
Britain (Hazlitt's edit. 1905), under "Twelfth Night"; Cortet,
Files religieuses, p. 29 sqq.
BEAR, properly the name of the European brown bear ( Ursus
arctus), but extended to include all the members of the Ursidae,
the typical family of Arctoid carnivora, distinguished by their
massive bodies, short limbs, and almost rudimentary tails.
With the single exception of the Indian sloth-bear, all the species
have forty-two teeth, of which the incisors and canines closely
resemble those of purely carnivorous mammals; while the
molars, and especially the one known as the " sectorial " or
" carnassial," have their surfaces tuberculated so as to adapt
them for grinding vegetable substances. As might have been
supposed from their dentition, the bears are omnivorous; but
most prefer vegetable food, including honey, when a sufficient
574
BEAR
supply of this can be had. The grizzly bear, however, is chiefly
carnivorous; while the polar bear is almost wholly so.
Bears are five-toed, and provided with formidable claws,
which are not retractile, and thus better fitted for digging and
climbing than for tearing. Most climb trees in a slow, lumbering
fashion, and, in descending, always come hind-quarters first.
The grizzly bear is said to lose this power of climbing in the
adult stage. In northern countries bears retire during the
winter into caves and the hollows of trees, or allow the falling
snow to cover them, and there remain dormant till the advent
of spring, about which time the female usually produces her
young. These are born naked and blind, and it is commonly
five weeks before they see, or become covered with hair. Before
hibernating the adults grow very fat, and it is by the gradual
consumption of this fat known in commerce as bear's grease
that such vital action as is necessary to the continuance of life
is sustained.
The bear family is widely distributed, being found in every
quarter of the globe except Australia, and in all climates, from
the highest northern latitudes yet reached by man to the warm
regions of India and Malaya. In the north-west corner of Africa
the single representative of the family found on that continent
occurs.
The polar or white bear (Ursus maritimus), common to the
Arctic regions of both hemispheres, is distinguished from the
other species by having the soles of the feet covered with close-set
hairs, in adaptation to the wants of the creature, the bear
being thereby enabled to walk securely on slippery ice. In the
whiteness of its fur also, it shows such an assimilation in colour
to that of surrounding nature as must be of considerable service
in concealing it from its prey. The food of the white bear
consists chiefly of seals and fish, in pursuit of which it shows
great power of swimming and diving, and a considerable degree
of sagacity; but its food also includes the carcases of whales,
birds and their eggs, and grass and berries when these can be
had. That it can sustain life on a purely vegetable diet is proved
by instances on record of its being fed for years on bread only, in
confinement. These bears are strong swimmers, Sir Edward
Sabine having found one " swimming powerfully 40 m. from
the nearest shore, and with no ice in sight to afford it rest."
They are often carried on floating ice to great distances, and to
more southern latitudes than their own, no fewer than twelve
Polar bears having been known to reach Iceland in this way
during one winter. The female always hibernates, but the male
may be seen abroad at all seasons. In bulk the white bear
exceeds most other members of the family, measuring nearly
9 ft. in length, and often weighing 1600 Ib.
Land bears have the soles of the feet destitute of hair, and
their fur more or less shaggy. On these the brown bear ( Ursus
arctus, apKras of Aristotle) is found in one or other of its
varieties all over the temperate and north temperate regions of
the eastern hemisphere, from Spain to Japan. The fur is usually
brownish, but there are black, blackish-grey and yellowish
varieties. It is a solitary animal, frequenting the wooded parts
of the regions it inhabits, and living on a mixed diet of fruits,
vegetable, honey, fish and the smaller animals. In winter it
hibernates, concealing itself in some hollow or cavern. It does
not seek to attack man; but when baited, or in defence of its
young, shows great courage and strength, rising on its hind legs
and endeavouring to grasp its antagonist in an embrace. Bear-
baiting, till within comparatively recent times, was a favourite
sport throughout Europe, but, along with cock-fighting and
badger-baiting, has gradually disappeared before a more humane
civilization. It was a favourite pastime among the Romans,
who imported their bears from Britain, a proof that the animal
was then comparatively abundant in that country; indeed,
from reference made to it in early Scottish history, the bear does
not appear to have been extirpated in Britain before the end of
the nth century. It is now found in greatest abundance in
Norway, Russia and Siberia, where hunting the bear is a favourite
sport, and where, when dead, its remains are highly valued.
Among the Kamchadales " the skin of the bear," says a traveller,
" forms their beds and their coverlets, bonnets for their heads,
gloves for their hands and collars for their dogs. The flesh and
fat are their dainties. Of the intestines they make masks or
covers for their faces, to protect them from the glare of the sun
in the spring, and use them as a substitute for glass, by extending
them over their windows. Even the shoulder-blades are said
to be put in requisition for cutting grass." In confinement the
brown bear is readily tamed; and advantage has been taken
of the facility with which it can sustain itself on the hind feet
to teach it to dance to the sound of music. It measures 4 ft. in
length, and is about 2^ ft. high. Of this species Crowther's
bear from the Atlas Mountains, the Syrian bear (Ursus arctus
pyriacus) and the snow or isabelline bear ( Ursus arctus isabellinus)
of the Himalaya are local races, or at most subspecies. 1 American
naturalists regard the big brown bears of Alaska as a distinct
group. They range from Sitka to the extremity of the Alaskan
Peninsula, over Kodiak Island, and inland. Their distinctive
external features are their large size, light-brown colour, high
shoulders, massive heads of great breadth and shaggy coat.
The grizzly bear (Ursus arctus horribilis, formerly known as U.
ferox) is regarded by some naturalists as a distinct species and by
others as a variety of the brown bear, to which it is closely allied.
It was said to exceed all other American mammals in ferocity of
disposition and muscular strength. Stories were told of its
attacking the bison, and it has been reported to carry off the
carcase of a wapiti, weighing nearly 1000 Ib, for a considerable
distance to its den, there to devour it at leisure. It also eats fruit
and vegetables. Its fur is usually of a yellowish-brown colour,
coarse and grizzled, and of little value commercially, while its
flesh, unlike that of other bears, is uneatable even by the Indians.
The grizzly bear is now rare in the United States, save in the
Yellowstone Park and the Clearwater Mountains of Idaho,
though more common in British Columbia. Several geographical
races are recognized. The Tibet bear ( U. pruinosus) is a light-
coloured small species.
The American black bear ( Ursus americanus) occurs throughout
the wooded parts of the North American continent, whence it is
being gradually driven to make room for man. It is similar in
size to the brown bear, but its fur is of a soft even texture, and of
a shining black colour, to which it owes its commercial value. At
the beginning of the igth century black bears were killed in
enormous numbers for their furs, which at that time were highly
valued. ' In 1803 the skins imported into England numbered
25,000, but the imports have since decreased to one-half of that
number. They are chiefly used for military accoutrements. This
is a timid animal, feeding almost solely on fruits, and lying
dormant during winter, at which period it is most frequently
killed. It is an object of superstitious reverence to the Indians,
who never kill it without apologizing and deploring the necessity
which impels them to do so.
The Himalayan black bear ( U. torquatus) is found in the forest
regions ranging from the Persian frontier eastward to Assam.
The average length is about 5 ft. ; there is no under-fur, and the
coat is smooth, black in colour, with the exception of a white
horseshoe-mark on the chest. It feeds chiefly on fruit and roots,
but kills sheep, goats, deer, ponies and cattle, and sometimes
devours carrion.
The small bruang or Malayan bear ( Ursus malayanus) is of a jet-
black colour, with a white semilunar mark on the chest, and
attains a length of 45 ft. Its food consists almost solely of
vegetables and honey, but the latter is its favourite food, the
extreme length and pliability of the tongue enabling it to scoop
out the honeycombs from the hollows of trees. It is found in the
Malay Peninsula and Islands, and is readily tamed.
Not much larger than the Malay bear is the South American
spectacled bear of the Andes (U. ornatus), distinguished from all
the rest by the presence of a perforation in the lower end of the
humerus, and hence sometimes separated as Tremarctus. It is
black, with tawny rings round the eyes, and white cheeks, throat
and chest. A second race or species exists.
The sloth-bear (Melursus labiatus or ursinus) is distinguished
1 Lydekker, in Proc. Zool. Soc.. 1897, p. 412.
BEAR-BAITINGBEARD
575
by the absence of one pair of upper incisors, the small size of the
cheek-teeth and the very extensile character of the lips. It is
also known as the aswail and the honey-bear, the last name being
also given to the Malay bear and the kinkajou. It is about the
size of the brown bear, is covered with long, black hair, and of
extremely uncouth aspect. It inhabits the mountainous regions
of India, is readily tamed and is the bear usually exhibited by
the Hindu jugglers. The food consists of fruits, honey and
white ants.
Fossil remains of extinct bears first occur in strata of the
Pliocene age. Those of the great cave bear (Ursus spelaeus),
found abundantly in certain caverns of central Europe and Asia,
show that it must have exceeded in size the polar bear of the
present day. Its remains are also found in similar situations in
Britain associated with those of an allied species (Ursus priscus).
BEAR-BAITING and BULL-BAITING, sports formerly very
popular in England but now suppressed on account of their
cruelty. They took place in arenas built in the form of theatres
which were the common resort even of cultivated people. In the
bear-gardens, which are known to have existed since the time of
Henry H v the bear was chained to a stake by one hind leg or by
the neck and worried by dogs. Erasmus, writing (about 1500)
from the house of Sir Thomas More, spoke of " many herds of
bears maintained in the country for the purpose of baiting."
Sunday was the favourite day for these sports. Hentzner,
writing in 1598, describes the bear-garden at Bankside as
" another place, built in the form of a theatre, which serves for
the baiting of Bulls and Bears. They are fastened behind, and
then worried by great English bull-dogs, but not without great
risk to the dogs from the horns of the one and the teeth of the
other, and it sometimes happens they are killed upon the spot;
fresh ones are immediately supplied in the places of those that
are wounded or tired." He also describes the whipping of a
blinded bear, a favourite variation of bear-baiting. For a famous
baiting which took place before Queen Elizabeth in 1575 thirteen
bears were provided. Of it Robert Laneham (8.1575) wrote, " it
was a sport very pleasant to see, to see the bear, with his pink
eyes, tearing after his enemies' approach; the nimbleness and
wait of the dog to take his advantage and the force and experience
of the bear again to avoid his assaults: if he were bitten in one
place how he would pinch in another to get free; that if he were
taken once, then by what shift with biting, with clawing, with
roaring, with tossing and tumbling he would work and wind
himself from them; and when he was loose to shake his ears
twice or thrice with the blood and the slaver hanging about his
physiognomy." The famous " Paris Garden " in Southwark was
the chief bear-garden in London. A Spanish nobleman of the
time, who was taken to see a pony baited that had an ape tied to
its back, expressed himself to the effect that " to see the animal
kicking amongst the dogs, with the screaming of the ape, behold-
ing the curs hanging from the ears and neck of the pony, is very
laughable." Butler describes a bear-baiting at length in the first
canto of his Hudibras.
The Puritans endeavoured to put an end to animal-baiting,
although Macaulay sarcastically suggested that this was " not
because it gave pain to the bear, but because it gave pleasure
to the spectators." The efforts of the Puritans seem, however,
to have had little effect, for we find the sport flourishing at the
Restoration; but the conscience of cultivated people seems to
have been touched, for Evelyn wrote in his Diary, under the date
of June i6th, 1670: " I went with some friends to the bear-garden,
where was cock-fighting, dog-fighting, bear and bull baiting, it
being a famous day for all these butcherly sports, or rather
barbarous cruelties. The bulls did exceedingly well, but the
Irish wolf-dog exceeded, which was a tall greyhound, a stately
creature indeed, who beat a cruel mastiff. One of the bulls
tossed a dog full into a lady's lap, as she sat in one of the boxes
at a considerable height from the arena. Two poor dogs were
killed, and so all ended with the ape on horseback, and I mos
heartily weary of the rude and dirty pastime, which I had riot
seen, I think, in twenty years before." Steele also attacked
these cruel sports in the Taller. Nevertheless, when the tsar
Nicholas I. visited England as cesarevich, he was taken to see a
prize-fight and a bull-baiting. In this latter form of the sport
the bull's nose was usually blown full of pepper to render him
the more furious. The bull was often allowed a hole in the
ground, into which to thrust his nose and lips, his most vulner-
able parts. Sometimes the bull was tethered, and dogs, trained
for the purpose, set upon him one by one, a successful attack
resulting in the dog fastening his teeth firmly in the bull's snout.
This was called " pinning the bull." A sport called bull-running
was popular in several towns of England, particularly at Tutbury
and Stamford. Its establishment at Tutbury was due to John
of Gaunt, to whose minstrels, on the occasion of their annual
festival on August i6th the prior of Tutbury, for his tenure,
delivered a bull, which had his horns sawn off, his ears and tail
cut off, his nostrils filled with pepper and his whole body smeared
with soap. The minstrels gave chase to the bull, which became
the property of any minstrel of the county of Stafford who
succeeded in holding him long enough to cut off a lock of his hair.
Otherwise he was returned to the prior. At the dissolution of
the monasteries this tenure devolved upon the dukes of Devon-
shire, who suppressed it in 1788. At Stamford the running took
place annually on November I3th, the bull being provided by
the butchers of the town, the townspeople taking part in the
chase, which was carried on until both people and beast were
exhausted, and ended in the killing of the bull. Certain rules
were strictly observed, such as the prohibition of carrying
sticks or staves that were shod with iron. The Stamford bull-
running survived well into the igth century. Bear-baiting and
bull-baiting were prohibited by act of parliament in 1835.
BEARD, WILLIAM HOLBROOK (1825-1900), American
painter, was born on the i3th of April 1825 at Painesville, Ohio.
He studied abroad, and in 1861 removed to New York City,
where in 1862 he became a member of the National Academy
of Design. He was a prolific worker and a man of much inven-
tiveness and originality, though of modest artistic endowment.
His humorous treatment of cats, dogs, horses and monkeys,
generally with some human occupation and expression, usually
satirical, gave him a great vogue at one time, and his pictures
were largely reproduced. His brother, James Henry Beard
(1814-1893), was also a painter.
BEARD (A.S. beard, O. H. and Mod. Ger. Bart, Dan. board,
Icel. bar, rim, edge, beak of a ship, &c., O. Slav, barda, Russ.
barodd. Cf. Welsh barf, Lat. barba, though, according to the
New English Dictionary, the connexion is for phonetic reasons
doubtful). Modern usage applies this word to the hair grown
upon a man's chin and cheek. When the chin is shaven, what
remains upon the cheeks is called whiskers. " Moustache " or
" moustaches " describes the hair upon the upper lip. But the
words have in the past had less exact meaning. Beard has
stood alone for all these things, and whisker has in its time
signified what we now call moustache, as in the case of Robinson
Crusoe's great pair of " Turkish whiskers."
The bearded races of mankind have ever held the beard in
high honour. It is the sign of full manhood; the lad or the
eunuch is beardless, and the bearded woman is reckoned a witch,
a loathsome thing to all ages. Also the beard shrinks from the
profane hand ; a tug at the beard is sudden pain and dishonour.
The Roman senator sat like a carven thing until the wondering
Goth touched his long beard; but then he struck, although he
died for the blow. The future King John gave deadly offence
to the native chieftains, when visiting Ireland in 1185, by pluck-
ing at their flowing beards.
David's ambassadors had their beards despitefully shaven by
a bold heathen. Their own king mercifully covered their shame
" Tarry ye at Jericho until your beards be grown " but war
answered the insult. The oath on the beard is as old as history,
and we have an echo of it in the first English political ballad
when Sir Simon de Montfort swears " by his chin " revenge on
Warenne.
Adam, our first father, was by tradition created with a beard:
Zeus A II father is bearded, and the old painters and carvers who
hardily pictured the first person of the Trinity gave Him the
576
BEARD
long beard of his fatherhood. The race-fathers have it and the
ancient heroes. Abraham and Agamemnon, Woden and King
Arthur and Charlemagne, must all be bearded in our pictures.
With the Mahommedan peoples the beard as worn by an un-
shaven prophet has ever been in high renown, the more so that
amongst most of the conquering tribes who first acknowledged
the unity of God and prophethood of Mahomet it grows freely.
But before Mahomet's day, kings of Persia had plaited their
sacred beards with golden thread, and the lords of Nineveh had
curiously curled and oiled beards such as their winged bull wears.
Bohadin tells us that Saladin's little son wept for terror when
he saw the crusaders' envoys " with their clean-shaven chins."
Selim I. (1512-1521) comes down as a Turkish sultan who broke
into holy custom and cut off his beard, telling a remonstrating
Mufti that his vizier should now have nothing to lead him by.
But such tampering with tradition has its dangers, and the
absolute rule of Peter the Great is made clear when we know
that he taxed Russian beards and shaved his own, and yet died
in his bed. Alexander the Great did as much and more with his
well-drilled Macedonians, and was obeyed when he bade them
shave off the handle by which an enemy could seize them.
With other traditions of their feudal age, the Japanese nation
has broken with its ancient custom of the razor, and their
emperor has beard and moustache; a short moustache is common
amongst Japanese officers and statesmen, and generals and
admirals of Nippon follow the imperial example. The Nearer
East also is abandoning the full beard, even in Mahommedan
lands. Earlier shahs of the Kajar house have glorious beards
below their girdles, but Nasiru'd-Din and his successor have
shaved their chins. In later years the sultan of Turkey has
added a beard to his moustache; the khedive of Egypt, son of
a bearded father, has a soldier's moustache only. In Europe
the great Russian people is faithful to the beard, Peter's law
being forgotten. The tsar Alexander III.'s beard might have
satisfied Ivan the Terrible, whose hands played delightedly
with the five-foot beard of Queen Elizabeth's agent George
Killingworth. Indeed the royal houses of Europe are for the
most part bearded or whiskered. It may be that the race of
Olivier le Dain, of the man who can be trusted with a sharp
razor near a crowned king's throat, is extinct. Leopold II.,
king of the Belgians, however, was in 1909 the only sovereign
with the full beard undipped. The Austrian emperor, Francis
Joseph, retained the moustache and whiskers of the 'sixties, and
the German emperor, William II., for a short period, com-
memorated by a few very rare photographs, had a beard,
although it was never suffered to reach the length of that beard
which gave his father an air of Charlemagne or Barbarossa. In
France bearded presidents have followed each other, but it may
be noted that the waxed moustache and " imperial " beard of
the Second Empire is now all but abandoned to the Frenchman
of English comedy. The modern English fashion of shaving
clean is rare in France save among actors, and during 1907
many Parisian waiters struck against the rule which forbade
them to grow the moustache.
For the most part the clergy of the Roman obedience shave
clean, as have done the popes for two centuries and more. But
missionary bishops cultivate the long beard with some pride, and
the orders have varying customs, the Dominican shaving and the
Franciscan allowing the hair to grow. The Roman Catholic
clergy of Dalmatia, secular and regular, are allowed to wear the
moustache without beard or whiskers, as a concession to national
prejudices.
Amongst English people, always ready to be swayed by fashion,
the hair of the face has been, age by age, cherished or shaved
away, curled or clipped into a hundred devices. Before the
immigration from Sleswick the Briton knew the use of the razor,
sometimes shaving his chin, but leaving the moustaches long.
The old English also wore moustaches and forked beards, but,
save for aged men, the beard had passed out of fashion before the
Norman Conquest. Thus, in the Bayeux needlework, Edward
the king is venerable with a long beard, but Harold and his
younger fighting men have their chins reaped. " The English,"
says William of Malmesbury, " leave the upper lip unshaven,
suffering the hair continually to increase," and to Harold's spies
the Conqueror's knights, who had " the whole face with both lips
shaven," were strange and priest-like. Matthew Paris had a
strange idea that the beard was distinctive of Englishmen; he
asserts that those who remained in England were compelled to
shave their beards, while the native nobles who went into exile
kept their beards and flowing locks " like the Easterns and
especially the Trojans." He even believed that " William with
the beard," who headed a rising in London under Richard I.,
came of a stock which had scorned to shave, out of hatred for the
Normans, a statement which Thierry developed.
The Chanson de Roland shows us " the pride of France " as
" that good bearded folk," with their beards hanging over coats
of mail, and it makes the great emperor swear to Naimes by his
beard. It was only about the year 1000, according to Rodolf
Glaber, that men began in the north of France to wear short hair
and shave " like actors "; and even in the Bayeux tapestry the
old Norman shipwrights wear the beard. But so rare was hair on
the face amongst the Norman invaders that William, the fore-
father of the Percys, was known in his lifetime and remembered
after his death as William " Asgernuns " or " Oht les'gernuns,"
i.e. " William with the moustaches," the epithet revived by one
of his descendants making our modern name of Algernon. Count
Eustace of Boulogne was similarly distinguished. Fashion swung
about after the Conquest, and, in the day of Henry I., Serle the
bishop could compare bearded men of the Norman-English court
with " filthy goats and bristly Saracens." The crusades,perhaps,
were accountable for the beards which were oddly denounced as
effeminate in the young courtiers of William Rufus. Not only
the Greeks but the Latins in the East sometimes adopted the
Saracen fashion, and the siege of Antioch (1098) was as unfavour-
able to the use of the razor as that of Sevastopol. When the
Latins stormed the town by night, bearded knights owed their
death to the assumption that every Christian would be a shaven
man. But for more than four centuries diversity is allowed,
beards, moustaches and shaven faces being found side by side,
although now and again one fashion or another comes uppermost
to be followed by those nice in such matters. Henry II. is a close-
shaven king, and Richard II. 's effigy shows but a little tuft on
each side of the chin, tufts which are two curled locks on the chin
of Henry IV. But Henry III. is long-bearded, Edward II. curls
his beard in three great ringlets, and the third Edward's long
forked beard flows down his breast in patriarchal style. The
mid-i3th century, as seen in the drawings attributed to Matthew
Paris, is an age of many full and curled beards, although the
region about the lips is sometimes clipped or shaved. The beard
is common in the I4th century, the forked pattern being favoured
and the long drooping moustache. Amongst those who ride with
him.to Canterbury, Chaucer, a bearded poet, notes the merchant's
" ; forked beard," the white beard of the franklin and the red beard
of the miller, but the reeve's beard is " shave as ny as ever he
can." Henry of Monmouth and his son are shaven, and there-
after beards are rare save with a few old folk until they come
slowly back with the i6th century. In Ireland the statute
enacted by a parliament at Trim in 1447 recited that no manner
of man who will be taken for an Englishman should have beard
above his mouth the upper lip must be shaven at least every
fortnight or be of equal growth with the nether lip, and this
statute remained unrepealed for nigh upon two hundred years.
Henry VIII., always a law to himself, brought back the beard to
favour, Stowe's annals giving 1535 as the year in which he caused
his beard " to be knotted and no more shaven," his hair being
polled at the same time. Many portraits give his fashion of
wearing a thin moustache, whose ends met a short and squarely
trimmed beard parted at the chin, a fashion in which he was
followed by his brother-in-law Charles Brandon. But it is
remarkable that those about him rarely imitated their most dread
sovereign. While Cromwell and Howard the Admiral go clean
shaven, the Seymour brothers, Denny and Russell, have the
beard long and flowing. Even the forty shilling a year man, says
Hooper in 1548, will waste his morning time while he sets his
BEARDSLEY
577
beard in order. About this time the clergy began to break with
the long tradition of smooth faces. A priest in 1531 is com-
manded to abstain from wearing a beard, and Cardinal Pole,
coming from the court of a bearded pope, appears bearded like a
Greek patriarch. The law too, the church's kinswoman, begins
to forbid, a sign of the change, and from 1542 the society of
Lincoln's Inn makes rules for fining and expelling those who
appear bearded at their mess, rules which the example of exalted
lawyers caused to be withdrawn in 1560.
The age of Elizabeth saw lawyers, soldiers, courtiers and
merchants all bearded. Her Cecils, Greshams, Raleighs, Drakes,
Dudleys and Walsinghams have the beard. A shaven chin such
as that seen in the portrait of Philip Howard, earl of Arundel, is
rare, but the beards take a hundred fashions, and satirists and
"Puritan pamphleteers were busy with them and with the men
who wasted hours in perfuming or starching them, in dusting
them with orris powder, in curling them with irons and quills.
Stubbs gives them a place amongst his abuses. " It is a world to
consider how their mowchatowes must be preserved or laid out
from one cheek to another and turned up like two horns towards
the forehead." Of the English variety of beards Harrison has a
good word: " beards of which some are shaven from the chin
like those of Turks, not a few cut short like to the beard of
Marquess Otto, some made round like a rubbing brush, 'others
with a pique de vant (O! fine fashion) or now and then suffered to
grow long, the barbers being grown to be so cunning in this behalf
as the tailors. And therefore if a man have a lean and straight
face, a Marquess Otto's cut will make it broad and large; if it
be platter-like, a long slender beard will make it seem the
narrower; if he be weasel-becked, then much hair left on the
cheeks will make the owner look big like a bowdled hen, and as
grim as a goose, if Cornelis of Chelmersford say true." Neverthe-
less he adds that " many old men do wear no beards at all." The
Elizabethan fashions continued under King James, the beard
trimmed to a point being common wear; but under King
Charles there is a certain reaction, and the royal style of shaving
the cheeks and leaving the moustache whose points sweep upward
and the chin beard like a downward flame is followed by most
of the gentry. With some the beard disappears altogether or
remains a mere fleck below the lip. Archbishop Laud has a
cavalier-like chin tuft and upturned moustache, but Abbot his
predecessor wore the spade beard, the " cathedral beard " of
Randle Holme, seen in all its dignity on the Chigwell brass of
Samuel Harsnett, archbishop of York (died 1631), a grim figure
with his angry moustache and a long and broad beard, cut square
at the bottom.
From the Restoration year the razor comes more into use.
Young men shave clean. The restored king curls a few dark hairs
of a moustache over each cheek, but his brother James is shaven.
With the reign of Queen Anne the country enters the beardless
age, and beards, moustaches and whiskers are no more seen. In
the 1 8th century the moustache indicated a soldier from beyond
sea. A Jew or a Turk was known by the beard, an appendage
loathsome as comic. Matthew Robinson, the second Lord Rokeby ,
was indeed wearing a beard in 1 798, but he was reckoned a mad-
man therefor, and Phillips's Public Character pictures him as
" the only peer and perhaps the only gentleman of either Great
Britain or Ireland who is thus distinguished." That George III.
in his madness should have been left unshaved was a circumstance
of his misery that wrung the hearts of all loyal folk. But in the
very year of 1798, when Lord Rokeby's image was engraved for
the curious, the Worcestershire militia officers quartered near
Brighton were copying the Austrian moustache of the foreign
troops, and we may note that the hair of the face, which dis-
appeared when wigs came in, began to reappear as wigs went out.
Early in the igth century the bucks began to show a patch of
whisker beside the ear, and the soldier's moustache became a
common sight. Before Waterloo, guardsmen were complaining
that officers of humbler regiments imitated their fashion of the
moustache, and by the Waterloo year most young cavalry
officers were moustached. The Horse Artillery were the next
moustached corps, the rest of the army, already whiskered,
m. 19
following their example in the "fifties. But for a civilian to grow
a moustache was long reckoned a piece of unseemly swagger.
Clive Newcome, it will be remembered, wore one until the
taunting question whether he was " going in the Guards " shamed
him into shaving clean. When in 1840 Mr George Frederick
Muntz appeared in parliament with a full beard there were those
who felt that this tall Radical had taken his own strange method
of insulting English parliamentary institutions. James Ward,
R.A. (d. 1859), painter of animals, was another breaker of the
unwritten law, defending his beard in a pamphlet of eighteen
arguments as a thing pleasing at once to the artist and to his
Creator. Freedom in these matters only came when the troops
were home from the Crimea, when officers who had grown beards
and acquired the taste for tobacco during the long months in the
trenches showed their beards and their cigars in Piccadilly. Then
came the Volunteer movement, and every man was a soldier,
taking a soldier's licence. The dominant fashion was the
moustache, worn with long and drooping whiskers. But the
" Piccadilly weepers " of the 'sixties were out of the mode for
the younger men when the 'eighties began, and by the end of the
century whiskers were seen in the army only upon a few veteran
officers. The fashion of clean shaving had made some way, the
popularity of the shaven actor having a part in this. In 1009 all
modes of dealing with the hair of the face might be recognized,
but the full beard had become somewhat rare in England and the
full whiskers rarer still. The upper class showed an inclination
to shave clean, although the army grudgingly recognized a rule
which ordered the moustache to be worn. Naval men, by
regulation, shaved or wore both beard and moustache, but their
beards were always trimmed. Most barristers shaved the lips,
although the last judge unable to hear an advocate whose voice a
moustache interrupted had left the bench. Clergymen followed
the lay fashions as they did under the first Stuart kings, although
there was still some prejudice against the moustache as an
ornament military and inappropriate. A newspaper of 1857,
describing the appearance of Livingstone the missionary at a
Mansion House meeting, records that he came wearing a
moustache, " braving the prejudices of his countrymen and thus
evincing a courage only inferior to that exhibited by him amongst
the savages of Central Africa." Even as late as 1884 the Pall
Mall Gazette has some surprised comments on the beard of Bishop
Ryle, newly consecrated to the see of Liverpool.
The footman, whose full-dress livery is the court dress of a
hundred years ago, must show no more than the rudimentary
whisker of the early eighteen-hundreds, and butler, coachman
and groom come under the same rule. The jockey and the hunt
whip are shaven likewise, but the courier has the whiskers and
moustache that once marked him as a foreigner in the English
milor's service, and the chauffeur, a servant with no tradition
behind him, is often moustached.
Lastly, we may speak of the practice of the royal house since
England came out of the beardless century. The regent took
the new fashion, and sat " in whiskered state," but his brother
and successor shaved clean and disliked even the hussar's
moustache. The prince consort wore the moustache as a young
man, adding whiskers in later years. King Edward VII. wore
moustache and trimmed beard, and his heir apparent also
followed the fashion of many fellow admirals. (O. BA.)
BEARDSLEY, AUBREY VINCENT (1872-1808), English
artist in black and white, was born at Brighton on the 24th of
August 1872. In 1883 his family settled in London, and in the
following year he appeared in public as an " infant musical
phenomenon," playing at several concerts with his sister. In
1888 he obtained a post in an architect's office, and afterwards
one in the Guardian Life and Fire Insurance Company (1889).
In 1891, under the advice of Sir Edward Burne-Jones and Puvis
de Chavannes, he took up art as a profession. In 1892 he
attended the classes at the Westminster School of Art, then under
Professor Brown; and from 1893 until his death, at Mentone, on
the i6th of March 1898, his work came continually before the
public, arousing a storm of criticism and much hostile feeling.
Beardsley had an unswerving tendency towards the fantastic of
57 8
BEARDSTOWN BEARINGS
the gloomier and " unwholesome " sort. His treatment of most
subjects was revolutionary; he deliberately ignored P
and perspective, and the " freedom from convention which he
displayed caused his work to be judged with harshness. In
certain phases of technique he especially excelled; and his earlier
methods of dealing with the single line in conjunction with masses
of black are in their way unsurpassed, except in the art of Japan,
the country which probably gave his ideas some assistance. He
was always an ornamentist, rather than an illustrator; and his
work must be judged from that point of view. His frontispiece
to Volpone is held by some to be, from this purely technical
standpoint, one of the best pen-drawings of the age. His posters
for the Avenue theatre and for Mr Fisher Unwin were among the
first of the modern cult of that art.
The following are the chief works which are illustrated with
drawings by Beardsley: the Bon Mot Library The Pal Mall
Budeet,and The Studio (1893), Sir Thomas Malory s Morted Arthur
(1801-1894), Salome (1894), The Yellow Book (1894-1895), The Savoy
Magazine (1896), The Rape of the Lock (1896).
See also J. Pennell, The Studio (1893); Syraons, Aubrey Beardsley
(1808)' R Ross, Volpone (1898); H. C. Marilher, The Early Work
of Aubrey Beardsley (1899) ; Smithers, Reproductions of Drawings by
Aubrey Beardsley; John Lane, The Later Works of Aubrey Beardsley
(1901); R. Ross, Aubrey Beardsley (1908). (E. F. S.)
BEARDSTOWN, a city of Cass county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the
W. part of the state, on the E. bank of the Illinois river, about
in m. N. of St Louis, Missouri. It is served by the Baltimore
& Ohio South-Western, and the Burlington (Chicago, Burlington
& Quincy) railways, and by steamboats plying between it and
St. Louis. Pop. (1890) 4226; (1900) 4827 (444 foreign-born) ;
(1910) 6107. The industrial establishments of the city include
flour, planing and saw mills, the machine shops (of the St Louis
division) of the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway ,^ ice
factories, pearl button factories and a shoe factory. The fishing
interests are also important. Beardstown was laid out in 1827
and was incorporated as a city in 1806. It was named in honour
of Thomas Beard, who settled in the vicinity in 1820. During
the Black Hawk War (1832) it was a base of supplies for the
Illinois troops. The old court house in which Abraham Lincoln,
in 1854, won his famous " Armstrong murder case," is now used
for a city hall.
BEARER, strictly " one who carries," a term used in India
for a palanquin-bearer, and now especially for a body-servant.
The term is also used in connexion with military ambulances,
and " bearer " companies formed part of the Royal Army
Medical Corps until amalgamated with the field-hospitals to
form field-ambulances (1905). In banking and commerce the
word is applied to the holder or presenter of a cheque or draft
not made payable to a specific person; it has also a technical
use, as in printing, of anything that supports pressure in
machinery, &c.
BEARINGS. In engineering a " bearing " is that particular
kind of support which, besides carrying the load imposed upon
it by the shaft associated with it, allows the shaft freedom
to revolve. Or, put in another way, a bearing forms with the
shaft a pair of elements having one degree of freedom to turn
relatively to one another about their common axis. The part
of the shaft in the bearing is commonly called the journal. The
component parts of a small bearing, pillow block, plummer
block or pedestal, as it is variously styled, are illustrated in
fig. i, and these parts, put together, are further illustrated in
fig. 2 with the shaft added. Corresponding parts are similarly
lettered in the two illustrations. The shaft (S) is encircled by the
brasses (Bi and B 2 ) made of gun metal, phosphor bronze or other
suitable material. The lower brass fits into the main casting
(A) in the semicircular seat provided for it, and is prevented from
moving endways by the flanges (F, F) and from turning with the
shaft by the projections (P, P), which fit into corresponding
recesses in the casting (A) , one of which is shown at p. After the
shaft has been placed in position, the upper brass (B 2 ) and the
cap (C) are put on and both are held in place by the bolts (Qi, Q 2 )
The brasses are bedded into the main casting (A) and the cap (C]
respectively at the surfaces D, D, D, D. The complete bearing
is held to the framework of the machine by bolts (Ri, R 2 ) passing
trough holes~(H, H) which are slotted to allow endwise adjust-
ment of the whole bearing in order to facilitate the alignment of
.he shaft. Oil or other lubricant is introduced through the hole
G) , and it passes
hrough the top
brass to grooves
or oilways cut into
the surface of the
Drass for the pur-
Dose of distributing
;he oil uniformly to
the journal.
Some form of
ubricator is usually
fitted at G in order
to supply oil to the
3earing continu-
ously. A form of
[ubricator used for
this purpose is
,hown in place, fig.
!, and an enlarged
section is shown in
fig. 3'. It will be
seen that the lubri-
cator consists essentially of a cup the base of which is pierced
centrally by a tube which reaches to within a small distance of
the lid of the cup inside, and projects into the oilway leading
to the journal outside. The annular space round the tube inside
is filled with oil which is transferred to the central tube and
thence to the bearing by the capillary action of a cotton wick
thrust down on a piece of wire. It is only necessary to with-
draw the wick from the central tube to stop the supply of oil.
The lubricator is fitted through a hole in the lid which is usually
plugged with a piece of cane or closed by more elaborate means.
A line of shafting would be supported by several bearings of the
FIG. 2.
kind illustrated, themselves supported by brackets projecting
from or rigidly fixed to the walls of the workshop, or on frames
resting on the floor, or on hangers attached to the roof girders
or principals.
In bearings of modern design for supporting a line shaft the
general arrangement shown in fig. i is modified so that the
alignments of the shaft can be made both vertically or horizont-
ally by means of adjusting screws, and the brass is jointed with
the supporting main body so that it is free to follow the small
deflections of the shaft which take place when the shaft is work-
ing. Another modern improvement is the forma-
tion of an oil reservoir or well in the base of the
bearing itself, and the transference of the oil from
this well to the shaft by means of one or two rings
riding loosely on the shaft. The bottom part of
the ring dips into the oil contained in the well of
the bearing and, as the shaft rotates, the ring rolls
on the shaft and thus carries oil up to the shaft con-
tinuously, from which it finds its way to the surfaces
of the shaft and bearing in contact. It should be
understood that the upper brass is slotted crossways to allow
the ring to rest on the shaft. When the direction of the load
carried by the bearing is constant it is unnecessary to provide
FIG. 3.
BEARINGS
579
more than one brass, and the construction is modified accordingly.
Figs. 4 and 5 show an axle box used for goods wagons on the
Great Eastern railway, and they also illustrate the method of
B
FIG. 4.
pad lubrication in general use for this kind of bearing. The
main casting, A, is now uppermost, and is designed so that the
upper part supports and constrains the spring buckle through
which the load W is transmitted to the bearing, and the lower
part inside is arranged to support the brass, B. The brass is
jointed freely with the main casting by means of a hemispherical
hump resting in a corresponding recess in the casting. What
may be called the cap, C, forms the lower part of the axle box,
FIG. 5.
but instead of supporting a second brass it is formed into an oil
reservoir in which is arranged a pad of cotton wick woven on a
tin frame. ' The upper part of the pad is formed into a kind of
brush, shaped to fit the underside of the journal, whilst the lower
part consists of streamers of wick resting in the oil. The oil is
fed to the brush by the capillary action of the streamers. The
reservoirs are filled with oil through the apertures P and O.
The bottom cap is held in position by the T-headed bolts
Qi and Q t (fig. 5). By slackening the nuts and turning the T-
heads fair with the slots in the cap, the cap comes right away
and the axle may be examined. A leather ring L is fitted as
shown to prevent dust from entering the axle box.
Footsteps. A bearing arranged to support the lower end of
a vertical shaft is called a footstep, sometimes a pivot bearing.
A simple form of footstep is shown in fig. 6. A casting A,
designed so that it can be conveniently bolted to a foundation
block, cross beam, or bracket is bored out and fitted with a
brass B, which is turned inside to carry the end of the shaft S.
The whole vertical load on the shaft is carried by the footstep,
so that it is important to arrange efficient lubricating apparatus.
Results of experiments made on a footstep, reported in Proc.
Inst. Meek. Eng., 1891, show that if a diametral groove be cut
in the brass, as indicated at g (fig. 6), and if the oil is led to the
centre of this groove by a channel c communicating with the
exterior, the rotation of the shaft draws in a plentiful supply of
oil which radiates from the
centre and makes its way
vertically between the shaft
and the brass and finally
overflows at the top of the
brass. The overflowing oil
may be led away and may
be re-introduced into the
footsteps at c. The rota-
tion of the shaft thus causes
a continuous circulation of
oil through the footstep.
One experiment from the
report mentioned above
may be quoted. A 3-in.
shaft, revolving 128 times
per minute and supported
on a manganese bronze
bearing lubricated in the
way explained above sus-
tained increasing loads
until, at a load of 300
pounds per square inch of
the area of the end of the
shaft, it seized. The
FIG. 6.
mechanical details of a footstep may be varied for purposes of
adjustment in a variety of ways similarly to the variations of a
common bearing already explained.
Thrust Block Bearing. In cases where a bearing is required to
resist a longitudinal movement of the shaft through it, as for
example in the case of the propeller shaft of a marine engine or a
vertical shaft supporting a heavy load not carried on a footstep,
the shaft is provided with one or more collars which are grooved
with corresponding recesses in the brasses of the bearing. A
general sketch of a thrust block for a propeller shaft is shown in
fig. 7. There are seven collars turned on the shaft and into the
FIG. 7.
circumferential grooves between them fit corresponding circum-
ferential projections on the brasses, these projections being
formed in the case illustrated by means of half rings which are
5 8o
BEARINGS
fitted into grooves turned in the brasses. This method of
construction allows an individual ring to be replaced or adjusted
if it should get hot. The total area of the rubbing surfaces should
be proportioned so that the average load is not more than from 50
to 70 Ib per sq. in. Arrangements are usually made for cooling a
thrust block with water in case of heating. The spindles of
drilling machines, boring machine spindles, turbine shafts may be
cited as examples of vertical shafts supported on one collar.
Experiments on the friction of a collar bearing have been made
by the Research Committee of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers (Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1888).
Roller and Ball Bearings. If rollers are placed between two
surfaces having relative tangential motion the frictional resistance
to be overcome is the small resistance to rolling. The rollers move
along with a velocity equal to one half the relative velocity of the
surfaces. This way of reducing frictional resistance has been
applied to all kinds of mechanical contrivances, including bearings
for shafts, railway axle boxes, and axle boxes for tramcars. An
example of a roller bearing for a line shaft is illustrated in figs. 8
and 9. The main casting, A, and cap, C, bolted together, form a
spherical seating for the part of the bearing E corresponding to
the brasses in a bearing of the usual type. Between the inside of
the casting E and the journal are placed rollers held in posi-
tion relatively to one another by a " squirrel cage " casting, the
section of the bars of which are clearly shown in the half sectional
elevation, fig. 9. This squirrel cage ensures that the several axes
of the rollers keep parallel to the axis of the journal during the
rolling motion. The rollers are made of hard tool steel, and the
FIG. 8.
FIG. 9.
surfaces of the journal and bearing between which they roll are
hardened.
Two rings of balls may be used instead of a single ring of
rollers, and the kind of ball bearing thus obtained is in general
use principally in connexion with bicycles and motor cars (see
BICYCLE). In ball bearings the load is concentrated at a few
points, the points where the balls touch the race, and in the roller
bearing at a few lines, the lines of contact between the rollers and
the surfaces of the journal and bearing; consequently the load
which bearings of this kind carry must not be great enough to
cause any indentation at the points or lines of contact. Both
rollers and balls, and the paths on which they roll, therefore, are
made of hard material; further, balls and rollers must all be
exactly the same size in an individual bearing in order to dis-
tribute the load between the points or lines of contact as uni-
formly as possible. The finest workmanship is required therefore
to make good roller or good ball bearings.
Bearings for High Speeds and Forced Lubrication. When the
shaft turns the metallic surfaces of the brass and the journal are
prevented from actual contact by a film of oil which is formed and
maintained by the motion of the shaft and which sustains the
pressure between the journal and the brass provided the surfaces
are accurately formed and the supply of oil is unlimited. This
film changes what would otherwise be the friction between
metallic surfaces into a viscous resistance within the film itself.
When through a limited supply of oil or imperfect lubrication
this film is imperfect or fails altogether and allows the journal to
make metallic contact with the brass, the friction increases; and
it may increase so much that the bearing rapidly becomes hot and
may ultimately seize, that is to say the rubbing surfaces may
become stuck together. With the object of reducing the friction
at the points of metallic contact and of confining the damage of a
hot bearing to the easily renewable brass, the latter is partially,
sometimes wholly, lined with a soft fusible metal, technically
known as white metal, which melts away before actual seizure
takes place, and thus saves the journal which is more expensive
because it is generally formed on a large and expensive shaft.
However perfectly the film fulfils its function, the work required
to overcome the viscous resistance of the film during the con-
tinuous rotation of the shaft appears as heat, and in consequence
the temperature of the bearing gradually rises until the rate at
which heat is produced is equal to the rate at which it is radiated
from the bearing. Hence in order that a journal may revolve
with a minimum resistance and without undue heating two
precautions must be taken: (i) means must be taken to ensure
that the film of oil is complete and never fails; and (2) arrange-
ments must be made for controlling the temperature should it rise
too high. The various lubricating devices already explained
supply sufficient oil to form a partial film, since experiments have
shown that the friction of bearings lubricated in this way is akin
to solid friction, thus indicating at least partial metallic contact.
In order to supply enough oil to form and maintain a film with
certainty the journal should be run in an oil bath, or oil should be
supplied to the bearing under pressure sufficient to force it in
between the surfaces against the load. A bearing to which forced
lubrication and water cooling are applied is illustrated in fig. 10,
which represents one of the bearings of a Westinghouse turbo-
alternator installed at the power station of the Underground
Electric Railways Company of London at Lots Road, Chelsea.
Oil flows under pressure from a tank
on the top of a tower along a supply
pipe to the oil inlet O, and after
passing through the bearing and
performing its duty as a film it falls
away from each end of the journal
into the bottom of the main casting,
from which a pipe, E, conveys the
oil back to the base of the tank tower
where it is cooled and finally pumped
back into the tank. There is thus a
continuous circulation of oil through
the^bearing. The space C is for cool-
ing water; in fact the bearing is water
jacketed and the jacket is connected
to a supply pipe and a drain pipe so
that a continuous circulation may be
maintained if desired. This bearing is 12 in. in diameter and
48 in. long, and it carries a load of about 12-8 tons. The rise in
temperature of the bearing under normal conditions of working
without water circulating in the jacket is approximately 38 F.
The speed of rotation is such that the surface velocity is about
50 ft. per second.
Forced lubrication in connexion with the bearings of high-
speed engines was introduced in 1890 by Messrs Belliss & Morcom,
Ltd., under patents taken out in the name of A. C. Pain. It
should be understood that providing the film of oil in the bearing
of an engine can be properly maintained a double-acting engine
can be driven at a high speed without any knocking, and without
perceptible wear ot the rubbing surfaces. Fig. 1 1 shows that the
general arrangement of the bearings of a Belliss & Morcom
engine arranged for forced lubrication. A small force-pump F,
driven from the eccentric strap X, delivers oil into the pipe P,
along which it passes to A, the centre of the right-hand main
bearing. There is a groove turned on the inside of the brass
from which a slanting hole leads to B. The oil when it arrives
at A thus has two paths open to it, one to the right and left of
the groove through the bearing, the other along the slanting
hole to B. At B it divides again into two streams, one stream
going upwards to the eccentric sheave, and a part continuing
up the pipe Q to the eccentric pin. The second stream from B
follows the slanting hole in the crank shaft to C, where it is led
to the big end journal through the pipe R to the crosshead pin,
and through the slanting hole to D, where it finds its way into the
left main bearing. The oil forced through each bearing falls
away to the right and to the left of the journal and drops into
FIG. 10.
BEARINGS
581
the bottom of the engine framing, whence it is again fed to the
pump through a strainer. The parts of an engine lubricated in
this way must be entirely enclosed.
Load on bearings. The distribution of pressure over the
s-^. _ film of lubricant
separating the rub-
bing surfaces of a
bearing is variable,
being greatest at a
point near but not
at the crown of the
brass, and falling
away to zero in all
directions towards
the boundaries of
the film. It is usual
in practice to ignore
this variation of
pressure through
the film, and to in-
dicate the severity
with which the
bearing is loaded
by stating the load
per square inch of
the rubbing sur-
faces projected on
to the diametral
plane of the jour-
nal. Thus the pro-
jected area of the
surfaces of a journal
6 in. in diameter
FIG. ii.
sq. in., and if the
total load carried
by the bearing is
20,000 pounds, the
bearing would be said to carry a load of 417 pounds per square
inch. When a shaft rotates in a bearing continuously in one
direction the load per square inch with which it is safe to load
the bearing in order to avoid undue heating is much less than if
the motion is intermittent. A table of a few values of the bearing
loads used in practice is given in the article LUBRICANTS.
Bearing Friction. If W is the total load on a bearing, and if M is
the coefficient of friction between the rubbing surfaces, the tangential
resistance to turning is expressed by the product jiW. If v is the
relative velocity of the rubbing surfaces, the work done per second
against friction is juWn foot pounds. This quantity of work is con-
verted into heat, and the heat produced per second is therefore
MWf/778 British Thermal Units. The coefficient M is a variable
quantity, and bearing in mind that a properly lubricated journal is
separated from its supporting brass by a film of lubricant it might
be expected that it would nave values characteristic of the co-
efficient of friction between two metallic surfaces, merging into the
characteristics properly belonging to fluid friction, according as the
oil film varied from an imperfect to a perfect condition, that is,
according as the lubrication is partial or complete, completeness
being attained by the use of an oil bath or by some method of forced
lubrication. This expectation is entirely borne out by experimental
researches. Beauchamp Tower (" Report on Friction Experiments,"
Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., November 1883) found that when oil was
supplied to a bearing by means of a pad the coefficient of friction
was approximately constant with the value of 1/100, thus following the
law of solid friction ; but when the journal was lubricated by means
of an oil bath the coefficient of friction varied nearly inversely as
the load on the bearing, thus making MW =constant. The tangential
resistance in this case is characteristic of fluid friction since it is
independent of the pressure. Tower's experiments were carried
out at a nearly constant temperature. The later experiments of
O. Lasche (Zeitsch. Verein deutsche Ingenieure, 1902, 46, pp. 1881 et
seq.) show how it depends upon the temperature. Lascne's main
results with regard to the variation of n are briefly : juW is a con-
stant quantity, thus confirming Tower's earlier experiments; it is
practically independent of the relative velocity of the rubbing
surfaces within the limits of 3 to 50 ft. per second; and _the
product id is constant, / being the temperature of the bearing.
Writing p for the load per unit of projected area of the bearing,
Lasche found that the result of the experiments could be expressed
by the simple formula put" constant -2, where p-the pressure in
kilograms per square centimetre, and /-the temperature in degrees
centigrade. If p is changed to pounds per square inch the constant
in the expression is approximately 30. The expression is valid
between limits of pressure 14 to 213 pounds per square inch, limits of
temperature 30 to 100 C, and between limits of velocity 3 to 50 ft.
per second.
Theory of Lubrication. After the publication of Tower's experi-
ments on journal friction Professor Osbornc Reynolds showed (Pkil.
Trans., 1886, p. 157) that the facts observed in connexion with a
journal lubricated by means of an oil bath could be explained by a
theory based upon the general principles of the motion of a viscous
fluid. It is first established as an essential part of the theory that
the radius of the brass must be slightly greater than the radius of
the journal as indicated in fig. 12, where J is the centre of the journal
and I the centre of the brass.
Given this difference of curva-
ture and a sufficient supply of j|
oil, the rotation of the journal
produces and maintains an oil .
film between the rubbing sur- \
faces, the circumferential ex-
tent of which depends upon
the rate of the oil supply and
the external load. With an un-
limited supply of oil, that is
with oil-bath lubrication, the
film extends continuously to
the extremities of the brass,
unless such extension would
lead to negative pressures and
therefore to a discontinuity,
in which case the film ends
where the pressures in the
film become negative. The
minimum distance between the journal and the brass occurs at
the point H (fig. 12), on the off side of the point O where the line
of action of the load cuts the surface of the journal. To the right
and left of H the thickness of the film gradually increases, this being
the condition that the oil-flow to and from the film may be auto-
matically maintained. With an unlimited supply of oil the point H
moves farther from O as the load increases until it reaches a maxi-
mum distance, and then it moves back again towards O as the
load is further increased until a limiting load is reached at which
the pressure in the film becomes negative at the boundaries of the
film, when the boundaries recede from the edges of the brass as
though the supply of oil were limited.
In the mathematical development of the theory it is first necessary
to define the coefficient of viscosity. This is done as follows: If
two parallel surfaces AB, CD are separated by a viscous film, and if
whilst CD is fixed AB moves in a tangential direction with velocity
U, the surface of the film in contact with CD clings to it and remains
at rest, whilst the lower surface of the film clings to and moves with
the surface AB. At intermediate points in the film the tangential
motion of the fluid will vary uniformly from zero to U, and the
tangential resistance wilj be F = nU/h, where it is the coefficient of
viscosjty and h is the thickness of the film. With this definition of
viscosity and from the general equations representing the stress in
a viscous fluid, the following equation is established, giving the
relations between p, the pressure at any point in the film, h the thick-
ness of the film at a point x measured round the circumference of the
journal in the direction of relative motion, and U the relative tan-
gential velocity ot the surfaces,
d l,.dp\ , ,,dh
dx( h dx)
(I)
In this equation all the quantities are independent of the co-ordinate
parallel to the axis of the journal, and U is constant. The thickness
of the film h is some function of x, and tor a journal Professor
Reynolds takes the form,
h=a\i-\-c sin(8 4x,)\,
in which the various quantities have the significance indicated in
fig. 12. Reducing and integrating equation (i) with this value of h
it becomes
' n (O J. \) t (2)
(/>, being the value of for which the pressure is a maximum. In
order to integrate this the right-hand side is expanded into a trigono-
metrical series, the values of the coefficients are computed, and the
integration is effected term by term. If, as suggested by Professor
J. Perry, the value of h is taken to be h = ht+ax*, where h, is the
minimum thickness of the film, the equation reduces to the form
_dp 6U , C
dx (ko+ax*)*^ (Ht+ox*)* u '
and this can be integrated. The process of reduction from the form
(l) to the form (3) with the latter value of h, is shown in full in The
Calculus for Engineers by Professor Perry (p. 331), and also the final
solution of equation (3), giving the pressure in terms of x.
5 8 2
BEAR-LEADERBEATON
Professor Reynolds, applying the results of his investigation to
one of Tower's experiments, plotted the pressures through the film
both circumferentially and longitudinally, and the agreement with
the observed pressure of the experiment was exceedingly .close. The
whole investigation of Professor Reynolds is a remarkable one, and
is in fact the first real explanation of the fact that oil is able to in-
sinuate itself between the journal and the brass of a bearing carrying
a heavy load. (See also LUBRICATION.) (W. E. D.)
BEAR-LEADER, formerly a man who led bears about the
country. In the middle ages and Tudor times these animals
were chiefly used in the brutal sport of bear-baiting and were
led from village to village. Performing bears were also common,
and are even still sometimes seen perambulating the country
with their keepers, generally Frenchmen or Italians. The
phrase " bear-leader " has now come colloquially to mean a
tutor or guardian, who escorts any lad of rank or wealth on his
travels.
BEARN, formerly a small frontier province in the south of
France, now included within the department of Basses- Pyrenees.
It was bounded on the W. by Soule and Lower Navarre, on the
N. by Chalosse, Tursan and Astarac, E. by Bigorre and S. by the
Pyrenees. Its name can be traced back to the town of Bene-
harnum (Lescar). The civitas Beneharnensium was included in
the Novempopidania. It was conquered by the Vascones in the
6th century, and in 819 became a viscounty dependent on the
dukes of Aquitaine a feudal link which was broken in the
nth century, when the viscounts ceased to acknowledge any
suzerain. They then reigned over the two dioceses of Lescar
and Oloron; but their capital was Morlaas, where they had a
mint which was famous throughout the middle ages. In the
I3th century Gaston VII., of the Catalonian house of Moncade,
made Orthez his seat of government. His long reign (12 20-1 290)
was a perpetual struggle with the kings of France and England,
each anxious to assert his suzerainty over Beam. As Gaston
left only daughters, the viscounty passed at his death to the
family of Foix, from whom it was transmitted through the
houses of Grailly and Albret to the Bourbons, and they, in the
person of Henry IV., king of Navarre, made it an apanage of
the crown of France. It was not formally incorporated in the
royal domains, however, until 1620. None of these political
changes weakened the independent spirit of the Bearnais. From
the nth century onward, they were governed by their own
special customs or fors. These were drawn up in the language
of the country, a Romance dialect (1288 being the date of the
most ancient written code), and are remarkable for the manner
in which they define the rights of the sovereign, determining
the reciprocal obligations of the viscount and his subjects or
vassals. Moreover, from the I2th century Beam enjoyed a kind
of representative government, with cours pltnieres composed of
deputies from the three estates. From 1220 onward, the
judiciary powers of these assemblies were exercised by a cour
majour of twelve barons jurats charged with the duty of main-
taining the integrity of the fors. When Gaston-Phoebus
wished to establish a regular annual hearth-tax (fouage) in the
viscounty, he convoked the deputies of the three estates in
assemblies called (tats. These soon acquired extensive political
and financial powers, which continued in operation till 1789.
Although, when Beam was annexed to the domains of the crown,
it was granted a conseil d'etat and a parlement, which sat at Pau,
the province also retained its fors until the Revolution.
See also Olhagaray, Histoire de Foix, Beam el Navarre (1609);
Pierre de Marca, Histoire de Beam (1640). This work does not go
beyond the end of the I3th century; it contains a large number of
documents. Faget de Baure, Essais historiques sur le Beam (1818) ;
Les Fors de Beam, by Mazure and Hatoulet (1839), completed by
J.^Bnssaud and P. Roge in Textes additionnels aux anciens Fors de
Beam (1905) ; Leon Cadier, Les tats de Beam depuis lew origine
jusqu au commencement du XVI' siecle (1888). (C. B.*)
BEAS or BIAS, a river of India. The Beas, which was the
Hyphasis of the Greeks, is one of the Five Rivers of the Punjab.
It issues in the snowy mountains of Kulu at an altitude of
13,326 ft. above sea-level, flows through the Kangra valley and
the plains of the Punjab, and finally joins the Sutlej after a
course of 290 m. It is crossed by a railway bridge near
Jullundur.
BEAT (a word common in various forms to the Teutonic
languages; it is connected with the similar Romanic words
derived from the Late Lat. baltere), a blow or stroke; from the
many applications of the verb " to beat " come various meanings
of the substantive, in some of which the primary sense has
become obscure. It is applied to the throbbing of the pulse or
heart, to the beating of a drum, either for retreat, or charge, or
to quarters; in music to the alternating sound produced by the
striking together of two notes not exactly of the same pitch (see
SOUND), and also to the movement of the baton by which a
conductor of an orchestra or chorus indicates the time, and to
the divisions of a bar. As a nautical term, a " beat " is the
zigzag course taken by a ship in sailing against the wind. The
application of the word to a policeman's or sentry's round comes
either from beating a covert for game and hence the term means
an exhaustive search of a district, or from the repeated strokes
of the foot in constantly walking up and down. In this sense
the word is used in America, particularly in Alabama and
Mississippi, of a voting precinct.
BEATIFICATION (from the Lat. bealtis, happy, blessed, and
Jacere, to make), the act of making blessed; in the Roman
Catholic Church, a stage in the process of canonization (q.v.).
BEATON (or BETHUNE), DAVID, (c. 1494-1546), Scottish
cardinal and archbishop of St Andrews, was a younger son of
John Beaton of Balfour in the county of Fife, and is said to have
been born in the year 1494. He was educated at the universities
of St Andrews and Glasgow, and in his sixteenth year was sent to
Paris, where he studied civil and canon law. About this time he
was presented to the rectory of Campsie by his uncle James
Beaton, then archbishop of Glasgow. When James Beaton was
translated to St Andrews in 1522 he resigned the rich abbacy of
Arbroath in his nephew's favour, under reservation of one half of
the revenues to himself during his lifetime. The great ability of
Beaton and the patronage of his uncle ensured his rapid promo-
tion to high offices in the church and kingdom. He was sent by
King James V. on various missions to France, and in 1528 was
appointed keeper of the privy seal. He took a leading part in the
negotiations connected with the king's marriages, first with
Madeleine of France, and afterwards with Mary of Guise. At the
French court he was held in high estimation by King Francis I.,
and was consecrated bishop of Mirepoix in Languedoc in
December 1537. On the 2oth of December 1538 he was appointed
a cardinal priest by Pope Paul III., under the title of St Stephen
in the Coelian Hill. He was the only Scotsman who had been
named to that high office by an undisputed right, Cardinal
Wardlaw, bishop of Glasgow, having received his appointment
from the anti-pope Clement VII. On the death of Archbishop
James Beaton in 1539, the cardinal was raised to the primatial
see of Scotland.
Beaton was one of King James's most trusted advisers, and it
was mainly due to his influence that the king drew closer the
French alliance and refused Henry VIII. 's overtures to follow
him in his religious policy. On the death of James in December
1542 he attempted to assume office as one of the regents for the
nfant sovereign Mary, founding his pretensions on an alleged will
of the late king; but his claims were disregarded, and the earl of
Arran, head of the great house of Hamilton, and next heir to the
throne, was declared regent by the estates. The cardinal was, by
order of the regent, committed to the custody of Lord Seaton;
>ut his imprisonment was merely nominal, and he was soon again
at liberty and at the head of the party opposed to the English
alliance. Arran too was soon won over to his views, dismissed
.he preachers by whom he had been surrounded, and joined the
cardinal at Stirling, where in September 1543 Beaton crowned
the young queen. In the same year he was raised to the office of
chancellor of Scotland, and was appointed protonotary apostolic
and legate a Mere by the pope. Had Beaton confined himself to
secular politics, his strenuous opposition to the plans of Henry
VIII. for the subjugation of Scotland would have earned him the
asting gratitude of his countrymen. Unfortunately politics were
nextricably interwoven with the religious controversies of the
ime, and resistance to English influence involved resistance to
BEATRICE BEATTIE
the activities of the reformers in the church, whose ultimate
victory has obscured the cardinal's genuine merits as a statesman.
During the lifetime of his uncle, Beaton had shared in the efforts
of the hierarchy to suppress the reformed doctrines, and pursued
the same line of conduct still more systematically after his
elevation to the primacy. The popular accounts of the persecu-
tion for which he was responsible are no doubt exaggerated, and
it sometimes ceased for considerable periods so far as capital
punishments were concerned. When the sufferers were of humble
rank not much notice was taken of them. It was otherwise when
a more distinguished victim was selected in the person of George
Wishart. Wishart had returned to Scotland, after an absence of
several years, about the end of 1544- His sermons produced a
great effect, and he was protected by several barons of the
English faction. These barons, with the knowledge and approba-
tion of King Henry, were engaged in a plot to assassinate the
cardinal, and in this plot Wishart is now proved to have been a
willing agent. The cardinal, though ignorant of the details of the
plot, perhaps suspected Wishart's knowledge of it, and in any
case was not sorry to have an excuse for seizing one of the most
eloquent supporters of the new opinions. For some time he was
unsuccessful; but at last, with the aid of the regent, he arrested
the preacher, and carried him to his castle of St Andrews. On the
28th of February 1546 Wishart was brought to trial in the
cathedral before the cardinal and other judges, the regent
declining to take any active part, and, being found guilty of
heresy, was condemned to death and burnt.
The death of Wishart produced a deep effect on the Scottish
people, and the cardinal became an object of general dislike,
which encouraged his enemies to proceed with the design they
had formed against him. Naturally resolute and fearless, he
seems to have under-estimated his danger, the more so since his
power had never seemed more secure. He crossed over to Angus,
and took part in the wedding of his illegitimate daughter with the
heir of the earl of Crawford. On his return to St Andrews he
took up his residence in the castle. The conspirators, the chief
of whom were Norman Leslie, master of Rothes, and William
Kirkaldy of Grange, contrived to obtain admission at daybreak
of the 29th of May 1546, and murdered the cardinal under
circumstances of horrible mockery and atrocity.
The character of Beaton has already been indicated. As a
statesman he was able, resolute, and in his general policy patriotic.
As an ecclesiastic he maintained the privileges of the hierarchy
and the dominant system of belief conscientiously, but always
with harshness and sometimes with cruelty. His immoralities,
like his acts of persecution, were exaggerated by his opponents;
but his private life was undoubtedly a scandal to religion, and has
only the excuse that it was not worse than that of most of his
order at the time. The authorship of the writings ascribed to him
in several biographical notices rests on no better authority than
the apocryphal statements of Thomas Dempster.
Beaton's uncle, James Beaton, or Bethune (d. 1539), arch-
bishop of Glasgow and St Andrews, was lord treasurer of Scotland
before he became archbishop of Glasgow in 1 509, was chancellor
from 1513 to 1526, and was appointed archbishop of St Andrews
and primate of Scotland in 1522. He was one of the regents
during the minority of James V., and was chiefly responsible for
this king's action in allying himself with France and not with
England. He burned Patrick Hamilton and other heretics, and
died at St Andrews in September 1539.
This prelate must not be confused with another, James Beaton,
or Bethune (1517-1603), the last Roman Catholic archbishop of
Glasgow. A son of John Bethune of Auchmuty and a nephew of
Cardinal Beaton, James was a trusted adviser of the Scottish
regent, Mary of Lorraine, widow of James V., and a determined
foe of the reformers. In 1552 he was consecrated archbishop of
Glasgow, but from 1560 until his death in 1603 he lived in Paris,
acting as ambassador for Scotland at the French court.
See John Knox, Hist, of the Reformation in Scotland, ed. D. Laing
(1846-1864); John Spottiswoode, archbishop of St Andrews, Hist,
of the Church of Scotland (Spottiswoode Soc., 1847-1851); Art. in
Diet, of Nat. Biog. and works there quoted ; and A. Lang, Hist, of
Scotland, vols. i. and ii. (1900-1902).
BEATRICE, a city and the county-seat of Gage county, in S.E.
Nebraska, U.S.A., about 40 m. S. of Lincoln. Pop. (1900) 7875
(852 foreign-born); (1910) 9356. It is served by the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, and
the Union Pacific railways. Beatrice is the seat of the state
institute for feeble-minded youth, and has a Carnegie library.
The city is very prettily situated in the valley of the Big Blue
river, in the midst of a fine agricultural region. Among its
manufactures are dairy products (there is a large creamery),
canned goods, flour and grist mill products, gasoline engines,
well-machinery, barbed wire, tiles, ploughs, windmills, com-
huskers, and hay-balers. Beatrice was founded in 1857, becoming
the county-seat in the same year. It was reached by it* first
railway and was incorporated as a town in 1871, was chartered as
a city in 1873, and in 1901 became a city of the first class.
BEATTIE, JAMES (1735-1803), Scottish poet and writer on
philosophy, was born at Laurencekirk, Kincardine, Scotland,
on the 25th of October 1735. His father, a small farmer and
shopkeeper, died when he was very young; but an elder brother
sent him to Marischal College, Aberdeen, where he gained a
bursary. In 1753 he was appointed schoolmaster of Fordoun
in his native county. Here he had as neighbours the eccentric
Francis Garden (afterwards Lord Gardenstone, judge of the
supreme court of Scotland), and Lord Monboddo. In 1758 he
became an usher in the grammar school of Aberdeen, and two
years later he was made professor of moral philosophy at
Marischal College. Here he became closely acquainted with
Dr Thomas Reid, Dr George Campbell, Dr Alexander Gerard
and others, who formed a kind of literary or philosophic society
known as the " Wise Club." They met once a fortnight to
discuss speculative questions, David Hume's philosophy being
an especial object of criticism. In 1761 Beattie published a
small volume of Original Poems and Translations, which con-
tained little work of any value. Its author in later days destroyed
all the copies he found. In 1770 Beattie published his Essay
on the Nature and Immutability of Truth in opposition to sophistry
and scepticism, the object of which, as explained by its author,
was to " prove the universality and immutability of moral
sentiment" (letter to Sir W. Forbes, i7th January 1765). It
was in fact a direct attack on Hume, and part of its great popu-
larity was due to the fact. Hume is said to have justly com-
plained that Beattie " had not used him like a gentleman," but
made no answer to the book, which has no philosophical value.
Beattie's portrait, by Sir Joshua Reynolds, hangs at Marischal
College, Aberdeen. The philosopher is painted with the Essay
on Truth in his hand, while a figure of Truth thrusts down
three figures representing, according to Sir W. Forbes, sophistry
scepticism and infidelity. Reynolds in a letter to Beattii-
(February 1774) intimates that he is well enough pleased thai
one of the figures is identified with Hume, and that he intended
Voltaire to be one of the group. Beattie visited London in 1773,
and was received with the greatest honour by George III., who
conferred on him a pension of 200 a year. In 1771 and 1774
he published the first and second parts of The Minstrel, a poem
which met with great and immediate success. The Spenserian
stanza in which it is written is managed with smoothness and
skill, and there are many fine descriptions of natural scenery.
It is entirely on his poetry that Beattie's reputation rests. The
best known of his minor poems are " The Hermit " and " Retire-
ment."
In 1773 he was offered the chair of moral philosophy at Edin-
burgh University, but did not accept it. Beattie made many
friends, and lost none. " We all love Beattie," said Dr Johnson.
" Mrs Thrale says, if ever she has another husband she will have
him." He was in high favour too with Mrs Montagu and the
other bos bleus. Beattie was unfortunate in his domestic life.
Mary Dunn, whom he married in 1767, became insane, and his
two sons died just as they were attaining manhood. The elder,
James Hay Beattie, a young man of great promise, who at the
age of nineteen had been associated with his father in his pro-
fessorship, died in 1790. In 1794 the father published Essays
and Fragments in Prose and Verse by James Hay Beattie with a
5 8 4
BEATUS BEAUCHAMP FAMILY
touching memoir. The younger brother died in 1796. Beattie
never recovered from this second bereavement. His mind was
seriously affected, and, although he continued to lecture occa-
sionally, he neither wrote nor studied. In April 1799 he had a
stroke of paralysis, and died on the i8th of August 1803.
Seattle's other poetical works include The Judgment of Paris
(1765), and "Verses on the death of [Charles] Churchill," a
bitter attack which the poet afterwards suppressed. The best
edition is the Poetical Works (1831, new ed. 1866) in the Aldine
Edition of the British Poets, with an admirable memoir by
Alexander Dyce.
See also An Account of the Life of James Beattie (1804), by A.
Bower; and An Account of the Life and_ Writings of James Beattie
(1807), by Sir William Forbes; a quantity of new material is to be
found in Beattie and his Friends (1904), by the poet's great-grand-niece,
Margaret Forbes; and James Beattie, the Minstrel. Some Unpub-
lished Letters, edited by A. Mackie (Aberdeen, 1908).
BEATUS, of Liebana and Valcavado, Spanish priest and monk,
theologian and geographer, was born about 730, and died in 798.
About 776 he published his Commentaria in Apocalypsin, con-
taining one of the oldest Christian world-maps. He took a
prominent part in the Adoptionist controversy, and wrote
against the views of Felix of Urgel, especially as upheld by
Elipandus of Toledo. As confessor to Queen Adosinda, wife of
King Silo of Oviedo (774-783), and as the master of Alcuin and
Etherius of Osma, Beatus exercised wide influence. His original
map, which was probably intended to illustrate, above all, the
distribution of the Apostolic missions throughout the world
depicting the head of Peter at Rome, of Andrew in Achaia, of
Thomas in India, of James in Spain, and so forth has survived
in ten more or less modified copies. One only of these the
"Osma" of 1203 preserves the Apostolic pictures; among
the remaining examples, that of " St Sever," now at Paris, and
dating from about 1030, is the most valuable; that of " Valca-
vado," recently in the Ashburnham Library, executed in 970,
is the earliest; that of "Turin," dating from about noo, is
perhaps the most curious. Three others " Valladolid " of
about 1035, "Madrid" of 1047, and "London" of 1109 are
derivatives of the " Valcavado-Ashburnham" of 970; the
eighth, " Paris II," is connected, though not very intimately,
with " St Sever," otherwise " Paris 1 "; the ninth and tenth,
" Gerona " and " Paris III," belong to the Turin group of
Beatus maps. All these works are emphatically of " dark-age "
character; very seldom do they suggest the true forms of
countries, seas, rivers or mountains, but they embody some useful
information as to early medieval conditions and history. St
Isidore appears to be their principal authority; they also draw,
directly or indirectly, from Orosius, St Jerome, St Augustine,
and probably from a lost map of classical antiquity, represented
in a measure by the Peutinger Table of the I3th century.
The chief MSS. of the Commentaria in Apocalypsin are (13)
Paris, National Library, Lat. 8878; Lat. nouv. acq. 1366 and 2290;
(4) Ashburnham MSS. xv. ; (5) London, B. Mus., Addit. MSS.
11695; (6) Turin, National Library I, ii. (i); (7) Valladolid, Uni-
versity Library, 229; (8) the MS. in the Episcopal Library at Osma,
in Old Castile.
There is only one complete edition of the text, that by Florez
(Madrid, 1770). See also Konrad Miller, Die Weltkarte des Beatus,
Heft I. of Mappaemundi: die altesten Weltkarten (Stuttgart, 1895) ;
d'Avezac in Annales de . . . geographie (June 1870); Beazley,
Dawn of Modern Geography, \. 387-388 (1897); ii. 549-559; 591-
605 (1901). (C. R. B.)
BEAUCAIRE, a town of south-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Card, 17 m. E. by S. of Nimes on the Paris-Lyon railway.
Pop. (1906) 7284. Beaucaire is situated on the right bank of the
Rhone, opposite Tarascon, with which it is connected by two
handsome bridges, a suspension-bridge of four spans and 1476 ft.
in length, and a railway bridge. A triangular. keep, a chapel,
and other remains of a chateau (i3th and i4th centuries) of the
counts of Toulouse stand on the rocky pine-clad hill which rises
to the north of the town; the chapel, dedicated to St Louis,
belongs to the latest period of Romanesque architecture, and
contains fine sculptures. The town derives celebrity from the
great July fair, which has been held here annually since the i2th
century, but has now lost its former importance (see FAIR).
Beaucaire gives its name to the canal which communicates with
the sea (near Aigues-Mortes) and connects it with the Canal du
Midi, forming part of the line of communication between the
Rhone and the Garonne. The town is an important port on the
Rhone, and its commerce, the chief articles of which are wine, and
freestone from quarries in the vicinity, is largely water-borne.
Among its industries are distilling and the manufacture of
furniture, and the preparation of vermicelli, sausages and other
provisions.
Beaucaire occupies the site of the ancient Ugernum, and
several remains of the Roman city have been discovered, as well
as (in 1 734) the road that led from Nimes. The present name
is derived from Bellum Quadrum, a descriptive appellation
applied in the middle ages either to the chateau or to the rock
on which it stands. In 1125 Beaucaire came into the possession
of the counts of Toulouse, one of whom, Raymund VI., estab-
lished the importance of its fairs by the grant of privileges. In
the Wars of the League it suffered severely, and in 1632 its
castle was destroyed by Richelieu.
BEAUCE (Lat. Bclsid), a physical region of north-central
France, comprising large portions of the departments of Eure-et-
Loir and Loir-et-Cher, and also extending into those of Loiret
and Seine-et-Oise. It has an area of over 2800 sq.jn., its limits
being roughly defined by the course of the Essonne on the E.,
of the Loire on the S., and of the Brenne, the Loir and the Eure
towards the W., though in the latter direction it extends some-
what beyond these boundaries. The Beauce is a treeless, arid
and monotonous plain of limestone formation; windmills and
church spires are the only prominent features of the landscape.
Apart from the rivers on its borders, it is watered by insigni-
ficant streams, of which the Conic in the west need alone be
mentioned. The inhabitants live in large villages, and are
occupied in agriculture, particularly in the cultivation of wheat,
for which the Beauce is celebrated. Clover and lucerne are
the other leading crops, and large flocks of sheep are kept in the
region. Chartres is its chief commercial centre.
BEAUCHAMP, the name of several important English families.
The baronial house of Beauchamp of Bedford was founded at
the Conquest by Hugh de Beauchamp, who received a barony
in Bedfordshire. His eldest son Simon left a daughter, whose
husband Hugh (brother of the count of Meulan) was created
earl of Bedford by Stephen. But the heir-male, Miles de Beau-
champ, nephew of Simon, held Bedford Castle against the king
in 1137-1138. From his brother Payn descended the barons of
Bedford, of whom William held Bedford Castle against the royal
forces in the struggle for the Great Charter, and was afterwards
made prisoner at the battle of Lincoln, while John, who sided
with the barons under Simon de Montfort, fell at Evesham.
With him the line ended, but a younger branch was seated at
Eaton Socon, Beds., where the earthworks of their castle remain,
and held their barony there into the i4th century.
The Beauchamps of Elmley, Worcestershire, the greatest
house of the name, were founded by the marriage of Walter de
Beauchamp with the daughter of Urise d'Abetot, a Domesday
baron, which brought him the shrievalty of Worcestershire, the
office of a royal steward, and large estates. His descendant
William, of Elmley, married Isabel, sister and eventually heiress
to William Mauduit, earl of Warwick, and their son succeeded
in 1268 to Warwick Castle and that earldom, which remained
with his descendants in the male line till 1445. The earls of the
Beauchamp line played a great part in English history. Guy,
the 2nd, distinguished himself in the Scottish campaigns of
Edward I., who warned him at his death against Piers Gaveston.
Under Edward II. he was one of the foremost foes of Piers, who
had styled him " the black cur of Arden," and with whose death
he was closely connected. As one of the " lords ordainers " he
was a recognized leader of the opposition to Edward II. By
the heiress of the Tonis he left at his death in 1315 a son Earl
Thomas, who distinguished himself 'at Crecy and Poitiers, was
marshal of the English host, and, with his brother John, one of
the founders of the order of the Garter. In 1369 his son Earl
Thomas succeeded; from 1376 to 1379 he was among the lords
BEAUCHAMP, A. DE BEAUFORT FAMILY
585
striving for reform, and in the latter year he was appointed
governor to the king. Under Richard II. he joined the lords
appellant in their opposition to the king and his ministers, and
was in power with them 1388-1389; treacherously arrested by
Richard in 1397, he was imprisoned in the Tower of London (the
Beauchamp Tower being called after him), but liberated by
Henry IV. on his triumph (1399). In 1401 he was succeeded
by his son Earl Richard, a brave and chivalrous warrior,. who
defeated Owen Glendower, fought the Percys at Shrewsbury,
and, after travelling in state through Europe and the Holy Land,
was employed against the Lollards and afterwards as lay
ambassador from England to the council of Constance (1414).
He held command for a time at Calais, and took an active part
in the French campaigns of Henry V., who created him earl
and count of Aumale in Normandy. He had charge of the
education of Henry VI., and in 1437 was appointed lieutenant
of France and of Normandy. Dying at Rouen in 1439, he left
by Isabel, widow of Richard Beauchamp, earl of Worcester, a
son, Earl Henry, who was created duke of Warwick, 1445, and
is alleged, but without authority, to have been crowned king of
the Isle of Wight by Henry VI. He died, the last of his line, in
June 1445. On the death of Anne, his only child, in 1449, his
vast inheritance passed to Anne, his sister of the whole blood,
wife of Richard Neville, earl of Salisbury (" the Kingmaker "),
who thereupon became earl of Warwick.
Of the cadet branches of the house, the oldest was that of
Powyke and Alcester, which obtained a barony in 1447 and
became extinct in 1496; from it sprang <he Beauchamps, Lords
St Amand from 1448, of whom was Richard, bishop of Salisbury,
first chancellor of the order of the Garter, and who became
extinct in 1508, being the last known male heirs of the race.
Another cadet was Sir John Beauchamp of Holt, minister of
Richard II., who was created Lord Beauchamp of Kidderminster
(the first baron created by patent) 1387, but beheaded 1388;
the barony became extinct with his son in 1400. Roger, Lord
Beauchamp of Bletsoe, summoned in 1363, is said to have been
descended from the Powyke branch; his line ended early in the
iSth century. Later cadets were John, brother of the 3rd earl,
who carried the standard at Crecy, became captain of Calais,
and was summoned as a peer in 1350, but died unmarried; and
William, brother of the 4th earl, who was distinguished in the
French wars, and succeeding to the lands of the Lords Aber-
gavenny was summoned in that barony 1392; his son was created
earl of Worcester in 1420, but died without male issue in 1422;
from his daughter, who married Sir Edward Neville, descended
the Lords Abergavenny.
The Lords Beauchamp of " Hache " (1299-1361) were so
named from their seat of Hatch Beauchamp, Somerset, and
were of a wholly distinct family. Their title, " Beauchamp of
Hache," was revived for the Seymours in 1536 and 1559. The
title of " Beauchamp of Powyke " was revived as a barony in
1 806 for Richard Lygon(descended through females from the Beau-
champs of Powyke), who was created Earl Beauchamp in 1815.
See Sir W. Dugdale, Baronage (1675-1676) and Warwickshire
(2nd ed., 1730); G. E. C[okayne], Complete Peerage (1887-1898);
W. Courthope, Rows Roll (1859); and J. H. Round, Geoffrey [de
Mandeville (1892). (J. H. R.)
BEAUCHAMP, ALPHONSE DE, French historian and man of
letters, was born at Monaco in 1767, and died in 1832. In 1784
he entered a Sardinian regiment of marines, but on the outbreak
of war with the French Republic, he refused to fight in what he
considered an unjust cause, and was imprisoned for several
months. After being liberated he took up his residence in Paris,
where he obtained a post in one of the government offices. On
the fall of Robespierre, Beauchamp was transferred to the bureau
of the minister of police, and charged with the superintendence of
the press. This situation opened up to him materials of which he
made use in his first and most popular historical work, Histoire
de la Vendee et des Chouans, 3 vols., 1806. The book, received with
great favour by the people, was displeasing to the authorities.
The third edition was confiscated; its writer was deprived of his
post, and in 1809 was compelled to leave Paris and take up his
abode in Reims. In 181 1 he obtained permission to return, and
again received a government appointment. This he had to resign
on the Restoration, but was rewarded with a small pension,
which was continued to his widow after his death.
Beauchamp wrote extensively for the public journals and for
the magazines. His biographical and historical works are
numerous, and those dealing with contemporary events are
valuable, owing to the sources at his disposal. They must,
however, be used with great caution. The following are worth
mention: Vie politique, militaire et pritte du general Moreau
(1814); Catastrophe de Mural, ou Rlcit de la dernier e revolution de
Naples (1815); Histoire de la guerre d'Espagne et du Portugal,
1807-1813 (i vols., 1819); Collection de memoir es relatifs aux
revolutions d'Espagne (2 vols., 1824); Histoire de la revolution de
Pitmont (i vols., 1821, 1823); Mtmoires secrets et inedits pour
senir a I'hisloire contemporaine (2 vols., 1825). The Mtmoirrsde
Fouchf have also been ascribed to him, but it seems certain that
he only revised and completed a work really composed by Fouchf
himself.
See an article by Louis Madelin in La Revolution franfaise (1900).
BEAUFORT, the name of the family descended from the union
of John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, with Catherine, wife of Sir
Hugh Swynford, taken from a castle in Anjou which belonged to
John of Gaunt. There were four children of this union John,
created earl of Somerset and marquess of Dorset; Henry, after-
wards bishop of Winchester and cardinal (see BEAUFORT,
HENRY); Thomas, made duke of Exeter and chancellor; and
Joan, who married Ralph Neville, first earl of Westmorland, and
died in 1440. In 1396, some years after the birth of these
children, John of Gaunt and Catherine were married, and in 1397
the Beauforts were declared legitimate by King Richard II. In
1407 this action was confirmed by their half-brother, King
Henry IV., but on this occasion they were expressly excluded
from the succession to the English throne.
JOHN BEAUFORT, earl of Somerset (c. 1373-1410), assisted
Richard II. in 1397 when the king attacked the lords appellants,
and made himself an absolute ruler. For these services he was
made marquess of Dorset, but after the deposition of Richard in
1399, he was degraded to his former rank as earl. In 1401,
however, he was declared loyal, and appeared later in command
of the English fleet. He married Margaret, daughter of Thomas
Holland, second earl of Kent, and died in March 1410, leaving
three sons, Henry, John, and Edmund, and two daughters, Jane
or Joan, who married James I., king of Scotland, and Margaret,
who married Thomas Courtenay, earl of Devon.
THOMAS BEAUTORT (d. 1426) held various high offices under
Henry IV., and took a leading part in suppressing the rising in the
north in 1405. He became chancellor in 1410, but resigned this
office in January 1412 and took part in the expedition to France
in the sanie year. He was then created earl of Dorset, and when
Henry V. became king In 1413, he was made lieutenant of
Aquitaine and took charge of Harfleur when this town passed into
the possession of the English. In 1416 he became lieutenant of
Normandy, and was created duke of Exeter; and returning to
England he compelled the Scots to raise the siege of Roxburgh.
Crossing to France in 1418 with reinforcements for Henry V., he
took an active part in the subsequent campaign, was made
captain of Rouen, and went to the court of France to treat for
peace. He was then captured by the French at Baugc, but was
soon released and returned to England when he heard of the death
of Henry V. in August 1422. He was one of Henry's executors,
and it is probable that the lung entrusted his young son, King
Henry VI., to his care. However this may be, Exeter did not
take a very prominent part in the government, although he was
a member of the council of regency. Having again shared in the
French war, the duke died at Greenwich about the end of the
year 1426. He was buried at Bury St Edmunds, where his
remains were found in good condition 350 years later. He
married Margaret, daughter of Sir Thomas Neville of Nornby, but
left no issue. The Beaufort family was continued by HENRY
BEAUFORT (1401-1419), the eldest son of John Beaufort, earl of
Somerset, who was succeeded as earl of Somerset by his brother
5 86
BEAUFORT, DUG DE BEAUFORT, CARDINAL
JOHN BEAUFORT (1403-1444)- The latter fought under Henry V.
in the French wars, and having been taken prisoner remained in
France as a captive until 1437. Soon after his release he returned
to the war, and after the death of Richard Beauchamp, earl of
Warwick, in 1439, acted as commander of the English forces, and,
with his brother Edmund, was successful in recapturing Harfleur.
Although chagrined when Richard, duke of York, was made
regent of France, Beaufort led an expedition to France in 1442,
and in 1443 was made duke of Somerset. He died, probably by
his own hand, in May 1444. He married Margaret, daughter of
Sir John Beauchamp, and left a daughter, MARGARET BEAUFORT,
afterwards countess of Richmond and Derby, who married, for
her first husband, Edmund Tudor, earl of Richmond, by whom
she became the mother of King Henry VII. In this way the
blood of the Beauforts was mingled with that of the Tudors, and
of all the subsequent occupants of the English throne.
The title of earl of Somerset descended on the death of John
Beaufort in 1444 to his brother EDMUND BEAUFORT, duke of
Somerset (q.v.), who was killed at St Albans in 1455. By his
marriage with Eleanor Beauchamp, daughter of the fifth earl of
Warwick, he left three sons, Henry, Edmund and John, and a
daughter, Margaret.
HENRY BEAUFORT (1436-1464) became duke of Somerset in
1455, and soon began to take part in the struggle against Richard,
duke of York, but failed to dislodge Richard's ally, Richard
Neville, earl of Warwick, from Calais. He took part in the
victory of the Lancastrians at Wakefield in 1460, escaped from
the carnage at Tow ton in 1461, and shared the attainder of
Henry VI. in the same year. In May 1464 he was captured at
Hexham and was beheaded immediately after the battle. The
title of duke of Somerset was assumed by his brother, EDMUND
BEAUFORT (c. 1438-1471), who fled from the country after the
disasters to the Lancastrian arms, but returned to England in
1471, in which year he fought at Tewkesbury, and in spite of a
promise of pardon was beheaded 'after the battle on the 6th of
May 1 47 1 . His younger brother JOHN B EAUFORT had been killed
probably at this battle, and so on the execution of Edmund the
family became extinct.
MARGARET BEAUFORT married Humphrey, earl of Stafford, and
was the mother of Henry Stafford, duke of Buckingham. Henry
Beaufort, third duke of Somerset (d. 1464), left an illegitimate
son, Charles Somerset, who was created earl of Worcester by
Henry VIII. in 1514. His direct descendant, Henry Somerset,
fifth earl of Worcester, was a loyal partisan of Charles I. and in
1642 was created marquess of Worcester. His grandson, Henry,
the third marquess, was made duke of Beaufort in 1682, and the
present duke of Beaufort is his direct descendant.
See Thomas Walsingham, Historia Anglicana, edited by H. T.
Riley (London, 1863-1864) ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History oj
England, vols. ii. and iii. (Oxford, 1895); The Paston Letters, edited
by James Gairdner (London, 1904).
BEAUFORT, FRANQOIS DE VEND6ME, Due DE (1616-
1669), a picturesque figure in French history of the i7th century,
was the second son of Cesar de Vend&me, and grandson of Henry
IV., by Gabrielle d'Estrees. He began his career in the army and
served in the first campaigns of the Thirty Years' War, but his
ambitions and unscrupulous character soon found a more
congenial field in the intrigues of the court. In 1642 he joined in
the conspiracy of Cinq Mars against Richelieu, and upon its
failure was obliged to live in exile in England until Richelieu's
death. Returning to France, he became the centre of a group,
known as the " Importants," in which court ladies predominated,
especially the duchess of Che vreuse and the duchess of Montbazon.
For an instant after the king's death, this group seemed likely to
prevail, and Beaufort to be the head of the new government.
But Mazarin gained the office, and Beaufort, accused of a plot to
murder Mazarin, was imprisoned in Vincennes, in September
1643. He escaped on the 3ist of May 1648, just in time to join
the Fronde, which began in August 1648. He was then with the
parlement and the princes, against Mazarin. His personal
appearance, his affectation of popular manners, his quality of
grandson (legitimized), of Henry IV., rendered him a favourite
of the Parisians, who acclaimed him everywhere. He was known
as the Roi des Holies (" king of the markets "), and popular
subscriptions were opened to pay his debts. He had hopes of
becoming prime minister. But among the members of the
parlement and the other leaders of the Fronde, he was regarded
as merely a tool. His intelligence was but mediocre, and he
showed no talent during the war. Mazarin, on his return to
Paris, exiled him in October 1652; and he was only allowed to
return in 1654, when the cardinal had no longer any reason to
fear him. Henceforth Beaufort no longer intrigued. In 1658 he
was named general superintendent of navigation, or chief of the
naval army, and faithfully served the king in naval wars from
that on. In 1664 he directed the expedition against the pirates of
Algiers. In 1669 he led the French troops defending Candia
against the Turks, and was killed in a night sortie, on the isth of
June 1669. His body was brought back to France with great
pomp, and official honours rendered it.
See the memoirs of the time, notably those of La Rochefoucauld,
the Cardinal de Retz, and Madame de Motteville. Also D'Avenel,
Richelieu et la monarchie absolue (1884); Cheruel, La France sous le
ministere de Mazarin (1879) ; and La France sous la minor ite de
Louis XIV (1882).
BEAUFORT, HENRY (c. 1377-1447), English cardinal and
bishop of Winchester, was the second son of John of Gaunt, duke
of Lancaster, by Catherine, wife of Sir Hugh Swynford. His
parents were not married until 1396, and in 1397 King Richard II.
declared the four children of this union to be legitimate. Henry
spent some of his youth at Aix-la-Chapelle, and having entered
the church received various appointments, and was consecrated
bishop of Lincoln in July 1398. When his half-brother became
king as Henry IV. in 1399, Beaufort began to take a prominent
place in public life; he was made chancellor in 1403, but he
resigned this office in 1404, when he was translated from Lincoln
to Winchester as the successor of William of Wykeham. He
exercised considerable influence over the prince of Wales, after-
wards King Henry V., and although he steadily supported the
house of Lancaster he opposed the party led by Thomas Arundel,
archbishop of Canterbury. A dispute over money left by John
Beaufort, marquess of Dorset, caused or widened a breach in the
royal family which reached a climax in 1411. The details are not
quite clear, but it seems tolerably certain that the prince and the
bishop, anxious to retain their power, sought to induce Henry IV.
to abdicate in favour of his son. Angry at this request, the king
dismissed his son from the council, and Beaufort appears to have
shared his disgrace. When Henry V. ascended the throne in 1413
the bishop again became chancellor and took a leading part in the
government until 1417, when he resigned his office, and proceeded
to the council which was then sitting at Constance. His arrival
had an important effect on the deliberations of this council, and
the compromise which was subsequently made between the rival
parties was largely his work. Grateful for Beaufort's services,
the new pope Martin V. offered him a cardinal's hat which Henry
V. refused to allow him to accept. Returning to England, he
remained loyal to Henry; and after the king's death in 1422 be-
came a member of the council and was the chief opponent of the
wild and selfish schemes of Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. In
1424 he became chancellor for the third time, and was mainly
responsible for the conduct of affairs during Gloucester's expedi-
tion to Hainaut. He was disliked by the citizens of London;
and this ill-feeling was heightened when Gloucester, who was a
favourite of the Londoners, returned to England and was doubtless
reproached by Beaufort for the folly of his undertaking. A riot
took place in London, and at the bishop's entreaty, the protector,
John, duke of Bedford, came back to England. As this dispute
was still unsettled when the parliament met at Leicester in
February 1426, Bedford and the lords undertook to arbitrate.
Charged by Gloucester with treason against Henry IV. and his
successors, Beaufort denied the accusations. But although a
reconciliation was effected, the bishop evidently regarded this as
a defeat; and having resigned the chancellorship his energies
were diverted into another channel.
Anxious to secure his aid for the crusade against the Hussites,
Pope Martin again offered him a cardinal's hat, which Beaufort
BEAUFORT, L. DE BEAUGENCY
accepted. He went to France in 1427, and was then appointed
papal legate for Germany, Hungary and Bohemia; and pro-
ceeding eastwards, he made a bold but futile effort to rally the
crusaders at Tachau. Returning to England to raise money for a
fresh crusade, he was received with great state in London; but
his acceptance of the cardinalate had weakened his position and
Gloucester refused to recognize his legatine commission. Beau-
fort gave way on this question, but an unsuccessful attempt was
made in 1429 to deprive him of his see. Having raised some
troops he set out for Bohemia; but owing to the disasters which
had just attended the English arms in France, he was induced to
allow these soldiers to serve in the French war; and in February
1431 the death of Martin V. ended his commission as legate.
Meanwhile an attempt on the part of Gloucester to exclude the
cardinal from the council had failed, and it was decided that his
attendance was required except during the discussion of questions
between the king and the papacy. He accompanied Ring
Henry VI. to Normandy in April 1430, and in December 1431
crowned him king of France. About this time Gloucester made
another attempt to deprive Beaufort of his see, and it was argued
in the council that as a cardinal he could not hold an English
bishopric. The general council was not inclined to press the case
against him; but the privy council, more clerical and more
hostile, sealed writs of praemunire and attachment against him,
and some of his jewels were seized. On his return to England he
attended the parliament in May 1432, and asked to hear the
charges against him. The king declared him loyal, and a statute
was passed freeing him from any penalties which he might have
incurred under the Statute of Provisors or in other ways. He
supported Bedford in his attempts to restore order to the finances.
In August 1435 he attended the congress at Arras, but was unable
to make peace with France; and after Bedford's death his
renewed efforts to this end were again opposed by Gloucester, who
favoured a continuance of the war. On two occasions the council
advised the king to refuse him permission to leave England, but
in 1437 he obtained a full pardon for all his offences. In 1439 and
1440 he went to France on missions of peace, and apparently at
his instigation the English council decided to release Charles,
duke of Orleans. This step further irritated Gloucester, who drew
up and presented to the king a long and serious list of charges
against Beaufort; but the council defended the policy of the
cardinal and ignored the personal accusations against him.
Beaufort, however, gradually retired from public life, and after
witnessing the conclusion of the treaty of Troyes died at Wolvesey
palace, Winchester, on the loth of April 1447. The " black
despair " which Shakespeare has cast round his dying hours
appears to be without historical foundation. He was buried in
Winchester cathedral, the building of which he finished. He
also refounded and enlarged the hospital of St Cross near
Winchester.
Beaufort was a man of considerable wealth, and on several
occasions he lent large sums of money to the king. He was the
lover of Lady Alice Fitzalan, daughter of Richard, earl of
Arundel, by whom he had a daughter, Joan, who married Sir
Edward Stradling of St Donat's in Glamorganshire. His
interests were secular and he was certainly proud and ambitious;
but Stubbs has pictured the fairer side of his character when he
observes that Beaufort " was merciful in his political enmities,
enlightened in his foreign policy; that he was devotedly faithful,
and ready to sacrifice his wealth and labour for the king; that
from the moment of his death everything began to go wrong, and
went worse and worse until all was lost."
See Historiae Croylandensis continuatio, translated by H. T. Riley
(London, 1854) ; Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council,
edited by N. H. Nicolas (London, 1834-1837); Aeneas Sylvius
Piccolomini, Historica Bohemica (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1707);
W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895); M.
Creighton, A History of the Papacy during the Period of the Refor-
mation (London, 1897) ; and L. B. Radford, Henry Beaufort (1908).
BEAUFORT, LOUIS DE (d. 1795), French historian, of whose
life little is known. In 1738 he published at Utrecht a Disserta-
tion sur ['incertitude des cinq premiers siecles de I'histoire romaine,
in which he showed what untrustworthy guides even the his-
Beaufort scale.
Corresponding wind.
Limits of hourly
velocity.
Numbers.
o
1-3
4-5
6-7
8-9
IO-II
12
Calm
Light breeze
Moderate wind
Strong wind
Gale
Storm
Hurricane
Miles per hour.
Under 2
2-12
3-23
24-37
38-55
.. 56-75
Above 75
torians of highest repute, such as Livy and Dionysius of Halicar-
nassus, were for that period, and pointed out by what methods
and by the aid of what documents truly scientific bases might be
given to its history. This was an ingenious plea, bold for its time,
against traditional history such as Rollin was writing at that very
moment. A German, Christopher Saxius, endeavoured to refute
it in a series of articles published in vols. i.-iii. of the Miscellanea
Liviensia. Beaufort replied by some brief and ironical Rtmarques
in the appendix to the second edition of his Dissertation (1750).
Beaufort also wrote an Hisloire de Cesar Germanicus (Leyden,
1761), and La Rtpublique romaine, ou plan general de I'ancien
gouvernement de Rome (The Hague, 1 766, 2 vok. quarto) . Though
not a scholar of the first rank, Beaufort has at least the merit of
having been a pioneer in raising the question, afterwards elabor-
ated by Niebuhr, as to the credibility of early Roman history.
BEAUFORT SCALE, a series of numbers from o to 1 2 arranged
by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort (1774-1857) in 1805, to indicate
the strength of the wind from a calm, force o, to a hurricane, force
12, with sailing directions such as " 5, smacks shorten sails " for
coast purposes, and " royals, &c., ' full and by ' " for the open sea.
An exhaustive report was made in 1906 by the Meteorological
Office on the relation between the estimates of wind-force
according to Beaufort's scale and the velocities recorded by
anemometers belonging to the office, from which the following
table is taken:
BEAUFORT WEST, in Cape province, South Africa, the
capital of a division of this name, 339 m. by rail N.E. of Cape
Town. Pop. (1904) 3481. The largest town in the western part
of the Great Karroo, it lies, at an elevation of 2792 ft., at the foot
of the southern slopes of the Nieuwveld mountains. It has several
fine public buildings and the streets are lined with avenues of
pear trees, while an abundant supply of water, luxuriant orchards,
fields and gardens give it the appearance of an oasis in the desert.
It is a favourite resort of invalids. The town was founded in 1819,
and in its early days was largely resorted to by Griquas and
Bechuana for the sale of ivory, skins and cattle. The Beaufort
West division has an area of 6374 sq. m. and a pop. (1904) of
10,762, 45 % being whites. Sheep-farming is the principal
industry.
BEAUGENCY, a town of central France, in the department of
Loiret, 16 m. S.W. of Orleans on the Orleans railway, between
that city and Blois. Pop. (1906) 2993. It is situated at the foot
of vine-clad hills on the right bank of the Loire, to the left bank of
which it is united by a bridge of twenty-six arches, many of them
dating from the I3th century. The chief buildings are the
chateau, mainly of the isth century, of which the massive donjon
of the nth century known as the Tour de Csar is the oldest
portion; and the abbey-church of Notre-Dame, a building in the
Romanesque style of architecture, frequently restored. Some of
the buildings of the Benedictine abbey, to which this church
belonged, remain. The h6tel de ville, the facade of which is
decorated with armorial bearings of Renaissance carving, and the
church of St Etienne, an unblemished example of Romanesque
architecture, are of interest. Several old houses, some remains of
the medieval ramparts and the Tour de 1'Horloge, an ancient
gateway, are also preserved. The town carries on trade in grain,
and has flour mills.
The lords of Beaugency attained considerable importance in
the nth, 12th and i3th centuries; at the end of the I3th century
the fief was sold to the crown, and afterwards passed to the
house of Orleans, then to those of Dunois and Longuevillc and
588
BEAUHARNAIS BEAULY
ultimately again to that of Orleans. Joan of Arc defeated the
English here in 1429. In 1567 the town was sacked and burned
by the Protestants. On the 8th, gth and loth of December
1870 the German army, commanded by the grand-duke of
"Mecklenburg, defeated the French army of the Loire, under
General Chanzy, in the battle of Beaugency (or Villorceau-Josnes),
which was fought on the left bank of the Loire to the N.W. of
Beaugency.
BEAUHARNAIS, the name of a French family, well known
from the isth century onward in Orleanais, where its members
occupied honourable positions. One of them, Jean Jacques de
Beauharnais, seigneur de Miramion, had for wife Marie Bonneau,
who in 1 66 1 founded a female charitable order, called after her
the Miramiones. Francois de Beauharnais, marquis de la Ferte-
Beauharnais, was a deputy in the states-general of 1789, and a
devoted defender of the monarchy. He emigrated and served
in Conde's army. Later he gave his adherence to Napoleon, and
became ambassador in Etruria and Spain; he died in 1823. His
brother Alexandre, vicomte de Beauharnais, married Josephine
Tascher de la Pagerie (afterwards the wife of Napoleon
Bonaparte) and had two children by her Eugene de
Beauharnais (q.v.) and Hortense, who married Louis Bonaparte,
king of Holland, and became mother of Napoleon III. Claude de
Beauharnais, comte des Roches-Baritaud, uncle of the marquis
and of the vicomte de Beauharnais, served in the navy and
became a vice-admiral. He married Marie Anne Francoise
(called Fanny)Mouchard, a woman of letters who had a celebrated
salon. His son, also named Claude (d. 1819), was created a peer
of France in 1814, and was the father of Stephanie de Beau-
harnais, who married the grand-duke of Baden. The house of
Beauharnais is still represented in Russia by the dukes of
Leuchtenberg, descendants of Prince Eugene. (M. P.*)
BEAUHARNAIS, EUGENE DE (1781-1824), step-son of
Napoleon I., was born at Paris on the 3rd of September 1781.
He was the son of the general Viscount Alexandre de Beau-
harnais (1760-1794) and Josephine Tascher de la Pagerie. The
father, who was born in Martinique, and served in the American
War of Independence, took part in the politics of the French
Revolution, and in June- August 1793 commanded the army
of the Rhine. His failure to fulfil the tasks imposed on him
(especially that of the relief of Mainz) led to his being arrested,
and he was guillotined (23rd June 1794) not long before the fall
of Robespierre. The marriage of his widow Josephine to
Napoleon Bonaparte in March 1796 was at first resented by
Eugene and his sister Hortense; but their step-father proved
to be no less kind than watchful over their interests. In the
Italian campaigns of 1796-1797 Eugene served as aide-de-camp
to Bonaparte, and accompanied him to Egypt in the same
capacity. There he distinguished himself by his activity and
bravery, and was wounded during the siege of Acre. Bonaparte
brought him back to France in the autumn of 1799, and it is
known that the intervention of Eugene and Hortense helped
to bring about the reconciliation which then took place between
Bonaparte and Josephine. The services rendered by Eugene
at the time of the coup d'etat of Brumaire (1799) and during the
Consulate (1790-1804) served to establish his fortunes, despite
the efforts of some of the Bonapartes to destroy the influence
of the Beauharnais and bring about the divorce of Josephine.
After the proclamation of the Empire, Eugene received the
title of prince, with a yearly stipend of 200,000 francs, and
became general of the chasseurs d cheval of the Guard. A year
later, when the Italian republic became the kingdom of Italy,
with Napoleon as king, Eugene received the title of viceroy,
with large administrative powers. (See ITALY.) Not long after
the battle of Austerlitz (2nd December 1805) Napoleon dignified
the elector of Bavaria with the title of king and arranged a
marriage between Eugene and the princess Augusta Amelia of
Bavaria. On the whole the government of Eugene gave general
satisfaction in the kingdom of Italy; it comprised the districts
between the Simplon Pass and Rimini, and also after the peace
of Presburg (December 1805), Istria and Dalmatia. In 1808
(on the further partition of the papal states) the frontier of the
kingdom was extended southwards to the borders of the kingdom
of Naples, in the part known as the Abruzzi. In the campaign
of 1809 Eugene commanded the army of Italy, with General
(afterwards Marshal) Macdonald as his adlatus. The battle of
Sacile, where he fought against the Austrian army 'of the Arch-
duke John, did not yield proofs of military talent on the part
of Eugene or of Macdonald; but on the retreat of the enemy
into Austrian territory (owing to the disasters of their main
army on the Danube) Eugene's forces pressed them vigorously
and finally won an important victory at Raab in the heart of the
Austrian empire. Then, joining the main army under Napoleon,
in the island of Lobau in the Danube, near Vienna, Eugene and
Macdonald acquitted themselves most creditably in the great
battle of Wagram (6th July 1809). In 1810 Eugene received
the title of grand-duke of Frankfort. Equally meritorious were
his services and those of the large Italian contingent in the
campaign of 1812 in Russia. He and they distinguished them-
selves especially at the battles of Borodino and Malojaroslavitz;
and on several occasions during the disastrous retreat which
ensued, Eugene's soldierly constancy and devotion to Napoleon
shone out conspicuously in 1813-1814, especially by contrast
with the tergiversations of Murat. On the downfall of the
Napoleonic regime Eugene retired to Munich, where he continued
to reside, with the title duke of Leuchtenberg and prince of
Eichstadt. He died in 1824, leaving two surviving sons and three
daughters.
For further details concerning Eugene see Memoires et correspon-
dance politique et militaire du Prince Eugene, edited by Baron A.
Ducasse (10 vols., Paris, 1858-1860); F. J. A. Schneidewind,
Prinz Eugen, Herzog von Leuchtenberg in den Feldziigen seiner Zeit
(Stockholm, 1857); A. Purlitzer, Une Idylle sous Napoleon I": le
roman du Prince Eugene (Paris, 1 895) ; F. Masson, Napoleon et sa
famille (Paris, 1897-1900). (J. HL. R.)
BEAUJEU. The French province of Beaujolais was formed
by the development of the ancient seigniory of Beaujeu (depart-
ment of Rhone, arrondissement of Villefranche). The lords of
Beaujeu held from the loth century onwards a high rank in
feudal society. In 1210 Guichard of Beaujeu was sent by Philip
Augustus on an embassy to Pope Innocent III. ; he was present
at the French attack on Dover, where he died in 1216. His son
Humbert took part in the wars against the Albigenses and
became constable of France. Isabeau, daughter of this Humbert,
married Renaud, count of Forez; and their second son, Louis,
assumed the name and arms of Beaujeu. His son Guichard,
called the Great, had a very warlike life, fighting for the king of
France, for the count of Savoy and for his own hand. He was
taken prisoner by the Dauphinois in 1325, thereby losing im-
portant estates. Guichard's son, Edward of Beaujeu, marshal
of France, fought at Crecy, and perished in the battle of Ardres
in 1351. His son died without issue in 1374, and was succeeded
by his cousin, Edward of Beaujeu, lord of Perreux, who gave
his estates of Beaujolais and Dombes to Louis II., duke of
Bourbon, in 1400. Pierre de Bourbon was lord of Beaujeu in
1474, when he married Anne of France, daughter of Louis XL,
and this is why that princess retained the name of lady of
Beaujeu. Louise of Savoy, mother of Francis L, got Beaujolais
assigned to herself despite the claims of the constable de Bourbon.
In 1531 the province was reunited to the crown; but Francis II.
gave it back to the Montpensier branch of the Bourbons in 1560,
from which house it passed to that of Orleans. The title of
comte de Beaujolais was borne by a son of Philippe "Egalite,"
duke of Orleans, born in 1779, died in 1808. (M. P.*)
BEAULIEU, a village in the French department of Alpes-
Maritimes. Pop. (1906) 1460. It is about 4 m. by rail E. of
Nice (ij m. from Villefranche), and on the main line between
Marseilles and Mentone; it is also connected with Nice and
Mentone by an electric tramway. Of late years it has become
a much frequented winter resort, and many handsome villas
(among them that built by the 3rd marquess of Salisbury) have
been constructed in the neighbourhood. The harbour has been
extended and adapted for the reception of yachts. (W. A. B. C.)
BEAULY (pronounced Bewley; a corruption of Beaulieu), a
town of Inverness-shire, Scotland, on the Beauly, 10 m. W. of
BEAUMANOIR BEAUMARCHAIS
589
Inverness by the Highland railway. Pop. (1901) 855. Its
chief interest is the beautiful remains of the Priory of St John,
founded in 1 230 by John Bisset of the Aird, for Cistercian monks.
At the Reformation the buildings (except the church, now a
ruin) passed into the possession of Lord Lovat. On the right
bank of the river is the site of Lovat Castle, which once belonged
to the Bissets, but was presented by James VI. to Hugh Fraser
and afterwards demolished. To the south-east is the church of
Kirkhill containing the vault of the Lovats. Three miles south
of Beauly is Beaufort Castle, the chief seat of the Lovats, a fine
modern mansion in the Scottish baronial style. It occupies the
site of a fortress erected in the time of Alexander II., which was
besieged in 1303 by Edward I. This was replaced by several
castles in succession, of which one Castle Dounie was taken
by Cromwell and burned by the duke of Cumberland in 1746,
the conflagration being witnessed from a neighbouring hill by
Simon, Lord Lovat, before his capture on Loch Morar. The
land around Beauly is fertile and the town drives a brisk trade in
coal, timber, lime, grain and fish.
BEAUMANOIR, a seigniory in what is now the department of
C6tes-du-Nord, France, which gave its name to an illustrious
family. Jean de Beaumanoir, marshal of Brittany for Charles of
Blois, and captain of Josselin, is remembered for his share in the
famous battle of the Thirty. This battle, sung by an unknown
trouvere and retold with variations by Froissart, was an episode
in the struggle for the succession to the duchy of Brittany
between Charles of Blois, supported by the king of France, and
John of Montfort, supported by the king of England. John
Bramborough, the English captain of Ploermel, having continued
his ravages, in spite of a truce, in the district commanded by the
captain of Josselin, Jean de Beaumanoir sent him a challenge,
which resulted in a fight between thirty picked champions,
knights and squires, on either side, which took place on the 25th
of March 1351, near Ploermel. Beaumanoir commanded thirty
Bretons, Bramborough a mixed force of twenty Englishmen, six
German mercenaries and four Breton partisans of Montfort. The
battle, fought with swords, daggers and axes, was of the most
desperate character, in its details very reminiscent of the last
fight of the Burgundians in the Nibelungenlied, especially in the
celebrated advice of Geoffrey du Bois to his wounded leader, who
was asking for water: "Drink your blood, Beaumanoir; that
will quench ypur thirst!" In the end the victory was decided by
Guillaume de Montauban, who mounted his horse and overthrew
seven of the English champions, the rest being forced to surrender.
All the combatants on either side were either dead or seriously
wounded, Bramborough being among the slain. The prisoners
were well treated and released on payment of a small ransom.
(See Le Poeme du combat des Trente, in the Panllteon lilt&raire;
Froissart, Chroniques, ed. S. Luce, c. iv. pp. 45 and 1 10 ff., and pp.
338-340).
JEAN DE BEAUMANOIR (1531-1614), seigneur and afterwards
marquis de Lavardin, count of Negrepelisse by marriage, served
first in the Protestant army, but turned Catholic after the
massacre of St Bartholomew, in which his father had been killed,
and then fought against Henry of Navarre. When that prince
became king of France, Lavardin changed over to his side, and
was made a marshal of France. He was governor of Maine,
commanded an army in Burgundy in 1602, was ambassador
extraordinary to England in 1612, and died in 1614. One of his
descendants, Henry Charles, marquis de Lavardin (1643-1701),
was sent as ambassador to Rome in 1689, on the occasion of a
difference between Loms XIV. and Innocent XI.
BEAUMANOIR, PHILIPPE DE REMI, SIRE DE (c. 1250-
1296), French jurist, was born in the early part of the I3th
century and died in 1296. The few facts known regarding his
life are to be gathered from legal documents in which his name
occurs. From these it appears that in 1273 he filled the post of
bailli at Senlis, and in 1 280 held a similar office at Clermont. He
is also occasionally referred to as presiding at the assizes held at
various towns. His great work is entitled Coutumes de Beauvoisis
and first appeared in 1600, a second edition with introduction by
A. A. Beugnot being published in 1842. It is regarded as one of
the best works bearing on old French law, and was frequently
referred to with high admiration by Montesquieu. Beaumanoir
also obtained fame as a poet, and left over 20,000 verses, the best
known of his poems being La Manekine, Jehan el Blonde and Salul
d' amour.
BEAUMARCHAIS, PIERRE AUGUSTIN CARON DE (1732-
1799), French dramatist, was born in Paris on the 24th of
January 1732. His father, a watchmaker named Caron, brought
him up to the same trade. He was an unusually precocious and
lively boy, shrewd, sagacious, passionately fond of music and
imbued with a strong desire for rising in the world. At the age of
twenty-one he invented a new escapement for watches, which
was pirated by a rival maker. Young Caron at once published
his grievance in the Mercure, and had the matter referred to the
Academy of Sciences, which decided in his favour. This affair
brought him into notice at court; he was appointed, or at least
called himself, watchmaker to the king, who ordered from him a
watch similar to one he had made for Mme de Pompadour. His
handsome figure and cool assurance enabled him to make his way
at court. Mme Franquet, the wife of an old court official,
persuaded her husband to make over his office to young Caron,
and, on her husband's death, a few months later, married the
handsome watchmaker. Caron at the same time assumed the
name Beaumarchais; and four years later, by purchasing the
office of secretary to the king obtained a patent of nobility.
At court his musical talents brought him under the notice of
the king's sisters, who engaged him to teach them the harp. This
position enabled him to confer a slight favour on the great banker
Joseph Duverney, who testified his gratitude by giving Beau-
marchais a share in his speculations. The latter turned the
opportunity to good account, and soon realized a handsome
fortune. In 1764 he took a journey to Spain, partly with
commercial objects in view, but principally on account of the
Clavijo affair. Jos6 Clavijo y Fajardo had twice promised to
marry the sister of Beaumarchais, and had failed to keep his word.
The adventure had not the tragic ending of Goethe's Clavigo, for
Beaumarchais did not pursue his vengeance beyond words.
Beaumarchais made his first essay as a writer for the stage with
the sentimental drama Eugenie (1767), in which he drew largely
on the Clavijo incident. This was followed after an interval of
two years by Les Deux Amis, but neither play had more than
moderate success. His first wife had died within a year of the
marriage and in 1768 Beaumarchais married Mme LeVeque.
Her death in 1771 was the signal for unfounded rumours of
poisoning. Duverney died in 1770; but some time before his
death a duplicate settlement of the affairs between him and
Beaumarchais had been drawn up, in which the banker acknow-
ledged himself debtor to Beaumarchais for 15,000 francs.
Duverney's heir, the comte de La Blache, denied the validity of
the document though without directly stigmatizing it as a
forgery. The matter was put to trial. Beaumarchais gained his
cause, but his adversary at once carried the case before the
parlement. In the meantime the due de Chaulnes forced
Beaumarchais into a quarrel over Mdlle Menard, an actress at the
Come'die Italienne, which resulted in the imprisonment of both
parties. This moment was chosen by La Blache to demand
judgment from the parlement in the matter of the Duverney
agreement. Beaumarchais was released from prison for three or
four days to see his judges. He was, however, unable to obtain
an interview with Goezman, the member of the parlement
appointed to report on his case. At last, just before the day on
which the report was to be given in, he was informed privately
that, by presenting 200 louts to Mme Goezman and 15 to her
secretary, the desired interview might take place, if the result
should prove unfavourable the money would be refunded. The
money was sent and the interview obtained; but the decision
was adverse, and 200 louis were returned, the 15 going as business
expenses to the secretary. Beaumarchais, who had learned that
there was no secretary save Mme Goezman herself, insisted on
restitution of the 1 5 louis, but the lady denied all knowledge of
the affair. Her husband, who was probably not cognisant of the
details of the transaction at first, doubtless thought the defeated
59
BEAUMARIS BEAUMONT FAMILY
litigant would be easily put down, and at once brought an
accusation against him for an attempt to corrupt justice. The
battle was fought chiefly through the Mfmoires, or reports
published by the adverse parties, and in it Beaumarchais's
success was complete. For vivacity of style, fine satire and
broad humour, his famous M (moires have never been surpassed
Even Voltaire was constrained to envy them. Beaumarchais
was skilful enough to make his particular case of universal
application. He was attacking the parlement through one of its
members, and the parlement was the universally detested body
formed by the chancellor Maupeou. The Mimoires were,
therefore, hailed with general delight; and the author, from
being perhaps the most unpopular man in France, became at once
the idol of the people. The decision went against Beaumarchais.
The parlement condemned both him and Mme Goezman au
bldme, i.e. to civic degradation, while the husband was obliged
to abandon his position. Beaumarchais was reduced to great
straits, but he obtained restitution of his rights within two years,
and finally triumphed over his adversary La Blache.
During the next few years he was engaged in the king's
secret service. One of his missions was to England to destroy
the Mtmoires secrets d'une femme publique in which Charles
Theveneau de Morande made an attack on Mme Du Barry.
Beaumarchais secured this pamphlet, and burnt the whole
impression in London. Another expedition to England and
Holland to seize a pamphlet attacking Marie Antoinette
led to a series of incidents more amazing than the intrigues
in Beaumarchais's own plays, but his own account must
be received with caution. Beaumarchais pursued the libeller
to Germany and overtook him in a wood near Neustadt. After
a struggle he had gained possession of the document when he
was attacked by brigands. Unfortunately the wound alleged
to have been received in this fight was proved to be self-inflicted.
The Austrian government regarded Beaumarchais with a
suspicion justified by the circumstances. He was imprisoned
for some time in Vienna, and only released on the receipt of
explanations from Paris.
His various visits to England led him to take a deep interest
in the impending struggle between the American colonies and
the mother-country. His sympathies were entirely with the
former; and by his unwearied exertions he succeeded in inducing
the French government to give ample, though private, assistance
in money and arms to the Americans. He himself, partly on
his own account, but chiefly as the agent of the French and
Spanish governments, carried on an enormous traffic with
America. Under the name of Rodrigue Hortalez et Cie,
he employed a fleet of forty vessels to provide help for the
insurgents.
During the same period he produced his two famous comedies.
The earlier, Le Barbier de Seville, after a prohibition of two years,
was put on the stage in 1775. Tne first representation was a
complete failure. Beaumarchais had overloaded the last scene
with allusions to the facts of his own case and the whole action
of the piece was laboured and heavy. But he cut down and
remodelled the piece in time for the second representation, when
it achieved a complete success. The intrigues which were
necessary in order to obtain a licence for the second and more
famous comedy, Le Mariage de Figaro, are highly amusing, and
throw much light on the unsettled state of public sentiment at
the time. The play was completed in 1778, but the opposition
of Louis XVI., who alone saw its dangerous tendencies, was not
overcome till 1784. The comedy had an unprecedented success.
The principal character in both plays, Figaro, is a completely
original conception; in fact Beaumarchais drew a portrait of
himself in the resourceful adventurer, who, for mingled wit,
shrewdness, gaiety and philosophic reflection, may not unjustly
be ranked with Tartuffe. To English readers the Figaro plays
are generally known through the adaptations of them in the
grand opera of Mozart and Rossini; but in France they long
retained popularity as acting pieces. The success of Le Mariage
de Figaro was helped on by the methods of self-advertisement
so well understood by Beaumarchais. The proceeds of the
fiftieth performance were devoted to a charity, the choice of
which provoked numerous epigrams. Beaumarchais had the
imprudence to retaliate by personalities that were reported by
his enemies to be dedicated against the king and queen. Beau-
marchais was imprisoned for a short time by royal order in the
prison of St Lazare. Brilliant pamphleteer as he was, Beau-
marchais was at last to meet more than his match. He undertook
to defend the company of the " Eaux de Paris," in which he had
a large interest, against Mirabeau, and brought down on himself
an invective to which he could offer no reply. His real influence
was gone from that date (1785-1786). Shortly afterwards he
was violently attacked by Nicolas Bergasse, whom he sued for
defamation of character. He gained his case, but his reputation
had suffered in the pamphlet war. Beaumarchais's later pro-
ductions, the bombastic opera Tarare (1787) and the drama La
Mere coupable (1792), which was very popular, are in no way
worthy of his genius.
By his writings Beaumarchais contributed greatly, though
quite unconsciously, to hurry on the events that led to the
Revolution. At heart he hardly seems to have been a republican,
and the new state of affairs did not benefit him. The astonishing
thing is that the society travestied in Le Mariage de Figaro was
the most vehement in its applause. The court looked on at a
play justly characterized by Napoleon as the " revolution
already in action " apparently without a suspicion of its real
character. His popularity had been destroyed by the Mirabeau
and Bergasse affairs, and his great wealth exposed him to the
enmity of the envious. A speculation into which he entered,
to supply the Convention with muskets from Holland, proved
a ruinous failure. He was accused of concealing arms and corn
in his house, but when his house was searched nothing was
discovered but some thousands of copies of the edition (1783-
1790) of the works of Voltaire which he had had printed at his
private press at Kehl, in Baden. He was charged with treason
to the republic and was imprisoned in the Abbaye on the zoth
of August 1792. A week later he was released at the intercession
of Mme Houret de la Mariniere, who had been his mistress. He
took refuge in Holland and England. His memoirs entitled,
Mes six (poques, detailing his sufferings under the republic, are
not unworthy of the Goezman period. His courage and happy
disposition never deserted him, although he was hunted as an
agent of the Convention in Holland and England, while in Paris
he was proscribed as an imigri. He returned to Paris in 1796,
and died there, suddenly, on the i8th of May 1799.
Gudin de la Brenellerie's Histoire de Beaumarchais (1809) was
edited by M. Maurice Tourneux in 1888. See also L. de Lomenic,
Beaumarchais et son temps (1855), Eng. trans, by H. S. Edwards,
(4 vols., 1856); A. Hallay's Beaumarchais (1897); M. de Lescure,
Eloge de Beaumarchais (1886); and Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du
lundi, vol. vi. Beaumarchais's works have been edited by Gudin
(7 vols., 1809) ; by Furne (6 vols., 1827) ; and by E. Fournier (1876).
A variorum edition of his Theatre complet was published by MM.
d'Heylli and de Marescot (4 vols., 1869-1875) ; and a Bibliographic
des teuvres de Beaumarchais, by H. Cordier in 1883.
BEAUHARIS, a market town and municipal borough, and the
county town of Anglesey, N. Wales, situated on the Bay of
Beaumaris, not far from Penmon, the northern entrance of the
Menai Strait. Pop. (1901) 2326. It has but one considerable
street. The large castle chapel, dedicated to the Virgin, has
some fine monuments. David Hughes, of Jesus College, Oxford,
Founded the free grammar school in 1603. Buildings include
town-hall and county-hall, with St Mary's church of the i3th
century, with chancel of the i6th. Practically without trade
and with no manufactures, Beaumaris is principally noted as a
aa thing-place. Its earliest charter dates from 1283 and was
revised under Elizabeth. The town was formerly called Barnover
and, still earlier, Rhosfair, and bears its present name of French
origin since Edward I. built its castle in 1293. This extensive
juilding was erected on low ground, so that the fosse might
communicate with the sea, and vessels might unload under its
walls. The castle capitulated, after siege, to General Mytton
(1646).
BEAUMONT, BELMONT, or BELLOMONT, the name of a
Merman and English family, taken from Beaumont-le-Roger in
BEAUMONT, C. DE BEAUMONT, SIR J.
Normandy. Early in the nth century Roger de Beaumont, a
kinsman of the dukes of Normandy, married a daughter of
Waleran, count of Meulan, and their son, ROBERT DE BEAUMONT
(d. 1118), became count of Meulan or Mellent about 1080.
Before this date, however, he had fought at Hastings, and had
added large estates in Warwickshire to the Norman fiefs of
Beaumont and Pont Audemer, which he received when his
father entered the abbey of St Peter at Praux. It was during
the reigns of William II. and Henry I. that the count rose to
eminence, and under the latter monarch he became " the first
among the counsellors of the king." A " strenuous and sagacious
man " he rendered valuable service to both kings in their Norman
wars, and Henry I. was largely indebted to him for the
English crown. He obtained lands in Leicestershire, and it has
been said he was created earl of Leicester; this statement,
however, is an error, although he exercised some of the privileges
of an earl. His abilities as a counsellor, statesman and diplo-
matist gained him the admiration of his contemporaries, and
Henry of Huntingdon describes him as " the wisest man between
this and Jerusalem." He seems to have been a man of inde-
pendent character, for he assisted Anselm against William Ruf us,
although he supported Henry I. in his quarrel with Pope Paschal
II. When Robert died on the sth of June 1118 his lands appear
to have been divided between his twin sons, Robert and Waleran,
while a third son, Hugh, became earl of Bedford in 1138.
ROBERT DE BEAUMONT (1104-1168), justiciar of England,
married a granddaughter of Ralph Guader, earl of Norfolk, and
receiving his father's English fiefs in 1118 became earl of
Leicester. He and his brother, Waleran, were the chief advisers
of Stephen, and helped this king to seize the bishops of Salisbury
and Lincoln in 1139; later, however, Robert made his peace with
Henry II., and became chief justiciar of England. First among
the lay nobles he signed the Constitutions of Clarendon, he sought
to reconcile Henry and Archbishop Becket, and was twice in
charge of the kingdom during the king's absences in France.
The earl founded the abbey of St Mary de Pre at Leicester and
other religious houses, and by a charter confirmed the burgesses
of Leicester in the possession of their merchant-gild and customs.
His son, Robert, succeeded to the earldom of Leicester, and with
other English barons assisted prince Henry in his revolt against
his father the king in 1173. For this participation, and also
on a later occasion, he was imprisoned; but he enjoyed the
favour of Richard I., and died in Greece when returning from a
pilgrimage in 1190. His son and heir, Robert, died childless
in 1204.
WALERAN DE BEAUMONT (1104-1166) obtained his father's
French fiefs and the title of count of Meulan in 1118. After
being imprisoned for five years by Henry I. he spent some time
in England, and during the civil war between Stephen and the
empress Matilda he fought for the former until about 1150,
when he deserted the king and assisted the empress. His later
history appears to have been uneventful. The county of Meulan
remained in possession of the Beaumont family until 1204, when
it was united with the royal domain.
Another member of the Beaumont family, possibly a relative
of the earlier Beaumonts, was Louis DE BEAUMONT (d. 1333),
bishop of Durham from 1317 until his death. This prelate was
related to the English king, Edward II., and after a life spent
in strife and ostentation, he died on the 24th of September 1333.
JOHN BEAUMONT, master of the rolls under Edward VI., was
probably a member of the same family. A dishonest and corrupt
judge, he was deprived of his office and imprisoned in 1552.
The barony of Beaumont dates from 1309, when HENRY
BEAUMONT (d. 1340), who was constable of England in 1322, was
summoned to parliament under this title. It was retained by
his descendants until the death of William, the 7th baron and
the 2nd viscount, 1 in 1507, when it fell into abeyance. In 1840
the barony was revived in favour of Miles Thomas Stapleton
(1805-1854), a descendant of Joan, Baroness Lovel, a daughter
1 His father John (d. 1460), the 6th baron, great chamberlain and
constable of England, was the first person advanced to the dignity
of a viscount in England.
59 1
of the 6th baron, and it has since been retained by his
descendants.
In 1906 WENTWORTH BLACKETT BEAUMONT (1820-1907), the
head of a family well known in the north of England, was created
Baron Allendale.
BEAUMONT, CHRISTOPHE DE (1703-1781), French ecclesi-
astic and archbishop of Paris, was a cadet of the Les Adrets and
Saint-Quentin branch of the illustrious Dauphine family of
Beaumont. He became bishop of Bayonne in 1741, then arch-
bishop of Vienne in 1743, and in 1746, at the age of forty-three,
archbishop of Paris. Beaumont is noted for his struggle with the
Jansenists. To force them to accept the bull Unigenitus which
condemned their doctrines, he ordered the priests of his diocese
to refuse absolution to those who would not recognize the bull,
and to deny funeral rites to those who had confessed to a
Jansenist priest. While other bishops sent Beaumont their
adhesion to his crusade, the parlemcnt of Paris threatened to
confiscate his temporalities. The king forbade the parlement
to interfere in these spiritual questions, and upon its proving
obdurate it was exiled (September 18, 1753). The " royal
chamber," which was substituted, having failed to carry on the
administration of justice properly, the king was obliged to recall
the parlement, and the archbishop was sent into honourable
exile (August 1754). An effort was made to induce him to
resign the active duties of his see to a coadjutor, but in spite
of the most tempting offers including a cardinal's hat he
refused. On the contrary, to his polemic against the Jansenists
he added an attack on the philosophes, and issued a formal
mandatory letter condemning Rousseau's miie. Rousseau
replied in his masterly Lettre d M. de Beaumont (1762), in which
he insists that freedom of discussion in religious matters is
essentially more religious than the attempt to impose belief by
force.
De Beaumont's Mandements, lettres et instructions pastorales were
published in two volumes in 1780, the year before his death.
BEAUMONT, SIR JOHN (1383-1627), English poet, second
son of the judge, Sir Francis Beaumont, was born at Grace-Dieu
in Leicestershire in 1583. The deaths of his father (in 1598)
and of his elder brother, Sir Henry Beaumont (in 1605), made
the poet early the head of this brilliant family; the dramatist,
Francis Beaumont, being a younger brother. John went to
Oxford in February 1597, and entered as a gentleman commoner
in Broadgates Hall, the present Pembroke College. He was
admitted to the Inner Temple in 1600, but on the death of Henry
he no doubt went down to Grace-Dieu to manage the family
estates. He began to write verse early, and in 1602, at the age
of nineteen, he published anonymously his Metamorphosis of
Tabacco, written in very smooth couplets, in which he addressed
Drayton as his " loving friend." He lived in Leicestershire for
many years as a bachelor, being one " who never felt Love's
dreadful arrow." But in process of time he became a tardy
victim, and married a lady of the Fortescue family, who bore
him four stout sons, the eldest of whom, another John, was
accounted one of the most athletic men of his time. " He could
leap 16 ft. at one leap, and would commonly, at a stand-leap,
jump over a high long table in the hall, light on a settle beyond
the table, and raise himself straight up." This magnificent
young man was not without literary taste; he edited his father's
posthumous poems, and wrote an enthusiastic elegy on him; he
was killed in 1644 at the siege of Gloucester. Another of Sir
John Beaumont's sons, Gervaise, died in childhood, and the
incidents of his death are recorded in one of his father's most
touching poems. Sir John Beaumont concentrated his powers
on a poem in eight books, entitled The Crown of Thorns, which
was greatly admired in MS. by the earl of Southampton and
others, but which is lost. After long retirement, Beaumont was
persuaded by the duke of Buckingham to move in larger circles;
he attended court and in 1626 was made a baronet. This
honour he did not long survive, for he died on the igth of April
1627, and was buried in Westminster Abbey ten days later.
The new Sir John, the strong man, published in 1629 a volume
entitled Bostvorlh Field; with a taste of the variety of other Poems
592
BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER
left by Sir John Beaumont. No more "tastes" were ever
vouchsafed, so that it is by this volume and by the juvenile
Metamorphosis of Tobacco that Beaumont's reputation has to
stand. Of late years, the peculiarities of John Beaumont's
prosody have drawn attention to his work. He wrote the heroic
couplet, which was his favourite measure, with almost un-
precedented evenness. Bosworth Field, the scene of the battle
of which Beaumont's principal poem gives a vaguely epical
narrative, lay close to the poet's house of Grace-Dieu. He
writes on all occasions with a smoothness which was very remark-
able in the first quarter of the lyth century, and which marks
him, with Edmund Waller and George Sandys, as one of the
pioneers of the classic reformation of English verse.
The poems of Sir John Beaumont were included in A. Chalmers's
English Poets, vol. vi. (1810). An edition, with " memorial intro-
duction" and notes, was included (1869) in Dr A. B. Grosart's
Fuller Worthies' Library; and the Metamorphosis of Tobacco was
included in J. P. Collier's Illustrations of Early English Popular
Literature, vol. i. (1863). (E. G.)
BEAUMONT and FLETCHER, English dramatists. 1 The
names of FRANCIS BEAUMONT (1584-1616) and JOHN FLETCHER
(1579-1625) are inseparably connected in the history of the
English drama. John Fletcher was born in December 1579 at
Rye in Sussex, and baptized on the 2oth of the same month.
Richard Fletcher, his father, afterwards queen's chaplain, dean
of Peterborough, and bishop successively of Bristol, Worcester
and London, was then minister of the parish in which the son was
born who was to make their name immortal. That son was just
turned of seven when the dean distinguished and disgraced
himself as the spiritual tormentor of the last moments on earth
of Mary Stuart. When not quite twelve he was admitted
pensioner of Bene't College, Cambridge, and two years later was
made one of the Bible-clerks: of this college Bishop Fletcher had
been president twenty years earlier, and six months before his
son's admission had received from its authorities a first letter of
thanks for various benefactions, to be followed next year by a
second. Four years later than this, when John Fletcher wanted
five or six months of his seventeenth year, the bishop died
suddenly of over much tobacco and the displeasure of Queen
Elizabeth at his second marriage this time, it appears, with a
lady of such character as figures something too frequently on the
stage of his illustrious son. He left eight children by his first
marriage in such distress that their uncle, Dr Giles Fletcher,
author of a treatise on the Russian commonwealth which is still
held in some repute, was obliged to draw up a petition to the
queen on their behalf, which was supported by the intercession
of Essex, but with what result is uncertain.
From this date we know nothing of the fortunes of John
Fletcher, till the needy orphan boy of seventeen reappears as the
brilliant and triumphant poet whose name is linked for all time
with the yet more glorious name of Francis Beaumont, third and
youngest son of Sir Francis Beaumont of Grace-Dieu, one of the
justices of the common pleas born, according to general report,
in 1 586, but, according to more than one apparently irrefragable
document, actually born two years earlier. The first record of
his existence is the entry of his name, together with those of his
elder brothers Henry and John, as a gentleman-commoner of
Broadgates Hall, Oxford, now supplanted by Pembroke College.
But most lovers of his fame will care rather to remember the
admirable lines of Wordsworth on the " eager child " who played
among the rocks and woodlands of Grace-Dieu; though it may be
doubted whether even the boy's first verses were of the peaceful
and pastoral character attributed to them by the great laureate
of the lakes. That passionate and fiery genius which was so soon
and for so short a time to " shake the buskined stage " with heroic
. and tragic notes of passion and of sorrow, of scorn and rage, and
1 Recent research has resulted in some variation of opinion as to
the precise authorship of some of the plays commonly attributed to
them; but this article, contributed to the ninth edition of the
Encyclopaedia Bntannica, remains the classical modern criticism of
Beaumont and Fletcher, and its value is substantially unaffected.
As representing to the end the views of its distinguished author, it
is therefore retained as written, the results of later research being epi-
tomized in the Bibliographical Appendix at the end. (Ed )
slighted love and jealousy, must surely have sought vent from the
first in fancies of a more ardent and ambitious kind; and it
would be a likelier conjecture that when Frank Beaumont (as we
know on more authorities than one that he was always called by
his contemporaries, even in the full flush of his adult fame
" never more than Frank," says Heywood) went to college at the
ripe age of twelve, he had already committed a tragedy or two in
emulation of Tamburlaine, Andronicus or Jeronymo. The date
of his admission was the 4th of February 1597; on the 22nd of
April of the following year his father died; and on the $rd of
November 1600, having left Oxford without taking his degree, the
boy of fifteen was entered a member of the Inner Temple, his two
brothers standing sponsors on the grave occasion. But the son
of Judge Beaumont was no fitter for success at the bar than the
son of Bishop Fletcher for distinction in the church: it is equally
difficult to imagine either poet invested with either gown. Two
years later appeared the poem of Salmacis and Hermaphroditus,
generally attributed to Beaumont, a voluptuous and voluminous
expansion of the Ovidian legend, not on the whole discreditable
to a lad of eighteen, fresh from the popular love-poems of
Marlowe and Shakespeare, which it naturally exceeds in long-
winded and fantastic diffusion of episodes and conceits. At
twenty-three Beaumont prefixed to the magnificent masterpiece
of Ben Jonson some noticeable verses in honour of his " dear
friend " the author; and in the same year (1607) appeared the
anonymous comedy of The Woman-Hater, usually assigned to
Fletcher alone; but being as it is in the main a crude and puerile
imitation of Jonson's manner, and certainly more like a man's
work at twenty-two than at twenty-eight, internal evidence
would seem to justify, or at least to excuse those critics who in
the teeth of high authority and tradition would transfer from
Fletcher to Beaumont the principal responsibility for this first
play that can be traced to the hand of either. As Fletcher also
prefixed to the first edition of Volpone a copy of commendatory
verses, we may presume that their common admiration for a
common friend was among the earliest and strongest influences
which drew together the two great poets whose names were
thenceforward to be for ever indivisible. During the dim eleven
years between the death of his father and the dawn of his fame,
we cannot but imagine that the career of Fletcher had been
unprosperous as well as obscure. From seventeen to twenty-
eight his youth may presumably have been spent in such painful
struggles for success, if not for sustenance, as were never known
to his younger colleague, who, as we have seen, was entered at
Oxford a few months after Fletcher must in all likelihood have
left Cambridge to try his luck in London; a venture most
probably resolved on as soon as the youth had found his family
reduced by the father's death to such ruinous straits that any
smoother course can hardly have been open to him. Entering
college at the same age as Fletcher had entered six years earlier,
Beaumont had before him a brighter and briefer line of life than
his elder. But whatever may have been their respective situations
when, either by happy chance or, as Dyce suggests, by the good
offices of Jonson, they were first brought together, their intimacy
soon became so much closer than that of ordinary brothers that
the household which they shared as bachelors was conducted on
such thoroughly communistic principles as might have satisfied
the most trenchant theorist who ever proclaimed as the cardinal
point of his doctrine, a complete and absolute community of bed
and board, with all goods thereto appertaining. But in the year
following that in which the two younger poets had united in
homage to Jonson, they had entered into a partnership of more
importance than this in " the same clothes and cloak, &c.," with
other necessaries of life specified by Aubrey.
In 1608, if we may trust the reckoning which seems trust-
worthiest, the twin stars of our stage rose visibly together for the
first time. The loveliest, though not the loftiest, of tragic plays
that we owe to the comrades or the successors of Shakespeare,
Philaster, has generally been regarded as the first-born issue of
their common genius. The noble tragedy of Thierry and Theo-
doret has sometimes been dated earlier and assigned to Fletcher
alone; but we can be sure neither of the early date nor the single
BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER
593
authorship. The main body of the play, comprising both the
great scenes which throw out into full and final relief the character
of either heroine for perfect good or evil, bears throughout the
unmistakable image and superscription of Fletcher; yet there
are parts which for gravity and steady strength of style, for
reserve and temperance of effect, would seem to suggest the
collaboration of a calmer and more patient hand; and these more
equable and less passionate parts of the poem recall rather the
touch of Massinger than of Beaumont. In the second act, for
example, the regular structure of the verse, the even scheme of
the action, the exaggerated braggardism which makes of the hero
a mere puppet or mouthpiece of his own self-will, are all qualities
which, for better or for worse, remind us of the strength or the
weakness of a poet with whom we know that Fletcher, before or
after his alliance with Beaumont, did now and then work in
common. Even the Arbaces of Beaumont, though somewhat too
highly coloured, does not " write himself down an ass," like
Thierry on his first entrance, after tho too frequent fashion of
Massinger's braggarts and tyrants; does not proclaim at starting
or display with mere wantonness of exposure his more unlovely
qualities in the naked nature of their deformity. Compare also
the second with the first scene of the fourth act. In style and
metre this second scene is as good an example of Massinger as the
first is of Fletcher at his best. Observe especially in the elaborate
narrative of the pretended self-immolation of Ordella these
distinctive notes of the peculiar style of Massinger; the excess of
parenthetic sentences, no less than five in a space of twenty lines;
the classical common-place of allusion to Athens, Rome and
Sparta in one superfluous breath; the pure and vigorous but
somewhat level and prosaic order of language, with the use of
certain cheap and easy phrases familiar to Massinger as catch-
words; the flat and feeble terminations by means of which the
final syllable of one verse runs on into the next without more pause
or rhythm than in a passage of prose; the general dignity and
gravity of sustained and measured expression. These are the
very points in which the style of Massinger differs from that of
Fletcher; whose lightest and loosest verses do not overlap each
other without sensible distinction between the end of one line and
the beginning of the next; who is often too fluent and facile to
be choice or forcible in his diction, but seldom if ever prosaic or
conventional in phrase or allusion, and by no means habitually
given to weave thoughts within thoughts, knit sentence into
sentence, and hang whole paragraphs together by the help of loops
and brackets. From these indications we might infer that this
poem belongs altogether to a period later than the death of
Beaumont; though even during his friend's life it appears that
Fletcher was once at least allied with Massinger and two lesser
dramatists in the composition of a play, probably the Honest
Man's Fortune, of which the accounts are to be found in Hen-
slowe's papers.
Hardly eight years of toil and triumph of joyous and glorious
life were spared by destiny to the younger poet between the date
assigned to the first radiant revelation of his genius in Philaster
and the date which marks the end of all his labours. On the 6th
of March 1616 Francis Beaumont died according to Jonson and
tradition, " ere he was thirty years of age," but this we have seen
to be inconsistent with the registry of his entrance at Oxford. If
we may trust the elegiac evidence of friends, he died of his own
genius and fiery overwork of brain; yet from the magnificent and
masculine beauty of his portrait one should certainly never have
guessed that any strain of spirit or stress of invention could have
worn out so long before its time so fair and royal a temple for so
bright and affluent a soul. A student of physiognomy will not
fail to mark the points of likeness and of difference between the
faces of the two friends; both models of noble manhood, hand-
some and significant in feature and expression alike; Beaumont's
the statelier and serener of the two, with clear thoughtful eyes,
full arched brows, and strong aquiline nose, with a little cleft at
the tip; a grave and beautiful mouth, with full and finely curved
lips; the form of face a long pure oval, and the imperial head with
its " fair large front " and clustering hair set firm and carried high
with an aspect at once of quiet command and kingly observation:
Fletcher's a more keen and fervid face, sharper in outline every
way, with an air of bright ardour and glad fiery impatience;
sanguine and nervous, suiting the complexion and colour of hair;
the expression of the eager eyes and lips almost recalling that of a
noble hound in act to break the leash it strains at; two heads as
lordly of feature and as expressive of aspect as any gallery of great
men can show. That spring of 1616, we may note in passing, was
the darkest that ever dawned upon England or the world; for,
just forty-eight days afterwards, it witnessed, on the 3rd of
April, the removal from earth of the mightiest genius that ever
dwelt among men. Scarcely more than a month and a half divided
the death-days of Beaumont and of Shakespeare. Some three
years earlier by Dyce's estimate, when about the age of twenty-
nine, Beaumont had married Ursula, daughter and co-heiress to
Henry Isley of Sundridge in Kent, by whom he-left two daughters,
one of them posthumous. Fletcher survived his friend just nine
years and five months; he died " in the great plague, 1635," and
was buried on the aoth of August in St Saviour's, Southward; not,
as we might have wished, beside his younger fellow in fame, who
but three days after his untimely death had added another
deathless memory to the graves of our great men in Westminster
Abbey, which he had sung in such noble verse. Dying when just
four months short of forty-six, Fletcher had thus, as well as we
can now calculate, altogether some fourteen years and six months
more of life than the poet who divides with him the imperial
inheritance of their common glory.
The perfect union in genius and in friendship which has made
one name of 'the two names of these great twin brothers in song
is a thing so admirable and so delightful to remember, that
it would seem ungracious and unkindly to claim for either a
precedence which we may be sure he would have been eager to
disclaim. But if a distinction must be made between the
Dioscuri of English poetry, we must admit that Beaumont was
the twin of heavenlier birth. Only as Pollux was on one side a
demigod of diviner blood than Castor can it be said that on any
side Beaumont was a poet of higher and purer genius than
Fletcher; but so much must be allowed by all who have eyes
and ears to discern in the fabric of their common work a dis-
tinction without a difference. Few things are stranger than the
avowal of so great and exquisite a critic as Coleridge, that he
could trace no faintest line of demarcation between the plays
which we owe mainly to Beaumont and the plays which we owe
solely to Fletcher. To others this line has always appeared in
almost every case unmistakable. Were it as hard and broad
as the line which marks off, for example, Shakespeare's part
from Fletcher's in The Two Noble Kinsmen, the harmony would
of course be lost which now informs every work of their common
genius, and each play of their writing would be such another
piece of magnificent patchwork as that last gigantic heir of
Shakespeare's invention, the posthumous birth of his parting
Muse which was suckled at the breast of Fletcher's as a child of
godlike blood might be reared on the milk of a mortal mother
or in this case, we might sometimes be tempted to say, of a she-
goat who left in the veins of the heaven-born suckling some-
what too much of his nurse Amalthaea. That question however
belongs in any case more properly to the study of Shakespeare
than to the present subject in hand. It may suffice here to
observe that the contributions of Fletcher to the majestic temple
of tragedy left incomplete by Shakespeare show the lesser
workman almost equally at his best and at his worst, at his
weakest and at his strongest. In the plays which we know by
evidence surer than the most trustworthy tradition to be the
common work of Beaumont and Fletcher, there is indeed no
trace of such incongruous and incompatible admixture as leaves
the greatest example of romantic tragedy for Cymbeline and
the Winter's Tale, though not guiltless of blood, are in their
issues no more tragic than Pericles or the Tempest a unique
instance of glorious imperfection, a hybrid of heavenly and other
than heavenly breed, disproportioned and divine. But through-
out these noblest of the works inscribed generally with the names
of both dramatists we trace on every other page the touch of
a surer hand, we hear at every other turn the note of a deeper
594
BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER
voice, than we can ever recognize in the work of Fletcher alone.
Although the beloved friend of Jonson, and in the field of comedy
his loving and studious disciple, yet in that tragic field where his
freshest bays were gathered Beaumont was the worthiest and
the closest follower of Shakespeare. In the external but essential
matter of expression by rhythm and metre he approves himself
always a student of Shakespeare's second manner, of the style
in which the graver or tragic part of his historical or romantic
plays is mostly written; doubtless, the most perfect model that
can be studied by any poet who, like Beaumont, is great enough
to be in no danger of sinking to the rank of a mere copyist, but
while studious of the perfection set before him is yet conscious
of his own personal and proper quality of genius, and enters the
presence of the master not as a servant but as a son. The
general style of his tragic or romantic verse is as simple and
severe in its purity of note and regularity of outline as that of
Fletcher's is by comparison lax, effusive, exuberant. The
matchless fluency and rapidity with which the elder brother
pours forth the stream of his smooth swift verse gave probably
the first occasion for that foolish rumour which has not yet fallen
duly silent, but still murmurs here and there its suggestion that
the main office of Beaumont was to correct and contain within
bounds the overflowing invention of his colleague. The poet
who while yet a youth had earned by his unaided mastery of
hand such a crown as was bestowed by the noble love and the
loving " envy " of Ben Jonson was, according to this tradition,
a mere precocious pedagogue, fit only to revise and restrain the
too liberal effusions of his elder in genius as in years. Now, in
every one of the plays common to both, the real difficulty for a
critic is not to trace the hand of Beaumont, but to detect the
touch of Fletcher. Throughout the better part of every such
play, and above all of their two masterpieces, Philaster and The
Maid's Tragedy, it should be clear to the most sluggish or cursory
of readers that he has not to do with the author of Valentinian
and The Double Marriage. In those admirable tragedies the
style is looser, more fluid, more feminine. From the first scene
to the last we are swept as it were along the race of a running
river, always at full flow of light and buoyant melody, with no
dark reaches or perilous eddies, no stagnant pools or sterile
sandbanks; its bright course only varied by sudden rapids or
a stronger ripple here and there, but in rough places or smooth
still stirred and sparkling with summer wind and sun. But in
those tragic poems of which the dominant note is the note of
Beaumont's genius a subtler chord of thought is sounded, a
deeper key of emotion is touched, than ever was struck by
Fletcher. The lighter genius is palpably subordinate to the
stronger, and loyally submits itself to the impression of a loftier
spirit. It is true that this distinction is never grave enough to
produce a discord: it is also true that the plays in which the
predominance of Beaumont's mind and style is generally per-
ceptible make up altogether but a small section of the work that
bears their names conjointly; but it is no less true that within
this section the most precious part of that work is comprised.
Outside it we shall find no figures so firmly drawn, no such
clearness of outline, no such cunning of hands as we recognize
in the three great studies of Bellario, Evadne and Aspatia. In
his male characters, as for instance in the parts of Philaster and
Arbaces, Beaumont also is apt to show something of that
exaggeration or inconsistency for which his colleague is perhaps
more frequently and more heavily to blame; but in these there
is not a jarring note, not a touch misplaced; unless, indeed, a
rigid criticism may condemn as unfeminine and incongruous with
the gentle beauty of her pathetic patience the device by which
Aspatia procures herself the death desired at the hand of
Amintor. This is noted as a fault by Dyce; but may well be
forgiven for the sake of the magnificent scene which follows, and
the highest tragic effect ever attained on the stage of either poet.
That this as well as the greater part of those other scenes which
are the glory of the poem is due to Beaumont might readily be
shown at length by the process of comparison. The noble scene
of regicide, which it was found expedient to cancel during the
earlier years of the Restoration, may indeed be the work of
Fletcher; but the part of Evadne must undoubtedly be in the
main assigned to the more potent hand of his fellow. There is
a fine harmony of character between her naked audacity in the
second act and her fierce repentance in the fourth, which is
not unworthy a disciple of the tragic school of Shakespeare;
Fletcher is less observant of the due balance, less heedful of the
nice proportions of good and evil in a faulty and fiery nature,
compounded of perverse instinct and passionate reaction. From
him we might have had a figure as admirable for vigour of
handling, but hardly in such perfect keeping as this of Beau-
mont's Evadne, the murderess-Magdalen, whose penitence is of
one crimson colour with her sin. Nor even in Fletcher's Ordella,
worthy as the part is throughout even of the precious and
exquisite praise of Lamb, is there any such cunning touch of
tenderness or delicate perfume of pathos as in the parts of
Bellario and Aspatia. These have in them a bitter sweetness,
a subtle pungency of mortal sorrow and tears of divine delight,
beyond the reach of Fletcher. His highest studies of female
character have dignity, energy, devotion of the heroic type;
but they never touch us to the quick, never waken in us any
finer and more profound sense than that of applause and admira-
tion. There is a modest pathos now and then in his pictures of
feminine submission and slighted or outraged love; but this
submission he is apt to make too servile, this love too dog-like
in its abject devotion to retain that tender reverence which so
many generations of readers have paid to the sweet memories
of Aspatia and Bellario. To excite compassion was enough for
Fletcher as in the masculine parts of his work it was enough for
him to excite wonder, to sustain curiosity, to goad and stimulate
by any vivid and violent means the interest of readers or spec-
tators. The single instance of noble pathos, the one scene he has
left us which appeals to the higher and purer kind of pity, is the
death of the child Hengo in Bonduca a scene which of itself
would have sufficed to enrol his name for ever on the list of our
great tragic poets. To him we may probably assign the whole
merit of that fiery and high-toned tragedy, with all its spirit and
splendour of national and martial passion; the conscious and
demonstrative exchange of courtesy between Roman and Briton,
which is one of the leading notes of the poem, has in it a touch of
overstrained and artificial chivalry characteristic of Fletcher;
yet the parts of Caratach and Poenius may be counted among
the loftiest and most equal of his creations. But no surer test
or better example can be taken of the distinctive quality which
denotes the graver genius of either poet than that supplied by
a comparison of Beaumont's Triumph of Love with Fletcher's
Triumph of Death. Each little play, in the brief course of its
single act, gives proof of the peculiar touch and special trick
of its author's hand: the deeper and more delicate passion of
Beaumont, the rapid and ardent activity of Fletcher, have
nowhere found a more noticeable vent for the expression respec-
tively of the most tender and profound simplicity of quiet sweet-
ness, the most buoyant and impatient energy of tragic emotion.
In the wider field of their comic or romantic drama it is yet
easier to distinguish the respective "work of either hand. The
bias of Fletcher was towards mixed comedy; his lightest and
wildest humour is usually crossed or tempered by an infusion
of romance; like Shakespeare in this one point at least, he has
left no single play without some touch on it of serious interest,
of poetic eloquence or fancy, however slight and fugitive.
Beaumont, evidently under the imperious influence of Ben
Jonson's more rigid theories, seems rather to have bent his
genius with the whole force of a resolute will into the form or
mould prescribed for comedy by the elder and greater comic poet.
The admirable study of the worthy citizen and his wife, who
introduce to the stage and escort with their applause The Knight
of the Burning Pestle through his adventurous career to its
untimely end, has all the force and fulness of Jonson's humour
at its best, with more of freshness and freedom. In pure comedy,
varied with broad farce and mock-heroic parody, Beaumont was
the earliest as well as the ablest disciple of the master whose
mantle was afterwards to be shared among the academic poets
of a younger generation, the Randolphs and Cartwrights who
BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER
595
sought shelter under the shadow of its voluminous folds. The
best example of the school of Jonson to be found outside the
ample range of his own work is The Scornful Lady, a comedy
whose exceptional success and prolonged popularity must have
been due rather to the broad effect of its forcible situations, its
wealth and variety of ludicrous incidents, and the strong gross
humour of its dialogue, than to any finer quality of style, inven-
tion or character. It is the only work of Beaumont and Fletcher
which a critic who weighs the meaning of his words can admit
to be as coarse as the coarsest work of Ben Jonson. They are
prone, indeed, to indulge elsewhere in a wanton and exuberant
licence of talk; and Fletcher, at least, is liable to confuse the
shades of right and wrong, to deface or efface the boundary lines
of good and evil, to stain the ermine of, virtue and palliate the
nakedness of vice with the same indecorous and incongruous
laxity of handling. Often in mere haste to despatch the business
of a play, to huddle up a catastrophe or throw out some particular
scene into sharp and immediate relief, he will sacrifice all seemli-
ness and consistency of character to the present aim of stage
effect, and the instant impression of strong incident or audacious
eloquence. His heroines are too apt to utter sentiments worthy
of Diana in language unworthy of Doll Tearsheet. But in this
play both style and sentiment are throughout on a lower level,
the action and emotion are of a baser kind than usual; the
precept of Aristotle and the practice of Jonson have been so
carefully observed and exaggerated that it might almost be said
to offer us in one or two places an imitation not merely of the
sorrier but of the sorriest qualities of human nature; and full
as it is of spontaneous power and humorous invention, the
comedy extolled by the moral Steele (with just so much of
reservation as permits him to deprecate the ridicule cast upon
the clerical character) is certainly more offensive to artistic law
and aesthetic judgment by the general and ingrained coarseness
of its tone, than the tragi-comedy denounced by the immoral
Dryden as exceeding in licence his own worst work and that of
his fellow playwrights; an imputation, be it said in passing, as
groundless as the protest pleaded on their behalf is impudent;
for though we may hardly agree with the uncompromising
panegyrist who commends that play in particular to the approval
of "the austere scarlet" (remembering, perhaps, that Aristo-
phanes was the chosen bedfellow of Chrysostom), there is at
least no such offence against art or taste in the eccentricity of
its situations or the daring of its dialogue. The buoyant and
facile grace of Fletcher's style carries him lightly across quag-
mires in which a heavier-footed poet, or one of slower tread,
would have stuck fast, and come forth bemired to the knees.
To Beaumont his stars had given as birthright the gifts of tragic
pathos and passion, of tender power and broad strong humour;
to Fletcher had been allotted a more fiery and fruitful force of
invention, a more aerial ease and swiftness of action, a more
various readiness and fulness of bright exuberant speech. The
genius of Beaumont was deeper, sweeter, nobler than his elder's;
the genius of Fletcher more brilliant, more supple, more prodigal,
and more voluble than his friend's. Without a taint or a shadow
on his fame of such imitative servility as marks and degrades
the mere henchman or satellite of a stronger poet, Beaumont
may fairly be said to hold of Shakespeare in his tragedy, in his
comedy of Jonson; in each case rather as a kinsman than us a
client, as an ally than as a follower: but the more special
province of Fletcher was a land of his own discovering, where
no later colonist has ever had power to settle or to share his
reign. With the mixed or romantic comedy of Shakespeare it
has nothing in common except the admixture or alternation of
graver with lighter interest, of serious with humorous action.
Nothing is here of his magic exaltation or charm of fairy empire.
The rare and rash adventures of Fletcher on that forbidden track
are too sure to end in pitiful and shameful failure. His crown
of praise is to have created a wholly new and wholly delightful
form of mixed comedy or dramatic romance, dealing merely
with the humours and sentiments of men, their passions and
their chances; to have woven of all these a web of emotion
and event with such gay dexterity, to have blended his colours
and combined his effects with such exquisite facility and swift
light sun-ness of touch, that we may return once and again from
those heights and depths of poetry to which access was forbidden
him, ready as ever to enjoy as of old the fresh incomparable
charm, the force and ease and grace of life, which fill and animate
the radiant world of his romantic invention. Neither before
him nor after do we find, in this his special field of fancy and of
work, more than shadows or echoes of his coming or departing
genius. Admirable as arc his tragedies already mentioned, rich
in splendid eloquence and strong in large grasp of character as
is the Roman history of The False One, full of interest and vigour
as is the better part of Rollo Duke of Normandy, and sublime
in the loveliness of passion as is the one scene of perfect beauty
and terror which crowns this latter tragedy, Fletcher may claim
a yet higher and more special station among his great dramatic
peers by right of his comic and romantic than by right of his
tragic and historic plays. Even in these he is more a romantic
than a tragic poet. The quality of his genius, never sombre or
subtle or profound, bears him always towards fresh air and
sunshine. His natural work is in a midday world of fearless
boyish laughter and hardly bitter tears. There is always more
of rainbow than of storm in his skies; their darkest shadow is
but a tragic twilight. What with him is the noon of night would
seem as sunshine on the stage of Ford or Webster. There is
but one passage in all these noble plays which lifts us beyond a
sense of the stage, which raises our admiration out of speech
into silence, tempers and transfigures our emotion with a touch
of awe. And this we owe to the genius of Beaumont, exalted
for an instant to the very tone and manner of Shakespeare's
tragedy, when Amintor stands between the dead and the dying
woman whom he has unwittingly slain with hand and tongue.
The first few lines that drop from his stricken lips are probably
the only verses of Beaumont or Fletcher which might pass for
Shakespeare's even with a good judge of style
" This earth of mine doth tremble," &c.
But in Fletcher's tragedy, however we may be thrilled and
kindled with high contagious excitement, we are never awed into
dumb delight or dread, never pierced with any sense of terror or
pity too deep or even deep enough for tears. Even his Brunhalts
and Martias can hardly persuade us to forget for the moment
that " they do but jest, poison in jest." A critic bitten with the
love of classification might divide those plays of Fletcher usually
ranked together as comedies into three kinds: the first he would
class under the head of pure comedy, the next of heroic or
romantic drama, the third of mixed comedy and romance; in
this, the last and most delightful division of the poet's work the
special qualities of the two former kinds being equally blended
and delicately harmonized. The most perfect and triumphant
examples of this class are The Spanish Curate, Monsieur Thomas,
The Custom of the Country, and The Elder Brother. Next to these
and not too far below them, we may put The Little French Lawyer
(a play which in its broad conception of a single eccentric humour
suggests the collaboration of Beaumont and the influence of
Jonson, but in style and execution throughout is perfect Fletcher 1 ) ,
The Humorous Lieutenant (on which an almost identical verdict
might be passed), Women Pleased, Beggars' Bush, and perhaps we
might add The Fair Maid of the Inn; in most if not in all of
which the balance of exultant and living humour with serious
poetic interest of a noble and various kind is held with even hand
and the skill of a natural master. In pure comedy Rule a Wife
and have a Wife is the acknowledged and consummate master-
piece of Fletcher. Next to it we might class, for comic spirit and
force of character, Wit without Money, The Wildgoose Chase, The
Chances, and The Noble Gentleman, a broad poetic farce to
whose overflowing fun and masterdom of extravagance no critic
has ever done justice but Leigh Hunt, who has ventured, not
without reason, to match its joyous and preposterous audacities
of superlative and sovereign foolery with the more sharp-edged
satire and practical merriment of King and No King, where the
keen prosaic humour of Bessus and his swordsmen is as typical of
the comic style in which Beaumont had been trained up under
Ben Jonson as the high interest and graduated action of the
59 6
BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER
serious part of the play are characteristic of his more earnest
genius. Among the purely romantic plays of Fletcher, or those
in which the comic effect is throughout subordinate to the
romantic, The Knight of Malta seems .most worthy of the highest
place for the noble beauty and exaltation of spirit which informs
it with a lofty life, for its chivalrous union of heroic passion and
Catholic devotion. This poem is the fairest and the first example
of those sweet fantastic paintings in rose-colour and azure of
visionary chivalry and ideal holiness, by dint of which the
romance of more recent days has sought to cast the glamour of a
mirage over the darkest and deadliest " ages of faith." The pure
and fervent eloquence of the style is in perfect keeping with the
high romantic interest of character and story. In the same class
we may rank among the best samples of Fletcher's workmanship
The Pilgrim, The Loyal Subject, A Wife for a Month, Love's
Pilgrimage, and The Lover's Progress, rich all of them in
exquisite writing, in varied incident, in brilliant effects and
graceful and passionate interludes. In The Coxcomb, and The
Honest Man's Fortune two plays which, on the whole, can
hardly be counted among the best of their class there are tones
of homelier emotion, touches of a simpler and more pathetic
interest than usual; and here, as in the two admirable first
scenes between Leucippus and Bacha, which relieve and redeem
from contempt the tragic burlesque of Cupid's Revenge, the note
of Beaumont's manner is at once discernible.
Even the most rapid revision of the work done by these great
twin poets must impress every capable student with a sense of
the homage due to this living witness of their large and liberal
genius. The loss of their names from the roll of English poetry
would be only less than the loss of the few greatest inscribed on
it. Nothing could supply the want of their tragic, their comic or
romantic drama; no larger or more fiery planet can ever arise to
supplant or to eclipse the twin lights of our zodiac. Whatever
their faults of shortcoming or excess, there is in their very names
or the mere thought of their common work a kind of special and
personal attraction for all true lovers of high dramatic poetry.
There is the glory and grace of youth in all they have left us; if
there be also somewhat too much of its graceless as well as its
gracious qualities, yet there hangs about their memory as it were
a music of the morning, a breath and savour of bright early
manhood, a joyous and vigorous air of free life and fruitful
labour, which might charm asleep for ever all thought or blame
of all mortal infirmity or folly, or any stain of earth that may
have soiled in passing the feet of creatures half human and half
divine while yet they dwelt among men. For good or for evil,
they are above all things poets of youth; we cannot conceive of
them grown grey in the dignity of years, venerable with the
authority of long life, and weighted with the wisdom of experience.
In the Olympian circle of the gods and giants of our race who on
earth were their contemporaries and corrivals, they seem to move
among the graver presences and figures of sedater fame like the
two spoilt boys of heaven, lightest of foot and heart and head of
all the brood of deity. Shakespeare may have smiled as Jonson
may have nodded approval of their bright swift work, neither of
these great elders grudging his praise to the special charm which
won for it a preference during one generation at least even over
their own loftier and weightier verse; and indeed the advance in
natural ease, in truth and grace of dialogue, is alike manifest
whether we turn to such of their comic characters as Valentine
and Don John, Rutilio and Monsieur Thomas, from the Truewit
of Jonson or even from the Mercutio of Shakespeare; the one too
stiff with classic starch, the other too full of mere verbal catches
and forced conceits, to persuade us that either can in any age have
fairly represented the light free talk and facile humour of its
youth. In another field than this Beaumont and Fletcher hold as
high and secure a station of their own as any poet of their race.
In perfect workmanship of lyrical jewellery, in perfect bloom and
flower of song-writing, they equal all compeers whom they do not
excel; the blossoms of their growth in this kind may be matched
for colour and fragrance against Shakespeare's, and for morning
freshness and natural purity of form exceed the finest grafts of
Jonson. The Faithful Shepherdess alone might speak for Fletcher
on this score, being as it is simply a lyric poem in semi-dramatic
shape, to be judged only as such, and as such almost faultless;
but in no wise to be classed for praise or blame among the acting
plays of its author, whose one serious error in the matter was the
submission of his Dryad to the critical verdict of an audience too
probably in great part composed of clowns and satyrs far unlike
the loving and sweet-tongued sylvan of his lovely fancy. And
whether we assign to him or to Beaumont the divine song of
melancholy (moeslius lacrymis Simonideis) , perfect in form as
Catullus and profound in sentiment as Shelley, which Milton
himself could but echo and expand, could not heighten or deepen
its exquisite intensity of thought and word alike, there will
remain witness enough for the younger brother of a lyric power as
pure and rare as his elder's.
The excess of influence and popularity over that of other poets
usually ascribed to the work of Beaumont and Fletcher for
some half century or so after their own time has perhaps been
somewhat overstated by tradition. Whatever may have been
for a season the fashion of the stage, it is certain that Shakespeare
can show two editions for one against them in folio; four in all
from 1623 to 1685, while they have but their two of 1647 ar >d
1679. Nor does one see how it can accurately or even plausibly
be said that they were in any exact sense the founders of a school
either in comedy or in tragedy. Massinger, for some years their
survivor, and in some points akin to them as a workman, cannot
properly be counted as their disciple; and no leading poet of
the time had so much in common with them as he. At first
sight, indeed, his choice of romantic subject and treatment of
foreign stories, gathered from the fertile tale-tellers of the south,
and ranging in date from Boccaccio to Cervantes, may seem to
mark him out as a member of the same school; but the deepest
and most distinctive qualities of his genius set it far apart from
theirs; though undoubtedly not so far that any discrepancy or
discord should impair the excellence or injure the keeping of
works in which he took part with Fletcher. Yet, placed beside
theirs, the tone of his thought and speech seems by comparison
severe as well as sober, and sad as well as severe. Their extra-
vagant and boyish insanity of prostrate royalism is not more
alien from his half pensive and half angry undertone of political
protest than his usually careful and complete structure of story
from their frequently lax and slovenly incoherence of character
or plot, than his well composed and proportioned metre from
their lighter and looser melodies, than the bitter insistence and
elaborate acrimony of his judicial satire on hypocrisy or oppres-
sion from the gaiety or facility of mood which suffers them in
the shifting of a scene to redeem their worst characters by some
juggler's trick of conversion at the last moment allowed them
to wind up a play with universal reconciliation and an act of
oblivion on all hands. They could hardly have drawn with such
steady skill and explicit finish an Overreach or a Luke; but the
strenuous and able work of Massinger at its highest point of
success has no breath in it of their brighter and more immediate
inspiration. Shirley, on the other hand, may certainly be classed
as a pupil who copied their style in water-colour; his best
tragedy and his best comedy, The Traitor and The Lady of
Pleasure, might pass muster undetected among the plays of
Fletcher, and might fairly claim to take rank above the lowest
class of these. In the finest work of Middleton we recognize an
almost exact reproduction of Fletcher's metrical effects, a
reverberation of that flowing music, a reiteration of those
feminine final notes. In his later tragi-comedies, throughout
his masterpiece of Women beware Women, and in the noble
scenes which make up the tragic or serious parts of The Change-
ling of The Spanish Gipsy, wherever, in a word, we find the
admirable but unequal genius of this poet at its best we find
a likeness wholly wanting in his earlier and ruder work, which
undoubtedly suggests the influence of Fletcher. Other instances
of imitation, other examples of discipleship, might perhaps be
found among lesser men of the next generation; but the mass
of succeeding playwrights began in a very short time to lower
the style and debase the scheme of dramatic poetry; and
especially to loosen the last ties of harmony, to deface the very
BEAUMONT AND FLETCHER
form and feature of tragic verse. In Shirley, the last 'and least
of those in whom the lineal blood of the old masters was yet
discernible, we find side by side with the fine ancestral indications
of legitimate descent exactly such marks of decadence rather
than degeneracy as we might have anticipated in the latest heir
of a long line which began with the rise of Marlowe, " sun of the
morning," in the highest heaven of our song, to prepare a path-
way for the sun. After Shakespeare there was yet room for
Beaumont and Fletcher; but after these and the other con-
stellations had set, whose lights filled up the measure of that
diviner zodiac through which he moved, there was but room
in heaven for the pallid moonrise of Shirley; and before this
last reflex from a sunken sun was itself eclipsed, the glory had
passed away from English drama, to alight upon that summit of
epic song, whence Milton held communion with darkness and
the stars. (A. C. S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL APPENDIX
The chief collected editions of the plays of Beaumont and
Fletcher are: Comedies and Tragedies written by Francis Beau-
mont and John Fletcher Gentlemen, printed by Humphrey
Moseley in folio in 1647 as containing plays " never printed
before"; Fifty Comedies and Tragedies written, &c. (fol. 1679);
Works . . . (n vols. 1843-1846), edited by Alexander Dyce,
which superseded earlier editions by L. Theobald, G. Colman
and H. Weber, and presented a modernized text; a second
two-volume edition by Dyce in 1832; The Works of Francis
Beaumont and John Fletcher (15 vols. 1905, &c.)edited by Arnold
Glover and A. R. Waller in the " Cambridge English Classics "
from the text of the 2nd folio, and giving variant readings from
all separate issues of the plays previous to that edition; and
Works . . . (12 vols. 1904, &c.), under the general editorship
of A. H. Bullen, the text of which is founded on Dyce but with
many variant readings, the last volume containing memoirs
and excursuses by the editor.
The foundation of all critical work on Beaumont and Fletcher
is to be found in Dyce. Discrimination between the work of the
two dramatists and their collaborators has been the object of a
series of studies for the establishment of metrical and other tests.
Fletcher's verse is recognizable by the frequency of an extra
syllable, often an accented one, at the end of a line, the use of
stopped lines, and the frequency of trisyllabic feet. He thus
obtained an adaptable instrument enabling him to dispense
with prose even in comic scenes. The pioneer work in these
matters was done by F. G. Fleay in a paper read before the New
Shakspere Society in 1874 on " Metrical Tests as applied to
Fletcher, Beaumont and Massinger." His theories were further
developed in the article " Fletcher " in his Biog. Chron. of the
Eng. Drama. Further investigations were published by R. Boyle
in Englische Studien (vols. v.-x., Heilbronn, 1882-1887), an d in
the New Shakspere Society Transactions (1880-1886), by Benno
Leonhardt in Anglia (Halle, vols. xix. seq.), and by E.H.Oliphant
in Englische Studien (vols. xiv. seq.). Mr Oliphant restores to
Beaumont much which ether critics had been inclined to deny
him. On the sources of the plays see E. Koppel in Miinchener
Beitrage zur roman. u. eng. Phil. (Erkangen and Leipzig, 1895).
Consult further articles by A. H. Bullen and R. Boyle respectively
on Fletcher and Massinger in the Diet, of Nat. Biog* G. C.
Macaulay, Francis Beaumont, a Critical Study (1883); and
Dr A. W. Ward's chapter on " Beaumont and Fletcher " in
vol. ii. of his Hist, of Eng. Dram. Lit. (new ed. 1899).
A list of the plays attributed to Beaumont and Fletcher, with
some details, is added, with the premiss that beyond the main
lines of criticism laid down in Mr Swinburne's article above it is
often difficult to dogmatize on authorship. Even in cases where
the play was produced long after Beaumont had ceased to write
for the stage there can be no certainty that we are not dealing
with a piece which is an adaptation of an earlier play by a later
hand.
The Joint Works of Beaumont and Fletcher. The Scornful Lady
(acted c. 1609, pr. 1616) is a farcical comedy of domestic life, in
which Oliphant finds traces of alteration by a third and perhaps a
597
fourth hand. Philaster or Love Lies a-Blecding it assigned by
Macaulay to Beaumont practically in its entirety, while Flcay
attributes only three scenes to Fletcher. It was probably acted c
1609, and was printed 1620; it was revised (1695) by Elkanah Settle
and (1763) by the younger Colman, probably owing its long popu-
larity to the touching character of Bcllario. Beaumont's share also
predominated in The Maid's Tragedy (acted c. 1609, pr. 1619), in A
King and No King (acted at court December 36, 161 1, and perhaps
earlier, pr. 1619), while The Knight of the Burning Pestle (c. 1610, pr.
1613). burlesquing the heroic and romantic play of which Heywood's
Four Prentices is an example, might perhaps be transferred entire to
Beaumont s account. In Cubit? s Revenge (acted at court January
1612, and perhaps at Whitefriars in 1610, pr. 1615), founded on
Sidney a Arcadia, the two dramatists appear to have had a third
collaborator in Massingcr and perhaps a fourth in Nathaniel Field.
I he Coxcomb (acted c. 1610, and by the Children of the Queen's
Revels in 1612, pr. 1647) seems to have undergone later revision by
Massinger. Fletcher's collaboration with other dramatists had
begun during his connexion with Beaumont, who apparently ceased
to write for the stage two or three years before his death.
Works Assigned to Beaumont's Sole Authorship. The Woman Hater
(pr. 1607, as " lately acted by the children of Paul's ") was assigned
formerly to Fletcher. The Masque of the Inner Temple and Gray's Inn
was presented at Whitehall on the 26th of February 1612, on the
marriage of the Prince and Princess Palatine. Of Four Plays, or
Moral Representations, in One (acted 1608, pr. 1647), the Induction,
with The Triumph of Honour and. The Triumph of Love, both founded
on tales from the Decameron, are by Beaumont.
Works Assigned to Fletcher's Sole Authorship. The Faithful
Shepherdess (pr. c. 1609) was ill received on its original production,
but was revived in 1634. That Fletcher was the sole author is
practically unquestioned, though Ben Jonson in Drummond's
Conversations is made to assert that " Beaumont and Fletcher ten
years since hath written The Faithful Shepherdess." It was ti
lated into Latin verse by Sir R. Fanshawe in 1658, and Mil
trans-
., -~^~, Milton's
Comus owes not a little to it. In Four Plays in One, the two last,
The Triumph of Death and The Triumph of time, are Fletcher's. In
the indifferent comedy of The Captain (acted 1612-1613, revived
1626, pr. 1647) there is no definite evidence of any other hand than
Fletcher's, though the collaboration of Beaumont, Massinger and
Rowley has been advanced. Other Fletcher plays are : Wit without
Money (acted 1614, pr. 1639) ; the two romantic tragedies of Bonduca
(in which Caradach or Caractacus is the chief figure rather than
Bonduca or Boadicea) and Valentinian, both dating from c. 1616
and printed in the first folio; The Loyal Subject (acted 1618, revived
at court 1633, pr. 1647) ; The Mad Lover (acted before March 1619,
pr. 1647), which borrows something from the story of Mundus and
Paulina in Josephus (bk. xviii.); The Humorous Lieutenant (1619,
pr. 1647) ; Woman Pleased (c. 1620, pr. 1647) ; The Woman's Prize or
The Tamer Tam'd (produced probably between i6ioand 1613, acted
1633 at Blackfriars and at court, pr. 1647), a kind of sequel to The
Taming of the Shrew; The Chances (uncertain date, pr. 1047), taken
from La Sennora Cornelia of Cervantes, and repeatedly revived after
the Restoration and in the l8th century ; Monsieur Thomas (acted
perhaps as early as i6o9,pr. 1639) ; The Island Princess (c. 1621, pr.
1647) ; The Pilgrim and The Wild Goose-Chase (pr. 1652), the second
of which was adapted in prose by Farquhar, both acted at court in
1621, and possibly then not new pieces; A Wife for a Mfnth (acted
1624, pr. 1647); Rule a Wife and Have a Wife (he. 1624, pr. 1640).
The Pilgrim received additions from Dryden. and was adapted by
Vanbrugh.
Fletcher in Collaboration with other Dramatists. External evidence
of Fletcher's connexion with Massinger is given by Sir Aston Cokaine,
who in an epitaph on Fletcher and Massinger wrote: " Playes they
did write together, were great friends," and elsewhere claimed for
Vlassinger a share in the plays printed in the 1647 folio. James
Shirley and William Rowley have their part in the works that used
:o be included in the Beaumont and Fletcher canon; and to a
etter from Field, Daborne and Massinger, asking for 5 for their
oint necessities from Henslowe about the end of 1615, there is a
>ostscript suggesting the deduction of the sum from the " mony
remaynes for the play of Mr Fletcher and ours." The problem is
:omplicated when the existing versions of the play are posterior to
r letcher's lifetime, that is, revisions by Massinger or another of
>ieces which were even originally of double authorship. In this way
ieaumont's work may be concealed under successive revisions, and
t would be rash to assert that none of the late plays contains any thing
>f his. Mr R. Boyle joins the name of Cyril To.urneur to those of
"letcher and Massinger in connexion with The Honest Man's Fortune
acted 1613, pr. 1647), which Fleay identifies with " the play of Mr
7 letcher's and ours." The Knight of Malta (acted 1618-1619, pr.
1647) is in its existing form a revision by Fletcher, Massinger, and
M issil ily Field, of an earlier play which Oliphant thinks was probably
written by Beaumont about 1608. The same remarks (with the
xclusion of Field's name) apply to Thierry and Theodoret (acted c.
617, pr. 1621), perhaps a satire on contemporary manners at the
n-nrh court, though Beaumont's share in either must be regarded
as problematical. Fletcher and Massinger's great tragedy of Sir
John van Olden Barnaveldt (acted 1619) was first printed in Bullen's
Old Plays (vol. ii., 1883). They followed it up with The Custom of
BEAUMONT BEAUREGARD
the Country (acted 1619, pr. 1647), based on an English translation
(l6iq) of Los Trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda; The Double Marriage
(c 1620 pr. 1647); The Little French Lawyer (c. 1620, pr. 1647), the
plot of which can be traced indirectly to a novellmo by Massuccio
Salernitano; The Laws of Candy (c. 1618, pr. 1647), of disputed
authorship; The False One (c. 1620, pr. 1647), dealing with the sub-
ject of Caesar and Cleopatra; The Spanish Curate (acted 1622, pr.
1647), repeatedly revived after the Restoration, was derived from
Leonard Digges's translation (1622) of a Spanish novel, Gerardo, the
Unfortunate Spaniard; The Prophetess (1622, pr. 1647), afterwards
made into an opera by Betterton to Purcell's music ; Thz Sea- Voyage
(1622, pr. 1647); The Elder Brother (perhaps originally written by
Fletcher c. 1614; revised and acted 1635, pr. 1647); Beggar's Bush
(acted at court 1622, probably then not new, pr. 1647) ; and The
Noble Gentleman (1625-1626, pr. 1647). Fletcher only had a small
share in Wit at Several Weapons " if he but writ an act or two,"
says an epilogue on its revival (1623 or 1626), and the play is
probably a revision by Rowley and Middleton of an early Beaumont
and Fletcher play. A Very Woman (1634, pr. 1655) is a revision by
Massinger of The Woman's Plot ascribed to Fletcher and acted at
court in 1621. Field worked with Fletcher and Massinger on the
lost play of the Jeweller of Amsterdam (1619), as on the Faithful
Friends (1613-1614) and The Queen of Corinth (c. 1618, pr. 1647).
The Lover's Progress (acted 1634, pr. 1647) is probably a revision by
Massinger of the Fletcher play licensed in 1623 as The Wandering
Lovers, and is perhaps identical with Cleander, licensed in 1634.
Love's Cure or The Martial Maid (1623 or 1625) is thought by Mr
Fleay to be a revision by Massinger of a Beaumont and Fletcher
play produced as early as 1607-1608. W. Rowley joined Fletcher
in The Maid in the Mill (1623, pr. 1647), and had a share with
Massinger in the revision of The Fair Maid of the Inn (licensed 1626,
pr. 1647), based on La illustre Fregona of Cervantes. Nice Valour
(acted 1625-1626, pr. 1647) seems to have been altered by Middleton
from an earlier play; The Widow, printed in 1652 as by Jonson,
Fletcher and Middleton, must be ascribed almost exclusively to
Middleton. The Night Walker (1633) is a revision by Shirley of a
Fletcher play.
Fletcher and Jonson in Collaboration. The history of The Bloody
Brother or Rollo, Duke of Normandy, printed in 1637 as by " B. J. F., '
is matter of varied speculation. Mr Oliphant thinks the basis of the
play to be an early work (c. 1604) of Beaumont, on which is super-
imposed a revision (1616) by Fletcher, Jonson and Middleton, and a
subsequent revision (1636-1637) by Massinger. The general view
is that the main portion of the play is referable to Jonson and
Fletcher. Jonson apparently had a share in Fletcher's Love's
Pilgrimage (pr. 1647), which seems to have been revised by Massinger
in 1635.
Fletcher and Shakespeare. The Two Noble Kinsmen was printed
in 1634 as by Mr John Fletcher and Mr William Shakespeare. If its
first representation was in 1625 it was in the year of Fletcher's death.
It was included in the second folio of Beaumont and Fletcher's
comedies and tragedies. If Shakespeare and Fletcher worked in
concert it was probably in 1612-1613, and the existing play probably
represents a revision by Massinger in 1625. Henry VIII. (played
at the Globe in 1613) is usually ascribed mainly to Fletcher
and Massinger, and the conditions of its production were prob-
ably similar. Fletcher and Shakespeare are together credited at
Stationers' Hall with the lost play of Gardenia, destroyed by
Warburton's cook. (M. BR.)
BEAUMONT, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson county,
Texas, U.S.A., situated on the Neches river, in the E. part of
the state, about 28 m. from the Gulf of Mexico and 72 m. N.E.
of Galveston. Pop. (1890) 3296; (1900) 9427, of whom 2953
were negroes; (1910, census) 20,640. It is served by the
Gulf & Interstate, the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, the Kansas
City Southern, the Texas & New Orleans, the Colorado Southern,
New Orleans & Pacific, the Beaumont, Sour Lake & Western
(from Beaumont to Sour Lake, Tex.), and the (short) Galveston,
Beaumont & North-Eastern railways. The Neches river from
Beaumont to its mouth has a depth of not less than 19 ft.;
from its mouth extends a canal (9 ft. deep, 100 ft. wide, and 1 2 m.
long), which connects with the Port Arthur Canal (180 ft. wide
and 25 ft. deep) extending to the sea. Situated in the midst of
a region covered with dense forests of pine and cypress, Beau-
mont is one of the largest lumber centres of the southern states;
it is also the centre of a large rice-growing region. The manu-
factories include rice mills, saw mills, sash, door and blind
factories, shingle mills, iron works, oil refineries, broom factories
and a dynamite factory. In 1905 the cleaning and polishing of
rice was the most important industry, its output being valued
at $1,203,123, being nearly twice the value of the product of the
rice mills of the city in 1900, 25-9% of the total value of the
state's product of polished and cleaned rice, 46-1 % of the value
($2,609,829) of all of Beaumont's factory products, and about
7-4% of the value of the product of polished and cleaned rice
for the whole United States in 1905. After the sinking of oil
wells in 1901, Beaumont became one of the principal oil-produc-
ing places in the United States; its oil refineries are connected
by pipe lines with the surrounding oil fields, and two 6-in. pipe
lines extend from Beaumont to Oklahoma. Beaumont was first
settled in 1828, and was first chartered as a city in 1899.
BEAUNE, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of C6te-d'Or, on the Bouzoise, 23 m.
S.S.W. of Dijon on the main line of the Paris-Lyon railway.
Pop. (1906) 11,668. Beaune lies at the foot of the hills of Cote-
d'Or. Portions of its ancient fortifications are still to be seen,
but they have been for the most part replaced by a shady
promenade which separates the town from its suburbs. The
most interesting feature of Beaune is the old hospital of St
Esprit, founded in 1443 by Nicolas Rolin, chancellor of Burgundy.
Though it is built largely of wood, the fabric is in good preserva-
tion. The exterior is simple, but the buildings which surround
the main courtyard have high-pitched roofs surmounted by
numerous dormer windows with decorated gables, recalling the
Flemish style of architecture. In the interior there are several
interesting apartments; the chief of these is the ample
council chamber with its fine tapestries, where an import-
ant wine sale is held annually. The hospital possesses many
artistic treasures, among them the mural paintings of the I7th
century in the Salle St Hugues and an altar-piece, the Last
Judgment, attributed to Roger van der Weyden. The principal
church of the town, Notre-Dame, dating mainly from the i2th
and i3th centuries, has a fine central tower and a triple portal
with handsome wooden doors. In the interior there is some
valuable tapestry of the i5th century, and other works of art.
Two round towers (is.th century) are a survival of the castle
of Beaune, dismantled by Henry IV. A belfry of 1403 and
several houses of the Renaissance period, some of which are
built over ancient wine-cellars, are architecturally notable.
There is a statue to the mathematician, G. Monge, born in the
town (1746), and a monument to Pierre Joigneaux the politician
(d. 1892). Beaune has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a chamber of commerce, a school of agriculture and
viticulture and colleges for girls and boys. It carries on con-
siderable trade in live-stock and cereals and in the vegetables of
its market-gardens, and manufactures of casks, corks, white
metal, oil, vinegar and machinery for the wine-trade are
included among the industries; it is chiefly important for its
vineyards and as the centre of the wine-trade of Burgundy.
Beaune was a fortified Roman camp and a stronghold during
the middle ages. It was the capital of a separate county which
in 1227 was united to the duchy of Burgundy; it then became
the first seat of the Burgundian parlement or jours generaux
and a ducal residence. On the death of Charles the Bold, it
sided with his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, but was besieged
and taken by the forces of Louis XI. in 1478. Its rank as
commune, conceded to it in 1203, was confirmed by Francis I.
in 1521. In the Wars of Religion it at first sided with the
League, but afterwards opened its gates to the troops of Henry
IV., from whom it received the confirmation of its communal
privileges and permission to demolish its fortifications. The
revocation of the edict of Nantes struck a severe blow at the
cloth and iron industries, which had previously been a source
of prosperity to the town. In the r8th century there were no
fewer than seven monastic buildings in Beaune, besides a Ber-
nardine abbey, a Carthusian convent and an ecclesiastical college.
BEAUREGARD, MARQUIS DE (c. 1772-?), French adven-
turer, the son of a poor vinegrower named Leuthraud, was born
about 1772. He received the name Beauregard from a nobleman
in whose service he was engaged as valet. On the outbreak of the
revolution, this nobleman converted all his fortune into gold,
and entrusting the bag containing the cash to his valet, fled to
the frontier. For security's sake master and man took different
roads, but Beauregard turned back with the money to Paris.
By speculations in provisions and military equipments under
BEAUREGARD BEAUVILLIER
599
the Directorate he amassed a considerable fortune, and styling
himself the marquis de Beauregard, purchased a splendid
mansion and began giving magnificent entertainments. De-
tected at the height of his success, the impostor was arrested
and condemned to four years in irons and to be branded. He
soon escaped from prison, and had the audacity to reappear in
Paris and start his old life afresh. After a short time, however,
he disappeared again, and is supposed to have committed
suicide. It is probable that most of the information available
about him is a blend of fact and fiction.
BEAUREGARD, PIERRE GUSTAVE TOUTANT (1818-1893),
American soldier, was born near New Orleans, Louisiana, on the
28th of May 1818. At the United States military academy he
graduated second in his class in July 1838, and was appointed
lieutenant of engineers. In the Mexican War he distinguished
himself in siege operations at Vera Cruz, and took part in all
the battles around Mexico, being wounded at Chapultepec, and
receiving the brevets of captain and major. In 1853 he became
captain and was in charge of fortification and other engineer
works of various points, on the Gulf coast from 1853 to 1860.
He had just been appointed superintendent of West Point when
the secession of his state brought about his resignation (zoth
February 1861). As a brigadier-general of the new Confederate
army he directed the bombardment of Fort Sumter, S.C. As
the commander of the Southern " Army of the Potomac " he
opposed McDowell's advance to Bull Run, and during the battle
was second in command under Joseph E. Johnston, who had
joined him on the previous evening. He was one of the five full
generals appointed in August 1861, and in 1862 was second in
command under Sidney Johnston on the Tennessee. After
Johnston's death he directed the battle of Shiloh, subsequent
to which he retired to Corinth. This place he defended against
the united armies under Halleck, until the end of May 1862,
when he retreated in good order to the southward. His health
now failing, he was employed in less active work. He defended
Charleston against the Union forces from September 1862 to
April 1864. In May 1864 he fought a severe and eventually
successful battle at Drury's Bluff against General Butler and
the Army of the James. Later in the year he endeavoured to
gather troops wherewith to oppose Sherman's advance from
Atlanta, and eventually surrendered with Johnston's forces in
April 1865. After the war he engaged in railway management,
became adjutant-general of his state and managed the Louisiana
lottery. He declined high commands which were offered to him
in the Rumanian and later in the Egyptian armies. General
Beauregard died in New Orleans on the 2oth of February 1893.
He was the author of Principles and Maxims of the Art of War
(Charleston, 1863); Report on the Defence of Charleston (Rich-
mond, 1864).
See Alfred Roman, Military Operations of General Beauregard (New
York, 1883).
BEAUSOBRE, ISAAC DE (1650-1738), French Protestant
divine, was born at Niort on the 8th of March 1659. After
studying theology at the Protestant academy of Saumur, he was
ordained at the age of twenty-two, becoming pastor at Chatillon-
sur-Indre. After the revocation of the edict of Nantes he fled to
Rotterdam (November 1685), and in 1686 was appointed chaplain
to the princess of Dessau, Henrietta Catherine of Orange. In
1693, on the death of the prince of Dessau, he went to Berlin and
became chaplain to the court at Oranienbaum, and in 1695 pastor
of the French church at Berlin. He became court preacher,
counsellor of the Consistory, director of the Maisonfran^aise, a
hospice for French people, inspector of the French gymnasium
and superintendent of all the French churches in Brandenburg.
He died on the sth of June 1738. He had strong sense with
profound erudition, was one of the best writers of his time and
an excellent preacher.
BEAUVAIS, a town of northern France, capital of the depart-
ment of Oise, 49 m. N. by W. of Paris, on the Northern railway.
Pop. ( 1 006) 1 7 ,04 s- Beau vais lies at the foot of wooded hills on the
left bank of the Therain at its confluence with the Avelon. Its
ancient ramparts have been destroyed, and it is now surrounded
by boulevards, outside which run branches of the Therain. In
addition, there are spacious promenades in the north-east of the
town. Its cathedral of St Pierre, in some respects the most
daring achievement of Gothic architecture, consists only of a
transept and choir with apse and seven apse-chapels. The
vaulting in the interior exceeds 150 ft. in height. The small
Romanesque church of the loth century known as the Basse-
(Euvre occupies the site destined for the nave. Begun in 1247,
the work was interrupted in 1284 by the collapse of the vaulting
of the choir, in 1573 by the fall of a too ambitious central tower,
after which little addition was made. The transept was built
from 1500 to 1548. Its facades, especially that on the south,
exhibit all the richness of the late Gothic style. The carved
wooden doors of both the north and the south portals are master-
pieces respectively of Gothic and Renaissance workmanship.
The church possesses an elaborate astronomical clock (1866) and
tapestries of the isth and I7th centuries; but its chief artistic
treasures are stained glass windows of the I3th, i4th and i6th
centuries, the most beautiful of them from the hand of the
Renaissance artist, Engrand Le Prince, a native of Beauvais. To
him also is due some of the stained glass in St. Etienne, the second
church of the town, and an interesting example of the transition
stage between the Romanesque and Gothic styles.
In the Place de l'H6tel de Ville and in the old streets near the
cathedral there are several houses dating from the mh to the
1 6th centuries. The h6tel de ville, close to which stands the
statue of Jeanne Hachette (see below), was built in 1732- The
episcopal palace, now used as a court-house, was built in the
i6th century, partly upon the Gallo-Roman fortifications. The
industry of Beauvais comprises, besides the state manufacture of
tapestry, which dates from 1664, the manufacture of various
kinds of cotton and woollen goods, brushes, toys, boots and shoes,
and bricks and tiles. Market-gardening flourishes in the vicinity
and an extensive trade is carried on in grain and wine.
The town is the seat of a bishop, a prefect and a court of
assizes; it has tribunals of first instance and of commerce,
together with a chamber of commerce, a branch of the Bank of
France, a higher ecclesiastical seminary, a Iyc6e and training
colleges.
Beauvais was known to the Romans as Caesaromagus, and took
its present name from the Gallic tribe of the Bellovaci, whose
capital it was. In the 9th century it became a countship, which
about 1013 passed to the bishops of Beauvais, who ultimately
became peers of France. In 1346 the town had to defend itself
against the English, who again besieged it in 1433. The siege
which it suffered in 1472 at the hands of the duke of Burgundy
was rendered famous by the heroism of the women, under the
leadership of Jeanne Hachette. whose memory is still celebrated
by a procession on the I4th of October (the feast of Ste Anga-
dreme), in which the women take precedence of the men.
See V. Lhuillier, Chases du vieux Beauvais el du Beautaisis (1806).
BEAUVILLIER, the name of a very ancient French family
belonging to the country around Chartres, members of which are
found filling court offices from the isth century onward. For
Charles de Beauvillier, gentleman of the chamber to the king,
governor and bailli of Blois, the estate of Saint Aignan was created
a countship in 1537. Francois de Beauvillier, comte de Saint
Aignan, after having been through the campaigns in Germany
(1634-1635), Franche-Comt6 (1636), and Flanders (1637), was
sent to the Bastille in consequence of his having lost the battle of
Thion ville in 1640. In reward for his devotion to the court party
during the Fronde he obtained many signal favours, and Saint
Aignan was raised to a duchy in the peerage of France (duckt-
pairie) in 1663. His son Paul, called the due de Beauvillier, was
several times ambassador to England; he became chief of the
council of finance in 1685, governor of the dukes of Burgundy,
Anjou and Berri from 1689 to 1693, minister of state in 1691 , and
grandee of Spain in 1701. He married a daughter of Colbert.
Paul Hippolyte de Beauvillier, comte de Montr6sor, afterwards
due de Saint Aignan, was ambassador at Madrid from 1715 to
1718 and at Rome in 1731, and a member of the council of
regency in 1719. (M. P.*)
6oo
BE AUVOIR BEAVER DAM
BEAUVOIR, ROGER DE, the nom de plume of EUGNE
AUGUSTS ROGER DE BULLY (1806-1866), French writer, who
was born on the 8th of November 1806 in Paris. He was the son
and nephew of public officials who did not approve his literary
inclinations, and it was at their request that he wrote over the
signature of Roger de Beauvoir. A good-looking young fellow,
of independent means, an indefatigable viveur, he astonished all
Paris with his ostentatious luxury and his adventures, while his
romantic novels gave him a more serious if not durable reputation.
Among the best of them are L'Ecolier de Cluny ou le Sophisme
(1832), which is said to have furnished Alexandre Dumas and
Theodore Gaillardet (1808-1882) with the idea of the Tour de
Nesle, and Le Chevalier de Saint Georges (1840). He had married
in 1847 an actress, Eleonore Leocadie Doze (1822-1859), from
whom he obtained a judicial separation a year or two later after
a long and notorious trial, following which his mother-in-law got
him imprisoned for three months and fined 500 francs for a
satirical poem, Man Proces (1849). Ruined by extravagance
and tied to his chair by gout, he spent the last years of his life
in retirement, and died in Paris on the 27th of August 1866.
BEAUX, CECILIA (1863- ), American portrait-painter,
was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, where she became a pupil
of William Sartain. But her real art training was obtained in
Paris, where she started in the atelier Julian and had the coach-
ing of painters like Robert-Fleury, Bouguereau and Dagnan
Bouveret. In 1890 she exhibited at the Paris Exposition.
Returning to Philadelphia, Miss Beaux obtained in 1893 the gold
medal of the Philadelphia Art Club, and also the Dodge prize at
the New York National Academy, and later various other
distinctions. She became a member of the National Academy
of Design, New York, in 1902. Among her portraits are those
of Bishop-Coadjutor Greer (exhibited at the Salon in 1896);
Mrs Roosevelt and her daughter; and Mrs Larz Anderson.
Her " Dorothea and Francesca," and " Ernesta and her Little
Brother," are good examples of her skill in painting children.
BEAVER, 1 the largest European aquatic representative of the
mammalian order RODENTIA (?..), easily recognized by its large
trowel-like, scaly tail, which is expanded in the horizontal
direction. The true beaver (Castor fiber) is a native of Europe
and northern Asia, but it is represented in North America by a
closely-allied species (C. canadensis) , chiefly distinguished by
the form of the nasal bones of the skull. Beavers are nearly
allied to the squirrels (Sciuridae) , agreeing in certain structural
peculiarities of the lower jaw and skull. In the Sciuridae the
two main bones (tibia and fibula) of the lower half of the leg are
quite separate, the tail is round and hairy, and the habits are
arboreal and terrestrial. In the beavers or Castoridae these
bones are in close contact at their lower ends, the tail is depressed,
expanded and scaly, and the habits are aquatic. Beavers have
webbed hind-feet, and the claw of the second hind-toe double.
In length beavers European and American measure about
2 ft. exclusive of the tail, which is about 10 in. long. They are
covered with a fur to which they owe their chief commercial
value; this consists of two kinds of hair the one close-set,
silky and of a greyish colour, the other much coarser and
longer, and of a reddish brown. Beavers are essentially aquatic
in their habits, never travelling by land unless driven by
necessity. Formerly common in England, the European beaver
has not only been exterminated there, but likewise in most of
the countries of the continent, although a few remain on the
Elbe, the Rhone and in parts of Scandinavia. The American
species is also greatly diminished in numbers from incessant
pursuit for the sake of its valuable fur. Beavers are sociable
animals, living in streams, where, so as to render the water of
sufficient depth, they build dams of mud and of the stems and
boughs of trees felled by their powerful incisor teeth. In the
neighbourhood they make their "lodges," which are roomy
chambers, with the entrance beneath the water. The mud is
1 The word is descended from the Aryan name of the animal, cf.
Sanskrit babhrus, brown, the great ichneumon, Lat. fiber, Ger. Biber
Swed. bafver, Russ. bobr'; the root bhru has given " brown," and
through Romanic, bronze " and " burnish."
plastered down by the fore-feet, and not, as often supposed, by
the tail, which is employed solely as a rudder. They are mainly
nocturnal, and subsist chiefly on bark and twigs or the roots of
water plants. The dam differs in shape according to the nature
of particular localities. Where the water has little motion it
is almost straight; where the current is considerable it is curved,
with its convexity towards the stream. The materials made use
of are driftwood, green willows, birch and poplars; also mud
and stones intermixed in such a manner as contributes to the
strength of the dam; but there is no particular method observed,
except that the work is carried on with a regular sweep, and that
all the parts are made of equal strength. " In places," writes
Hearne, " which have been long frequented by beavers undis-
turbed, their dams, by frequent repairing, become a solid bank,
capable of resisting a great force both of ice and water; and as
the willow, poplar and birch generally take root and shoot up,
they by degrees form a kind of regular planted hedge, which I
have seen in some places so tall that birds have built their nests
among the branches." Their houses are formed of the same
materials as the dams, with little order or regularity of structure,
and seldom contain more than four old, and six or eight young
beavers. It not unfrequently happens that some of the larger
houses have one or more partitions, but these are only posts of
the main building left by the builders to support the roof, for
the apartments have usually no communication with each other
except by water. The beavers carry the mud and stones with
their fore-paws and the timber between their teeth. They
always work in the night and with great expedition. They
cover their houses late every autumn with fresh mud, which,
freezing when the frost sets in, becomes almost as hard as stone,
so that neither wolves nor wolverines can disturb their repose.
The favourite food of the American beaver is the water-lily
(Nuphar luteum), which bears a resemblance to a cabbage-stalk,
and grows at the bottom of lakes and rivers. Beavers also
gnaw the bark of birch, poplar and willow trees; but during
the summer a more varied herbage, with the addition of berries,
is consumed. When the ice breaks up in spring they always
leave their embankments, and rove about until a little before
the fall of the leaf, when they return to their old habitations,
and lay in their winter stock of wood. They seldom begin to
repair the houses till the frost sets in, and never finish the outer
coating till the cold becomes severe. When they erect a new
habitation they fell the wood early in summer, but seldom begin
building till towards the end of August.
The flesh of the American beaver is eaten by the Indians, and
when roasted in the skin is esteemed a delicacy and is said to
taste like pork. Castoreum is a substance contained in two
pear-shaped pouches situated near the. organs of reproduction,
of a bitter taste and slightly foetid odour, at one time largely
employed as a medicine, but now used only in perfumery.
Fossil remains of beavers are found in the peat and other
superficial deposits of England and the continent of Europe;
while in the Pleistocene formations of England and Siberia occur
remains of a giant extinct beaver, Trogontherium cuvieri, repre-
senting a genus by itself.
For an account of beavers in Norway see R. Collett, in the Bergens
Museum Aarbog for 1897. See also R. T. Martin, Castorologia, a
History and Traditions of the Canadian Beaver (London, 1892).
(R. L.*)
BEAVER (from Fr. baviere, a child's bib, irombave, saliva),
the lower part of the helmet, fixed to the neck-armo'ur to protect
the face and cheeks; properly it moved upwards, as the visor
moved down, but the word is sometimes used to include the visor.
The right form of the word, " baver," has been altered from a
confusion with "beaver," a hat made of beaver-fur or a silk
imitation, also, in slang, called a " castor," from the zoological
name of the beaver family.
BEAVER DAM, a city of Dodge county, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
situated in the S.E. part of the state, 63 m. N.W. of Milwaukee,
on Beaver Lake, which is 9 m. long and 3 m. wide. Pop. (1890)
4222; (1900) 5128, of whom 1023 were foreign-born; (1905)
5615; (1910) 6758. Most of the population is of German
BEAVER FALLS BECCAFUMI
60 1
descent. Beaver Dam is served by the Chicago, Milwaukee &
St Paul railway. The city is a summer resort, has a public
library, and is the seat of Wayland Academy (1855, Baptist),
a co-educational preparatory school affiliated with the university
of Chicago. Beaver Dam is situated in the midst of a fine farm-
ing country; it has a good water-power derived from Beaver
Lake, and among its manufactures are woollen and cotton goods,
.malleable iron, foundry products, gasolene engines, agricultural
implements, stoves and beer. The city was first settled about
1841, and was incorporated in 1856.
BEAVER FALLS, a borough of Beaver county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on Beaver river, about 3$ m. from its confluence with
the Ohio, opposite New Brighton, and about 32 m. N.W. of
Pittsburg. Pop. (1890) 9735; (1900) 10,054, of whom 1534
were foreign-born; (1910, census, ,'2.191. The borough is
served by the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburg & Lake Erie
railways. It is built for the most part on a plateau about 50 ft.
above the river, hemmed in on either side by hills that rise
abruptly, especially on the W., to a height of more than 200 ft.
Bituminous coal, natural gas and oil abound in the vicinity;
the river provides excellent water-power; the borough is a
manufacturing centre of considerable importance, its products
including iron and steel bridges, boilers, steam drills, carriages,
saws, files, axes, shovels, wire netting, stoves, glass-ware, scales,
chemicals, pottery, cork, decorative tile, bricks and typewriters.
In 1905 the city's factory products wefe valued at $4,907,536.
Geneva College (Reformed Presbyterian, co-educational),
established in 1849 at Northwood, Logan county, Ohio, was
removed in 1 880 to the borough of College Hill (pop. in 1 900, 899) ,
i m. N. of Beaver Falls; it has a preparatory and a collegiate
department, departments of music, oratory and art, and a
physical department, and in 1907-1908 had 13 instructors and 235
students. Beaver Falls was first settled in 1801; was laid out as
a town and named Brighton in 1806; received its present name
a few years later; and in 1868 was incorporated as a borough.
BEAWAR, or NAYANAGAR, a town of British India, the
administrative headquarters of Merwara district in Ajmere-
Merwara. It is 33 m. from Ajmere. Pop. (1901) 21,928. It is
an important centre of trade, especially in raw cotton, and has
cotton presses and the Krishna cotton mills. It was founded
by Colonel Dixon in 1835.
BEBEL, FERDINAND AUGUST ( 1 840- ) , German socialist,
was born at Cologne on the 22nd of February 1840; he became
a turner and worked at Leipzig. Here he took a prominent part
in the workmen's movement and in the association of working
men which had been founded under the influence of Schultz-
Delitzsch; at first an opponent of socialism, he came under the
influence of Liebknecht, and after 1865 he was a confirmed
advocate of socialism. With Liebknecht he belonged to the
branch of the socialists which was in close correspondence with
Karl Marx and the International, and refused to accept the
leadership of Schweitzer, who had attempted to carry on the
work after Lassalle's death. He was one of those who supported
a vote of want of confidence in Schweitzer at the Eisenach
conference in 1867, from which his party was generally known as
" the Eisenacher." In this year he was elected a member of the
North German Reichstag for a Saxon constituency, and, with
an interval from 1881 to 1883, remained a member of the German
parliament. His great organizing talent and oratorical power
quickly made him one of the leaders of the socialists and their
chief spokesman in parliament. In 1870 he and Liebknecht
were the only members who did not vote the extraordinary
subsidy required for the war with France; the followers of
Lassalle, on the other hand, voted for the government proposals.
He was the only Socialist who was elected to the Reichstag in
1871, but he used his position to protest against the annexation
of Alsace-Lorraine and to express his full sympathy with the
Paris Commune. Bismarck afterwards said that this speech
of Bebel's was a " ray of light," showing him that Socialism was
an enemy to be fought against and crushed; and in 1872 Bebel
was accused in Brunswick of preparation for high treason, and
condemned to two years' imprisonment in a fortress, and, for
insulting the German emperor, to nine months' ordinary imprison-
ment. After his release he helped to organize, at the con-
gress of Gotha, the united party of Social Democrats, which
had been formed during his imprisonment. After the passing
of the Socialist Law he continued to show great activity in the
debates of the Reichstag, and was also elected a member of the
Saxon parliament; when the state of siege was proclaimed in
Leipzig he was expelled from the city, and in 1886 condemned
to nine months' imprisonment for taking part in a secret society.
Although the rules of the Social Democratic party do not recog-
nize a leader or president, Bebel subsequently became by far
the most influential member of the party. In the party meetings
of 1890 and 1891 his policy was severely attacked, first by the
extremists, the " young " Socialists from Berlin, who wished
to abandon parliamentary action; against these Bebel won a
complete victory. On the other side he was involved in a
quarrel with Volmar and his school, who desired to put aside
from immediate consideration the complete attainment of the
Socialist ideal, and proposed that the party should aim at bring-
ing about, not a complete overthrow of society, but a gradual
amelioration. This conflict of tendencies continued, and Bebel
came to be regarded as the chief exponent of the traditional
views of the orthodox Marxist party. He was exposed to some
natural ridicule on the ground that the " Kladderadatsch," which
he often spoke of as imminent, failed to make its appearance.
On the other hand, though a strong opponent of militarism, he
publicly stated that foreign nations attacking Germany mus not
expect the help or the neutrality of the Social Democrats. His
book, Die Frau und der Socialismus (1893), which went through
many editions and contained an attack on the institution of mar-
riage, identified him with the most extreme forms of Socialism.
See also Mehring, Geschichte der dcutschen Social-Dcmokratie
(Stuttgart, 1898); Reports of the Annual Meetings of the Social
Democratic Party, Berlin Vorwarts Publishing Company (from 1890) ;
B. Russell, German Social-Democracy (London, 1897). (J. W. HE.)
BECCAFICO (Ital. for " fig-pecker "), a small migratory bird
of the warbler (Sylviidae) family, which frequents fig-trees and
vineyards, and, when fattened, is considered a great delicacy.
BECCAFUMI, DOMENICO DI PACE (1486-1551), Italian
painter, of the school of Siena. In the early days of the Tuscan
republics Siena had been in artistic genius, and almost in political
importance, the rival of Florence. But after the great plague in
1348 the city declined; and though her population always com-
prised an immense number of skilled artists and artificers, yet
her school did not share in the general progress of Italy in the
1 5th century. About the year 1 500, indeed, Siena had no native
artists of the first importance; and her public and private
commissions were often given to natives of other cities. But
after the uncovering of the works of Raphael and Michelangelo
at Rome in 1508, all the schools of Italy were stirred with the
desire of imitating them. Among these accomplished men who
now, without the mind and inspiration of Raphael or Michel-
angelo, mastered a great deal of their manner, and initiated the
decadence of Italian art, several of the most accomplished arose
in the school of Siena. Among these was Domenico, the son of a
peasant, one Giacomo di Pace, who worked on the estate of a
well-to-do citizen named Lorenzo Beccafumi. Seeing some signs
of a talent for drawing in his labourer's son, Lorenzo Beccafumi
took the boy into his service and presently adopted him, causing
him to learn painting from masters of the city. Known after-
wards as Domenico Beccafumi, or earlier as II Mecarino (from
the name of a poor artist with whom he studied), the peasant's
son soon gave proof of extraordinary industry and talent. In
1509 he went to Rome and steeped himself in the manner of the
great men who had just done their first work in the Vatican.
Returning to his native town, Beccafumi quickly gained employ-
ment and a reputation second only to Sodoma. He painted a
vast number both of religious pieces for churches and of mytho-
logical decorations for private patrons. But the work by which
he will longest be remembered is that which he did for the
celebrated pavement of the cathedral of Siena. For a hundred
and fifty years the best artists of the state had been engaged
602
BECCARIA BECHER
laying down this pavement with vast designs in commesso work,
white marble, that is, engraved with the outlines of the subject in
black, and having borders inlaid with rich patterns in many
colours. From the year 1517 to 1544 Beccafumi was engaged in
continuing this pavement. He made very ingenious improve-
ments in the technical processes employed, and laid down
multitudinous scenes from the stories of Ahab and Elijah, of
Melchisedec, of Abraham and of Moses. These are not so inter-
esting as the simpler work of the earlier schools, but are much
more celebrated and more jealously guarded. Such was their
fame that the agents of Charles I. of England, at the time when
he was collecting for Whitehall, went to Siena expressly to try
and purchase the original cartoons. But their owner would not
part with them, and they are now in the Siena Academy and
elsewhere. The subjects have been engraved on wood, by the
hand, as it seems, of Beccafumi himself, who at one time or
another essayed almost every branch of fine art. He made a
triumphal arch and an immense mechanical horse for the pro-
cession of the emperor Charles V. on his entry into Siena. In
his later days, being a solitary liver and continually at work, he
is said to have accelerated his death by over-exertion upon the
processes of bronze-casting.
BECCARIA, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1716-1781), Italian
physicist, was born at Mondovi on the 3rd of October 1716, and
entered the religious order cf the Pious Schools in 1732. He
became professor of experimental physics, first at Palermo and
then at Rome, and was appointed to a similar situation at Turin
in 1748. He was afterwards made tutor to the young princes de
Chablais and de Carignan, and continued to reside principally at
Turin during the remainder of his life. In May 1755 he was
elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and published
several papers on electrical subjects in the Phil. Trans. He died
at Turin on the 27th of May 1781. Beccaria did much, in the
way both of experiment and exposition, to spread a knowledge
of the electrical researches of Franklin and others. His principal
work was the treatise Dell' Elettricismo Naturale ed Artificiale
( 1 7S3)> which was translated into English in 1776.
BECCARIA-BONESANA, CESARE, MARCHESE DE (i73S~
1794), Italian publicist, was born at Milan on the i5th of March
1735. He was educated in the Jesuit college at Parma, and
snowed at first a great aptitude for mathematics. The study
of Montesquieu seems to have directed his attention towards
economic questions; and his first publication (1762) was a
tract on the derangement of the currency in the Milanese states,
with a proposal for its remedy. Shortly after, in conjunction
with his friends the Verris, he formed a literary society, and began
to publish a small journal, in imitation of the Spectator, called
77 Cafe. In 1764 he published his brief but justly celebrated
treatise Dei Delitti edette Pene (" On Crimes and Punishments ")
The weighty reasonings of this work were expounded with all the
additional force of a clear and animated style. It pointed out
distinctly and temperately the grounds of the right of punishment,
and from these principles deduced certain propositions as to the
nature and amount of punishment which should be. inflicted for
any crime. The book had a surprising success. Within eighteen
months it passed through six editions. It was translated into
French by Morellet in 1766, and published with an anonymous
commentary by Voltaire. An English translation appeared in
1768 and it was translated into several other languages. Many
of the reforms in the penal codes of the principal European
nations are traceable to Beccaria's treatise. In November 1768
he was appointed to the chair of law and economy, which had
been founded expressly for him at the Palatine college of Milan.
His lectures on political economy, which are based on strict
utilitarian principles, are in marked accordance with the theories
of the English school of economists. They are published in the
collection of Italian writers on political economy (Scrittori
Classici Italiani di Economia politico., vols. xi. and xii.). In 1771
Beccaria was made a member of the supreme economic council;
and in 1791 he was appointed one of the board for the reform of
the judicial code. In this post his labours were of very great
value. He died at Milan on the 28th of November 1794.
BECCLES, a market town and municipal borough, in the
Lowestoft parliamentary division of Suffolk, England; on the
right bank of the river Waveney, 109 m. N.E. from London by
the Great Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 6898. It has a pleasant,
well-wooded site overlooking the flat lands bordering the
Waveney. The church of St Michael, wholly Perpendicular, is a
fine example of the style, having an ornate south porch of two
storeys and a detached bell tower. There are a grammar school.
(1712), and boys' school and free school on the foundation of Sir
John Leman (1631). Rose Hall, in the vicinity, is a moated
manor of brick, of the i6th century. Printing works, malting,
brick and tile, and agricultural implement works are the chief
industries. Beccles was incorporated in 1 584. It is governed by
a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors. Area, 201 7 acres.
BECERRA, CASPAR (1520-1570), Spanish painter and
sculptor, was born at Baeza in Andalusia. He studied at Rome,
it is said under Michelangelo, and assisted Vasari in painting
the hall of the Concelleria. He also contributed to the anatomical
plates of Valverde. After his return to Spain he was extensively
employed by Philip II., and decorated many of the rooms in
the palace at Madrid with frescoes. He also painted altar-pieces
for several of the churches, most of which have been destroyed.
His fame as a sculptor almost surpassed that as a painter. His
best work was a magnificent figure of the Virgin, which was
destroyed during the French war. He became court painter at
Madrid in 1563, and played a prominent part in the establishment
of the fine arts in Spain.
BECHE-DE-MER (sometimes explained as " sea-spade," from
the shape of the prepared article, but more probably from the
Port, bicho, a worm or grub), or TREPANG (Malay, Iripang), an
important food luxury among the Chinese and other Eastern
peoples, connected with the production of which considerable
trade exists in the Eastern Archipelago and the coasts of New
Guinea, and also in California. It consists of several species
of echinoderms, generally referred to the genus Holothuria,
especially H. edulis. The creatures, which exist on coral reefs,
have bodies from 6 to 1 5 in. long, shaped like a cucumber, hence
their name of " sea-cucumbers." The skin is sometimes covered
with spicules or prickles, and sometimes quite smooth, and with
or without " teats " or ambulacral feet disposed in rows. Five
varieties are recognized in the commerce of the Pacific Islands,
the finest of which is the " brown with teats. ;> The large black
come next in value, followed by the small black, the red-bellied
and the white. They are used in the gelatinous soups which form
an important article of food in China. They are prepared for
use by being boiled for about twenty minutes, and then dried
first in the sun and afterwards over a fire, so that they are
slightly smoked.
BECHER, JOHANN JOACHIM (1635-1682), German chemist,
physician, scholar and adventurer, was born at Spires in 1635.
His father, a Lutheran minister, died while he was yet a child,
leaving a widow and three children. The mother married again;
the stepfather spent the tiny patrimony of the children; and
at the age of thirteen Becher found himself responsible not
only for his own support but also for that of his mother and
brothers. He learned and practised several small handicrafts, and
devoting his nights to study of the most miscellaneous description
earned a pittance by teaching. In 1654, at the age of nineteen,
he published an edition of Salzthal's Tractatus de lapide tris-
megisto; his Metallurgia followed in 1660; and the next year
appeared his Character pro notitia linguarum universali, in
which he gives 10,000 words for use as a universal language.
In 1663 he published his Oedipum Chemicum and a book on
animals, plants and minerals (Thier- Krauter- und Bergbuch).
At the same time he was full of schemes, practical and unpractical.
He negotiated with the elector palatine for the establishment
of factories at Mannheim; suggested to the elector of Bavaria
the creation of German colonies in Guiana and the West Indies;
and brought down upon himself the wrath of the Munich
merchants by planning a government monopoly of cloth manu-
facture and of trade. He fled from Munich, but found a ready
welcome elsewhere. In 1666 he was appointed teacher of
BECHUANA
603
medicine at Mainz and body-physician to the archbishop-elector;
and the same year he was made councillor of commerce (Commer-
zienrat) at Vienna, where he had gained the powerful support of
Albrecht, Count Zinzendorf, prime minister and grand chamber-
lain of the emperor Leopold I. Sent by the emperor on a mission
to Holland, he there wrote in ten days his Methodus Didactica,
which was followed by the Regeln der Christlichen Bundesgenossen-
schaft and the Polilischer Discurs vom Auf- und Abbliihen der
Stddte. In 1669 he published his Physka subtetranea, and the
same year was engaged with the count of Hanau in a scheme
for settling a large territory between the Orinoco and the Amazon.
Meanwhile he had been appointed physician to the elector of
Bavaria; but in 1670 he was again in Vienna advising on the
establishment of a silk factory and propounding schemes for a
great company to trade with the Low Countries and for a canal
to unite the Rhine and Danube. He then returned to Bavaria,
and his absence bringing him into ill odour at Vienna, he
complained of the incompetence of the council of commerce
and dedicated a tract on trade (Commercien-Tractal) to the
emperor Leopold. His Psychosophia followed, and " An in-
vitation to a psychological community " (Einladung zu einer
(tsychohgischen Societal), for the realization of which Duke
Gustavus Adolphus of Mecklenburg-Gustrow (d. 1605) offered
him in 1674 a site in his duchy. The plan came to nothing, and
next year Becher was again busy at Vienna, trying to transmute
Danube sand into gold, and writing his Theses chemkae veritatem
transmutationis metallorum evincentes. For some reason he
incurred the disfavour of Zinzendorf and fled to Holland, where
with the aid of the government he continued his experi-
ments. Pursued even there by the resentment of his former
patron, he crossed to England, whence he visited the mines of
Scotland at the request of Prince Rupert. He afterwards went
for the same purpose to Cornwall, where he spent a year. At
the beginning of 1680 he presented a paper to the Royal Society,
De nova temporis dimetiendi ratione et accurate horologiorum
construction, in which he attempted to deprive Huygens of
the honour of applying the pendulum to the measurement of
time. The views of Becher on the composition of substances
mark little essential advance on those of the two preceding
centuries, and the three elements or principles of salt, mercury
and sulphur reappear as the vitrifiable, the mercurial and the
combustible earths. When a substance was burnt he supposed
that the last of these, the terra pinguis, was liberated, and this
conception is the basis on which G. E. Stahl founded his doctrine
of " phlogiston." His ideas and experiments on the nature
of minerals and other substances are voluminously set forth in
his Physka Sublerranea (Frankfort, 1669); an edition of this,
published at Leipzig in 1703, contains two supplements (Experi-
mentum chymicum novum and Demonstratio Philosophka],
proving the truth and possibility of transmuting metals, Experi-
mentum novum ac curiosum de minera arenaria perpelua, the
paper on timepieces already mentioned and also Specimen
Becherianum, a summary of his doctrines by Stahl, who in the
preface acknowledges indebtedness to him in the words Beche-
riana sunt quae profero. At Falmouth he wrote his Laboratorium
portabile and at Truro the Alphabetum minerale. In 1682 he
returned to London, where he wrote the Chemischer Gluckshafen
oder grosse Concordanz und Collection von 1500 Processen and
died in October of the same year.
BECHUANA, a South African people, forming a branch of the
great Bantu-Negroid family. They occupy not only Bechuana-
land, to which they have given their name, and Basutoland, but
are the most numerous native race in the Orange River Colony
and in the western and northern districts of the Transvaal. It
seems certain that they reached their present home later than
the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples who came down the east coast
of the continent, but it is probable that they started on their
southward journey before the latter. It would appear that the
forerunners of the movement were the Bakalahari and Balala,
who were subsequently reduced to the condition of serfs by the
later arrivals, and who by intermingling to a certain extent with
the aborigines gave rise to the " Kalahari Bushmen " (see
KALAHARI DESERT). The Bechuana family may be classed in two
great divisions, the western or Bechuana proper, and the eastern
or Basuto. The Bechuana proper consist of a large number of
tribes, whose early history is extremely confused and involved
owing to continual inter-tribal wan and migrations, during
which many tribes were practically annihilated. Further con-
fusion was produced by subsequent marauding expeditions
by the coast " Kaffirs." An ingenious attempt to disentangle
the highly complicated tribal movements which took place in
the early ipth century may be found in Stow's Native Races
of South Africa. One migration of particular interest calls for
mention. In the early part of the igth century a number of
Basuto, led by the chief Sebituane, crossed the Zambezi near the
Victoria Falls, and, under the name Makololo, established a
supremacy over the Barotse and neighbouring tribes on the upper
portion of the river, imposing their language on the conquered
peoples. After the death of Sekeletu, Sebituane's successor,
the vassal tribes arose and exterminated their conquerors. Only
a few escaped, whom Sekeletu had sent with David Livingstone
to the coast. These established themselves to the south of Lake
Nyasa, where they are still to be found. Sesuto speech, however,
still prevails in Barotseland. The chief Bechuana tribes were the
Batlapin and Barolong (the last including the Baratlou, Bataung,
Barapulana and Baseleka), together with the great Bakuena or
Bakone people (including the Bahurutsi, Batlaru, Bamangwato,
Batauana, Bangwaketse and Bakuena). The clans representing
the southern Bakuena were in comparatively recent times
welded together to form the Basuto nation, of which the founder
was the chief Moshesh (see BASUTOLAND). The Basuto have
been not only influenced in certain cultural details (e.g. the form
of their huts) by the neighbouring Zulu-Xosa [Kaffir] peoples,
but have moreover received an infusion of their blood which
has improved their physique. They are good riders and make
considerable use of their horses in war and the chase.
The Bechuana, though not so tall as Kaffirs, average 5 ft. 6 in.
in stature; they are of slender build and their musculature is
but moderately developed except where a Kaffir strain is found.
Their skin is of a reddish-brown or bronze colour, and their
features are fairly regular, though in all cases coarser than those
of Europeans. One of their chief peculiarities lies in the fact
that each tribe respects (usually) a particular animal, which the
members of the tribe may not eat, and the killing of which, if
necessary, must be accompanied by profuse apologies and
followed by subsequent purification. Many of the tribes take
their name from their siboko, as the animal in question is called ;
e.g. the Batlapin, " they of the fish "; Bakuena, " they of the
crocodile." The siboko of the Barolong, who as a tribe are
accomplished smiths, is not an animal but the metal iron; other
tribes have adopted as their particular emblem respectively
the sun, rain, dew, &c. Certain ceremonies are performed in
honour of the tribal emblem, hence an inquiry as to the tribe
of an individual is put in the form " What do you dance?"
In certain tribes the old and feeble and the sickly children were
killed, and albinos and the deaf and dumb exposed ; those born
blind were strangled, and if a mother died in childbirth the
infant was buried alive in the same grave. With the extension
of British authority these practices were prohibited. Circum-
cision is universally practised, though there is no fixed age for
it. It is performed at puberty, when the boys are secluded for
a period in the bush. The operation is accompanied by whipping
and even tortures. Girls at puberty must undergo trials of
endurance, e.g. the holding of a bar of heated iron without crying
out. The Bechuana inhabit, for the most part, towns of con-
siderable size, containing from 5000 to 40,000. Politically they
live under a tribal despotism limited by a council of elders, the
chief seldom exercising his individual authority independently,
though the extent of his power naturally depends on his person-
ality. They have their public assemblies, but only when cir-
cumstances, chiefly in reference to war, require. These are
generally characterized by great freedom of speech, and there
is no interruption of the speaker. The chief generally closes the
meeting with a long speech, referring to the subjects which each
604
BECHUANALAND
speaker has either supported or condemned, not forgetting to
clear his own character of any imputation. These public
assemblies are now, except in Basutoland, of very rare occur-
rence. The clothing of the men consists of a leather bandage;
the women wear a skin apron, reaching to the knee, under
which is a fringed girdle. Skin cloaks (kaross) are worn by both
sexes, with the difference that the male garment is distinguished
by a collar. The hair is kept short for the most part; women
shave the head, leaving a tuft on the crown which is plastered
with fat and earth, and adorned with beads. Beads are worn,
and various bracelets of iron, copper and brass.
The Bechuana are mainly an agricultural people, the Bang-
waketse and Bakuena excelling as cultivators. Cattle they
possess, but these are used chiefly for the purpose of purchasing
wives, especially among the Basuto. At the same time they are
excellent craftsmen, and show no little skill in smelting and
working iron and copper and the preparation of hides and
pottery vessels. The most efficient smiths are the Barolong
and Bamangwato (the latter were spared by the Matabele chief
Umsilikazi on this account); the Bangwaketse excel as potters;
the Barolong as wood carvers, and the Bakuena as hut builders.
The huts, with the exception of those of the Basuto who have
adopted the Kaffir model, are cylindrical, with clay-plastered
walls and a conical roof of thatch. In spite of the constant
tribal feuds dating from the beginning of the igth century, the
Bechuana cannot be classed as a warlike people, especially
when they are compared with the Zulu. Their weapons consist
of the throwing assegai, usually barbed, axes, daggers in carved
sheaths, and, occasionally, bows and arrows, the last sometimes
poisoned. Hide shields of a peculiar shape, resembling a
depressed hour-glass, are found except among the Basuto, who
use a somewhat different pattern. Hunting usually takes the
form of great drives organized hi concert, and the game is driven
by means of converging fences to a large pitfall or series of pits.
Their religious beliefs are very vague; they appear to recognize
a somewhat indeterminate spirit of, mainly, evil tendencies,
called Morimo. The plural form of this word, Barimo, is used
of the manes of dead ancestors, to whom a varying amount of
reverence is paid. There is universal belief in charms and
witchcraft, and divination by means of dice is common. Witch-
doctors, who are supposed to counteract evil magic, play a not
insignificant part, and the magician who claims the power of
making rain occupies a very important position, as might be
expected among an agricultural people inhabiting a country
where droughts are not infrequent. They have a great dread
of anything connected with death; when an old man is on the
point of expiring, a net is thrown over him, and he is dragged
from his hut by a hole in the wall, if possible before life is extinct.
The dead are buried in a sitting position with their faces to
the north, in which direction lies their ancestral home. Under
the influence of missionaries, however, large numbers of the
Bechuana have become Christianized, and many of the customs
mentioned are no longer practised.
Polygamy is the rule, but, except in the case of chiefs, is not
found to the same extent as among the Zulu-Xosa [Kaffirs].
The woman is purchased from her father, chiefly by means of
cattle, though among the western Bechuana other articles are
included, many of which become the property of the girl herself.
The wives live in separate huts, and the first is given priority
over those purchased subsequently. Chastity after marriage
is the rule, and adultery and rape are severely punished, as
offences against property. 'Cannibalism is found, but is rare
and confined to certain tribes.
The Bechuana language, which belongs to the Bantu lin-
guistic family, is copious, with but few slight dialectic differences,
and is free from the Hottentot elements found in the Kaffir and
Zulu tongues. The richness of the language may be judged
from the fact that, though only oral until reduced to writing by
the missionaries, it has sufficed for the translation of the whole
Bible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. G. W. Stow, The Native Races of South Africa
(London, 1905); Gustav Fritsch, Die Eingeborenen Sud-Afrikas
(Breslau, 1872) ; Robert Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in
Southern Africa (1842); David Livingstone, Missionary Travels and
Researches in South Africa (London, 1857); J. C. MacGregor, Basuto
Traditions (Cape Town, 1905). (T. A. J.)
BECHUANALAND (a name given from its inhabitants, the
Bechuana, <?..), a country of British South Africa occupying
the central part of the vast tableland which stretches north to the
Zambezi. It is bounded S. by the Orange river, N.E. and E.
by Matabeleland, the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, and
W. and N. by German South-West Africa. Bechuanaland geo-
graphically and ethnically enjoys almost complete unity, but
politically it is divided as follows:
I. British Bechuanaland, since 1895 an integral part of Cape
Colony. Area, 51,424 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 84,210, of whom
9276 were whites.
II. The Bechuanaland Protectorate, the northern part of
the country, governed on the lines of a British crown colony.
Area (estimated), 225,000 sq. m. Pop. (1904) 120,776, of whom
Europeans numbered 1004. The natives, in addition to the
Bechuana tribes, include some thousands of Bushmen (Masarwa).
Administratively attached to the protectorate is the Tati con-
cession, which covers 2500 sq. m. and forms geographically the
south-west corner of Matabeleland.
The Griqualand West province of Cape Colony belongs also
geographically to Bechuanaland, and except in the Kimberley
diamond mines region is still largely inhabited by Bechuana.
(See GRIQUALAND.)
Physical Features. The average height of the tableland of
which Bechuanaland consists is nearly 4000 ft. The surface is
hilly and undulating with a general slope to the west, where the
level falls in considerable areas to little over 2000 ft. A large
part of the country is covered with grass or shrub, chiefly acacia.
There is very little forest land. The western region, the Kalahari
Desert (q.v.), is mainly arid, with a sandy soil, and is covered in
part by dense bush. In the northern region are large marshy
depressions, in which the water is often salt. The best known of
these depressions, Ngami (q.v.), lies to the north-west and is
the central point of an inland water system apparently in process
of drying up. To the north-east and connected with Ngami
by the Botletle river, is the great Makari-Kari salt pan, which
also drains a vast extent of territory, receiving in the rainy
season a large volume of water. The marsh then becomes a
great lake, the water surface stretching beyond the horizon,
while in the dry season a mirage is often seen. The permanent
marsh land covers a region 60 m. from south to north and from
30 to 60 m. east to west. In the south the rivers, such as the
Molopo and the Kuruman, drain towards the Orange. Other
streams are tributaries of the Limpopo, which for some distance
is the frontier between Bechuanaland and the Transvaal.
The rivers of Bechuanaland are, with few exceptions, inter-
mittent or lose themselves in the desert. It is evident, however,
from the extent of the beds of these streams and of others now
permanently dry, and from remains of ancient forests, that at
a former period the country must have been abundantly watered.
From the many cattle-folds and walls of defence scattered over
the country, and ruins of ancient settlements, it is also evident
that at that period stone-dykes were very common. The in-
creasing dryness of the land is partly, perhaps largely, attribut-
able to the cutting down of timber trees both by natives and by
whites, and to the custom of annually burning the grass, which
is destructive to young wood.
Climate. The climate is healthy and bracing, except in the
lower valleys along the river banks and in the marsh land,
where malarial fever is prevalent. Though in great part within
the tropics, the heat is counteracted by the dryness of the air.
Throughout the year the nights are cool and refreshing; in
winter the cold at night is intense. In the western regions the
rainfall does not exceed 10 in. in the year; in the east the average
rainfall is 26 in. and in places as much as 30 in. The rainy season
is the summer months, November to April, but the rains are
irregular, and, from the causes already indicated, the rainfall
is steadily declining. From December to February violent
BECHUANALAND
605
thunder and hail storms are experienced. In the winter or dry
season there are occasional heavy dust storms.
Geology. The greater part of Bechuanaland is covered with
superficial deposits consisting of the sands of the desert regions
of the Kalahari and the alluvium and saliferous marls of the
Okavango basin. The oldest rocks, granites, gneisses and
schistose sandstones, the Ngami series, rise to the surface in
the east and south-east and doubtless immediately underlie much
of the sand areas. A sandstone found in the neighbourhood of
Palapye is considered to be the equivalent of the Waterberg
formation of the Transvaal. The Karroo formation and associate
dolerites (Loalemandelstein) occur in the same region. A deposit
of sinter and a calcareous sandstone, known as the Kalahari
Kalk, considered by Dr Passarge to be of Miocene age, overlies
a sandstone and curious breccia (Botletle Schnichteri). These
deposits are held by Passarge to indicate Tertiary desert con-
ditions, to which the basin of the Zambezi is slowly reverting.
Fauna. Until towards the close of the igth century Bechuana-
land abounded in big game, and the Kalahari is still the home
of the lion, leopard, hyena, jackal, elephant, hippopotamus,
rhinoceros, buffalo, antelope of many species, ostrich and even
the giraffe. Venomous reptiles, e.g. puff-adders and cobras, are
met with, enormous frogs are common, and walking and flying
locusts, mosquitoes, white ants, flying beetles, scorpions, spiders
and tarantulas are very numerous. The crocodile is found in
some of the rivers. Many of the rivers are well stocked with
fish. In those containing water in the rainy season only, the fish
preserve life when the bed is dry by burrowing deeply in the
ooze before it hardens. The principal fish are the baba or cat-fish
(clarias sp.) and the yellow-fish, both of which attain considerable
size. Bustards (the great kori and the koorhaan) are common.
Flora. In the eastern district are stretches of grass land, both
sweet and sour veld. In the " bush " are found tufts of tall
coarse grass with the space between bare or covered with herb-
aceous creepers or water-bearing tubers. A common creeper
is one bearing a small scarlet cucumber, and a species of water-
melon called tsoma is also abundant. Of the melon and cucumber
there are both bitter and sweet varieties. Besides the grass and
the creepers the bush is made up of berry-yielding bushes (some
of the bushes being rich in aromatic resinous matter), the wait-a-
bit thorn and white thorned mimosa. The indigo and cotton
plants grow wild. Among the rare big trees found chiefly
in the north-east are baobab and palmyra and certain fruit
trees, one bearing a pink plum. There are remains of ancient
forests consisting of wild olive trees and the camel thorn, near
which grows the ngotuane, a plant with a profusion of fine,
strongly scented yellow flowers.
Chief Towns. The chief town in southern Bechuanaland, i.e.
the part incorporated in Cape Colony, is Mafeking (<?..), near
the headwaters of the Molopo river. It is the headquarters of
the Barolong tribe, and although within the Cape border is the
seat of the administration of the protectorate. Vryburg (pop.,
1904, 2985), founded by Boer filibusters in 1882, and Taungs,
are towns on the railway between Kimberley and Mafeking.
Taungs has some 22,000 inhabitants, being the chief kraal of
the Batlapin tribe. About 7 m. south of Vryburg, at Tiger Kloof,
is an Industrial Training Institute for natives founded in 1904
by the London Missionary Society. Upington (2508) on the north
bank of the Orange, an agricultural centre, is the chief town
in Gordonia, the western division of southern Bechuanaland.
Kuruman (q.v.) is a native town near the source of the Kuruman
river, 85 m. south-west of Vryburg. It has been the scene of
missionary labours since the early years of the igth century.
North of Mafeking on the railway to Bulawayo are the small
towns of Gaberones and Francistown. The last named is the
chief township in the Tati concession, the centre of a gold-mining
region, and the most important white settlement in the pro-
tectorate. Besides these places there are five or six large native
towns, each the headquarters of a distinct tribe. The most
important is Serowe, with over 20,000 inhabitants, the capital of
the Bamangwato, founded by the chief Khama in 1003. It is
about 250 m. north-north-east of Mafeking, and took the place of
the abandoned capital Palapye, which in its turn had succeeded
Shoshong. The chief centre in the western Kalahari is Lehututu.
Agriculture and Trade. The soil is very fertile, and if properly
irrigated would yield abundant harvests. Unirrigated land laid
under wheat by the natives is said to yield twelve bushels an
acre. Cereals are grown in many of the river valleys. Maize
and millet are the chief crops. The wealth of the Bechuana
consists principally in their cattle, which they tend with great
care, showing a shrewd discrimination in the choice of pasture
suited to oxen, sheep and goats. Water can usually be obtained
all the year round by sinking wells from 20 to 30 ft. deep. The
" sweet veld " is specially suitable to cattle, and the finer shorter
grass which succeeds it affords pasturage for sheep.
Gold mines are worked in the Tati district, the first discoveries
having been made there in 1864. There are gold-bearing quartz
reefs at Madibi, near Mafeking, where mining began in 1006.
Diamonds have been found near Vryburg. The existence of coal
near Palapye about 60 ft. below the surface has been proved.
The coal, however, is not mined, and much of the destruction of
timber in southern Bechuanaland was caused by the demand for
fuel for Kimberley. Copper ore has been found near Francistown.
Formerly there was a trade in ostrich feathers and ivory; but
this has ceased, and the chief trade has since consisted in supply-
ing the natives with European goods in exchange for cattle,
hides, the skins and horns of game, firewood and fencing poles,
and in forwarding goods north and south. The protectorate is a
member of the South African Customs Union. The value of the
goods imported into the protectorate in 1006 was 118,322; the
value of the exports was 77,736. The sale of spirits to natives is
forbidden.
Communications. As the great highway from Cape Colony to
the north, Bechuanaland has been described as the " Suez canal
of South Africa." The trunk railway from Cape Town to the
Victoria Falls traverses the eastern edge of Bechuanaland
throughout its length. The railway enters the country at
Fourteen Streams, 695 m. from Cape Town, and at Ramaquabane,
584 m. farther north, crosses into Rhodesia. The old trade route
to Bulawayo, which skirts the eastern edge of the Kalahari, is
now rarely used. Wagon tracks lead to Ngami, 320 m. N.W.
from Palapye Road Station, and to all the settlements. From
the scarcity of water on the main routes through the Kalahari
these roads are known as " the thirsts "; along some of them
wells have been sunk by the administration.
Government. The protectorate is administered by a resident
commissioner, responsible to the high commissioner for South
Africa. Legislation is enacted by proclamations in the name of
the high commissioner. Order is maintained by a small force of
semi-military police recruited in Basutoland and officered by
Europeans. Revenue is obtained mostly from customs and a hut
tax, while the chief items of expenditure have been the police
force and a subsidy of 20,000 per annum towards the cost of the
railway, a liability which terminated in the year 1008. The
average annual revenue for the five years ending the 3 ist of March
1906 was 30,074 ; the average annual expenditure during the same
period was 80,114. There is no public debt, the annual deficiency
being made good by a grant-in-aid from the imperial exchequer.
The tribal organization of the Bechuana is maintained, and
native laws and customs, with certain modifications, are upheld.
History. Bechuanaland was visited by Europeans towards
the close of the i8th century. The generally peaceful disposition
of the tribes rendered the opening up of the country
comparatively easy. The first regular expedition to
penetrate far inland was in 1801-1802, when John
(afterwards Sir John) Truter, of the Cape judicial bench, and
William Somerville an army physician and afterwards husband
of Mary Somerville were sent to the Bechuana tribes to buy
cattle. The London Missionary Society established stations in
what is now Griqualand West in 1803, and in 1818 the station of
Kuruman, in Bechuanaland proper, was founded. In the mean-
time M.H.K. Lichtenstein (1804) and W. J. Burchell (1811-1812),
both distinguished naturalists, and other explorers, had made
familiar the general characteristics of the southern part of the
6o6
BECHUANALAND
country. The Rev. John Campbell, one of the founders of the
Bible Society, also travelled in southern Bechuanaland and the
adjoining districts in 1812-1814 and 1810-1821, adding con-
siderably to the knowledge of the river systems. About 1817
Mosilikatze, the founder of the Matabele nation, fleeing from the
wrath of Chaka, the Zulu king, began his career of conquest,
during which he ravaged a great part of Bechuanaland and
enrolled large numbers of Bechuana in his armies. Eventually
the Matabele settled to the north-east in the country which
afterwards bore their name. In 1821 Robert Moffat arrived at
Kuruman as agent of the London Missionary Society, and made
it his headquarters for fifty years. Largely as the result of the
work of Moffat (who reduced the Bechuana tongue to writing),
and of other missionaries, the Bechuana advanced notably in
civilization. The arrival of David Livingstone in 1841 marked
the beginning of the systematic exploration of the northern
regions. His travels, and those of C. J. Andersson (1853-1858)
and others, covered almost every part of the country hitherto un-
known. In 1 864 Karl Mauch discovered gold in the Tati district.
At the time of the first contact of the Bechuana with white men
the Cape government was the only civilized authority in South
Africa; and from this cause, and the circumstance
Boer that the missionaries who lived among and exercised
g rga j. j n fl uence over them were of British nationality,
the connexion between Bechuanaland and the Cape
became close. As early as 1836 an act was passed extending the
jurisdiction of the Cape courts in certain cases as far north as 25
S. a limit which included the southern part of Bechuanaland.
Although under strong British influence the country was never-
theless ruled by its own chiefs, among whom the best-known in
the middle of the ipth century were Montsioa, chief of the
Barolong, and Sechele, chief of the Bakwena and the friend of
Livingstone. At this period the Transvaal Boers were in a very
unsettled state, and those living in the western districts showed
a marked inclination to encroach upon the lands of the Bechuana.
In 1852 Great Britain by the Sand river convention acknowledged
the independence of the Transvaal. Save the Vaal river no
frontier was indicated, and " boasting," writes Livingstone in his
Missionary Travels, " that the English had given up all the
blacks into their power . . . they (the Boers) assaulted the
Bakwains " (Bakwena).
With this event the political history of Bechuanaland may be
said to have begun. Not only was Sechele attacked at his
capital Kolobeng, and the European stores and Livingstone's
house there looted, but the Boers stopped a trader named M'Cabe
from going northward. Again to quote Livingstone, " The
Boers resolved to shut up the interior and I determined to open
the country." In 1858 the Boers told the missionaries that
they must not go north without their (the Boers') consent.
Moffat complained to Sir George Grey, the governor of Cape
Colony, through whose intervention the molestation by Transvaal
Boers of British subjects in their passage through Bechuanaland
was stopped. At a later date (1865) the Boers tried to raise
taxes from the Barolong, but without success, a commando sent
against them in 1868 being driven off by Montsioa 's brother
Molema. This led to a protest (in 1870) from Montsioa, which
he lodged with a landdrost at Potchefstroom in the Transvaal,
threatening to submit the matter to the British high commis-
sioner if any further attempt at taxation were made on the part
of the Boers. The Boers then resorted to cajolery, and at a
meeting held in August 1870, at which President Pretorius and
Paul Kruger represented the Transvaal, invited the Barolong
to join their territories with that of the republic, in order to save
them from becoming British. Montsioa's reply was short: " No
one ever spanned-in an ass with an ox in one yoke." In the
following year the claims of the Boers, the Barolong, and other
tribes were submitted to the arbitration of R. W. Keate, lieu-
tenant-governor of Natal, and his award placed Montsioa's
territory outside the limits of the Transvaal. This attempt of
the Boers to gain possession of Bechuanaland having failed,
T. F. Burgers, the president of the Transvaal in 187 2, endeavoured
to replace Montsioa as chief of the Barolong by Moshette, whom
he declared to be the rightful ruler and paramount chief of that
people. The attacks of the Boers at length became so unbearable
that Montsioa in 1874 made a request to the British authorities
to be taken under their protection. In formulating this appeal
he declared that when the Boers were at war with Mosilikatze,
chief of the Matabele, he had aided them on the solemn under-
standing that they were to respect his boundaries. This promise
they had broken. Khama, chief of the Bamangwato in northern
Bechuanaland, wrote in August 1876 to Sir Henry Barkly
making an appeal similar to that sent by the Barolong. The
letter contained the following significant passages:
" I write to you, Sir Henry, in order that your queen may
preserve for me my country, it being in her hands. The Boers are
coming into it, and I do not like them." " Their actions are cruel
among us black people. We are like money, they sell us and our
children." " I ask Her Majesty to defend me, as she defends all her
people. There are three things which distress me very much
war, selling people, and drink. All these things I shall find in the
Boers, and it is these things which destroy people to make an end
of them in the country. The custom of the Boers has always been
to cause people to be sold, and to-day they are still selling people."
The statements of Khama in this letter do not appear to have
been exaggerated. The testimony of Livingstone confirms them,
and even a Dutch clergyman, writing in 1869, described the
system of apprenticeship of natives which obtained among the
Boers " as slavery in the fullest sense of the word." These
representations on the part of the Barolong, and the Bamang-
wato under Khama, supported by the representations of Cape
politicians, led in 1878 to the military occupation of southern
Bechuanaland by a British force under Colonel (afterwards
General Sir Charles) Warren. A small police force continued
to occupy the district until April 1881, but, ignoring the wishes
of the Bechuana and the recommendations of Sir Bartle Frere
(then high commissioner), the home government refused to take
the country under British protection. On the withdrawal of
the police, southern Bechuanaland fell into a state of anarchy,
nor did the fixing (on paper) of the frontier between it and the
Transvaal by the Pretoria convention of August 1881 have any
beneficial effect. There was fighting between Montsioa and
Moshette, while Massow, a Batlapin chief, invited the aid of the
Boers against Mankoroane, who claimed to be paramount chief
of the Batlapin. The Transvaal War of that date offered oppor-
tunities to the freebooting Boers of the west which were not to
be lost. At this time the British, wearied of South African
troubles, were disinclined to respond to native appeals for help.
Consequently the Boers proceeded without let or
hindrance with their conquest and annexation of
territory. In 1882 they set up the republic of Stella-
land, with Vryburg as its capital, and forthwith
proceeded to set up the republic of Goshen, farther north, in
spite of the protests of Montsioa, and established a small town
called Rooi Grond as capital. They then summoned Montsioa
to quit the territory. The efforts of the British authorities at
this period (1882-1883) to bring about a satisfactory settlement
were feeble and futile, and fighting continued until peace was
made entirely on Boer lines. The Transvaal government was
to have supreme power, and to be the final arbiter in case of
future quarrels arising among the native chiefs. This agreement,
arrived at without any reference to the British government, was
a breach of the Pretoria convention, and led to an intimation on
the part of Great Britain that she could not recognize the new
republics. In South Africa, as well as in England, strong feeling
was aroused by this act of aggression. Unless steps were taken
at once, the whole of Bechuanaland might be permanently lost,
while German territory on the west might readily be extended
to join with that of the Boers. In the London convention of
February 1884, conceded by Lord Derby in response to the
overtures of Boer delegates, the Transvaal boundaries were
again defined, part of eastern Bechuanaland being included in
Boer territory. In spite of the convention the Boers remained
in Steiiaiand and Goshen which were west of the new Transvaal
frontier, and in April 1884 the Rev. John Mackenzie, who had
succeeded Livingstone, was sent to the country to arrange
BECK, C. D.
607
matters. He found very little difficulty in negotiating with the
various Bechuana chiefs, but with the Boers he was not so
successful. In Goshen the Boers defied his authority, while
in Stellaland only a half-hearted acceptance of it was given.
At the instance of the new Cape government, formed in May
and under control of the Afrikander Bond, Mackenzie, who was
accused of being too " pro-Bechuana " and who had been refused
the help of any armed force, was recalled on the 3Oth of July by
the high commissioner, Sir Hercules Robinson. In his place
JCecil Rhodes, then leader of the Opposition in the Cape parlia-
ment, was sent to Bechuanaland.
Rhodes's mission was attended with great difficulty. British
prestige after the disastrous Boer War of 1881 was at a very low
ebb, and he realized that he could not count on any
active help from the imperial or colonial authorities.
He adopted a tone of conciliation, and decided that
the Stellaland republic should remain under a sort of British
suzerainty. But in Goshen the Boers would let him do nothing.
Commandant P. J. Joubert, after meeting him at Rooi Grond,
entered the country and attacked Montsioa. Rhodes then left
under protest, declaring that the Boers were making war against
Great Britain. The Boers now (roth of September) proclaimed
the country under Transvaal protection. This was a breach of
the London convention, and President Kruger explained that
the steps had been taken in the " interests of humanity."
Indignant protest in Cape Town and throughout
n. South Africa, as well as England, led to the despatch
' in October 1884 of the Warren expedition, which was
sent out by the British government to remove the filibusters, to
bring about peace in the country, and to hold it until further
measures were decided upon. Before Sir Charles Warren
reached Africa, Sir Thomas Upington, the Cape premier, and
Sir Gordon Sprigg, the treasurer-general, went to Bechuanaland
and arranged a " settlement " which would have left the Boer
filibusters in possession, but the imperial government refused
to take notice of this " settlement." Public opinion throughout
Great Britain was too strong to be ignored. The limit of con-
cessions to the Boers had been reached, and Sir Charles Warren's
force 4000 strong had reached the Vaal river in January 1885.
On the 22nd of January Kruger met Warren at the M odder
river, and endeavoured to stop him from proceeding farther,
saying that he would be responsible for keeping order in the
country. Warren, however, continued his march, and without
firing a shot broke up the republics of Stellaland and Goshen.
Bechuanaland was formally taken under British protection
(30th of September 1885), and the sphere of British influence
was declared to extend N. to 22 S. and W. to 20 E. (which last-
mentioned line marks the eastern limit of German South- West
Africa).
The natives cheerfully accepted this new departure in British
policy, and from this time forward Khama's country was known
as the British protectorate of Bechuanaland. That portion
lying to the south of the Molopo river was described as British
Bechuanaland, and was constituted a crown colony. In 1891
the northern frontier of the protectorate was extended
to its P re sent boundaries, and the whole of it placed
under the administration of a resident commissioner,
a protest being made at the time by the British South
Africa Company on the ground that the protectorate was
included in the sphere of their charter. Under the able adminis-
tration (1885-1895) of Sir Sidney Shippard (q.v.) peace was
maintained among the natives, who have shown great loyalty
to British rule.
The history of the country shows how much has been due to
the efforts of men like Livingstone, Mackenzie and Rhodes. It
is quite clear that had they not represented the true state of
affairs to the authorities the whole of this territory would have
gradually been absorbed by the Boers, until they had effected a
union with the Germans on the west. The great road to the
north would thus have been effectually shut against trade and
British colonization. With regard to the precise effect of
missionary influence upon the natives, opinion will always
remain divided. But Livingstone, who was not only a mis-
sionary but also an enlightened traveller, stated that a consider-
able amount of benefit had been conferred upon the native
races by missionary teaching. Livingstone was a great advocate
of the prohibition of alcohol among the natives, and that policy
was always adhered to by Khama.
In 1891 the South African Customs Union was extended to
British Bechuanaland, and in 1895 the country was annexed to
Cape Colony. At the same time it was provisionally arranged
that the Bechuanaland protectorate should pass under the
administration of the British South Africa Company (see RHO-
DESIA). Khama and two other Bechuana chiefs came to
England and protested against this arrangement. The result was
that their territories and those of other petty chiefs lying to the
north of the Molopo were made native reserves, into which the
importation of alcohol was forbidden. A British resident officer
was to be appointed to each of the reserves. A stipulation,
however, was made with these chiefs that a strip of country
sufficient for the purposes of a railway to Matabeleland should be
conceded to the Chartered Company. In December 1895 the
occurrence of the Jameson Raid, which started from these
territories, prevented the completion of negotiations, and the
administration of the protectorate remained in the hands of the
imperial government. The administration, besides fostering the
scanty material resources of the country, aids the missionaries in
their endeavours to raise the Bechuanas in the scale of civilization.
The results are full of encouragement. The natives proved
staunch to the British connexion during the war of 1899-1902,
and Khama and other chiefs gave help by providing transport.
Anxiety was caused on the western frontier during the German
campaigns against the Hottentots and Herero (1903-1908), many
natives seeking refuge in the protectorate. A dispute concerning
the chieftainship of the Batawana in the Ngami district threatened
trouble in 1906, but was brought to a peaceful issue. The
Bechuana were entirely unaffected by the Kaffir rebellion in
Natal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of early works the most valuable are David
Livingstone, Missionary Travels in South Africa (London, 1857);
Robert Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa
(London, 1842); J. Campbell, Travels in South Africa (London,
1815), Travels . . . a Second Journey . . . (2 vols., London, 1822);
and A. A. Anderson, Twenty-five Years in a Waggon in the Cold
Regions of Africa, vol. i. (London, 1887). See also]. D. Hepburn,
Twenty Years in Khama's Country (London, 1895); S. Passarge's
Die Kalahari (Berlin, 1904) deals chiefly with geological and allied
questions; John Mackenzie's Austral Africa, Losing it or Ruling it
(London, 1887); John Mackenzie, a biography by W. D. Mackenzie
(London, 1902) ; and the article " Bechuanaland ' by Sir S. Shippard
in British Africa (London, 1899), give the story of the beginnings of
British rule in the protectorate. Of larger works dealing incidentally
with Bechuanaland consult G. M. Theal's History of South Africa;
E. A. Pratt's Leading Points in South African History (London,
1900) ; and Cecil Rhodes, His Political Life and Speeches, by Vindex
(London, 1900). See also the Statistical Register, Cape of Good Hope,
issued yearly at Cape Town, and the Annual Report, Bechuanaland
Protectorate, issued by the Colonial Office, London.
(F. R.C.;A. P. H.)
BECK, CHRISTIAN DANIEL (i757- l8 3 2 ). German philologist,
historian, theologian and antiquarian, one of the most learned
men of his time, was born at Leipzig on the 22nd of January
1757. He studied at Leipzig University, where he was appointed
(1785) professor of Greek and Latin literature. This post he
resigned in 1819 in order to take up the professorship of history,
but resumed it in 1825. He also had the management of the
university library, was director of the institute for the deaf and
dumb, and filled many educational and municipal offices. In
1784 he founded a philological society, which grew into a philo-
logical seminary, superintended by him until his death. In 1808
he was made a Hofralh by the king of Saxony, and in i8ao a
knight of the civil order of merit. His philological lectures, in
which grammar and criticism were subordinated to history, wen-
largely attended by hearers from all parts of Germany. He died
at Leipzig on the i3th of December 1832. He edited a number
of classical authors: Pedo Albinovanus (1783), Pindar and the
Scholia (1792-1795), Aristophanes (with others, 1794, &c.),
6o8
Euripides (1778-1788), Apollonius Rhodius (179?), Demosthenes
De Pace (1799), Plato (1813-1819), Cicero (1795-1807) Titus
Calpurnius Siculus (1803). He translated Ferguson s Fall of the
Roman Republic and Goldsmith's History of Greece, and added
two volumes to Bauer's Thucydides. He also wrote on theo-
logical and historical subjects, and edited philological and
bibliographical journals. He possessed a large and valuable
library of 24,000 volumes.
See Nobbe, Vita C. D. Beckii (1837); and G. Hermann, Opuscula,
v 312.
BECK (or BEEK), DAVID (1621-1656), Dutch portrait-painter,
was born at Arnheim in Guelderland. He was trained by Van
Dyck, from whom he acquired the fine manner of pencilling and
sweet style of colouring peculiar to that great master, ^e
possessed likewise that freedom of hand and readiness, or rather
rapidity of execution, for which Van Dyck was so remarkable,
insomuch that when King Charles I. observed the expeditious
manner of Beck's painting, he exclaimed, "Faith! Beck, I
believe you could paint riding post." He was appointed portrait-
painter and chamberlain to Queen Christina of Sweden, and he
executed portraits of most of the sovereigns of Europe to adorn
her gallery. His death at the Hague was suspected of being due
to poisoning.
BECK, JAKOB SIGISMUND (1761-1840), German philosopher,
was born at Danzig in 1761. Educated at Konigsberg, he be-
came professor of philosophy first at Halle (1791-1799) and then
at Rostock. He devoted himself to criticism and explanation
of the doctrine of Kant, and in 1793 published the Erlauternder
Auszug aus Kants kritischen Schriften, which has been widely
used as a compendium of Kantian doctrine. He endeavoured to
explain away certain of the contradictions which are found in
Kant's system by saying that much of the language is used in
a popular sense for the sake of intelligibility, e.g. where Kant
attributes to things - in - themselves an existence under the
conditions of time, space and causality, and yet holds that they
furnish the material of our apprehensions. Beck maintains that
the real meaning of Kant's theory is idealism; that of objects
outside the domain of consciousness, knowledge is impossible,
and hence that nothing positive remains when we have removed
the subjective element. Matter is deduced by the " original
synthesis." Similarly, the idea of God is a symbolical representa-
tion of the voice of conscience guiding from within. The value of
Beck's exegesis has been to a great extent overlooked owing to
the greater attention given to the work of Fichte. Beside the
three volumes of the Erlauternder Auszug, he published the
Grundriss der krit. Philosophic (1796), containing an interpreta-
tion of the Kantian Kritik in the manner'of Salomon Maimon.
See Ueberweg, Grundriss der Gesch. der Philos. der Neuzeit;
Dilthey in the Archill fur Geschichte der Philos., vol. ii. (1889), pp.
592-650. For Beck's letters to Kant, see R. Reicke, Aus Kants
Briefwechsel (Konigsberg, 1885).
BECKENHAM, an urban district in the Sevenoaks parlia-
mentary division of Kent, England, 10 m. S.S.E. of London
by the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop.' (1881)
13,045; (1901) 26,331. It is a long straggling parish extending
from the western tower of the Crystal Palace almost to the south
end of Bromley, and contains the residential suburb of Short-
lands. Its rapid increase in size in the last decade of the
century was owing to the popularity which it attained as a place
of residence for London business men. It retains, however,
some of its rural character, and has wide thoroughfares and
many handsome residences standing in extensive grounds.
King William IV. 's Naval Asylum was endowed by Queen
Adelaide for 12 widows of naval officers. The church of St
George was built in 1866 on the site of an ancient Perpendicular
church. Some 16th-century brasses, an altar tomb and a piscina
were removed hither from the old church. The tower of the
church was completed in 1903, and furnished with two bells in
memory of Cecil Rhodes, in addition to the old bells, one of which
dates from 1624.
BECKER, HEINRICH (1770-1822), German actor, whose
real name was BUJMENTHAL, was born at Berlin. He obtained,
while quite a young man, an appointment in the court theatre
BECK, D. BECKET
at Weimar, at that time under Goethe's auspices. The poet
recognized his talent, appointed him stage-manager, entrusted
tiim with several of the leading roles in his dramas and consulted
tiim in all matters connected with the staging of his plays.
For many years Becker was the favourite of the Weimar stage,
and although he was at his best in comedy, he played, to Goethe's
great satisfaction, Vansen in Egmont, and was also seen to great
advantage in the leading parts of several of Schiller's plays;
notably Burleigh in Maria Stuart, Karl Moor in Die Rauber,
and Antonio in Torquato Tasso. Becker left Weimar in the.
spring of 1809, played for a short time at Hamburg (under
Schroder) and at Breslau, and then began a wandering life,
now joining travelling companies, now playing at provincial
theatres. Broken in health and ruined in fortune he returned
in 1820 to Weimar, where he was again cordially received by
Goethe, who reinstated him at the theatre. After playing
for two short years with indifferent success, he died at Weimar
in 1822.
Becker was twice married. His first wife, CHRISTIANE LTJISE
AMALIE BECKER (1778-1797), was the daughter of a theatrical
manager and dramatic poet, Johann Christian Neumann, and
made her first stage appearance in 1787 at Weimar. Here she
received some training from Goethe and from Corona Schroter,
the singer, and her beauty and charm made her the favourite
both of court and public. She married Heinrich Becker in 1793.
She died on the 22nd of September 1797. Her last part was that
of Euphrosyne in the opera Das Petermannchen, and it is under
this name that Goethe immortalized her in a poem which first
appeared in Schiller's Musen Almanack of 1799.
BECKER, WILHELM ADOLF (1796-1846), German classical
archaeologist, was born at Dresden. At first destined for a com-
mercial life, he was in 1812 sent to the celebrated school at
Pforta. In 1816 he entered the university of Leipzig, where he
studied under Beck and Hermann. After holding subordinate
posts at Zerbst and Meissen, he was in 1842 appointed professor
of archaeology at Leipzig. He died at Meissen on the 3oth of
September 1846. The works by which Becker is most widely
known are the Callus or Romische Scenen aus der Zeit Augusts
(1838, new ed. by Goll, 1880-1882), and the Charicles or Bilder
aligriechischer Sitte (1840, new ed. by Goll, 1877-1878). These
two books, which have been translated into English by Frederick
Metcalfe, contain a very interesting description of the everyday
life of the ancient Greeks and Romans, in the form of a romance.
The notes and appendixes are valuable. More important is the
great Handbuch der rom. Alterthumer (1843-1868), completed
after Becker's death by Marquardt and Mommsen. Becker's
treatises De Comicis Romanorum Fabulis (1837), De Romae
Vetcris Muris atque Portis (1842), Die romische Topographic
in Rom (1844), and Zur romischen Topographic (1845) may also
be mentioned.
BECKET, THOMAS (c. 1118-1170), by his contemporaries
more commonly called Thomas of London, English chancellor
and archbishop of Canterbury under Henry II., was born about
the year 1118 in London. His mother was a native of Caen;
his father, who came of a family of small Norman landowners,
had been a citizen of Rouen, but migrated to London before the
birth of Thomas, and held at one time the dignified office of port-
reeve, although he ended his life in straitened circumstances.
The young Thomas received an excellent education. At the
age of te.n he was put to school with the canons of Merton priory
in Surrey. Later he spent some time in the schools of London,
which enjoyed at that time a high reputation, and finally studied
theology at Paris. Returning at the age of twenty-two he was
compelled, through the misfortunes of his parents, to become
a notary in the service of a wealthy kinsman, Osbert Huit Deniers,
who was of some importance in London politics. About 1142
a family friend brought Thomas under the notice of Archbishop
Theobald, of whose household he at once became an inmate.
He accompanied the primate to Rome in 1143, and also to the
council of Reims (1148), which Theobald attended in defiance of
a prohibition from the king. It appears to have been at some
time between the dates of these two journeys that he visited
BECKET
609
Bologna and Auxerre, and began those studies in the canon law
to which he was in no small degree indebted for his subsequent
advancement and misfortunes. Although the bent of his mind
was legal, he never made himself an expert jurist; but he had
the art of turning his knowledge, such as it was, to excellent
account. In 1151 he was sent to Rome by the archbishop with
instructions to dissuade the Curia from sanctioning the coronation
of Stephen's eldest son Eustace. It is said that Thomas distin-
guished himself by the ability with which he executed his
commission; in any case it gave him a claim on the gratitude of
the Angevin party which was not forgotten. In 1154 he was
promoted to be archdeacon of Canterbury, after first taking
deacon's orders. In the following year Henry II., at the primate's
recommendation, bestowed on him the important office of
chancellor. In this capacity Thomas controlled the issue of
royal writs and the distribution of ecclesiastical patronage;
but it was more important for his future that he had ample
opportunities of exercising his personal fascination upon a prince
who was comparatively inexperienced, and thirteen or fourteen
years his junior. He became Henry's bosom friend and was con-
sulted in all affairs of state. It had been the hope of Theobald
that Becket's influence would be exercised to support the ex-
tensive privileges which the Church had wrested from Stephen.
But the chancellor, although preserving friendly relations with
his old patron, subordinated the interests of the Church to those
of his new master. Under his administration the Church was
severely taxed for the prosecution of Henry's foreign wars;
and the chancellor incurred the reproach " of plunging his sword
into the bowels of his mother." Like Wolsey he identified him-
self with the military aspirations of his sovereign. It was
Thomas who organized the Toulouse campaign of 1159; even
in the field he made himself conspicuous by commanding a
company of knights, directing the work of devastation, and
superintending the conduct of the war after the king had with-
drawn his presence from the camp. When there was war with
France upon the Norman border, the chancellor acted as Henry's
representative; and on one occasion engaged in single combat
and unhorsed a French knight of reputation. Later it fell to
his part to arrange the terms of peace with France. He dis-
charged the duties of an envoy with equal magnificence and
dexterity; the treaty of May 1160, which put an end to the war,
was of his making.
In 1162 he was transferred to a new sphere of action. Henry
bestowed on him the see of Canterbury, left vacant by the
death of Theobald. The appointment caused some murmurs;
since Becket, at the time when it was made, was still a simple
deacon. But it had been desired by Theobald as the one means
of averting an attack on clerical privileges which had been
impending almost since the accession of Henry II.; and the
bishops accepted it in silence. Henry on his side looked to find
in Becket the archbishop a coadjutor as loyal as Becket the
archdeacon; and anticipated that the Church would once more
be reduced to that state of dependence in which she had stood
during the latter years of Henry I. Becket, however, disappointed
all the conflicting expectations excited by his appointment.
He did not allow himself to be made the king's tool; nor on the
other hand did he attempt to protect the Church by humouring
the king in ordinary matters. He devoted himself to ascetic
practices, confined himself to the society of churchmen, and
resigned the chancellorship in spite of a papal dispensation
(procured by the king) which authorized him to hold that
office concurrently with the primacy. By nature a violent par-
tisan, the archbishop now showed himself the uncompromising
champion of his order and his see. Hence he was on the worst
of terms with the king before a year had elapsed. They came
into open conflict at the council of Woodstock (July 1163), when
Becket successfully opposed the king's proposal that a land-tax,
known as the sheriff's aid, which formed part of that official's
salary, should be henceforth paid into the Exchequer. But
there were more serious differences in the background. Becket
had not shrunk from excommunicating a tenant in chief who
had encroached upon the lands of Canterbury, and had protected
m. 20
against the royal courts a clerk named Philip de Brois who was
charged with an assault upon a royal officer. These disputes
involved questions of principle which had long occupied
Henry's attention, and Becket's defiant attitude was answered
by the famous Constitutions of Clarendon (q.v.), in which the
king defined, professedly according to ancient use and custom,
the relations of Church and State. Becket and the bishops were
required to give these constitutions their approval. Henry's
demands were more defensible in substance than might be
supposed from the manner in which he pressed them on the
bishops. On the most burning question, that of criminous
clerks, he offered a compromise. He was willing that the accused
should be tried in the courts Christian provided that the punish-
ment of the guilty were left to the lay power. Becket's opposi-
tion rested upon a casuistic interpretation of the canon law,
and an extravagant conception of the dignity attaching to the
priesthood; he showed, moreover, a disposition to quibble, to
equivocate, and to make promises which he had no intention
of fulfilling. His conduct may be excused on the ground that
the bishops were subjected to unwarrantable intimidation. But
when he renounced his promise to observe the constitutions his
conduct was reprobated by the other bishops, although approved
by the pope. It was fortunate for Becket's reputation that
Henry punished him for his change of front by a systematic
persecution in the forms of law. The archbishop was thus
enabled to invoke the pope's assistance, and to quit the country
with some show of dignity.
Becket fled to France in November 1164. He at once suc-
ceeded in obtaining from Alexander III. a formal condemnation
of the constitutions. But Alexander, a fugitive from Italy and
menaced by an alliance of the emperor with an antipope, was
indisposed to take extreme measures against Henry; and six
years elapsed before the king found himself definitely confronted
with the choice between an interdict and a surrender. For the
greater part of this time the archbishop resided at the Burgundian
monastery of Pontigny, constantly engaged in negotiations with
Alexander, whose hand he desired to force, and with Henry, from
whom he hoped to extract an unconditional submission. In
1 1 66 Becket received from the pope a commission to publish
what censures he thought fit; of which he at once availed himself
to excommunicate the king's principal counsellors. In 1169 he
took the same step against two of the royalist bishops. In
more sweeping measures, however, the pope refused to support
him, until in 1170 Henry infringed the rights of Canterbury by
causing Archbishop Roger of York to crown the young king.
In that year the threats of the pope forced Henry to a recon-
ciliation which took place later at Fr6teval on the 22nd of July.
It was a hollow truce, since the subject of the constitutions was
not mentioned; and Thomas returned to England with the
determination of riding roughshod over the king's supporters.
If he had not given a definite pledge to forgive the bishops who
had taken part in the young king's coronation, he had at least
raised expectations that he would overlook all past offences.
But the archbishop prevailed upon the pope to suspend the
bishops, and before his return published papal letters which,
in announcing these sentences, spoke of the constitutions as null
and void. It was only to be expected that such a step, which
was virtually a declaration of war against the king, should arouse
in him the strongest feelings of resentment. The archbishop's
murder, perpetrated within a month of his return to England
(zgth December 1170), was, however, the work of over zealous
courtiers and regretted by no one more than Henry.
Becket was canonized in 1172. Within a short time his shrine
at Canterbury became the resort of innumerable pilgrims.
Plenary indulgences were given for a visit to the shrine, and an
official register was kept to record the miracles wrought by the
relics of the saint. The shrine was magnificently adorned with
the gold and silver and jewels offered by the pious. It was
plundered by Henry VIII., to whom the memory of Becket was
specially obnoxious; but the reformers were powerless to
expunge the name of the saint from the Roman calendar, on
which it still remains. Even to those who are in sympathy with
6io
BECKFORD BECKWITH
the principles for which he fought, the posthumous reputation
of Becket must appear strangely exaggerated. It is evident
that in the course of his long struggle with the state he fell more
and more under the dominion of personal motives. At the last
he fought not so much for an idea as for the humiliation of an
opponent by whom he had been ungenerously treated. William
of Newburgh appears to express the verdict of the most impartial
contemporaries when he says that the bishop was zelo justitiae
fenidus, utrum autem plene secundum scientiam novit Deus:
" burning with zeal for justice, but whether altogether according
to wisdom God knows."
AUTHORITIES. Original: The correspondence of Becket and
most of the contemporary biographies are collected by J. C. Robert-
son in Materials for the History of Thomas Becket (7 vols., Rolls
Series, 1875-1885). See also the Vie de Saint Thomas, by Gamier
de Pont Sainte Maxence (ed. Hippeau, Paris, 1859). For the
chronology of the controversy see Eyton's Itinerary of Henry II.
Modern: Morris, Life and Martyrdom of St Thomas Becket
(London, 1885); Lhuillier, Saint Thomas de Cantorbery (2 vols.,
Paris, 1891-1892); J. C. Robertson, Becket (London, 1859); F. W.
Maitland, Roman Canon Law in the Church of England, c. tv. ; J. A.
Froude in his Short Studies, vol. iv., and Freeman in his Historical
Essays (1871), give noteworthy but conflicting appreciations.
(H. W. C. D.)
BECKFORD, WILLIAM (1760-1844), English author, son of
Alderman William Beckford (1700-1770), was born on the ist
of October 1760. His father was lord mayor of London in
1762 and again in 1769; he was a famous supporter of John
Wilkes, and on his monument in the Guildhall were afterwards
inscribed the words of his manly and outspoken reproof to
George III. on the occasion of the City of London address to
the king in 1770. At the age of eleven young Beckford inherited
a princely fortune from his father. He married Lady Margaret
Gordon in 1783, and spent his brief married life in Switzerland.
After his wife's death (1786) he travelled in Spain and Portugal,
and wrote his Portuguese Letters (published 1834, 1835), which
rank with his best work. He afterwards returned to England,
and after selling his old house, Fonthill Abbey, Wiltshire, began
to build a magnificent residence there, on which he expended in
about eighteen years the sum of 273,000. His eccentricities,
together with the strict seclusion in which he lived, gave rise
to scandal, probably unjustified. In 1822 he sold his house,
together with its splendid library and pictures, to John Farquhar,
and soon after one of the towers, 260 ft. high, fell, destroying
part of the villa in the ruins. Beckford erected another lofty
structure on Lansdowne Hill, near Bath, where he continued to
reside till his death in 1844. His first work, Biographical Memoirs
of Extraordinary Painters (1780) was a slight, sarcastic/ew d'esprit.
In 1782 he wrote in French his oriental romance, The History
of the Caliph Vathek, which appeared in English, translated by
the Rev. Samuel Henley, in 1786 and has taken its place as
one of the finest productions of luxuriant imagination.
Beckford's wealth and large expenditure, his position as a
collector and patron of letters (he bought Gibbon's library at
Lausanne), his literary industry, and his reputation as author
of Vathek, make him an interesting figure in literary history.
He had a seat in parliament from 1784 to 1793, and again from
1806 to 1820. He left two daughters, the eldest of whom was
married to the loth duke of Hamilton.
Cyrus Redding's Memoir (1859) is the only full biography, but
prolix; see Dr R. Garnett's introduction to his edition of Vathek
(I893).
BECKINGTON (or BEKYNTON), THOMAS (c. 1390-1465),
English statesman and prelate, was born at Beckington in
Somerset, and was educated at Winchester and New College,
Oxford. Having entered the church he held many ecclesiastical
appointments, and became dean of the Arches in 1423; then
devoting his time to secular affairs he was sent on an embassy to
Calais in 1439, and to John IV., count of Armagnac, in 1442.
At this time Beckington was acting as secretary to Henry VI.,
and soon after his return in 1443 he was appointed lord privy
seal and bishop of Bath and Wells. The bishop erected many
buildings in Wells, and died there on the i4th of January 1465.
The most important results of Beckington's missions to France
were one Latin journal, written by himself, referring to the
embassy to Calais; and another, written by one of his attendants,
relating to the journey to Armagnac.
Beckington's own journal is published in the Proceedings of the
Privy Council, vol. y., edited by N. H. Nicolas (1835) ; and the other
journal in the Official Correspondence of Thomas Bekynton, edited by
G. Williams for the Rolls Series (1872), which contains many inter-
esting letters. This latter journal has been translated into English
by N. H. Nicolas (1828). See G. G. Perry, " Bishop Beckington and
Henry VI.," in the English Historical Review (1894).
BECKMANN, JOHANN (1739-1811), German scientific author,
was born on the 4th of June 1739 at Hoya in Hanover, where his
father was postmaster and receiver of taxes. He was educated
at Stade and the university of Gottingen. The death of his
mother in 1762 having deprived him of his means of support,
he went in 1763 on the invitation of the pastor of the Lutheran
community, Anton Friedrich Biisching, the founder of the
modern historic statistical method of geography, to teach natural
history in the Lutheran academy, St Petersburg. This office he
relinquished in 1765, and travelled in Denmark and Sweden,
where he studied the methods of working the mines, and made
the acquaintance of Linnaeus at Upsala. In 1766 he was
appointed extraordinary professor of philosophy at Gottingen.
There he lectured on political and domestic economy with such
success that in 1770 he was appointed ordinary professor. He
was in the habit of taking his students into the workshops,
that they might acquire a practical as well as a theoretical
knowledge of different processes and handicrafts. While thus
engaged he determined to trace the history and describe the
existing condition of each of the arts and sciences on which he
was lecturing, being perhaps incited by the Bibliothecae of
Albrecht von Haller. But even Beckmann's industry and
ardour were unable to overtake the amount of study necessary
for this task. He therefore confined his attention to several
practical arts and trades; and to these labours we owe his
Beitrage zur Geschichte der Erfindungen (1780-1805), translated
into English as the History of Inventions a. work hi which he
relates the origin, history and recent condition of the various
machines, utensils, &c., employed in trade and for domestic
purposes. This work entitles Beckmann to be regarded as the
founder of scientific technology, a term which he was the first
to use in 1772. In 1772 Beckmann was elected a member of the
Royal Society of Gottingen, and he contributed valuable scientific
dissertations to its proceedings until 1783, when he withdrew
from all further share in its work. He died on the 3rd of February
1811. Other important works of Beckmann are Enlwurf einer
allgemeinen Technologic (1806); Anleitung zur Handelswissen-
schaft (1789); Vorbereitung zur Warenkunde (1795-1800);
Beitrage zur Okonomie, Technologic, Polizei- und Kameral-
wissenschaft (1777-1791).
BECKWITH, JAMES CARROLL (1852- ), American por-
trait-painter, was born at Hannibal, Missouri, on the 23rd of
September 1852. He studied in the National Academy of
Design, New York City, of which he afterwards became a member,
and in Paris (1873-1878) under Carolus Duran. Returning to the
United States in 1878, he gradually became a prominent figure
in American art. He took an active part in the formation of
the Fine Arts Society, and was president of the National Free
Art League, which attempted to secure the repeal of the American
duty on works of art. Among his portraits are those of W. M.
Chase (1882), of Miss Jordan (1883), of Mark Twain, T. A.
Janvier, General Schofield and William Walton. He decorated
one of the domes of the Manufactures Building at the Columbian
Exposition, Chicago, 1893.
BECKWITH, SIR THOMAS SYDNEY (1772-1831), British
general, was the son of Major-General John Beckwith, who was
colonel of the 2oth regiment (Lancashire Fusiliers) in the charge
at Minden. In 1791 he entered the 7ist regiment (then com-
manded by Colonel David Baird), in which he served in India
and elsewhere until 1800, when he obtained a company in Colonel
Coote Manningham's experimental regiment of riflemen, shortly
afterwards numbered as the 95th Rifles and now called the Rifle
Brigade. In 1802 he was promoted major, and in the following
BECKX BECQUEREL
611
year lieutenant-colonel. Beckwith was one of the favourite
officers of Sir John Moore in the famous camp of Shorncliffe, and
aided that general in the training of the troops which afterwards
became the Light Division. In 1806 he served in the expedition
to Hanover, and in 1807 in that which captured Copenhagen. In
1806 the Rifles were present at Vimeira, and in the campaign of
Sir John Moore they bore the brunt of the rearguard fighting.
Beckwith took part in the great march of Craufurd to the field of
Talavera, in the advanced guard fights on the Coa in 1810 and
in the campaign in Portugal. On the formation of the Light
Division he was given a brigade command in it. After the
brilliant action of Sabugal, Beckwith had to retire for a time
from active service, but the Rifles and the brigade he had
trained and commanded added to their fame on every subsequent
battlefield. In 1812 he went to Canada as assistant quarter-
master-general, and he took part in the war against the United
States. In 1814 he became major-general, and in 1815 was
created K.C.B. In 1827 he was made colonel commandant of
the Rifle Brigade. He went to India as commander-in-chief
at Bombay in 1829, and was promoted lieutenant-general in
the following year. He died on the isth of January 1831 at
Mahableshwar.
His elder brother, Sir GEORGE BECKWITH (1753-1823), dis-
tinguished himself as a regimental officer in the American War
of Independence, and served subsequently in high administrative
posts and in numerous successful military operations in the
West Indies during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic
wars. He was made a K..B. for his capture of Martinique in
1809, and attained the full rank of general in 1814. Sir George
Beckwith commanded the forces in Ireland, 1816-1820. He
died in London on the 2oth of March 1823.
Their nephew, Major-General JOHN CHARLES BECKWITH
(1789-1862), joined the soth regiment in 1803, exchanging in
1804 into the 95th Rifles, with which regiment he served in
the Peninsular campaigns of 1808-10. He was subsequently
employed on the staff of the Light Division, and he was re-
peatedly mentioned in despatches, becoming in 1814 a brevet-
major, and after the battle of Waterloo (in which he lost a leg)
lieutenant-colonel and C.B. In 1820 he left active service.
Seven years later an accident drew his attention to the Waldenses,
whose past history and present condition influenced him so
strongly that he settled in the valleys of Piedmont. The rest
of his life was spent in the self-imposed task of educating
the Waldenses, for whom he established and maintained a large
number of schools, and in reviving the earlier faith of the people.
In 1848 King Charles Albert made him a knight of the order of
St Maurice and St Lazarus. He was promoted colonel in the
British army in 1837 and major-general in 1846. He died'on
the igth of July 1862 at La Torre, Piedmont.
BECKX, PIERRE JEAN (1795-1887), general of the Society
of Jesus, was born at Sichem in Belgium on the 8th of February
1795, and entered the novitiate of the order at Hildesheim in
1819. His first important post was as procurator for the province
of Austria, 1847; next year he became rector of the Jesuit
college at Louvain, and, after serving as secretary to the pro-
vincials of Belgium and Austria, was elected head of the order
in 1853. His tenure of office was marked by an increased zeal
for missions in Protestant lands, and by the removal of the
society's headquarters from Rome to Fiesole near Florence in
1870. His chief literary work was the often-translated Month oj
Mary (Vienna, 1843). He retired in September 1883, being
succeeded by Anthony M. Anderledy, a Swiss, who had seen
service in the United States. He died at Rome on the 4th of
March 1887.
BECQUE, HENRY FRANCOIS (1837-1899), French dramatist,
was born on the gth of April 1837 in Paris. He wrote the book
of an opera Sardanapale in imitation of Lord Byron for the
music of M. Victorin Joncieres in 1867, but his first important
work, Michel Pauper, appeared in 1870. The importance of this
sombre drama was first realized when it was revived at the
Od6on in 1886. Les Corbeaux (1882) established Becque's posi-
tion as an innovator, and in 1885 he produced his most successful
play, La Parisienne. Becque produced little during the last
years of his life, but his disciples carried on the tradition he had
created. He died in May 1899.
See his Qutrclles litUraires (1890), and Souvenirs d'un aulrur
dramatique (1895), consisting chiefly of reprinted article* in which he
1870); L'Enlevement (Vaudeville. l8th of Nov. 1871); La Nmctle
(Gymnase, isth of Nov. 1878) ; Les Honnetes Femmes (Gymnase, lit
of Jan. 1880) ; Lei Corbeaux (Comedie Francaiae, I4jth of Sept. 1882) ;
La Parisienne (Theatre de la Renaissance, 7th of Feb. 1885).
BECQUER, GUSTAVO ADOLFO (1836-1870), Spanish poet
and romance-writer, was born at Seville on the lyth of February
1836. Left an orphan at an early age, he was educated by his
godmother, refused to adopt any profession, and drifted to
Madrid, where he obtained a small post in the civil service.
He was dismissed for carelessness, became an incorrigible
Bohemian, and earned a precarious living by translating foreign
novels; he died in great poverty at Madrid on the 22nd of
December 1870. His works were published posthumously in
1873. In such prose tales as El Rayo de Luna and La Mujer de
piedra, B6cquer is manifestly influenced by Hoffmann, and as a
poet he has analogies with Heine. He dwells in a fairyland of
his own, crooning a weird elfin music which has no parallel in
Spanish; his work is unfinished and unequal, but it is singularly
free from the rhetoric characteristic of his native Andalusia,
and its lyrical ardour is of a beautiful sweetness and sincerity.
BECQUEREL, the name of a French family, several members
of which have been distinguished in chemical and physical
research.
ANTOINE CESAR BECQUEREL (i 788-1878), was bom at Chatillon
sur Loing on the 8th of March 1788. After passing through the
ficole Polytechnique he became ingenieur-qfficier in 1808, and
saw active service with the imperial troops in Spain from 1810
to 1812, and again in France in 1814. He then resigned from
the army and devoted the rest of his life to scientific investigation.
His earliest work was mineralogical in character, but he soon
turned his attention to the study of electricity and especially
of electrochemistry. In 1837 he received the Copley medal
from the Royal Society " for his various memoirs on electricity,
and particularly for those on the production of metallic sulphurets
and sulphur by the long-continued action of electricity of very-
low tension," which it was hoped would lead to increased know-
ledge of the " recomposition of crystallized bodies, and the
processes which may have been employed by nature in the
production of such bodies hi the mineral kingdom." In bio-
logical chemistry he worked at the problems of animal heat and
at the phenomena accompanying the growth of plants, and he
also devoted much time to meteorological questions and obser-
vations. He was a prolific writer, his books including Traitt
d'electricitt et du magnetisme (1834-1840), Traitt de physique dam
ses rapports avec la chimie (1842), fitments de I'ttectro-chimit
(1843), Traitl complet du magntlisme (1845), f-ttmenls de physique
terrestre et de meteorologie (1847), and Des climats et de I'influence
qu'exercent les sols boisfs et dtboists (1853). He died on the i8th
of January 1878 in Paris, where from 1837 he had been professor
of physics at the Mus6e d'Histoire Naturelle.
His son, ALEXANDRE EDMOND BECQUEREL (1820-1891), was
bom in Paris on the 24th of March 1820, and was in turn his
pupil, assistant and successor at the Muse d'Histoire Naturelle;
he was also appointed professor at the short-lived Agronomic
Institute at Versailles in 1849, and in 1853 received the chair
of physics at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers. Edmond
Becquerel was associated with his father in much of his work,
but he himself paid special attention to the study of light,
investigating the photochemical effects and spectroscopic
characters of solar radiation and the electric light, and the
phenomena of phosphorescence, particularly as displayed by
the sulphides and by compounds of uranium. It was in con-
nexion with these latter inquiries that he devised his phosphoro-
scope, an apparatus which enabled the interval between exposure
to the source of light and observation of the resulting effects to
6l2
BED
be varied at will and accurately measured. He published in
1867-1868 a treatise in two volumes on La Lumiere, scs causes
et ses e/ets. He also investigated the diamagnetic and para-
magnetic properties of substances; and was keenly interested
in the phenomena of electrochemical decomposition, accumu-
lating much evidence in favour of Faraday's law and proposing
a modified statement of it which was intended to cover certain
apparent exceptions. He died in Paris on the i ith of May 1891.
ANTOINE HENRI BECQUEREL (1852-1908), son of the last-
named, who succeeded to his chair at the Musee d'Histoire
Naturelle in 1892, was born in Paris on the isth of December
1852, studied at the Ecole Poly technique, where he was appointed
a professor in 1895, and in 1875 entered the department des
ponts et chaussees, of which in 1894 he became ingenieur en chef.
He was distinguished as the discoverer of radioactivity, having
found in 1896 that uranium at ordinary temperatures emits an
invisible radiation which in many respects resembles Rontgen
rays, and can affect a photographic plate after passing through
thin plates of metal. For his researches in this department he
was in 1003 awarded a Nobel prize jointly with Pierre Curie.
He also engaged in work on magnetism, the polarization of light,
phosphorescence and the absorption of light in crystals. He
died at Croisic in Brittany on the 25th of August 1908.
BED (a common Teutonic word, cf. German Belt, probably
connected with the Indo-European root bhodh, seen in the
Lat. fodere, to dig; so " a dug-out place " for safe resting, or
in the same sense as a garden " bed "), a general term for a
resting or sleeping place for men and animals, and in particular
for the article of household furniture for that object, and so used
by analogy in other senses, involving a supporting surface or
layer. The accompaniments of a domestic bed (bedding, cover-
lets, &c.) have naturally varied considerably in different times,
and its form and decoration and social associations have con-
siderable historical interest. The Egyptians had high bedsteads
which were ascended by steps, with bolsters or pillows, and
curtains to hang round. Often there was a head-rest as well,
semi-cylindrical and made of stone, wood or metal. Assyrians,
Medes and Persians had beds of a similar kind, and frequently
decorated their furniture with inlays or appliquSs of metal,
mother-of-pearl and ivory. The oldest account of a bedstead
is probably that of Ulysses which Homer describes him as making
in his own house, but he also mentions the inlaying of the wood-
work of beds with gold, silver and ivory. The Greek bed had
a wooden frame, with a board at the head and bands of hide
laced across, upon which skins were placed. At a later period
the bedstead was often veneered with expensive woods; some-
times it was of solid.ivory veneered with tortoise-shell and with
silver feet; often it was of bronze. The pillows and coverings
also became more costly and beautiful; the most celebrated
places for their manufacture were Miletus, Corinth and Carthage.
Folding beds, too, appear in the vase paintings. The Roman
mattresses were stuffed with reeds, hay, wool or feathers; the
last was used towards the end of the Republic, when custom
demanded luxury. Small cushions were placed at the head
and sometimes at the back. The bedsteads were high and could
only be ascended by the help of steps. They were often arranged
for two persons, and had a board or railing at the back as well
as the raised portion at the head. The counterpanes were some-
times very costly, generally purple embroidered with figures
in gold; and rich hangings fell to the ground masking the front.
The bedsteads themselves were often of bronze inlaid with silver,
and Elagabalus, like some modern Indian princes, had one of
solid silver. In the walls of some of the houses at Pompeii
bed niches are found which were probably closed by curtains
or sliding partitions. The marriage bed, lectus genialis, was much
decorated, and was placed in the atrium opposite the door. A
low pallet-bed used for sick persons was known as scimpodium.
Other forms of couch were called lectus, but were not beds in
the modern sense of the word except the lectus funebris, on which
the body of a dead person lay in state for seven days, clad in a
toga and rich garments, and surrounded by flowers and foliage.
This bed rested on ivory legs, over which purple blankets
embroidered with gold were spread, and was placed in the atrium
with the foot to the door and with a pan of incense by its side.
The ancient Germans lay on the floor on beds of leaves covered
with skins, or in a kind of shallow chest filled with leaves and
moss. In the early middle ages they laid carpets on the floor
or on a bench against the wall, placed upon them mattresses
stuffed with feathers, wool or hair, and used skins as a covering.
They appear to have generally lain naked in bed, wrapping them-
selves in the large linen sheets which were stretched over the
cushions. In the I3th century luxury increased, and bedsteads
were made of wood much decorated with inlaid, carved and
painted ornament. They also used folding beds, which served
as couches by day and had cushions covered with silk laid upon
leather. At night a linen sheet was spread and pillows placed,
while silk-covered skins served as coverlets. Curtains were hung
from the ceiling or from an iron arm projecting from the wall.
The Carolingian MSS. show metal bedsteads much higher at
the head than at the feet, and this shape continued in use till
the I3th century in France, many cushions being added to raise
the body to a sloping position. In the 12th-century MSS. the
bedsteads appear much richer, with inlays, carving and painting,
and with embroidered coverlets and mattresses in harmony.
Curtains were hung above the bed, and a small hanging lamp
is often shown. In the I4th century the woodwork became of
less importance, being generally entirely covered by hangings
of rich materials. Silk, velvet and even cloth of gold were much
used. Inventories from the beginning of the I4th century give
details of these hangings lined with fur and richly embroidered.
Then it was that the tester bed made its first appearance, the
tester being slung from the ceiling or fastened to the walls,
a form which developed later into a room within a room, shut
in by double curtains, sometimes even so as to exclude all
draughts. The space between bed and wall was called the
ruelle, and very intimate friends were received there. In the
1 5th century beds became very large, reaching to 7 or 8 ft.
by 6 or 7 ft. Viollet-le-Duc says that the mattresses were filled
with pea-shucks or straw neither wool nor horsehair is
mentioned but feathers also were used. At this time great
personages were in the habit of carrying most of their property
about with them, including beds and bed-hangings, and for this
reason the bedsteads were for the most part mere frameworks
to be covered up; but about the beginning of the i6th century
bedsteads were made lighter and more decorative, since the
lords remained in the same place for longer periods. In the
museum at Nancy is a fine bedstead of this period which belonged
to Antoihe de Lorraine. It has a carved head and foot as well
as the uprights which support the tester. Another is in the
MJsee Cluny ascribed to Pierre de Gondi, very architectural in
design, with a bracketed cornice, and turned and carved posts;
at the head figures of warriors watch the sleeper. Louis XIV.
had an enormous number of. sumptuous 'beds, as many as 413
being described in the inventories of his palaces. Some of them
had embroideries enriched with pearls, and figures on a silver
or golden ground. The carving was the work of Proux or
Caffieri, and the gilding by La Baronniere. The great bed at
Versailles had crimson velvet curtains on which " The Triumph
of Venus " was embroidered. So much gold was used that
the velvet scarcely showed. Under the influence of Madame
de Maintenon " The Sacrifice of Abraham," which is now on
the tester, replaced "The Triumph of Venus." In the I7th
century, which has been called " the century of magnificent
beds," the style d la duchesse, with tester and curtains only at
the head, replaced the more enclosed beds in France, though
they lasted much longer, in England. In the i8th century
feather pillows were first used as coverings in Germany, which
in the fashions of the bed and the curious etiquette connected
with the bedchamber followed France for the most part. The
beds were a la duchesse, but in France itself there was great
variety both of name and shape the lit d alcove, lit d'ange,
which had no columns, but a suspended tester with curtains
drawn back, lit a I'Anglaise, which looked like a high sofa by
day, lit en baldaquin, with the tester fixed against the wall,
BED BEDDGELERT
613
lit d couronne with a tester shaped like a crown, a style which
appeared under Louis XVI., and was fashionable under the
Restoration and Louis Philippe, and lit a I'imptriale, which had
a curved tester, are a few of their varieties. The lit en baldaquin
of Napoleon I. is still at Fontainebleau, and the Garde Meuble
contains several richly carved beds of a more modern date.
The custom of the " bed of justice " upon which the king of
France reclined when he was present in parliament, the princes
being seated, the great officials standing, and the lesser officials
kneeling, was held to denote the royal power even more than the
throne. Louis XI. is credited with its first use, and the custom
lasted till the end of the monarchy. From the habit of using
this bed to hear petitions, &c., came the usage of the grand lit,
which was provided wherever the king stayed, called also lit de
parement or lit de parade, rather later. Upon this bed the dead
king lay in state. The beds of the king and queen were saluted
by the courtiers as if they were altars, and none approached them
even when there was no railing to prevent it. These railings
were apparently placed for other than ceremonial reasons
originally, and in the accounts of several castles in the isth
century mention is made of a railing to keep dogs from the bed.
In the chambre de parade, where the ceremonial bed was placed,
certain persons, such as ambassadors or great lords, whom it
was desired to honour, were received in a more intimate fashion
than the crowd of courtiers. The petit lever was held in the
bedroom itself, the grand lever in the chambre de parade. At
Versailles women received their friends in their beds, both before
and after childbirth, during periods of mourning, and even
directly after marriage in fact in any circumstances which
were thought deserving of congratulation or condolence. During
the 1 7th century this curious custom became general, perhaps to
avoid the tiresome details of etiquette. Portable beds were used
in high society in France till the end of the ancien regime. The
earliest of which mention has been found belonged to Charles
the Bold (see Memoirs of Philippe de Comines). They had
curtains over a light framework, and were in their way as fine
as the stationary beds. Iron beds appear in the i8th century;
the advertisements recommend them as free from the insects
which sometimes infested wooden bedsteads, but one is mentioned
in the inventory of the furniture of the castle of Nerac in 1569,
" un lit de fer et de cuivre, avec quatre petites colonnes de laiton,
ensemble quatre satyres de laiton, quatre petits vases de laiton
pour mettre sur les colonnes; dedans le dit lit il y a la figure
d'Olopherne ensemble de Judith, qui sont d'albatre." In
Scotland, Brittany and Holland the closed bed with sliding or
folding shutters has persisted till our own day, and in England
where beds were commonly quite simple in form the four-
poster, with tester and curtains all round, was the usual citizen's
bed till the middle of the ipth century. Many fine examples
exist of 17th-century carved oak bedsteads, some of which have
found their way into museums. The later forms, in which
mahogany was usually the wood employed, are much less archi-
tectural in design. Some exceedingly elegant mahogany bed-
steads were designed by Chippendale, Hepplewhite and Sheraton,
and there are signs that English taste is returning to the wooden
bedstead in a lighter and less monumental form. (J. P.-B.)
BED, in geology, a term for certain kinds of rock usually
found to be arranged in more or less distinct layers; these are
the beds of rock or strata. Normally, the bedding of rocks is
horizontal or very nearly so; when the upper and lower surfaces
of a bed are parallel, the bedding is said to be regular; if it is
thickest at one point and thins away thence in every direction,
the bedding is lenticular. Beds may be thick (50 ft. or more)
or so thin as to be like sheets of paper, e.g. paper shales, such
thin beds being often termed layers or laminae; intermediate
regular varieties may be called flags, flagstones or tilestones.
In fine-grained rocks the bedding is usually thinner and more
regular than in coarser rocks, such as sandstones and grits.
Bedding is confined to rocks which have been formed under
water or by the agency of wind; these are the " stratified "
rocks.
The deposition of rock material by moving water is not as
a rule uniform, slight changes in the velocity produce an im-
mediate change in the size of the particles deposited upon a
given area; thus a coarse sand layer may be succeeded by a finer
sand or a mud, or two sandy layers may be separated by a thin
layer of muddy shale. Bedding is most often induced by a change
in the nature of the contiguous strata; thus a sandstone is
followed by a shale or vice versa changes which may be due
to the varying volume or velocity of a current. Or the nature
of the deposit may be influenced by chemical actions, whereby
we get beds of rock-salt or gypsum between beds of marl. Or
again, organic activities may influence the deposit, beds of coal
may succeed layers of shale, iron-stone may lie between lime-
stones or clays, a layer of large fossils or of flints may determine
a bedding plane in massive limestones. Flaky minerals like
mica frequently assist in the formation of bedding planes;
and the pressure of superincumbent strata upon earlier formed
deposits has no doubt often produced a tendency in the par-
ticles to arrange themselves normal to the direction of pressure,
thus causing the rock to split more readily along the same
direction.
Where rapidly-moving currents of water (or air) are trans-
porting or depositing sand, &c., the bedding is generally not
horizontal, but inclined more or less steeply; this brings about
the formation of what is variously called "cross-bedding,"
" diagonal bedding", " current bedding " or improperly " false-
bedding." Igneous materials, when deposited through the
agency of water or air, exhibit bedding, but no true stratifica-
tion is seen in igneous rocks that have solidified after cooling,
although in granites and similar rocks the process of weather-
ing frequently produces an appearance resembling this structure.
Miners not infrequently describe a bed of rock as a " vein," if
it is one that has some economic value, e.g. a " vein of coal
or ironstone." (J. A. H.)
BEDARESI, YEDAIAH (1270-1340), Jewish poet, physician
and philosopher of Provence. His most successful work was
an ethical treatise, Behinath 'Olam (Examination of the World),
a didactic poem in thirty-seven short sections. The work is
still very popular. It was translated into English by Tobias
Goodman.
B&DARIEUX, a town of southern France, in the department
of Herault, on the Orb, 27 m. N.N.W. of Beziers by rail. Pp.
(1906) 5594. The town has a 16th-century church, a board of
trade arbitration, a chamber of arts and manufactures, a com-
munal college and a school of drawing. Bedarieux was at one
time a notable manufacturing centre. Its cloth-weaving industry,
carried on under a special royal privilege from the end of the 1 7th
century to the Revolution, employed in 1789 as many as 5000
workmen, while some thousand more were occupied in wool
and cotton spinning, &c. In spite of the introduction of modern
machinery from England, the industries of the place declined,
mainly 'owing to the loss of the trade with the Levant; but of
late years they have somewhat revived, owing partly to the
opening up of coal mines in the neighbourhood. Besides cloth
factories and wool-spinning mills, there are now numerous
tanneries and leather-dressing works. There is some trade in
timber, wool and agricultural produce.
BEDDOELERT (" Gelert's grave "), a village in Carnarvon-
shire, North Wales, at the foot of Snowdon. The tradition of
Gelert, Llewelyn's hound, being buried there is old in Wales;
and common to it and India is the legend of a dog (or ichneumon)
saving a child from a beast of prey (or reptile), and being killed
by the child's father under the delusion that the animal had
slain the infant. The English poet, W. R. Spencer, has versified
the tale of Llewelyn, king of Wales, leaving Gelert and the baby
prince at home, returning to find Gelert stained with the blood
of a wolf, and killing the hound because he thought his child was
slain. Sir W. Jones, the Welsh philologist and linguist, gives
the Indian equivalent (Lord Teignmouth's Life of Jones, ed.
Rev. S. C. Wilkes, editor's supplement). A Brahmin, leaving
home, left his daughter in charge of an ichneumon, which he had
long cherished. A black snake came up and was killed by the
ichneumon, mistakenly killed, in its turn, by the Brahmin on
614
BEDDOES, T. BEDDOES, T. L.
his coming back. Another version is the medieval romance in
The Seven Wise Masters of Rome. In the edition printed by
Wynkyn de Worde it is told by " the first master " a knight
had one son, a greyhound and a falcon; the knight went to
a tourney, a snake attacked the son, the falcon roused the hound,
which killed the serpent, lay down by the cradle, and was killed
by the knight, who discovered his error, like Llewelyn, and
similarly repented (Villon Society, British Museum reprint, by
Gomme and Wheatley).
On the west of Beddgelert is Moel Hebog (Bare-hill of the
falcon), a hiding-place of Owen Glendower. Here, in 1784, was
found a brass Roman shield. Near is the famous Aberglaslyn
Pass, dividing Carnarvon and Merioneth. In the centre is
Cadair Rhys Goch o'r Eryri, a rock named as the chair of Rhys
Goch, a bard contemporary with Glendower (died traditionally,
1420). Not far hence passed the Roman road from Uriconium
to Segontium (see CARNARVON).
BEDDOES, THOMAS (1760-1808), English physician and
scientific writer, was born at Shiffnall in Shropshire on the isth
of April 1760. After being educated at Bridgnorth grammar
school and at Pembroke College, Oxford, he studied medicine in
London under John Sheldon (1752-1808). In 1784 he published
a translation of L. Spallanzani's Dissertations on Natural History,
and in 1785 produced a translation, with original notes, of
T. O. Bergman's Essays on Elective Attractions. He took his
degree of doctor of medicine at Oxford in 1786, and, after visiting
Paris, where he became acquainted with Lavoisier, was appointed
reader in chemistry at Oxford University in 1 788. His lectures
attracted large and appreciative audiences; but his sympathy
with the French Revolution exciting a clamour against him, he
resigned his readership in 1792. In the following year he pub-
lished Observations on the Nature of Demonstrative Evidence, and
the History of Isaac Jenkins, a story which powerfully exhibits
the evils of drunkenness, and of which 40,000 copies are reported
to have been sold. About the same time he began to work at
his project for the establishment of a " Pneumatic Institution "
for treating disease by the inhalation of different gases. In this
he was assisted by Richard Lovell Edgeworth, whose daughter,
Anna, became his wife in 1794. In 1798 the institution was
established at Clifton, its first superintendent being Humphry
Davy, who investigated the properties of nitrous oxide in its
laboratory. The original aim of the institution was gradually
abandoned; it became an ordinary sick-hospital, and was
relinquished by its projector in the year before his death, which
occurred on the 24th of December 1808. Beddoes was a man of
great powers and wide acquirements, which he directed to noble
and philanthropic purposes. He strove to effect social good by
popularizing medical knowledge, a work for which his vivid
imagination and glowing eloquence eminently fitted him. Be-
sides the writings mentioned above, he was the author of
Political Pamphlets (1795-1797), a popular Essay on Consumption
(1799), which won the admiration of Kant, an Essay on Fever
(1807), and Hygeia, or Essays Moral and Medical (1807). He also
edited John Brown's Elements of Medicine (1795), and Contribu-
tions to Physical and Medical Knowledge, principally from the
West of England (1799).
A life of Beddoes by Dr John E. Stock was published in 1810.
BEDDOES, THOMAS LOVELL (1803-1849), English dramatist
and poet, son of the physician, Thomas Beddoes, was born at
Clifton on the 2oth of July 1803. His mother was a sister of
Maria Edgeworth, the novelist. He was sent to Bath grammar
school and then to the Charterhouse. At school he wrote a good
deal of verse and a novel in imitation of Fielding. In 1820 he
was entered at Pembroke College, Oxford, and in his first year
published The Improvisatore, afterwards carefully suppressed,
and in 1822 The Bride's Tragedy, which showed him as the
disciple of the later Elizabethan and Jacobean dramatists. The
play found a small circle of admirers, and procured for Beddoes
the friendship of Bryan Waller Procter (Barry Cornwall).
Beddoes retired to Southampton to read for his degree, and
there Procter introduced him to a young lawyer, Thomas Forbes
Kelsall, with whom he became very intimate, and who became
his biographer and editor. At this time he composed the
dramatic fragments of The Second Brother and Torrismond.
Unfortunately he lacked the power of constructing a plot, and
seemed to suffer from a constitutional inability to finish any-
thing. Beddoes was one of the first outside the limited circle
of Shelley's own friends to recognize Shelley's genius, and he
was certainly one of the earliest imitators of his lyrical method.
In the summer of 1824 he was summoned to Florence by the
illness of his mother, but she died before he arrived. He remained
some time in Italy, and met Mrs Shelley and Walter Savage
Landor before he returned to England. In 1825 he took his
degree at Oxford, and in that year he began what he calls
(Letters, p. 68) " a very Gothic styled tragedy " with " a jewel
of a name." This work was completed in 1829 as the fantastic
and incoherent drama, Death's Jest Book or The Fool's Tragedy;
but he continued to revise it until his death, and it was only
published posthumously. On leaving Oxford he decided to
study anatomy and physiology, not, however, without some hope
that his studies might, by increasing his knowledge of the human
mechanism, further his efforts as a dramatist. In the autumn
of 1825 he entered on his studies at Gottingen, where he remained
for four years. In 1829 he removed to Wiirzburg, and in 1832
obtained his doctorate in medicine, but his intimate association
with democratic and republican leaders in Germany and Switzer-
land forced him to leave Bavaria without receiving his diploma.
He settled in Zurich, where he practised for some time as a
physician, and was even elected to be professor of comparative
anatomy at the university, but the authorities refused to ratify
his appointment because of his revolutionary views. He fre-
quently contributed political poems and articles to German and
Swiss papers, but none of his German work has been identified.
The years at Zurich seem to have been the happiest of his life,
but in 1839 the anti-liberal riots in the town rendered it unsafe
for him, and early in the next year he had to escape secretly.
From this time he had no settled home, though he stored his
books at Baden in Aargau. His long residence in Germany was
only broken by visits to England in 1828 to take his master of
arts degree, in 1835, in 1842 and for some months in 1846. He
had adopted German thought and manners to such an extent
that he hardly felt at home in England; and his study of the
German language, which he had begun in 1825, had almost
weaned him from his mother-tongue; he was, as he says in a
letter, " a non-conductor of friendship "; and it is not surprising
that his old friends found him much changed and eccentric. In
1847 he returned to Frankfort, where he lived with a baker
called Degen, to whom he became much attached, and whom
he persuaded to become an actor. He took Degen with him to
Zurich, where he chartered the theatre for one night to give his
friend a chance of playing Hotspur. The two separated at
Basel, and in a fit of dejection (May 1848) Beddoes tried to bleed
himself to death. He was taken to the hospital, and wrote to
his friends in England that he had had a fall from horseback.
His leg was amputated, and he was in a fair way to recovery
when, on the first day he was allowed to leave the hospital, he
took curare, from the effects of which he died on the 26th of
January 1849. His MSS. he left in the charge of his friend
Kelsall.
In one of his letters to Kelsall Beddoes wrote: " I am
convinced the man who is to awaken the drama must be a bold,
trampling fellow no creeper into worm-holes no reviser even
however good. These reanimations are vampire cold. Such
ghosts as Marloe, Webster, &c., are better dramatists, better
poets, I dare say, than any contemporaries of ours but they
are ghosts the worm is in their pages " (Letters, p. 50). In
spite of this wise judgment, Beddoes was himself a " creeper into
worm-holes," a close imitator of Marston and of Cyril Tourneur,
especially in their familiar handling of the phenomena of death,
and in the remoteness from ordinary life of the passions por-
trayed. In his blank verse he caught to a certain degree the
manner of his Jacobean models, and his verse abounds in beauti-
ful imagery, but his Death's Jest Book is only finished in the
sense of having five acts completed; it remains a bizarre
BEDE
615
production which appeals to few minds, and to them rather for
the occasional excellence of the poetry than as an entire com-
position. His lyrics show the influence of Shelley as well as the
study of 17th-century models, but they are by no means mere
imitations, and some of them, like the " Dirge for Wolfram "
(" If thou wilt ease thy heart "), and " Dream Pedlary " (" If
there were dreams to sell "), are among the most exquisite of
19th-century lyrics.
Kelsall published Beddoes' great work, Death's Jest Book: or, The
Fool's Tragedy, in 1850. The drama is based on the story that a
certain Duke Boleslaus of Miinsterberg was stabbed by his court-
fool, the " Isbrand " of the play (see C. F. Floegel, Geschichte der
Hpfnarren, Leipzig, 1789, pp. 297 et seq.). He followed this in 1851
with Poems of the late Thomas Lovell Beddoes, to which a memoir was
prefixed. The two volumes were printed together (1851) with the
title of Poems, Posthumous and Collected. All these volumes are
very rare. Kelsall bequeathed the Beddoes MSS. to Robert Brown-
ing, with a note stating the real history of Beddoes' illness and death,
which was kept back out of consideration for his relatives. Browning
is reported to have said that if he were ever Professor of Poetry his
first lecture would be on Beddoes, " a forgotten Oxford poet." Mr
Edmund Gosse obtained permission to use the documents from
Browning, and edited a fuller selection of the Poetical Works (2 vols.,
1890) for the " Temple Library," supplying a full account of his life.
He also edited the Letters of Thomas Lovell Beddoes (1894), containing
a selection from his correspondence, which is full of gaiety and
contains much amusing literary criticism. See also the edition of
Beddoes by Ramsay Colles in the " Muses' Library " (1906).
BEDE, BEDA, or B.EDA (672 or 673-735), English historian
and theologian. Of Ba:da, commonly called " the Venerable
Bede," almost all that we know is contained in the short auto-
biographical notice which he has appended to his Ecclesiastical
History: " Thus much concerning the ecclesiastical history of
Britain, and especially of the race of the English, I, Bsda, a
servant of Christ and priest of the monastery of the blessed
apostles St Peter and St Paul, which is at Wearmouth and at
Jarrow, have with the Lord's help composed, so far as I could
gather it, either from ancient documents, or from the tradition
of the elders, or from my own knowledge. I was born in the
territory of the said monastery, and at the age of seven I was,
by the care of my relations, given to the reverend Abbot Benedict
(Biscop), and afterwards to Ceolfrid, to be educated. From
that time I have spent the whole of my life within that monastery
devoting all my pains to the study of the scriptures; and amid
the observance of monastic discipline, and the daily charge of
singing in the church, it has ever been my delight to learn or
teach or write. In my nineteenth year I was admitted to the
diaconate, in my thirtieth to the priesthood, both by the hands
of the most reverend Bishop John (of Hexham), and at the
bidding of Abbot Ceolfrid. From the time of my admission to
the priesthood to my (present) fifty-ninth year, I have en-
deavoured, for my own use and that of my brethren, to make
brief notes upon the Holy Scripture, either out of the works of
the venerable fathers, or in conformity with their meaning and
interpretation." Then follows a list of his works, so far as, at
that date, they had been composed. As the Ecclesiastical
History was written in 731, we obtain the following dates for
the principal events in Bede's uneventful life: birth, 672-673;
entrance into the monastery, 679-680; ordination as deacon,
691-692; as priest, 702-703.
The monastery of Wearmouth was founded by Benedict
Biscop in 674, and that of Jarrow in 681-682. Though some 5 or 6
m. apart, they were intended to form a single monastery under
a single abbot, and so Bede speaks of them in the passage given
above. It is with Jarrow that Bede is chiefly associated, though
no doubt from the close connexion of the two localities he would
often be at Wearmouth . The preface to the prose life of Cuthbert
proves that he had stayed at Lindisfarne prior to 721, while the
Epistle to Egbert shows that he had visited him at York in 733.
The tradition that he went to Rome in obedience to a summons
from Pope Sergius is contradicted by his own words above, and
by his total silence as to any such visit. In the passage cited
above, " monastic discipline, the daily charge of singing in the
church, learning, teaching, writing," in other words devotion
and study make up the even tenor of Bede's tranquil life. Anec-
dotes have been preserved which illustrate his piety both in
early and in later years; of his studies the best monument is to
be found in his writings. As a little boy he would take his place
among the pupils of the monastic school, though he would soon
pass to the ranks of the teachers, and the fact that he was
ordained deacon at nineteen, below the canonical age, shows that
he was regarded as remarkable both for learning and goodness.
For the rest, it is in his works that we must chiefly seek to
know him. They fall into three main classes: (i) scientific;
(2) historical; (3) theological. The first class comprises works
on grammar, one on natural phenomena, and two on chronology
and the calendar. These last were inspired largely by the
Paschal Question, which was the subject of such bitter contro-
versy between the Roman and Celtic Churches in the yth century.
They form a natural transition to the second class. In this the
chief place is held by the Ecclesiastical History of the English
Nation. By this Bede has justly earned the title of the Father
of English History. By this almost exclusively he is known to
others than professed students. It is indeed one of the most
valuable and one of the most beautiful of historical works.
Bede has the artist's instinct of proportion, the artist's sense
for the picturesque and the pathetic. His style too, modelled
largely, in the present writer's opinion, on that of Gregory in the
Dialogues, is limpid and unaffected. And though it would be
wrong to call Bede a critical historian in the modern sense of the
words, he shows a very unusual conscientiousness in collecting
his information from the best available sources, and in dis-
tinguishing between what he believed to be fact, and what he
regarded only as rumour or tradition. Other historical works
of Bede are the History of the A bbois (of Wearmouth and Jarrow),
and the li ves of Cuthbert in verse and prose. The History of the
Abbots and the prose life of Cuthbert were based on earlier works
which still survive. In the case of the latter it cannot honestly
be said that Bede has improved on his original. In the History
of the A bbots he was much nearer to the facts, and could make
additions out of his own personal knowledge. The Epistle to
Egbert, though not historical in form, may be mentioned here,
because of the valuable information which it contains as to
the state of the Northumbrian ; Church, on which the disorders
and revolutions of the Northumbrian kingdom had told with
disastrous effect. It is probably the latest of Bede's extant
works, as it was written in November 734, only six months
before his death. The third or theological class of writings
consists mainly of commentaries, or of works which, if not
commentaries in name, are so in fact. They are based largely
on the works of the four great Latin Fathers, SS. Augustine,
Jerome, Ambrose and Gregory; though Bede's reading is very
far from being limited to these. His method is largely allegorical.
For the text of scripture he uses both the Latin versions, the
Itala and the Vulgate, often comparing them together. But he
certainly knew Greek, and possibly some Hebrew. Indeed it
may be said that his works, scientific, historical and theological,
practically sum up all the learning of western Europe in his time,
which he thus made available for his countrymen. And not for
them only; for in the school of York, founded by his pupil
Archbishop Ecgberht, was trained Alcuin (Ealhwine) the initiator
under Charles the Great of the Prankish schools, which did so
much for learning on the continent. And though Bede makes
no pretensions to originality, least of all in his theological works,
freely taking what he needed, and (what is very rare in medieval
writers) acknowledging what he took, " out of the works of the
venerable Fathers," still everything he wrote is informed and
impressed with his own special character and temper. His
earnest yet sober piety, his humility, his gentleness, appear in
almost every line. " In history and in science, as well as in
theology, he is before all things the Christian thinker and
student." (Plummer's Bede, i. j.) Yet it should not be forgotten
that Bede could hardly have done what he did without the noble
library of books collected by Benedict Biscop.
Several quaint and beautiful legends have been handed down
as to the origin of the epithet of " venerable " generally attached
to his name. Probably it is a mere survival of a title commonly
given to priests in his day. It has given rise to a false idea that
616
he lived to a great age; some medieval authorities making him
ninety when he died. But he was not born before 672 (see above) ;
and though the date of his death has been disputed, the tradi-
tional year, 735, is most probably correct. This would make
him at most sixty-three. Of his death a most touching and
beautiful account has been preserved in a contemporary letter.
His last hours were spent, like the rest of his life, in devotion and
teaching, his latest work being to dictate, amid ever-increasing
bodily weakness, a translation into the vernacular of the Gospel
of St John, a work which unhappily has not survived. It was a
fitting close to such a life as his.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The above sketch is largely based on the present
writer'sessayon Bede's LifeandWorks.prefixedtohis edition of Bede's
Historia Ecclesiastica, &c. (2 vols., Clarendon Press, 1896). Beda der
Ehruriirdige und seine Zeit, by Dr Karl Werner (Vienna, 1875), is
excellent. Gehle, Disputatio . . . de Bedae vita et Scriptis (Leiden,
1838), is still useful. Dr William Bright's Chapters of Early English
Church History (srd ed., Clarendon Press, 1897) is indispensable.
See also Ker, Dark Ages, pp. 141 ff. Of the collected works of Bede
the most convenient edition is that by Dr Giles in twelve volumes
(8vo., 1843-1844), which includes translations of the Historical Works.
The Continental folio editions (Basel, 1563 ; Cologne, 1612 and 1688)
contain many works which cannot by any possibility be Bede's.
The edition of Migne, Patrologia Latino, (1862 ff.) is based on a com-
BEDE, C. BEDFORD
the works commonly ascribed
On the MSS. early editions and translations of the Historia
Ecclesiastica, see Plummer, u.s., i., Ixxx-cxxxii. The edition of
Whelock (Cambridge, fol. 1643-1644) is noteworthy as the first
English edition of the Latin text, and as the editio princeps of the
Anglo-Saxon version ascribed to King Alfred (see ALFRED THE
GREAT). Smith's edition (Cambridge, fol. 1722) contained not only
these, but also the other historical works of Bede, with notes and
appendices. It is a monument of learning and scholarship. The
most recent edition is that with notes and introduction by the
present writer, u.s. It includes also the History of the Abbots, and
the Epistle to Egbert. Of books iii. and iv. only, there is a learned
edition by Professors Mayor and Lumby of Cambridge (3rd ed. , 1 88 1 ) .'
A cheap and handy edition of the text alone is that by A. Holder
(Freiburg im Breisgau, 1882, &c.). The best-known modern English
translation is that by the Rev. L. Gidley (1870). Of the minor
historical works a good edition was edited by Rev. J. Stevenson for
the Eng. Hist. Soc. in 1841 ; and a translation by the same hand
was included in Church Historians of England, vol. i., part ii. (1853).
See also Plummer's edition, pp. cxxxii-cxlii. (C. PL.)
BEDE, CUTHBERT, the pen-name of Edward Bradley (1827-
1889), English author, who was born at Kidderminster on the
25th of March 1827. He entered University College, Durham,
in 1845, and later studied at Oxford, where he made the acquaint-
ance of J. G. Wood, the naturalist. He took holy orders, and
eventually became rector of Stretton in Rutlandshire. Here he
gained a reputation as a humorist and numbered among his friends
Cruikshank, Frank Smedley, Mark Lemon and Albert Smith.
He wrote for various magazines and, in the pages of the Illustrated
London News, introduced the double acrostic. He is chiefly
known as the author of The Adventures of Mr Verdant Green, an
Oxford Freshman (1853), which he also illustrated and of which
a third part appeared in 1856. Several well-known Oxford
characters of the time are depicted in its pages, such as Dr
Plumptre the vice-chancellor, Dr Bliss the registrar, and the
waiter at the Mitre. The book abounds in innocent fun. In
1883 he was given the living of Lenton, or Lavington, Lincoln-
shire, where he died on the I2th of December 1889.
BEDELL, WILLIAM (1571-1642), Anglican divine, was born
at Black Notley in Essex, in 1571. He was educated at Cam-
bridge, became fellow of Emmanuel in 1593, and took orders.
In 1607 he was appointed chaplain to Sir H. Wotton, then
English ambassador at Venice, where he remained for four years,
acquiring a great reputation as a scholar and theologian. He
translated the Book of Common Prayer into Italian, and was on
terms of closest friendship with the reformer, Sarpi (Fra Paolo).
In 1616 he was appointed to the rectory of Horningsheath (near
to Bury St Edmunds, where he had previously laboured), which he
held for twelve years. In 1627 he became provost of Trinity
College, Dublin, and, in 1629, bishop of Kilmore and Ardagh.
He set himself to reform the abuses of his diocese, encouraged the
use of the Irish language, and personally undertook the duties
generally discharged by the bishop's lay chancellor. In 1633
he resigned his see. In 1641, when the Protestants were being
massacred, Bedell's house was not only left untouched, but be-
came the place of refuge for many fugitives. In the end, however,
the rebels insisted upon the dismissal of all who had taken
shelter in his house, and on the bishop's refusal he was seized
and imprisoned with some others in the ruined castle of Lough-
boughter. Here he was detained for several weeks, and when
released, rapidly sank from the effects of exposure, and died
on the 7th of February 1642.
His life was written by Bishop Gilbert Burnet in 1685, and also by
his elder son (ed. T. W. Jones, for the Camden Society, 1872).
BEDESMAN, or BEADSMAN (Med. Eng. bede, prayer, from
O. Eng. biddan, to pray; literally " a man of prayer "), generally
a pensioner or almsman whose duty it was to pray for his bene-
factor. In Scotland there were public almsmen supported by
the king and expected in return to pray for his welfare and that
of the state. These men wore long blue gowns with a pewter
badge on the right arm, and were nicknamed Blue Gowns.
Their number corresponded to the king's years, an extra one being
added each royal birthday. They were privileged to ask alms
throughout Scotland. On the king's birthday each bedesman
received a new blue gown, a loaf, a bottle of ale, and a leathern
purse containing a penny for every year of the king's life. On
the pewter badge which they wore were their name and the
words ' : pass and repass," which authorized them to ask alms.
In 1833 the appointment of be'desmen was stopped. In 1863
the last payment was paid to a bedesman. In consequence of
its use in this general sense of pensioner, " bedesman " was long
used in English as equivalent to "servant." The word had a
special sense as the name for those almsmen attached to cathedral
and other churches, whose duty it was to pray for the souls of
deceased benefactors. A relic of pre-Reformation times, these
old men still figure in the accounts of English cathedrals.
BEDFORD, EARLS AND DUKES OF. The present English
title of duke of Bedford comes from a line of earls and dukes
in the Russell family. In January 1550 John, Baron Russell,
was created earl of Bedford, and in May 1694 his descendant,
William, the 5th earl, became duke of Bedford. The Russell
line is dealt with in the later part of this article. The title of
duke of Bedford had, however, been previously held, notably
by the third son of Henry IV. ; and the earlier creations may first
be considered here.
JOHN PLANTAGENET, duke of Bedford (1389-1435), third son
of Henry IV., king of England, was born on the 2oth of June
1389. He received various dignities after his father became
king in 1399, and gained his early experiences in warfare when
he undertook the office of warden of the east marches of Scotland
in 1404; he was fairly successful in this command, which he
held until September 1414. In the previous May his brother, the
new king Henry V., had created him duke of- Bedford, and after
resigning the wardenship he began to take a leading part in the
royal councils. He acted as lieutenant of the kingdom during
Henry's expedition to France in 1415, and in August 1416 com-
manded the ships which defeated the French fleet at the mouth
of the Seine, and was instrumental in relieving Harfleur. Again
appointed lieutenant in July 1417, he marched against the
Scots, who abandoned the siege of Berwick at his approach; and
on his return to London he brought Sir John Oldcastle to trial
and was present at his execution. He appears to have governed
the country with considerable success until December 1419,
when he resigned his office as lieutenant and joined the king
in France. Returning to England, he undertook the lieutenancy
for the third time in June 1421, and in the following May con-
ducted the queen to join Henry in Normandy. He then took
his brother's place and led the English troops to the relief of
Cosne, but on hearing of the king's serious illness he left the army
and hurried to his side. Henry's last wish was that Bedford
should be guardian of the kingdom and of the young king, and
that Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, should act as regent
in France. But when Philip declined to undertake this office,
it too was assumed by Bedford, who, after the death of the French
king Charles VI. in October 1422, presided at a session of the
BEDFORD
617
parlement of Paris, and compelled all present to take an oath
of fidelity to King Henry VI. Meanwhile the English parliament
had decided that Bedford should be " protector and defender " of
the kingdom, and that in his absence the office should devolve
upon his brother Humphrey, duke of Gloucester. Confining
himself to the conduct of affairs in France the protector took
up Henry V.'s work of conquest, captured Meulan and other
places, and sought to strengthen his position by an alliance
with Philip of Burgundy. This task was rendered more difficult
as Gloucester had just married Jacqueline, countess of Holland
and Hainaut, a union which gave the English duke a claim
on lands which Philip hoped to secure for himself. Bedford,
however, having allayed Philip's irritation, formed an alliance
with him and with John VI., duke of Brittany, at Amiens in
April 1423, and himself arranged to marry Anne, a sister of the
Burgundian duke. This marriage was celebrated at Troyes
in the following June, and the war against Charles, the dauphin
of France, was prosecuted with vigour and success. Bedford
sought to restore prosperity to the districts under his rule by
reforming the debased coinage, granting privileges to merchants
and manufacturers, and removing various abuses. He then
granted some counties to Philip to check the growing hostility
between him and Gloucester, and on the I7th of August 1424
gained a great victory over a combined army of French and Scots
at Verneuil. But in spite of the efforts of the protector the good
understanding between England and Burgundy was partially
destroyed when Gloucester invaded Hainaut in October 1424.
The ambition of his brother gave Bedford trouble in another
direction also; for on his return from Hainaut Gloucester
quarrelled with the chancellor, Henry Beaufort, bishop of
Winchester, and the council implored Bedford to come to England
to settle this dispute. He reached London in January 1426, and
after concluding a bond of alliance with Gloucester effected
a reconciliation between the duke and the chancellor; and
knighted the young king, Henry VI. Bedford then promised
to act in accordance with the will of the council, and in harmony
with the decision of this body raised a body of troops and re-
turned to France in March 1427. Having ordered Gloucester to
desist from a further attack on Hainaut, he threatened Brittany
and compelled Duke John to return to the English alliance;
and the success of his troops continued until the siege of Orleans,
to which he consented with reluctance, was undertaken in October
1428. Having assured himself that Philip was prepared to
desert him, Bedford sent orders to his army to raise the siege
in April 1429. He then acted with great energy and judgment in
attempting to stem the tide of disasters which followed this
failure, strengthened his hold upon Paris, and sent to England
for reinforcements; but before any engagement took place
he visited Rouen, where he sought to bind the Normans closer
to England, and after his return to Paris resigned the French
regency to Philip of Burgundy in accordance with the wish of
the Parisians. Retaining the government of Normandy Bedford
established himself at Rouen and directed the movements of
the English forces with some success. He did not interfere to
save the life of Joan of Arc. He was joined by Henry VI. in
April 1430, when the regency was temporarily suspended, and
he secured Henry's coronation at Paris in December 1431. In
November 1432 his wife Anne died, and in April 1433 he was
married at Therouanne to Jacqueline, daughter of Pierre I.,
count of St Pol. But notwithstanding Bedford's vigour the
English lost ground steadily; and the death of Anne and
this marriage destroyed the friendly relations between England
and Burgundy. Negotiations for peace had no result, and when
the duke returned to England in June 1433 he told parlia-
ment that he had come home to defend himself against the charge
that the losses in France were caused by his neglect, and de-
manded that his detractors should make their accusations public.
The chancellor replied that no such charges were known to the
king or the council, and the duke was thanked for his great
services. His next act was to secure an inquiry into the national
finances; and when asked by the parliament to stay in England
he declared that his services were at the king's disposal. As
chief councillor he offered to take a smaller salary than had been
previously paid to Gloucester, and undertook this office in
December 1433, when his demands with regard to a continual
council were conceded. Bedford, who was anxious to prosecute
the war in France, left England again in 1434, but early in
1435 was obliged to consent to the attendance of English repre-
sentatives at a congress held to arrange terms of peace at Arras.
Unable to consent to the French terms the English envoys left
Arras in September, and Philip of Burgundy made a separate
treaty with France. Bedford only lived to see the ruin of the
cause for which he struggled so loyally. He died at Rouen
on the 1 4th of September 1435, and was buried in the cathedral
of that city. He left a natural son, Richard, but no legitimate
issue. Bedford was a man of considerable administrative ability,
brave and humane in war, wise and unselfish in peace. He was
not responsible for the misfortunes of the English in France,
and his courage in the face .of failure was as admirable as his
continued endeavour to make the people under his rule contented
and prosperous.
The chief contemporary authorities for Bedford's life are : Vita, et
sesta Henrici Quintt, edited by T. Hearne (Oxford, 1727); E. de
Mpnstrelet, Chronique, edited by L. D. d'Arcq. (Paris, 1857-1862);
William of Worcester, Annales rerum Angltcarum, edited by J.
Stevenson (London, 1864). See also Proceedings and Ordinances of
the Privy Council of England, edited by J. R. Dasent (London, 1890-
1890); W. Stubbs, Constitutional Htstory, vol. iii. (Oxford, 1895);
P. A. Barante, Histoire des dues de Bourgogne (Paris, 1824).
In 1470 GEORGE NEVILL (c. 1457-1483), son of John, earl of
Northumberland, was created duke of Bedford; but after his
father's attainder and death at the battle of Barnet in 1471
he was degraded from the peerage.
The next duke of Bedford was JASPER TUDOR (c. 1430-1495),
half-brother of King Henry VI. and uncle of Henry VII. He
was made earl of Pembroke in 1453. Having survived the
vicissitudes of the Wars of the Roses he was restored to his
earldom and created duke of Bedford in 1485. The duke, who
was lord-lieutenant of Ireland from 1486 to 1494, died without
legitimate issue on the 2ist of December 1495.
JOHN RUSSELL, ist earl of Bedford (c. 1486-1555), was a son
of James Russell (d. 1509). Having travelled widely, he attained
some position at the court of Henry VII., and was subsequently
in great favour with Henry VIII. In 1513 he took part in the
war with France, and, having been knighted about the same
time, was afterwards employed on several diplomatic errands.
He was with Henry at the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520,
and, returning to military service when the French war was
renewed, lost his right eye at the siege of Morlaix in 1522. He
was soon made knight marshal of the royal household, and in
1523 went secretly to France, where he negotiated a treaty
between Henry and Charles, duke of Bourbon, who was anxious
to betray the French king Francis I. After a short visit to
England Russell was sent with money to Bourbon, joining the
constable at the siege of Marseilles. In 1524 he visited Pope
Clement VII. at Rome, and, having eluded the French, who
endeavoured to capture him, was present at the battle of Pavia
in February 1525, returning to England about the close of the
year. In January 1527 he was sent as ambassador to Clement,
who employed him to treat on his behalf with Charles de Lannoy,
the general of Charles V. The next few years of Russell's life
were mainly spent in England. He was member of parliament
for Buckingham in the parliament of 1529, and although an
opponent of the party of Anne Boleyn, retained the favour of
Henry VIII. He took an active part in suppressing the Pil-
grimage of Grace in 1536, and was one of the commissioners
appointed to try the Lincolnshire prisoners. Honours now
crowded upon him. His appointment as comptroller of the
king's household in 1537 was followed by that of a privy coun-
cillor in 1538; then he was made lord high admiral, high steward
of the duchy of Cornwall and a knight of the garter. In March
1539 he was created Baron Russell of Chenies, and in 1542
became high steward of the university of Oxford, and keeper of
the privy seal. In 1539, when Charles V. and Francis I. were
threatening to invade England, he was sent into the west) and
6x8
BEDFORD
crossed to France when Henry attacked Francis in 1544. He
was in command of an army in the west of England in 1545, and
when Henry died in January 1547 was one of the executors of
his will. Under Edward VI. Russell was lord high steward and
keeper of the privy seal, and the defeat which he inflicted on
the rebels at Clyst St Mary near Exeter in August 1549, was
largely instrumental in suppressing the rising in Devonshire.
In January 1550 he was created earl of Bedford, and was one of
the commissioners appointed to make peace with France in
this year. He opposed the proposal to seat Lady Jane Grey on
the throne; supported Queen Mary, who reappointed him lord
privy seal; and assisted to prevent Sir Thomas Wyat's rising
from spreading to Devonshire. In 1554 he went to Spain to
conclude the marriage treaty between Mary and Philip II., and
soon after his return died in London on the I4th of March 1555.
By extensive acquisitions of land Bedford was the founder of
the wealth and greatness of the house of Russell. Through his
wife, Anne (d. 1559), daughter of Sir Guy Sapcote, whom he
married in 1526, he obtained Chenies, and in 1539 was granted
the forest of Exmoor, and also Tavistock, and a number of
manors in Devon, Cornwall and Somerset, which had formerly
belonged to the abbey of Tavistock. In 1549 he received
Thorney, the abbey of Woburn, and extensive lands in the
eastern counties; and in 1552 Covent Garden and seven acres of
land in London, formerly the property of the protector Somer-
set. He left an only son, Francis, who succeeded him in the title.
See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. (London, 1862-1901);
State Papers during the Reign of Henry VIII. (London, 1831-1852) ;
Calendar of State Papers, Edward VI. and Mary (London, 1861);
J. H. Wiffen, Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell (London,
1833); J- A. Froude, History of England, passim (London,
1881 fol.).
FRANCIS RUSSELL, 2nd earl of Bedford (c. 1527-1585), was
educated at King's Hall, Cambridge. He accompanied his
father to the French war in 1544, and from 1547 to 1552 was
member of parliament for Buckinghamshire, being probably the
first heir to a peerage to sit in the House of Commons. He
assisted to quell the rising in Devonshire in 1549, and after his
father had been created earl of Bedford in January 1550, was
known as Lord Russell, taking his seat in the House of Lords
under this title in 1552. Russell was in sympathy with the
reformers, whose opinions he shared, and was in communication
with Sir Thomas Wyat; and in consequence of his religious
attitude was imprisoned during the earlier part of Mary's reign.
Being released he went into exile; visited Italy; came into
touch with foreign reformers; and fought at the battle of St
Quentin in 1557. Afterwards he seems to have enjoyed some
measure of the royal favour, and was made lord-lieutenant of
the counties of Devon, Cornwall and Dorset early in 1558.
When Elizabeth ascended the throne in November 1558 the earl
of Bedford, as Russell had been since 1555, became an active
figure in public life. He was made a privy councillor, and was
sent on diplomatic errands to Charles IX. of France and Mary
queen of Scots. From February 1564 to October 1567 he was
governor of Berwick and warden of the east marches of Scotland,
in which capacity he conducted various negotiations between
Elizabeth and Mary. He appears to have been an efficient
warden, but was irritated by the vacillating and tortuous
conduct of the English queen. When the northern insurrection
broke out in 1569, Bedford was sent into Wales, and he sat in
judgment upon the duke of Norfolk in 1572. In 1576 he was
president of the council of Wales, and in 1581 was one of the
commissioners deputed to arrange a marriage between Elizabeth
and Francis, duke of Anjou. Bedford, who was made a knight
of the garter in 1564, was lord warden of the Stannaries from
J 553 to 1580. He appears to have been a generous and popular
man, and died in London on the 28th of July 1585. He was
buried at Chenies. His first wife was Margaret (d. 1562),
daughter of Sir John St John, by whom he had four sons and
three daughters. His three eldest sons predeceased their father.
His second wife was Bridget (d. 1601), daughter of John, Lord
Hussey. He was succeeded as 3rd earl by his grandson, EDWARD
(1572-1627), only son of Francis, Lord Russell (c. 1550-1585).
The 3rd earl left no children when he died on the 3rd of May
1627, and was succeeded by his cousin.
FRANCIS RUSSELL, 4th earl of Bedford (1593-1641), was the
only son of William, Lord Russell of Thornhaugh, to which
barony he succeeded in August 1613. For a short time previ-
ously he had been member of parliament for the borough of
Lyme Regis; in 1623 he was made lord-lieutenant of Devonshire;
and in May 1627 became earl of Bedford by the death of his
cousin, Edward, the 3rd earl. When the quarrel broke out
between Charles I. and the parliament, Bedford supported the
demands of the House of Commons as embodied in the Petition
of Right, and in 1629 was arrested for his share in the circulation
of Sir Robert Dudley's pamphlet, " Proposition for His Majesty's
service," but was quickly released. The Short parliament meet-
ing in April 1640 found the earl as one of the king's leading
opponents. He was greatly trusted by John Pym and Oliver
St John, and is mentioned by Clarendon as among the " great
contrivers and designers " in the House of Lords. In July 1640
he was among the peers who wrote to the Scottish leaders
refusing to invite a Scottish army into England, but promising
to stand by the Scots in all legal and honourable ways; and his
signature was afterwards forged by Thomas, Viscount Savile,
in order to encourage the Scots to invade England. In the follow-
ing September he was among those peers who urged Charles to
call a parliament, to make peace with the Scots, and to dismiss
his obnoxious ministers; and was one of the English commis-
sioners appointed to conclude the treaty of Ripon. When the
Long parliament met in November 1640, Bedford was generally
regarded as the leader of the parliamentarians. In February
1641 he was made a privy councillor, and during the course of
some negotiations was promised the office of lord high treasurer.
He was essentially a moderate man, and seemed anxious to
settle the question of the royal revenue in a satisfactory manner.
He did not wish to alter the government of the Church, was on
good terms with Archbishop Laud, and, although convinced of
Strafford's guilt, was anxious to save his life. In the midst of
the parliamentary struggle Bedford died of smallpox on the
9th of May 1641. Clarendon described him as " a wise man,
and of too great and plentiful a fortune to wish the subversion
of the government," and again referring to his death said that
" many who knew him well thought his death not unseasonable
as well to his fame as his fortune, and that it rescued him as well
from some possible guilt as from those visible misfortunes which
men of all conditions have since undergone." Bedford was the
head of those who undertook to drain the great level of the fens,
called after him the " Bedford level." He spent a large sum of
money over this work and received 43,000 acres of land, but
owing to various jealousies and difficulties the king took the
work into his ow.n hands in 1638, making a further grant of land
to the earl. Bedford married Catherine (d. 1657), daughter of
Giles, 3rd Lord Chandos, -by whom he had four sons and four
daughters. His eldest son, WILLIAM (1613-1700), succeeded
him as 5th earl, fought first on the side of the parliament and
then on that of the king during the Civil War, and in 1694 was
created marquess of Tavistock and duke of Bedford.
See Clarendon, History of the Rebellion, passim (Oxford, 1888); J.H.
Wiffen, Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell (London, 1833) ; J. L.
Sanford, Studies and Illustrations of the Great Rebellion (London, 1858).
The first duke, who married Anne (d. 1684), daughter of
Robert Carr, earl of Somerset, was succeeded in the title by his
grandson Wriothesley (1680-1711), who was a son of Lord
William Russell (q.v.) by his marriage with Rachel, daughter of
Thomas Wriothesley, 4th earl of Southampton, and who became
second duke in 1 700. Eleven years later the second duke was suc-
ceeded by hiseldest son Wriothesley (1708-1 732), who died without
issue in October 1732, when the title passed to his brother John.
JOHN RUSSELL, 4th duke of Bedford (1710-1771), second
son of Wriothesley Russell, 2nd duke of Bedford, by his wife,
Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of John Howland of Streatham,
Surrey, was born on the 3oth of September 1710. Known as Lord
John Russell, he married in October 1731 Lady Diana Spencer,
daughter of Charles, 3rd earl of Sunderland; became duke of
BEDFORD
Bedford on his brother's death a year later; and having lost his
first wife in 1735, married in April 1737 Lady Gertrude Leveson-
Gower (d. 1794), daughter of John, Earl Gower. In the House of
Lords he joined the party hostile to Sir Robert Walpole, took a
fairly prominent part in public business, and earned the dislike
of George II. When Carteret, now Earl Granville, resigned office
in November 1744, Bedford became first lord of the admiralty
in the administration of Henry Pelham, and was made a privy
councillor. He was very successful at the admiralty, but was
not equally fortunate after he became secretary of state for the
southern department in February 1 748. Pelham accused him of
idleness; he was constantly at variance with the duke of New-
castle, and resigned office in June 1751. Instigated by his friends
he was active in opposition to the government, and after New-
castle's resignation in November 1756, became lord-lieutenant of
Ireland in the ministry of William Pitt and the duke of Devon-
shire, retaining this office after Newcastle, in alliance with Pitt,
returned to power in June 1757. In Ireland he favoured a
relaxation of the penal laws against Roman Catholics, but did
not keep his promises to observe neutrality between the rival
parties, and to abstain from securing pensions for his friends.
His own courtly manners and generosity, and his wife's good
qualities, however, seem to have gained for him some popularity,
although Horace Walpole says he disgusted everybody. In
March 1761 he resigned this office. Having allied himself with
the earl of Bute and the party anxious to bring the Seven Years'
War to a close, Bedford was noticed as the strongest opponent of
Pitt, and became lord privy seal under Bute after Pitt resigned
in October 1761. The cabinet of Bute was divided over the
policy to be pursued with regard to the war, but pacific counsels
prevailed, and in September 1762 Bedford went to France to
treat for peace. He was considerably annoyed because some of
the peace negotiations were conducted through other channels,
but he signed the peace of Paris in February 1763. Resigning
his office as lord privy seal soon afterwards, various causes of
estrangement arose between Bute and Bedford, and the subse-
quent relations of the two men were somewhat virulent. The
duke refused to take office under George Grenville on Bute's
resignation in April 1763, and sought to induce Pitt to return to
power. A report, however, that Pitt would only take office on
condition that Bedford was excluded, incensed him and, smarting
under this rebuff, he joined the cabinet of Grenville as lord
president of the council in September 1763. His haughty manner,
his somewhat insulting language, and his attitude with regard
to the regency bill in 1765 offended George III., who sought
in vain to supplant him, and after this failure was obliged to
make humiliating concessions to the ministry. In July 1765,
however, he was able to dispense with the services of Bedford
and his colleagues, and the duke became the leader of a political
party, distinguished for rapacity, and known as the " Bedford
party," or the " Bloomsbury gang." During his term of office
he had opposed a bill to place high import duties on Italian
silks. He was consequently assaulted and his London residence
attacked by a mob. He took some part in subsequent political
intrigues, and although he did not return to office, his friends,
with his consent, joined the ministry of the duke of Grafton in
December 1767. This proceeding led " Junius " to write his
" letter to the duke of Bedford," one of especial violence. Bed-
ford was hostile to John Wilkes, and narrowly escaped from a
mob favourable to the agitator at Honiton in July 1769. His
health had been declining for some years, and in 1770 he became
partially paralysed. He died at Woburn on the i sth of January
1771, and was buried in the family burying-place at Chenies.
His three sons all predeceased him, and he was succeeded in
the title by his grandson, Francis. The duke held many public
offices: lord-lieutenant of Bedfordshire and Devonshire, and
chancellor of Dublin University among others, and was a knight
of the garter. Bedford was a proud and conceited man, but
possessed both ability and common-sense. The important part
which he took in public life, however, was due rather to his
wealth and position than to his personal taste or ambition. He
was neither above nor below the standard of political morality
619
of the time, and was influenced by his duchess, who was very
ambitious, and by followers who were singularly unscrupulous.
See Correspondence of John, 4th Duke of Bedford, edited by Lord
John Russell (London, 1842-1846); J. H. Wiffen, Historical Memoirs
of the House of Russell (London, 1833) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of
England, vol. iii. (London, 1892); Horace Walpole, Memoirs of the
Reign of George II. (London, 1847), and Memoirs of the Reign of George
III., edited by G. F. R. Barker (London, 1894.)
FRANCIS RUSSELL, 5th duke of Bedford (1765-1802), eldest
son of Francis Russell, marquess of Tavistock (d. 1767), by his
wife, Elizabeth (d. 1768), daughter of William Keppel, 2nd earl
of Albemarle, was baptized on the 23rd of July 1 765. In January
1771 he succeeded his grandfather as duke of Bedford, and was
educated at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge,
afterwards spending nearly two years in foreign travel. Regard-
ing Charles James Fox as his political leader, he joined the
Whigs in the House of Lords, and became a member of the circle
of the prince of Wales, afterwards George IV. Having overcome
some nervousness and educational defects, he began to speak
in the House, and soon became one of the leading debaters in
that assembly. He opposed most of the measures brought for-
ward by the ministry of William Pitt, and objected to the grant
of a pension to Edmund Burke, an action which drew down upon
him a scathing attack from Burke's pen. Bedford was greatly
interested in agriculture. He established a model farm at
Woburn, and made experiments with regard to the breeding
of sheep. He was a member of the original board of agriculture,
and was the first president of the Smithfield club. He died at
Woburn on the 2nd of March 1802, and was buried in the family
burying-place at Chenies. The duke was never married, and
was succeeded in the title by his brother, John.
See Lord Holland, Memoirs of the Whig Party (London, 1854);
J. H. Wiffen, Historical Memoirs of the House of Russell (London,
1833); E. Burke, Letter to a Noble Lord (Edinburgh, 1837; and Earl
Stanhope, Life of Pitt (London, 1861-1862).
JOHN RUSSELL, 6th duke of Bedford (1766-1839)^35 succeeded
as seventh duke by his eldest son, Francis (1788-1861), who had
an only son, William (1800-1872), who became duke on his
father's death in 1861. When the eighth duke died in 1872, he
was succeeded by his cousin, Francis Charles Hastings (1819-
1891). who was member of parliament for Bedfordshire from
1847 until he succeeded to the title. The ninth duke was the
eldest son of Major-General Lord George William Russell (1790-
1846), who was a son of the sixth duke. He married Elizabeth,
daughter of George John, 5th Earl de la Warr, and both his sons,
George William Francis Sackville (1852-1893), and Herbrand
Arthur (b. 1858), succeeded in turn to the title.
BEDFORD, a municipal and parliamentary borough, and the
county town of Bedfordshire, England, 50 m. north-north-west of
London by the Midland railway; served also by a branch of the
London & North-Western. Pop. (1901) 35,144. It lies in the
fertile valley of the Ouse, on both banks, but mainly on the north,
on which stands the mound which marks the site of the ancient
castle. The church of St Paul is Decorated and Perpendicular,
but its central tower and spire are modern; it contains the tomb
of Sir William Harper or Harpur (c. 1496-1573), lord mayor of
London, a notable benefactor of his native town of Bedford.
St Peter's church has in its central tower masonry probably of
pre-Conquest date; that of St Mary's is in part Norman, and
that of St John's Decorated; but the bodies of these churches
are largely restored. There are some remains of a Franciscan
friary of the I4th century. The Congregational chapel called
Bunyan's or the " Old Meeting " stands on the site of the building
in which John Bunyan preached from 1656 onward. His chair
is preserved here, and a tablet records his life in the town, where
he underwent a long but in part nominal imprisonment. He
was born at Elstow, ij m. from Bedford, where, while playing
on the green, he believed himself to have received the divine
summons to renounce sin. In the panels of a fine pair of bronze
doors in the chapel are scenes illustrative of Bunyan's Pilgrim's
Progress. Bedford is noted for its grammar school, founded by
Edward VI. in 1552, and endowed by Sir William Harper. The
existing buildings date from 1891, and have been increased since
620
BEDFORD BEDFORDSHIRE
that date, and the school is one of the important public schools of
England. Harper's endowment includes land in London, and
is now of great value, and the Harper Trust supports in addition
modern and elementary schools for boys and girls, a girls' high
school, and almshouses. The grammar school annually awards
both entrance exhibitions and two exhibitions to a university or
other higher educational institution. The old grammar school
buildings are used as a town hall; and among other modern
buildings may be mentioned the shire hall and county hospital.
There are statues of John Bunyan (1874) and John Howard
(1894) the philanthropist (1726-1790), who founded the Con-
gregational chapel which bears his name, and resided at Card-
ington in the vicinity. There are two parks. Bedford has a
large trade as a market town for agricultural produce, and
extensive engineering works and manufactures of agricultural
implements. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
The municipal borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and
18 councillors. Area, 2223 acres.
Bedford (Bedcanforda, Bedanforda, Bedeford) is first men-
tioned in 571, when Cuthwulf defeated the Britons here. It
subsequently became a Danish borough, which in 914 was cap-
tured by Edward the Elder. In Domesday, as the county town,
it was entered apart from the rest of the shire, and was assessed
at half a hundred for the host and for ship service. The pre-
scriptive borough received its first charter from Henry II., who
gave the town to the burgesses to hold at a fee-farm rent of 40
in lieu of all service. The privileges included a gild-merchant,
all tolls, and liberties and laws in common with the citizens of
Oxford. This charter was confirmed by successive sovereigns
down to Charles II. During the isth century, owing to the rise
of other market towns, Bedford became less prosperous, and the
fee-farm rent was finally reduced to 20 by charter of Henry VII.
Henry VIII. granted a November fair to St Leonard's hospital,
which was still held in the igth century at St Leonard's farm,
the site of the hospital. Mary granted two fairs, one in Lent
and one on the Feast of the Conception, and also a weekly market.
A i yth century pamphlet on river navigation in Bedfordshire
mentions the trade which Bedford carried on in coal, brought by
the Ouse from Lynn and Yarmouth. The town was also one of
the earliest centres of the lace trade, to the success of which
French refugees in the i7thand i8th centuries largely contributed.
Bedford was represented in the parliament of 1295, and after
that date two members were returned regularly, until by the
Redistribution of Seats Act in 1885 Bedford lost one of its
members. The unlimited power of creating freemen, an inherent
right of the borough, led to great abuse, noticeably in 1769
when 500 freemen 1 were created to support the political interest
of Sir Robert Barnard, afterwards recorder of the borough.
Bedford castle, of which mention is first heard during Stephen's
reign (1136), was destroyed by order of Henry III. in 1224. The
mound marking its site is famous as a bowling-green.
BEDFORD, a city and the county-seat of Lawrence county,
Indiana, U.S.A., in the south-central part of the state, about
60 m. north-west of Louisville, Kentucky. Pop. (1890) 3351;
(.1910) 8716. It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio Southwestern,
the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Southern Indiana,
and (for freight from the Wallner quarries about 5 m. distant)
the Bedford & Wallner railways. It is the shipping point of the
Bedford Indiana (oolitic) limestone, which is found in the vicinity
and is one of the most valuable and best known building stones
in the United States of this stone were built the capitols of
Indiana, Georgia, Mississippi and Kentucky; the state historical
library at Madison, Wisconsin; the art building at St Louis,
Missouri; and many other important public buildings. The
city has large cement works, foundries and machine shops
(stone-working machinery being' manufactured), and the repair
shops of the Southern Indiana railway. Bedford was settled in
1826 and received a city charter in 1889.
BEDFORD, a borough and the county-seat of Bedford county,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Raystown branch of the Juniata
river, about 35 m. south by west of Altoona. Pop. (1890) 2242;
1 Called " guinea-pigs."
(1910) 2235. Bedford is served by the Bedford branch of the
Pennsylvania railway. It lies in a beautiful valley. In the
borough are some interesting old houses, erected in the latter
part of the i8th century, an art gallery and a soldiers' monument.
There are deposits of hematite and limestone near the borough,
and less than 2 m. south of it are the widely-known Bedford
Mineral Springs a magnesia spring, a limestone spring, a sulphur
spring, and a " sweet-water " spring which attract many
visitors during the summer season. There are also chalybeate
and other less important springs about the same distance east of
the borough, and a white sulphur spring 10 m. south-west of it.
Bedford has a large wholesale grocery trade, manufactures flout,
dressed lumber, kegs and handles, and is situated in a fine fruit-
growing district, especially known for its apples and plums.
The borough owns and operates the water works. A temporary
settlement was made on or near the site of the present borough
about 1750 by an Indian trader named Ray, and for a few years
the place was known as Raystown; the present name was
adopted not later than 1759. In July 1758 Fort Bedford, for
many years an important military post on the frontier, was
constructed, and here, later in the year, General John Forbes
brought together his troops preparatory to advancing against
Fort Duquesne. The town of Bedford was laid out in 1 769, and
in 1771 it was made the county-seat of Bedford county, which
was organized in that year. The borough was incorporated in
1 795, and received a new charter in 1817. Washington came here
in 1 794 to review the army sent to quell the Whisky Insurrection,
and the Espy house, which he then occupied, is still standing.
BEDFORDSHIRE [abbreviated Beds], a south midland county
of England, bounded N. E. by Huntingdonshire, E. by Cambridge-
shire, S.E. by Hertfordshire, W. by Buckinghamshire and N.W.
by Northamptonshire. It is the fourth smallest English county,
having an area of 466-4 sq. m. It lies principally in the middle
part of the basin of the river Ouse, which, entering in the north-
west, traverses the rich and beautiful Vale of Bedford with a
serpentine course past the county town of Bedford to the north-
eastern corner near St Neots. North of it the land is undulating,
but low; to the south, a well- wooded spur of the Chiltern Hills
separates the Vale of Bedford from the flat open tributary valley
of the Ivel. A small part of the main line of the Chilterns is
included in the south of the county, the hills rising sharply from
the lowland to bare heights exceeding 600 ft. above Dunstable.
In this neighbourhood the county includes the headwaters of the
Lea, and thus a small portion of it falls within the Thames basin.
In the- north a few streams are tributary to the Nene.
Geology. The general trend of the outcrops of the various forma-
tions is from south-west to north-east; the dip is south-easterly.
In the northern portion of the county, the Middle Oolites are the
most important, and of these, the Oxford Clay predominates over
most of the low ground upon which Bedford is situated. At Atnpt-
hill a development of clay, the Ampthill clay, represents the Corallian
limestones of neighbouring counties. The Cornbrash is represented
by no more than about 2 ft. o'f limestone; but the Kellaways Rock
is well exposed near Bedford; the sandy parts of this rock are
frequently cemented to form hard masses called " doggers." The
Great Ouse, from the point where it enters the county on the west,
has carved through the Middle Oolites and exposed the Great Oolite
as far as Bedford; their alternating limestones and clays may be
seen in the quarries not far from the town. From Woburn through
Ampthill to Potton a more elevated tract is formed by the Lower
Greensand. These rocks are sandy throughout. At Leighton
Buzzard they are dug on a large scale for various purposes. Beds of
fuller's earth occur in this formation at Woburn. At Potton, phos-
phatized nodules may be obtained, and here a hard bed, the " Car-
stone, " lies at the top of the formation. Above the Lower Greensand
comes the Gault Clay, which lies in the broad vale south-east of the
formerand north-west of the Chalk hills. The Chalk rises up above
the Gault and forms the high ground of Dunshill Moors and the
Chiltern Hills. At the base of the Chalk is the Chalk Marl, above
this is the Totternhoe Stone, which, on account of its great hardness,
usually stands out as a well-marked feature. The Lower Chalk,
which comes next in the upward succession, is capped in a similar
manner by the hard Chalk Rock, as at Royston and elsewhere. The
upper Chalk-with-Flints occurs near the south-eastern boundary.
Patches of glacial boulder clay and gravel lie upon the older rocks
over most of the area. Many interesting mammalian fossils, rhino-
ceros, mammoth, &c., with palaeolithic implements, have been found
in the valley gravels of the river Ouse and its tributaries.
BEDFORDSHIRE
621
Industries. Agriculture is important, neady nine-tenths of
the total area being under cultivation. The chief crop is wheat,
for which the soil in the Vale of Bedford is specially suited;
while on the sandy loam of the Ivel valley, in the neighbourhood
of Biggleswade, market-gardening is extensively carried on,
the produce going principally to London, whither a considerable
quantity of butter and other dairy-produce is also sent. The
manufacture of agricultural machinery and implements employs
a large number of hands at Bedford and Luton. Luton, however,
is specially noted for the manufacture of straw hats. Straw-
plaiting was once extensively carried on in this neighbour-
hood by women and girls in their cottage homes, but has now
almost entirely disappeared owing to the importation of Chinese
and Japanese plaited straw. Another local industry in the
county is the manufacture of pillow-lace. Many of the lace
designs are French, as a number of French refugees settled
in and near Cranfield. Mechlin and Maltese patterns are also
copied.
Communications are provided in the east by the Great Northern
main line, passing Biggleswade, and in the centre by that of the
Midland railway, serving Ampthill and Bedford. The Bletchley
and Cambridge branch of the London & North- Western railway
crosses these main lines at Bedford and Sandy respectively.
The main line of the same company serves Leighton Buzzard
in the south-west, and there is a branch thence to Duns table,
which, with Luton, is also served by a branch of the Great
Northern line. A branch of the Midland railway south from
Bedford connects with the Great Northern line at Hitchin, and
formerly afforded the Midland access to London over Great
Northern metals.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 298,494 acres, with a population in 1891 of 161,704
and in 1901 of 171,240. The area of the administrative county
is 302,947 acres. The municipal boroughs are Bedford (pop.
35, 144), Dunstable (5157) and Luton (36,404). The other urban
districts are Ampthill (2177), Biggleswade (5120), Kempston,
connected with Bedford to the south-west (4729), and Leighton
Buzzard (6331). Potton (2033), Shefford (874), and Woburn
(1129) are lesser towns, and local centres of the agricultural
trade. The county is the midland circuit, and assizes are held at
Bedford. It has one court of quarter-sessions, and is divided
into eight petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Bedford,
Dunstable and Luton have separate commissions of the peace,
and Bedford has a separate court of quarter-sessions. There are
133 civil parishes. Bedfordshire forms an archdeaconry in the
diocese of Ely, with 125 ecclesiastical parishes and parts of 6
others. The county has two parliamentary divisions, Northern
(or Biggleswade), and Southern (or Luton), each returning one
member; and Bedford is a parliamentary borough, returning
one member. The principal institution, apart from those in
the towns, is the great Three Counties asylum (for Bedfordshire,
Hertfordshire and Huntingdonshire), in the south-east of the
county near^Arlesey.
History. Although the Saxon invaders were naturally
attracted to Bedfordshire by its abundant water supply and
facilities for agriculture, the remains of their settlements are
few and scattered. They occur, with one exception, south of the
Ouse, the most important being a cemetery at Kempston, where
two systems cremation and earth-burialare found side by
side. Early reference to Bedfordshire political history is scanty.
In 57 1 Cuthwulf inflicted a severe defeat on the Britons at Bedford
and took four towns. During the Heptarchy what is now the
shire formed part of Mercia; by the treaty of Wedmore, how-
ever, it became Danish territory, but was recovered by King
Edward (919-921). The first actual mention of the county
comes in 1016 when King Canute laid waste to the whole shire.
There was no organized resistance to the conqueror within
Bedfordshire, though the Domesday survey reveals an almost
complete substitution of Norman for English holders. In the
civil war of Stephen's reign the county suffered severely; the
great Roll of the Exchequer of 1165 proves the shire receipts
had depreciated in value to two-thirds of the assessment for the
Danegeld. Again the county was thrown into the barons' war
when Bedford Castle, seized from the Beauchamps by Falkes de
Breaut6, one of the royal partisans, was the scene of three sieges
before it was demolished by the king's orders in 1224. The
peasants' revolt (1377-1381) was marked by less violence here
than in neighbouring counties; the Annals of Dunstable make
brief mention of a rising in that town and the demand for and
granting of a charter. In 1638 ship-money was levied on Bed-
fordshire, and in the Civil War that followed, the county was one
of the foremost in opposing the king. Clarendon observes that
here Charles had no visible party or fixed quarter.
Bedfordshire is divided into nine hundreds, Barford, Biggles-
wade, Clifton, Flitt, Manshead, Redbornestoke, Stodden, Willey
and Wiscamtree, and the liberty, half hundred or borough of
Bedford. From the Domesday survey it appears that in the 1 1 th
century there were three additional half hundreds, viz. Stanburge,
Buchelai and Weneslai, which had by the I4th century become
parts of the hundreds of Manshead, Willey and Biggleswade
respectively. Until 1574 one sheriff did duty for Bedfordshire
and Buckinghamshire, the shire court of the former being held
at Bedford. The jurisdiction of the hundred courts, excepting
Flitt, remained in the king's possession. Flitt was parcel of the
manor of Luton, and formed part of the marriage portion of
Eleanor, sister of Henry III. and wife of William Marshall. The
burgesses of Bedford and the prior of Dunstable claimed juris-
dictional freedom in those two boroughs. The Hundred Rolls
and the Placita de quo warranto show that important jurisdiction
had accrued to the great over-lordships, such as those of
Beauchamp, Wahull and Caynho, and to several religious
houses, the prior of St John of Jerusalem claiming rights in
more than fifty places in the county.
With regard to parliamentary representation, the first original
writ which has been discovered was issued in 1200 when two
members were returned for the county. In 1295 in addition
to the county members, writs are found for two members
to represent Bedford borough. Subsequently until modern
times two county and two borough members were returned
regularly.
Owing to its favourable situation Bedfordshire has always
been a prominent agricultural rather than manufacturing
county. From the I3th to the i$th century sheep farming
flourished, Bedfordshire wool being in request and plentiful.
Surviving records show that in assessments of wool to the king,
Bedfordshire always provided its full quota. Tradition says
that the straw-plait industry owes its introduction to James I.,
who transferred to Luton the colony of Lorraine plaiters whom
Mary queen of Scots had settled in Scotland. Similarly the lace
industry is associated with Catherine of Aragon, who, when
trade was dull, burnt her lace and ordered new to be made.
As late as the igth century the lace makers kept " Cattern's
Day " as the holiday of their craft. The Flemings, expelled
by Alva's persecutions (1569), brought the manufacture of
Flemish lace to Cranfield, whence it spread to surrounding
districts. The revocation of the edict of Nantes, and conse-
quent French immigration, gave further impetus to the industry.
Defoe writing in 1724-1727 mentions the recent improvements
in the Bedfordshire bone-lace manufacture. In 1794 further
French refugees joined the Bedfordshire lace makers.
Woburn Abbey, belonging to the Russells since 1547, is the
seat of the duke of Bedford, the greatest landowner in the
county. The Burgoynes of Sutton, whose baronetcy dates from
1641, have been in Bedfordshire since the isth century, whilst
the Osborn family have owned Chicksands Priory since its
purchase by Peter Osborn in 1576. Sir Phillip Monoux Payne
represents the ancient Monoux family of Wootton. Other
county families are the Crawleys of Stockwood near Luton,
the Brandreths of Houghton Regis, and the Orlebars of
Hinwick.
With the division of the Mercian diocese in 679 Bedfordshire
fell naturally to the new see of Dorchester. It formed part of
Lincoln diocese from 1075 until 1837, when it was finally trans-
ferred to Ely. In 1291 Bedfordshire was an archdeaconry
622
BEDLAM BEDOUINS
including six rural deaneries, which remained practically un-
altered until 1880, when they were increased to eleven with a new
schedule of parishes.
Antiquities. The monastic remains in Bedfordshire include
the fine fragment of the church of the Augustinian priory at
Dunstable, serving as the parish church; the church (also
imperfect) of Elstow near Bedford, which belonged to a
Benedictine nunnery founded by Judith, niece of William the
Conqueror; and portions of the Gilbertine Chicksands Priory
and of a Cistercian foundation at Old Warden. In the parish
churches, many of which are of great interest, the predominant
styles are Decorated and Perpendicular. Work of pre-Conquest
date, however, is found in the massive tower of Clapham church,
near Bedford on the north, and in a door of Stevington church.
Fine Norman and Early English work is seen at Dunstable and
Elstow, and the later style is illustrated by the large cruciform
churches at Leighton Buzzard and at Felmersham on the Ouse
above Bedford. Among the Perpendicular additions to the
church last named may be noted a very beautiful oaken rood-
screen. To illustrate Decorated and Perpendicular the churches
of Clifton and of Marston Moretaine, with its massive detached
campanile, may be mentioned; and Cople church is a good
specimen of fine Perpendicular work. The church of Cockayne
Hatley, near Potton, is fitted with rich Flemish carved wood,
mostly from the abbey of Alne near Charleroi, and dating from
1689, but brought here by a former rector early in the igth
century. In medieval domestic architecture the county is not
rich. The mansion of Woburn Abbey dates from the middle of
the 1 8th century.
AUTHORITIES. Victoria County History (London, 1904, &c.);
Fishe, Collections, Historical, Genealogical and Topographical, for
Bedfordshire (London, 1812-1816, and also 1812-1836) ; J. D. Parry,
Select Illustrations of Bedfordshire (London, 1827); Bedfordshire
Domesday Book (Bedford, 1881); Visitation of Bedford, 1566, 1582,
and 1634, in Harleian Society's Publications, vol. xiv. (London, 1884) ;
Genealogica Bedfordiensis, 1538, 1800 (London, 1800) ; and Illustrated
Bedfordshire (Nottingham, 1895). See also Bedfordshire Notes and
Queries, ed. F. A. Blade?, and Transactions of the Bedfordshire Natural
History and Field Club.
BEDLAM, or BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL, the first English
lunatic asylum, originally founded by Simon FitzMary, sheriff
of London, in 1247, as a priory for the sisters and brethren of
the order of the Star of Bethlehem. It had as one of its special
objects the housing and entertainment of the bishop and canons
of St Mary of Bethlehem, the mother-church, on their visits to
England. Its first site was in Bishopsgate Street. It is not
certain when lunatics were first received in Bedlam, but it is
mentioned as a hospital in 1330 and some were there in 1403.
In 1547 it was handed over by Henry VIII. with all its revenues
to the city of London as a hospital for lunatics. With the
exception of one such asylum in Granada, Spain, the Bethlehem
Hospital was the first in Europe. It became famous and after-
wards infamous for the brutal ill-treatment meted out to the
insane (see INSANITY: Hospital Treatment). In 1675 it was
removed to new buildings in Moorfields and finally to its present
site in St George's Fields, Lambeth. The word " Bedlam " has
long been used generically for all lunatic asylums.
BEDLINGTON, an urban district of Northumberland, England,
within the parliamentary borough of Morpeth, 5 m. S.E. of that
town on a branch of the North Eastern railway. Pop. (1901)
18,766. It lies on high ground above the river Blyth, z| m.
above its mouth. The church of St Cuthbert shows good
transitional Norman details. Its dedication recalls the trans-
portation of the body of the saintly bishop of Lindisfarne from
its shrine at Durham by the monks of that foundation to Lindis-
farne, when in fear of attack from William the Conqueror.
They rested here with the coffin. The modern growth of the
town is attributable to the valuable collieries of the neighbour-
hood, and to manufactures of nails and chains. It is one of the
most populous mining centres in the county. On the south
bank of the river is the township and urban district of Cowpen
(pop. 17,879), with collieries and glass works; coal is shipped
from this point by river.
Bedlington (Betlingtun) and the hamlets belonging to it were
bought by Cutheard, bishop of Durham, between 900 and 915,
and although locally situated in the county of Northumberland
became part of the county palatine of Durham over which
Bishop Walcher was granted royal rights by William the
Conqueror. When these rights were taken from Cuthbert
Tunstall, bishop of Durham, in 1536, Bedlington among his
other property lost its special privileges, but was confirmed to
him in 1541 with the other property of his predecessors. To-
gether with the other lands of the see of Durham, Bedlington
was made over to the ecclesiastical commissioners in 1866.
Bedlingtonshire was made part of Northumberland for civil
purposes by acts of parliament in 1832 and 1844.
BEDLOE, WILLIAM (1650-1680), English informer, was
born at Chepstow on the 2oth of April 1650. He appears to have
been well educated; he was certainly clever, and after coming
to London in 1670 he became acquainted with some Jesuits
and was occasionally employed by them. Calling himself now
Captain Williams, now Lord Gerard or Lord Newport or Lord
Cornwallis, he travelled from one part of Europe to another;
he underwent imprisonments for crime, and became an expert
in all kinds of duplicity. Then in 1678, following the lead of
Titus Oates, he gave an account of a supposed popish plot to
the English government, and his version of the details of the
murder of Sir E. B. Godfrey was rewarded with 500. Em-
boldened by his success he denounced various Roman Catholics,
married an Irish lady, and having become very popular lived
in luxurious fashion. Afterwards his fortunes waned, and he
died at Bristol on the 2oth of August 1680. His dying deposi-
tions, which were taken by Sir Francis North, chief justice of
the common pleas, revealed nothing of importance. Bedloe
wrote a Narrative and impartial discovery of the horrid Popish
Plot (1679), but all his statements are extremely untrustworthy.
See J. Pollock, The Popish Plot (1903).
BEDMAR, ALPHONSO DELLA CUEVA, MARQUIS OF (1572-
1655), Spanish diplomatist, became ambassador to the republic
of Venice in 1667. This was a very important position owing
to the amount of information concerning European affairs
which passed through the hands of the representative of Spain.
When Bedmar took up this appointment, Venice had just con-
cluded an alliance with France, Switzerland and the Netherlands,
to counterbalance the power of Spain, and the ambassador was
instructed to destroy this league. Assisted by the duke of Ossuna,
viceroy of Naples, he formed a plan to bring the city into the power
of Spain, and the scheme was to be carried out on Ascension Day
1618. The plot was, however, discovered; and Bedmar, pro-
tected by his position from arrest, left Venice and wentto Flanders
as president of the council. In 1622 he was made a cardinal,
and soon afterwards became bishop of Oviedo, a position which
he retained until his death, which occurred at Oviedo on the
2nd of August 1655. The authorship of an anonymous work,
Squitinio della libertd Veneta, published at Mirandola in 1612,
has been attributed to him.
Some controversy has arisen over the Spanish plot of 1618,
and some historians have suggested that it only existed in the
minds of the Venetian senators, and was a ruse for forcing
Bedmar to leave Venice. From what is known, however, of
the policy of Spain at this time, it is by no means unlikely that
such a scheme was planned.
See C. V. de Saint-Real, (Euvres, tome iv. (Paris, 1745); P. J.
Grosley, Discussion historique et critique sur la conjuration de Venise
(Paris, 1756); P. A. N. B. Daru, Histoire de la rfpublique de Venise
(Paris, 1853); A. Baschet, Histoire de la chancellerie secrete a Venise
(Paris, 1870).
BED-MOULD, in architecture, the congeries of mouldings
which is under the projecting part of almost every cornice, of
which, indeed, it is a part.
BEDOUINS (AM Bedu, " dwellers in the open land," or
Ahl el belt, " people of the tent," as they call themselves), the
name given to the most important, as it is the best known,
division of the Arab race. The Bedouins are the descendants of
the Arabs of North Arabia whose traditions claim Ishmael as
BEDOUINS
623
their ancestor (see ARABS). The deserts of North Arabia seem
to have been their earliest home, but even in ancient times they
had migrated to the lowlands of Egypt and Syria. The Arab
conquest of northern Africa in the 7th century A.D. caused
a wide dispersion, so that to-day the Arab element is strongly
represented in the Nile Valley, Saharan, and Nubian peoples.
Among the Hamitic-Negroid races the Bedouins have largely
lost their nomadic character; but in the deserts of the Nile
lands they remain much what their ancestors were. Thus the
name has suffered much ethnic confusion, and is often incorrectly
reserved to describe such pastoral peoples as the Bisharin, the
Hadendoa and the Ababda. This article treats solely of the
Arabian Bedouin, as affording the purest type of the people.
They are shepherds and herdsmen, reduced to an open-air, roving
life, partly by the nature of their occupations, partly by the
special characteristics of the countries in which they dwell. For,
while land, unsuited to all purposes except pasture, forms an
unusually large proportion of the surface in the Arabian territory,
the prolonged droughts of summer render considerable portions
of it unfit even for that, and thus continually oblige the herdsmen
to migrate from one spot to another in search of sufficient
herbage and water for their beasts. The same causes also involve
the Bedouins in frequent quarrels with each other regarding the
use of some particular well or pasture-ground, besides reducing
them not unfrequently to extreme want, and thus making them
plunderers of others in self-support. Professionally, the Bedouins
are shepherds and herdsmen; their raids on each other or their
robbery of travellers and caravans are but occasional exceptions
to the common routine. Their intertribal wars (they very
rarely venture on a conflict with the better-armed and better-
organized sedentary population) are rarely bloody; cattle-
lifting being the usual object. Private feuds exist, but are
usually limited to two or three individuals at most, one of whom
has perhaps been ridiculed in satirical verse, to which they are
very sensitive, or had a relation killed in some previous fray.
But bloodshed is expensive, as it must be paid for either by
more bloodshed or by blood-money the diya, which varies,
according to the importance of the person killed, from ten to fifty
camels, or even more. Previous to Mahomet's time it was
optional for the injured tribe either to accept this compensation
or to insist on blood for blood; but the Prophet, though by his
own account despairing of ever reducing the nomad portion of
his countrymen to law and order, succeeded in establishing among
them the rule, that a fair diya if offered must be accepted.
Instances are, however, not wanting in Arab history of fiercer
and more general Bedouin conflicts, in which the destruction,
or at least the complete subjugation, of one tribe has been
aimed at by another, and when great slaughter has taken place.
Such were the wars of Pekr and Thagleb in the 6th century,
of Kelb and Howazin in the 8th, of Harb and Ateba in the iSth.
The Bedouins regard the plundering of caravans or travellers
as in lieu of the custom dues exacted elsewhere. The land is
theirs, they argue, and trespassers on it must pay the forfeit.
Hence whoever can show anything equivalent to a permission
of entrance into their territory has, in the regular course of
things, nothing to fear. This permission is obtained by securing
the protection of the nearest Bedouin sheik, who, for a politely-
worded request and a small sum of money, will readily grant
the pass, in the shape of one or two or more men of his tribe,
who accompany the wayfarers as far as the next encampment on
their road, where they hand their charge over to fresh guides,
equally bound to afford the desired safeguard. In the interior
of Arabia the passport is given in writing by one of the town
governors, and is respected by the Bedouins of the district;
for, however impudent and unamenable to law these nomads
may be on the frontiers of the impotent Ottoman government in
Syria or the Hejaz, they are submissive enough in other and
Arab-governed regions. But the traveller who ventures on the
desert strip without such precautions will be robbed and perhaps
killed.
Ignorant of writing and unacquainted with books, the Bedouins
trust to their memory for everything; where memory fails,
they readily eke it out with imagination. Hence their own
assertions regarding the antiquity, numbers, strength, &c., of
their clans are of little worth; even their genealogies, in which
they pretend to be eminently versed, are not to be much depended
on; the more so that their own family names hardly ever exceed
the limits of a patronymic, whilst the constantly renewed sub-
divisions of a tribe, and the temporary increase of one branch
and decrease of another, tend to efface the original name of the
clan. Few tribes now preserve their ancient, or at least their
historical titles; and the mass of the Bedouin multitude re-
sembles in this respect a troubled sea, of which the substance is
indeed always the same, but the surface is continually shifting
and changing. As, however, no social basis or ties are acknow-
ledged among them except those of blood and race, certain broad
divisions are tolerably accurately kept up, the wider and more
important of which may here be noted. First, the Aneza clan,
who extend from Syria southward to the limits of Jebel Shammar.
It is numerous, and, for a Bedouin tribe, well armed. Two-
thirds of the Arab horse trade, besides a large traffic in sheep,
camels, wool, and similar articles, are in their hands. Their
principal subdivisions are the Sebaa on the north, the Walid Ali
on the west, and the Ruala on the south; these are generally
on bad terms with each other. If united, they could muster,
it is supposed, about 30,000 lances. They claim descent from
Rabi'a. Second, the Shammar Bedouins, whose pasturages lie
conterminous to those of the Aneza on the east. Their numbers
are about the same. Thirdly, in the northern desert, the Huwetat
and Sherarat, comparatively small and savage tribes. There is
also the Solibi clan, which, however, is disowned by the Arabs,
and seems to be of gipsy origin. Next follow, in the western
desert, the Beni-Harb, a powerful tribe, supposed to muster
about 20,000 fighting men. They are often troublesome to the
Meccan pilgrims. In the eastern desert are the Muter, the Beni-
Khalid, and the Ajmans, all numerous clans, often at war with
each other. To the south, in Nejd itself or on its frontiers,
are the Hodeil, Ateba, and others. These all belong to the
" Mustareb," or northern Arabs.
The Bedouins of southern or " pure Arab " origin are com-
paratively few in number, and are, with few exceptions, even
poorer and more savage than their northern brethren. Al-
Morrah, on the confines of Oman, Al-Yam and Kahtan, near
Yemen, and Beni-Yas, between Harik and the Persian Gulf,
are the best known. The total number of the Bedouin or
pastoral population throughout Arabia, including men, women,
and children, appears not to exceed a million and a half, or about
one fifth of the total population. The only tribal authority is
the " elder," or " sheik," a title not necessarily implying ad-
vanced age, but given to any one who, on account of birth,
courage, wealth, liberality or some other quality, has been
chosen to the leadership. Descent has something to do with
rank, but not much, as every individual of the tribe considers
himself equal to the others; nor are the distinctions of relative
riches and poverty greatly taken into account. To the " sheik "
all disputes are referred; he is consulted, though not necessarily
obeyed, on every question which regards the general affairs of
the tribe, whether in peace or war; there is no other magis-
trate, and no law except what he and the other chief men may
consider proper. But in fact, for most personal and private
affairs, every man does pretty much what is right in his own
eyes.
All the Bedouins, with the exception of certain tribes in Syria,
are nominally Mahommedans, but most pay but slight attention
to the ceremonial precepts of the Koran; the five daily prayers
and the annual fast of Ramadan are not much in favour among
them ; and however near a tribe may be to Mecca, few of them
visit it as pilgrims. The militant Wahhabi have, however, from
time to time enforced some degree of Islamitic observance among
the Bedouins of Nejd and the adjoining districts: elsewhere
Mahommedanism is practically confined to the profession of
the Divine Unity; among the remoter and wilder tribes sun-
worship, tree-worship, and no worship at all, are not uncommon.
Some clans even omit the rite of circumcision altogether; others,
624
BEDSORE
like the tribe of Hodeil, south of Mecca, perform it after a fashion
peculiar to themselves.
Though polygamy is not common among Bedouins, marriages
are contracted without any legal intervention or guarantee;
the consent of the parties, and the oral testimony of a couple of
witnesses, should such be at hand, are all that are required;
and divorce is equally easy. Nor is mutual constancy much
expected or observed either by men or women ; and the husband
is rarely strict in exacting from the wife a fidelity that he himself
has no idea of observing. Jealousy may indeed occasionally bring
' about tragic results, but this rarely occurs except where publicity,
to which the Bedouins, like all other Arabs, are very sensitive,
is involved. Burckhardt writes: " The Bedouins are jealous of
their women, but do not prevent them from laughing and talking
with strangers. It seldom happens that a Bedouin strikes his
wife; if he does so she calls loudly on her wasy or protector,
who pacifies the husband and makes him listen to reason. . . .
The wife and daughters perform all domestic business. They
grind the wheat in the handmill or pound it in the mortar;
they prepare the breakfast and dinner; knead and bake the
bread; make butter, fetch water, work at the loom, mend the
tent-covering . . . while the husband or brother sits before the
tent smoking his pipe." A maiden's honour is, on the other hand,
severely guarded; and even too openly avowed a courtship,
though with the most honourable intentions, is ill looked on.
But marriage, if indeed so slight and temporary a connexion
as it is among Bedouins deserves the name, is often merely a
passport for mutual licence. In other respects Bedouin morality,
like that of most half-savage races, depends on custom and
public feeling rather than on any fixed code or trained conscience,
and hence admits of the strangest contradictions. Not only are
lying and exaggeration no reproach in ordinary discourse, but
even deliberate perjury and violation of the most solemn engage-
ments are frequent occurrences. Not less frequent, however,
are instances of prolonged fidelity and observance of promise
carried to the limits of romance. " The wind," " the wood,"
and " the honour of the Arabs " are the most ordinary oaths in
serious matters; but even these do not give absolute security,
while a simple verbal engagement will at other times prove an
inviolable guarantee. Thus, too, the extreme abstemiousness
of a Bedouin alternates with excessive gorgings; and, while
the name and deeds of " robber " are hardly a reproach, those of
" thief " are marked by abhorrence and contempt. In patience,
or rather endurance, both physical and moral, few Bedouins
are deficient; wariness is another quality universally developed
by their mode of life. And in spite of an excessive coarseness of
language, and often of action, gross vice, at least of the more
debasing sorts that dishonour the East, is rare.
Most Bedouins, men and women, are rather undersized;
their complexion, especially in the south, is dark; their hair
coarse, thick and black; their eyes dark and oval; the nose is
generally aquiline, and the features well formed; the beard and
moustache are usually scanty. The men are active, but not
strong; the women are generally plain. The dress of the men
consists of a long cotton shirt, open at the breast, often girt with
a leathern girdle; a black or striped cloak of hair is sometimes
thrown over the shoulders; a handkerchief, folded once, black,
or striped yellow and red, covers the head, round which it is kept
in its place by a piece of twine or a twisted hairband. To this
costume a pair of open sandals is sometimes added. Under the
shirt, round the naked waist, a thin strip of leather plait is wound
several times, not for any special object, but merely out of
custom. In his hand a Bedouin almost always carries a slight
crooked wand, commonly of almond- wood. Among the Bedouins
of the south a light wrapper takes the place of the handkerchief
on the head, and a loin-cloth that of the shirt. The women
usually wear wide loose drawers, a long shirt, and over it a wide
piece of dark blue cloth enveloping the whole figure and head,
and trailing on the ground behind. Very rarely does a Bedouin
woman wear a veil, or even cover her face with her overcloak,
contenting herself with narrowing the folds of the latter over her
head on the approach of a stranger. Her wrists and ankles are
generally adorned with bracelets and rings of blue glass or
copper or iron, very rarely of silver; her neck with glass beads;
ear-rings are rare, and nose-rings rarer. Boys, till near puberty,
usually go stark naked; girls also wear no clothes up to the age
of six or seven.
On a journey a Bedouin invariably carries with him a light,
sharp-pointed lance, the stem of which is made of Persian or
African cane; the manner in which this is carried or trailed
often indicates the tribe of the owner. The lance is the favourite
and characteristic weapon of the Arab nomad, and the one in the
use of which he shows the greatest skill. An antiquated sword,
an out-of-date musket, an ornamented dagger or knife, a coat of
mail, the manufacture of Yemen or Bagdad, and a helmet, a mere
iron head-piece, without visor or crest, complete his military
outfit.
A Bedouin's tent consists of a few coverings of the coarsest
goat-hair, dyed black, and spread over two or more small poles,
in height from 8 to 9 ft., gipsy fashion. If it be the tent of a
sheik, its total length may be from 30 to 40 ft. ; if of an ordinary
person, less than 20 ft. Sometimes a partition separates the
quarters of the women and children; sometimes they are
housed under a lower and narrower covering. A rough carpet
or mat is spread on the ground; while camel-saddles, ropes,
halters, two or three cooking pots, one or two platters, a wooden
drinking bowl, the master's arms at one side of the tent, and his
spear stuck in the ground at the door, complete the list of house-
hold valuables. On striking camp all these are fastened on the
backs of camels; the men mount their saddles, the women their
litters; and in an hour the blackened stones that served for a
cooking hearth are the only sign of the encampment. For food
the Bedouin relies on his herds, but rice, vegetables, honey,
locusts and even lizards are at times eaten.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Jphann Ludwig Burckhardt, Notes on the
Bedouins and Wahabis (1831); Karstens Niebuhr, Travels through
Arabia (orig. Germ. edit. 1772), translated into English by Robert
Heron (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1792); H. H. Tessup, Women of the
Arabs (New York, 1874); W. S. Blunt, Bedouin Tribes of the
Euphrates (1879); Lady Anne Blunt, Pilgrimage to Nejd (1881);
Desmoulins, Les Fran$ais d'aujourd'hui (Pans, 1898); C. M.
Doughty, Arabia Deserta (2 vofs., 1888) ; E. Reclus, Les Arabes
(Brussels, 1898); Rev. S. M. Zwemer, Arabia, the Cradle of Islam
(1900) ; W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia
(Cambridge, 1885); H. C. Trumbull, The Blood Covenant (Phil-
adelphia, 1891).
BEDSORE, a form of ulceration or sloughing, occasioned in
people who, through sickness or old age, are confined to bed,
resulting from pressure or the irritation of sweat and dirt.
Bedsores usually occur when there is a low condition of nutrition
of the tissues. The more helpless the patient the more liable he
is to bedsores, and especially when he is paralysed, delirious or
insane, or when suffering from one of the acute specific fevers.
They may occur wherever there is a pressure, more especially
when any moisture is allowed to remain on the bedding; and
thus lack of cleanliness is an important factor in the production
of this condition. In large hospitals a bedsore is now a great
rarity, and this, considering the helplessness of many of the
patients treated, shows what good nursing can do. The bed
must be made with a firm smooth mattress; the undersheet and
blanket must be changed whenever they become soiled; the
drawsheet is spread without creases, and changed the moment it
becomes soiled. Preventive treatment must be followed from
the first day of the illness. This consists in the most minute
attention to cleanliness, and constant variation in the position
of the patient. All parts subjected to pressure or friction must
be frequently washed with soap and hot water, then thoroughly
dried with a warm soft towel. The part should next be bathed
in a solution of corrosive sublimate in spirits of wine, and finally
dusted with an oxide of zinc and starch powder. This routine
should be gone through not less than four times in the twenty-four
hours in any case of prolonged illness. The pressure may be
relieved over bony prominences by a water-pillow or by a piece
of thick felt cut into a ring. Signs of impending bedsores must
constantly be watched for. Where one threatens, the skin loses
its proper colour, becoming either a deadly white or a dusky red,
BEDWORTH BEE
625
and the redness does not disappear on pressure. The surrounding
tissues become oedematous, and pain is often severe, except in a
case of paralysis. As the condition progresses further the pain
ceases. The epidermis now becomes raised as in a blister, and
finally becomes detached, forming an excoriation and exposing
the papillae. Even at this late stage an actual ulceration can
still be prevented if proper care is taken; but failing this, the
skin sloughs and an ulcer forms. In treating this, the position
of the patient must be such that no pressure is ever allowed on the
sloughing tissue. A hot boracic pad under oil-silk should be
applied, the affected part being first dusted with iodoform.
If, however, the slough is very large, it is safer to avoid wet
applications, and the parts should be dusted with animal charcoal
and iodoform, and protected with a dry dressing. When the
slough has separated and the sore is clean, friar's balsam will
hasten the healing process. In any serious illness the formation
of a bedsore makes the prognosis far more grave, and may even
bring about a fatal issue, either directly or indirectly.
BEDWORTH, a manufacturing town in the Nuneaton parlia-
mentary division of Warwickshire, England; on the Nuneaton-
Coventry branch of the London & North Western railway,
loom, north-west from London. Pop. (1900) 7169. A tramway
connects with Coventry, and the Coventry canal passes through.
Coal and ironstone are mined; there are iron- works, and bricks,
hats, ribbons and tape and silk are made. Similar industries
are pursued in the populous district (including the villages
of Exhall and Foleshill) which extends southward towards
Coventry.
BEE (Sanskrit bha, A.S. bed, Lat. apis), a large and natural
family of the zoological order Hymenoptera, characterized by
the plumose form of many of their hairs, by the large size of
the basal segment of
the foot, which is
always elongate and
in the hindmost limb
sometimes as broad
I as the shin, and by
the development of a
" tongue " for suck-
ing liquid food; this
organ has been vari-
ously interpreted as
the true insectan
tongue (hypo-
pharynx) or as a
ligula formed by
fused portions of the
second maxillae
(probably the latter).
Bees are specialized
in correspondence
with the flowers from
which they draw the
bulk of their food
supply, the flexible
tongue being used
for sucking nectar,
the plumed hairs and
the modified legs (fig.
7) for gathering pol-
len. These floral pro-
ducts which form the
food of bees and of
their larvae, are in
most cases collected
and stored by the
industrious insects;
but some genera of
bees act as inquilines
or " cuckoo-parasites," laying their eggs in the nests of other
bees, so that their larvae may feed at the expense of the
rightful owners of the nest. In a few cases, the parasitic bee-
FIG. i. Honey-bee (Apismellifica). a,
male (drone) ; b, queen ; c, worker. Twice
natural size.
(After Bcnton, Bull, i (n. s.) Div. Enl., U.S. Dcpt. Agr.).
grub devours not only the food-supply, but also the larva of
its host.
Solitary and Social Bees. Many genera of bees are represented,
like most other insects, by ordinary males and females, each
female constructing a nest formed of several chambers (" cells ")
and storing in each chamber a supply of food for the grub to be
hatched from the egg that she lays therein. Such bees, although
a number of individuals often make their nests dose together,
are termed " solitary," their communities differing in nature
from those of the " social " bees, among which there are two
kinds of females the normal fertile females or " queens,"
and those specially modified ^females with undeveloped ovaries
(see fig. 6) that are called " workers " (fig. i). The workers
FIG. 2. Head and Appendages or Honey-bee (Apis) (magnified
sixteen times).
a, Antenna or feeler.
g, Epipharynx.
mxp, Maxillary palp.
pg, Opposite to galeae of 2nd
maxillae (labium).
mx, 1st maxilla.
lp, , Labial palp.
/, Ligula or " tongue."
b, Bouton or spoon of the
ligula.
(From Frank R. Cheshire's Bee and Bee-keiping.)
are the earliest developed offspring of the queen, and it is their
associated work which renders possible the rise of an insect
state a state which evidently has its origin in the family.
It is interesting to trace various stages in the elaboration of the
bee-society. Among the humble-bees ( Bombtts) the workers help
the queen, who takes her share in the duties of the nest; the
distinction between queen and workers is therefore less absolute
than in the hive-bees (Apis), whose queen, relieved of all nursing
and building cares by the workers, devotes her whole energies
6 2 6
BEE
to egg-laying. The division of labour among the two castes of
female becomes therefore most complete in the most highly
organized society.
Structure. Details of the structure of bees are given in the
article HYMENOPTERA. The feelers (fig. 2, a) are divided into
" scape " and " flagellum " as in the ants, and the mandibles
vary greatly in size and sharpness in different genera. The
proboscis or " tongue " (fig. 2, I) is a hollow organ enclosing
an outgrowth of the body-cavity which is filled with fluid,
and with its flexible under-surface capable of invagination or
protrusion. Along this surface stretches a groove which is sur-
rounded by thickened cuticle and practically formed into a
tube by numerous fine hairs. Along this channel the nectar is
drawn into the pharynx and passes, mixed with saliva, into the
crop or " honey-bag "; the action of the saliva changes the
saccharose into dextrose and levulose, and the nectar becomes
honey, which the bee regurgitates for storage in the cells or for
the feeding of the grubs. The sting (fig. 6, pg, st.) of female
bees is usually highly specialized, but in a few genera it is reduced
and useless.
Many modifications in details of structure may be observed
within the family. The tongue is bifid at the tip in a few genera ;
usually it is pointed and varies greatly in length, being com-
paratively short in Andrena, long in the humble-bees(.B0wZ>ws),
and longest in Euglossa, a tropical American genus of solitary
bees. The legs, which are so highly modified as pollen-carriers
in the higher bees, are comparatively simple in certain primitive
genera. The hairy covering, so notable in the hive-bee and
especially in humble-bees, is greatly reduced among bees that
follow a parasitic mode of life.
Early stages. As is usual where an abundant food supply
is provided for the young insects, the larvae of bees (fig. 3, SL.)
CO
FIG. 3. Larva and Pupa of Apis (magnified four times).
SL, Spinning larva. sp, Spiracles. w, Wing.
N, Pupa. t, " Tongue." ce, Compound Eye.
FL, Feeding larva. m. Mandible. e, Excrement.
co. Cocoon. an, Antenna. ex, Exuvium.
(From Cheshire's Bees and See-keeping.}
are degraded maggots; they have no legs, but possess fairly
well-developed heads. The successive cuticles that are cast
as growth proceeds are delicate in texture and sometimes
separate from the underlying cuticle without being stripped
off. The maggots may pass no excrement from the intestine
until they have eaten all their store of food. When fully grown
the final larval cuticle is shed, and the " free " pupa (fig. 3, N)
revealed. The larvae of some bees spin cocoons (fig. 3, co)
before pupation.
Nests of Solitary Bees. Bees of different genera vary consider-
ably in the site and arrangement of their nests. Many like
the common " solitary " bees Halictus and Andrena burrow
in the ground; the holes of species of Andrena are commonly
seen in springtime opening on sandy banks, grassy lawns or
gravel paths. Our knowledge of such bees is due to the observa-
tions of F. Smith, H. Friese, C. Verhoeff and others. The nest
may be simple, or, more frequently, a complex excavation, cells
opening off from the entrance or from a main passage. Some-
times the passage is the conjoint work of many bees whose cells
are grouped along it at convenient distances apart. Other bees,
the species of Osmia for example, choose the hollow stem of a
bramble or other shrub, the female forming a linear series of cells
in each of which an egg is laid and a supply of food stored up.
J. H. Fabre has found that in the nests of some species of Osmia
the young bee developed in the first-formed cell, if (as often
happens) she emerges from her cocoon before the inmates of
the later cells, will try to work her way round these or to bite
a lateral hole through the bramble shoot; should she fail to
do this, she will wait for the emergence of her sisters and not
make her escape at the price of injury to them. But when
Fabre substituted dead individuals of her own species or live
larvae of another genus, the Osmia had no scruple in destroying
them, so as to bite her way out to air and liberty.
The leaf-cutter bees (Megachile) which differ from Andrena
and Halictus and agree with Osmia, Apis and Bombus in having
elongate tongues cut neat circular disks from leaves, using
them for lining the cells of their underground nests. The
carpenter-bees (Xylocopa and allied genera), unrepresented
in the British Islands, though widely distributed in warmer
countries, make their nests in dry wood. The habits of X.
violacea, the commonest European species, were minutely
described in the i8th century in one of R. A. F. de Reaumur's
memoirs. This bee excavates several parallel galleries to which
access is gained by a cylindrical hole. In the galleries are
situated the cells, separated from one another by transverse
partitions, which are formed of chips of wood, cemented by
the saliva of the bee.
Among the solitary bees none has more remarkable nesting
habits than the mason bee (Chalicodoma) represented in the
south of France and described at length by Fabre. The female
constructs on a stone a series of cells, built of cement, which
she compounds of particles of earth, minute stones and her
own saliva. Each cell is provided with a store of honey and
pollen beside which an egg is laid; and after eight or nine cells
have been successively built and stored, the whole is covered
by a dome-like mass of cement. Fabre found that a Chalicodoma
removed to a distance of 4 kilometres from the nest that she was
building, found her way back without difficulty to the exact
spot. But if the nest were removed but a few yards from its
former position, the bee seemed no longer able to recognize it,
sometimes passing over it, or even into the unfinished cell, and
then leaving it to visit again uselessly the place whence it had
been moved. She would accept willingly, however, another
nest placed in the exact spot where her own had been. If the
unfinished cell in the old nest had been only just begun, while
that in the substituted nest were nearly completed, the bee
would add so much material as to make the cell much larger
than the normal size, her instinct evidently being to do a certain
amount of building work before filling the cell with food. The
food, too, is always placed in the cell after a fixed routine first
honey disgorged from the mouth, then pollen brushed off the
hairs beneath the body (fig. 7, c) after which the two substances
are mixed into a paste.
Inquilines and Parasites. The working bees, such as have been
mentioned, are victimized by bees of other genera, which throw
upon the industrious the task of providing for the young of
the idle. The nests of Andrena, for example, are haunted by
the black and yellow species of Nomada, whose females lay their
eggs in the food provided for the larva of the Andrena. According
to H. Friese, the relations between the host and the inquiline
are quite friendly, and the insects if they meet in the nest-
galleries courteously get out of each other's way. D. Sharp,
in commenting on this strange behaviour, points out that the
host can have no idea why the inquiline haunts her nest. " Why
then should the Andrena feel alarm? If the species of Nomada
attack the species of Andrena too much, it brings about the
destruction of its own species more certainly than that of the
Andrena."
More violent in its methods is the larva of a Stelis, whose
operations in the nest of Osmia leucomelana have been studied
by Verhoeff. The female Stelis lays her eggs earlier than the
Osmia, and towards the bottom of the food-mass; the egg of
the Osmia is laid later, and on the surface of the food. Hence
the two eggs are at opposite ends of the food, and both larvae
BEE
627
feed for a time without conflict, but the Stelis, being the older,
is the larger of the two. Finally the parasitic larva attacks
the Osmia, and digging its mandibles into its victim's head
kills and eats it, taking from one to two days for the completion
of the repast.
Social Bees. The bees hitherto described are " solitary, "
all the individuals being either males or unmodified females.
The most highly developed of the long-tongued bees are " social "
species, in which
the females are
differentiated
into egg - laying
queens and
(usually) infer-
tile " workers "
(fig. 6). Verhoeff
has discussed
the rise of the
" social " from
the " solitary "
condition, and
points out that
FIG. 4. Under 'Side of Worker, carrying Wax {or the forma .
Scales (magnified three times). ,
tion of an insect
community three
conditions are necessary a nest large enough for a number
of individuals, a close grouping of the cells, and an associa-
tion between mother and daughters in the winged state.
For the fulfilment of this last condition, the older insects of the
new generation must emerge from the cells while the mother is
still occupied with the younger eggs or larvae. One species of
Halictus nearly reaches the desired stage; but the first young
bees to appear in the perfect state are males, and when the
females emerge the mother dies.
Among the social bees the mother and daughter-insects
co-operate, and they differ from the " solitary " groups in the
nature of their nest, the cells (fig. 25) of which are formed of
wax secreted by special glands (fig. 5) in the bee's abdomen,
the wax being pressed out between the segmental sclerites in
the form of plates (fig. 4), which are worked by the legs (fig. 7)
and jaws into the requisite shape. In our well-known hive-bee
(Apis) and humble-bees (Bombus) the wax glands are ventral
FIG. 5. Abdominal Plate (worker of Apis), under side, third
segment (magnified twenty times). W, wax-yielding surface,
covering true gland; s, septem, or carina; wh, webbed hairs.
(From Cheshire's Bees and Bee- keeping.)
in position, but in the " stingless " bees of the tropics (Trigona
and Melipona) they are dorsal. A colony of humble-bees is
started in spring by a female " queen " which has survived the
winter. She starts her nest underground or in a surface depres-
sion, forming a number of waxen cells, roughly globular in shape
and arranged irregularly. The young females (" workers ")
that develop from the eggs laid in these early cells assist the
queen by building fresh cells and gathering food for storage
therein. The queen may be altogether relieved of the work
of the nest as the season advances, so that she can devote all
her energies to egg-laying, and the colony grows rapidly. The
distinction between queen and worker is not always clear among
humble-bees, the female insects varying in size and in the develop-
ment of their ovaries. If any mishap befall the queen, the workers
can sometimes keep the community from dying out. In autumn
males are produced, as well as young queens. The community
is broken up on the approach of winter, the males and workers
perish, and the young queens after hibernation start fresh nests
in the succeeding year.
The appearance of the heavy-bodied hairy Bombi is well
known. They are closely " mimicked " by bees of the genus
Psithyrus, which often share their nests. These Psithyri have
no pollen-carrying
structures on the
legs and their grubs
are dependent for
their food - supply
on the labours of
the Bombi, though,
according to E.
Hoffer's observa-
tions, it seems that
the lemalePsithyrus
builds her own cells.
The colonies of
Bombus illustrate
the rise of the
inquiline habit.
Many of the species
are very variable
and have been
differentiated into
races or varieties.
F. W. L. Sladen
states that a queen
belonging to the
virginalis form of i
Bombus terrestris
often invades a nest
belonging to the FlG " 6. Ovaries of Queen and Workers (Apis).
Abdomen of
queen, under
side (magnified
eight times).
P, Petiole.
0, o, Ovaries.
hs, Position filled
by honey-sack.
ds, Position through
which digestive
system passes.
od, Oviduct.
co.d, Vagina.
E, Egg-passing ovi-
duct.
s, Spermatheca.
1, Intestine.
pb, Poison bag.
pg. Poison gland.
st. Sting.
p, " Palps " or
" feelers " of
sting.
B, Rudimentary ova-
ries of ordinary
worker.
sp, Rudimentary
spermatheca.
C, Partiallydeveloped
ovaries of fer-
tile worker.
sp. Rudimentary
spermatheca.
(From Cheshire's Bees and Bee-keeping.)
lucorum form, kills A,
the rightful queen,
and t akes possession
of the nest, getting
the lucorum workers
to rear her young.
In the nests of
Bombi are found
various beetle
larvae that live as
inquilines or para-
sites, and also mag-
gots of drone-flies
(Volucella), which
act as scavengers;
the Volucella-fly is
usually a " mimic " of the Bombus, whose nest she in-
vades.
The " stingless " bees (Trigona) of the tropics have the parts
of the sting reduced and useless for piercing. As though to
compensate for the loss of this means of defence, the mandibles
are very powerful, and some of the bees construct tubular
entrances to the nest with a series of constrictions easy to hold
against an enemy. The habits of the Brazilian species of these
bee^ have been described in detail by H. von Jhering, who points
out that their wax glands are dorsal in position, not ventral as
in Bombus and Apis.
With Apis, the genus of the hive-bee, we come to the most
highly-specialized members of the family better known,perhaps,
than any other insects, on account of the long domestication of
many of the species or races. In A pis the workers differ structur-
ally from the queen, who neither builds cells, gathers food, nor
tends brood, and is therefore without the special organs adapted
628
BEE
for those functions which are possessed in perfection by the
workers. The differentiation of queen and workers is correlated
with the habit of storing food supplies, and the consequent
permanence of the community, which finds relief for its surplus
population by sending off a swarm, consisting of a queen and a
number of workers, so that the new community is already
specialized both for reproduction and for labour.
The workers of Apis may be capable (fig. 6, C) of laying eggs
necessarily unfertilized which always give rise to males
("drones"), and, since the researches of J. Dzierzon (1811-
1906) in 1848, it has been believed that the queen bee lays
fertilized eggs in cells appropriate for the rearing of queens or
TERZI.
FIG. 7. Modifications in the Legs of Bees.
A. a-d, Hive-bee (Apis).
Stingless bee (Melipona) .
Humble-bee (Bombus).
Outer view of hind-leg.
Inner view.
Fore-leg of Apis showing
C. h-1,
a,f,h,
b, g, i,
d,
notch in tarsal segment for
cleaning feeler.
e, Tip of intermediate shin with
spur.
c, Feathered hairs with
grains, magnified.
pollen
(After Riley, Insect Lift (U.S. Dept. Agr.), vol. 6.)
workers, and unfertilized eggs in " drone-cells," virgin reproduc-
tion or parthenogenesis being therefore a normal factor in the
life of these insects. F. Dickel and others have lately claimed
that fertilized eggs can give rise to either queens, workers or
males, according to the food supplied to the larvae and the
influence of supposed " sex-producing glands " possessed by
the nurse-workers. Dickel states that a German male bee
mated with a female of the Italian race transmits distinct
paternal characters to hybrid male offspring. A. Weismann,
however, doubts these conclusions, and having found a sperm-
aster in every one of the eggs that he examined from worker-
cells, and in only one out of 272 eggs taken from drone-cells,
he supports Dzierzon's view, explaining the single exception
mentioned above as a mistake of the queen, she having laid
inadvertently this single fertilized egg in a drone instead of in a
worker cell.
The cells of the honeycomb of Apis are usually hexagonal in
form, and arranged in two series back to back (figs. 3, 25).
Some of these cells are used for storage, others for the rearing of
brood. The cells in which workers are reared are smaller than
those appropriate for the rearing of drones, while the " royal
cells," in which the young queens are developed, are large in
size and of an irregular oval in form (fig. 25). It is believed that
from the nature of the cell in which she is ovipositing, the queen
derives a reflex impulse to lay the appropriate egg fertilized
in the queen or worker cell, unfertilized in the drone cell, as
previously mentioned. Whether the fertilized egg shall develop
into a queen or a worker depends upon the nature of the food.
All young grubs are at first fed with a specially nutritious food,
discharged from the worker's stomach, to which is added a diges-
tive secretion derived from special salivary glands in the worker's
head. If this " royal jelly " continue to be given to the grub
throughout its life, it will grow into a queen; if the ordinary
mixture of honey and digested pollen be substituted, as is
usually the case from the fourth day, the grub will become a
worker. The workers, who control the polity of the hive (the
"queen" being exceedingly "limited" in her monarchy),
arrange if possible that young queens shall develop only when
the population of the hive has become so congested that it is
desirable to send off a swarm. When a young queen has emerged,
she stings her royal sisters (still in the pupal stage) to death.
Previous to the emergence of the young queen, the old queen,
prevented by the workers from attacking her daughters, has led
off a swarm to find a new home elsewhere. The young queen,
left in the old home, mounts high into the air for her nuptial
flight, and then returns to the hive and her duties of egg-laying.
The number of workers increases largely during the summer,
and so hard do the insects work that the life of an individual
may last only a few weeks. On the approach of winter the
males, having no further function to perform for the community,
are refused food-supplies by the workers, and are either excluded
or banished from the hive to perish. Such ruthless habits of the
bee-commonwealth, no less than the altruistic labours of the
workers, are adapted for the survival and dominance of the
species. The struggle for life may deal hardly with the indi-
vidual, but it results to quote Darwin's well-known title in
" the preservation of favoured races."
BIBLIOGRAPHY. More has been written on bees, and especially on
the genus Apis, than on any other group of insects. The classical
observations of Reaumur Memoires pour servir a I'histoire des
insectes, vols. v., vi. (Paris, 1740-1742) and F. Huber's Nouvelles
observations sur les abeilles (Geneve, 1792) will never be forgotten;
they have been matched in recent times by J. H. Fabre's Souvenirs
entomologiques (Paris, 1879-1891): and M. Maeterlinck's poetic yet
scientific La vie des abeilles (Paris, 1901). Among writers on the
solitary and parasitic species may be specially mentioned F. Smith,
Hymenoptera in the British Museum (London, 1853-1859) ; H. Friese,
Zool. Jahrb. Syst., iv. (1891) J. Perez, Actes Soc. Bordeaux, xlviii.
(1895); and C. Verhoeff, Zool. Jahrb. Syst., vi. (1892). For the
social species we have valuable papers by E. Hoffer, Mitt. Natur-
wissen. Ver. Steiermark, xxxi. (1881); H. von Jhering, Zool. Jahrb.
Syst., xix. (1903); and others. For recent controversy on partheno-
genesis in the hive bee, see J. Perez, Ann. Sci. Nat. Zool. (6), vii.
(1878); F. Dickel, Zool. Anz., xxv. (1901), and Anatom. Anzeiger,
xix. (1902); A. Petrunkevich, Zoolog. Jahrb. Anat., xiv. (1901);
and A. Weismann, Anatom. Anzeiger, xviii. (1901). F. R. Cheshire's
Bees and Bee-keeping (London, 1885-1888), and T. W. Cowan's
Honey Bee (and ed., 1904), are invaluable to the naturalist, and
contain extensive bibliographies of Apis. D. Sharp's summary in the
Cambridge Natural History, vol. vi., should be consulted for further
information on bees generally. British bees are described in the
catalogues of Smith, mentioned above, and by E. Saunders, The
Hymenoptera of the British Islands (London, 1896). (G. H. C.)
BEE-KEEPING
Bee-keeping, or the cultivation of the honey-bee as a source
of income to those who practise it, is known to have existed
from the most ancient times. Poets, philosophers, historians
and naturalists (among whom may be mentioned Virgil, Aristotle,
Cicero and Pliny) have eulogized the bee as unique among
insects, endowed by nature with wondrous gifts beneficial to
BEE
629
FIG. 8. Sign of
ic
SgVL
coffin of Mykerinos,
3633 B.C. (British
Museum).
mankind in a greater degree than any other creature of the
insect world. We are told that some of these ancient scientists
passed years of their lives studying the wonders of bee-life, and
left accurate records of their observations, which on many points
agree with the investigations of later observers. As a forcible
illustration of the manner in which a colony of bees was recog-
nized as the embodiment of government by a chief or ruler, in the
earliest times of which there is any existing record, it may be
mentioned that on the sarcophagus containing the mummified
remains of Mykerinos (now in the British
Museum and dating back 3633 years B.C.)
will be found a hieroglyphic bee (fig. 8)
representing the king of Lower Egypt.
In dealing with the practical side of bee-
keeping as now understood, it may be said
that, compared with the methods in vogue
the king of Lower during the first decade of the igth century,
Egypt; from the or even within the memory of men still
living at the beginning of the 2oth, it
is as the modern locomotive to the stage-
coach of a previous generation. Almost
everything connected with bee-craft has been revolution-
ized, and apiculture, instead of being classed with such homely
rural occupations as that of the country housewife who carries a
few eggs weekly to the market-town in her basket, is to-day
regarded in many countries as a pursuit of considerable import-
ance. Remarkable progress has also been made in
l ^ e art ^ queen-rearing, and in improving the common
or native bee by judicious crossing with the best
foreign races, selected mainly for hardiness, working qualities
and the prolific capacity of their queens. American bee-breeders
are conspicuous in this respect, extensive apiaries being exclu-
sively devoted to the business of rearing queens by the thousand
for sale and export.
On the European continent queen-rearing apiaries are plentiful,
but less attention is paid there to hybridizing than to keeping the
respective races pure. In England also, some bee-keepers include
queen-rearing as part of their business, while one large apiary
on the south coast is exclusively devoted to the rearing of queen
bees on the latest scientific system, and to breeding by selection
from such races as are most suited to the exceptional climatic
conditions of the country.
Extensive apiaries have been established on the American
continent, some containing from 2000 to 3500 colonies of bees,
and in these honey is harvested in hundreds of tons yearly.
The magnitude of the bee industry in the United States may be
judged from the fact of a single bee-farmer located in California
having harvested from 150,000 Ib of honey in one year from
2000 stocks of bees, and, as an instance of the enormous weight
of honey obtainable from good hives in that favoured region, the
same farmer secured 60,000 Ib of comb-honey in one season from
his best 300 colonies. This is probably the maximum, and the
hives were necessarily located in separate apiaries some few
miles apart in order to avoid the evils of overstocking, but all
in the midst of thousands of acres of honey-yielding flowers.
Results like the above compared with those of the skeppist bee-
keeper of former days, who was well pleased with an average
of 20 to 25 Ib per hive, may be regarded as wonderful, but
they are matters of fact. The consumption of honey
as an article of food has also largely increased of late
years; a recent computation shows that from 100 to
125 million Ib of honey, representing a money value of from
eight to ten million dollars, is consumed annually in the United
States alone. Many of the larger bee-farmers of the United
States of America and Canada harvest from 50,000 to 60,000 Ib
of honey in a single season, and some of them sell the whole
crop direct to consumers.
It is a notable fact that in the United States, Canada, Australia,
New Zealand, and indeed all English-speaking countries outside
the United Kingdom, honey is far more extensively used than
it is there as an article of daily food. The natural result of this
is that the trade in honey is conducted, in those countries, on
Honey at
food.
entirely different lines from those followed in the British Isles,
where honey production as an occupation has, until quite recent
years, been regarded as too insignificant for official notice in any
form. The value of the bee industry is now recognized,
however, by the British government as worthy of state
aid, in the promotion of technical instruction connected
with agriculture. On the American continent apiculture
is officially recognized by the respective states' governments;
and by the federal government at Washington it is taken into
account as a section of the Agricultural Department, with fully
equipped experimental apiaries and qualified professors engaged
therein for educational work. In several Canadian provinces
also, the public funds are used in promoting the bee industry in
various ways, mainly in combating the bee-disease known as
" foul brood." In New Zealand the government of the colony
has displayed the most praiseworthy earnestness and vigour in
promoting apiculture. State-aided apiaries have been established
under the supervision of a skilled bee-keeper, who travels over
the colony giving instruction in practical bee-work at the public
schools, and forming classes at various centres where pupils are
taught bee-keeping in all its branches.
In Europe similar progress is observable; technical schools,
with well-equipped apiaries attached, are supported by the
state, and in them the science and practice of modern bee-keeping
is taught free by scientists and practical experts. Institutions
of this kind have been established in -Germany, Russia,
Switzerland and elsewhere, all tending in the same direction,
viz. the cultivation of the honey-bee as an appreciable source of
income to the farmer, the peasant cultivator, and dwellers in
districts where bee-forage is abundant and, if unvisited by the
bee, lies wasting its sweetness on the desert air. It may be
safely said that the value of the bee to the fruit-grower and the
market-gardener has been proved beyond dispute; and the
technical instruction now afforded by county councils in the rural
districts of England has an appreciable effect. In proof
thereof, we may quote the case of an extensive grower J
in the midland counties sending fruit to the London fertilizers.
market in tons whose crop of gooseberries increased
nearly fourfold after establishing a number of stocks of bees in
close proximity to the gooseberry bushes. The fruit orchards
and raspberry fields of Kent are also known to be greatly bene-
fited by the numerous colonies of bees owned by more than 3000
bee-keepers in the county. The important part played by the
bee in the economy of nature as a fertilizer is shown in fig. 9.
In the United Kingdom the prevailing conditions, climatic
FIG. 9. A, Raspberry (Rubus idoeus, order Rosoceoe), being
fertilized. B, Cross section.
B, Section'through core, or torus
(C) and drupels (D).
ud, Unfertilized drupel.
vis. Withered stigma.
A, Flower, magnified twice.
p, p. Petals,
a, a, Anthers.
s, Stigma.
no, Nectary openings.
nc. Nectar cells.
D, Drupels'.
(From Cheshire's Bea and Bet-keeping, Scientific and Practical.)
and otherwise, with regard to apiculture as well as the lack of
sufficient natural bee-forage for large apiaries are such as to
preclude the possibility of establishing apiaries on a scale com-
parable with those located in less confined lands. On the other
630
BEE
hand, even in England the value of bee-keeping is worthy of
recognition as a minor industry connected with such items of
agriculture as fruit-growing, market-gardening or poultry-
raising. The fact that British honey is second to none for
quality, and that the British market is eagerly sought by the
bee-keepers of other nationalities, has of late impressed itself
on the minds of thinking men. Moreover, their views are con-
firmed by the constant references to bees and the profits obtain-
able from bee-keeping in the leading papers on all sides. This
newly-aroused interest in the subject is no doubt to a large extent
fostered by the grants in aid of technical instruction afforded by
g^,. county councils in rural districts. The British Bee-
keepers' keepers' Association (instituted in 1874) has been
associa- untiring in its efforts to raise the standard of efficiency
among those who are desirous of qualifying as experts
and teachers of bee-keeping on modern methods. This body had
for its first president the distinguished naturalist Sir John
Lubbock (Lord Avebury). Subsequently the baroness Burdett-
Coutts accepted the office in the year 1878, and was re-elected
annually until her death in 1906. During this time she nresided
at its meetings and took an active part in its work, until advanc-
ing years prevented her attendance, but her interest in the
welfare of the association was maintained to the last. Branch
societies of bee-keepers were established throughout the English
counties, mainly by the efforts of the parent body in London,
with the object of securing co-operation in promoting the sale
of" honey, and showing the most modern methods of
producing it in its most attractive form at exhibitions
shows. held for the purpose. Nearly the whole of these county
societies affiliated with the central association, paying
an affiliation fee yearly, and receiving in return the silver medal,
bronze medal and certificate of the association, to be offered as
prizes for competition at the annual county shows. Other ad-
vantages are given in connexion with the qualifying of experts,
&c., while nearly all the county associations in the United
Kingdom employ qualified men who visit members in spring
and autumn for the purpose of examining hives and giving
advice on bee management to those needing it. Another
advantage of membership is the use of a " county
label " for affixing to each section of honey in comb,
or jar of extracted honey, offered for sale by members.
These labels are numbered consecutively, and thus afford a
guarantee of the genuineness and quality of the honey, the label
enabling purchasers to trace the producer if needed. The
British Bee-keepers' Association is an entirely philanthropic
body, the only object of its members being to promote all that
is good in British bee-keeping, and to " teach humanity to that
industrious little labourer, the honey-bee." Bee-appliance
manufacturers are not eligible for membership of its council,
nor are those who make bee-keeping their main business; thus
no professional jealousies can possibly arise. In this respect the
association appears to stand alone among the bee-keepers'
societies of the world. There are many equally beneficial
societies, framed on different lines, existing in Germany, France,
Russia and Switzerland, but they are mainly co-operative bodies
instituted for the general benefit of members, who are without
exception either bee-keepers on a more or less extensive scale,
or scientists interested in the study of insect life.
The bee-keepers' associations of the United States, Canada
and most of the British colonies, are like those last mentioned
above formed for the sole and laudable purpose of promoting
the business interests of their members, the latter being either
bee-farmers or bee-appliance manufacturers. Thus they make
no pretension of any but business discussions at their confer-
ences, and much benefit to all concerned follows as a matter of
course. In fact, we find enthusiastic bee-men and women
travelling several hundreds of miles and devoting time, money
and labour in attending conferences of bee-keepers in America,
while the proceedings usually last for several days and are
largely attended. The extent of the industry compared with
that of Great Britain is so great that it fully accounts for the
difference in procedure of the respective associations.
Honey
labels.
As a natural consequence of this activity, the trade in bee-
appliance making has assumed enormous proportions in the
United States, where extensive factories have been
established; one firm employing over 500 hands, The *"'
and using electric-power machinery of the most modern trade."'
type being devoted entirely to the manufacture of
bee-goods and apiarian requisites. From this establishment
alone the yearly output is about 25,000 bee-hives, and upwards
of 100 millions of the small wooden boxes used for holding comb-
honey. The most
generally approved
form of this box is
known as the
"i-lb section,"
made from a strip
of wood % in. thick,
2 in. wide, and of
such length that
when folded by
joining the morticed
and tenoned ends
A B (fig. 10) it
forms the section or
box C, measuring
4j"X4i*X2" when
complete, and holds
about i ft) of comb-honey when filled by the bees and ready
for table use. The V-shaped groove D (cut across and partly
through the wood) shows the joint when in the flat, and E the
same joint when closed for use. All the section boxes used in
the United Kingdom are made in the U.S.A. or in Canada from
the timber known as basswood, no native wood being suitable
for the purpose.
Development of the Movable-frame Hive. The dome-shaped
straw skep of our forefathers may be regarded as the typical
bee-hive of all time and of all civilized countries;
indeed, it may with truth be said that as a healthy
and convenient home for the honey-bee it has nc equal.
A swarm of bees hived in a straw skep, the picturesque little
domicile known the world over as the personification of industry,
will furnish their home with waxen combs in form and shape so
admirably adapted to their requirements as to need no improve-
ment by man. Why the circular form was chosen for the skep
need not be inquired into, beyond saying that its shape conforms
to that of a swarm, as the bees usually hang clustered on the
branch of a neighbouring tree or bush after issuing from the
parent hive. Fig. n shows a straw skep in section, and explains
FIG. 10. " i-lb section " wooden box for
holding Comb-honey.
(Redrawn from the A B C of Bee-Culture, published Ly
the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio, U. S. A.) '
Fie. ii. Straw skep in section, showing arrangement of Combs
(scale A).
A, Vertical section. p. Pollen. B, Horizontal section.
Jb, Floor board. /;, Honey. sk, Skep-sidc.
e, Entrance. fh, Feeding hole. c, c, Combs.
br, Brood. bs, bs,Bee spaces. sc, sc, Store combs.
bs, bs, Bee spaces.
(brom Cheshire's Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical.)
itself as illustrating the admirable way in which the bees furnish
their dwelling. The vertical section (A) shows the lower portion
of the combs devoted to brood-rearing, the higher and thicker
combs being reserved for honey, and midway between the brood
and food is stored the pollen required for mixing with honey in
feeding the larvae. It will be seen how well the upper part of
the combs are fitted for bearing the weight of stores they contain,
BEE
631
aib/e "frame
" *
and how the lower portion allows the bees to cluster around the
tender larvae and thus maintain the warmth necessary during its
metamorphosis from the egg to the perfect insect. The hori-
zontal section (B) with equal clearness demonstrates the bee's
ingenuity in economizing space, showing how the outer combs
are used exclusively for stores, and, as such, may be built of
varying thickness as more or less storage room is required. The
straw skep has, however, the irredeemable fault of fixed combs,
and the gradual development of the movable-frame
n ' VC ^ t'd av mav De sa '^ to nave ^ rst a PP eare< l > n
1789 with the leaf -hive of Huber, so called from its
opening like the leaves of a book. Prior to that date
wooden box-hives of various shapes had been adopted by
advanced bee-masters anxious to increase their output of honey,
and by enthusiastic naturalists desirous of studying and in-
vestigating the wonders of bee-life apart from the utilitarian
standpoint. Foremost among the latter was the distinguished
Swiss naturalist and bee-keeper, Francois Hubcr, who was led
to construct the leaf-hive bearing his name after experimenting
with a single comb observatory hive recommended by Reaumur.
Huber found that although he could induce swarms to occupy
the glass-sided single frame advised by Reaumur, if the frame
was fitted with ready-built pieces of comb patched together
before hiving the swarm, the experiment was successful, while
if left to themselves the bees built small combs across the space
between the sheets of glass, and the desired inspection from the
outside was thus rendered impossible. He also gathered that the
abnormal conditions forced upon the bees by a ready-built single
comb might so turn aside their natural instincts as to render his
investigations less trustworthy than if conducted under perfectly
natural conditions; so, in order to remove all doubt, he decided
to have a series of wooden frames made, measuring 12 in. sq.,
each of rather more than the ordinary width allowed for brood-
combs. These frames were numbered consecutively i to 12,
and hinged together as shown in fig. 12 (h, A). In this way the
tb
B
A,
FIG. 12. Huber's book or leaf hive (scale ^).
Book hive. B, Side view of frame
, e, Entrances. or leaf. C, Part of bin, cross
j, s, Side leaves. tb, Top-bar. section, lettering
h, Hinges. c. Comb. as before.
P. P, Pegs.
(From Cheshire's Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical.)
frames of comb could be opened for inspection like a book, while
when closed the bees clustered together as in an ordinary hive.
Ten of these frames had a small piece of comb fixed to the top-
bar in each, supported (temporarily) by a thin lath wedged up
with pegs at side, the latter being removed when the comb had
been made secure by the bees. When closed, the ten frames,
together with the two outside ones (fitted with squares of glass
for inspection), which represent the covers of the book, were tied
together with a couple of stout strings. In a subsequent form
of the same hive Huber was enabled with the help of very long
thumb-screws at each side (fig. 13) to raise up any frame
between two sheets of glass which confined the bees
and allowed him to study the process of comb-building H " l>er '*
* , o*rv-
better than any hive we know of to-day. By means tory hive.
of the leaf-hive and using the entrances (fig. 12, e,e, A)
Huber made artificial swarms by dividing and the use of division-
boards, though not in quite the same fashion as is practised at
the present day. On the other hand, it must be admitted that
FIG. 13. Huber's bar-hive, showing how comb is built, cb, Comb
bar; g, g, glass sheets; s, s, screws; e, entrance.
(From Cheshire's Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical.)
Huber's hive was defective in many respects; the parting of
each frame, thus letting loose the whole colony, caused much
trouble at times, but it remained the only movable-comb hive
till 1838, when Dr Dzierzon whose theory of parthenogenesis
has made his name famous devised a box-hive with a loose
top-bar on which the bees built their combs and a movable side
or door, by means of which the frames could be lifted out for
inspection. This improvement was at once appreciated, and in
the year 1852 Baron Berlepsch added side-bars and a bottom-bar,
thus completing the movable frame.
About the same time the Rev. L. L. Langstroth was experi-
menting on the same lines in America, and in 1852 his important
invention was made known, giving to the world of Lang-
bee-keepers a movable frame which in its most im- f troth's
portant details will never be excelled. We refer to the Uvt '
respective distances left between the side-bars and hive walls
on each side, and between the lower edge of the bottom-bars
and the floor-board. Langstroth, in his measurements, hit upon
the happy mean which keeps bees from propolizing or fastening
the frames to the hive body, as they assuredly would do if
sufficient space had not been allowed for free passage round the
side-bars; it is equally certain that if too much space had been
provided, they would fill it with comb and thus render the frame
immovable. In addition to these benefits, Langstroth's frame
and hive possessed the enormous advantage over Dzierzon's of
being manipulated from above, so that any single frame could
be raised for inspection without disturbing the others. Lang-
stroth's space-measurements have remained practically unaltered
notwithstanding the many improvements in hive-making, and
in the various sizes of movable frames, since introduced and used
in different parts of the world.
In the United States of America Langstroth's frame and hive
are the acknowledged " standards " among the great body of
bee-keepers, although about a dozen different frames,
varying more or less in size, have their adherents.
Among these may be named the American, Adair,
Danzenbaker, Gallup, Heddon, Langstroth and
Quinby. Three of these, the American, Adair and Gallup, may
U.S.A.
632
BEE
British
" Stand-
ard"
frame.
be termed square frames, the others being oblong, but the latter
shape appears to possess the most all-round advantages to the
modern bee-keeper. Amid the different climatic conditions of so
vast a continent as America, variation in size, and in the capacity
of frames used, is in some measure accounted for.
In the British Isles, though the conditions are variable enough,
they are less extreme, and, fortunately for those engaged in
the pursuit, only one size of frame is acknowledged by
the great majority of bee-keepers, viz. the British
Bee-keepers' Association " Standard " (fig. 14). This
frame, the outside measurement of which is 14 by 85
in., was the outcome of deliberations extending over a consider-
able time on the part of a committee of well-known bee-keepers,
specially appointed in 1882 to consider the matter. In this way,
whatever type or form of
hive is used, the frames
are interchangeable.
Differences in view may,
and do, exist regarding
the thickness of the wood
used in frame-making, but
the outside measurement
never varies. Notwith-
standing this fact, the ad-
vancement of apiculture
u. _ ____.. tA,' _ _ _. _ u
F f*r i
FIG. 14. Standard Frame,
and the continuous development of the modern frame-hive and
methods of working have proceeded with such rapidity, both
in England and in America, that hives and appliances used
prior to 1885 are now obsolete.
It may, therefore, be useful to compare the progress made
in the United States of America and in Great Britain in order to
show that, while the industry is incomparably larger and of
more importance in America and Canada than in Great Britain,
British bee-keepers have been abreast of the times in all things
apicultural. The original Langstroth hive was single-walled,
held ten frames (size 17! by 9 in.), and had a deep roof, made
to cover a case of small honey boxes like the sections now in
use; but the cumbersome projecting porch and sides, made to
support the roof, are now dispensed with, and the number of
frames reduced to eight. Although various modifications have
since been made in minor details all tending to improvement
its main features are unaltered. The typical hive of America is
the improved Langstroth (fig. 15), which has no other cover-
ing for the frame tops
but a flat roof-board
allowing j in. space
between the roof and
i top-bars for bees to
pass from frame to
frame. Consequently,
on the roof being raised
|B the bees can take wing
if not prevented from
doing so. This feature
|C finds no favour with
British bee-keepers,
nevertheless the " im-
15- Langstroth Hive. , .
proved Langstroth " is
(Redrawn from the A BC of Bee-Culture, published by ( i
the A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio, 0. s. A.) a useful and simple
hive, moderate in price,
and no doubt efficient, but not suitable for bees wintered on their
summer stands, as nearly all hives are in Great Britain. American
bee-keepers, therefore, find it necessary to provide
underground cellars, into which the bees are carried
bees. m the fall of each year, remaining there till work
begins in the following spring. Those among them
who cannot, for various reasons, adopt the cellar- wintering plan
are obliged to provide what are termed " chaff-covers " for pro-
tecting their bees in winter. Of late years they have also
introduced, as an improvement, the plan long followed in
England of using double-walled chaff-packed hives. The differ-
ence here is that packing is now dispensed with, it being found
that bees winter equally well with an outer case giving ij in.
of free space on all sides of the hive proper, but with no packing
in between. Thus no change is needed in winter or summer,
the air-space protecting the bees from cold in winter and heat
in summer. Another point of difference between the English
and American hive is the roof, which being gable-shaped in the
former allows warm packing to be placed directly on the frame
tops, so that the bees are covered in when the roof is removed
and may be examined or fed with very little disturbance. Again,
the American hive is, as a general rule, set close down on the
ground, while stands or short legs are invariably used in Great
Britain. One of the best-known hives in England is that known
as the W.B.C. hive, devised in 1890 by W. Broughton Carr.
Figs. 16 and 17 explain its construction and, as will be seen,
it is equally suit-
able when work-
ing for comb or
for extracted
honey.
Various causes
have contributed
to the develop-
ment of the
modern hive, the
most important
of which are the
improvements in
methods of ex-
tracting honey
from combs, and
in the manufac-
ture of comb- 1
foundation. Re-
garding the first
of these, it can-
not be said that
the honey ex-
tractor, even in
its latest form, differs very much from the original machine
(fig. 1 8) invented by Major Hruschka, an officer in the Italian
army, who in later life became an enthusiastic apicul-
turist. Hruschka's extractor, first brought to public
notice in 1865, may be said to have revolutionized the
bee-industry as a business. It enabled the honey producer to in-
crease his output considerably by extracting honey from the cells
in most cleanly
fashion without
damaging the
combs, and in a
fraction of the time
previously occupied
in the draining,
heating and squeez-
ing process. At
the same time the
combs were pre-
served for refilling
by the bees, in lieu
of melting them
down for wax. The
principle of the
honey extractor
(throwing the
liquid honey out of
the cells by cen-
trifugal force) was
discovered quite by
accident. Major FIG. 17. Interior, W.B.C. Hive.
Hruschka's little son chanced to have in his hand a bit
of unsealed comb-honey in a basket to which was attached
a piece of string, and, as the boy playfully whirled the basket
round in the air, his father noticed a few drops of honey,
FIG. 16. Exterior, W.B.C. Hive.
BEE
633
FIG. 18. Hruschka Extractor.
thrown out of the comb by the centrifugal force employed to
keep the basket suspended. The value of the idea at once struck
him; he set to work on utilizing the principle involved, and
ere long had constructed a machine admirably adapted to serve
its purpose. Since that time changes, of more or less value, have
been introduced to meet
present-day requirements.
One of the first to take ad-
\ vantage of Hruschka's in-
vention was Mr A. I. Root,
who in 1869 perfected a
machine on similar lines to
the Hruschka one but em-
bodying various improve-
ments. This appliance,
known as the " Novice Honey
Extractor," became very
popular in the United States of
America, but it had the fault
of wasting time in removing
^e combs for reversing after
Ohio, U.S.A.) one s id e had been emptied
of its contents. A simple form of machine for extracting
honey by centrifugal force was brought to notice in England
in 1875, and was soon improved upon, as will be seen in fig.
19, which shows a section of one of the best English machines
at that time. Various plans were tried in America to improve
on the " Novice " machine, and Mr T. W. Cowan, who was
experimenting in the same direction in England, invented in
the year 1875 a machine called the " Rapid," in which the combs
were reversed without removal of the cages (fig. 20) . The frame-
cases -wired on both sides are
hung at the angles of a revolving
ring of iron, and the reversing
process is so simple and effective
that the " Cowan " reversible
frame has been adopted in all
the best machines both in Great
Britain and in America.
The latest form of honey
extractor used in America is that
known as the " Four-frame
Cowan." Fig. 21 shows the
working part or inside of the
appliance. In this, and indeed
in all extractors used in large
apiaries, the " Cowan " or re-
versible frame principle is used.
Each of the four cages in which
the combs are placed is swung
-1, 1 - .U^-^L-T-JJ-
_
G'
FIG. 19. Diagram of the Raynor on a pivot attached to the side,
I* vt-t-1f+r\f r '
and when the outer faces of the
combs are emptied the cages are
Extractor.
A, Section of extractor.
fr, Fixing rail.
fff, Frame for cage.
wb, Metal webbing.
wn, Wire netting.
co, Comb.
w, Wire bottom.
p, Pivot.
c, Stiffening cone.
cb, Coned bottom.
gt, Gutter.
st Syrup tap.
reversed without removal from
the machine for emptying the
opposite sides of combs. The
further development of the
honey extractor has of late
been limited to an increase in
the size of machine used, in
order to save time and manual
C, Perpendicular section of side labour, and thus meet the re-
quirements of the largest honey
producers, who extract honey
by the car load. Some of the
largest machines propelled by
motor power are capable of
of cage enlarged.
oc. Outer casing.
wb, Metal webbing.
wn, Wire netting.
(From Cheshire's Bets and Bet-keeping,
Scientific and Practical.)
taking eight or more frames at one time. It may also be claimed
for the honey extractor that it does away with the objection
entertained by many persons to the use of honey, by enabling
the apiarist to remove his produce from the honey-combs in its
purest form untainted by crushed brood and untouched by hand.
founda-
tion.
Next in importance, to bee-keepers, is the enormous advance
made in late years through the invention of a machine for
manufacturing the impressed wax sheets known as
" comb foundation," aptly so named, because upon
it the bees build the cells wherein they store their food.
We need not dwell upon the evolution from the crude
idea, which first took form in the endeavour to compel beesto build
straight combs in a given direction by offering them a guiding
line of wax along the under side of each top-bar of the frame in
which the combs were built; but we may glance at the more
important improvements
which gradually developed
as time went on. In 1843
a German bee-keeper,
Krechner by name, con-
ceived the idea of first
dipping fine linen into
molten wax, then pressing
the sheets so made be-
tween rollers, and thus
forming a waxen midrib
on which the bees would
build their combs. This
experiment was partially
successful, but the in-
stinctive dislike of bees
to anything of a fibrous
nature caused them com-
pletely to spoil their work FIG. 2o.-Cowan s rapid Extractor.
of comb-building in the endeavour to tear or gnaw away
the linen threads whenever they got in touch with them.
In 1857 Mehring (also a German) made a further advance
by the use of wooden moulds for casting sheets of wax im-
pressed with the hexagonal form of the bee-cell. These
sheets were readily accepted by the bees, and afterwards
plates cast from metal were employed, with so good a result as to
give to the bees as perfect a midrib as that of natural comb with
the deep cell walls cut away. Fig. 22 shows a portion of one of
these metal plates with worker-cells of natural size, i.e. five cells
to the inch. Thus Mehring is justly claimed as the originator
of comb-foundation, though the value of his invention was less
eagerly taken advantage of even in Germany than its merits
deserved. Probably it was ahead of the times, for not until
nearly twenty years later was any prominence given to it, when
Samuel Wagner, founder and
editor of the American Bee
Journal, became impressed
with Mehring's invention and
warmly advocated it in his
paper. Mr Wagner first con-
ceived the idea of adding
slightly raised side walls to the
hexagonal outlines of the cells,
by means of which the bees are
supplied with the material for
building out one-half or more
of the complete cell walls or
sides. The manifest advan-
tage of this was at once
realized by practical Ameri-
can apiarists as saving labour
to the bees and money to the
bee-keeper. One of the first
FIG. 21. Cowan's four-frame
Extractor; interior.
(Redrawn from the A B C ol Btt-Cidtm,
to recognize Its Value was Mr published by the A. I. Root Co.. Medina,
A. I. Root, of Medina, Ohio, Dhio ' vs *->
who suggested the substitution of embossed rollers in lieu of
flat plates, in order to increase the output of foundation
and lessen its cost to the bee-keeper. He lost no time in
giving practical shape to his views, and mainly through
the inventive genius of a skilled machinist (Mr A. Washburn)
the A. I. Root Co. constructed a roller press (fig. 23) for
producing foundation in sheets. This form of machine came
BEE
into extensive use in the United States of America and after-
wards in Great Britain. The first roller press was made
by the A. I. Root Co. and imported by Mr William Raitt, a
Scottish bee-keeper of repute in Perthshire, N.B. In all roller
machines used at that time the plain sheets of wax were first
made by the "dipping" process, i.e. by repeated dippings of
damped boards in
molten wax (kept
in liquid condition in
tanks immersed in
hot water) until the
sheet was of suitable
thickness for the pur-
pose. The' prepared
sheets were then
passed through the
rollers, and after
being cut out and
trimmed were ready
for use.
Owing to the enor-
mous demand for
comb-foundation at
FIG. 22. Portion of a type-metal plate
i.e. form of Comb Midrib (five cells to the
inch).
(From Cheshire's Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and
Practical.)
that time various devices were tried with the view of securing (i)
more rapid production, and (2) a foundation thin enough to be
used in surplus chambers when working for comb-honey intended
for table use. Foremost among the able men who experimented
in this latter direction was Mr F. B. Weed, a skilful American
machinist, who, after some years of strenuous effort, succeeded
in devising and perfecting special rollers and dies, by the use of
which foundation was produced with a midrib so thin as to
compare favourably with natural comb built by the bees.
" Dipping," however, proved not only a stumbling-block to
speed but to the production of continuous sheets of wax; and
in the end Mr Weed, acting in concert with Mr A. I. Root (who
FIG. 23. Foundation Machine (scale ).
(From Cheshire's Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and Practical.)
placed the resources of his enormous factory at his disposal),
devised and perfected machinery driven by motor power for
manufacturing foundation by what is known as the " Weed "
process. By this process " dipping " is abolished, and in its
latest form sheets of wax of any length are produced, passed
between engraved rollers 6 in. in diameter, cut to given lengths,
trimmed, counted and paper-tissued ready for packing, at a
rate of speed previously undreamt of.
Practical Management of Bees. Among the world of insects
Sexot
bees.
the honey-bee stands pre-eminent as the most serviceable to
mankind; from the day on which the little labourer leaves its
home for the first time in search of food, its mission is un-
doubtedly useful. Launched upon an unknown world, and
guided by unerring instinct to the very flowers it seeks, the bee
fertilizes fruit and flowers while winging its happy flight among
the blossoms, gathering pollen for the nurslings of its own home
and honey for the use of man. Nothing seems to be lost, nor can
any part of the bee's work be accounted labour in vain; the
very wax from which the insect builds the store-combs for its
food and the cells in which its young are hatched and reared is
valuable to mankind in many ways, and is regarded to-day no
less than in the past ages as an important commercial product.
The hive bee is, moreover, the only insect known to be capable
of domestication, so far as labouring under the direct control of
the bee-master is concerned, its habits being admirably adapted
for embodying human methods of working for profit in our
present-day life.
In dealing with the practical side of apiculture it will not be
necessary to do more than mention the salient points to be
considered by those desirous of acquiring more complete know-
ledge of the subject. Authoritative text-books specially written
for the guidance of bee-keepers are numerous and cheap, and on
no account should any one engage in an attempt to manage bees
on modern lines without a careful perusal of one or more of these.
Bearing this in mind the reader will understand that so much of
the natural history of the honey-bee as is necessary for eluci-
dating the practical part of our subject may be comprised in
(i) the life of the insect, (2) its mission in life, and (3) utilizing
to the utmost the brief period during which it can labour before
being worn out with toil.
A prosperous bee-colony managed on modern lines will in the
height of summer consist of three kinds of bees: a queen or
mother-bee, a certain number of drones, and from
80,000 to 100,000 workers. With regard to sex, the
queen is a fully-developed female, the drones are males
and the workers may be termed neuters or partially developed
females. These last possess ovaries like the queen, but shrunken
and aborted so
as to render the
insect normally
incapable of egg-
production. The
relative import-
ance of the three
kinds of bees
differs greatly in T
FlG. 24. Hive bee (Apis melhfica), natural size,
degree and in \ Worker; 6, queen; c, drone.
Somewhat CUriOUS (From Cheshire's Bees and Bee-keeping, Scientific and
fashion. For in- Practical.)
stance, the queen (or " king " of the hives as it was termed
by our forefathers) is of paramount importance at certain
seasons, her death or disablement during the period
when the male element is absent meaning extinction
of the whole colony. Fecundation would under such
conditions be impossible, and without this the eggs of a resultant
queen will produce nothing but drones. During the summer
season, however (from May to July), when drones are abundant,
the loss of a queen is of comparatively little moment, as the
workers can transform eggs (or young larvae not more than three
days old), which would in the ordinary course produce worker
bees, into fully-developed queens, capable of fulfilling all the
maternal duties of a mother-bee. The value of this wonderful
provision of nature to the bee-keeper of to-day may be estimated
from the fact that bees managed according to modern methods are
necessarily subject to so much manipulating or handling, that
fatal accidents are as likely to happen in bee-life as among
human beings. .
Authorities differ with regard to the age during which the
queen-bee is useful to the bee-keeper who works for profit.
Under normal conditions the insect will live for three, four or
sometimes five years, but the stimulation given, together with
Loss of
queens.
BEE
635
The
drone.
the high-pressure system followed in modern bee-management,
exhausts the period of her greatest fecundity in two years, so
that queens are usually superseded after their second season
has expired and egg-production gradually decreases. This can
hardly cause wonder if it is borne in mind that for many weeks
during the height of the season a prolific queen will deposit eggs
at the rate of from two to three thousand every twenty-four
hours.
Drones (or male bees) are more or less numerous in hives
according to the skill of the bee-keeper in limiting their pro-
duction. It is admitted by those best able to judge
that the proportion of about a hundred drones in each
hive is conducive to the prosperity of the colony, but
beyond that number they are worse than useless, being non-
producers and heavy consumers. Thus in times of scarcity,
which are not infrequent during the early part of the season,
they become a heavy tax upon the food-supply of the colony
at the critical period when brood-rearing is accelerated by an
abundance of stores, while shortness of food means a falling-
off in egg-production. The modern bee-keeper, therefore,
allows just so much drone comb in the hive as will produce
a sufficient number of drones to ensure queen-mating, while
affording to the bees the satisfaction of dwelling in a home
equipped according to natural conditions, and containing all
the elements necessary to bee-life. The action of the bees
themselves makes this point clear, for when the season of mating
is past the drone is no longer needed, the providing of winter
stores taking first place in the economy of the hive. So long
as honey is being gathered in plenty drones are tolerated, but
no sooner does the honey harvest show signs of being over than
they are mercilessly killed and cast out of the hive by the workers,
after a brief idle life of about four months' duration. Thus
the " lazy yawning drone," as Shakespeare puts it, has a short
shrift when his usefulness to the community is ended.
Finally we have the aptly named worker-bee, on whom devolves
the entire labour of the colony. The worker-bee is incapable
of egg-production and can therefore take no part in
The the perpetuation of its species, so that individually its
' * value to the community is infinitesimal. Yet it forms
an item in a commonwealth, the members of which are
in all respects equally well endowed. They are in turn skilled
scientists, architects, builders, artisans, labourers and even
scavengers; but collectively they are the rulers on whom the
colony depends for the wonderful condition of law and order
which has made the bee-community a model of good government
for all mankind. Then so far as regards longevity, the period
of a worker-bee's existence is not measured by number-
ing ' ls days DUt simply by wear and tear, the marvellous
intricacy and wonderful perfection of its framework
being so delicate in construction that after six or seven weeks of
strenuous toil, such as the bee undergoes in summer time, the
little creature's labour is ended by a natural death. On the other
hand, worker-bees hatched in the autumn will seven months
later be strong with the vigour of lusty youth; able to take
their full share in the labour of the hive for six weeks or more
in the early spring, which is the most critical period in the colony's
existence; hence the value to the apiarist of bees hatched
in the autumn.
The mission of the worker-bee is work; not so much for itself
as for the younger members of the community to which it belongs.
We cannot claim for it the virtue of strict honesty with regard
to the stranger, but for its own " kith and kin " it is a model of
socialism in an ideal form, possessing nothing of its own yet
toiling unceasingly for the good of all. The increasing warmth
of each recurring spring finds the bee awake, and full of eagerness
to be up and doing; its sole mission being apparently to accom-
plish as much work as possible while life lasts. The earliest
pollen is sought out from far and near, and has its immediate effect
upon the mother bee of the colony. If healthy and young she
begins egg-laying at once, and brood-rearing proceeds at an
ever-increasing rate as each week passes, until the hive is
brimming over with bees in time for the first honey flow. Then
comes the almost human foresight with which the bee prevents
the inevitable chaos created by an overcrowded home. There
is no cell-room either for storing the abundant supply of food
constantly being brought in, or for the thousands of eggs which
a prolific queen will produce daily as a consequence of general
prosperity; therefore unless help comes from without an exodus
is prepared for, and what is known as " swarming " takes
place.
It would be difficult to imagine anything more exhilarating
to a beginner in bee-keeping than the sight of his first hive in
the act of swarming. The little creatures are seen
rushing in frantic haste from the hive like a living
stream, filling the air with ever-increasing thousands of
bees on the wing. The incoming workers returning pollen-laden
from the fields, carried away by the prevailing excitement, do
not stop to unload their burdens in the old home, but join the
enthusiastic emigrants, tumbling over each other pell-mell
in the outrush ; among them the queen of the colony will in due
course have taken her place, bound like her children for a new
home. It soon becomes apparent to the onlooker when the
queen has joined the flying multitude of bees in the air, for they
are seen to be dosing up their ranks, and in a few moments
begin to form a solid cluster, usually on the branch of a small
tree or bush close to the ground. When this stage of swarming
is reached the bee-keeper has but to take his hiving skep, hold it
under the swarm, and shake the bees into it, preparatory to trans-
ferring them into a frame-hive already prepared for their re-
ception. The process of hiving a swarm is very simple
and need not occupy many moments of time under
ordinary conditions, but so many unlooked-for con-
tingencies may arise that the apiarist would do well to prepare
himself beforehand by carefully reading the directions in his
text-book.
The illustration given in fig. 25 will serve more readily than
words to enlighten the would-be bee-keeper. It shows a portion
of honeycomb (natural size) not precisely as it appears when
the frame containing it is lifted out of the hive, but as would be
seen on two or more combs in the same hive, namely, the various
cells built for and occupied by queens, drones and workers;
also the larvae or grubs in the various stages of transformation
FIG. 25. Honeycomb (natural size), Metamorphoses of the
Honey Bee.
(From Cheshire's Btes and Btc-kapinf, SncnlifU and Practical.)
from egg to perfect insect, with the latter biting their way out
of sealed cells. It also shows sealed honey and pollen in cells,
&c. To familiarize himself with the various objects depicted,
all of which are drawn from nature, will not only help the reader
to understand the different phases of bee-life during the swarm-
ing season, but tend to increase the interest of beginners in
the pursuit. " Early drones, early swarms " was the ancient
bee-man's favourite adage, and the skilled apiarist of to-day
6 3 6
BEE
experiences the same pleasurable thrill as did the skeppist of
old at the sight of the first drone of the year, which betokens
an early swarm. As the drones increase in number queen-cells
are formed, unless steps be taken to turn aside the swarming
impulse by affording additional room beforehand in the hive.
The above brief outline of the guiding principles of natural
swarming is merely intended as introductory to the fuller
information given in a good text-book.
Management of an Apiary. The main consideration in estab-
lishing an apiary is to secure a favourable location, which means
a place where honey of good marketable quality may be gathered
from the bee-forage growing around without any planting on
the part of the bee-keeper himself. It is impossible to deal
here with the varying conditions under which apiculture is
carried on in all parts of the world, but, as a rule, the same
principle applies everywhere. The bee industry prospers greatly
in America, where amid the vast stretches of mountain
fora la an ^ canvon m California the bee-forage extends for
the U.S.A. miles without a break, and the climatic conditions
are so generally favourable as to reduce to a minimum
the cnances of the honey crop failing through adverse weather.
The bee-keeper's object is to utilize to the utmost the brief
space of a worker-bee's life in summer, by adopting the best
methods in vogue for building up stocks to full strength before
the honey-gathering time begins, and preparing for it by the
exercise of skill and intelligence in carrying out this work.
In the United Kingdom there is a difference of several weeks
in the honey season between north and south. Swarming
usually begins in May in the south of England, and in mid- July
in the north of Scotland, the issue of swarms coinciding with the
early part of the main honey flow. The weather is naturally
more precarious in autumn than Earlier in the year, and chances
of success proportionately smaller for northern bee-men, but
the disadvantage to the latter is more than compensated for
by the heather season, which extends well into September.
With regard to the British bee-keeper located in the south,
the early fruit crop is what concerns him most, and
pollen? where pollen (the fertilizing dust of flowers) is plentiful
his bees will make steady progress. If pollen_is scarce,
a substitute in the form of either pea-meal or wheaten flour
must be supplied to the bees, as brood-rearing cannot make
headway without the nitrogenous element indispensable in the
food on which the young are reared. But the main honey-crop
of both north and south is gathered from the various trifoliums,
among which the white Dutch or common clover
(Trifolium repens) is acknowledged to be the most
plants. important honey-producing plant wherever it grows.
In the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand
and in many other parts of the world honey of the finest quality
is obtained from this " queen of bee-plants," and in lesser degree
from other clovers such as sainfoin, alsike (a hybrid clover),
trefoil, &c.
Before undertaking the management of a modern apiary, the
bee-keeper should possess a certain amount of aptitude for
the pursuit, without which it is hardly possible to succeed. He
must also acquire the ability to handle bees judiciously and
well under all imaginable conditions. In doing this it is needful
to remember that bees resent outside interference with either
their work or their hives, and will resolutely defend themselves
when aroused even at the cost of life itself. Experience has also
proved that, when alarmed, bees instinctively begin to fill their
honey-sacs with food from the nearest store-cells as a safeguard
against contingencies, and when so provided they are more
amenable to interference. The bee-keeper, therefore, by the
judicious application of a little smoke from smouldering fuel,
blown into the hive by means of an appliance known as a bee-
smoker, alarms the bees and is thus able to manipulate the frames
of comb with ease and almost no disturbance. The smoker
(fig. 26) devised by T. F. Bingham of Farwell, Michigan, U.S.A.,
is the one most used in America and in the United Kingdom.
No other protection is needed beyond a bee-veil of fine black
net, which slipped over a wide-brimmed straw hat protects the
American
methods.
face from stings when working among bees; as experience is
gained the veil is not always used. The man who is hasty and
nervous in temperament, who fears an occasional sting, and
resents the same by viciously killing the bee that inflicts it
will rarely make a good apiarist. The methods of handling bees
vary in different countries, this being in a great measure
accounted for by the number of hives kept. Very few apiaries
in the United Kingdom contain more than a hundred hives;
consequently the British bee-keeper has no need for employing
the forceful or " hustling " methods found necessary in America,
where the honey-crop is gathered in car-loads and the British
hives numbered by thousands. It naturally follows and
that bee-life is there regarded very slightly by com-
parison, and the " bee-garden " in England becomes
the " bee-yard " in America, where the apiarist when at work
must thoroughly protect himself from being stung, and, safe
in his immunity from damage, cares little for bee-life in getting
through his task, the loss of a few
hundred bees being considered of
no account. There are, however,
other reasons, apart from humanity,
to account for the difference in
handling bees as advocated in
the United Kingdom. The great
majority of apiaries owned by
British bee-keepers are located in
close proximity to neighbours;
consequently a serious upset among
the bees would in many cases in-
volve an amount of trouble which
should if possible be avoided;
therefore quietness and the exer-
cise of care when manipulating are
always recommended by teachers,
and practised by those who wisely
take their lessons to heart.
Having made himself proficient
in practical bee-work and chosen a suitable location for
his apiary, the bee-keeper should carefully select the par-
ticular type of hive most suited to his means and
requirements. This point settled, uniformity is
secured, and all loose parts of the hives being
interchangeable time will be saved during the busy season
when time means money. Beginning with not too many
stocks he can test the capabilities of his location before
investing much capital in the undertaking, so that by utilizing
the information already given and adopting the wise adage
" make haste slowly " he will realize in good time whether it
will pay best to work for honey in comb or extracted honey
in bulk; not only so, but the knowledge gained will enable
him to select such appliances as are suited to his needs. As a rule,
it may be said that the man content to start with an
apiary of moderate size say fifty stocks may
realize a fair profit from comb-honey only; but so profit.
limited a venture would need to be supplemented
by some other means before an adequate income could be secured.
On the other hand, the owner of one or two hundred colonies
would find it more lucrative to work for extracted honey and send
it out to wholesale buyers in that form. By so doing a far
greater weight of surplus per hive may be secured, and extracted
honey will keep in good condition for years, while comb-honey
must be sold before granulation sets in. At the same time it
is but fair to say that bee-culture in the United Kingdom, if
limited to honey-production alone, is not sufficiently safe for
entire reliance to be placed on it for obtaining a livelihood.
The uncertain climate renders it necessary to include either
other branches of the craft less dependent on warmth and
sunshine, or to combine it with fruit-growing, poultry-rearing,
&c. Under such conditions the bees will usually occupy a good
position in the balance-sheet.
Another indispensable feature of good bee-management is
" forethought," coupled with order and neatness; the rule of
FIG. 26. Bee-Smoker.
(Redrawn from (he A B C oj Bee-
CMure, published by the A. I. Root
Co., Medina, Ohio, U.S.A.)
BEE
637
" a place for everything and everything in its place " prepares
the bee-keeper for any emergency; constant watchfulness is
also necessary, not only to guard against disease in
nis h ives > but to overlook nothing that tends to be of
thought. advantage to the bees at all seasons. Among the many
ways of saving time nothing is more useful than a
carefully-kept note-book, wherein are recorded brief memoranda
regarding such items as condition of each stock when packed
for winter, amount of stores, age and prolific capacity of queen,
strength of colony, healthiness or otherwise, &c., all of which
particulars should be noted and the hives to which they refer
plainly numbered. It also enables the bee-keeper to arrange his
day's work indoors while avoiding disturbance to such colonies
as do not need interference. In the early spring stores must be
seen to and replenished where required; breeding stimulated
when pollen begins to be gathered; and appliances cleaned and
prepared for use during the busy season.
The main honey-gathering time (lasting about six or seven
weeks) is so brief that in no pursuit is it more important to
" make hay while the sun shines," and if the bee-keeper
bee season nee ds a reminder of this truism he surely has it in the
example set by his bees. As the season advances and
the flowers yield nectar more freely, visible signs of comb-
building will be observed in the whitened edges of empty
cells in the brood-chambers; the thoughtful workers are
lengthening out the cells for honey-storing, and the bee-master
takes the hint by giving room in advance, thus lessening the
chance of undesired swarms. In other words, order and method,
combined with the habit of taking time by the forelock, are
absolutely necessary to the bee-keeper, seeing that the enormous
army of workers under his control is multiplying daily by
scores of thousands. As spring merges into summer, sunny days
become more frequent; the ever-increasing breadth of bee-
forage yields still more abundantly, and the excitement among
the labourers crowding the hives increases, rendering room in
advance, shade and ventilation, a sine qua non. It requires a
level head to keep cool amongst a couple of hundred strong
stocks of bees on a hot summer's day in a good honey season.
Moreover, it will be too late to think of giving ventila-
tion at noontide, when the temperature has risen to
lioa' 80 F. in the shade; the necessary precautions for
swarm prevention must therefore be taken in advance,
for when what is known as the " swarming fever " once starts
it is most difficult to overcome.
The well-read and intelligent bee-keeper, content to work on
orthodox lines, will be able to manage an apiary large or small
by guiding and controlling the countless army he commands in a
way that will yield him both pleasure and profit. All he needs
is good bee weather and an apiary free from disease to make him
appreciate bee-craft as one of the most remunerative of rural
industries; affording a wholesome open-air life conducive to
good health and yielding an abundance of contentment.
Diseases of Bees. It is quite natural that bees living in
colonies should be subject to diseases, and only since the intro-
duction of movable-comb hives has it been possible to learn
something about these ailments. The most serious disease with
which the bee-keeper has to contend is that commonly known
as " bee-pest " or " foul brood," so called because of the young
brood dying and rotting in the cells. This disease has been
known from the earliest ages, and is probably the same as that
designated by Pliny as blapsigonia (Natural Histo~y, bk. xi.
ch. xx.). Coming to later times, Delia Rocca minutely describes
a disease to which bees were subject in the island of Syra, between
the years 1777 and 1780, and through which nearly every colony
in the island perished. From the description given it was
undoubtedly foul brood, and the bee-keepers of the island
became convinced, after bitter experience, that it was extremely
contagious. Schirach also mentioned and described the disease
in 1769, and was the first to give it the name of " foul brood."
Still later, in 1874, Dr Cohn, after the most exhaustive experi-
ments and bacteriological research, realized that the disease was
caused by a bacillus, and nine years later the name Bacillus
alvei was given to it by Cheyne and Cheshire, whose views were
in agreement with those of Dr Cohn.
The illustration (fig. 27) shows a portion of comb affected with
foul brood in its worst form. The sealed cells are dark-coloured
and sunken, pierced with irregular holes, and the larvae in all
stages from the crescent-shaped healthy condition to that in
which the dead larvae are seen lying at the bottom of the cells,
flaccid and shapeless. The remains then change to buff colour,
afterwards turning brown, when decomposition sets in, and as
the bacilli present in the dead larvae increase and the nutrient
matter is consumed, the mass in some cases becomes sticky and
ropy in character, making its removal impossible by the bees.
In course of time it dries up, leaving nothing but a brown scale
adhering to the bottom or side of the cell. In the worst cases
the larvae even die after the cells are sealed over; a strong
characteristic and offensive odour being developed in some
phases of the disease, noticeable at times some distance away
from the hive.
Two forms of foul brood have been long known, one foul
smelling, the other odourless; and investigations made during
1906 and 1907 showed that the etiology of the disease is not by
FIG. 27. Foul Brood (Bacillus alvei).
(From Cheshire's Bets and Btt-keefing, Scientific and Practical.)
any means simple, but that it is produced by different microbes,
two others in addition to Bacillus alvei playing an important
part. These are Bacillus brandenburgiensis, Maassen (syn.
B. burri, Burn: B. larvae, white), and Streptococcus apis,
Maassen (syn. B. Guntheri, Bum). The first two are found in
both forms of foul brood, whereas the last is only present with
B. alvei in the strong-smelling form of the disease, in which the
larvae are attacked prior to the cells being sealed over.
The brood of bees, when healthy, lies in the combs in compact
masses, the larvae being plump and of a pearly whiteness, and
when quite young curled up on their sides at the base of the
cells. When attacked by the disease, the larva moves uneasily,
stretches itself out lengthwise in the cell, and finally becomes
loose and flabby, an appearance which plainly indicates death.
When the disease attacks the larvae before they are sealed
over Bacillus alvei is present, usually associated with Strepto-
coccus apis, which latter imparts a sour smell to the dead brood.
In cases where the disease is odourless the larvae are attacked
after the cells are sealed over, and just before they change to
pupae, when they become slimy, sputum-like masses, difficult
to remove from the cells. Under these conditions Bacillus
brandenburgiensis is found, although Bacillus alvei may also be
present. The two bacilli are antagonistic, each striving for
supremacy, first one then the other predominating. Various
other microbes are also present in large numbers, but are not
believed to be pathogenic or disease-producing in character.
It is, therefore, seen that at least three different microbes play
an important part in the same disease. The danger of contagion
lies in the wonderful vitality of the spores, and their great
resistance to heat and cold. Dr Maassen records a case where
he had no difficulty in obtaining cultures from spores removed
from combs after being kept dry for twenty years. It should be
6 3 8
BEECH BEECHER, C. E.
borne in mind that the disease is much easier to cure in the
earlier stages while the bacilli are still rod-shaped than when the
rods have turned to spores.
Since the bacterial origin of foul brood has been established,
the efforts of some bacteriologists have been employed in finding
a simple remedy by means of which the disease may be checked
in its earliest stages, and_in this an appreciable amount of success
has been attained. Nor has foul brood in its more advanced
forms been neglected, all directions for treatment being found
in text-books written by distinguished writers on apiculture in
the United Kingdom, America and throughout the European
continent.
The only other disease to which reference need be made here
is dysentery, which sometimes breaks out after the long confine-
ment bees are compelled to undergo during severe winters.
This trouble may be guarded against by feeding the bees in the
early autumn with good food made from cane sugar, and housing
them in well-ventilated hives kept warm and dry by suitable
coverings. When bees are wintered on thin, watery food not
sealed over, and are unable for months to take cleansing flights,
they become weak and involuntarily discharge their excrement
over the combs and hive, a state of things never seen in a healthy
colony under normal conditions. The stocks of bee-keepers
who attend to the instructions given in text-books are rarely
visited by this disease.
The above embraces all that is necessary to be said in relation
to diseases, though bees have been subject to other ailments
such as paralysis, constipation, &c.
In the Isle of Wight a serious epidemic broke out in 1906
which caused great destruction to bee-life in the following year.
The malady was of an obscure character, but its cause has been
under investigation by the British Board of Agriculture and
Fisheries, and by European bacteriologists in 1908.
AUTHORITIES. Though in modern times a great deal has appeared
in the daily newspapers on the subject, it is a notable fact that not a
tithe of the wonderful things published in such articles about bees
and bee-keeping is worthy of credence or possesses any real value.
Indeed, a pressman possessing any technical knowledge of the
subject beyond that obtainable from books would be a rara avis.
The account given above is the result of forty years' practical
experience with bees in England, the writer having for a great
portion of the time been connected editorially with the only two
papers in that country entirely devoted to bees and bee-keeping,
The British Bee Journal (weekly, founded 1875), and Bee-keepers'
Record (monthly, founded 1882), the former being the only weekly
journal in the world. The following books on the subject may be
consulted for further details: Francois Huber, New Observations
on the Natural History of Bees; T. W. Cowan, British Bee-keepers'
Guide-Book, The Honey Bee, its Natural History, Anatomy and
Physiology; Langstroth on the Honev Bee, revised by C. Dadant &
Son; A. I. Root, A B C and X Y Z'of Bee-culture; F. R. Cheshire,
Bees and Bee-keeping; Dr Dzierzon, Rational Bee-keeping; E.
Bertrand, Conduite du rucher; A. J. Cook, Manual of the Apiary;
Dr C. C. Miller, Forty Years among the Bees; F. W. L. Sladen,
Queen-rearing in England; S. Simmins, A Modern Bee Farm.
(W. B. CA.)
BEECH, a well-known tree, Fagus sylvatica, a member of the
order Fagaceae to which belong the sweet-chestnut (Castanea)
and oak. The name beech is from the Anglo-Saxon hoc, bece or
beoce (Ger. Buche, Swedish, bok), words meaning at once a book
and a beech-tree. The connexion of the beech with the graphic
arts is supposed to have originated in the fact that the ancient
Runic tablets were formed of thin boards of beech-wood. " The
origin of the word," says Prior (Popular Names of British Plants),
" is identkal with that of the Sanskrit boko, letter, bokos, writings;
and this correspondence of the Indian and our own is interesting
as evidence of two things, viz. that the Brahmins had the art of
writing before they detached themselves from the common stock
of the Indo-European race in Upper Asia, and that we and other
Germans have received alphabetic signs from the East by a
northern route and not by the Mediterranean." Beech-mast,
the fruit of the beech-tree, was formerly known in England as
buck; and the county of Buckingham is so named from its fame
as a beech-growing country. Buckwheat (Bucheweisen) derives
its name from the similarity of its angular seeds to beech-mast.
The generic name Fagus is derived from <t>&yciv, to eat; but the
</>7j7os of Theophrastus was probably the sweet chestnut (Aesculus)
of the Romans. Beech-mast has been used as food in times of
distress and famine; and in autumn it yields an abundant supply
of food to park-deer and other game, and to pigs, which are
turned into beech-woods in order to utilize the fallen mast. In
France it is used for feeding pheasants and domestic poultry.
Well-ripened beech-mast yields from 17 to 20 % of non-drying
oil, suitable for illumination, and said to be used in some parts
of France and other European countries in cooking, and as a
substitute for butter.
The beech is one of the largest British trees, particularly on
chalky or sandy soils, native in England from Yorkshire south-
wards, and planted in Scotland and Ireland. It is one of the
common forest trees of temperate Europe, spreading from
southern Norway and Sweden to the Mediterranean. It is
found on the Swiss Alps to about 5000 ft. above sea-level, and
in southern Europe is usually confined to high mountain slopes;
it is plentiful in southern Russia, and is widely distributed in
Asia Minor and the northern provinces of Persia.
It is characterized by its sturdy pillar-like stem, often from
15 to 20 ft. in girth, and smooth olive-grey bark. The main
branches rise vertically, while the subsidiary branches spread
outwards and give the whole tree a rounded outline. The
slender brown pointed buds give place in April to clear green
leaves fringed with delicate silky hairs. The flowers which
appear in May are inconspicuous and, as usual with our forest
trees, of two kinds; the male, in long-stalked globular clusters,
hang from the axils of the lower leaves of a shoot, while the
female, each of two or three flowers in a tiny cup (cupule of bracts) ,
stand erect nearer the top of the shoot. In the ripe fruit or
mast the four-sided cupule, which has become much enlarged,
brown and tough, encloses two or three three-sided rich chestnut-
brown fruits, each containing a single seed. It is readily propa-
gated by its seeds. It is a handsome tree in every stage of its
growth, but is more injurious to plants under its drip than other
trees, so that shade-bearing trees, as holly, yew and thuja,
suffer. Its leaves, however, enrich the soil. The beech has a
remarkable power of holding the ground where the soil is con-
genial, and the deep shade prevents the growth of other trees.
It is often and most usefully mixed with oak and Scotch fir.
The timber is not remarkable for either strength or durability.
It was formerly much used in mill- work and turnery; but its
principal use at present is in the manufacture of chairs, bedsteads
and a variety of minor articles. It makes excellent fuel and
charcoal. The copper-beech is a variety with copper-coloured
leaves, due to the presence of a red colouring-matter in the sap.
There is also a weeping or pendulous-branched variety; and
several varieties with more or less cut leaves, are known in
cultivation.
The genus Fagus is widely spread in temperate regions, and
contains in addition to our native beech, about 15 other species.
A variety (F. sylvatica var. Sieboldi) is a native of Japan, where
it is one of the finest and most abundant of the deciduous-leaved
forest trees. Fagus americana is one of the most beautiful and
widely-distributed trees of the forests of eastern North America.
It was confounded by early European travellers with F. sylvatica,
from which it is distinguished by its paler bark and lighter green,
more sharply-toothed leaves. Several species are found in
Australia and New Zealand, and in the forests of southern Chile
and Patagonia. The dense forests which cover the shore of the
Straits of Magellan and the mountain-slopes of Tierra del Fuego
consist largely of two beeches one evergreen, Fagus betuloides,
and one with deciduous leaves, F. antarctica.
BEECHER, CHARLES EMERSON (1856-1904), American
palaeontologist, was born at Dunkirk, New York, on the 9th of
October 1856. He graduated at the university of Michigan in
1878, and then became assistant to James Hall in the state
museum at Albany. Ten years later he was appointed to the
charge of the invertebrate fossils in the Peabody Museum, New
Haven, under O. C. Marsh, whom he succeeded in 1899 as curator.
Meanwhile in 1889 he received the degree of Ph.D. from Yale
University for his memoir on the Brachiospongidae, a remarkable
BEECHER, H. W.
6 39
group of Silurian sponges; later on he did good work among
the fossil corals, and other groups, being ultimately regarded
as a leading authority on fossil Crustacea and brachiopoda;
his researches on the development of the brachiopoda, and on
the Trilobites Triarthrus and Trinucleus, were especially note-
worthy. In 1892 he was appointed professor of palaeontology
in Yale University. He died on the I4th of February 1904.
Memoir by C. Schuchert in Amer. Joum. Science, vol. xvii., June
1904 (with portrait and bibliography).
BEECHER, HENRY WARD (1813-1887), American preacher
and reformer, was born in Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 24th
of June 1813. He was the eighth child of Lyman and Roxana
Foote Beecher, and brother of Harriet Beecher Stowe. Entering
Amherst College in 1830, and graduating four years later, he
gave more attention to his own courses of reading than to
college studies, and was more popular with his fellows than
with the faculty. With a patience foreign to his impulsive
nature, he submitted to minute drill in elocution, and became
a fluent extemporaneous speaker. Reared in a Puritan atmo-
sphere, he has graphically described the mystical experience
which, coming to him in his early youth, changed his whole
conception of theology and determined his choice of the ministry.
" I think," he says, " that when I stand in Zion and before God,
the highest thing that I shall look back upon will be that blessed
morning of May when it pleased God to reveal to my wondering
soul the idea that it was His nature to love a man in his sins for
the sake of helping him out of them." In 1837 he graduated from
Lane Theological Seminary in Ohio, of which his father was
president, and entered upon his work as pastor of a missionary
Presbyterian church at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, a village on the
Ohio, about 20 m. below Cincinnati. The membership numbered
nineteen women and one man. Beecher was sexton as well as
preacher. Two years later he accepted a call to Indianapolis.
His unconventional preaching shocked the more staid members
of the flock, but filled the church to overflowing with people
unaccustomed to churchgoing. He studied men rather than
books; became acquainted with the vices in what was then a
pioneer town; and in his Seven Lectures to Young Men (1844)
treated these with genuine power of realistic description and
with youthful and exuberant rhetoric. Eight years later (1847)
he accepted a call to the pastorate of Plymouth Church (Con-
gregational), then newly organized in Brooklyn, New York.
The situation of the church, within five minutes' walk of the chief
ferry to New York, the stalwart character of the man who had
organized it, and the peculiar eloquence of Beecher, combined
to make the pulpit a national platform. The audience-room
of the church, capable of seating 2000 or 2500 people, frequently
contained 500 or loco more.
Beecher at once became a recognized leader. On the all-absorb-
ing question of slavery he took a middle ground between the
pro-slavery or peace party, and abolitionists like William Lloyd
Garrison and Wendell Phillips, believing, with such statesmen
as W. H. Seward, Salmon P. Chase, and Abraham Lincoln,
that slavery was to be overthrown under the constitution and
in the Union, by forbidding its growth and trusting to an
awakened conscience, enforced by an enlightened self-interest.
He was always an anti-slavery man, but never technically an
abolitionist, and he joined the Republican party soon after its
organization. In the earlier days of the agitation, he challenged
the hostility which often mobbed the anti-slavery gatherings;
in the later days he consulted with the political leaders, inspiring
the patriotism of the North, and sedulously setting himself to
create a public opinion which should confirm and ratify the
emancipation proclamation whenever the president should
issue it. When danger of foreign intervention cast its threatening
shadow across the national path, he went to England, and by
his famous addresses did what probably no other American
could have done to strengthen the spirit in England favourable
to the United States, and to convert that which was doubtful
and hostile. In 1861-1863 he was tne editor-in-chief of the
Independent, then a Congregational journal; and in his editorials,
copied far and wide, produced a profound impression on the
public mind by clarifying and defining the issue. Later (in 1870) ,
he founded and became editor-in-chief of the Christian Union,
afterwards the Outlook, a religious undenominational weekly.
His lectures and addresses had the spirit if not the form of his
sermons, just as his sermons were singularly free from the
homilctical tone. Yet his work as a reformer was subsidiary
to his work as a preacher. He was not indeed a parish pastor;
he inspired church activities which grew to large proportions,
but trusted the organization of them to laymen of organizing
abilities in the church; and for acquaintance with his people
he depended on such social occasions as were furnished in the
free atmosphere of this essentially New England church at the
close of every service. But during his pastorate the church grew
to be probably the largest in membership in the United States.
It was in the pulpit that Beecher was seen at his best. His
mastery of the English tongue, his dramatic power, his instinctive
art of impersonation, which had become a second nature, his
vivid imagination, his breadth of intellectual view, the catholicity
of his sympathies, his passionate enthusiasm, which made for
the moment his immediate theme seem to him the one theme of
transcendent importance, his quaint humour alternating with
genuine pathos, and above all his simple and singularly un-
affected devotional nature, made him as a preacher without a
peer in his own time and. country. His favourite theme was
love: love to man was to him the fulfilment of all law; love of
God was the essence of all Christianity. Retaining to the day
of his death the forms and phrases of the New England theology
in which he had been reared, he poured into them a new meaning
and gave to them a new significance. He probably did more
than any other man in America to lead the Puritan churches
from a faith which regarded God as a moral governor, the Bible
as a book of laws, and religion as obedience to a conscience to
a faith which regards God as a father, the Bible as a book of
counsels, and religion as a life of liberty in love. The later years
of his life were darkened by a scandal which Beecher's personal,
political and theological enemies used for a time effectively to
shadow a reputation previously above reproach, he being
charged by Theodore Tilton, whom he had befriended, with
having had improper relations with his (Tilton's) wife. But in
the midst of these accusations (February 1876), the largest and
most representative Congregational council ever held in the
United States gave expression to a vote of confidence in him,
which time has absolutely justified. Not a student of books nor
a technical scholar in any department, Beecher's knowledge
was as wide as his interests were varied. He was early familiar
with the works of Matthew Arnold, Charles Darwin and Herbert
Spencer; he preached his Bible Studies sermons in 1878, when
the higher criticism was wholly unknown to most evangelical
ministers or known only to be dreaded; and his sermons on
Evolution and Religion in 1885, when many of the ministry
were denouncing evolution as atheistic. He was stricken with
apoplexy while still active in the ministry, and died at Brooklyn
on the 8th of March 1887, in the seventy-fourth year of hi? age.
The principal books by Beecher, besides his published sermons,
are: Seven Lectures to Young Men (1844); Plymouth Collection of
Hymns and Tunes (1855); Star Papers, Experiences of Art and
Nature (1855); Life Thoughts (1858); New Star Papers; or Views
and Experiences of Religious Subjects (1859); Plain and Pleasant
Talks about Fruits, Flowers and Farming (1859); American Re-
bellion, Report of Speeches delivered in England at Public Meetings in
Manchester, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and London (1864);
Prayers from Plymouth Pulpit (1867); Norwood: A Tale of Village
Life in New England (1867); The Life of Jesus the Christ (1871),
completed in 2 vols., by his sons (1891); and Yale Lectures on
Preaching (3 vols., 1872-1874).
The principal lives are: Noyes L. Thompson, The History of
Plymouth Church (1847-1872); Thomas W. Knox, The Life and
Work of Henry Ward Beecher (Hartford, Conn., 1887); Frank S.
Child, The Boyhood of Henry Ward Beecher (Pamphlet, New Creston,
Conn., 1887); Joseph Howard, Jr., Life of Henry Ward Beecher
(Philadelphia, 1887); T. W. Hanford, Beecher: Christian Philo-
sopher, Pulpit Orator, Patriot and Philanthropist (Chicago, 1887) ;
Lyman Abbott and S. B. Halliday, Henry Ward Beecher: A Sketch
of His Career (New York, 1887); William C. Beecher, Rev. Samuel
Scoville and Mrs H. W. Beecher, A Biography of Henry Ward
Beecher (New York, 1888); John R. Howard, Henry Ward Brrcher:
640
BEECHER, LYMAN BEECHING
A Study (1891); John Henry Barrows, Henry Ward Beecher (New
York, 1893); and Lyman Abbott, Henry Ward Beecher (Boston,
1903)'. < L - A -)
BEECHER, LYMAN (1775-1863), American clergyman, was
born at New Haven, Connecticut, on the izth of October 1775.
He was a descendant of one of the founders of the New Haven
colony, worked as a boy in an uncle's blacksmith shop and on
his farm, and in 1797 graduated from Yale, having studied
theology under Timothy Dwight. He preached in the Presby-
terian church at East Hampton, Long Island (1798-1810, being
ordained in 1799); in the Congregational church at Litchfield,
Connecticut (1810-1826), in the Hanover Street church of
Boston (1826-1832), and in the Second Presbyterian church of
Cincinnati, Ohio (1833-1843); was president of the newly
established Lane Theological Seminary at Walnut Hills, Cincin-
nati, and was professor of didactic and polemic theology there
(1832-1850), being professor emeritus until his death. At
Litchfield and in Boston he was a prominent opponent of the
growing " heresy " of Unitarianism, though as early as 1836 he
was accused of being a " moderate Calvinist " and was tried for
heresy, but was acquitted. Upon his resignation from Lane
Theological Seminary he lived in Boston for a short time,
devoting himself to literature; but he broke down, and the last
ten years of his life were spent at the home of his son, Henry
Ward Beecher, in Brooklyn, New York, where he died on the
loth of January 1863. Magnetic in personality, incisive and
powerful in manner of expression, he was in his prime one of the
most eloquent of American pulpit orators. In 1806 he preached
a widely circulated sermon on duelling, and about 1814 a series
of six sermons on intemperance, which were reprinted frequently
and greatly aided temperance reform. Thrice married, he had a
large family, his seven sons becoming Congregational clergymen,
and his daughters, Harriet Beecher Stowe (q.v.) and Catherine
Esther Beecher, attaining literary distinction.
Lyman Beecher's published .works include: A Plea for the West
(1835), Views in Theology (1836), and various sermons; his Collected
Works were published at Boston in 1852 in 3 vols. Consult his
Autobiography and Correspondence (2 vols.. New York, 1863-1864),
edited by his son Charles; D. H. Allen, Life and Services of Lyman
Beecher (Cincinnati, 1863) ; and James C. White, Personal Reminis-
cences of Lyman Beecher (New York, 1882).
His daughter, CATHERINE ESTHER (1800-1878), was born at
East Hampton, Long Island, on the 6th of September 1800.
She was educated at Litchfield Seminary, and from 1822 to
1832 conducted a school for girls at Hartford, Connecticut, with
her sister Harriet's assistance, and from 1832 to 1834 conducted
a similar school in Cincinnati. She wrote and lectured on
women's education and in behalf of better primary schools, and
radically opposed woman suffrage and college education for
women, holding woman's sphere to be domestic. The National
Board of Popular Education, a charitable society which she
founded, sent hundreds of women as teachers into the South and
West. She died on the i2th of May 1878 in Elmira, New York.
She published An Essay on Slavery and Abolition with Reference
to the Duty of American Females (1837), A Treatise on Domestic
Economy (1842), The True Remedy for the Wrongs of Women
(1851), Letters to the People on Health and Happiness (1855), The
Religious Training of Children (1864), and Woman's Profession
as Mother and Educator (1871).
His son, EDWARD BEECHER (1803-1895), was born at East
Hampton, Long Island, on the 27th of August 1803, graduated
at Yale in 1822, studied theology at Andover, and in 1826
became pastor of the Park Street church in Boston. From 1830
to 1844 he was president of Illinois College, Jacksonville, Illinois,
and subsequently filled pastorates at the Salem Street church,
Boston (1844-1855), and the Congregational church at Galesburg,
Illinois (1855-1871). He was senior editor of the Congrega-
tionalist (1840-1855), and an associate editor of the Christian
Union from 1870. In 1872 he settled in Brooklyn, New York,
where in 1885-1889 he was pastor of the Parkville church and
where he died on the 28th of July 1895. He wrote Addresses on
the Kingdom of God (1827), History of the Alton Riots (1837),
Statement of Anti-Slavery Principles (1837), Baptism, its Import
and Modes (1850), The Conflict of Ages (1853), The Papal Con-
spiracy Exposed (1855), The Concord of Ages (1860), and History
of Opinions on the Scriptural Doctrine of Future Retribution(ify?>) .
CHARLES BEECHER (1815-1900), another of Lyman's sons, was
born at Litchfield, Connecticut, on the 7th of October 1815. He
graduated at Bowdoin College in 1834, and subsequently held
pastorates at Newark, New Jersey (1851-1857), and Georgetown,
Massachusetts; and from 1870 to 1877 lived in Florida, where he
was state superintendent of public instruction in 1871-1873.
He died at Georgetown, Massachusetts, on the 2ist of April 1900.
He was an accomplished musician, and assisted in the selection
and arrangement of music in the Plymouth Collection of Hymns
and Tunes. He wrote David and His Throne (1855), Pen Pictures
of the Bible (1855), Redeemer and Redeemed (1864), and Spiritual
Manifestations (1879).
THOMAS KINNICUTT BEECHER (1824-1900), another son, born
at Litchfield, Connecticut, on the loth of February 1824, was
pastor of the Independent Congregational church (now the Park
church), at Elmira, New York, one of the first institutional
churches in the country, from 1854 until his death at Elmira on
the i4th of March 1900. He wrote Our Seven Churches (1870).
BEECHEY, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1796-1856), English
naval officer and geographer, son of Sir William Beechey, R.A.,
was born in London on the i7th of February 1796. In 1806 he
entered the navy, and saw active service during the wars with
France and America. In 1818 he served under Lieutenant
(afterwards Sir) John Franklin in Buchan's Arctic expedition,
of which at a later period he published a narrative; and in the
following year he accompanied Lieutenant W. E. Parry in the
" Hecla." In 1821 he took part in the survey of the Mediter-
ranean coast of Africa under the direction of Captain, afterwards
Admiral, William Henry Smyth. He and his brother Henry
William Beechey, made an overland survey of this coast, and
published a full account of their work in 1828 under the title of
Proceedings of the Expedition to Explore the Northern Coast of
Africa from Tripoly Eastward in 1821-1822. In 1825 Beechey
was appointed to command the " Blossom," which was intended
to explore Bering Strait, in concert with Franklin and Parry
operating from the east. He passed the strait and penetrated
as far as 71 23' 31* N., and 156 21' 30" W., reaching a point
only 146 m. west of that reached by Franklin's expedition from
the Mackenzie river. The whole voyage lasted more than three
years; and in the course of it Beechey discovered several islands
in the Pacific, and an excellent harbour near Cape Prince of
Wales. In 1831 there appeared his Narrative of a Voyage to the
Pacific and Bering's Strait to Co-operate with the Polar Expedi-
tions, 1825-1828. In 1835 and the following year Captain
Beechey was employed on the coast survey of South America, and
from 1837 to 1847 carried on the same work along the Irish coasts.
He was appointed in 1850 to preside over the Marine Depart-
ment of the Board of Trade. In 1854 he was made rear-admiral,
and in the following year was elected president of the Royal
Geographical Society. He died on the 29th of November 1856.
BEECHEY, SIR WILLIAM (1753-1839), English portrait-
painter, was born at Burford. He was originally meant for a
conveyancer, but a strong love for painting induced him to
become a pupil at the Royal Academy in 1772. Some of his
smaller portraits gained him considerable reputation; he began
to be employed by the nobility, and in 1793 became associate
of the Academy. In the same year he was made portrait-painter
to Queen Charlotte. He painted the portraits of the members
of the royal family, and of nearly all the most famous or fashion-
able persons of the time. What is considered his finest produc-
tion is a review of cavalry, a large composition, in the foreground
of which he introduced portraits of George III., the prince of
Wales and the duke of York, surrounded by a brilliant staff on
horseback. It was painted in 1798, and obtained for the artist
the honour of knighthood, and his election as R.A.
BEECHING, HENRY CHARLES (1850- ), English clergy-
man and author, was born on the i5th of May 1859, and educated
at the City of London school and at Balliol College, Oxford.
He took holy orders in 1882, and after three years in a Liverpool
BEECHWORTH BEELZEBUB
641
curacy he was for fifteen years rector of Yattendon, Berkshire.
From 1900 to 1903 he lectured on pastoral and liturgical theology
at King's College, London, and was chaplain of Lincoln's Inn,
where he became preacher in 1903. He became a canon of
Westminster in 1902, and examining chaplain to the bishop of
Carlisle in 1905. As a poet he is best known by his share in two
volumes Love in Idleness (1883) and Love's Looking Glass
(1891) which contained also poems by J. W. Mackail and J.
Bowyer Nichols. He was a sympathetic editor and critic of the
works of many i6th and xyth century poets, of Richard Crashaw
(1905), of Herrick (1907), of John Milton (1900), of Henry
Vaughan (1896). Under the pseudonym of "Urbanus Sylvan "
he published two successful volumes of essays, Pages from a
Private Diary (1898) and Provincial Letters and other Papers
(1906). His works also include numerous volumes of sermons
and essays on theological subjects.
BEECHWORTH, a town of Bogong county, Victoria, Australia,
172 m. by rail N.E. of Melbourne. Pop. (1001) 7359. The
town is the centre of the Ovens goldfields, and the district is
mainly devoted to mining with both alluvial and reef working,
but much of the land is under cultivation, yielding grain and
fruit. The water supply is derived from Lake Kerferd in the
vicinity, which is a favourite resort of visitors; the scenery near
the town, which lies at an elevation of 1805 ft. among the May
Day Hills, being singularly beautiful. The industries of Beech-
worth include tanning, ironfounding and coach-building.
BEEF (through O. Fr. boef, mod. boeuf, from Lat. bos, bovis,
ox, Gr. /3oDs, which show the ultimate connexion with the
Sanskrit go, gdus, ox, and thus with " cow "), the flesh of the ox,
cow or bull, as used for food. The use of the French word for the
meat, while the Saxon name was retained for the animal, has
been often noticed, and paralleled with the use of veal, mutton
and pork. " Beef " is also used, especially in the plural " beeves,"
for the ox itself, but usually in an archaic way. " Corned " or
" corn " beef is the flesh cured by salting, i.e. sprinkling with
" corns " or granulated particles of salt. " Collared " beef is so
called from the roll or collar into which the meat is pressed, after
extracting the bones. "Jerked" beef, i.e. meat cut into long
thin slices and dried in the sun, like "biltong" (q.v.), comes
through the Spanish-American charque, from ccharqui, the
Peruvian word for this species of preserved meat. For " Beef-
eater" see YEOMEN or THE GUARD.
BEEFSTEAK CLUB, the name of several clubs formed in
London during the i8th and igth centuries. The first seems to
have been that founded in 1709 with Richard Estcourt, the
actor, as steward. Of this the chief wits and great men of the
nation were members and its badge was a gridiron. Its fame was,
however, entirely eclipsed in 1735 when " The Sublime Society of
Steaks " was established by John Rich at Covent Garden theatre,
of which he was then manager. It is said that Lord Peterborough
supping one night with Rich in his private room, was so delighted
with the steak the latter grilled him that he suggested a repetition
of the meal the next week. From this started the Club, the
members of which delighted to call themselves "The Steaks."
Among them were Hogarth, Garrick, Wilkes, Bubb Doddington
and many other celebrities. The rendezvous was the theatre
till the fire in 1808, when the club moved first to the Bedford
Coffee House, and the next year to the Old Lyceum. In 1785
the prince of Wales joined, and later his brothers the dukes of
Clarence and Sussex became members. On the burning of the
Lyceum, "The Steaks" met again in the Bedford Coffee House
till 1838, when the New Lyceum was opened, and a large room
there was allotted the club. These meetings were held till the
dub ceased to exist in 1867. Thomas Sheridan founded a
Beefsteak Club in Dublin at the Theatre Royal in 1749, and of
this Peg Woffington was president. The modern Beefsteak Club
was founded by J. L. Toole, the actor, in 1876.
See J. Timbs Clubs and Club Life in London (1873); Walter
Arnold, Life and Death of the Sublime Society of Steaks (1871).
BEELZEBUB, BEELZEBUL, BAALZEBUB. In 2 Kings i. we
read that Ahaziah ben Ahab, king of Israel, fell sick, and sent
to inquire of Baalzebub, the god of the Philistine city Ekron,
in. 21
whether he should recover. There is no other mention of this
god in the Old Testament. Baal, " lord," is the ordinary title
or word for a deity, especially a local deity, cf. such place names
as Baal Hazor (2 Sam. xiii. 23), Baal Hermon (Judges iii. 3),
which are probably contractions of fuller forms, like Beth Baal
Meon (Josh. xiii. 17), the House or Temple of the Baal of Meon.
According to these analogies we should expect Zebub to be a
place. No place Zebub, however, is known; and it has been
objected that the Baal of some other place would hardly be the
god of Ekron. These objections are hardly conclusive.
Usually Zebub is identified with a Hebrew common noun
zebub = flies, 1 occurring twice in the Old Testament, 1 so that
Baalzebub " is the Baal to whom flies belong or are holy. As
children of the summer they are symbols of the warmth of the
sun, to which . . . Baal stands in close relation. Divination
by means of flies was known at Babylon."* There are other
cases of names compounded of Baal and an element equivalent
to a descriptive epithet, e.g. Baalgad, the Baal of Fortune. 4
For the "Fly-god," sometimes interpreted as the "averter of
insects," cf. Zevs Inrbnvtas, pviaypm, and the Hercules nviaypos.
Clemens Alexander speaks of a Hercules aironvun as wor-
shipped at Rome. It has been suggested that Baalzebub was
the dung-beetle, Scarabaeus pUlularius, worshipped in Egypt.
A name of a deity on an Assyrian inscription of the izth
century B.C. has been read as Baal-zabubi, but this reading has
now been abandoned in favour of Baal-sapunu (Baal-Zephon).*
Cheyne considers that Baalzebub is a " contemptuous uneuphonic
Jewish modification of the true name Baalzebul."'
In the New Testament we meet with Beelzebul, 7 which some
of the versions, especially the Vulgate and Syriac, followed
by the Authorized Version, have changed to Beelzebub, under
the influence of 2 Kings. In Matt. x. 25, Christ speaks of men
calling the master of the house, i.e. Himself, Beelzebul. 8 In
Mark iii. 22-27,* the scribes explain that Jesus is possessed by
Beelzebul 10 and is thus enabled to cast out devils. The passage
speaks of Beelzebul as Satan and as the prince of the demons.
The origin of the name Beelzebul is variously explained,
(a) It is " a phonetic corruption, perhaps a softening of the
original word"; as Bab-el-mandel is a corruption of Bab-el-
mandeb. (b) Zebul is from zebel, a word found in the Targums
in the sense of "dung," so that Beelzebul would mean "Lord
of Dung," a term of contempt. The further suggestion has been
made that zebul itself in the sense of " dung " is a term for a
heathen deity, cf . the Old Testament use of " abomination " &c.
for heathen deities, so that Beelzebul would mean " Chief of
false gods," and so arch-fiend, (c) Zebul is found in i Kings
viii. 13 in the sense of "height," beth-zebul lofty house, and in
Rabbinical writings in the sense of " house " or " temple,"
or "the fourth heaven'.'; 11 and Beelzebul may equal "Lord
of the High House " or " Lord of Heaven." This view is per-
haps favoured by Matt. x. 25, "if they have called the lord of
the house Beelzebul." It appears, however, that Rabbinical
writings use yom (day-of) zebul for the festival of a heathen
deity; and Jastrow connects this usage with the meaning
" house " or " temple," so that the meaning " Lord of the False
Gods " might be arrived at in a different way.
The names Zebulun, 'Izebel (Jezebel), suggest that Zebul may
be an ancient name of a deity; cf. the names Sam Spa
(B'L 'ZBL), 'rciDp (ShMZBL) in Punic and Phoenician
1 So Clarendon Press, Hebrew Lexicon, p. 127, with LXX.
* Eccl. x. i; Isaiah vii. 18.
' Baethgen, Beitrdge zur semitischen Religionsgeschichte, p. 25, cf.
pp. 65, 261.
4 Josh. xii. 7.
Art. " Baalzebub," Black and Cheyne's Ency. Bibl.
With various spellings (e.g. Belzebul, and in XB, Beezebul), all
triants of Beelzebul. Cf. Deissmann, Bible Studies, 332.
7 There is a variation of reading, which has been held to support
the view that the passage means that men reproached Jesus with
His supposed connexion with Beelzebul ; cf. A. B. Bruce, in loco.
* And in the parallel passages, Matt. xii. 22-29; Luke xi. 14-22.
Cf. John vii. 20, viii. 48, 52, x. 20.
10 Swete, in loco.
" Jastrow, Diet, of the Targumim, Sfc., sub voce.
642
BEER
inscriptions. 1 The substitution of Beelzebub for Beelzebul by
the Syriac, Vulgate and other versions implies the identifica-
tion of the New Testament arch-fiend with the god of Ekron;
this substitution, however, may be due to the influence of the
Aramaic B'el-debaba, " adversary," sometimes held to be the
original of these names.
There is no trace of Beelzebul or Beelzebub outside of the
Biblical passages mentioned, and the literature dependent
on them. If we assume a connexion between the two names,
there is nothing to show how the god became in later times the
devil.
In Paradise Lost, Book ii., Beelzebub appears as second only
to Satan himself.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Lightfoot,Horae Hebraicae et Talmudicae, Works,
vol ii. pp. 188 f., 429, ed. Strype (1684) ; Baethgen, Beitrage zur
semitischen Rcligionsgeschichte, pp. 25, 65, 261. Commentaries on
the Biblical passages especially Burney and Skinner on Kings,
Meyer and A. B. Bruce on the Synoptic Gospels, and Swete on
Mark. Articles on " Baal, " " Baalzebub, " " Beelzebub, " ' Beel-
zebul," in Hastings' Bible Diet., Black and Cheyne's Encycl. Bibl.,
and Hauck's Realencyklopddie; on aai ^>jn in Clarendon Press
Hebr. Lex. ; and on ^ and Siai in Jastrow's Diet, of the Targumim,
fife. (W. H. BE.)
BEER, a beverage obtained by a process of alcoholic fer-
mentation mainly from cereals (chiefly malted barley), hops and
water. The history of beer extends over several thousand years.
According to Dr Bush, a beer made from malt or red barley is
mentioned in Egyptian writings as early as the fourth dynasty.
p
It was called 8 .. or heqa. Papyri of the time of Seti I.
A \r
(1300 B.C.) allude to a person inebriated from over-indulgence
in beer. In the second book (c. 77) of Herodotus (450 B.C.) we
are told that the Egyptians, being without vines, made wine
from barley (cf. Aesch. Suppl. 954) ', but as the grape is mentioned
so frequently in Scripture and elsewhere as being most abundant
there, and no record exists of the vine being destroyed, we must
conclude that the historian was only partially acquainted with
the productions of that most fertile country. Pliny (Natural
History, xxii. 82) informs us that the Egyptians made wine from
com, and gives it the name of zythum, which, in the Greek,
means drink from barley. The Greeks obtained their knowledge
of the art of preparing beer from the Egyptians. The writings
of Archilochus, the Parian poet and satirist who flourished
about 650 B.C., contain evidence that the Greeks of his day were
acquainted with the process of brewing. There is, in fact, little
doubt that the discovery of beer and its use as an exhilarating
beverage were nearly as early as those of the grape itself, though
both the Greeks and the Romans despised it as a barbarian
drink. Dioscorides mentions two kinds of beer, namely f C0os
and Kovp/u., but he does not describe them sufficiently to enable
us to distinguish them. Sophocles and other Greek writers,
again, styled it f}pvrov. In the time of Tacitus (ist century
after Christ), according to him, beer was the usual drink of the
Germans, and there can be little doubt that the method of malting
barley was then known to them. Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxii. 82)
mentions the use of beer in Spain under the name of celia and ceria
and in Gaul under that of cerevisia; and elsewhere (xiv. 29)
he says: " The natives who inhabit the west of Europe have
a liquid with which they intoxicate themselves, made from corn
and water. The manner of making this liquid is somewhat
different in Gaul, Spain and other countries, and it is called by
different names, but its nature and properties are everywhere
the same. The people in Spain in particular brew this liquid
so well that it will keep good a long time. So exquisite is the
cunning of mankind in gratifying their vicious appetites that
they have thus invented a method to make water itself produce
intoxication."
The knowledge of the preparation of a fermented beverage
from cereals in early times was not confined to Europe. Thus,
according to Dr H. H. Mann, the Kaffir races of South Africa have
made for ages and still make a kind of beer from millet, and
1 Lidzbarski, Handbuch der nordsemitischen Epieraphik, i. po. 240,
377-
similarly the natives of Nubia, Abyssinia and other parts of
Africa prepare an intoxicating beverage, generally called bousa,
from a variety of cereal grains. The Russian quass, made from
barley and rye, the Chinese samshu, made from rice, and the
Japanese sak (q.v.) are all of ancient origin. Roman historians
mention the fact that the Britons in the south of England at the
time of the Roman invasion brewed a species of ale from barley
and wheat. The Romans much improved the methods of brewing
in vogue among the Britons, and the Saxons among whom ale
had long been a common beverage in their turn profited much
by the instruction given to the original inhabitants of Great
Britain by the Romans. We are informed by William of Malmes-
bury that in the reign of Henry II. the English were greatly
addicted to drinking, and by that time the monasteries were
already famous, both in England and on the continent, for the
excellence of their ales. The waters of Burton-on-Trent began
to be famous in the i3th century. The secret of their being so
especially adapted for brewing was first discovered by some
monks, who held land in the adjacent neighbourhood of Wetmore.
There is a document dated 1 295 in which it is stated that Matilda,
daughter of Nicholas de Shoben, had re-leased to the abbot and
convent of Burton-on-Trent certain tenements within and
without the town; for which re-lease they granted her, daily for
life, two white loaves from the monastery, two gallons of con-
ventual beer, and one penny, besides seven gallons of beer for the
men. The abbots of Burton apparently made their own malt,
for it was a common covenant in leases of mills belonging to the
abbey that the malt of the lords of the manor, both spiritual and
temporal, should be ground free of charge. Robert Plot, in his
Natural History of Staffordshire (1686), refers to the peculiar
properties of the Burton waters, from which, he says, " by an art
well known in this country good ale is made, in the management
of which they have a knack of fining it in three days to that
degree that it shall not only be potable, but is clear and palatable
as we could desire any drink of this kind to be." In 1630 Burton
beer began to be known in London, being sold at " Ye Peacocke "
in Gray's Inn Lane, and according to the Spectator was in great
demand amongst the visitors in Vauxhall. Until tea and coffee
were introduced, beer and ale (see ALE) were, practically speak-
ing, the only popular beverages accessible to the general body of
consumers. Since the advent of tea, coffee, cocoa and mineral
waters, the character of British beers has undergone a gradual
modification, the strongly alcoholic, heavily hopped liquids
consumed by the previous generation slowly giving place to the
lighter beverages in vogue at the present time. The old " stock
bitter " has given way to the " light dinner ale," and " porter "
(so called from the fact that it was the popular drink amongst the
market porters of the i8th century) has been largely replaced by
" mild ale." A certain quantity of strong beer such as heavy
stouts and " stock " and " Scotch " ales is still brewed nowadays,
but it is not an increasing one. The demand is almost entirely
for medium beers such as mild ale, light stout, and the better class
of " bitter " beers, and light beers such as the light " family ales,"
" dinner ales " and lager.
The general run of beers contain from 3 to 6% of alcohol and
4 to 7 % of solids, the remainder being water and certain flavour-
ing and preservative matters derived from the malt, hops and
other materials employed in their manufacture. The solid, i.e.
non-volatile, matter contained in solution in beer consists mainly
of maltose or malt sugar, of several varieties of dextrin (see
BREWING), of substances which stand in an intermediate position
between the sugars and the dextrins proper, and of a number of
bodies containing nitrogen, such as the non-coagulable proteids,
peptones, &c. In addition there is an appreciable quantity of
mineral matter, chiefly phosphates and potash. Dietetically
regarded, therefore, beer possesses considerable food value, and,
moreover, the nutritious matter in beer is present in a readily
assimilable form.
It is probable that the average adult member of the British
working classes consumes not less than two pints of beer daily.
A reasonable calculation places the total proteids and carbo-
hydrates consumed by the average worker at 140 and 400
BEER
643
grammes respectively. Taking the proteid content of the average
beer at 0-4 % and the carbohydrate content at 4 %, a simple
calculation shows that about 3 % of the total proteid and 1 1 %
of the total carbohydrate food of the average worker will be
consumed in the shape of beer.
The chemical composition of beers of different types will be
gathered from the following tables.
A. ENGLISH BEERS.
(Analyses by J. L. Baker, Hulton & P. Schidrowitz.)
I. MM Ales.
Number.
Original Gravity.
Alcohol %.
Extractives(Solids)%.
I.'
2.'
3-'
I05S-I3
1055-64
1071-78
4-17
4-47
5-57
6-1
5'7
7-3
II. Light Bitters and Ales.
Number.
Original Gravity.
Alcohol %.
Extract! ves(Solids)%.
I.
2.
3-
4-
5-
1046-81
1047-69
1047-79
1050-30
1038-31
4-15
4-23
4-61
4-53
3-81
4-0
4-i
3-2
4-2
3-5
III. Pale and Stock Ales.
Number.
Original Gravity.
Alcohol %.
Extract! ves(Solids) %.
I.'
2.
3- 4
1059-01
1068-58
1076-80
4-77
5-48
6-68
5-8
7-1
5-9
IV. Stouts and Porter.
Number.
Original Gravity.
Alcohol %.
Extractives(Solids) %.
I.'
2.
V
1072-92
1054-26
1081-62
1054-11
6-14
4-73
6-O2
3-90
6-3
4-5
8-8
6-5
The figures in the above tables are very fairly representative
of different classes of British and Irish beers. It will be noticed
that the Mild Ales are of medium original gravity 8 and alcoholic
strength, but contain a relatively large proportion of solid
matter. The Light Bitters and Ales are of a low original gravity,
but compared with the Mild Ales the proportion of alcohol to
solids is higher. The Pale and Stock Ales, which represent the
more expensive bottle beers, are analytically of much the same
character as the Light Bitters, except that the figures all round
are much higher. The Stouts, as a rule, are characterized by a
high gravity, and contain relatively more solids (as compared
with alcohol) than do the heavy beers of light colour. With
1 London Ales. * Strong Burton Mild Ale.
* Fairly representative of " Pale Ales."
4 Heavy Stock Ales. * Irish Stout.
Nos. 2 and 3 are respectively " single " and " double " London
Stouts from the same brewery. * London Porter or Cooper.
The specific gravity, or " gravity " as it is always termed in the
industry, of the brewer is 1000 times the specific gravity of the
physicist. This is purely a matter of convention and convenience.
Thus when a brewer speaks of a wort of a " gravity " of 1045 (ten-
forty-five) he means a wort having a specific gravity of 1-045. Each
unit in the brewer's scale of specific gravity is termed a " degree of
gravity." The wort referred to above, therefore, possesses forty-
five degrees of gravity. The " original gravity," it may here be
mentioned, represents the specific gravity of the wort (see BREWING)
before fermentation. The solids in the original wort may be ascer-
tained by dividing the excess of the gravity over loop by 3-86.
Thus in the case of Mild Ale No. I the excess of the original gravity
over 1000 is 1055-13 1000 = 55-13. Dividing this by 3-86 we get
14-28, which indicates that the wort from which the beer was manu-
factured contained 14-28 % of solids. In the trade the gravity of
a beer (or rather of the wort from which it is derived) is generally
expressed in pounds per barrel. This means the excess in weight
of a barrel of the wort over the weight of a barrel of water. The
weight of a barrel (36 gallons) of water is 360 Ib; in the above ex-
ample the weight of a barrel of the beer wort is 360 XI -055 13 =379-8.
The gravity of the wort in Ib is therefore 370-8 360 = 19-8. The
beer which is made from this wort would also be called a 19-8 Ib
beer, the reference in all cases being to the original wort.
regard to the proportions of the various matters constituting the
extractives (solids) in English beers, roughly 20-30 % consists of
maltose and 20-50% of dextrinous matter. In mild ales the
proportion of maltose to dextrin is high (roughly i : i), thus
accounting for the full sweet taste of these beers. Pale and stock
ales, on the other hand, which are of a " dry " character, con-
tain relatively more dextrin, the general ratio being about i : i i
or i : 2. The mineral matter (" ash ") of beers is generally in the
neighbourhood of 0-2 to 0-3%, of which about one-fourth is
phosphoric acid. The proteid (" nitrogenous matters ") content
of beers varies very widely according to character and strength,
the usual limits being 0-3 to 0-8%, with an average of roughly
o-4%-
B. CONTINENTAL BEERS.
(Analyses by A. Doemens.)
Description.
Original
Gravity.
Alcohol %.
Extractives
(Solids) %.
Munich Draught Dark
1056-4
3-76
6-58
it i
1052-6
3-38
6-45
Light
1048-0
3-18
5-55
it ii
1048-1
4-05
3-9*
Export .
1054-3
3-68
6-32
tt
1059-5
4-15
7-48
Bock Beer
1076-6
4-53
10-05
Pilsener Bottle .
1047-7
3-47
4-90
Draught
1044-3
3-25
4-58
Berlin Dark
1055-2
3-82
6-17
Light . .
1056-5
4-36
5-46
. Weissbier .
1033-1
2-64
3-oi
It will be seen that, broadly speaking, the original gravity of
German and Austrian beers is lower than that of English
beers, and this also applies to the alcohol. On the other
hand, the foreign beers are relatively very rich in solids, and the
extractives: alcohol ratio is high. (See BREWING.)
C. AMERICAN BEERS AND ALES.
(Analyses by M. Wallerstein.)
Description.
Original
Gravity.
Alcohol %.
Extractives
(Solids) %.
I I.
Bottom Fermenta- 2.
tion Beers [-3.
(Lager Type). 4.
Top Fermenta- 1 I.
tion Ales f 2.
(British Type). J 3.
1046-7
1055-6
1063-4
1046-0
1051-7
1084-2
1073-5
1068-0
3-48
3-56
4-12
2-68
3-42
5-89
6-46
5-50
5-08
6-50
7-43
5-96
5-86
8-60
5-69
5-53
It will be noted that the American beers (i.e. bottom fermenta-
tion products of the lager type) are very similar in composition
to the German beers, but that the ales are very much heavier
than the general run of the corresponding British products.
Production and Consumption. (For manufacture of beer, see
BREWING.) Germany is the greatest beer-producing nation, if
liquid bulk be taken as a criterion; the United States comes
next, and the United Kingdom occupies the third place in this
regard. The consumption per head, however, is slightly greater
in the United Kingdom than in Germany, and very much
greater than is the case in the United States. The 1905 figures
with regard to the total production and consumption of the
three great beer-producing countries, together with those for
1885, are as under:
Country.
Total Production (Gallons).
Consumption per
Head of Popu-
lation (Gallons).
German Empire .
United States
United Kingdom
1905-
1885.
1905-
1885.
1,538,240,000
1,434,114,180
i, 227,933 ,468'
932,228,000
494,854,000
993.759-000
26-3
19-9
27-9O 10
19-8
8-8
27-1
A particularly heavy beer, only brewed at certain times in the
year.
"> The maxima of production and consumption were reached
in 1899/1900, when the production amounted to 1,337,509,116
gallons (at the standard gravity) and consumption to 32-28 gallons
per head.
644
BEERSHEBA BEETHOVEN
The chief point of interest in the preceding table is the enormous
increase in the United States. In considering the figures, the
character of the beer produced must be taken into consideration.
Thus, although Germany produces roughly 25 % more beer in
liquid measuretient than the United Kingdom, the latter actually
uses about 50% more malt than is the case in the German
breweries. According to a Viennese technical journal, the
quantities of malt employed for the production of one hectolitre
(22 gallons) of beer in the respective countries is 0-40 cwt. in the
German empire, 0-72 cwt. in the United States, and 0-81 cwt.
in the United Kingdom. In a sense, therefore, England may
still claim pre-eminence as a beer-producing nation. Large as
the per capita consumption in the United Kingdom may seem,
it is considerably less than is the case in Bavaria, which stands
at the head of the list with over 50 gallons, and in Belgium, which
comes second with 47-7 gallons. In the city of Munich the
consumption is actually over 70 gallons, that is to say, about i
pints a day for every man, woman and child. It is curious to
note that in Germany, which is usually regarded as a beer-
drinking country par excellence, the consumption per head of this
article is slightly less than in England, and that inversely the
average German consumes more alcohol in the shape of spirits
than does the inhabitant of the British Islands (consumption of
spirits per head: Germany, 1-76 gallons; United Kingdom, 0-99
gallons). This is accounted for by the fact that the peasantry
of the northern and eastern portions of the German empire
consume spirits almost exclusively. In the British colonies
beer is generally one of the staple drinks, but if we except
Western Australia, where about 25 gallons per head of population
are consumed, the demand is much smaller than in the United
Kingdom. In Australia generally, the per capita consumption
amounts to about 12 gallons, in New Zealand to 10 gallons, and
in Canada to 5 gallons. (P. S.)
BEERSHEBA, a place midway between Gaza and Hebron
(28 m. from each), frequently referred to in the Bible as the
southern limit of Palestine (" Dan to Beersheba," Judg. xx. i, &c.)
Its foundation is variously ascribed to Abraham and Isaac, and
different etymologies for its name are suggested, in the funda-
mental documents of Genesis (xxi. 22, xxvi. 26). It was an
important holy place, where Abraham planted a sacred tree
(Gen. xxi. 23), and where divine manifestations were vouchsafed
to Hagar (Gen. xxi. 17), Isaac (xxvi. 24), Jacob (xlvi.' 2) and
Elijah (i Kings xix. 5). Amos mentions it in connexion with
the shrines of Bethel and Gilgal (Amos v. 5) and denounces oaths
by its tinmen (viii. 14). The most probable meaning of the name
is " seven wells," despite the non-Semitic construction involved
in this interpretation. Seven ancient wells still exist here,
though two are stopped up. Eusebius and Jerome mention the
place in the 4th century as a large village and the seat of a Roman
garrison. Extensive remains of this village exist, though they
are being rapidly quarried away for building; some inscriptions
of great importance have been found here. Later it appears to
have been the site of a bishopric; remains of its churches were
still standing in the i4th century. Some fine mosaics have been
here unearthed and immediately destroyed, in sheer wantonness,
by the natives quarrying building-stone. The Biblical Beersheba
probably exists at Bir es-Seba', 2 m. distant.
BEESLY, EDWARD SPENCER (1831- ), English historian
and positivist, son of the Rev. James Beesly, was born at Fecken-
ham, Worcestershire, on the 23rd of January 1831. He was
educated at Wadham College, Oxford, which may be regarded
as the original centre of the English positivist movement.
Richard Congreve (q.v.) was tutor at Wadham from 1849 to 1854,
and three men of that time, Frederic Harrison (q.v.), Beesly and
John Henry Bridges (1832-1906), became the leaders of Comtism
in England. Beesly left Oxford in 1854 to become assistant-
master at Marlborough College. In 1859 he was appointed
professor of history at University College, London, and of Latin
at Bedford College, London, in 1860. He resigned these appoint-
ments in 1893 and 1889, and in 1893 became the editor of the
newly-established Positivist Review. He collaborated in the
translation of Comte's system of Positive Polity (4 vols., 1875-
1879), translated his Discourse on the Positive Spirit (1903),
and wrote a biography of Comte for a translation of the first two
chapters of his Cours de philosophic positive, entitled Fundamental
Principles of Positive Philosophy (1905). Professor Beesly stood
unsuccessfully as Liberal candidate for Westminster in 1885
and for Marylebone in 1886, and is the author of numerous
review articles on social and political topics, treated from the
positivist standpoint, especially on the Irish question. His
works also include a series of lectures on Roman history, entitled
Catiline, Clodius, Tiberius (1878), in which he rehabilitates in
some degree the character of each of his subjects, and Queen
Elizabeth (1892), in the " Twelve English Statesmen " series.
BEET, a cultivated form of the plant Beta vulgaris (natural
order Chenopodiaceae), which grows wild on the coasts of
Europe, North Africa and Asia as far as India. It is a biennial,
producing, like the carrot, a thick, fleshy tap-root during the first
year and a branched, leafy, flowering stem in the following season.
The small, green flowers are borne in clusters. A considerable
number of varieties are cultivated for use on account of their
large fleshy roots, under the names of mangel-wurzel or mangold,
field-beet and garden-beet. The cultivation of beet in relation
to the production of sugar, for which purpose certain varieties of
beet stand next in importance to the sugar cane, is dealt with
under SUGAR. The garden-beet has been cultivated from very
remote times as a salad plant, and for general use as a table
vegetable. The variety most generally grown has long, tapering,
carrot-shaped roots, the " flesh " of which is of a uniform deep
red colour throughout, and the leaves brownish red. It is boiled
and cut into slices for being eaten cold; and it is also prepared
as a pickle, as well as in various other forms. Beet is in much
more common use on the continent of Europe as a culinary
vegetable than in Great Britain, where it has, however, been
cultivated for upwards of two centuries. The white beet, Beta
cicla, is cultivated for the leaves, which are used as spinach.
The midribs and stalks of the leaves are also stewed and eaten as
sea-kale, under the name of Swiss chard. B. cicla is also largely
used as a decorative plant for its large, handsome leaves, blood
red or variegated in colour.
The beet prospers in a rich deep soil, well pulverized by the
spade. If manure is required, it should be deposited at the
bottom of the trench in preparing the ground. The seeds should
be sown in drills 15 ins. asunder, in April or early in May, and the
plants are afterwards to be thinned to about 8 in. apart in the
lines, but not more, as moderate-sized roots are preferable.
The plants should grow on till the end of October or later, when a
portion should be taken up for use, and the rest laid in in a
sheltered corner, and covered up from frost. The roots must not
be bruised and the leaves must be twisted off not closely cut,
as they are then liable to bleed. In the north the crop may be
wholly taken up in autumn, and stored in a pit or cellar, beyond
reach of frost. If it is desired to have fresh roots early, the seeds
should be sown at the end of February or beginning of March;
and if a succession is required, a few more may be sown by the
end of March.
BEETHOVEN, LUDWIQ VAN (1770-1827), German musical
composer, was baptized (probably, as was usual, the day after
birth) on the i7th of December 1770 at Bonn. His family is
traceable to a village near Louvain, in Belgium, in the i7th
century. In 1650 a lineal ancestor of the composer settled in
Antwerp. Beethoven's grandfather, Louis, quarrelled with his
family, came to Bonn in 1732, and became one of the court
musicians of the archbishop-elector of Cologne. He was a genial
man of estimable character, and though Ludwig van Beethoven
was only four years old when his grandfather died, he never
forgot him, but cherished his portrait to the end of his life.
Beethoven's father, a tenor singer at the archbishop-elector's
court, was of a rough and violent temper, not improved by his
passion for drink, nor by the dire poverty under which the
family laboured. He married Magdelina Leim or Laym, the
widow of a vdlet-de-chambre of the elector of Trier and daughter
of the chief cook at Ehrenbreitstein. Beethoven's father wished
to profit as early as possible by his son's talent, and accordingly
BEETHOVEN
645
began to give him a severe musical training, especially on the
violin, when he was only five years old, at about which time they
left the house in which he was born (315 Bonngasse, now pre-
served as a Beethoven museum, with a magnificent collection of
manuscripts and relics). By the time Beethoven was nine his
father had no more to teach him, and he entered upon a perhaps
healthier course of clavier lessons under a singer named Pfeiffer.
A little general education was also edged in by a certain Zambona.
Van den Eeden, the court organist, and an old friend of his
grandfather, taught him the organ and the pianoforte, and so
rapid was Beethoven's progress that when C. G. Neefe succeeded
to Van den Eeden's post in 1781, he was soon able to allow the
boy to act as his deputy. With his permission Beethoven pub-
lished in 1783 his earliest extant composition, a set of variations
on a march by Dressier. The title-page states that they were
written in 1780 " par un jeune amateur Louis van Beethoven
dge de dix ans." Beethoven's father was very clumsy in his
unnecessary attempts to make an infant prodigy of his son;
for the ante-dating of this composition, implying the correct
date of birth, contradicts the post-dating of the date of birth
by which he tried to make out that the three sonatas Beethoven
wrote in the same year were by a boy of eleven. (Beethoven
for a long time believed that he was born in 1772, and the
certificate of his baptism hardly convinced him, because he
knew that he had an elder brother named Ludwig who died in
infancy.) In the same year, 1783, Beethoven was given the
post of cembalist in the Bonn theatre, and in 1784 his position
of assistant to Neefe became official. In a catalogue raisonne of
the new archbishop Max Franz's court musicians we find " No.
14, Ludwig Beethoven " described " as of good capacity, still
young, of good, quiet behaviour and poor," while his father
(No. 8) " has a completely worn-out voice, has long been in
service, is very poor, of fairly good behaviour, and married."
In the spring of 1787 Beethoven paid a short visit to Vienna,
where he astonished Mozart by his extemporizations and had a
few lessons from him. How he was enabled to afford this visit
is not clear. After three months the illness of his mother, to
whom he was devoted, brought him back. She died in July,
leaving a baby girl, one year old, who died in November. For
five more years Beethoven remained at Bonn supporting his
family, of which he had been since the age of fifteen practically
the head, as his father's bad habits steadily increased until in
1789 Ludwig was officially entrusted with his father's salary.
He had already made several lifelong friends at Bonn, of whom
the chief were Count Waldstein and Stephan Breuning; and his
prospects brightened as the archbishop-elector, in imitation of his
brother the emperor Joseph II., enlarged the scale of his artistic
munificence. By 1792 the archbishop-elector's attention was
thoroughly aroused to Beethoven's power, and he provided for
Beethoven's second visit to Vienna. The introductions he and
Count Waldstein gave to Beethoven, the prefix " van " in
Beethoven's name (which looked well though it was not really a
title of nobility), and above all the unequalled impressiveness
of his playing and extemporization, quickly secured his footing
with the exceptionally intelligent and musical aristocracy of
Vienna, who to the end of his life treated him with genuine
affection and respect, bearing with all the roughness of his
manners and temper, not as with the eccentricities of a fashion-
able genius, but as with signs of the sufferings of a passionate
and noble nature.
Beethoven's life, though outwardly uneventful, was one of
the most pathetic of tragedies. His character has had the same
fascination for his biographers as it had for -his friends, and
there is probably hardly any great man in history of whom more
is known and of whom so much of what is known is interesting.
Yet it is all too much a matter of detail and anecdote to admit
of chronological summarizing here, and for the disentangling of
its actual incidents we must refer the reader to Sir George
Grove's long and graphic article, " Beethoven," in the Dictionary
of Music and Musicians, and to the monumental biography of
Thayer, who devoted his whole life to collecting materials.
These two biographical works, read in the spirit in which their
authors conceived them, will reveal, beneath a mass of distress-
ing, grotesque and sometimes sordid detail, a nobility of character
and unswerving devotion to the highest moral ideas throughout
every distress and temptation to which a passionate and totally
unpractical temper and the growing shadow of a terrible mis-
fortune could expose a man.
The man is surpassed only by his works, for in them he had
that mastery which was denied to him in what he himself calls
his attempt to " grapple with fate." Such of his difficulties as
lay in his own character already showed themselves in his studies
with Haydn. Haydn, who seems to have heard of him on his
first visit to Vienna in 1787, passed through Bonn in July 1792,
and was so much struck by Beethoven that it was very likely at
his instigation that the archbishop sent Beethoven to Vienna to
study under him. But Beethoven did not get on well with him,
and found him perfunctory in correcting his exercises. Haydn
appreciated neither his manners nor the audacity of his free
compositions, and abandoned whatever intentions he may have
had of taking Beethoven with him to England in 1794. Beet-
hoven could do without sympathy, but a grounding in strict
counterpoint he felt to be a dire necessity, so he continued his
studies with Albrechtsberger, a mere grammarian who had the
poorest opinion of him, but who could, at all events, be depended
on to attend to his work. Almost every comment has been made
upon the relations between Haydn and Beethoven, except the
perfectly obvious one that Mozart died at the age of thirty-six,
just at the time Beethoven came to Vienna, and that Haydn, as is
perfectly well known, was profoundly shocked by the untimely
loss of the greatest musician he had ever known. At such a time
the undeniable clumsiness of Beethoven's efforts at academic
exercises would combine with his general tactlessness to confirm
Haydn in the belief that the sun had set for ever in the musical
world, and would incline him to view with disfavour those bold
features of style and form which the whole of his own artistic
development should naturally have predisposed him to welcome.
It is at least significant that those early works of Beethoven in
which Mozart's influence is most evident, such as the Septet,
aroused Haydn's open admiration, whereas he hardly approved
of the compositions like the sonatas, op. 2 (dedicated to him), in
which his own influence is stronger. Neither he nor Beethoven
was skilful in expressing himself except in music, and it is
impossible to tell what Haydn meant, or what Beethoven
thought he meant, in advising him not to publish the last and
finest of the three trios, op. i. But even if he did not mean that
it was too daring for the public, it can hardly be expected that
he never contrasted the meteoric career of Mozart, who after a
miraculous boyhood had produced at the age of twenty-five
some of the greatest music Haydn had ever seen, with the slow
and painful development of his uncouth pupil, who at the same
age had hardly a dozen presentable works to his credit. It is
not clear that Haydn ever came to understand Beethoven, and
many years passed before Beethoven realized the greatness of
the master whose teaching had so disappointed him.
From the time Beethoven settled permanently in Vienna,
which he was soon induced to do by the kindness of his aristo-
cratic friends, the only noteworthy external features of his
career are the productions of his compositions. In spite of the
usual hostile criticism for obscurity, exaggeration and unpopu-
larity, his reputation became world-wide and by degrees actually
popular; nor did it ever decline, for as his later works became
notorious for their extravagance and unintelligibility his'earlier
works became better understood. He was no man of business,
but, in a thoroughly unpractical way, he was suspicious and
exacting in money matters, which in his later years frequently
turned up in his conversation as a grievance, and at times,
especially during the depreciation of the Austrian currency
between 1808 and 1815, were a real anxiety to him. Nevertheless,
with a little more skill his external prosperity would have been
great. He was always a personage of importance, as is testified
by more than one amusing anecdote, like those of his walks with
Goethe and his half-ironical comments on the hats which flew
off more for him than for Goethe; and in 1815 it seemed as if the
646
summit of his fame was reached when his ;th symphony was
performed, together with a hastily-written cantata, Der glorreicke
Augenblick and the blazing piece of descriptive fireworks entitled
Wellingtons Sieg oder die Schlacht bei Vittoria, once popular
in England as the Battle Symphony. The occasion for this
vperformance was the congress of Vienna; and the government
placed the two halls of the Redouten-Saal at his disposal for
two nights, while he himself was allowed to invite all the
sovereigns of Europe. In the same year he received the freedom
of the city, an honour much valued by him. After that time his
immediate popularity, as far as new works were concerned, be-
came less eminent, as that of his more easy-going contemporaries
began to increase. Yet there was, not only in the emotional
power of his earlier works, but also in the known cause of his
increasing inability to appear in public, something that awakened
the best popular sensibilities; and when his two greatest and
most difficult works, the 9th symphony and parts of the M issa
Solemnis, were produced at a memorable concert in 1824, the
storm of applause was overwhelming, and the composer, who
was on the platform in order to give the time to the conductor,
had to be turned round by one of the singers in order to see it.
Signs of deafness ha"d given him grave anxiety as early as
1798. For a long time he successfully concealed it from all but
his most intimate friends, while he consulted physicians and
quacks with eagerness; but neither quackery nor the best skill
of his time availed him, and it has been pointed out that the root
of the evil lay deeper than could have been supposed during his
lifetime. Although his constitution was magnificently strong
and his health was preserved by his passion for outdoor life,
..,a post-mortem examination revealed a very complicated state of
'disorder, evidently dating almost from childhood (if not inherited)
and aggravated by lack of care and good food. The touching
document addressed to his brothers in 1802, and known as
his " will," should be read in its entirety, as given by Thayer
(iv. 4). No verbal quotation short of the whole will do justice
to the overpowering outburst which runs almost in one long
unpunctuated sentence through the whole tragedy of Beethoven's
life, as he knew it then and foresaw it. He reproaches men for
their injustice in thinking and calling him pugnacious, stubborn
and misanthropical when they do not know that for six years
he has suffered from an incurable condition, aggravated by
incompetent doctors. He dwells upon his delight in human
society, from which he has had so early to isolate himself, but the
thought of which now fills him with dread as it makes him
realize his loss, not only in music but in all finer interchange of
ideas, and terrifies him lest the cause of his distress should appear.
He declares that, when those near him had heard a flute or a
singing shepherd while he heard nothing, he was only prevented
from taking his life by the thought of his art, but it seemed im-
possible for him to leave the world until he had brought out
all that he felt to be in his power. He requests that after his
death his present doctor, if surviving, shall be asked to describe
his illness and to append it to this document in order that at
least then the world may be as far as possible reconciled with
him. He leaves his brothers his property, such as it is, and in
terms not less touching, if more conventional than the rest of
the document, he declares that his experience shows that only
virtue has preserved his life and his courage through all his
misery.
And, indeed, his art and his courage rose far above any level
attainable by those artists who are slaves to the " personal
note," for his chief occupation at the time ot this document was
his 2nd symphony, the most brilliant and triumphant piece
that had ever been written up to that time. On a smaller scale,
in which mastery was the more easily attainable as experiment
was more readily tested, Beethoven was sooner able to strike
a tragic note, and hence the process of growth in his style is
more readily traceable in the pianoforte works than in the larger
compositions which naturally represent a series of crowning
results. Only in his last period does the pianoforte cease to be
Beethoven's normal means of expression. Accordingly, if in
the discussion of Beethoven's works, with which we close this
BEETHOVEN
article, we dwell rather more on the pianoforte sonatas than on
his greater works, it is not only because they are more easily
referred to by the general reader, but because they are actually
a key to his intellectual development, such as is afforded neither
by his life nor by the great works which are themselves the crown-
ing mystery and wonder of musical art.
Deafness causes inconvenience in conversation long before it
is noticeable in music, and in 1806 Beethoven could still conduct
his opera Fidelia and be much annoyed at the inattention to his
nuances; and his last appearance as a player was not until 1814,
when he made a great impression with his B flat trio, op. 97.
At the end of November 1822 an attempt to conduct proved
disastrous. The touching incident in 1824 has been described,
but up to the last Beethoven seems to have found or imagined
that ear-trumpets (of which a collection is now preserved at Bonn)
were of use to him in playing to himself, though his friends
were often pained when the pianoforte was badly out of tune,
and were overcome when Beethoven in soft passages did not make
the notes sound at all. The instrument sent him by Broadwood
in 1817-1818 gave him great pleasure and he answered it with
a characteristically cordial and quaint letter in the best of bad
French. His fame in England was often a source of great
comfort to him, especially in his last illness, when the London
Philharmonic Society, for which the gth symphony was written
and a loth symphony projected, sent him 100 in advance of
the proceeds of a benefit concert which he had begged them to
give, being in very straitened circumstances, as he would make
no use of the money he had deposited in the bank for his nephew.
This nephew was the cause of most of his anxiety and distress
in the last twelve years of his life. His brother, Kaspar Karl,
had often given him trouble; for example, by obtaining and
publishing some of Beethoven's early indiscretions, such as the
trio-variations, op. 44, the sonatas, op. 49, and other trifles,
of which the late opus number is thus explained. In 1815, after
Beethoven had quarrelled with his oldest friend, Stephan
Breuning, for warning him against trusting his' brother in money
matters, Kaspar died, leaving a widow of whom Beethoven
strongly disapproved, and a son, nine years old, for the guardian-
ship of whom Beethoven fought the widow through all the law
courts. The boy turned out utterly unworthy of his uncle's
persistent devotion, and gave him every cause for anxiety.
He failed in all his examinations, including an attempt to learn
some trade in the polytechnic school, whereupon he fell into the
hands of the police for attempting suicide, and, after being
expelled from Vienna, joined the army. Beethoven's utterly
simple nature could neither educate nor understand a human
being who was not possessed by the wish to do his best. His
nature was passionately affectionate, and he had suffered all
his life from the want of a natural outlet for it. He had often
been deeply in love and made no secret of it; but Robert
Browning had not a more'intense dislike of " the artistic tempera-
ment " in morals, and though Beethoven's attachments were
almost all hopelessly above him in rank, there is not one that
was not honourable and respected by society as showing the
truthfulness and self-control of a great man. Beethoven's
orthodoxy in such matters has provoked the smiles of Philistines,
especially whe,n it showed itself in his objections to Mozart's
Don Giovanni, and his grounds for selecting the subject of
Fidelia for his own opera. The last thing that Philistines will
ever understand is that genius is far too independent of con-
vention to abuse it; and Beethoven's life, with all its mistakes,
its grotesqueness and its pathos, is as far beyond the shafts of
Philistine wit as his art.
At the beginning of 1827 Beethoven had projects for a loth
symphony, music to Goethe's Faust, and (under the stimulus
of his newly acquired collection of Handel's works) any amount
of choral music, compared to which all his previous compositions
would have seemed- but a prelude. But he was in bad health;
his brother Johann, with whom he had been staying, had not
allowed him a fire in his bedroom, and had sent him back to
Vienna in an open chaise in vile weather; and the chill which
resulted ended in a fatal illness. Within a week of his death
BEETHOVEN
647
Beethoven was still full of his projects. Three days before the
end he added a codicil to his will, and saw Schubert, whose music
had aroused his keen interest, but was not able to speak to him,
though he afterwards spoke of the Philharmonic Society and the
English, almost his last words being " God bless them." On the
26th of March 1827, during a fierce thunderstorm, he died.
Beethoven's Music. The division of Beethoven's work into
three styles has become proverbial, and is based on obvious facts.
The styles, however, are not rigidly separated, either in them-
selves or in chronology. Nor can the popular description of
Beethoven's first manner as " Mozartesque " be accepted as
doing justice to a style which differs more radically from Mozart's
than Mozart's differs from Haydn's. The style of Beethoven's
third period is no longer regarded as " showing an obscurity
traceable to his deafness," but we have, perhaps, only recently
outgrown the belief that his later treatment of form is revolu-
tionary. The peculiar interest and difficulty in tracing Beet-
hoven's artistic development is that the changes in the materials
and range of his art were as great as those in the form, so -that he
appears in the light of a pioneer, while the art with which he
started was nevertheless already a perfectly mature and highly
organized thing. And he is perhaps unique among artists in
this, that his power of constructing perfect works of art never
deserted him while he revolutionized his means of expression.
No doubt this is in a measure true of all the greatest artists,
but it is seldom obvious. In mature art vital differences in
works of similar form are generally more likely to be overlooked
than to force themselves on the critic's attention. And when
they become so great as to make a new epoch it is generally
at the cost of a period of experiment too heterogeneous and
insecure for works of art to attain great permanent value.
But in Beethoven's case, as we have said, the process of develop-
ment is so smooth that it is impossible to separate the periods
clearly, although the ground covered is, as regards emotional
range, at least as great as that between Bach and Mozart. No
artist has ever left more authoritative documentary evidence
as to the steps of his development than Beethoven. In boyhood
he seems to have acquired the habit of noting down all his
musical ideas exactly as they first struck him. It is easy to see
why in later years he referred to this as a " bad habit," for it
must often take longer to jot down a crude idea than to reject
it; and by the time the habit was formed Beethoven's powers of
self-criticism were unparalleled, and he must often have felt
hampered by the habit of writing down what he knew to be too
crude to be even an aid to memory. Such first intuitions, if not
written down, would no doubt be forgotten; but the poetic
mood, the Stimmung, they attempt to indicate, would remain
until a better expression was forthcoming. Beethoven had
acquired the habit of recording them, and thereby he has,
perhaps, misled some critics into over-emphasizing the contrast
between his " tentative " self-critical methods and the quasi-
extempore outpourings of Mozart. This contrast is probably
not very radical; indeed, we may doubt whether in every
thoughtful mind any apparently sudden inspiration is not pre-
ceded by some anticipatory mood in which the idea was sought
and its first faint indications tested and rejected so instantane-
ously as to leave no impression on the memory.
The number and triviality of Beethoven's preliminary sketches
should not, then, be taken as evidence of a timid or vacillating
spirit. But if we regard his sketches as his diary their significance
becomes inestimable. They cover every period of Beethoven's
career, and represent every stage of nearly all his important
works, as well as of innumerable trifles, including ideas that did
not survive to be worked out. And the type of self-criticism
is the same from beginning to end. There is no tendency in the
middle or last period, any more than in the first, to " sub-
ordinate form to expression," nor do the sketches of the first
period show any lack of attention to elements that seem more
characteristic of the third. The difference between Beethoven's
three styles appears first in its full proportions when we realize
this complete continuity of his method and art. We have ven-
tured to cast doubts upon the Mozartesque character of his early
style, because that is chiefly a question of perspective. While
he was handling a range of ideas not, in a modern view, glaringly
different from Mozart's, he had no reason to use a glaringly
different language. His contemporaries, however, found it more
difficult to see the resemblance; and, though their criticism was
often violently hostile, they saw with prejudice a daring origin-
ality which we. may as well learn to appreciate with study.
Beethoven himself in later years partly affected and partly felt
a lack of sympathy with his own early style. But he had other
things to do than to criticize it. Modern prejudice has not his
excuse, and the neglect of Beethoven's early works is no less
than the neglect of the key to the understanding of his later.
It is also the neglect of a mass of mature art that already places
Beethoven on the same plane as Mozart, and contains perhaps
the only traces in all his work of a real struggle between the
forces of progress and those of construction. We will therefore
give special attention to this subject here.
The truth is that there are several styles in Beethoven's
first period, in the centre of which, " proving all things," is the
true and mature Beethoven, however wider may be the scope of
his later maturity. And he did not, as is often alleged, fail to
show early promise. The pianoforte quartets he wrote at the age
of fifteen are, no doubt, clumsy and childish in execution to a
degree that contrasts remarkably with the works of Mozart's,
Mendelssohn's or Schubert's boyhood; yet they contain material
actually used in the sonatas, op. 2, No. i, and op. 2, No. 3. And
the passage in op. 2, No. 3, is that immediately after the first
subject, where, as Beethoven then states it, it embodies one of
his most epoch-making discoveries, namely, the art of organizing
a long series of apparently free modulations by means of a
systematic progression in the bass. In the childish quartet the
principle is only dimly felt, but it is nevertheless there as a
subconscious source of inspiration; and it afterwards gives
inevitable dramatic truth to such passages as the climax of the
development in the sonata, op. 57 (commonly called Appas-
sionato), and throughout the chaos of the mysterious introduction
to the C major string-quartet, op. 59, No. 3, prepares us for the
world of loveliness that arises from it.
Although with Beethoven the desire to express new thoughts
was thus invariably both stimulated and satisfied by the dis-
covery of the necessary new means of expression, he felt deeply
the danger of spoiling great ideas by inadequate execution;
and his first work in a new form or medium is, even if as late
as the Mass in C, op. 89, almost always unambitious. His
teachers had found him sceptical of authority, and never con-
vinced of the practical convenience of a rule until he had too
successfully courted disaster. But he appreciated the experience,
though he may have found it expensive, and traces of crudeness
in such early works as he did not disown are as rare as plagiar-
isms. The first three pianoforte sonatas, op. 2, show the different
elements in Beethoven's early style as clearly as possible. Sir
Hubert Parry has aptly compared the opening of the sonata,
op. 2, No. i, with that of the finale of Mozart's G minor sym-
phony, to show how much closer Beethoven's texture is. The
slow movement well illustrates the rare cases in which Beethoven
imitates Mozart to the detriment of his own proper richness
of tone and thought, while the finale in its central episode
brings a misapplied and somewhat diffuse structure in Mozart's
style into direct conflict with themes as " Beethovenish " in
their terseness as in their sombre passion. The second sonata is
flawless in execution, and entirely beyond the range of Haydn
and Mozart in harmonic and dramatic thought, except in the
finale. And it is just in the adoption of the luxurious Mozart-
esque rondo form as the crown of this work that Beethoven
shows his true independence. He adopts the form, not because
it is Mozart's, but because it is right and because he can master it.
The opening of the second subject in the first movement is a
wonderful application of the harmonic principle already men-
tioned in connexion with the early piano quartets. In all music
nothing equally dramatic can be found before the D minor
sonata, op. 31, No. 2, which is rightly regarded as marking the
beginning of Beethoven's second period. The slow movement,
648
BEETHOVEN
like those of op. 7 and a few other early works, shows a thrilling
solemnity that immediately proves the identity of the pupil of
Haydn with the creator of the oth symphony. The little scherzo
no less clearly foreshadows the new era in music by the fact
that in so small and light a movement a modulation from A to G
sharp minor can occur too naturally to excite surprise. If the
later work of Beethoven were unknown there would be very
little evidence that this sonata was by a young man, except,
perhaps, in the remarkable abruptness of style in the first
movement, an abruptness which is characteristic, not of im-
maturity, but of art in which problems are successfully solved
for the first time. This abruptness is, however, in a few of
Beethoven's early works carried appreciably too far. In the
sonata in C minor, op. 10, No. i, for example, the more vigorous
parts of the first movement lose in breadth from it, while the
finale is almost stunted.
But Beethoven was not content to express his individuality
only in an abrupt epigrammatic style. From the outset breadth
was also his aim, and while he occasionally attempted to attain
a greater breadth than his resources would properly allow (as
in the first movement of the sonata, op. 2, No. 3, and that of the
violoncello sonata, op. 5, No. i, in both of which cases a kind of
extempore outburst in the coda conceals the collapse of his
peroration), there are many early works in which he shows
neither abruptness of style nor any tendency to confine himself
within the limits of previous art. The C minor trio, op. i, No. 3,
is not more remarkable for the boldness of thought that made
Haydn doubtful as to the advisability of publishing it, than for
the perfect smoothness and spaciousness of its style. These
qualities Beethoven at first naturally found easier to retain with
less dramatic material, as in the other trios in the same opus,
but the C minor trio does not stand alone. It represents, per-
haps, the most numerous, as certainly the noblest, class of
Beethoven's early works. Certainly the smallest class is that
in which there is unmistakable imitation of Mozart, and it is
significant that almost all examples of this class are works for
wind instruments, where the technical limitations narrowly
determine the style and discourage the composer from taking
things seriously. Such works are the beautiful and popular
septet, the quintet for pianoforte and wind instruments (modelled
superficially, yet closely and with a kind of modest ambition, on
Mozart's wonderful work for the same combination) and, on a
somewhat higher level, the trio for pianoforte, clarinet and
violoncello, op. n.
It is futile to discuss the point at which Beethoven's second
manner may be said to begin, but he has himself given us ex-
cellent evidence as to when and how his first manner (as far as
that is a single thing) became impossible to him. Through quite
a large number of works, beginning perhaps with the great
string quintet, op. 29, new types of harmonic and emotional
expression had been assimilated into a style at least intelligible
from Mozart's point of view. Indeed, Beethoven's favourite
way of enlarging his range of expression often seems to consist in
allowing the Titanic force of his new inventions and the formal
beauty of the old art to indicate by their contrast a new world
grander and lovelier than either. Sometimes, as in the C major
quintet, the new elements are too perfectly assimilated for the
contrast to appear. The range of key and depth of thought is
beyond that of Beethoven's first manner, but the smoothness is
that of Mozart. In the three pianoforte sonatas, op. 31, the
struggle of the transition is as manifest as its accomplishment is
triumphant. The first movement of the first sonata (in G major)
deals with widely separated keys on new principles. These' are
embodied in a style which for abruptness and jocular paradox
is hardly surpassed by Beethoven's most nervous early works.
The exceptionally ornate and dilatory slow movement reads
almost like a protest; while the finale begins as if to show that
humour should be beautiful, and ends by making fun of the
beauty. The second sonata (in D minor) is the greatest work
Beethoven had as yet written. Its first movement, already cited
above in connexion with the dramatic sequences in op. 2, No. 2,
is, like that of the Sonata Appassionato., a locus classicus for such
powerful means of expression. And it is worth noting that the
only sketch known of this movement is a sketch in which nothing
but its sequential plan is indicated. In the third sonata Beet-
hoven enjoys on a higher plane an experience he had often
indulged in before, the attainment of smoothness and breadth
by means of a delicately humorous calm which gives scope to the
finer subtleties of his new thoughts.
Beethoven himself wrote to his publisher that these three
sonatas represented a new phase in his style; but when we
realize his artistic conscientiousness it is not surprising that they
should be contemporary with larger works like the and sym-
phony, which are far more characteristic of his first manner.
His whole development is entirely ruled by his determination to
let nothing pass until it has been completely mastered, and long
before this his sketch-books show that he had many ambitious
ideas for a ist symphony, and that it was a deliberate process
that made his ambitions dwindle into something that could be
safely realized in the masterly little comedy with which he began
his orchestral career. The easy breadth and power of the 2nd
symphony represents an amply sufficient advance, and leaves
his forces free to develop in less expensive forms those vast
energies for which afterwards the orchestra and the string-quartet
were to become the natural field.
In the " Waldstein " sonata, op. 53, we see Beethoven's
second manner literally displacing his first; that is to say, we
reach a state of things at which the two can no longer form an
artistic contrast. The work, as we know it, is not only perfect,
but has all the qualities of art in which the newest elements have
long been familiar. The opening is on the same harmonic train
of thought as that of the sonata, op. 31, No. i, but there is no
longer he slightest need for a paradoxical or jocular manner.
On the contrary, the harmonies are held together by an orderly
sequence in the bass, and the onrush is that of some calm diurnal
energy of nature. The short introduction to the finale is har-
monically and emotionally the most profound thing in the sonata,
while the finale itself uses every new resource in the triumphant
attainment of a leisure more splendid than any conceivable in
the most spacious of Mozart's rondos. Yet it is well known
that Beethoven originally intended the beautiful andante in F,
afterwards published separately, to be the slow movement of
this sonata. That andante is, like the finale, a spacious and
gorgeous rondo, which probably Beethoven himself could not
have written at an earlier period. The modulation to D flat in
its principal theme, and that to G flat near the end, are its chief
harmonic effects and stand out in beautiful relief within its
limits. After the first movement of the Waldstein sonata they
would be flat and colourless. The sketch-books show that
Beethoven, when he first planned the sonata, was by no means
inattentive to the balance of harmonic colour in the whole scheme,
but that at first he did not realize how far that scheme was
going to carry him. He originally thought of the slow movement
as in E major, a remote key to which, however, he soon assigned
the more intimate position of complementary key in the first
movement. He then worked at the slow movement in F with
such zest that he did not discover until the whole sonata was
finished that he had raised the first and last movements to an
altogether higher plane of thought, though the redundancy of
the two rondos in juxtaposition and the unusual length of the
sonata were so obvious that his friends ventured to point them
out. Beethoven's revision of his earliest works is now known
to have been extensive and drastic; but this is the first instance,
and Fidelia and the quartet in B flat, op. 131, are the only other
instances, of any later work needing important alteration after
it was completely executed. From this point up to op. 101 we
may study Beethoven's second manner entirely free from any
survivals of his first, even as a legitimate contrast; though it
is as impossible to fix a point before which his third manner
cannot be traced as it is to ignore the premonitions of his second
manner in his early works. The distinguishing features in
Beethoven's second style are the result of a condition of art in
which enormous new possibilities have become so well known that
there is no need for stating them abruptly, paradoxically or
BEETHOVEN
649
emphatically, but also no need for working them out to remote
conclusions. Hence these works have become for most people
the best-known and best-loved type of classical music. In their
perfect fusion of untranslatable dramatic emotion with every
beauty of musical design and tone they have never been equalled,
nor is it probable that any other art can show a wider range of
thought embodied in a more perfect form. In music itself there
is nothing else of so wide a range without grave artistic defects
from which Beethoven is entirely free. Wagnerian opera aims
at an ideal as truly artistic, and in so far of wider range than
Beethoven's that it passes beyond the bounds of pure music
altogether. Within those bounds Beethoven remained, and
even the apparent exceptions (such as Fidelia and his two great
examples of " programme music," the Pastoral Symphony and
the sonata, Les Adieux) only show how universal his conception
of pure music is. Extraneous ideas had here struck him as
magnificent material for instrumental music, and he never
troubled to argue whether instrumental music is the better
or worse for expressing extraneous ideas. To describe the works
of Beethoven's second period here would be to describe a library
of well-known classics, and we must refer the reader for further
details to the articles on SONATA FORMS, CONTRAPUNTAL FORMS,
HARMONY and INSTRUMENTATION. It remains for us to attempt
to indicate the essential features of his third style, and to conclude
with a survey of his influence on the history of music.
Beethoven's third style arose imperceptibly from his second.
His deafness had very little to do with it, for aU his epoch-making
discoveries in orchestral effect date from the time when he was
already far too much inconvenienced to test them in a way which
would satisfy any one who depended more upon his ear than upon
his imagination. It is indeed highly probable that there are no
important features in Beethoven's latest style that may not be
paralleled by the tendencies of all great artists who have handled
their material until it contains nothing that has not been long
familiar with them. Such tendencies lead to an extreme simplicity
of form, underlying an elaboration of detail which may at first
seem bewildering until we realize that it is purely the working out
to its logical conclusions of some idea as simple and natural as the
form itself. The form, however, will be not merely simple, but
individual. Different works will show such striking external
differences of form that a criticism which applies merely a priori
or historic standards will be tempted by the fallacy that there is
less form in a number of such markedly different works than in a
number of works that have one scheme in common. All this is
eminently the case with Beethoven's last works. The extreme
simplicity of the themes of the first two movements of the
quartet in B flat, op. 131, and the tremendous complexity of the
texture into which they are woven, at first impress us as some-
thing mysterious and intangible rather than astonishing. The
boldness with which the slow introduction is blended in broad
statement and counter-statement with the allegro, is directly
impressive, as is also the entry of the second subject with its
dark harmony and tone, but the Work needs long familiarity
before its vast mass of thought reveals itself to us in its true
lucidity. Such works are "dark with excessive bright." When
we enter into them they are transparent as far as our vision
extends, and their darkness is that of a depth that shines as we
penetrate it. In all probability only a veil of familiarity prevents
our finding the same kind of difficulty in Beethoven's earlier
works. What is undoubtedly newest in the last works is the
enormous development of those polyphonic elements which are
always essential to the life of a composition, but which have
very different functions and degrees of prominence in different
forms and stages of the art. Polyphony inevitably draws
attention to detail, and thus Beethoven in his middle period
found its more obvious manifestations but little conducive to
the breadth of designs which were not as yet sufficiently familiar
to take any but the foremost place. Hence, among other
interesting features of that second period, his marked preference
for themes founded on rhythmic figures of one note, e.g. the
famous " four taps " in the C minor symphony; an identical
rhythm in a melodious theme of very different character in the
G major concerto; a similar figure in the Sonata Appassionato;
the first theme of the scherzo of the F major quartet, op. 59, No. i,
and the drum-beats in the violin concerto. Such rhythms give
thematic life to an inner part without causing it to assume such
melodic interest as might distract the attention from the flow
of the surface. But in proportion as polyphony loses its danger
so does the prominence of such rhythmic figures decrease, until
in Beethoven's last works they are no more noticeable than other
kinds of simplicity. The impression of crowded detail is naturally
more prominent the smaller the means with which Beethoven
works and the less outwardly dramatic his thought. Thus
those most gigantic of all musical designs, the gth symphony,
and the Mass in D, are, but for the mechanical difficulties of the
choral writing, almost like works of the second period as far as
direct impressiveness is concerned; and in the same way the
enormous pianoforte sonata, op. 106, is in its first three move-
ments easier to follow than the extremely terse and subtle works
on a smaller scale that preceded it (sonata in A major, 101, and
the two sonatas for violoncello, op. 102).
His enormous development of polyphonic interest soon led
Beethoven to employ the fugue, not only, as in previous works,
by way of episodic contrast to passages and designs in which the
form and not the texture is the main object of interest, but as
the culminating expression of a condition or art in which the
unity of form and texture is so perfect that the mind is free to
concentrate itself on the texture alone. This union was not
effected without a struggle, the traces of which present a close
parallel to that abrupt emphasis which we noticed in some of
Beethoven's early works. In his fugue-writing the notion that
the chief interest lies in the texture is as yet so difficult to hold
together with the perception that these fugues are based on a
modern firmness and range of form, that the texture is forced
upon the listener's attention by a continual series of ruthlessly
logical bold strokes of harmony. From this and from the
notorious violence of Beethoven's choral writing, and also from
his well-known technical struggles in his years of pupilage, the
easy inference has been drawn that Beethoven never was a great
master of counterpoint, an inference that is absolutely irreconcil-
able with such plain facts as, to take but one early example, the
brilliant piece of triple counterpoint in the andante of the string
quartet in C minor, op. 18, No. 4, and the complete absence of
anything like crudeness in his handling of harmonies, basses or
inner parts at any period of his career. Beethoven may have
mastered some things with difficulty, but he mastered nothing
incompletely; and where he is not orthodox it is safest to
conclude that orthodoxy is wrong. Had he lived for another
ten years he would certainly have produced an immense amount
of choral work, and with it many other great instrumental works
in which this last remaining element of conflict between texture
and form would have dwindled away. But while this would
doubtless result in such work being easier to follow and might
even have given us a version of the great fugue, op. 133 (discarded
from the string-quartet, op. 131), that did not surpass the bounds
of practical performance, it would yet be no sound criterion by
which to stigmatize as an immaturity the roughness of the
polyphonic works that we know. That roughness is, like the
abrupt epigrammatic manner of some of his early works, the
necessary condition in which such material realizes mature
expression. Without it that material could receive but the
academic handling of a dead language. And by it was created
that permanent reconciliation of polyphony and form from which
has arisen almost all that is true in " Romantic " music, all that
is peculiar to the thematic technique of Wagnerian opera, and
all the perfect smoothness of Brahms's polyphony.
The incalculable depth of thought and closeness of texture in
Beethoven's later works are, of course, the embodiment of a no
less incalculable emotional power. If we at times feel that the
last quartets are more introspective than dramatic, that is
only because Beethoven's dramatic sense is higher than we can
realize. The subject is too large and too subtle for dogmatism
to be profitable; and we cannot in Beethoven's case, as we can
in Bach's, cite a complete series of illustrations of his musical
650
BEETHOVEN
ideas from his treatment in choral music of words which them-
selves interpret the intention of the composer. There is so little
but the music itself by which one can express Beethoven's
thought, that the utmost we can do here is to refer the reader,
as before, to the articles on SONATA FORMS, HARMONY, INSTRU-
MENTATION, OPERA and Music, where he will find further
attempts to indicate in what sense pure music can be described
as dramatic and expressive of emotion.
As our range of investigation widens, and thoroughness of
analysis and study increases, so we shall surely find in ourselves
an ever-deepening conviction that Beethoven, whether in range,
depth and truth of thought, perfect sense of beauty, or absolute
conscientiousness of execution, is the greatest musician, per-
haps the greatest artist, that ever lived. There is no means of
measuring Beethoven's influence upon subsequent music. Every
composer of every school claims it. The immense changes he
brought about in the range of music have their most obvious
effect in the possibilities of emotional expression; and so any
outbreak of vulgarity or sentimentality can with impunity claim
descent from Beethoven, though its ancestry may be no higher
than Meyerbeer. Again, we have already referred to that
confusion of thought which regards a series of works markedly
different in form as containing less form than any number of
works cast in one mould. Hence the works of Beethoven's third
period have been cited in defence of more than one " revolution,"
attempted in a form which never existed in any true classic, for
the purpose of setting up something the revolutionist has not yet
succeeded in inventing. To measure Beethoven's influence is
like measuring Shakespeare's. It is an influence either too
vaguely universal to name or too profoundly artistic to analyse.
Perhaps the truest account of it would be that which ignored its
presence in the works of ill-balanced artists, or even in the works of
those who profited merely by an increase of technical and harmonic
resource which, though effected by Beethoven, would, after the
French Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, almost certainly
have to some extent arisen from sheer necessity of finding
expression for the new experience of humanity, if Beethoven had
never existed. Setting aside, then, all instances of mere domina-
tion, and of a permanently established new world of musical
thought, and omitting Schubert and Weber as contemporaries,
the one attracted and, the other partly repelled, we may, perhaps,
take three later composers, Schumann, Wagner and Brahms, as
the leading examples of the way in which Beethoven's influence
is definitely traceable as a creative force. The depth and
solemnity of Beethoven's melody and later polyphonic richness
is a leading source of Schumann's inspiration, though Schumann's
artistic schemes exclude any high degree of formal organization
on a large scale. Beethoven's late polyphony is carried on by
Brahms to the point at which perfect smoothness of style is once
more possible, and there is no aspect of his form which Brahms
neglects or fails to realize with that complete originality which
has nothing to fear from its ancestry. Wagner does not handle
the same art-forms; his task is different, but Beethoven was the
inspiring source, not only of his purely musical sense, but also of
his whole sense of dramatic contrast and fitness. When he had
shaken off the influence of Meyerbeer, which has so often been
confused with that of Beethoven, there remained to him, pre-
eminently in his music and more imperfectly realized in his drama,
a power of combining contrasted emotions such as is the privilege
of only the very greatest dramatic artists. Bach and Beethoven
are the sources of the polyphonic means of expression by which
he attains this. Beethoven alone is the extraneous source of his
knowledge that it was possible. And it is as certain as anything
in the history of art that there will never be a time when Beet-
hoven's work does not occupy the central place in a sound
musical mind.
ANNOTATED LIST OF BEETHOVEN'S WORKS
Up to 1825 we give in most cases the dates of publication, the date
of composition being generally from one to three years earlier.
Beethoven seldom had less than a dozen projects in hand at once,
and their immediate chronology is inextricable ; whereas publication
generally means final revision. This list is purposely incomplete
in order that unimportant works may not distract attention, even
when they are late and on a large scale.
Sonata = Pianoforte sonata.
Violin or violoncello sonata = for pianoforte, V. or Vc.
Pianoforte trio = Pfte., V., Vc.
Pianoforte quartet = Pfte., V., viola and Vc.
String trio = V., Va., Vc.
String quartet = VV., Va. and Vc.
Pianoforte or violin concerto = Concerto with orchestra.
'785- 3 pfte. quartets, of which the third contains important material
for the sonatas, op. 2, Nos. I and 3.
(Thayer's attribution of the masterly bagatelles, op. 33,
Eublished 1803, to this period can only be rationalized
y some similar rough first idea.)
1790. 24 variations on an air by Righini (published 1801). A very
remarkable work, anticipating Schumann's Papillons in
its humorous close. It was Beethoven's chief early tour-
de-force in pianoforte playing.
'79S- 3 P Ite - trios, op. I (Eb, G, C minor).
'796. 3 pfte. sonatas, op. 2 (F minor, A and C, dedicated to Haydn).
1797. String trio, op. 3, 2 violoncello sonatas, op. 5, F and G mi.,
sonata, op. 7, Eb.
1798. 3 string trios, op. 9; G, D, C mi., 3 sonatas, op. 10 (C mi.
F, D). Trio for pfte., clarinet and violoncello in Bb.op. II.
1799. 3 violin sonatas (D, A, Eb), op. 12. Pfte. sonata (Pathetique
not Beethoven's title) C mi., op. 13, 2 pfte. sonatas, op. 14,
E, G (the first arranged by the composer as a string quartet
inF).
1801. Pianoforte concertos, op. 15 in C, op. 19 in Bb (the latter
composed first). Quintet for pianoforte and wind instru-
ments, op. 16 (also arranged, with new details, as quartet
for pianoforte and strings), composed 1797. 6 string
quartets, op. 18 (F, G, D, C mi., A, Bb). 1st symphony (C),
op. 21. 2 violin sonatas, A mi., op. 23; F ma., op. 24
(made into two opus-numbers by an accident in the format
of the volumes).
1802. Pianoforte score of the Prometheus ballet, op. 24 (ousted by
the F ma. violin sonata, and reissued as op. 43). Sonata
in Bt>, op. 22. Sonata in Ab, op. 26 (with the funeral
march). 2 sonatas (" quasi fantasia "), op. 27, Eb, C#mi.
Sonata in D, op. 28 (Pastorale not Beethoven's title). String
quintet in C, op. 29.
1803. 3 violin sonatas, op. 30 (A, C mi., G). 3 sonatas, op. 31, G,
D mi., E\> (the last appearing in 1804).
Variations, op. 34. 1 5 variations and fugue on theme from
Prometheus, op~. 35.
1804. 2nd symphony (D),op. 36 (1802). 3rd pfte. concerto (C mi.),
op. 37 (1800).
1805. The " Kreutzer " sonata, op. 47, for pfte. and violin (A)
(finale at first intended for op. 30, No. i).
" Waldstein " sonata for pfte., op. 53 (C). First version
of opera Leonore in three acts (with overture " No. 2 ").
1806. Sonata in F, op. 54. Eroica Symphony, No. 3, op. 55 (El?),
written in 1804 in honour of Napoleon Bonaparte. It
was just finished when news arrived that Napoleon had
made himself emperor, and Beethoven was with difficulty
restrained from destroying the score. It is still the longest .
extant perfect design in instrumental music. The finale
glorifies the material (and much of the form) of the varia-
tions, op. 35. The scherzo is the first full-sized example of
Beethoven's special type.
Leonore reproduced in two acts with overture No. 3.
32 variations in C mi. (no opus-number, but a very im-
portant work on the lines of a modernized chaconne).
1807. Triple concerto (pfte., V. and Vc.), op. 56, chiefly interesting
as a study for the true concerto-form which had given
Beethoven difficulty. Sonata, op. 57 (F mi., Appassionato.
not Beethoven's title). New overture, Leonore, " No. I,"
composed for projected performance of the opera at
Prague (posthumously published as op. 138).
1808. 4th pfte. concerto, op. 58 (G). 3 string quartets, op. 59, F,
E mi., C (dedicated to Count Rasoumovsky, in compliment
to whom Russian tunes appear in the finale of No. I and
the scherzo of No. 2). Overture to Coriolanus, op. 62.
1809. 4th symphony, op. 60 (Bb). Violin concerto (D), op. 61 (also
arranged by the composer for pianoforte). 5th symphony,
op. 67 (C mi.) (1806), the first in which trombones appear.
6th symphony (Pastorale), op. 68; violoncello sonata,
op. 69 (A). 2 pianoforte trios, op. 70 (D, Eb).-
1810. Pianoforte score of Leonore (2nd version) published. String
quartet, op. 74 (Eb, called " Harp " because of pizzicato
passages in first movement). Fantasia, op. 77, interesting
as consisting of a long and capricious series _of dramatic
beginnings and breakings off of themes, as if in search for
a firm idea, which is at last found and developed as a set
of variations. This scheme thus foreshadows the choral
finale of the gth symphony even more significantly than the
Choral Fantasia.
Sonata, op. 78, F# (extremely terse and subtle, and a great
favourite with Beethoven, who preferred it to the Cftmi.).
BEETLE BEGAS, K.
651
1821.
1822.
1811. 5th pfte. concerto, of. 73, Eb (The Emperor not Beethoven's
title). Fantasia for pfte., orchestra and chorus, op. 80.
Sonata, op. 8ia (Les Adieux, I'absence, el le retour), first
movement written when the archduke Rudolph had to
leave Vienna (4th May 1809), and the rest on his return on
the 30th of January 1810. It was an anxious time both
for Beethoven and his excellent royal friend, for whom he
had great affection. (Battle of Wagram, 6th July 1809.)
(We may here note that op. Sib is an unimportant and very
early sextet.) The overture to Egmont, op. 84; Christus
am Oelberge (the Mount of Olives), op. 85, oratorio (prob-
ably composed between 1800 and its first performance in
1803).
1812. The rest of the Egmont music, op. 84. 1st mass, op. 87 (C)
(first performance, 1807).
1814. Final version of Leonore, performed as Fidelia with great
alterations, skilful revision of the libretto, very important
new material in the music and a new overture.
1815. Sonata, op. go (E mi.).
1816. 7th symphony, op. 92 (A); 8th symphony, op. 93 (F) (Beet-
hoven was planning a group of three of which the last was
to be in D mi., which we shall find significant). String
quartet, op. 95 (F mi.). Violin sonata, op. 96 (G). Piano-
forte trio, op. 97 (Bt>) ; Liederkreis, op. 98.
1817. Sonata, op. 101 (the first indisputably in Beethoven's " third
manner "). 2 violoncello sonatas, op. 102 (C, D, the second
containing Beethoven's first modern instrumental strict
fugue).
1819. Arrangement for string quintet, op. 104, of C mi. trio, op. I,
No. 3 (a wonderful study in translation, comparable only
to Bach's arrangements and very unlike Beethoven's former
essays of the kind). Sonata, op. 106 (Bt>), the largest and
most symphonic pianoforte work extant, surpassed in
length only by Bach's Goldberg variations and Beethoven's
33 variations on Diabelli's waltz.
25 Scotch songs accompanied by pfte., V. and Vc., op. 108
(the first set of a large and much neglected collection,
mostly posthumous, many of great interest and beauty
and very Beethovenish, which has shocked persons who
expect sympathetic insight into folk-music to prevail over
Beethoven's artistic impulse). Sonata, op. 109 (E).
Sonata, op. no (Ab). Overture, Die Weihe des Hauses,
op. 124 (C), a magnificent essay in orchestral free fugue,
published 1825.
1823. Sonata, op. ill (C mi., the last pianoforte sonata). 33 varia-
tions on a waltz by Diabelli, who sent his waltz round to
fifty-one musicians in Austria asking each to contribute
a variation; the whole to be published for the benefit of
the widows and orphans left by the war. Beethoven
answered with the greatest set ever written, and it was
published in a separate volume. Among the other fifty
composers were Schubert and an infant prodigy of eleven,
Franz Liszt!
The mass in D (Missa Solemnis), op. 123, begun in 1818
for the installation of the archduke Rudolph as arch-
bishop of Olmiitz, was not finished until 1826, two years
after the installation.
The gth symphony, op. 125 D mi. (see note on 7th and
8th symphonies.); sketches begun 1817; project of setting
Schiller's Freude already in Beethoven's mind before he
left Bonn.
6 bagatelles, op. 126, Beethoven's last pianoforte work, a
very remarkable and unaccountably neglected group of
carefully contrasted lyric pieces.
1824. String quartet, op. 127 (Eb, published 1826).
1825. String quartet, op. 130(61?), with finale, ,op. 133 (grand fugue);
string quartet, op. 132 (A mi., with slow movement in
Lydian mode, a Hetliger Dankgesang on recovery from
illness. Theme of finale first thought of as for instrumental
finale to gth symphony).
1826. String quartet, op. 131 (C#, mi.). String quartet, op. 135 (F).
New finale to op. 130, Beethoven's last composition.
(D. F. T.)
AUTHORITIES. A. W. Thayer, Beethovens Leben (1866-1879);
L. Nohl, Life of Beethoven (Eng. trans., 1884), and Letters (Eng.
trans., 1866); Sir G. Grove, Beethoven and his Symphonies (1896),
and in Grove's Dictionary of Music.
BEETLE (O. Eng. bityl; connected with " bite "), a name
commonly applied to those insects which possess horny wing-
cases; it is used to denote the cockroaches (q.v.) (black beetles),
as well as the true beetles or Coleoptera (q.v.), the two belonging
to different orders of Insecta.
The adjective " beetle-browed," and similarly " beetling "
(of a cliff), are derived from the name of the insect. From
another word (O. Eng. betel, connected with " beat ") comes
" beetle " in the sense of a mallet, and the " beetling-machine,"
which subjects fabrics to a hammering process.
BEETS, NIKOLAAS (1814-1903), Dutch poet, was born at
Haarlem on the i3th of September 1814; constant references
in his poems and sketches show how deeply the beauty of that
town and its neighbourhood impressed his imagination. He
studied theology in Leiden, but gave himself early to the cultiva-
tion of poetry. In his youth Beets was entirely carried away
on the tide of Byronism which was then sweeping over Europe,
and his early works Jose (1834), Kuser (1835) and Guy de
Vlaming (1837) are gloomy romances of the most impassioned
type. But at the very same time he was beginning in prose the
composite work of humour and observation which has made him
famous, and which certainly had nothing that was in the least
Byronic about it. This was the celebrated Camera Obscura
(1839), the most successful imaginative work which any Dutch-
man of the igth century produced. This work, published under
the pseudonym of " Hildebrand," goes back in its earliest^
inception to the year 1835, when Beets was only twenty-one.
It consists of complete short stories, descriptive sketches, studies
of peasant life all instinct with humour and pathos, and
written in a style of great charm; it has been reprinted in
countless editions. Beets became a professor at the university
of Leiden, and the pastor of a congregation in that city. In
middle life he published further collections of verse Cornflowers
(1853) and New Poems (1857) in which the romantic melancholy
was found to have disappeared, and to have left in its place a
gentle sentiment and a depth of religious feeling. In 1873-1875
Beets collected his works in three volumes. In April 1883 the
honorary degree of LL.D. Edin. was conferred upon him. He
died at Utrecht on the I3th of March 1003. <
BEFANA (Hal., corrupted from Epifania, Epiphany), the
Italian female counterpart of Santa Claus, the Christmas bene-
factor (St Nicholas). On Epiphany, or Twelfth Night, she plays
the fairy godmother to the children, filling their stockings with
presents. Tradition relates that she was too busy with house
duties to come to the window to see the Three Wise Men of the
East pass on their journey to pay adoration to the Saviour,
excusing herself on the ground that she could see them on their
return. They went back another way, and Befana is alleged
to have been punished by being obliged to look for them for
ever. Her legends seem to be rather mixed, for in spite of her
Santa Claus character, her name is used by Italian mothers as a
bogey to frighten the babies. It was the custom to carry her
effigy through Italian towns on the eve of the Epiphany.
BEFFROY DE REIGNY, LOUIS ABEL (1757-1811), French
dramatist and man of letters, was born at Laon on the 6th of
November 1757. Under the name of " Cousin Jacques " he
founded a periodical called Les Lunes (178 5-1 787). The Courrier
des planetes ou Correspondance du Cousin Jacques avec le firma-
ment (1788-1792) followed. Nicodtme dans la lune, ou la rtvolu-
tion pacifique (1700) a three-act farce, is said to have had more
than four hundred representations. In spite of his protests
against the evils of the Revolution he escaped interference
through the influence of his brother, Louis Etienne Beffroy, who
was a member of the Convention. Of La Petite Nanette (1795)
and several other operas he wrote both the words and the music.
His Dictionnaire neologique (3 vols., 1795-1800) of the chief
actors and events in the Revolution was interdicted by the
police and remained incomplete. Beffroy spent his last years
in retirement, dying in Paris on' the i7th of December 1811.
BEGAS, KARL (1794-1854), German historical painter, was
born at Heinsberg near Aix-la-Chapelle. His father, a retired
judge, destined him for the legal profession, but the boy's tastes
pointed definitely in another direction. Even at school he was
remarked for his wonderful skill in drawing and painting, and in
1812 he was permitted to visit Paris in order to perfect himself
in his art. He studied for eighteen months in the atelier of Gros
and then began to work independently. In 1814 his copy of
the Madonna della Sedia was bought by the king of Prussia,
who was attracted by the young artist and did much to advance
him. He was engaged to paint several large Biblical pictures,
and in 1825, after his return from Italy, continued to produce
paintings which were placed in the churches of Berlin and
652
BEGAS, R. BEGUINES
Potsdam. Some of these were historical pieces, but the majority
were representations of Scriptural incidents. Begas was also
celebrated as a portrait-painter, and supplied to the royal gallery
a long series of portraits of eminent Prussian men of letters.
At his death he held the post of court painter at Berlin. His
son OSKAR (1828-1883) was also a painter and professor of
painting at Berlin. REINHOLD, the sculptor, is noticed below.
BEGAS, REINHOLD (1831- ), German sculptor, younger
son of Karl Begas, the painter, was born at Berlin on the isth of
July 1831. He received his early education (1846-1851) in the
ateliers of C. D. Rauch and L. Wichmann. During a period of
study in Italy, from 1856 to 1858, he was influenced by Bocklin
and Lenbach in the direction of a naturalistic style in sculpture.
This tendency was marked in the group " Borussia," executed
for the facade of the exchange in Berlin, which first brought
.him into general notice. In 1861 he was appointed professor
'at the art school at Weimar, but retained the appointment only
a few months. That he was chosen, after competition, to execute
the statue of Schiller for the Gendarmen Markt in Berlin, was a
high tribute to the fame he had already acquired; and the result,
one of the finest statues in the German metropolis, entirely
justified his selection. Since the year 1870, Begas has entirely
dominated the plastic art in Prussia, but especially in Berlin.
Among his chief works during this period are the colossal statue
of Borussia for the Hall of Glory; the Neptune fountain in
bronze on the Schlossplatz; the statue of Alexander von Hum-
boldt, all in Berlin; the sarcophagus of the emperor Frederick
III. in the mausoleum of the Friedenskirche at Potsdam; and,
lastly, the national monument to the emperor William (see
BERLIN), the statue of Bismarck before the Reichstag building,
and several of the statues in the Siegesallee. He was also entrusted
with the execution of the sarcophagus of the empress Frederick.
See A. G. Meyer, " Reinhold Begas" \nKunsller-Monographien,
ed. H. Knackfuss, Heft xx. (Bielefeld, 1897; new ed., 1901).
BEGGAR, one who begs, particularly one who gains his living
by asking the charitable contributions of others. The word,
with the verbal form " to beg," in Middle English beggen, is of
obscure history. The words appear first in English in the I3th
century, and were early connected with " bag," with reference
to the receptacle for alms carried by the beggars. The most
probable derivation of the word, and that now generally accepted,
is that it is a corruption of the name of the lay communities
known as Beguines and Beghards, which, shortly after their
establishment, followed the friars in, the practice of mendicancy
(see BEGUINES). It has been suggested, however, that the
origin of " beg " and " beggars " is to be found in a rare Old
English word, bedecian, of the same meaning, which is apparently
connected with the Gothic bidjan, cf. German betleln; but
between the occurrence of bedecian at the end of the Qth century
and the appearance of " beggar " and " beg " in the I3th, there
is a blank, and no explanation can be given of the great change
in form. For the English law relating to begging and its history,
see CHARITY, POOR LAW and VAGRANCY.
BEGGAR-HY-NEIGHBOUR, a simple card-game. An ordinary
pack is divided equally between two players, and the cards are
held with the backs upwards. The first player lays down his
top card face up, and the opponent plays his top card on it,
and this goes on alternately as long as no court-card appears;
but if either player turns up a court-card, his opponent has to
play four ordinary cards to an ace, three to a king, two to a
queen, one to a knave, and when he has done so the other player
takes all the cards on the table and places them under his pack;
if, however, in the course of this playing to a court-card, another
court-card turns up, the adversary has in turn to play to this, and
as long as neither has played a full number of ordinary cards to
any court-card the trick continues. The player who gets all the
cards into his hand is the winner.
BEGONIA (named from M. Begon, a French patron of botany),
a large genus (natural order, Begoniaceae) of succulent herbs or
undershrubs, with about three hundred and fifty species in
tropical moist climates, especially South America and India.
About one hundred and fifty species are known in cultivation,
and innumerable varieties and hybrid forms. Many are tuberous.
The flowers are usually showy and large, white, rose, scarlet
or yellow in colour; they are unisexual, the male containing
numerous stamens, the female having a large inferior ovary and
two to four branched or twisted stigmas. The fruit is a winged
capsule containing numerous minute seeds. The leaves, which are
often large and variegated, are unequal-sided.
Cuttings from flowering begonias root freely in sandy soil,
if placed in heat at any season when moderately firm; as soon
as rooted, they should be potted singly into 3-in. pots, in sandy
loam mixed with leaf-mould and sand. They should be stopped
to keep them bushy, placed in a light situation, and thinly
shaded in the middle of very bright days. In a few weeks they
will require another shift. They should not be overpotted, but
instead assisted by manure water. The pots should be placed
in a light pit near the roof glass. The summer-flowering kinds
will soon begin blooming, but the autumn and winter flowering
sorts should be kept growing on in a temperature of from 55 to
60 by night, with a few degrees more in the day. The tuberous-
rooted sorts require to be kept at rest in winter, in a medium
temperature, almost but not quite dry. In February they should
be potted in a compost of sandy loam and leaf-mould, and placed
in a temperate pit until May or June, when they may be moved
to the greenhouse for flowering. If they afterwards get at all
pot-bound, weak manure should be applied. After blooming,
the supply of water must be again slackened; in winter the
plants should be stored in a dry place secure from frost; they
are increased by late summer and autumn cuttings, after being
partially cut down.
BEGUINES (Fr. begmne, Med. Lai beguina, begina, beghina),
at the present time the name of the members of certain lay
sisterhoods established in the Netherlands and Germany, the
enclosed district within which they live being known as a be-
guinage (Lat. beginagium). The equivalent male communities,
called also Beguines (Fr. begums, Lat. beguini), but more usually
Beghards (Lat. baghardi, beggardi, begehardi, &c., O. Fr. btgard-t,
Flem. beggaert), have long ceased to exist. The origin of the
names Beguine and Beghard has been the subject of much
controversy. In the isth century a legend arose that both name
and organization were traceable to St Begga, daughter of Pippin
of Landen, who consequently in 1630 was chosen by the Beguines
as the patron saint of their association. In 1630 a professor of
Louvain, Erycius Puteanus (van Putte), published a treatise,
De Begginarum apud Belgas institute et nomine su/ragium, in
which he produced three documents purporting to date from
the nth and I2th centuries, which seemed conclusively to prove
that the Beguines existed long before Lambert le Begue. For
two centuries these were accepted as genuine and are admitted
as such even in the monumental work of Mosheim. In 1843,
however, they were conclusively proved by the German scholar
Hallmann, from internal evidence, to be forgeries of the I4th and
iSth centuries. It is now universally admitted that both the
institution and the name of the Beguines are derived from
Lambert le Begue, who died about the year 1187. The confusion
caused by the spurious documents of Puteanus, however, led,
even when the legend of St Begga was rejected, to other sugges-
tions for the derivation of the name, e.g. from an imaginary old
Saxon word beggen, " to beg " or " pray," an explanation
adopted even by Mosheim, or from begue, " stammering," a
French word of unknown origin, which only brings us back to
Lambert again, whose name of Le Begue, as the chronicler
Aegidius, a monk of Orval (Aureae Vallis), tells us, simply
means " the stammerer," qitia balbus erat (Gesta pontificum
Leodi-ensium, c. A.D. 1251). Doubtless this coincidence gave
a ready handle to the scoffing wits of the time, and among the
numerous popular names given to the Beghards bans gardens,
boni pueri, boni valeti and the like we find also that of Lollards
(from Flemish lollen, " to stammer ").
About the year 1170 Lambert le Begue, a priest of Liege,
who had devoted his fortune to founding the hospital and church
of St Christopher for the widows and children of crusaders,
conceived the idea of establishing an association of women, who,
BEHAIM
653
without taking the monastic vows, should devote themselves
to a life of religion. The effect of his preaching was immense, and
large numbers of women, many of them left desolate by the loss
of their husbands on crusade, came under the influence of a
movement which was attended with all the manifestations of
what is now called a " revival." About the year 1180 Lambert
gathered some of these women, who had been ironically styled
" Beguines " by his opponents, into a semi-conventual com-
munity, which he established in a quarter of the city belonging
to him around his church of St Christopher. The district was
surrounded by a wall within which the Beguines lived in separate
small houses, subject to no rule save the obligation of good
works, and of chastity so long as they remained members of the
community. After Lambert's death (c. 1187?) the movement
rapidly spread, first in the Netherlands and afterwards in France
where it was encouraged by the saintly Louis IX. Germany,
Switzerland and the countries beyond. Everywhere the com-
munity was modelled on the type established at Li6ge. It
constituted a little city within the city, with separate houses,
and usually a church, hospital and guest-house, the whole being
under the government of a mistress (magislra). Women of all
classes were admitted; and, though there was no rule of poverty,
many wealthy women devoted their riches to the common cause.
The Beguines did not beg; and, when the endowments of the
community were not sufficient, the poorer members had to support
themselves by manual work, sick-nursing and the like.
The Beguine communities were fruitful soil for the missionary
enterprise of the friars, and in the course of the ijth century the
communities in France, Germany and upper Italy had fallen
under the influence of the Dominicans and Franciscans to such an
extent that in the Latin-speaking countries the tertiaries of these
orders were commonly called beguini and beguinae. The very
looseness of their organization, indeed, made it inevitable that
the Beguine associations should follow very diverse develop-
ments. Some of them retained their original character; others
fell completely under the dominion of the friars, and were ulti-
mately converted into houses of Dominican. Franciscan or
Augustinian tertiaries; others again fell under the influence of
the mystic movements of the I3th century, turned in increasing
numbers from work to mendicancy (as being nearer the Christ-life) ,
practised the most cruel self-tortures, and lapsed into extravagant
heresies that called down upon them the condemnation of popes
and councils. 1 All this tended to lower the reputation of the
Beguines. During the I4th century, indeed, numerous new
beguinages were established; but ladies of rank and wealth
ceased to enter them, and they tended to become more and more
mere almshouses for poor women. By the isth century in many
cases they had utterly sunk in reputation, their obligation to
nurse the sick was quite neglected, and they had, rightly or
wrongly, acquired the reputation of being mere nests of beggars
and women of ill fame. At the Reformation the communities
were suppressed in Protestant countries, but in some Catholic
countries they still survive. The beguinages found here and
there in Germany are now simply almshouses for poor spinsters,
those in Holland (e.g. at Amsterdam and Breda) and Belgium
preserve more faithfully the characteristics of earlier days.
The beguinage of St Elizabeth at Ghent has some thousand
sisters, and occupies quite a distinct quarter of the city, being
surrounded by a wall and moat. The Beguines wear the old
Flemish head-dress and a dark costume, and are conspicuous
for their kindness among the poor and their sick nursing.
It is uncertain whether the parallel communities of men
originated also with Lambert le Begue. The first records are of
communities at Louvain in 1220 and at Antwerp in 1228. The
history of the male communities is to a certain extent parallel
with the female, but they were never so numerous and their
degeneration was far more rapid. The earliest Flemish Beghard
communities were associations mainly of artisans who earned
1 In the year 1287 the council of Liege decreed that " all Beguinae
desiring to enjoy the Beguine privileges shall enter a Beguinage,
and we order that all who remain outside the Beguinage shall wear
a dress to distinguish them from the Beguinae."
their living by weaving and the like, and appear to have been in
intimate connexion with the craft-gilds; but under the influence
of the mendicant movement of the 13th century these tended
to break up, and, though certain of the male beguinages survived
or were incorporated as tertiaries in the orders of friars, the name
of Beghard became associated with groups of wandering mendi-
cants who made religion a cloak for living on charity; btguigner
becoming in the French language of the time synonymous with
" to beg," and beghard with " beggar," a word which, according
to the latest authorities, was probably imported into England
in the i3th century from this source (see BEGGAR). More serious
still, from the point of view of the Church, was the association of
these wandering mendicants with the mystic heresies of the
Fraticelli, the Apostolici and the pantheistic Brethren of the
Free Spirit. The situation was embittered by the hatred of the
secular clergy for the friars, with whom the Beguines were
associated. Restrictions were placed upon them by the synod
of Fritzlar (1269), by that of Mainz (1281) and Eichstatt (1281).
and by the synod of B6ziers (1299) they were absolutely for-
bidden. They were again condemned by a synod held at Cologne
in 1306; and at the synod of Trier in 1310 a decree was passed
against those " who under a pretext of feigned religion call
themselves Beghards . . . and, hating manual labour, go about
begging, holding conventicles and posing among simple people
as interpreters of the Scriptures." Matters came to a climax at
the council of Vienne in 1311 under Pope Clement V., where the
" sect of Beguines and Beghards " were accused of being the
main instruments of the spread of heresy, and decrees were
passed suppressing their organization and demanding their
severe punishment. The decrees were put into execution by
Pope John XXII., and a persecution raged in which, though the
pope expressly protected the female Beguine communities of the
Netherlands, there was little discrimination between the orthodox
and unorthodox Beguines. This led to the utmost confusion,
the laity in many cases taking the part of the Beguine com-
munities, and the Church being thus brought into conflict with
the secular authorities. In these circumstances the persecution
died down; it was, however, again resumed between 1366 and
1378 by Popes Urban V. and Gregory XI., and the Beguines were
not formally reinstated until the pontificate of Eugenius IV.
(1431-1447). The male communities did not survive the I4th
century, even in the Netherlands, where they had maintained
their original character least impaired.
See J. L. von Mosheim, De beghardis et beguinabus commentarius
(Leipzig, 1790) ; E. Hallmann, Die Geschichte des Ursprungs der
belgischen Beghinen (Berlin, 1843); J. C. L. Gieseler, Eccles. Hist.
(vol. iii., Eng. trans., Edinburgh, 1853), with useful excerpts from
documents; Du Cange, Glossarium; Herzog-Hauck, Rcalencyldo-
padie (3rd ed., 1897) s. " Beginen," by Herman Haupt, where
numerous further authorities are cited. (W. A. P.)
BEHAIM (or BEHEM), MARTIN (i436?-iso7), a navigator
and geographer of great pretensions, was born at Nuremberg,
according to one tradition, about 1436; according to Ghillany,
as late as 1459. He was drawn to Portugal by participation in
Flanders trade, and acquired a scientific reputation at the court
of John II. As a pupil, real or supposed, of the astronomer
" Regiomontanus " (i.e. Johann Miiller of Konigsberg in Fran-
conia) he became (c. 1480) a member of a council appointed by
King John for the furtherance of navigation. His alleged intro-
duction of the cross-staff into Portugal (an invention described
by the Spanish Jew, Levi ben Gerson, in the i4th century) is
a matter of controversy; his improvements in the astrolabe
were perhaps limited to the introduction of handy brass instru-
ments in place of cumbrous wooden ones; it seems likely that
he helped to prepare better navigation tables than had yet been
known in the Peninsula. In 1484-1485 he claimed to have
accompanied Diogo Cio in his second expedition to West Africa,
really undertaken in 1485-86, reaching Cabo Negro in I54o' S.
and Cabo Ledo still farther on. It is now disputed whether
Behaim's pretensions here deserve any belief; and it is'suggested
that instead of sharing in this great voyage of discovery, the
Nuremberger only sailed to the nearer coasts of Guinea, perhaps
as far as the Bight of Benin, and possibly with Jos6 Visinho the
654
BEHAR
astronomer and with Joao Affonso d' Aveiro, in 1484-86. Martin's
later history, as traditionally recorded, was as follows. On his
return from his West African exploration to Lisbon he was
knighted by King John, who afterwards employed him in various
capacities; but, from the time of his marriage in 1486, he usually
resided at Fayal in the Azores, where his father-in-law, Jobst
van Huerter, was governor of a Flemish colony. On a visit to
his native city in 1492, he constructed his famous terrestrial
globe, still preserved in Nuremberg, and often reproduced, in
which the influence of Ptolemy is strongly apparent, but wherein
some attempt is also made to incorporate the discoveries of the
later middle ages (Marco Polo, &c.) . The antiquity of this globe
and the year of its execution, on the eve of the discovery of
America, are noteworthy; but as a scientific work it is unim-
portant, ranking far below the portolani charts of the I4th cen-
tury. Its West Africa is marvellously incojrect; the Cape Verde
archipelago lies hundreds of miles out of its proper place; and
the Atlantic is filled with fabulous islands. Blunders of 16
are found in the localization of places the author claims to have
visited: contemporary maps, at least in regard to continental
features, seldom went wrong beyond i. It is generally agreed
that Behaim had no share in Transatlantic discovery; and
though Columbus and he were apparently in Portugal at the
same time, no connexion between the two has been established.
He died at Lisbon in 1507.
See C. G. von Murr, Diplomatische Geschichte des beriihmten Ritters
Behaim (1778); A. von Humboldt, Kritische Untersuchungen (1836);
F. W. Ghillany, Geschichte des Seefahrers Martin Behaim (1853);
O. Peschel, Geschichte der Erdkunde, 214-215, 226, 251, and Zeitalter
der Entdeckungen, esp. p. 90; Breusing, Zur Geschichte der Geographie
(1869); Eugen Gelcich in the Mittheilungen of the Vienna Geo-
graphical Society, vol. xxxvi. pp. 100, &c. ; E. G. Ravenstein,
Martin de Bohemia (Lisbon, 1900), Martin Behaim, His Life and
His Globe (London, 1909), and Voyages ofDiogo Coo and Bartholomeu
Dias, 1482-1488, in Geographical Journal, Dec. 1900; see also Geog.
Journal,. Aug. 1893, p. 175, Nov. 1901, p. 509; Jules Mees in Bull.
Soc. Geog., Antwerp, 1902, pp. 182-204; A. Ferreira de Serpa in
Bull. Soc. Geog., Lisbon, 1904, pp. 297-307. (C. R. B.)
BEHAR, or BIHAR, a town of British India, in the Patna
district of Bengal, which gives its name to an old province,
situated on the right bank of the river Panchana. Pop. (1901)
45,063. There are still some manufactures of silk and muslin,
but trade has deserted Behar in favour of Patna and other
places more favourably situated on the river Ganges and the
railway, while the indigo industry has been ruined by the
synthetic products of the German chemist, and the English
colony of indigo planters has been scattered abroad.
The old province, stretching widely across the valley of the
Ganges from the frontier of Nepal to the hills of Chota Nagpur,
corresponds to the two administrative divisions of Patna and
Bhagalpur, with a total area of 44,197 sq.m. and a population
of 24,241,305. It is the most densely populated tract in India,
and therefore always liable to famine; but it is now well pro-
tected almost everywhere by railways. It is a country of large
landholders and formerly of indigo planters. The vernacular
language is not Bengali, but a dialect of Hindu; and the people
likewise resemble those of Upper India. The general aspect
of the country is flat, except in the district of Monghyr, where
detached hills occur, and in the south-east of the province,
where the Rajmahal and Santal ranges abut upon the plains.
Behar abounds in great rivers, such as the Ganges, with its
tributaries, the Ghagra, Gandak, Kusi, Mahananda and Sone.
The Ganges enters the province near the town of Buxar, flows
eastward and, passing the towns of Dinajpur, Patna, Monghyr
and Colgong, leaves the province at Rajmahal. It divides the
province into two almost equal portions; north of the river lie
the districts of Saran, Champaran, Tirhoot, Purnea, and part of
Monghyr and Bhagalpur, and south of it are Shahabad, Patna,
Gaya, the Santal parganas, and the rest of Monghyr and Bhagal-
pur. The Ganges and its northern tributaries are navigable by
country boats of large burden all the year round. The cultivation
of opium is a government monopoly, and no person is allowed to
grow the poppy except on account of government. The Behar
Opium Agency has its headquarters at the town of Patna.
Annual engagements are entered into by the cultivators, under a
system of pecuniary advances, to sow a certain quantity of land
with poppy, and the whole produce in the form of opium is
delivered to government at a fixed rate.
Saltpetre is largely refined in Tirhoot, Saran and Champaran,
and is exported both by rail and river to Calcutta. The manu-
factures of less importance are tussore-silk, paper, blankets,
brass utensils, firearms, carpets, coarse cutlery and hardware,
leather, ornaments of gold and silver, &c. Of minerals lead,
silver and copper exist in the Bhagalpur division, but the mines
are not worked. One coal-mine is worked in the parganas.
Before the construction of railways in India, the Ganges and the
Grand Trunk road afforded the sole means of communication
from Calcutta to the North- Western Provinces. But now the
railroad is the great highway which connects Upper India with
Lower Bengal. The East Indian railway runs throughout the
length of the province. The climate of Behar is very hot from
the middle of March to the end of June, when the rains set in,
which continue till the end of September. The cold season, from
October to the first half of March, is the pleasantest time of the
year.
History. The province of Behar corresponds to the ancient
kingdom of Magadha, which comprised the country now included
in .the districts of Patna, Gaya and Shahabad, south of the
Ganges. The origin of this kingdom, famous alike in the political
and religious history of India, is lost in the mists of antiquity;
and though the Brahmanical Puranas give lists of its rulers
extending back to remote ages before the Christian era, the first
authentic dynasty is that of the Saisunaga, founded by Sisunaga
(c. 600 B.C.), whose capital was at Rajagaha (Rajgir) in the hills
near Gaya; and the first king of this dynasty of whom anything
is known was Bimbisara (c. 528 B.C.), who by conquests and
matrimonial alliances laid the foundations of the greatness of the
kingdom. It was in the reign of Bimbisara that Vardhamana
Mahavira, the founder of Jainism. and Gautama, the founder of
Buddhism, preached in Magadha, and Buddhist missionaries
issued thence to the conversion of China, Ceylon, Tibet and
Tatary. Even to this day Behar, where there are extensive
remains of Buddhist buildings, remains a sacred spot in the eyes
of the Chinese and other Buddhist nations;
Bimbisara was murdered by his son Ajatasatru, who succeeded
him, and whose bloodthirsty policy reduced the whole country
between the Himalayas and the Ganges under the suzerainty of
Magadha. According to tradition, it was his grandson, Udaya,
who founded the city of Pataliputra (Patna) on the Ganges,
which under the Maurya dynasty became the capital not only of
Magadha but of India. The remaining history of the dynasty is
obscure; according to Mr Vincent Smith, its last representative
was Mahanandin (417 B.C.), after whose death the throne was
usurped, under obscure circumstances, by Mahapadma Nanda,
a man of low caste (Early Hist, of India, p. 36). It was a son of
this usurper who was reigning at the time of the invasion of
Alexander the Great; and the conqueror, when his advance
was arrested at the Hyphasis (326 B.C.), meditating an attack on
Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), was informed that
the king of Magadha could oppose him with a force of 20,000
cavalry, 200,000 infantry, 2000 chariots, and 3000 or 4000
elephants. The Nanda dynasty seems to have survived only for
two generations, when (321 B.C.) Chandragupta Maurya, the
founder of the great Maurya dynasty, seized the throne. This
dynasty, of which the history belongs to that of India (q.v.),
occupied the throne for 137 years. After the death of the great
Buddhist king, Asoka (c. 231), the Maurya empire began to break
up, and it was finally destroyed about fifty years later when
Pushyamitra Sunga murdered the Maurya king Brihadratha
and founded the Sunga dynasty. Descendants of Asoka con-
tinued, however, to subsist in Magadha as subordinate rajas for
many centuries; and as late as the 8th century A.D. petty
Maurya dynasties are mentioned as ruling in Konkan. The
reign of Pushyamitra, who held his own against Menander and
succeeded in establishing his claim to be lord paramount of
northern India, is mainly remarkable as marking the beginning
BEHA UD-DIN BEHEADING
655
of the Brahmanical reaction and the decline of Buddhism;
according to certain Buddhist writers the king, besides reviving
Hindu rites, indulged in a savage persecution of the monks.
The Sunga dynasty, which lasted 112 years, was succeeded by
the Kanva dynasty, which after 45 years was overthrown
(c. 27 B.C.) by the Andhras or Satavahanas. In A.D. 236 the
Andhras were overthrown, and, after a confused and obscure
period of about a century, Chandragupta I. established his power
at Pataliputra (A.D. 320) and founded the famous Gupta empire
(see GUPTA), which survived till it was overthrown by the
Ephthalites (q.v.), or White Huns, at the close of the sth century.
In Magadha itself the Guptas continued to rule as tributary
princes for some centuries longer. About the middle of the Sth
century Magadha was conquered by Gopala, who had made
himself master in Bengal, and founded the imperial dynasty
known as the Palas of Bengal. They were zealous Buddhists,
and under their rule Magadha became once more an active centre
of Buddhist influence. Gopala himself built a great monastery
at Udandapura, or Otantapuri, which has been identified by
Sir Alexander Cunningham with the city of Behar, where the
later Pala kings established their capital. Under Mahipala
(c. 1026), the ninth of his line, and his successor Nayapala,
missionaries from Magadha succeeded in firmly re-establishing
Buddhism in Tibet.
In the nth century the Pala empire, which, according to the
Tibetan historian Taranath, extended in the 9th century from
the Bay of Bengal to Delhi and Jalandhar (Jullundur) in the
north and the Vindhyan range in the south, was partly dis-
membered by the rise of the " Sena " dynasty in Bengal; and
at the close of the i2th century both Palas and Senas were swept
away by the Mahommedan conquerors, the city of Behar itself
being captured by the Turki free-lance Mahommed-i-Bakhtyar
Khilji in 1193, by surprise, with a party of 200 horsemen. " It
was discovered," says a contemporary Arab historian, "that the
whole of that fortress and city was a college, and in the Hindi
tongue they call a college Bihar." Most of the monks were
massacred in the first heat of the assault; those who survived
fled to Tibet, Nepal and the south. Buddhism in Magadha
never recovered from this blow; it lingered in obscurity for a
while and then vanished.
Behar now came under the rule of the Mahommedan governors
of Bengal. About 1330 the southern part was annexed to
Delhi, while north Behar remained for some time longer subject
to Bengal. In 1397 the whole of Behar became part of the
kingdom of Jaunpur; but a hundred years later it was annexed
by the Delhi emperors, by whom save for a short period it
continued to be held. The capital of the province was established
under the Moguls at the city of Behar, which gave its name to
the province. From the middle of the I4th to the middle of the
1 6th century a large part of Behar was ruled by a line of Brahman
tributary kings; and in the isth century another Hindu dynasty
ruled in Champaran and Gorakhpur. Behar came into the
possession of the East India Company with the acquisition of the
Dlwani in 1765, when the province was united with Bengal. In
1857 two zemindars, Umar Singh and Kumar Singh, rebelled
against the British government, and for some months held the
ruinous fort of Rohtas against the British.
See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), s.v. " Bihar " and
" Bengal ; V. A. Smith, Early History of India (and ed., Oxford,
1908).
BEHA UD-DlN [ABU-L-MAHASIN YUSUF IBN RArl' IBN
SHADDAD BEHA UD D!N] (1145-1234), Arabian writer and states-
man.wasborn in Mosul and early became famous for his knowledge
of the Koran and of jurisprudence. Before the age of thirty he
became teacher in the great college at Bagdad known as the
NizSmiyya, andsoonafter became professorat Mosul. In i i87,after
making the pilgrimage to Mecca, he visited Damascus. Saladin,
who was at the time besieging Kaukab (a few miles south of
Tiberias), sent for him and became his friend. Beha ud-Dln
observed that the whole soul of the monarch was engrossed by the
war which he was then engaged in waging against the enemies of
the faith, and saw that the only mode of acquiring his favour
was by urging him to its vigorous prosecution. With this view
he composed a treatise on The Laws and Discipline of Sacred War,
which he presented to Saladin, who received it with peculiar
favour. From this time he remained constantly attached to the
person of the sultan, and was employed on various embassies
and in departments of the civil government. He was appointed
judge of the army and judge of Jerusalem. After Saladin 's death
Beha-ud-Dln remained the friend of his son Malik uz-Zahir,
who appointed him judge of Aleppo. Here he employed some of
his wealth in the foundation of colleges. When Malik uz-Zahir
died, his son Malik ul-'Aziz was a minor, and Beha ud-Dln had
the chief power in the regency. This power he used largely for the
patronage of learning. After the abdication of Malik ul-'Aziz,
he fell from favour and lived in retirement until his death in
1 234. Beha ud-Dln's chief work is his Life of Saladin (published
at Leiden with Latin translation by A. Schultens in 1732 and
J 7S5)- An English translation was published by the Palestine
Pilgrims' Text Society, London, 1897.
For list of other extant works see C. Brockelmann, Ceschichte det
arabischen Litteratur (Weimar, 1898). vol. i. pp. 316 f.
(G. W. T.)
BEHA UD-DlK ZUHAIR (ABU-L FADL ZUHAIR IBN MAHOM-
MED AL-MuHALLABl) (1186-1258), Arabian poet, was born at or
near Mecca, and became celebrated as the best writer of prose and
verse and the best calligraphist of his time. He entered the
service of Malik us-Salih Najm ud-Dln in Mesopotamia, and
was with him at Damascus until he was betrayed and imprisoned.
Beha ud-Din then retired to Nablus (Shechem) where he re-
mained until Najm ud-Dln escaped and obtained possession
of Egypt, whither he accompanied him in 1 240. There he re-
mained as the sultan's confidential secretary until his death,
due to an epidemic, in 1258. His poetry consists mostly of
panegyric and brilliant occasional verse distinguished for its
elegance. It has been published with English metrical transla-
tion by E. H. Palmer (2 vols., Cambridge, 1877).
His life was written by his contemporary Ibn Khallikan (see
M'G. de Slane's trans, of his Biographical Dictionary, vol. i.
pp. 542-545). (G. W. T.)
BEHBAHAN, a walled town of Persia in the province of Pars,
pleasantly situated in the midst of a highly cultivated plain,
128 m. W.N.W. of Shiraz and 3 m. from the left.bank of the river
Tab, here called Kurdistan river. It is the capital of the Kuhgilu-
Behbahan sub-province of Pars and has a population of about
10,000. The walls are about 3 m. in circumference and a Narinj
Kalah (citadel) stands in the south-east corner. At a short
distance north-west of the city are the ruins of Arrajan, the old
capital of the province.
BEHEADING, a mode of executing capital punishment (q.v.).
It was in use among the Greeks and Romans, and the former, as
Xenophon says at the end of the second book of the Anabasis,
regarded it as a most honourable form of death. So did the
Romans, by whom it was known as dccollatio or capitis amputalio.
The head was laid on a block placed in a pit dug for the purpose,
in the case of a military offender, outside the intrenchments,
in civil cases outside the city walls, near the porta decumana.
Before execution the criminal was tied to a stake and whipped
with rods. In earlier years an axe was used; afterwards a sword,
which was considered a more honourable instrument of death,
and was used in the case of citizens (Dig. 48, 19, 28). It was
with a sword that Cicero's head was struck off by a common
soldier. The beheading of John the Baptist proves that the
tetrarch Herod had adopted from his suzerain the Roman mode
of execution. Suetonius (Calig. c. 32) states that Caligula kept
a soldier, an artist in beheading, who in his presence decapitated
prisoners fetched indiscriminately for that purpose from the
gaols.
Beheading is said to have been introduced into England from
Normandy by William the Conqueror. The first person to suffer
was Waltheof, earl of Northumberland, in 1076. An ancient
MS. relating to the earls of Chester states that the Serjeants or
bailiffs of the earls had power to behead any malefactor or thief,
and gives an account of the presenting of several heads of felons
656
BEHEMOTH BEHISTUN
at the castle of Chester by the earl's serjeant. It appears that
the custom also attached to the barony of Malpas. In a roll of
3 Edward II., beheading is called the " custom of Cheshire "
(Lysons 1 Cheshire, p. 299, from Harl. MS. 2009 fol. 346). The
liberty of Hardwick, in Yorkshire, was granted the privilege
of beheading thieves. (See GUILLOTINE.)
But with the exceptions above stated beheading was usually
reserved as the mode of executing offenders of high rank. From
the 1 5th century onward the victims of the axe include some of
the highest personages in the kingdom: Archbishop Scrope
(1405); duke of Buckingham (1483); Catherine Howard (1542);
earl of Surrey (1547); duke of Somerset (1552); duke of
Northumberland ( 1 5 53) ; Lady Jane Grey (1554); Lord GuUdford
Dudley (1554); Mary queen of Scots (1587); earl of Essex
(1601); Sir Walter Raleigh (1618); earl of Strafford (1641);
Charles I. (1649); Lord William Russell (1683); duke of
Monmouth (1685); earl of Derwentwater (1716); earl of
Kenmure (1716); earl of Kilmarnock and Lord Balmerino
(1746); and the list closes with Simon, Lord Lovat, who (gth of
April 1747) was the last person beheaded in England. The
execution of Anne Boleyn was carried out not with the axe,
but with a sword, and by a French headsman specially brought
over from Calais. In 1644 Archbishop Laud was condemned
to be hanged, and the only favour granted him, and that re-
luctantly, was that his sentence should be changed to beheading.
In the case of the 4th Earl Ferrers (1760) his petition to be
beheaded was refused and he was hanged.
Executions by beheading usually took place on Tower Hill,
London, where the scaffold stood permanently during the isth
and 1 6th centuries. In the case of certain state prisoners, e.g.
Anne Boleyn and Lady Jane Grey, the sentence was carried
out within the Tower on the green by St Peter's chapel.
Beheading was only a part of the common-law method of
punishing male traitors, which was ferocious in the extreme.
According to Walcot's case (1696), i Eng. Rep. 89, the proper
sentence was " quod . . . ibidem super bigam (herdillum)
ponatur et abinde usque ad furcas de [Tyburn] trahatur, et
ibidem per collum suspendatur et vivus ad terram prostematur
et quod secreta membra ejus amputentur, et interiora sua intra
ventrem suum capiantur et in ignem ponantur et ibidem ipso
vivente comburantur, et quod caput ejus amputetur, quodque
corpus ejus in quatuor partes dividatur et illo ponantur ubi
dominus rex eas assignare voluit." There is a tradition that
Harrison the regicide after being disembowelled rose and boxed
the ears of the executioner.
In Townley's case (18 Howell, State Trials, 350, 351) there is a
ghastly account of the mode of executing the sentence; and in
that case the executioner cut the traitor's throat. In the case
of the Cato Street conspiracy(i82o, 33 Howell, State Trials, 1566),
after the traitors had been hanged as directed by the act of 1814,
their heads were cut off by a man in a mask whose dexterity led
to the belief that he was a surgeon.
Female traitors were until 1790 liable to be drawn to execution
and burnt alive. In that year hanging was substituted for
burning.
In 1814 so much of the sentence as related to disembowelling
and burning the bowels was abolished and the king was empowered
by royal warrant to substitute decapitation for hanging, which
was made by that act the ordinary mode of executing traitors.
But it was not till 1870 that the portions of the sentence as to
drawing and quartering were abolished (Forfeiture Act 1870).
The more barbarous features of the execution were remitted
in the case of traitors of high rank, and the offender was simply
decapitated.
The block usually employed is believed to have been a low
one such as would be used for beheading a corpse. C. H. Firth
and S. R. Gardiner incline to the view that such a block was the
one used at Charles I.'s execution. The more general custom,
however, seems to have been to have a high block over which
the victim knelt. Such is the form of that preserved in the
armoury of the Tower of London. This is undoubtedly the
block upon which Lord Lovat suffered, but, in spite of several
axe-cuts on it, probably not one in early use. The axe which
stands beside it was used to behead him and the other Jacobite
lords, but no certainty exists as to its having been previously
employed. On the ground floor of the Ring's House, at the
Tower, is preserved the processional axe which figured in the
journeys of state prisoners to and from their trials, the edge
turned from them as they went, but almost invariably turned
towards them as they returned to the Tower. The axe's head
is peculiar in form, i ft. 8 in. high by 10 in. wide, and is fastened
into a wooden handle 5 ft. 4 in. long. The handle is ornamented
by four rows of burnished brass nails.
In Scotland they did not behead with the axe, nor with the
sword, as under the Roman law, and formerly in Holland and
France, but with the maiden (q.v.).
Capital punishment is executed by beheading in France, and
in Belgium by means of the guillotine.
In Germany the instrument used varies in different states:
in the old provinces of Prussia the axe, in Saxony and Rhenish
Prussia the guillotine. Until 1851 executions were public.
They now take place within a prison in the presence of certain
specified officials.
Beheading is also the mode of executing capital punishment
in Denmark and Sweden. The axe is used. In Sweden the
execution takes place on the order of the king within a prison
in the presence of certain specified officials and, if desired, of
twelve representatives of the commune within which the prison
is situate (Code 1864, s. 2, Royal Ordinance 1877).
In the Chinese empire decapitation is the usual mode of
execution. By an imperial edict (24th of April 1905) certain
attendant barbarities have been suppressed: viz. slicing, cut-
ting up the body, and exhibiting the head to public view
(32 Clunet, 1175).
BEHEMOTH (the intensive plural of the Hebrew b'hemah, a
beast), the animal mentioned in the book of Job (ch. xl. 15),
probably the hippopotamus, which in ancient times was found in
Egypt below the cataracts of Syene. The word may be used in
Job as typical of the primeval king of land animals, as leviathan
of the water animals. The modern use expresses the idea of a
very large and strong animal.
BEHISTUN, or BISITUN, now pronounced Bisutun, a little
village at the foot of a precipitous rock, 1700 ft. high, in the
centre of the Zagros range in Persia on the right bank of the
Samas-Ab, the principal tributary of the Kerkha (Choaspes).
The original form of the name, Bagistana, " place of the gods "
or " of God " has been preserved by the Greek authors Stephanus
of Byzantium, and Diodorus (ii. 13), the latter of whom says
that the place was sacred to Zeus, i.e. Ahuramazda (Ormuzd).
At its foot passes the great road which leads from Babylonia
(Bagdad) to the highlands of Media (Ecbatana, Hamadan). On
the steep face of the rock, some 500 ft. above the plain, Darius I.,
king of Persia, had engraved a great cuneiform inscription
(n or 12 ft. high), which recounts the way in which, after the
death of Cambyses, he killed the usurper Gaumata (in Justin
Gometes, the pseudo-Smerdis), defeated the numerous rebels,
and restored the kingdom of the Achaemenidae. Above the
inscription the picture of the king himself is graven, with a bow
in his hand, putting his left foot on the body of Gaumata. Nine
rebel chiefs are led before him, their hands bound behind them,
and a rope round their necks; the ninth is Skunka, the chief of
the Scythians (Sacae) whom he defeated. Behind the king stand
his bow-bearer and his lance-bearer; in the air appears the
figure of the great god Ahuramazda, whose protection led him
to victory. 1 The inscriptions are composed in the three languages
which are written with cuneiform signs, and were used in all
official inscriptions of the Achaemenian kings: the chief place
1 A passage in the inscription runs: "Thus saith Darius the
king: That which I have done I have done altogether by the grace
of Ahuramazda. Ahuramazda, and the other gods that be, brought
aid to me. For this reason did Ahuramazda, and the other gods
that be, bring aid to me, because I was not hostile, nor a liar, nor a
wrongdoer, neither I nor my family, but according to Rectitude
(Sritam) have I ruled." (A. V. Williams Jackson, Persia, Past and
Present.)
BEHN BEIRA
6 57
is of course given to the Persian language (in four columns);
the three Susian (Elamitic) columns lie to the left, and the
Babylonian text is on a slanting boulder above them; a part of
the Babylonian has been destroyed by a torrent, which has made
its way over it. In former times the second language has often
been called Scythian, Turanian or Median; but we now know
from numerous inscriptions of Susa that it is the language of
Elam which was spoken in Susa, the capital of the Persian
empire.
In 1835 the difficult and almost inaccessible cliff was first
climbed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, who copied and deciphered
the inscriptions (1835-1845), and thus completed the reading
of the old cuneiform text and laid the foundation of the science
of Assyriology. Diodorus ii. 13 (cf. xvii. 1 10), probably following
a later author who wrote the history of Alexander's campaigns,
mentions the sculptures and inscriptions, but attributes them to
Semiramis. At the foot of the rock are the remainders of some
other sculptures (quite destroyed), the fragments of a Greek
inscription of the Parthian prince Gotarzes (A.D. 40; text in
Dittenberger, Orientis graeci inscr. selectae, no. 431), and of an
Arabic inscription.
See Sir Henry Rawlinson in the Journ. R. Geog. Soc. ix., 1839;
J. R. Asiatic Soc. x.. 18^6, xiv., 1853, xv., 1855; Archaeologia, xxxiv.,
1852; Sir R. Ker Porter, Travels, ii. 149 ff. ; Flandin and Coste,
Voyage en Perse, \. pi. 16; and the modern editions of the inscrip-
tions, the best of which, up to the end of the lo,th century, were:
Weissbach and Bang, Die altpersischen Keilinschriften (1893);
Weissbach, Die Achaemenideninschriften zweiter Art (1890); Bezold,
Die (babylonischen) Achaemenideninschriften (1882). A description
of the locality, with comments on the present state of the inscrip-
tions and doubtful passages of the Persian text, was given by
Dr A. V. Williams Jackson in the Journal of the American Oriental
Society, xxiv., 1903, and in his Persia, Past and Present (1906).
Dr Jackson in 1903 climbed to the ledge of the rock and was able to
collate the lower part of the four large Persian columns; he thus
convinced himself that Foy's conjecture of arstam (" righteous-
ness ") for Rawlinson's abistam or abaStdm was correct. A later
investigation was carried out in 1904 on the instructions of the
British Museum Trustees by Messrs^ L. W. King and R. C. Thompson,
who published their results in 1907 under the title, The Inscription
of Darius the Great at Behistun, including a full illustrated account
of the sculptures and the inscription, and a complete collation of
the text. (Eo. M.)
BEHN, APHRA (otherwise AFRA, APHARA or AYPARA) (1640-
1689), British dramatist and novelist, was baptized at Wye,
Kent, in 1640. Her father, John Johnson, was a barber. While
still a child she was taken out to Surinam, then an English
possession, from which she returned to England in 1658, when it
was handed over to the Dutch. In Surinam Aphra learned the
history, and acquired a personal knowledge of the African prince
Oroonoko and his beloved Imoinda, whose adventures she has
related in her novel, Oroonoko. On her return she married Mr
Behn, a London merchant of Dutch extraction. The wit and
abilities of Mrs Behn brought her into high estimation at court,
and her husband having died by this time Charles II. em-
ployed her on secret service in the Netherlands during the Dutch
war. At Antwerp she successfully accomplished the objects of
her mission; and in the latter end of 1666 she wormed out of
one Van der Aalbert the design formed by De Ruyter, in con-
junction with the De Witts, of sailing up the Thames and burning
the English ships in their harbours. This she communicated to
the English court, but although the event proved her intelligence
to have been well founded, it was at the time disregarded.
Disgusted with political sendee, she returned to England, and
from this period she appears to have supported herself by her
writings. Among her numerous plays are The Forced Marriage,
or the Jealous Bridegroom (1671); The Amorous Prince (1671);
The Town Fop (1677); and The Rover, or the Banished Cavalier
(in two parts, 1677 and 1681); and The Roundheads (1682).
The coarseness that disfigures her plays was the fault of her time;
she possessed great ingenuity, and showed an admirable compre-
hension of stage business, while her wit and vivacity were un-
failing. Of her short tales, or novelettes, the best is the story of
Oroonoko, which was made the basis of Thomas Southerne's
popular tragedy. Mrs Behn died on the i6th of April 1689, and
was buried in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey.
See Plays written by the Late Ingenious Mrs Behn (1702; re-
printed, 1871); also Aphra Behn's Gedichte und Prosawerke,"
by P. Siegel in Anglia (Halle, vol. xxy., 1002, pp. 86-128,329-385);
and A. C. Swinburne's essay on " Social Verse ' in Studies in Prose
and Poetry (1894).
BEHR, WILLIAM JOSEPH (1775-1851), German publicist and
writer, was born at Salzheim on the 26th of August 1775. He
studied law at Wilrzburg and Gottingen, became professor of
public law in the university of WUrzburg in 1799, and in 1819
was sent as a deputy to the Landtag of Bavaria. Having asso-
ciated himself with the party of reform, he was regarded with
suspicion by the Bavarian king Maximilian I. and the court
party, although favoured for a time by Maximilian's son, the
future King Louis I. In 1821 he was compelled to give up his
professorship, but he continued to agitate for reform, and in
1831 the king refused to recognize his election to the Landtag.
A speech delivered by Behr in 1832 was regarded as seditious,
and he was arrested. In spite of his assertion of loyalty to the
principle of monarchy he was detained in custody, and in 1836
was found guilty of seeking to injure the king. He then admitted
his offence; but he was not released from prison until 1839, and
the next nine years of his life were passed under police super-
vision at Passau and Regensburg. In 1848 he obtained a free
pardon and a sum of money as compensation, and was sent to
the German national assembly which met at Frankfort in May of
that year. He passed his remaining days at Bamberg, where
he died on the ist of August 1851. Behr's chief writings are:
Darstellung der Bediirfnisse, Wunsche und Hoffnungen deutscher
Nation (Aschaffenburg, 1816); Die Verfassung und Verwaltung
des Staates (Nuremberg, 1811-1812); Von den rechttichen Grenzen
der Einvrirkung des Deutschen Bundes auf die Verfassung, Gesetz-
gebung, und Rechtspflege seiner Gliederstaaten (Stuttgart, 1820).
BEIRA, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa, at the mouth of
the Pungwe river, in 19 50' S., 34 50' E., 488 m. N. of Delagoa
Bay, in communication by railway with Cape Town via Umtali,
Salisbury and Bulawayo. Pop. about 4000, of whom a third
are Europeans, and some 300 Indians. The town is built on a
tongue of sand extending into the river, and is comparatively
healthy. The sea front is protected by a masonry wall, and
there are over 13,000 ft. of wharfage. Vessels drawing 24 ft.
can enter the port at high tide. Between the customs house and
the railway terminus is the mouth of a small river, the Chiveve,
crossed by a steel bridge, the centre span revolving and giving
two passages each of 40 ft. The town is without any architectural
pretensions, but possesses fine public gardens. It is the head-
quarters of the Companhai de Mozambique, which administers
the Beira district under charter from the Portuguese crown.
The business community is largely British.
Beira occupies the site of a forgotten Arab settlement. The
present port sprang into being as the result of a clause in the
Anglo-Portuguese agreement of 1891 providing for the construc-
tion of a railway between Rhodesia and the navigable waters of
the Pungwe. The railway at first began at Fontesvilla, about
50 m. by river above Beira, but was subsequently brought down
to Beira. The completion in 1 902 of the line connecting Salisbury
with Cape Town adversely affected the port of Beira, the long
railway route from the Cape being increasingly employed by
travellers to and from Mashonaland. Moreover, the high freights
on goods by the Beira route enabled Port Elizabeth to compete
successfully for the trade of Rhodesia. In October 1905 a
considerable reduction was made in railway rates and in port
dues and customs, with the object of re-attracting to the port
the transit trade of the interior, and in 1907 a branch of the
Rhodesian customs was opened in the town. In that year goods
valued at 64 7, coo passed through the port to Rhodesia. Efforts
were also made to develop the agricultural and mineral resources
of the Beira district itself. The principal exports are rubber,
sugar, ground-nuts and oil seeds, beeswax, chromite (from
Rhodesia), and gold (from Manica). The imports are chiefly
rice (from India) and cotton goods for local use, and food stuffs,
machinery, hardware and manufactured goods for Rhodesia.
For the three years, 1905-1907, the_average annual value of the
658
BEIRA BEIT
imports and exports, excluding the transit trade with Rhodesia,
was, imports 200,00x3, exports 90,000. Direct steamship com-
munication with Europe is maintained by German and British
lines.
See PORTUGUESE EAST AFRICA; also the reports issued yearly by
the British Foreign Office on the trade of Beira.
BEIRA, an ancient principality and province of northern and
central Portugal; bounded on the N. by Entre Minho e Douro
and by Traz os Monies, E. by the Spanish provinces of Leon
and Estremadura, S. by Alemtejo and Portuguese Estremadura,
and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,515,834; area,
9208 sq. m. Beira is administratively divided into the districts
of Aveiro, Coimbra, Vizeu, Guarda and Castello Branco, while
it is popularly regarded as consisting of the three sections
Beira Alta or Upper Beira (Vizeu), north and west of the Serra
da Estrella; Beira Baixa or Lower Beira (Guarda and Castello
Branco), south and east of that range; and Beira Mar or Mari-
time Beira (Aveiro and Coimbra), coinciding with the former
coastal province of Douro. The coast line, about 72 m. long, is
uniformly flat, with long stretches of sandy pine forest, heath
or marshland bordered by a wide and fertile plain. Its most
conspicuous features are the lagoon of Aveiro (q.v.) and the bold
headland of Cape Mondego; in the south Aveiro, Murtosa, Ovar
and Figueira da Foz are small seaports. Except along the coast,
the surface is for the most part mountainous, the highest point
in the Serra da Estrella, which extends from north-east to
south-west through the centre of the province, being 6532 ft.
The northern and south-eastern frontiers are respectively marked
by the two great rivers Douro and Tagus, which rise in Spain
and flow to the Atlantic. The Agueda and C6a, tributaries
of the Douro, drain the eastern plateaus of Beira; the Vouga
rises in the Serra da Lapa, and forms the lagoon of Aveiro at its
mouth; the Mondego springs from the Serra da Estrella, passes
through Coimbra, and enters the sea at Figueira da Foz; and
the Zezere, a tributary of the Tagus, rises north-north-east
of Covilha and flows south-west and south.
Beira has a warm and equable climate, except in the mountains,
where the snowfall is often heavy. The soil, except in the valleys,
is dry and rocky, and large stretches are covered with heath.
The principal agricultural products are maize, wheat, garden
vegetables and fruit. The olive is largely cultivated, the oil
forming one of the chief articles of export; good wine is also
produced. In the flat country between Coimbra and Aveiro
the marshy land is laid out in rice-fields or in pastures for herds of
cattle and horses. Sheep farming is an important industry in
the highlands of Upper Beira; while near Lamego swine are
reared in considerable numbers, and furnish the well-known
Lisbon hams. Iron, lead, copper, coal and marble are worked
to a small extent, and millstones are quarried in some places.
Salt is obtained in considerable quantities from the lagoons along
the coast. There are few manufactures except the production
of woollen cloth, which occupies a large part of the population
in the district of Castello Branco. Three important lines of
railway, the Salamanca-Oporto, Salamanca-Lisbon and Lisbon-
Oporto, traverse parts of Beira; the two last named are also
connected by the Guarda-Figueira da Foz railway, which has a
short branch line going northwards to Vizeu. The chief towns,
Aveiro (pop. 1900, 9979), Castello Branco (7288), Coimbra
(18,144), Covilha (15,469), Figueira da Foz (6221), Guarda (6124),
Ilhavo (12,617), Lamego (9471), Murtosa (9737), Ovar (10,462)
and Vizeu (8057), with the frontier fortress of Almeida (2330),
are described in separate articles. There is a striking difference
of character between the inhabitants of the highlands, who are
grave and reserved, hardy and industrious, and those of the
lowlands, who are more sociable and courteous, but less energetic.
The heir-apparent to the throne of Portugal has the title of prince
of Beira.
BEIRUT or BEYROUT. (i) A vilayet of Syria, constituted
as recently as 1888, which stretches along the sea-coast from
Jebel el-Akra, south of the Orontes, to the Nahr Zerka, south of
Mount Carmel, and towards the south extends from the Mediter-
ranean to the Jordan. It includes five sanjaks, Latakia,
Tripoli, Beirut, Acre and Buka'a. (2) The chief town of the
vilayet (anc. Berytus), the most important seaport town in
Syria, situated on the south side of St George's Bay, on rising
ground at the foot of Lebanon. Pop. 120,000 (Moslems, 36,000;
Christians, 77,000; Jews, 2500; Druses, 400; foreigners, 4100).
Berytus, whether it is to be identified with Hebrew Berothai
or not (2 Sam. viii. 8; Ezek. xlvii. 16), was one of the most
ancient settlements on the Phoenician coast; but nothing more
than the name is known of it till B.C. 140, when the town
was taken and destroyed by Tryphon in his contest with
Antiochus VII. for the throne of the Seleucids. It duly passed
under Rome, was much favoured by the Herods and became
a colonia. It was famous for its schools, especially that of law,
from the 4th century A.D. onwards. Justinian recognized it
as one of the three official law schools of the empire (A.D. 533),
but within a few years, as the result of a disastrous earthquake
(551), the students were transferred to Sidon. In the following
century it passed to the Arabs (635), and was not again a Christian
city till 1 1 n, when Baldwin captured it. Saladin retook it
in 1187, and thenceforward, for six centuries and a half, whoever
its nominal lords may have been, Saracen, Crusader, Mameluke
or (from the i6th century) Turk, the Druse emirs of Lebanon
dominated it (see DRUSES). One of these, Fakr ed-Din Maan II.,
fortified it early in the I7th century; but the Turks asserted
themselves in 1763 and occupied the place. During the succeed-
ing epoch of rebellion at Acre under Jezzar and Abdullah pashas,
Beirut declined to a small town of about 10,000 souls, in dispute
between the Druses, the Turks and the pashas, a state of things
which lasted till Ibrahim Pasha captured Acre in 1832. When
the powers moved against the Egyptians in 1840, Beirut had
recently been occupied in force by Ibrahim as a menace to the
Druses; but he was easily driven out after a destructive bombard-
ment by Admiral Sir Robert Stopford (1768-1847). Since the
pacification of the. Lebanon after the massacre of the Christians
in 1860 (for later history, see LEBANON), Beirut has greatly
increased in extent, and has become the centre of the transit-
trade for all southern Syria. In 1894 a harbour, constructed
by a French company, was opened, but the insecurity of the
outer roadstead militates against its success. Nevertheless
trade is on the increase. In 1895 a French company completed
a railway across the Lebanon to Damascus, and connected it
with Mezerib in the Hauran, whence now starts the line to the
Hejaz. Since 1907 it has also had railway communication with
Aleppo; and a narrow-gauge line runs up the coast to Tripoli.
The steepness of the Lebanon railway, and the break of gauge at
Rayak, the junction for Aleppo, have prevented the diversion
of much of the trade of North Syria to Beirut. The town has
been supplied with water, since 1875, by an English company,
and with gas, since 1888, by a French company. There are many
American and European institutions in the city: the American
Presbyterian mission, with' a girls' school and a printing office,
which published the Arabic translation of the Bible, and now
issues a weekly paper and standard works in Arabic; the Syrian
Protestant college with its theological seminary, medical faculty,
training college and astronomical observatory; the Scottish
mission, and St George's institute for Moslem and Druse girls;
the British Syrian mission schools; the German hospital,
orphanage and boarding school; the French hospital and
schools, and the Jesuit " Universit6 de St Joseph " with a
printing office. In summer most of the richer residents reside
on the Lebanon, and in winter the governor of the Lebanon and
many Lebanon notables inhabit houses in Beirut. The town
has many fine houses, but the streets are unpaved and the
bazaars mean. The Moslem inhabitants, being in a minority)
have often shown themselves fanatical and turbulent. There
are several fairly good hotels for tourists. (C.W.W.;D.G.H.)
BEIT, ALFRED (1853-1906), British South African financier,
was the son of a well-to-do merchant of Hamburg, Germany,
and in 1875, after a commercial education at home, was sent
out to Kimberley, South Africa, to investigate the diamond
prospects. He had relatives, the Lipperts, out there in business,
and in conjunction with Mr (afterwards Sir) Julius Wernher
BEJA BEJART
659
(b. 1850) he rapidly acquired a leading position on the diamond
fields, and became closely allied with the ideals of Cecil Rhodes
(q.v.). In 1889 Rhodes and Beit effected the amalgamation of
various interests in the De Beers Consolidated Mines Limited. It
was largely owing to the capital and enterprise of Beit that the
deep-level mining in the Witwatersrand district of the Transvaal
was started, and he had a large share in the principal company,
the Rand Mines Limited. The firm of Wernher, Beit & Co.
gradually transferred the centre of their financial operations to
London, where they became the leading house in the dealings
in South African mines. The rapid progress made in developing
the diamond and gold output made Beit a man of enormous
wealth, and he utilized it lavishly in pursuit of Rhodes's South
African policy. He was one of the original directors of the
British South Africa company, and was included with Rhodes
in the censure passed by the House of Commons Commission of
Inquiry on the Jameson Raid (1896). He was subsequently one
of Rhodes's trustees. Personally of a modest, gentle, generous
and retiring disposition, and strongly imbued with Rhodes's
ideas of British imperialism, he was one of the South African
millionaires of German birth against whom the anti-imperialist
section in England were never tired of employing their sarcastic
invective. But though shrinking from ostentation in any form,
his purse was continually opened for public objects, notably his
support of the Imperial Light Horse and Imperial Yeomanry in
the South African War of 1899-1902, and his endowment of the
professorship of colonial history at Oxford (1905). He gave
100,000 to establish a university in his native city of Hamburg
and 200,000 for a university in Johannesburg. He built a fine
house in Park Lane, London, but was never prominent in social
life. He died, unmarried, on the i6th of July 1906.
BEJA (or BIJA), the name under which is comprised a wide-
spread family of tribes, usually classed as Hamitic. They
may, however, represent very early Semitic immigrants (see
HAMITIC RACES). When first recorded the Beja occupied
the whole region between the Nile and the Red Sea from the
border of Upper Egypt to the foot of the Abyssinian plateau.
They were known to the ancient Egyptians, upon whose monu-
ments they are represented. They are the Blemmyes of Strabo
(xvii. 53), and have also been identified with the Macrobii of
Herodotus, " tallest and finest of men " (iii. 17). It has been
suggested, though on insufficient grounds, that the Beja, rather
than the Abyssinians, are the " Ethiopians " of Herodotus, the
civilized people who built the city of Meroe and its pyramids.
During the Roman period the Beja were much what they are
to-day, nomadic and aggressive, and were constantly at war.
In 216 A.H. (A.D. 832) the Moslem governor of Assuan made a
treaty with the Beja chief, by which the latter undertook to
guard the road to Aidhab and pay an annual tribute of one
hundred camels. This is the earliest record of a government
engagement with the northern section of the Beja, now the
Ababda. Ibn Batuta, early in the I4th century, mentions a
king of Beja, El Hadrabi, who received two-thirds of the revenue
of Aidhab, the other third going to the king of Egypt. The Beja
territory contained gold and emerald mines. The tribesmen
were the usual escort for pilgrims to Mecca from Kus to Aidhab.
According to Leo Africanus, at the close of the i4th or very
early in the isth century their rich town of Zibid (Aidhab?)
on the Red Sea was destroyed. This seems to have broken up
the tribal cohesion. Leo Africanus describes the Beja as " most
base, miserable and living only on milk and camels' flesh." In
the middle ages the Beja, partially at any rate, were Christians.
The kingdom of Meroe was succeeded by that of " Aloa," the
capital of which, Soba, was on the Blue Nile, about 13 m. above
Khartum. The country was conquered by the Funj (q.v.), a
negroid people who subsequently became Mahommedan and
compelled the Beja to adopt that religion. Until the invasion
of the Egyptians, under Ismail, son of Mehemet Ali (1820), the
Funj remained in possession.
All the Beja are now Mahommedans, but generally only so in
name, though some of the tribes enthusiastically fought for
Mahdiism (1883-99). As a race the Beja are remarkable for
physical beauty, with a colour more red than black, and of a
distinctly Caucasic type of face. The chiefs are, as a rule, of much
fairer complexion than the tribesmen. In spite of their claim to
Arab origin, the tribes have preserved many negro customs in
the matter of costume and scarring the body. Their hair-dressing
is very characteristic. The hair, worn thick as a protection
against the sun, is parted in a circle round the head on a level
with the eyes, above which the hair, saturated with mutton fat
or butter, is trained straight up like a mop, with separate tufts
at sides and back. Most of the tribes are nomadic shepherds,
driving their cattle from pasture to pasture; some few are
occupied in agriculture.
They are polygynous, but, unlike the Arabs, great independ-
ence is granted their women. Among most of the Beja peoples
the wife can return to her mother's tent whenever she likes, and
after a birth of a child she can repudiate the husband, who must
make a present to be re-accepted. Cases are said to have occurred
where the woman has thus obtained all her husband's possessions.
The whole social position of the Beja women points, indeed, to
an earlier matriarchal system. Among some of the tribes the
custom of the " fourth day free " is observed, by which the
women are only considered married for so many days a week,
forming what liaisons they please on the odd day. The chief
Beja tribes are the Ababda, Bisharin, Hadendoa, Beni-Amer,
Amarar, Shukuria, Hallenga and Hamran.
BEJA (probably the ancient Pax Julia), the capital of an
administrative district formerly included in the province of
Alemtejo, Portugal; situated 95 m. S.S.E. of Lisbon by
the Lisbon-Faro railway, and at the head of a branch line
to Pias e Orada (3855), 26 m. E. Pop. (1900) 8885. Beja is
an episcopal city, built on an isolated hill, and partly enclosed
by walls of Roman origin; on the south it has a fine Roman
gateway. Its cathedral is modern, but the citadel, with its
beautiful Gothic tower of white marble, was founded by King
Diniz (1270-1325). The city is surrounded by far-reaching
plains, known as the Campo de Beja, and devoted partly to the
cultivation of grain and fruit, partly to the breeding of cattle
and pigs; copper, iron and manganese are also mined to a
small extent, and Beja is the central market for all these products.
Cloth, pottery and olive oil are manufactured in the city.
The administrative district of Beja, the largest and most
thinly-populated district in Portugal, coincides with the southern
part of Alemtejo (q.v.); pop. (1900) 163,612; area, 3958 sq. m.;
41-3 inhabitants per sq. m.
BEJAN (Fr. bfjaune, from becjaune, " yellow beak," in allusion
to unfledged birds; the equivalent to Ger. Gdbschnabel, Fr.
blanc-bec, a greenhorn), a term for freshmen, or undergraduates
of the first year, in the Scottish universities. The phrase was
introduced from the French universities, where the levying of
bejaunium " footing-money " had been prohibited by the statutes
of the university of Orleans in 1365 and by those of Toulouse in
1401. In 1493 the election of an Abbas Bejanorum (Abbot of the
Freshmen) was forbidden in the university of Paris. In the
German and Austrian universities the freshman was called beanus.
In Germany the freshman was anciently called a Pennal (from
Med. Lat. pennale, a box for pens), in allusion to the fact that the
newly-arrived student had to carry such for the older pupils.
Afterwards Fucks (fox) was substituted for Pennal, and then
Goldfuchs, because he is supposed still to have a few gold coins
from home.
BEJART, the name of several French actors, children of
Marie Herve and.Joseph Bejart (d. 1643), the holder of a small
government post. The family there were eleven children
was very poor and lived in the Marais, then the theatrical
quarter of Paris. One of the sons, JOSEPH BEJART (c. 1617-1659),
was a strolling player and later a member of Moliere's first
company (ITllustre Th6atre), accompanied him in his theatrical
wanderings, and was with him when he returned permanently
to Paris, dying soon after. He created the parts of L61ie in
L'lourdie, and Eraste in Le Dfpit amoureux. His brother Louis
BfjART (c. 1630-1678) was also in Moliere's company during
the last years of its travels. He created many parts in his
66o
BEK BEKE
brother-in-law's plays Valere in Le Depit amoureux, Dubois in
Le Misanthrope, Alcantor in Le Manage force, and Don Luis in
Le Festin de Pierre and was an actor of varied talents. In
consequence of a wound received when interfering in a street
brawl, he became lame and retired with a pension the first
ever granted by the company to a comedian in 1670.
The more famous members of the family were two sisters.
MADELEINE BEJART (1618-1672) was at the head of the
travelling company to which her sister Genevieve (1631-1675)
who played as Mile Herve and her brothers belonged, before
they joined Moliere in forming Tlllustre Theatre (1643). With
Moliere she remained until her death on the i7th of February
1672. She had had an illegitimate daughter (1638) by an
Italian count, and her conduct on her early travels had not
been exemplary, but whatever her private relations with Moliere
may have been, however acrimonious and violent her temper,
she and her family remained faithful to his fortunes. She was
a tall, handsome blonde, and an excellent actress, particularly
in soubrette parts, a number of which Moliere wrote for her.
Among her creations were Marotte in Les Precieuses ridicules,
Lisette in L'Ecole des maris, Dorine in Tartuffe.
Her sister, ARMANDE GRESINDE CLAIRE ELIZABETH BEJART
(1645-1700), seems first to have joined the company at Lyons in
1653. Moliere directed her education and she grew up under his
eye. In 1662, he being then forty and she seventeen, they were
married. Neither was happy; the wife was a flirt, the husband
jealous. On the strength of a scurrilous anonymous pamphlet,
La Fameuse Comedienne, ou histoire de la Guirin (1688), her
character has been held perhaps unduly low. She was certainly
guilty of indifference and ingratitude, possibly of infidelity;
they separated after the birth of a daughter in 1665 and met only
at the theatre until 1671. But the charm and grace which
fascinated others, Moliere too could not resist, and they were
reconciled. Her portrait is given in a well-known scene (Act iii.,
sc. 9) in Le Bourgeois gentilhomme. Mme Moliere's first appear-
ance on the stage was in 1663, as Elise in the Critique de I'ecole des
femmes. She was out of the cast for a short time in 1664, when
she bore Moliere a son Louis XIV. and Henrietta of England
standing sponsors. But in the spring, beginning with the fetes
given at Versailles by the king to Anne of Austria and Maria
Theresa, she started her long list of important r61es. She was at
her best as Celimene really her own highly-finished portrait
in Le Misanthrope, and hardly less admirable as Ang61ique in
Le Malade imaginaire. She was the Elmire at the first performance
of Tartuffe, and the Lucile of Le Bourgeois gentilhomme. All
these parts were written by her husband to display her talents
to the best advantage and she made the most of her opportunities.
The death of Moliere, the secession of Baron and several other
actors, the rivalry of the H6tel de Bourgogne and the develop-
ment of the Palais Royal, by royal patent, into the home of
French opera, brought matters to a crisis with the comediens du
roi. Well advised by La Grange (Charles Varlet, 1639-1692),
Armande leased the Th6atre Gu6n6gaud, and by royal ordinance
the residue of her company were combined with the players from
the Theatre du Marais, the fortunes of which were at low ebb.
The combination, known as the troupe du roi, at first was un-
fortunate, but in 1679 they secured Mile du Champmesle', later
absorbed the company of the H6tel de Bourgogne, and in 1680
the Come'die Franchise was born. Mme Moliere in 1677 had
married Eustache Francois Guerin (1636-1728), an actor, and
by him she had one son (1678-1708). She continued her successes
at the theatre until she retired in 1694, and she died on the 3oth
of November 1700.
BEK, ANTONY (d. 1311), bishop of Durham, belonged to a
Lincolnshire family, and, having entered the church, received
several benefices and soon attracted the attention of Edward I.,
who secured his election as bishop of Durham in 1283. When,
after the death of King Alexander III. in 1 285, Edward interfered
in the affairs of Scotland, he employed Bek on this business, and
in 1294 he sent him on a diplomatic errand to the German king,
Adolph of Nassau. Taking part in Edward's campaigns in
Scotland, the bishop received the surrender of John de Baliol at
Brechin in 1296, and led one division of the English army at the
battle of Falkirk in 1298. Soon after his return to England he
became involved in a quarrel with Richard de Hoton, prior of
Durham. Deposed and excommunicated by Bek, the prior
secured the king's support; but the bishop, against whom other
complaints were preferred, refused to give way, and by his
obstinacy incurred the lasting enmity of Edward. In 1302, in
obedience to the command of Pope Boniface VIII., he visited
Rome on this matter, and during his absence the king seized and
administered his lands, which, however, he recovered when he
returned and submitted to Edward. He continued, however,
to pursue Richard with unrelenting hostility, and was in his turn
seriously harassed by the king. Having been restored to the
royal favour by Edward II. who made him lord of the Isle of Man,
the bishop died at Eltham on the 3rd of March 1311. A man of
great courage and energy, chaste and generous, Bek was remark-
able for his haughtiness and ostentation. Both as a bishop and
as a private individual he was very wealthy, and his household
and retinue were among the most magnificent in the land. He
was a soldier and a hunter rather than a bishop, and built castles
at Eltham and elsewhere.
Bek's elder brother, THOMAS BEK (d. 1293), bishop of St
David's, was a trusted servant of Edward I. He obtained many
important and wealthy ecclesiastical positions, was made
treasurer of England in 1279, and became bishop of St David's
in 1280. He was a benefactor to his diocese and died on the
1 2th of May 1293.
Another THOMAS BEK (1282-1347), who was bishop of Lincoln
from 1341 until his death on the 2nd of February 1347, was a
member of the same family.
Antony Bek must not be confused with his kinsman and name-
sake, ANTONY BEK (1279-1343), who was chancellor and dean
of Lincoln cathedral, and became bishop of Norwich after a
disputed election in 1337. He was a quarrelsome man, and after
a stormy episcopate, died on the igth of December 1343.
See Robert of Graystanes, Historia de statu ecclesiae Dunelmensis,
edited by J. Raine in his Historiae Dunelmensis scriptores (London,
1839); W. Hutchinson, History of Durham (Newcastle, 1785-1794);
J. L. Low, Diocesan History of Durham (London, 1881); and M.
Creighton in the Dictionary of National Biography, vol. iv. (London,
1885).
BEKE, CHARLES TILSTONE (1800-1874), English traveller,
geographer and Biblical critic, was born in Stepney, Middlesex,
on the loth of October 1800. His father was a merchant in
London, and Beke engaged for a few years in mercantile pursuits.
He afterwards studied law at Lincoln's Inn, and for a time
practised at the bar, but finally devoted himself to the study
of historical, geographical and ethnographical subjects. The
first-fruits of his researches appeared in his work entitled Origines
Biblicae, or Researches in Primeval History, published in 1834.
An attempt to reconstruct the early history of the human race
from geological data, it raised a storm of opposition on the part
of defenders of the traditional readings of the book of Genesis;
but in recognition of the value of the work the university of
Tubingen conferred upon him the degree of Ph.D. For about
two years (1837-1838) Beke held the post of acting British consul
in Saxony. From that time till his death his attention was
largely given to geographical studies, chiefly of the Nile valley.
Aided by private friends, he visited Abyssinia in connexion with
the mission to Shoa sent by the Indian government under the
leadership of Major (afterwards Sir) William Cornwallis Harris,
and explored Gojam and more southern regions up to that time
unknown to Europeans. Among other achievements, Beke
was the first to determine, with any approach to scientific
accuracy, the course of the Abai (Blue Nile). The valuable
results of this journey, which occupied him from 1840 to 1843,
he gave to the world in a number of papers in scientific publica-
tions, chiefly in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society.
On his return to London, Beke re-engaged in commerce, but
devoted all his leisure to geographical and kindred studies. In
1848 he planned an expedition from the mainland opposite
Zanzibar to discover the sources of the Nile. A start was made,
but the expedition accomplished little. Beke's belief that the
BEKESCSABA BEL
661
White Nile was the main stream was, however, shown to be
accurate by subsequent exploration. In 1856 he endeavoured,
unsuccessfully, to establish commercial relations with Abyssinia
through Massawa. In 1861-1862 he and his wife travelled in
Syria and Palestine, and went to Egypt with the object of pro-
moting trade with Central Africa and the growth of cotton in
the Sudan. In 1865 he again went to Abyssinia, for the purpose
of obtaining from King Theodore the release of the British
captives. On learning that the captives had been released, Beke
turned back, but Theodore afterwards re-arrested the party. To
the military expedition sent to effect their release Beke furnished
much valuable information, and his various services to the
government and to geographical research were acknowledged by
the award of 500 in 1868 by the secretary for India, and by the
grant of a civil list pension of 100 in 1870. In his seventy-
fourth year he undertook a journey to Egypt for the purpose of
determining the real position of Mount Sinai. He conceived
that it was on the eastern side of the Gulf of Akaba, and his
journey convinced -him that his view was right. It has not,
however, commended itself to general acceptance. Beke died
at Bromley, in Kent, on the 3ist of July 1874.
Beke's writings are very numerous. Among the more im-
portant, besides those already named, are: An Essay on the
Nile and its Tributaries (1847), The Sources of the Nile (1860),
and The British Captives in Abyssinia (1865). He was a fellow
of the Royal Geographical Society, and for his contributions to
the knowledge of Abyssinia received its gold medal, and also
that of the Geographical Society of France. As a result of a
controversy over the statements of another Abyssinian explorer,
Antoine Abbadie, Beke returned the medal awarded him by the
French Society.
See Summary of the late Dr Beke's published works and . . . public
services, by his widow (Tunbridge Wells, 1876).
BEKESCSABA, a market-town of Hungary, 123 m. S.E.
of Budapest by rail. Pop. (1900) 37,108, mostly Slovaks and
Lutherans, who form the largest Lutheran community in
Hungary. The town is situated near the White Koros, with
which it is connected by a canal, and is an important railway-
junction in central Hungary. Bekescsaba possesses several
large milling establishments, while the weaving of hemp and the
production of hemp-linen is largely pursued as a home industry.
The town carries on an active trade in cereals, wines and cattle.
BEKKER, AUGUST IMMANUEL (1785-1871), German
philologist and critic, was born on the 2ist of May 1785. He
completed his classical education at the university of Halle
under F. A. Wolf, who considered him as his most promising
pupil. In 1810 he was appointed professor of philosophy in the
university of Berlin. For several years, between 1810 and 1821,
he travelled in France, Italy, England and parts of Germany,
examining classical manuscripts and gathering materials for his
great editorial labours. He died at Berlin on the 7th of June
1871. Some detached fruits of his researches were given in the
Anecdota Graeca, 1814-1821; but the full result of his unwearied
industry and ability is to be found in the enormous array of
classical authors edited by him. Anything like a complete list
of his works would occupy too much space, but it may be said
that his industry extended to nearly the whole of Greek literature
with the exception of the tragedians and lyric poets. His best
known editions are: Plato (1816-1823), Oratores Attici (1823-
1824), Aristotle (1831-1836), Aristophanes (1829), and twenty-
five volumes of the Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae.
The only Latin authors edited by him were Livy (1829-1830)
and Tacitus (1831). Bekker confined himself entirely to textual
recension and criticism, in which he relied solely upon the MSS.,
and contributed little to the extension of general scholarship.
See Sauppe, Zur Erinnerung an Meineke und Bekker (1872);
Haupt, " Gedachtnisrede auf Meineke und Bekker," in his Opuscula,
iii.; E. I. Bekker, "Zur Erinnerung an meinen Vater," in the
Preussisches Jahrbuch, xxix.
BEKKER, BALTHASAR (1634-1698), Dutch divine, was born
in Friesland in 1634, and educated at Groningen, under Jacob
Ailing, and at Franeker. He was pastor at Franeker, and from
1679, at Amsterdam. An enthusiastic disciple of Descartes, he
wrote several works in philosophy and theology, which by their
freedom of thought aroused considerable hostility. His best
known work was Die Betooverde Wereld (1691), or The World
Bewitched (1695; one volume of an English translation from a
French copy), in which he examined critically the phenomena
generally ascribed to spiritual agency, and attacked the belief
in sorcery and " possession " by the devil, whose very existence
he questioned. The book is interesting as an early study in
comparative religion, but its publication in 1692 led to Bekker's
deposition from the ministry. He died at Amsterdam.
BEKKER (or WOLFF), ELIZABETH (1738-1804), Dutch
novelist, was married to Adrian Wolff, a Reformed clergyman,
but is always known under her maiden name. After the death
of her husband in 1777, she resided for some time in France,
with her close friend, Agatha Deken. She was exposed to some of
the dangers of the French Revolution, and, it is said, escaped
the guillotine only by her great presence of mind. In 1795 she
returned to Holland, and resided at the Hague till her death.
Her novels were written in conjunction with Agatha Deken,
and it is somewhat difficult to determine the exact qualities
contributed by each. The Historic van William Levend (1785),
Historie van Sara Burgerhart (1790), Abraham Blankaart (1787),
Cornelie Wildschut (1793-1796), were extremely popular.
BEL, the name of a chief deity in Babylonian religion, the
counterpart of the Phoenician Baal (q.v.) ideographically written
as En-lil. Since Bel signifies the " lord " or " master " par
excellence, it is, therefore, a title rather than a genuine name,
and must have been given to a deity who had acquired a position
at the head of a pantheon. The real name is accordingly to be
sought in En-lil, of which the first element again has the force of
" lord " and the second presumably " might," " power," and
the like, though this cannot be regarded as certain. En-lil is
associated with the ancient city of Nippur, and since En-lil with
the determinative for " land " or " district " is a common
method of writing the name of the city, it follows, apart from
other evidence, that En-lil was originally the patron deity of
Nippur. At a very early period prior to 3000 B.C. Nippur had
become the centre of a political district of considerable extent,
and it is to this early period that the designation of En-lil as
Bel or " the lord " reverts. Inscriptions found at Nippur, where
extensive excavations were carried on during 1888-1900 by
Messrs Peters and Haynes, under the auspices of the University
of Pennsylvania, show that Bel of Nippur was in fact regarded
as the head of an extensive pantheon. Among the titles accorded
to him are " king of lands," " king of heaven and earth " and
" father of the gods." His chief temple at Nippur was known
as E-Kur, signifying " mountain house," and such was the
sanctity acquired by this edifice that Babylonian and Assyrian
rulers, down to the latest days, vied with one another in em-
bellishing and restoring Bel's seat of worship, and the name
itself became the designation of a temple in general. Grouped
around the main sanctuary there arose temples and chapels to
the gods and goddesses who formed his court, so that E-Kur
became the name for an entire sacred precinct in the city of
Nippur. The name " mountain house " suggests a lofty structure
and was perhaps the designation originally of the staged tower at
Nippur, built in imitation of a mountain, with the sacred shrine of
the god on the top. The tower, however, also had its special
designation of " Im-Khar-sag," the elements of which, signifying
" storm " and " mountain," confirm the conclusion drawn from
other evidence that En-lil was originally a storm-god having
his seat on the top of a mountain. Since the Euphrates valley
has no mountains, En-lil would appear to be a god whose worship
was carried into Babylonia by a wave of migration from a
mountainous country in all probability from Elam to the east.
When, with the political rise of Babylon as the centre of a
great empire, Nippur yielded its prerogatives to the city over
which Marduk presided, the attributes and the titles of En-lil
were transferred to Marduk, who becomes the " lord " or Bel
of later days. The older Bel did not, however, entirely lose his
standing. Nippur continued to be a sacred city after it ceased
662
BELA III. BELA IV.
to have any considerable political importance, while in addition
the rise of the doctrine of a triad of gods symbolizing the three
divisions heavens, earth and water assured to Bel, to whom
the earth was assigned as his province, his place in the religious
system. The disassociation from his local origin involved in
this doctrine of the triad gave to Bel a rank independent of
political changes, and we, accordingly, find Bel as a factor in the
religion of Babylonia and Assyria to the latest days. It was
no doubt owing to his position as the second figure of the triad
that enabled him to survive the political eclipse of Nippur and
made his sanctuary a place of pilgrimage to which Assyrian
kings down to the days of Assur-bani-pal paid their homage
equally with Babylonian rulers.
See also BELIT and BAAL. For the apocryphal book of the Bible,
Bel and the Dragon, see DANIEL: Additions to Daniel. (M. JA.)
BELA III. (d. 1196), king of Hungary, was the second son of
King Geza II. Educated at the Byzantine court, where he had
been compelled to seek refuge, he was fortunate enough to win
the friendship of the brilliant emperor Manuel who, before the
birth of his own son Alexius, intended to make Bela his successor
and betrothed him to his daughter. Subsequently, however,
he married the handsome and promising youth to Agnes of
Chatillon, duchess of Antioch, and in 1173 placed him, by force
of arms, on the Hungarian throne, first expelling Bela's younger
brother Geza, who was supported by the Catholic party. Initiated
from childhood in all the arts of diplomacy at what was then the
focus of civilization, and as much a warrior by nature as his
imperial kinsman Manuel, Bela showed himself from the first
fully equal to all the difficulties of his peculiar position. He began
by adopting Catholicism and boldly seeking the assistance of
Rome. He then made what had hitherto been an elective a
hereditary throne by crowning his infant son Emerich his
successor. In the beginning of his reign he adopted a prudent
policy of amity with his two most powerful neighbours, the
emperors of the East and West, but the death of Manuel in 1180
gave Hungary once more a free hand in the affairs of the Balkan
Peninsula, her natural sphere of influence. The attempt to
recover Dalmatia, which involved Bela in two bloody wars with
Venice (1181-88 and 1190-91), was only partially successful.
But he assisted the Rascians or Serbs (see HUNGARY: History)
to throw off the Greek yoke and establish a native dynasty, and
attempted to made Galicia an appanage of his younger son
Andrew. It was in Bela's reign that the emperor Frederick I.,
in the spring of 1189, traversed Hungary with 100,000 crusaders,
on which occasion the country was so well policed that no harm
was done to it and the inhabitants profited largely from their
commerce with the German host. In his last years Bela assisted
the Greek emperor Isaac II. Angelus against the Bulgarians.
His first wife bore Bela two sons, Emerich and Andrew. On her
death he married Margaret of France, sister of King Philip
Augustus. Bela was in every sense of the word a great statesman,
and his court was accounted one of the most brilliant in Europe.
For an account of his internal reforms see HUNGARY. Though
the poet Ede Szigligeti has immortalized his memory in the play
Bela III.; we have no historical monograph of him, but in Ignacz
Acsady, History of the Hungarian Realm (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest,
1903), there is an excellent account of his reign. (R. N. B.)
BELA IV. (1206-1270), king of Hungary, was the son of
Andrew II., whom he succeeded in 1235. During his father's
lifetime he had greatly distinguished himself by his administra-
tion of Transylvania, then a wilderness, which, with incredible
patience and energy, he colonized and christianized. He repaired
as far as possible the ruinous effects of his father's wastefulness,
but on his accession found everything in the utmost confusion,
" the great lords," to cite the old chronicler Rogerius (c. 1223-
1266), "having so greatly enriched themselves that the king
was brought to naught." The whole land was full of violence,
the very bishops storming rich monasteries at the head of armed
retainers. Bela resolutely put down all disorder. He increased
the dignity of the crown by introducing a stricter court etiquette,
and its wealth by recovering those of the royal domains which
the magnates had appropriated during the troubles of the last
reign. The pope, naturally on the side of order, staunchly
supported this regenerator of the realm, and in his own brother
Coloman, who administered the district of the Drave, Bela also
found a loyal and intelligent co-operator. He also largely
employed Jews and Ishmaelites, 1 the financial specialists of the
day, whom he rewarded with lands and titles. The salient event
of Bela's reign was the terrible Tatar invasion which reduced
three-quarters of Hungary to ashes. The terror of their name
had long preceded them, and Bela, in 1235 or 1236, sent the
Dominican monk Julian, by way of Constantinople, to Russia, to
collect information about them from the " ancient Magyars "
settled there, possibly the Volgan Bulgarians. He returned to
Hungary with the tidings that the Tatars contemplated the
immediate conquest of Europe. Bela did his utmost to place his
kingdom in a state of defence, and appealed betimes to the
pope, the duke of Austria and the emperor for assistance; but
in February and March 1241 the Tatars burst through the
Carpathian passes; in April Bela himself, after a gallant stand,
was routed on the banks of the Sajo and fled to the islands of
Dalmatia; and for the next twelve months the kingdom of
Hungary was merely a geographical expression. The last twenty-
eight years of Bela's reign were mainly devoted to the recon-
struction of his realm, which he accomplished with a single-
minded thoroughness which has covered his name with glory.
(See HUNGARY: History.)
Perhaps the most difficult part of his task was the recovery of
the western portions of the kingdom (which had suffered least)
from the hands of Frederick of Austria, who had seized them as
the price of assistance which had been promised but never given.
First Bela solicited the aid of the pope, but was compelled finally
to resort to arms, and crossing the Leitha on the i sth of June
1 246, routed Frederick, who was seriously wounded and trampled
to death by his own horsemen. With him was extinguished the
male line of the house of Babenberg. In the south Bela was less
successful. In 1243 he was obliged to cede to Venice, Zara, a
perpetual apple of discord between the two states; but he
kept his hold upon Spalato and his other Dalmatian possessions,
and his wise policy of religious tolerance in Bosnia enabled
Hungary to rule that province peaceably for many years. The
new Servian kingdom of the Nemanides, on the other hand, gave
him much trouble and was the occasion of many bloody wars.
In 1261 the Tatars under Nogai Khan invaded Hungary for the
second time, but were defeated by Bela and lost 50,000 men.
Bela reached the apogee of his political greatness in 1264 when,
shortly after his crushing defeat of the Servian king, Stephen
Urosh, he entertained at his court, at Kalocsa, the ambassadors
of the newly restored Greek emperor, of the kings of France,
Bulgaria and Bohemia and three Tatar mirzas. For a time
Bela was equally fortunate in the north-west.where the ambitious
and enterprising Premyslidae had erected a new Bohemian
empire which absorbed the territories of the old Babenbergers
and was very menacing to Hungary. With Ottakar II. in
particular, Bela was almost constantly at war for the possession
of Styria, which ultimately fell to the Bohemians. The last years
of Bela's life were embittered by the ingratitude of his son
Stephen, who rebelled continuously against his father and
ultimately compelled him to divide the kingdom with him, the
younger prince setting up a capital of his own at Sarospatak, and
following a foreign policy directly contrary to that of his father.
Bela died on the 3rd of May 1 270 in his sixty-fourth year. With
the people at large he was popular to the last; his services to
his country had been inestimable. He married; while still
crown-prince, Maria, daughter of the Nicaean emperor, Theodore
Lascaris, whom his own father brought home with him from his
crusade. She bore him, besides his two sons Stephen and Bela,
seven daughters, of whom St Margaret was the most famous.
No special monograph for the whole reign exists. For the Tatar
invasion see the contemporary Rogerius, Epistolae super destructione
Regni Hungariae per Tartaros facta (Budapest, 1885). A vivid but
somewhat chauvinistic history of Bela's reign will be found in
Acsady's History of the Hungarian Realm (Hung.), i. 2 (Budapest,
1903). (R. N. B.)
1 Mahommedan itinerant chapmen, from the Volga.
BELA BELESME
663
BELA, LAS BELA, or Lus BEYLA, situated in 26 27' 30' N.
lat. and 66 45' o* E. long., 350 ft. above sea level, capital of the
small independent state of Las Bela to the south of Kalat
(Baluchistan), ruled by the Jam (or Cham), who occupies the
position of a protected chief under the British Raj. To the east
lies Sind, and to the west Makran, and from time immemorial
the great trading route between Sind and Persia has passed
through Las Bela. The area of Las Bela is 6357 sq. m., and its
population in 1901 was 56,109, of which 54,040 were Mussulmans.
The low-lying, alluvial, hot and malarial plains of Las Bela,
occupying about 6000 sq. m. on the north-east corner of the
Arabian Sea, are highly irrigated and fertile two rivers from
the north, the Purali and the Kud, uniting to provide a plentiful
water supply. The bay of Sonmiani once extended over most
of these plains, where the Purali delta is now growing with
measurable strides. The hill ranges to the east, parting the
plains from Sind (generally known locally as the Mor and the
Kirthar), between which lies the long narrow line of the Hab
valley, strike nearly north and south, diminishing in height as
they approach the sea and allowing of a route skirting the coast
between Karachi and Bela. To the west they are broken into
an infinity of minor ridges massing themselves in parallel forma-
tion with a strike which curves from south to west till they
form the coast barrier of Makran. The Persian route from
India, curving somewhat to the north, traverses this waste of
barren ridges almost at right angles, but on dropping into the
Kolwah valley its difficulty ceases. It then becomes an open
road to Kej and Persia, with an easy gradient. This was un-
doubtedly one of the greatest trade routes of the medieval days
of Arab ascendancy hi Sind, and it is to this route that Bela
owes a place in history which its modern appearance and dimen-
sions hardly seem to justify. Bela is itself rather prettily situated
on a rocky site above the banks of the Purali. About four miles
to the south are the well-kept gardens which surround the tomb
of Sir Robert Sandeman; which is probably destined to become
a " ziarat," or place of pilgrimage, of even greater sanctity than
that of General Jacob at Jacobabad. The population of the
town numbers about 5000. The Jam's retinue consists of about
300 infantry, 50 cavalry, and 4 guns. Liability to assist on active
service is the only acknowledgment of the suzerainty which is
paid by the Jam to the Khan of Kalat. The Jam, Mir Kama!
Khan, succeeded his father, Sir Mir Khan, in 1895, and was
formally invested with powers in 1902.
From very early times this remote corner of Baluchistan has
held a distinct place in history. There are traces of ancient Arab
(possibly Himyaritic) occupation to be found in certain stone
ruins at Gondakeha on the Kud river, 10 m. to the north-west of
Bela, whilst the Greek name " Arabis " for the Purali is itself
indicative of an early prehistoric connexion with races of Asiatic
Ethiopians referred to by Herodotus. On the coast, near the
village of Sonmiani (a station of the Indo-Persian telegraph line)
may be traced the indentation which once formed the bay of
Morontobara, noted in the voyage of Nearchus; and it was on the
borders of Makran that the Turanian town of Rhambakia was
situated, which was once the centre of the trade in " bdellium."
In the 7th century A.D. Las Bela was governed by a Buddhist
priest, at which time all the province of Gandava was Buddhist,
and Sind was ruled by the Brahman, Chach. Buddhist caves are
to be found excavated in the conglomerate cliffs near Gondakeha,
at a place called Gondrani, or Shahr-i-Rogan. With the influx of
Arabs into Makran, Bela, under the name of Annel (or Annabel),
rose to importance as a link in the great chain of trading towns
between Persia and Sind; and then there existed in the delta, such
places as Yusli (near the modem Uthal) and Kambali (which may
possibly be recognized in the ruins at Khairokot), and many
smaller towns, each of which possessed its citadel, its caravanserai
and bazaar, which are not only recorded but actually mapped by
one of the medieval Arab geographers, Ibn Haukal. It is prob-
able that Karia Pir, i.\ m. to the east of the modern city, repre-
sents the site of the Armabel which was destroyed by Mahommed
Kasim in his victorious march to Sind in 710. There is another
old site 5 m. to the west of the modern town. The ruins at
Karia Pir, like those of Tijarra Pir and Khairokot, contain Arab
pottery, seals, and other medieval relics. The Lumris, or Lasis,
who originate the name Las as a prefix to that of Bela, are the
dominant tribe in the province. They are comparatively recent
arrivals who displaced the earlier Tajik and Brahui occupants.
It is probable that this influx of Rajput population was coincident
with the displacement of the Arab dynasties in Sind by the
Mahommedan Rajputs in the nth century A.D. Some authorities
connect the Lumris with the Sumras.
There are no published accounts of Bela, excepting those of the
Indian government reports and gazetteers. This article is compiled
from unpublished notes by the author and by Mr Wainwnght,
of the Indian Survey department. (T. H. H.*)
BELA, a town of British India, administrative headquarters
of the Partabgarh district of the United Provinces, with a
railway station 80 m. from Benares. Pop. (1901) 8041. It
adjoins the village of Partabgarh proper, and the civil station
sometimes known as Andrewganj. Bela, which was founded
in 1802 as a cantonment, became a district headquarters after
the mutiny. It has trade in agricultural produce. There is a
well-known hospital for women here.
BELAY (from the same O. Eng. origin as " lay "; cf. Dutch
beleggen), a nautical term for making ropes fast round a pin. In
earlier days the word was synonymous with " waylay " or
" surround."
BELCHER, SIR EDWARD (1799-1877), British naval officer,
entered the navy in 1812. In 1825 he accompanied Frederick
William Beechcy's expedition to the Pacific and Bering Strait,
as a surveyor. He subsequently commanded a surveying ship
on the north and west coasts of Africa and hi the British seas,
and in 1836 took up the work which Beechey left unfinished on
the Pacific coast of South America. This was on board the
" Sulphur," which was ordered to return'to England in 1839 by
the Trans-Pacific route. Belcher made various observations
at a number of islands which he visited, was delayed by being
despatched to take part in the war in China in 1840-1841, and
reached home only in 1842. In 1843 he was knighted, and was
now engaged in the " Samarang," in surveying work in the East
Indies, the Philippines, &c., until 1847. In 1852 he was given
command of the government Arctic expedition in search of Sir
John Franklin. This was unsuccessful; Belcher's inability
to render himself popular with his subordinates was peculiarly
unfortunate in an Arctic voyage, and he was not wholly suited
to command vessels among ice. This was his last active service,
but he became K.C.B. in 1867 and an admiral in 1872. He
published a Treatise on Nautical Surveying (1835), Narrative
of a Voyage round the World performed in H.M.S. "Sulphur,"
1836-1842 (1843), Narrative of the Voyage of H.M.S. "Samarang' :
during 1843-1846 (1848; the Zoology of the Voyage was separately
dealt with by some of his colleagues, 1850), and The Last of the
Arctic Voyages (1855); besides minor works, including a novel,
Horatio Howard Brenton (1856), a story of the navy. He died
in London on the i8th of March 1877.
BELDAM (like " belsire," grandfather, from the Fr. bel, good,
expressing relationship; cf. the Fr. belle-mere, mother-in-law,
and dame, in Eng. form " dam," mother), strictly a grandmother
or remote ancestress, and so an old woman; generally used
contemptuously as meaning an old hag.
BELESME, ROBERT OF (fl. iioo), earl of Shrewsbury.
From his mother Mabel Talvas he inherited the fief of Belesme,
and from his father, the Conqueror's companion, that of Shrews-
bury. Both were march-fiefs, the one guarding Normandy from
Maine, and the other England from the Welsh; consequently
their lord was peculiarly powerful and independent. Robert is
the typical feudal noble of the time, circumspect and politic,
persuasive and eloquent, impetuous and daring in battle, and
an able military engineer; in person, tall and strong; greedy
for land, an oppressor of the weak, a systematic rebel and traitor,
and savagely cruel. He first appears as a supporter of Robert's
rebellion against the Conqueror (1077); then as an accomplice
in the English conspiracy of 1088 against Rufus. Later he served
Rufus in Normandy, and was allowed to succeed his brother Hugh
BELFAST
in the earldom of Shrewsbury (1098). But at the height of his
power, he revolted against Henry I. (1102). He was banished
and deprived of his English estate; for sometime after he
remained at large in Normandy, defying the authority of Robert
and Henry alike. He betrayed Robert's cause at Tinchebrai;
but in u 12 was imprisoned for life by Henry I.
See E. A. Freeman's William Rufus and his Norman Conquest,
vol. iv.; and J. M. Lappenberg's History of England under the
Norman Kings, trans. B. Thorpe (1857).
BELFAST, a city, county and parliamentary borough, the
capital of the province of Ulster, and county town of county
Antrim, Ireland. Pop. (1901) 349,180. It is a seaport of the
first rank, situated at the entrance of the river Lagan into
Belfast Lough, 112$ m. north of Dublin by rail, on the north-east
coast of the island. It is an important railway centre, with
terminal stations of the Great Northern, Northern Counties
(Midland of England), and Belfast & County Down railways, and
has regular passenger communication by sea with Liverpool,
Fleetwood, Heysham, Glasgow, and other ports of Great Britain.
It is built on alluvial deposit and reclaimed land, mostly not
exceeding 6 ft. above high water mark, and was thus for a long
period subject to inundation and epidemics, and only careful
drainage rendered the site healthy. The appearance of the city
plainly demonstrates the modern growth of its importance, and
evidence is not wanting that for a considerable period architec-
tural improvement was unable to keep pace with commercial
development. Many squalid districts, however, have been im-
proved away to make room for new thoroughfares and handsome
buildings. One thoroughfare thus constructed at the close of
the igth century is the finest in Belfast Royal Avenue. It
contains, among several notable buildings, the post office, and
the free public library, opened in 1888 and comprising a collection
of over 40,000 volumes, as well as an art gallery and a museum
of antiquities especially rich hi remains of the Neolithic period.
The architect was Mr W. H. Lynn. The magnificent city hall,
from designs of Mr (afterwards Sir) Bmmwell Thomas, was
opened in 1906. The principal streets, such as York Street,
Donegall Street, North Street, High Street, are traversed by
tramways. Four bridges cross the Lagan; the Queen's Bridge
(1844, widened hi 1886) is the finest, while the Albert Bridge
(1889) replaces a former one which collapsed. Other principal
public buildings, nearly all to be included in modern schemes of
development, are the city hall, occupying the site of the old
Linen Hall, in Donegall Square, estimated to cost 300,000;
the commercial buildings (1820) hi Waring Street, the custom-
house and inland revenue office on Donegall Quay, the architect
of which, as of the court house, was Sir Charles Lanyon, and
some of the numerous banks, especially the Ulster Bank. The
Campbell College in the suburb of Belmont was founded hi 1892
in accordance with the will of Mr W. J. Campbell, a Belfast
merchant, who left 200,000 for the building and endowment
of a public school. Other educational establishments are
Queen's University, replacing the old Queen's College (1849) under
the Irish Universities Act 1908; the Presbyterian and the
Methodist Colleges, occupying neighbouring sites close to the
extensive botanical gardens, the Royal Academical Institution,
and the Municipal Technical Institute. In 1897 the sum of
100,000 was subscribed by citizens to found a hospital (1903) to
commemorate the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria, and
named after her. It took the place of an institution which, under
various names, had existed since 1797. Public monuments are
few, but include a statue of Queen Victoria (1903) and a South
African War memorial (1905) in front of the city hall; the Albert
Memorial (1870), in the form of a clock-tower, hi Queen Street;
a monument to the same prince hi High Street; and a statue hi
Wellington Place to Dr Henry Cooke, a prominent Presbyterian
minister who died in 1868. The corporation controls the gas
and electric and similar undertakings. The water supply, under
the control of the City and District Water Commissioners (in-
corporated 1840), has its sources in the Moume Moun tarns, Co.
Down, 40 m. distant, with a service reservoir at Knockbreckan ;
also hi the hilly district near Carrickfergus. There are several
public parks, of which the principal are the Ormeau Park (1870),
the Victoria, Alexandra, and Falls Road parks. There is a
Theatre Royal in Arthur Square. There are also several ex-
cellent clubs and societies, social, political, scientific, and sport-
ing; including among the last the famous Royal Ulster Yacht
Club.
In 1899 was laid the foundation stone of the Protestant
cathedral hi Donegall Street, designed by Sir Thomas Drew
and Mr W. H. Lynn to seat 3000 worshippers, occupying the site
of the old St Anne's parish church, part of the fabric of which
the new building incorporates. The diocese is that of Down,
Connor, and Dromore. The first portion (the nave) was conse-
crated on the 2nd of June 1904. The plan is a Lathi cross, the
west front rising to a height of 105 ft., while the central tower is
1 75 ft. The pulpit was formerly used in the nave of Westminster
Abbey, being presented to Belfast cathedral by the dean and
chapter of that foundation.
Most of the older churches are classical in design, and the most
notable are St George's, hi High Street, and the Memorial church
of Dr Cooke in May Street. For the more modern churches the
Gothic style has frequently been used. Amongst these are St
James, Antrim Road; St Peter's Roman Catholic chapel, with
its Florentine spire; Presbyterian churches hi Fitzroy Avenue,
and Elmwood Avenue, and the Methodist chapel, Carlisle Circus.
The Presbyterians and Protestant Episcopalians each outnumber
the Roman Catholics in Belfast, and these three are the chief
religious divisions.
Environs. The country surrounding Belfast is agreeable and
picturesque, whether along the shores of the Lough or towards
the girdle of hills to the west; and is well wooded and studded
with country seats and villas. In the immediate vicinity of the
city are several points of historic interest and natural beauty.
The Cave Hill, though exceeded hi height by Mount Divis,
Squire's Hill, and other summits, is of greatest interest for its
caves, in the chalk, from which early weapons and other objects
have been recovered. The battle hi 1408, which was fought along
the base of the cliffs here between the Savages of the Ards and
the Irish, is described hi Sir Samuel Ferguson's "Hibernian
Nights Entertainment." Here also are McArt's Fort and other
earthworks, and from here the importance of the physical position
of Belfast may be appreciated to the full. At Newtonbreda,
overlooking the Lagan, was the palace of Con O'Neill, whose sept
was exterminated by Deputy Mountjoy hi the reign of Queen
Elizabeth. Belfast Lough is of great though quiet beauty;
and the city itself is seen at its best from its seaward approach,
with its girdle of hills in the background. On the shores of the
lough several villages have grown into residential towns for the
wealthier classes, whose work lies in the city. Of these White-
liouse and White Abbey are the principal on the western shore,
and on the eastern, Holywood, which ranks practically as a
suburb of Belfast, and, at the entrance to the lough, Bangor.
Harbour and Trade. The harbour and docks of Belfast are
managed by a board of harbour commissioners, elected by the
ratepayers and the shipowners. The outer harbour is one of the
safest in the kingdom. By the Belfast Harbour Acts the com-
missioners were empowered to borrow more than 2,500,000 in
order to carry out several new works and improvements in the
aort. Under the powers of these acts a new channel, called the
Victoria Channel, several miles in length, was cut about 1840
eading in a direct line from the quays to the sea. This channel
affords 20 ft. of water at low tide, and 28 ft. at full tide, the
width of the channel being 300 ft. The Alexandra Dock, which
s 852 ft. long and 31 ft. deep, was opened in 1889, and the
extensive improvements (including the York Dock, where vessels
carrying 10,000 tons can discharge in four to six days) have been
effected from time to time, making the harbour one of the most
commodious in the United Kingdom. The provision of a new
graving dock adjoining the Alexandra was delayed hi October
1905 by a subsidence of the ground during its construction.
Parliamentary powers were obtained to construct a graving dock
capable of accommodating the largest class of warships. The
growth and development of the shipbuilding industry has been
BELFAST BELFORT
665
immense, the firm of Harland & Wolff being amongst the first
in the trade, and some of the largest vessels in the world come
from their yards. The vast increase of the foreign trade of
Belfast marks its development, like Liverpool, as a great distri-
buting port. The chief exports are linen, whisky, aerated waters,
iron ore and cattle.
Belfast is the centre of the Irish linen industry, machinery for
which was introduced by T. & A. Mulholland in 1830, a rapid
extension of the industry at once resulting. It is also the head-
quarters and business centre for the entire flax-spinning and
weaving industry of the country. Distilling is extensively carried
on. Several firms are engaged in the manufacture of mineral
waters, for which the water of the Cromac Springs is peculiarly
adapted. Belfast also has some of the largest tobacco works
and rope works in the world.
Administration. In conformity with the passing of the
Municipal Corporations Act of 1840 the constitution of the cor-
poration was made to consist of ten aldermen and thirty coun-
cillors, under the style and title of " The Mayor, Aldermen, and
Burgesses of the Borough of Belfast." In 1888 the rank of a city
was conferred by royal charter upon Belfast, with the incidental
rank, liberties, privileges, and immunities. In 1802 Queen
Victoria conferred upon the mayor of the city the title of lord
mayor, and upon the corporation the name and description of
" The Lord Mayor, Aldermen, and Citizens of the city of Belfast."
By the passing of the Belfast Corporation Act of 1896, the
boundary of the city was extended, and the corporation made
to consist of fifteen aldermen and forty-five councillors, and the
number of wards was increased from five to fifteen. By virtue
of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898, Belfast became a
county borough on the ist of April 1899. By the Local Govern-
ment (Ireland) Act 1898, Belfast became for assize purposes
" the- county of the city of Belfast," with a high sheriff. It is
divided into four parliamentary divisions north, south, east and
west, each returning one member. The total area is 16,594 acres.
History. The etymology of the name (for which several
derivations have been proposed) and the origin of the town are
equally uncertain, and there is not a single monument of anti-
quarian interest upon which to found a conjecture. About 1177
a castle is said to have been built by John de Courcy, to be
destroyed by Edward Bruce in 1316. It may be noted here that
Belfast Castle was finally burnt in 1708; but a modern mansion,
on Cave Hill, outside the city, bears that name. About the
beginning of the i6th century, Belfast is described as a town
and fortress, but it was in reality a mere fishing village in the
hands of the house of O'Neill. In the course of the wars of
Gerald Fitzgerald, 8th earl of Kildare, Belfast was twice attacked
by him, in 1503 and 1512. The O'Neills, always opposed to the
English, had forfeited every baronial right; but in 1552 Hugh
O'Neill of Clandeboye promised allegiance to the reigning
monarch, and obtained the castle of Carrickfergus, the town
and fortress of Belfast, and all the surrounding lands. Belfast
was then restored from the half ruined state into which it had
fallen, and the castle was garrisoned. The turbulent successors
of O'Neill having been routed by the English, the town and
fortress were obtained by grant dated the i6th of November 1571
by Sir Thomas Smith, a favourite of Queen Elizabeth, but were
afterwards forfeited by him to the lord deputy Sir Arthur
Chichester, who, in 161 2, was created Baron Chichester of Belfast.
At this time the town consisted of about 120 houses, mostly
built of mud and covered with thatch, while the castle, a two-
storeyed building, was roofed with shingles. A charter was now
granted to the town by James I. (April 27, 1613) constituting
it a corporation with a chief magistrate and 12 burgesses and
commonalty, with the right of sending two members to parlia-
ment. In 1632 Thomas Went worth, Earl Strafford, was appointed
first lord deputy of Ireland, and Belfast soon shared largely in
the benefits of his enlightened policy, receiving, among other
favours, certain fiscal rights which his lordship had purchased
from the corporation of Carrickfergus. Two years after the
rebellion of 1641 a rampart was raised round the town, pierced
by four gates on the land side. In 1662, as appears by a map
still extant, there were 150 houses within the wall, forming five
streets and as many lanes; and the upland districts around
were one dense forest of giant oaks and sycamores, yielding
an unfailing supply of timber to the woodmen of Carrickfergus.
Throughout the succeeding fifty years the progress of Belfast
surpassed that of most other towns in Ireland. Its merchants
in 1686 owned forty ships, of a total carrying power of 3300 tons,
and the customs collected were close upon 20,000. The old
charter was annulled by James II. and a new one issued in 1688,
but the old was restored in 1690 by William III. When the
king arrived at Belfast in tht year there were only two places
of worship in the town, the old corporation church in the High
Street, and the Presbyterian meeting-house in Rosemary Lane,
the Roman Catholics not being permitted to build their chapels
within the walls of corporate towns.
At the beginning of the i8th century Belfast had become
known as a place of considerable trade, and was then thought a
handsome, thriving and well-peopled town, with many new
houses and good shops. During the civil commotions which
so long afflicted the country, it suffered less than most other
places; and it soon afterwards attained the rank of the richest
commercial town in the north of Ireland. James Blow and Co.
introduced letterpress printing in 1696, and in 1704 issued the
first copy of the Bible produced in the island. In September
1737, Henry and Robert Joy started the Belfast News Letter.
Twenty years afterwards the town contained 1800 houses and
8549 inhabitants, 556 of whom were members of the Church
of Rome. It was not, however, till 1789 that Belfast obtained
the regular communication, which towns of less importance
already enjoyed, with Dublin by stage coach, a fact which is
to be explained by the badness of the roads and the steepness
of the hills between Newry and Belfast.
The increased freedom of trade with which Ireland was
favoured, the introduction of the cotton manufacture by Robert
Joy and Thomas M'Cabe in 1777, the establishment in 1791 of
shipbuilding on an extensive scale by William Ritchie, an
energetic Scotsman, combined with the rope and canvas
manufacture already existing, supplied the inhabitants with
employments and increased the demand for skilled labour.
The population now made rapid strides as well by ordinary
extension as by immigration from the rural districts. Owing
to the close proximity of powerful opposed religious sects,
the modern history of the city is not without its record of riot
and bloodshed, as in 1880 and 1886, and in August 1907 serious
rioting followed upon a strike of carters; but the prosperity of
the city has been happily unaffected.
See George Benn, History of Belfast (Belfast, 1877); Robert M.
Young, Historical Notices of Old Belfast (Belfast, 1896).
BELFAST, a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Waldo
county, Maine, U.S.A., on Belfast Bay (an arm of the Penobscot),
and about 32 m. south-south-west of Bangor. Pop. (1890)
5294; (1910) 4618. It is served by the Belfast branch of the
Maine Central railway (connecting with the main line at Hurnham
Junction, 33 m. distant), and by the coasting steamers (from
Boston) of the Eastern Steamship Co. The city, a summer
resort, lies on an undulating hillside, which rises from the water's
edge to a height of more than 150 ft., and commands extensive
views of the picturesque islands, headlands, and mountains
of the Maine coast. It has a public library. Among the
industries of Belfast are trade with the surrounding country,
the manufacture of shoes, leather boards, axes, and sashes,
doors and blinds, and the building and repairing of boats.
Its exports in 1908 were valued at $285,913 and its imports
at $10,313. Belfast was first settled (by Scottish-Irish) in
1769, and in 1773 was incorporated as a town under its present
name (from Belfast, Ireland). The town was almost completely
destroyed by the British in 1779, but its rebuilding was begun in
the next year. It was held by a British force for five days in
September 1814. Belfast was chartered as a city in 1850.
BELFORT, TERRITORY or, administrative division of eastern
France, formed from the southern portion of the department
of Haut-Rhin, the rest of which was ceded to Germany by the
666
BELFORT
treaty of Frankfort (1871). It is bounded on the N.E. and E.
by German Alsace, on the S.E. and S. by Switzerland, on the S. W.
by the department of Doubs, on the W. by that of Haute-Saone,
on the N. by that of Vosges. Pop. (1006), 95,421.
With an area of only 235 sq. m., it is, next to that of Seine,
the smallest department of France. The northern part is
occupied by the southern offshoots of the Vosges, the southern
part by the northern outposts of the Jura. Between these two
highlands stretches the Trouee (depression) de Belfort, i8J m.
broad, joining the basins of the Rhine and the Rhone, traversed
by the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine and by several railways.
A part of the natural highway open from Frankfort to the
Mediterranean, the Trouee has from earliest times provided
the route for the migration from north to south, and is still of
great commercial and strategical value. The northern part,
occupied by the Vosges, rises to 4126 ft. in the Ballon d' Alsace,
the northern termination and the culminating point of the
department; to 3773 ft. in the Planche des BeLles-Filles; to
3579 ft. in the Signal des Plaines; to 3534 ft. in the Barenkopf;
and to numerous other lesser heights. South of the Trouee
de Belfort, there rise near Delle limestone hills, in part wooded,
on the frontiers of France, Alsace, and Switzerland, attaining
1680 ft. in the Foret de Florimont. The territory between
Lachapelle-sous-Rougemont (in the north-east), Belfort and
Delle does not rise above 1300 ft. The line of lowest altitude
follows the river St Nicolas and the Rhone-Rhine canal. The
chief rivers are the Savoureuse, 24 m. long, running straight
south from the Ballon d'Alsace, and emptying into the Allaine;
the Allaine, from Switzerland, entering the territory a little to
the south of Delle, and leaving it a little to the west of Morvillars;
the St Nicolas, 24 m. long, from the Barenkopf, running south-
wards and then south-west into the Alfaine. The climate to
the north of the town of Belfort is marked by long and rigorous
winters, sudden changes of temperature, and an annual rainfall
of 31 in. to 39 in. retained by an impervious subsoil; farther
south it is milder and more equable with a rainfall of 23 in. to
31 in., quickly absorbed by the soil or evaporated by the sun.
About one-third of the total area is arable land ; wheat, oats and
rye are the chief cereals; potatoes come next in importance.
Forest covers another third of the surface; the chief trees are
firs, pines, oak and beech; cherries are largely grown for the
distillation of kirsch. Pasture and forage crops cover the re-
maining third of the Territory; only horned cattle are raised
to any extent. There is an unworked concession of copper,
silver and lead at Giromagny; and there are also quarries of
stone. The Territory is an active industrial region. The two
main branches of manufacture are the spinning and weaving
of cotton and wool, and the production of iron and iron-goods
(wire, railings, nails, files, &c.) and machinery. Belfort has
important locomotive and engineering works. Hoisery is
manufactured at Delle, watches, clocks, agricultural machinery,
petrol motors, ironware and electrical apparatus at the flourishing
centre of Beaucourt, and there are numerous saw-mills, tile and
brick works and breweries. Imports consist of raw materials
for the industries, dyestuffs, coal, wine, &c., and the exports of
manufactured goods.
Belfort is the capital of the Territory, which comprises one
arrondissement, 6 cantons and 106 communes, and falls within
the circumscriptions of the archbishopric, the court of appeal
and the academic (educational division) of Besancon. It forms
the 7th subdivision of the VII. army corps. Both the Eastern
and the Paris-Lyon-Mediterranee railways traverse the Territory,
and the canal from the Rhone to the Rhine accompanies the
river St Nicolas for about 6 m.
BELFORT, a town of eastern France, capital of the Territory
of Belfort, 275 m. E.S.E. of Paris, on the main line of the Eastern
railway. Pop. (1906), town, 27,805; commune, 34,649. It is
situated among wooded hills on the Savoureuse at the intersec-
tion of the roads and railway lines from Paris to Basel and from
Lyons to Mulhausen and Strassburg, by which it maintains
considerable trade with Germany and Switzerland. The town is
divided by the Savoureuse into a new quarter, in which is the
railway station on the right bank, and the old fortified quarter,
with the castle, the public buildings and monuments, on the
left bank. The church of St Denis, a building in the classical
style, erected from 1727 to 1750, and the hotel de ville (1721-
1724) both stand in the Place d'Armes opposite the castle. The
two chief monuments commetnorate the defence of Belfort in
the war of 1870-1871. " The Lion of Belfort," a colossal figure
78 ft. long and 52 ft. high, the work of F. A. Bartholdi, stands
in front of the castle; and in the Place d'Armes is the bronze
group " Quand Meme " by Antonin Mercie, in memory of Thiers
and of Colonel Pierre Marie Aristide Denfert-Rochereau (1823-
1878), commandant of the place during the siege. Other objects
of interest are the Tour de la Miotte, of unknown origin and date,
which stands on the hill of La Miotte to the N.E. of Belfort, and
the Port de Brisach, a gateway built by Vauban in 1687.
Belfort is the seat of a prefect; its public institutions include
tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of
commerce, a lycee, a training-college and a branch of the Bank
of France. The construction of locomotives and machinery,
carried on by the Societ6 Alsacienne, wire-drawing, and the
spinning and weaving of cotton are included among its industries,
which together with the population increased greatly owing to
the Alsacian immigration after 1871. Its trade is in the wines
of Alsace, brandy and cereals. The town derives its chief
importance from its value as a military position.
After the war of 1870-1871, Belfort, which after a diplomatic
struggle remained in French hands, became a frontier fortress
of the greatest value, and the old works which underwent the
siege of 1870-1871 (see below) were promptly increased and
re-modelled. In front of the Perches redoubts, the Bosmont,
whence the Prussian engineers began their attack, is now heavily
fortified with continuous lines called the Organisation defensive
de Bosmont. The old Bellevue redoubt (now Fort Denfert-
Rochereau) is covered by a new work situated likewise on the
ground occupied by the siege trenches in the war. P6rouse,
hastily entrenched in 1870, now possesses a permanent fort.
The old entrenched camp enclosed by the castle, Fort La Miotte,
and Fort Justice, is still maintained, and part even of the enceinte
built by Vauban is used for defensive purposes. Outside this
improved inner line, which includes the whole area of the attack
and defence of 1870, lies a complete circle of detached forts and
batteries of modern construction. To the north, Forts Salbert
and Roppe form the salients of a long defensive line on high
ground, at the centre of which, where the Savoureuse river
divides it, a new work was added later. Two works near
Giromagny, about 8 m. from Belfort itself, connect the fortress
with the right of the defensive line of the Moselle (Fort Ballon
d'Alsace). Ir- the eastern sector of the defences (from Roppe
to the Savoureuse below Belfort) the forts are about 3 m. from
the centre, the works near the Belfort-Miilhausen railway being
somewhat more advanced, and in the western (from Salbert to
Fort Bois d'Oye on the lower Savoureuse) they are advanced to
about the same distance. The fort of Mont Vaudois, the western-
most, overlooks Hericourt and the battlefield of the Lisaine:
farther to the south Montbeliard is also fortified. The perimeter
of the Belfort defences is nearly 25m.
History. Gallo-Roman remains have been discovered in the
vicinity of Belfort, but the place is first heard of in the early part
of the i3th century, when it was in the possession of the counts
of Montbeliard. From them it passed by marriage to the counts
of Ferrette and afterwards to the archdukes of Austria. By
the treaty of Westphalia (1648) the town was ceded to Louis XIV.
who gave it to Cardinal Mazarin.
In the Thirty Years' War Belfort was twice besieged, 1633
and 1634, and in 1635 there was a battle here between the duke
of Lorraine and the allied French and Swedes under Marshal
de la Force. The fortifications of Vauban were begun in 1686.
Belfort was besieged in 1814 by the troops of the allies and in
1815 by the Austrians.
The most famous episode of the town's history is its gallant
and successful defence in the war of 1870-1871.
The events which led up to the siege are described under
BELFRY
667
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR. Even before the investment Belfort
was cut off from the interior of France, and the German corps of
von Werder was, throughout the siege, between the fortress and
the forces which might attempt its relief. The siege corps was
commanded by General von Tresckow and numbered at first
10,000 men with twenty-four field guns a force which appeared
adequate for the reduction of the antiquated works of Vauban.
Colonel Denfert-Rochereau was, however, a scientific engineer of
advanced ideas as well as a veteran soldier of the Crimea and
Algeria, and he had been stationed at Belfort for six years.
He was therefore eminently fitted for the command of the
fortress. He had as a nucleus but few regular troops, but the
energy of the military and civil authorities enabled his force to
be augmented by national guards, &c., to 17,600 men. The
artillery was very numerous, but skilled gunners were not
available in any great strength and ammunition was scarce.
Perhaps the most favourable circumstance from a technical
point of view was the bomb-proof accommodation of the
enceinte.
The old fortress consisted pf the town enceinte, the castle
(situated on high ground and fortified by several concentric
envelopes), and the entrenched camp, a hollow enclosed by
continuous lines, the salients of which were the castle, Fort La
Justice and Fort La Miotte. These were planned in the days
of short-range guns, and were therefore in 1870 open to an
overwhelming bombardment by the rifled cannon of the attack.
Denfert-Rochereau, however, understood better than other
engineers of the day the power of modern artillery, and his plan
was to utilize the old works as a keep and an artillery position.
The Perches ridge, whence the town and suburbs could be
bombarded, he fortified with all possible speed. On the right
bank of the Savoureuse he constructed two new forts, Bellevue
in the south-west and Des Barres to the west, and, further,
he prepared the suburb on this side for a hand-to-hand defence.
His general plan was to maintain as advanced a line as possible,
to manoeuvre against the investing troops, and to support his
own by the long range fire of his rifled guns. With this object
he fortified the outlying villages, and when the Germans (chiefly
Landwehr) began the investment on the 3rd of November 1870,
they encountered everywhere a most strenuous resistance.
Throughout the month the garrison made repeated sorties, and
the Germans were on several occasions forced by the long range
fire of the fortress to evacuate villages which they had taken.
Under these circumstances, and also because of their numerical
weakness and the rigour of the weather, the Germans advanced
but slowly. On the 2nd of December, when at last von Tresckow
broke ground for the construction of his batteries, the French
still held Danjoutin, Bosmont, Perouse and the adjacent woods,
and, to the northward (on this side the siege was not pressed)
La Forge. Thus the first attack of the siege artillery was con-
fined to the western side of the river between Essert and Bavillers.
From this position the bombardment opened on the 3rd of
December. Some damage was done to the houses of Belfort,
but the garrison was not intimidated, and their artillery replied
with such spirit that after some days the German commander
gave up the bombardment. On this occasion the distant forts
La Miotte and La Justice fired with effect at a range of 4700 yds.,
affording a conspicuous illustration of the changed conditions
of siege-craft. The German batteries, as more guns arrived,
were extended from left to right, and on the I3th of December
the Bosmont was captured, ground being also gained in front of
Bellevue. The difficulties under which the siege corps laboured
were very great, and it was not until the 7th of January 1871
that the rightmost battery opened fire. The formal siege of the
Perches redoubts had now been decided upon, and as an essential
preliminary to further operations, Danjoutin, now isolated, was
stormed by the Landwehr on the night of the 7th-8th January.
In the meanwhile typhus and smallpox had broken out amongst
the French, many of the national guards were impatient of
control, and the German trenches, in spite of difficulties of ground
and weather, made steady progress towards the Perches. A
week after the fall of Danjoutin the victory of von Werder and
the XIV. army corps at the Lisaine, in which a part of the siege
corps bore a share, put an end to the attempt to relieve Belfort,
and the siege corps was promptly increased to a strength of
17,600 infantry, 4700 artillery and noo engineers, with thirty-
four field-guns besides the guns and howitzers of the siege train.
The investment was now more strictly maintained even on the
north side. On the night of the 2oth of January the French
lines about Peiouse were carried by assault, and, both flanks
Scale, i :8o,ooo
9 X | Mile
Siege of
BELFORT
1870-71
being now cleared, the formal siege of the Perches forts was
opened, the first parallel extending from Danjoutin to Haul
Taillis. In the early morning of the 27th a determined but
premature attempt was made to storm the Perches redoubts,
which cost the besiegers nearly 500 men. After this failure
Tresckow once more resorted to the regular method of siege
approaches, and on the 2nd of February the second parallel was
thrown up. La Justice was now bombarded by two new batteries
near Perouse, the Perches were of course subjected to an "artillery
attack," and henceforward the besiegers fired 1500 shells a day
into the works of the French. But the besiegers were still weak
in numbers and their labours were very exhausting. Bellevue
and Des Barres became very active in hindering the advance
of the siege works, and the German battalions were so far depleted
by losses and sickness that they could often muster but 300 men
for duty. Still, the guns of the attack were now steadily gaining
the upper hand, and at last on the 8th of February the Germans
entered the two Perches redoubts. This success, and the arrival
of German reinforcements, decided the siege. The Perches ridge
was crowned with a parallel and numerous batteries, which in
the end mounted ninety-seven guns. The attack on the castle
now opened, but operations were soon afterwards suspended
by the news that Belfort was now included in the general armis-
tice (February isth). A little later Denfert-Rochereau received
a direct order from his own government to surrender the fortress,
and the garrison, being granted free withdrawal, marched out
with its arms and trains. " The town had suffered terribly . . .
nearly all the buildings were damaged . . . the guns in the upper
batteries could only be reached by ladders. The garrison, of
its original strength of 17,700 officers and men, had lost 4750,
besides 336 citizens. The place was no longer tenable " (Moltke,
Franco-German War). Nevertheless, " the defence was by no
means at its last stage " at the time of the formal surrender
(British Text-Book of Fortification, 1893). The total loss of the
besiegers was about 2000 men.
See J. Liblin, Belfort et son territoire (Miilhausen, 1887).
BELFRY (Mid. Eng. berfrey, through Med. Lat. berefredus,
from Teut. bergfrid or bercorit, which, according to the New
Eng. Diet., is a combination of bergen, to protect, and frida,
safety or peace; the word thus meaning a shelter; the change
from r to /, cf. almery for armarium, wrongly associated
the origin of the word with " bell," and aided the restriction
in meaning), a word in medieval siege-craft for a movable
668
BELGAE BELGIUM
wooden tower of several stages, protected with raw hides,
used for purposes of attack; also a watch-tower, particularly
one with an alarm bell; hence any detached tower or campanile
containing bells, as at Evesham, but more generally the ringing
room or loft of the tower of a church (see TOWER).
BELGAE, a Celtic people first mentioned by Caesar, who
states that they formed the third part of Gaul, and were separated
from the Celtae by the Sequana (Seine) and Matrona (Marne).
On the east and north their boundary was the lower Rhine, on
the west the ocean. Whether Caesar means to include the Leuci,
Treviri and Mediomatrici among the Belgian tribes is uncertain.
According to the statement of the deputation from the Remi to
Caesar (Bell. Gall. ii. 4), the Belgae were a people of German
origin, who had crossed the Rhine hi early times and driven out
the Galli. But Caesar's own statement (B.C. i. i) that the
Belgae differed from the Celtae in language, institutions and
laws, is too sweeping (see Strabo iv. p. 176), at least as regards
language, for many words and names are common to both.
In any case, only the eastern districts would have been affected
by invaders from over the Rhine, the chief seat of the Belgae
proper being in the west, the country occupied by the Bellovaci,
Ambiani and Atrebates, to which it is probable (although the
reading is uncertain) that Caesar gives the distinctive name
Belgium (corresponding to the old provinces of Picardy and
Artois). The question is fully discussed by T. R. Holmes
(Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 1899), who comes to the conclusion
that " when the Reman delegates told Caesar that the Belgae
were descended from the Germans, they probably only meant
that the ancestors of the Belgic conquerors had formerly dwelt
in Germany, and this is equally true of the ancestors of the Gauls
who gave their name to the Celtae; but, on the other hand, it is
quite possible that hi the veins of some of the Belgae flowed
the blood of genuine German forefathers." W. Ridge way (Early
Age of Greece, 1901) considers that the Belgic tribes were Cimbri,
" who had moved directly across the Rhine into north-eastern
Gaul." No definite number of Belgian tribes is given by Caesar;
according to Strabo (iv. p. 196) they were fifteen in all. The
Belgae had also made then: way over to Britain in Caesar's time
(B.C. ii. 4, v. 12), and settled in some of the southern counties
(Wilts, Hants and Somerset). Among then- towns were Magnus
Portus (Portsmouth) and Venta Belgarum (Winchester).
In 57 B.C., after the defeat of Ariovistus, the Belgae formed a
coalition against Caesar, and in 52 took part in the general
rising under Vercingetorix. After their final subjugation,
Caesar combined the territory of the Belgae, Celtae and Aquitani
into a single province (Gallia Comata). Augustus, however,
finding it too unwieldy, again divided it into three provinces,
one of which was Belgica, bounded on the west by the Seine and
the Arar (Sa6ne); on the north by the North Sea; on the east
by the Rhine from its mouth to the Lacus Brigantinus (Lake
Constance). Its southernmost district embraced the west of
Switzerland. The capital and residence of the governor of the
province was Durocortorum Remorum (Reims). Under Dio-
cletian, Belgica Prima (capital, Augusta Trevirorum, Trier) and
Secunda (capital, Reims) formed part of the " diocese " of Gaul.
See A. G. B. Schayes, La Belgique et les Pays-Bas avant el pendant
la domination romaine (2nd ed., Brussels, 1877); H. G. Moke, La
Belgique ancienne (Ghent, 1855) ; A. Desjardins, Geographic historique
de la Gaule, ii. (1878); T. R. Holmes, Caesar's Conquest of Gaul
(1899); M. Ihm in Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopddte, iii. pt. I
U897) ; J- Jung, " Geographic von Italien und dem Orbis romanus "
(2nd ed., 1897), in I. Muller's Handbuch der klassischen Altertums-
vnsscnschaft.
BELGARD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Pomerania, at the junction of the rivers Leitznitz and
Persante, 22 m. S.E. of Kolberg by rail. Pop. (1900) 8047.
Its industries consist of iron founding and cloth weaving, and
there are considerable horse and cattle markets.
BELGAUM, a town and district of British India, in the southern
division of Bombay. The town is situated nearly 2300 ft. above
sea-level; it has a station on the Southern Mahratta railway,
245 m. S. of Poona. It has an ancient fortress, dating
apparently from 1519, covering about 100 acres, and surrounded
by a ditch; within it are two interesting Jain temples. Belgaum
contains a cantonment which is the headquarters of a brigade
in the 6th division of the western army corps. It is also a
considerable centre of trade and of cotton weaving. There are
cotton mills. Pop. (1901) 36,878.
The district of Belgaum has an area of 4649 sq. m. To the
north and east the country is open and well cultivated, but to
the south it is intersected by spurs of the Sahyadri range, thickly
covered in some places with forest. In 1901 the population was
993,976, showing a decrease of 2 % compared with an increase of
1 7 % in the preceding decade. The principal crops are millet,
rice, wheat, other food-grains, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, sugar-
cane, spices and tobacco. There are considerable manufactures
of cotton-cloth. The town of Gokak is known for its dyes, its
paper and its wooden and earthenware toys. The West Deccan
line of the Southern Mahratta railway runs through the district
from north to south. Two high schools at Belgaum town are
maintained by government and by the London Mission. The
Kurirs, a wandering and thieving tribe, the Kamais, professional
burglars, and the Baruds, cattle-stealers and highwaymen, are
notorious among the criminal classes.
History. The ancient name of the town of Belgaum was
Venugrama, which is said to be derived from the bamboos that
are characteristic of its neighbourhood. The most ancient
place hi the district is Halsi; and this, according to inscriptions
on copper plates discovered hi its neighbourhood, was once the
capital of a dynasty of nine Kadamba kings. It appears that
from the middle of the 6th century A.D. to about 760 the country
was held by the Chalukyas, who were succeeded by the Rashtra-
kutas. After the break-up of the Rashtrakuta power a portion
of it survived in the Rattas (875-1250), who from 1210 onward
made Venugrama their capital. Inscriptions give evidence of a
long struggle between the Rattas and the Kadambas of Goa,
who succeeded in the latter years of the i2th century hi acquiring
and holding part of the district. By 1208, however, the
Kadambas had been overthrown by the Rattas, who in their
turn succumbed to the Yadavas of Devagiri in 1250. After the
overthrow of the Yadavas by the Delhi emperor (1320), Belgaum
was for a short time under the rule ot the latter; but only a few
years later the part south of the Ghatprabha was subject to the
Hindu rajas of Vijayanagar. In 1347 the northern part was
conquered by the Bahmani dynasty, which in 1473 took the town
of Belgaum and conquered the southern part also. When
Aurungzeb overthrew the Bijapur sultans in 1686, Belgaum
passed to the Moguls. In 1776 the country was overrun by
Hyder Ali, but was retaken by the Peshwa with British assistance.
In 1818 it was handed over to the East India Company and was
made part of the district of Dharwar. In 1836 this was divided
into two parts, the southern district continuing to be known as
Dharwar, the northern as Belgaum.
See Imp. Gazetteer of India (Oxford, ed. 1908), s.v.
BELGIAN CONGO, a Belgian colony hi Equatorial Africa
occupying the greater part of the basin of the Congo river.
Formerly the Independent State of the Congo, it was annexed
to Belgium hi 1908. (See CONGO FREE STATE.)
BELGIUM (Fr. Belgique; Flem. Belgie), an independent,
constitutional and neutral state occupying an important position
in north-west Europe. It was formerly part of the Low Countries
or Netherlands (q.v.). Although the name Belgium only came
into general use with the foundation of the modern kingdom in
1830, its derivation from ancient times is clear and incontro-
vertible. Beginning with the Belgae and the Gallia Belgica of
the Romans, the use of the adjective to distinguish the inhabit-
ants of the south Netherlands can be traced through all stages of
subsequent history. During the Crusades, and in the middle ages,
the term Belgicae principes is of frequent occurrence, and when
in 1 790 the Walloons rose against Austria during what was called
the Brabant revolution, their leaders proposed to give the
country the name of Belgique. Again in 1814, on the expulsion
of the French, when there was much talk of founding an inde-
pendent state, the same name was suggested for it. It was not
till sixteen years later, on the collapse of the united kingdom of
GEOGRAPHY]
BELGIUM
669
the Netherlands, that the occasion presented itself for giving
effect to this proposal. For the explanation of the English form
of the name it may be mentioned that Belgium was a canton of
what had been the Nervian country in the time of the Roman
occupation.
Topography, (ffc. Belgium lies between 49 30' and 51 30' N.,
and 2 32' and 6 7' E., and on the land side is bounded by
Holland on the N. and N.E., by Prussia and the grand duchy of
Luxemburg on the E. and S.E., and by France on the S. Its
land frontiers measure 793 m., divided as follows: with Holland
269 m., with Prussia 60 m., with the grand duchy 80 m. and
with France 384 m. In addition it has a sea-coast of 42 m.
The western portion of Belgium, consisting of the two Flanders,
Antwerp and parts of Brabant and Hainaut, is flat, being little
above the level of the sea; and indeed at one point near Fumes
it is 7 ft. below it. The same description applies more or less to
the north-east, but in the south of Hainaut and the greater part
of Brabant the general level of the country is about 300 ft.
above the sea, with altitudes rising to more than 600 ft. South
of the Meuse, and in the district distinguished by the appellation
" Between Sambre and Meuse," the level is still greater, and the
whole of the province of Luxemburg is above 500 ft., with alti-
tudes up to 1650 ft. In the south-eastern part of the province
of Liege there are several points exceeding 2000 ft. The highest
of these is the Baraque de Michel close to the Prussian frontier,
with an altitude of 2190 ft. The Baraque de Fraiture, north-east
of La Roche, is over 2000 ft. While the greater part of western
and northern Belgium is devoid of the picturesque, the Ardennes
and the Fagnes districts of" Between Sambre and Meuse " and
Liege contain much pleasant and some romantic scenery. The
principal charm of this region is derived from its fine and exten-
sive woods, of which that called St Hubert is the best known.
There are no lakes in Belgium, but otherwise it is exceedingly
well watered, being traversed by the Meuse for the greater part
of its course, as well as by the Scheldt and the Sambre. The
numerous affluents of these rivers, such as the Lys, Dyle, Dender,
Ourthe, Ambleve, Vesdre, Lesse and Semois, provide a system
of waterways almost unique in Europe. The canals of Belgium
are scarcely less numerous or important than those of Holland,
especially in Flanders, where they give a distinctive character
to the country. But the most striking feature in Belgium,
where so much is modern, utilitarian and ugly, is found in the
older cities with their relics of medieval greatness, and their
record of ancient fame. These, in their order of interest, are
Bruges, Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Ghent, Ypres, Courtrai,
Tournai, Furnes, Oudenarde and Liege. It is to them rather
than to the sylvan scenes of the Ardennes that travellers and
tourists flock.
The climate may be described as temperate and approximating
to that of southern England, but it is somewhat hotter hi summer
and a little colder in whiter. In the Ardennes, owing to the
greater elevation, the winters are more severe.
Geology. Belgium lies upon the northern side of an ancient
mountain chain which has long been worn down to a low level
and the remnants of which rise to the surface in the Ardennes,
and extend eastward into Germany, forming the Eifel and
Westerwald, the Hunsriick and the Taunus. Westward the
chain lies buried beneath the Mesozoic and Tertiary beds of
Belgium and the north of France, but it reappears in the west of
England and Ireland. It is the " Hercynian chain " of Marcel
Bertrand, and is composed entirely of Palaeozoic rocks. Upon
its northern margin lie the nearly undisturbed Cretaceous and
Tertiary beds which cover the greater part of Belgium. The
latest beds which are involved in the folds of this mountain
range belong to the Coal Measures, and the final elevation must
have taken place towards the close of the Carboniferous period.
The fact that in Belgium Jurassic beds are found upon the
southern and not upon the northern margin indicates that in
this region the chain was still a ridge in Jurassic times. In the
Ardennes the rocks which constitute the ancient mountain chain
belong chiefly to the Devonian System, but Cambrian beds rise
through the Devonian strata, forming the masses of Rocroi,
Stavelot, &c., which appear to have been islands in the Devonian
sea. The Ordovician and Silurian are absent here, and the
Devonian rests unconformably upon the Cambrian; but along
the northern margin of the Palaeozoic area, Ordovician and
Silurian rocks appear, and beds of similar age are also exposed
farther north where the rivers have cut through the overlying
Tertiary deposits. Carboniferous beds occur in the north of
the Palaeozoic area. Near Dinant they are folded amongst the
Devonian beds, but the most important band runs along the
northern border of the Ardennes. In this band lie the coalfields
of Li6ge, and of Mons and Charleroi. It is a long and narrow
trough, which is separated from the older rocks of the Ardennes
by a great reversed fault, the faille du midi. In the southern
half of the trough the folding of the Coal Measures is intense;
in the northern half it is much less violent. The structure is
complicated by a thrust-plane which brings a mass of older
beds upon the Coal Measures in the middle of the trough.
Except along the southern border of the Ardennes, and at one or
two points hi the middle of the Palaeozoic massif, Triassic and
Jurassic beds are unknown in Belgium, and the Palaeozoic
rocks are directly and unconformably overlaid by Cretaceous
and Tertiary deposits. The Cretaceous beds are not extensive,
but the Wealden deposits of Bernissart, with their numerous
remains of Iguanodon, and the chalk of the district about the
Dutch frontier near Maastricht, with its very late Cretaceous
fauna, are of special interest.
Exclusive of the Ardennes the greater part of Belgium is
covered by Tertiary deposits. The Eocene, consisting chiefly
of sands and marls, occupies the whole of the west of the country.
The Oligocene forms a band stretching from Antwerp to Maas-
tricht, and this is followed towards the north by a discontinuous
strip of Miocene and a fairly extensive area of Pliocene. The
Tertiary deposits are similar in general character to those of the
north of France and the south of England. Coal and iron are by
far the most important mineral productions of Belgium. Zinc,
lead and copper are also extensively worked in the Palaeozoic
rocks of the Ardennes.
Area and Population. The area comprises 2,945,503 hectares,
or about 11,373 English sq. m., and the total population in
December 1904 was 7,074,910, giving an average of 600 per sq. m.
The Nine
Provinces.
Area in
English sq. m.
Population at
end of 1904.
Population per
sq. m. 1904.
Antwerp .
Brabant .
Flanders E.
Flanders W.
Hainaut .
Liege
Limburg .
Luxemburg
Namur
1093
1268
1158
1249
1437
1117
931
1706
1414
888,980
1,366,389
1,078,507
845.732
1,192,967
863,254
255-359
225,963
357.759
813-3
1077-59
931-35
677-8
830-18
772-8
274-28
I32-45
253
Total
".373
7,074,910
622
The population was made up of 3,514,491 males and 3,560,419
females. The rate at which the population has increased is
shown as follows: From 1880 to 1800 the increase was at the
rate annually of 54,931, from 1890 to 1900 at the rate of
62,421, and for the five years from 1900 to 1904 at the rate of
66,200. In 1831 the population of Belgium was 3,785,814, so
that in 75 years it had not quite doubled. The following table
gives the total births and deaths in certain years since 1880:
Year.
Total births.
Total deaths.
Excess of births.
1880 .
1895 . .
1900 .
1904
171,864
183,015
193.789
191.721
123.323
125,148
129,046
119,506
48.541
57.867
64.743
72.215
These figures show that the births were 23,674 more in 1004
than in 1880, while the deaths were nearly 4000 fewer, with a
population that had increased from 5} to 7 millions. Of 191,721
births in 1904, 12,887 or 6-7 % were illegitimate. Statistics of
670
BELGIUM
[GOVERNMENT
recent years show a slight increase in legitimate and a slight
decrease in illegitimate births.
The emigration of Belgians from their country is small and
reveals little variation. In 1900, 13,492 emigrated, and in 1904
the total rose only to 14,752. Of Belgians living abroad it is
estimated that 400,000 reside hi France, 15,000 in Holland,
12,000 hi Germany and 4600 in Great Britain. The number of
Belgians in the Congo State hi 1904 was 1505. The number of
foreigners resident hi Belgium hi 1900 with their nationalities
were Germans, 42,079; English, 5096; French, 85,735; Dutch,
54,491; Luxemburgers, 9762; and all other nationalities,
14,411.
With regard to the languages spoken by the people of Belgium
the following comparative table gives the return for the three
censuses of 1880, 1890 and 1900:
1880.
1890.
1900.
French only
Flemish only
German only
French and Flemish .
French and German .
Flemish and German .
The three languages .
2,230,316
2,485,384
39-55
423-752
35-250
2-956
13.331
2,485,072
2,744.271
32,206
700,997
58,590
7,028
13.185
2,574.805
2,822,005
28,314
801,587
66,447
7-238
42,889
Constitution and Government. The Belgian constitution,
drafted by the national assembly in 1830-1831 after the pro-
visional government had announced that " the Belgian provinces
detached by force from Holland shall form an independent state,"
was published on the 7th of February 1831, and the modifications
introduced into it subsequently, apart from the composition of
the electorate, have been few and unimportant. The constitu-
tion originally contained one hundred and thirty-nine articles,
and decreed hi the first place that the government was to be
" a constitutional, representative and hereditary monarchy."
Having decided in favour of a monarchy, the provisional govern-
ment first offered the throne to the due de Nemours, son of
Louis-Philippe, but this offer was promptly withdrawn on the
discovery that Europe would not endorse it. It was then offered
to Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, widower of the princess
Charlotte of England, and accepted by him. The prince was
proclaimed on the 4th of June 1831 as Leopold I., king of the
Belgians, and on the 2ist of July 1831 he was solemnly in-
augurated in Brussels. The succession is vested in the heirs male
of Leopold I., and should they ever make complete default the
throne will be declared vacant, and a national assembly composed
of the two chambers elected hi double strength will make a fresh
nomination. In 1894 a new article numbered 61 was inserted
in the constitution providing that " in default of male heirs the
king can nominate his successor with the assent of the two
chambers, and if no such nomination has been made the throne
shall be vacant," when the original procedure of the constitution
would be followed. The Belgian national assembly assumed
that its constitution would extend over the whole of the Belgic or
south Netherlands, but the powers decreed otherwise. The
limits of Belgium are fixed by the London protocol of the isth
of October 1831 also called the twenty-four articles which
cut off what is now termed the grand duchy of Luxemburg,
and also a good portion of the duchy of Limburg. These losses
of- territory held by a brother people are still felt as a grievance
by many Belgians. The Belgian constitution stipulates for
" freedom of conscience, of education, of the press and also of
the right of meeting," but the sovereign must be a member of
the Church of Rome. The government was to consist of the king,
the senate and the chamber of representatives. The functions
of the king are those that appertain everywhere to the sovereign
of a constitutional state. He is the head of the army and has
the exclusive right of dissolving the chambers as preliminary
to an appeal to the country.
The senate is composed of seventy-six elected members and
twenty-six members nominated by the provincial councils.
A senator sits for eight years unless a dissolution is ordered,
and no one is eligible until he is forty years of age. Half the
seventy-six elected senators retire for re-election every four
years. There is no payment or other privilege, except a pass
on the state railways, attached to the rank of senator. The
chamber of representatives contained one hundred and fifty-two
members until 1899, when the number was increased to one
hundred and sixty-six. Deputies are elected for four years, but
half the house is re-elected every two years. A deputy must
be twenty-five years of age, and the members of both houses
must be of Belgian nationality, born or naturalized. A deputy
receives an annual honorarium of 4000 francs and a railway
pass. Down to 1893 the electorate was exceedingly small.
Property and other qualifications kept the voting power in the
hands of a limited class. This may be judged from the fact
that hi the year named there were only 137,772 voters out of a
population of 6J millions. In April 1894 the new electoral law
altered the whole system. The property qualification was
removed and every Belgian was given one vote on attaining
twenty-five years of age and after one year's residence hi his
commune. At the same time the principle of multiple votes for
certain qualifications was introduced. The Belgian citizen on
reaching the age of thirty-five, providing he is married or is a
widower with legitimate offspring and pays five francs of direct
taxes, gets a second vote. Two extra votes are given for qualifica-
tions of property, official status or university diplomas. The
maximum voting power of any individual is three votes. In
1904 there were 1,581,649 voters, possessing 2,467,966 votes.
This system of plural voting has proved a success. It does not,
however, satisfy the Socialists, whose formula is one man, one
vote. The final change in the system of parliamentary elections
was made hi 1899-1900, when proportional representation was
introduced. Proportional representation aims at the protection
of minorities, and its working out is a little intricate, or at all
events difficult to describe. The following has been accepted
as a clear definition of what proportional representation is:
" Each electoral district has the number of its members appor-
tioned in accordance with the total strength of each party or
political programme hi that district. As a rule there are only the
three chief parties, viz. Catholic, Liberal and Socialist, but the
presence of Catholic-Democrats or some other new faction may
increase the total to four or even five. The number of seats to
be filled is divided by the number of parties or candidates, and
then they are distributed in the proportion of the total followers
or voters of each. The smallest minority is thus sure of one
seat." An illustration may make this clearer. In an electoral
district with 32,000 votes which returns eight deputies, four
parties send up candidates, let us say, eight Catholics, eight
Liberals, eight Socialists and one Catholic-Democrat. The
result of the voting is, 16,000 Catholic votes, 9000 Liberal, 4500
Socialist, and 2500 Catholic-Democrat. The seats would, there-
fore, be apportioned as follows: four Catholic, two Liberal, one
Socialist and one Catholic-Democrat.
The king has one right which other constitutional rulers do
not possess. He can initiate proposals for new laws (projets de
loi). He is also charged with the executive power
which he delegates to a cabinet composed of ministers
chosen from the party representing the majority
in the chamber. Down to 1884 the Liberal party had held
power with very few intervals since 1840. The Catholic party
succeeded to office in 1884. The ministers represent depart-
ments for finance, foreign affairs, colonies, justice, the interior,
science and arts, war, railways, posts and telegraphs, agri-
culture, public works, and industry and labour. The minister
for war is generally a soldier, the others are civilians.
Ministers may be members of either chamber and en joy the
privilege of being allowed to speak in both. Sometimes one
minister will hold several portfolios at the same time, but such
cases are rare.
The kingdom is divided into nine provinces which are sub-
divided into 342 cantons and 2623 communes. The provinces
are governed by a governor nominated by the king, the canton
is a judicial division for marking the limit of the jurisdiction of
each juge de paix, and the commune is the administrative unit,
EDUCATION]
BELGIUM
671
possessing self-government in all local matters. For each com-
mune of 5000 inhabitants or over, a burgomaster is appointed by
the communal council which is chosen by the electors
Provinces o f the commune. As three years' residence is re-
"muaes" 1 ' Quired these electors are fewer in number than those
for the legislature. In 1902 there were 1,146,482
voters with 2,007,704 votes, the principles of multiple votes,
with, however, a maximum of four votes and proportional
representation, being in force for communal as for legislative
elections.
Religion. The constitution provides for absolute liberty of
conscience and there is no state religion, but the people are
almost to a man Roman Catholics. It is computed that there
are 10,000 Protestants (half English) and 5000 Jews, and that
all the rest are Catholics. The government in 1904 voted nearly
7,000,000 francs in aid of the religious establishments of, and
the benevolent institutions kept up by, the Roman Church.
The grant to other cults amounted to 118,000 francs, but small
as this sum may appear it is in due proportion to the relative
numbers of each creed. The hierarchy of the Church of Rome
in Belgium is composed of the archbishop of Malines, and the
bishops of Li6ge, Ghent, Bruges, Tournai and Namur. The
archbishop receives 800, and the bishops 600 apiece from the
state yearly. The pay of the village curt averages 80 a year
and a house. Besides the regular clergy there are the members
of the numerous monastic and conventual houses established in
Belgium. They are engaged principally in educational and
eleemosynary work, and the development in such institutions
is considerable.
Education. Education is compulsory by law, and is free for
those who cannot pay for it. In the primary schools instruction
in reading, writing, arithmetic, history and geography is obliga-
tory. In 1904 there were 7092 primary schools with 859,436
pupils of both sexes. Of these 807,383 did not pay. Primary
education is supposed to continue till the age of fourteen, but in
practice it stops at twelve for all who do not intend to pass
through the middle schools, which is essential for all persons
seeking state employment of any kind. The middle schools
have one privilege. They can give a certificate qualifying
scholars for a mastership in the primary schools, which are
under the full control of the communes. These appointments
are always bestowed on local favourites. The pay of a school-
master in a small commune is only 48, and in a large town 96,
with a maximum ranging from 80 to 152 after twenty-four
years' service. It is therefore clear that no very high qualifica-
tions could be expected from such a staff. The control of the
state comes in to the extent of providing district inspectors
who visit the schools once a year, and hold a meeting of the
teachers in their district once a quarter. In each province there
is a chief inspector who is bound to visit each school once in two
years, and reports direct to the minister of public instruction.
With regard to the middle schools, the government has reserved
the right to appoint the teaching staff, and to prescribe the books
that are to be used The results of the middle schools are fairly
satisfactory. Still better are the Athenees Royaux, twenty in
number, which are quite independent of the commune and
subject to official control under the superior direction of the
king. Mathematics and classics are taught in them and the
masters are allowed to take boarders. The expenditure of the
state on education amounts to about a million sterling. In
1860 the grants were only for little over one-eighth of the total
in 1903. In 1900 31-94% of the toal population was illiterate.
Considerable progress in the education of the people is made
visible by a comparison of the figures of three decennial censuses.
In 1880 the illiterate were 42-25 % and in 1890 37-63, so that
there was a further marked improvement by 1900. Among the
provinces Walloon Belgium is better instructed than Flemish,
Luxemburg coming first, followed by Namur, Li6ge and Brabant
in their order.
Higher instruction is given at the universities and in the
schools attached thereto. Those at Ghent and Liege are state
universities; the two others at Brussels and Louvain are free.
At Louvain alone is there a faculty of theology. The number of
students inscribed for the academical year 1904-1905 at each
university was Ghent 899, Liege 1983, Brussels 1082, and
Louvain 2134, or a grand total of 6098. Liege is specially
famed for the technical schools attached to it. There are also
a large number of state-aided schools for special purposes; (i) for
military instruction, there are the Ecole Militaire at Brussels,
the school of cadets at Namur, and army schools at different
stations, e.g. Bouillon, &c. For officers in the army, there are
the Ecole de Guerre or staff college at Brussels with an average
attendance of twenty, a riding school at Ypres where a course is
obligatory for the cavalry and horse artillery, and for soldiers
in the army there are regimental schools and evening classes for
illiterate soldiers. (2) For education in the arts, there is the
Royal Academy of Fine Arts at Antwerp, and .besides this
famous school of painting there are eighty-four academies for
teaching drawing throughout the kingdom. In music, there
are royal conservatoires at Brussels, Antwerp, Ghent, and
Li6ge. Besides these there are sixty-nine minor conservatoires.
(3) For commercial and professional education, there are 181
schools. The Commercial Institute of Antwerp deserves special
notice as an excellent school for clerks. (4) Among special
schools may be named the three schools of navigation at Antwerp,
Ostend and Nieuport. Since the wreck of the training-ship
" Comte de Smet de Naeyer " in 1906, it has been decided that a
stationary training-ship shall be placed in the Scheldt like the
" Worcester " on the Thames. Among the numerous learned
societies may be mentioned the Belgian Royal Academy founded
in 1769 and revived in 1818. For the encouragement of research
and literary style the government awards periodical prizes which
are very keenly contested.
Justice. The administration of justice is very fully organized,
and in the Code Beige, which was carefully compiled between
1831 and 1836 from the old laws of the nine provinces leavened
by the Code Napoleon and modern exigencies, the Belgians
claim that they possess an almost perfect statute-book. The
courts of law in their order are Cow de Cassation, Cour d'Appel,
Cow de Premiere Instance, and the Juge de Paix courts, one
for each of the 342 cantons. The Cour de Cassation has a
peculiar judicial sphere. It works automatically, examining
every judgment to see if it is in strict accord with the code,
and where it is not the decision or verdict is simply annulled.
There is only one judge in this court, but he has the assistance of
a large staff of revisers. The Cour de Cassation never tries a case
itself except when a minister of state is the accused. The
president of this tribunal is the highest legal functionary in
Belgium. There are three courts of appeal, viz. at Brussels,
Ghent and Liege. At Brussels there are four separate chambers
or tribunals in the appeal court. Judges of appeal are appointed
by the king for life from lists of eligible barristers prepared by
the senate and the courts. Judges can only be removed by the
unanimous vote of their brother judges. There are twenty-six
courts of first instance distributed among the principal towns
of the kingdom, and in Antwerp, Ghent and Li6ge there are
besides special tribunals for the settlement of commercial cases.
Of course there is the right of appeal from the decisions of these
tribunals as well as of the regular courts. Finally the 342 Juge
de Paix courts resemble British county courts. Criminal cases are
tried by(i)the Tr ibunaux de Police, (2) Tribunaux Correctionnels,
(3) and the Cours d'Assises. The last are held as the length of
the calendar requires. Capital punishment is retained on the
statute, but is never enforced, the prisoner on whom sentence
of death is passed in due form in open court being relegated to
imprisonment for life in solitary confinement and perpetual
silence, The chief prisons are at Louvain, Ghent and St Gilles
(Brussels), and the last named serves as a house of detention.
At Merxplas, near the Dutch frontier, is the agricultural criminal
colony at which an average number of two thousand prisoners are
kept employed in comparative liberty within the radius of the
convict settlement.
Pauperism. For the relief of pauperism there are a limited
number of houses of mendicity, in which inmates are received,
BELGIUM
[COMMERCE
and houses of refuge for night shelter. At the beguinages of
Ghent and Bruges women and girls able to contribute a specified
sum towards their support are given a home.
National Finance. The budget is submitted to the chambers
by the minister of finance and passed by them. The revenue
and expenditure were in the years stated as foHows:
Year.
Revenue.
Expenditure.
1880 . ,
1895 .
1903
394,215,932 francs
395.73 .445 ..
632,416,810
382,908,429 francs
410,383,402
627,975,568
The revenue is made up from taxes, including customs, tolls,
including returns from railway traffic, &c., and the balance comes
from various revenues, return of capital, loans, &c. The following
are the principal items of expenditure (1903) :
Service of debt
Sovereign, senate, chamber, &c.
Departments, foreign office
agriculture
railways .
finance
industry
war
public instruction
justice
Minor items .
Total
143,065,352 francs
5,289,087
3,751,636
12,253,957
165,086,019
34,479,674
I9,9>5,589
63,972,473
31,799,105
27,168,032
4,179,046
510,949,970
The difference is made up of "special expenditure." The total
debt in English money may be put at 1 26 millions sterling, which
requires for interest, sinking fund and service about 5 J millions
sterling annually. The rate of interest on all the loans extant
is 3%, except on one loan of 219,959,632 franc*, which pays
only 2* %.
Army and National Defence. The army is divided into the
regular army, the gendarmerie, and the garde civique. The
Belgian regular army is thus composed: infantry, one regiment
of carabiniers, one of grenadiers, three of chasseurs a pied, and
fourteen of the line, all these regiments having 3 or 4 active
and 3 or 4 reserve battalions apiece; cavalry, two regi-
ments of guides, two of chasseurs a cheval, and four of lancers,
all light cavalry; artillery, four horse, thirty field, and seventy
siege batteries on active service; engineers, 140 officers and
2000 men. The train or commissariat has only 30 officers
and 600 men on the permanent establishment. Belgium
retains the older form of conscription, and has not adopted the
system of " universal service." The annual levy is small and
substitution is permitted. In 1904 the number inscribed for
service was 64,042. Of these only 12,525 were enrolled in the
army, and of that number 1421 were volunteers, who took an
engagement on receipt of a premium. The effective strength of
the army in 1904 with the colours was 3406 officers and 40,382
men. To this total has to be added the men on the active list,
but either absent on leave or allowed to return to civil life,
numbering 70,043. It is assumed that on mobilization these
men are immediately available. The reserve consists of 181
officers and 58,014 men, so that the total strength of the Belgian
army is 3587 officers and 168,439 m en. The field force in war is
organized in four infantry and two cavalry divisions, the total
strength being about 100,000. The peace effective has not varied
much since 1870, but the total paper strength is 75,000 more
than in that year. In the years 1900-1904 it increased by 8000
men. The gendarmerie is a mounted force composed of men
picked for their physique and divided into three divisions. It
numbers 67 officers and 3079 men, but has no reserve. It is in
every sense a corps d'elite, and may be classed as first-rate heavy
cavalry. The total strength of the garde civique in 1905 was
35,102, to which have to be added 8532 volunteers belonging to
the corps of older formation, service in which counts on a par
with the garde civique. Some of the latter regiments, especially
the artillery, would rank with British volunteers, but the mass
of the garde civique does not pretend to possess military value.
It is a defence against sedition and socialism. The defence of
Belgium depends on five fortified positions. The fortified position
and camp of Antwerp represents the true base of the national
defence. Its detached forts shelter the city from bombardment,
and so long as sea communication is open with England, Antwerp
would be practically impregnable. Liege with twelve forts and
Namur with nine forts are the fortified tttes de pont protecting
the two most important passages of the Meuse. The forts are
constructed in concrete with armoured cupolas. Termonde on
the Scheldt and Diest on the Dender are retained as nominally
fortified positions, but neither could resist a regular bombard-
ment for more than a few hours, as their casemates are not
bomb-proof.
The training camp of the Belgian army is at Beverloo in the
province of Limburg, and at Braschaet not far from Antwerp
are ranges for artillery as well as rifle practice. The Belgian
officer is technically as well trained and educated as any in
Europe, but he lacks practical experience in military service.
Mines and Industry. The principal mineral produced in
Belgium is coal. This is found in the Borinage district near
Mons and in the neighbourhood of Liege, but the working of an
entirely new coal-field, which promises to attain vast dimensions,
was commenced in 1906 in the Campine district of the province
of Limburg. The coal mines of Belgium give employment to
nearly 150,000 persons, and for some years the average output
has exceeded 2 2,000,000 tons. Other minerals are iron, manganese,
lead and zinc. The iron mines produce much less than formerly,
and the want of iron is a grave defect in Belgian prosperity, as
about 5 ,000,000 sterling worth of iron has to beimported annually,
chiefly from French Lorraine. The chief metal industry of the
country is represented by the iron and steel works of Charleroi
and Lige. Belgium is particularly rich in quarries of marble,
granite and slate. Ghent is the capital of the textile industry,
and all the towns of Flanders are actively engaged in producing
woollen and cotton materials and in lace manufacture. The
bulk of the population is, however, engaged in agriculture,
and the extent of land under cultivation of all kinds is about
6^ million acres.
Commerce. The trade returns for 1904 were as follows:
Imports
General Commerce .....
Special Commerce (included in General
Commerce) .....
Exports
General Commerce .....
Special Commerce (included in General
Commerce) .....
4,426,400,000 francs
2,782,200,000
3,849,100,000
2,183,300,000
The general commerce includes goods in transit across Belgium,
the special commerce takes into account only the produce and
the consumption of Belgium itself. The trade of Belgium has
more than trebled as regards both imports and exports since
1870. The following table shows the amount of exports and im-
ports between Belgium _and the more important foreign states:
Imports.
Exports.
France
465,684,000 francs
346,670,000 francs
Germany .
351,025,000
505,473,000
England .
335,404.000
392,324,000
Holland .
240,873,000
268,781,000
United States
222,301,000
86,324,000
Russia
212,119,000
26,671,000
Argentina .
British India
198,913,000
141,669,000
41,508,000
25,860,000
Rumania .
102,174,000
3,949,000
Australia .
58,190,000
12,087,000
Congo State
53,100,000
14,049,000
China
8,770,000
25,546,000
In the relative magnitude of the annual value of its commerce,
excluding that in transit, Belgium stands sixth among the nations
of the world, following Great Britain, the United States, Germany,
France and Holland. The principal imports are food supplies
and raw material such as cotton, wool, silk, flax, hemp and jute.
Among minerals, iron ore, sulphur, copper, coal, tin, lead and
diamonds are the most imported. The exports of greatest value
HISTORY]
BELGIUM
673
are textiles, lace, coal, coke, briquettes, glass, machinery, railway
material and fire arms.
Skipping and Navigation. Belgium has no state navy, although
various proposals have been made from time to time to establish
an armed flotilla in connexion with the defence of Antwerp.
The state, however, possesses a certain number of steamers.
In 1 904 they numbered sixty-five of 99,893 tons. These steamers
are chiefly employed on the passenger route between Ostend
and Dover. The total number of vessels entering the only two
ports of Belgium which carry on ocean commerce, namely
Antwerp and Ostend, in 1904 was 7650 of a tonnage of 10,330,1 27.
Among inland ports that of Ghent is the most important,.! 127
ships of a tonnage of 786,362 having entered the port in 1904.
The corresponding figures for ships sailing from lie two ports
first named were in the same year 7642 and tonnage 10,298,405.
The figures from Ghent were 1128 and 787,173 tons. Whereas
the lines of steamers from Ostend are chiefly with Dover and
London, those from Antwerp proceed to all parts of the world.
A steam service was established in 1906 from Hull to Bruges by
Zeebrugge and the ship canal.
Internal Communications. The internal communications of
Belgium of every kind are excellent. The roads outside the
province of Luxemburg and Namur are generally paved. In
the provinces named, or in other words, in the region south
of the Meuse, the roads are macadamized. The total length of
roads is about 6000 m. When Belgium became a separate state
in 1830 they were less than one- third of this total. There are
about 2900 m. of railways, of which upwards of 2500 m. are
state railways. It is of interest to note that the state railways
derived a revenue of 249,355 francs (or nearly 10,000) from
the penny tickets for the admission of non-travellers to railway
stations. Besides the main railways there are numerous light
railways (chemins defer vicinaux), of a total length approaching
2500 m. There are also electric and steam tramways in all
the principal cities. The total of navigable waterways is given
as 1360 m. Posts, telegraphs and telephones are exclusively
under state management and form a government department.
Banks and Money. The principal banking institution is the
Banque Nationale which issues the bank-notes in current use. In
1 9O4the average value of no tesin circulation was 645,989,100 francs.
The rate of discount was 3 % throughout the whole of the year.
The mintage of Belgian money is carried out by a directeur
de la fabrication who is nominated by and responsible to the
government. The gold coins are for 10 and 20 francs, silver
for half francs, francs, 2 francs and 5 francs. Nickel money is
for 5, 10 and 20 centimes, and the copper coinage has been
withdrawn from circulation.
AUTHORITIES. Annuaire stalistique de la Belgique (1905) ; Bclt-
jens and Godenne, La Constitution beige (Brussels, 1880) ; La Belgique
illustree (Brussels, 1878-1882) ; Les Pandectes beiges (Brussels, 1898) ;
Annales du parlement beige for each year; Belgian Life in Town and
Country, " Our Neighbours " Series (London, 1904). For geology see
C. Dewalque, Prodrome d'une description geologique de la Belgique
(Brussels, 1880); M. Mourlon, Geologie de la Belgique (Brussels,
1880^-1881); F. L. Cornet and A. Briart, " Sur le relief du sol en
Belgique apres les temps paleozo ques," Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg. vol. iv.,
1877, PP.- 7 I 'H5. P'S. v.-xi. (see also other papers by the same
authors in the same journal); J. Gosselet, L'Ardenne (Paris, 1888);
M. Bertrand, " Etudes sur le bassin houiller du nord et sur le
Boulonnais," Ann. des mines, ser. ix. vol. vi. (Mem.), pp. 569-635,
1894; C. Malaise, " tat actuel de nos connaissances sur le silurien
de la Belgique," Ann. Soc. Geol. Belg. vol. xxv., 1900-1901, pp. 179-
221; H. Forir, " Bibliographic des etages laekenien, fedien, wem-
melien, asschien, tongrien, rupelien et bolderien et des dep8ts
tertiaires de la haute et tnoyenne Belgique," ibid. pp. 223 seq.
(D. C. B.)
HISTORY '
The political severance of the northern and southern Nether-
lands may be conveniently dated from the opening of the year
1579. By the signing of the league of Arras (sth of January)
the Walloon " Malcontents " declared their adherence to the
cause of Catholicism and their loyalty to the Spanish king, and
broke away definitely from the northern provinces, who bound
'^See for earlier history NETHERLANDS, FLANDERS, BRABANT,
LIEGE, &c.
III. 32
themselves by the union of Utrecht (29th of January) to defend
their rights and liberties, political and religious, against all
foreign potentates. Brabant and Flanders were still indeed under
the control of the prince of Orange, and through his piati
influence accepted in 1582 the duke of Anjou as their */
sovereign. The French prince was actually inaugurated "fc/ra *
dukeof Brabant at Antwerp (February i s82)and count aa a
of Flanders at Bruges (July), but his misconduct toathem
speedily led to his withdrawal from the Netherlands, N ' tatr ~
and even before the assassination of Orange (July J
1584) the authority of Philip had been practically restored
throughout the two provinces. This had been achieved by the
military skill and statesmanlike abilities of Alexander
Farnese, prince of Parma, appointed governor- ptZom,
general on the death of Don John of Austria, on the prince of
ist of October 1578. Farnese first won by promises
and blandishments the confidence of the Walloons,
always jealous of the predominance of the ' Flemish "
provinces, and then proceeded to make himself master of Brabant
and Flanders by force of arms. In succession Ypres, Mechlin,
Ghent, Brussels, and finally Antwerp (i7th of August
1585) fell into his hands. Philip had in the southern
Netherlands attained his object, and Belgium was
henceforth Catholic and Spanish, but at the expense of its
progress and prosperity. Thousands of its inhabitants, and
those the most enterprising and intelligent, fled from the Inquisi-
tion, and made their homes in the Dutch republic or in England.
All commerce and industry was at a standstill; grass grew in
the streets of Bruges and Ghent; and the trade of Antwerp was
transferred to Amsterdam. On Parma's death (3rd of December
1592) the archduke Ernest of Austria was appointed governor-
general, but he died after a short tenure of office (2oth of February
1595) and was at the beginning of 1596 succeeded by his younger
brother the cardinal archduke Albert. Philip was now Hearing
his end, and in 1598 he gave his eldest daughter Isabel Albert a
in marriage to her cousin the archduke Albert, and Isabel."
erected the Netherlands into a sovereign state under sovereign*
their joint rule. The advent of the new sovereigns,
officially known as " the archdukes," though greeted
with enthusiasm in the Belgic provinces, was looked
upon with suspicion by the Dutch, who were as firmly resolved
as ever to uphold their independence. The chief military
event of the early years of their reign was the battle of Nieuport
(2nd of July 1600), in which Maurice of Nassau defeated
the archduke Albert, and the siege of Ostend, which
after a three years' heroic defence was surrendered
(2oth of September 1604) to the archduke's general,
Spinola. The Dutch, however, being masters of the sea, kept
the coast closely blockaded, and through sheer exhaustion the
king of Spain and the archdukes were compelled to
agree to a truce for twelve years (gth of April 1609) * jjjjj. '
with the United Provinces " in the capacity of free </,,AesT
states over which Albert and Isabel made no preten-
sions." During the period of the truce the archdukes, who were
wise and statesmanlike rulers, did their utmost to restore pros-
perity to their country and to improve its internal
condition. Unfortunately they were childless, and /}^
the instrument of cession of 1 598 provided that in southern
case they should die without issue, the Netherlands Nether-
should revert to the crown of Spain. This reversion '""y/],'
actually took place. Albert died in 1 6 2 1 , just before the i6jj
renewal of the war with the Dutch, and Isabel in 1633.
The Belgic provinces therefore passed under the rule of Philip IV.,
and were henceforth known as the Spanish Netherlands.
This connexion with the declining fortunes of Spain was
disastrous to the well-being of the Belgian people, for during
many years a close alliance bound together France and the
United Provinces, and the Southern Netherlands were exposed
to attack from both sides, and constantly suffered
from the ravages of hostile armies. The cardinal arch-
duke Ferdinand, governor-general from 1634-1641 , was
a capable ruler, and by his military skill prevented in a succession
674
BELGIUM
[HISTORY
of campaigns the forces of the enemy from overrunning the
country. On the aoth of January 1648, Spain concluded a
separate peace at Munster with the Dutch, by which Philip IV.
finally renounced all his claims and rights over the
Ruiaoia United Provinces, and made many concessions- to them.
C queace* Among these was the closing of the Scheldt to all ships,
of the do*- a clause which was ruinous to the commerce of the
im of the Be ig; c provinces, by cutting them off from their only
access to the ocean. Thus they remained for a long
course of years without a sea-port, and in the many wars that
broke out between Spain and France were constantly exposed,
as an outlying Spanish dependency, to the first attack, and peace
when it came was usually purchased at the cost of some part of
Belgian territory. By the treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) Artois
(except St Omer and Aire) and a number of towns in
Flanders, Hainaut, and Luxemburg were ceded to
Belgian France. Subsequent French conquests, confirmed by
territory to t jj e p eace o f Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), took away Lille,
France. j) O uai, Charleroi, Oudenarde, Coutrai and Tournai.
These were, indeed, partly restored to Belgium by the peace of
Nijmwegen (1679); but on the other hand it lost Valenciennes,
Nieuport, St Omer, Ypres and Charlemont, which were only in
part recovered by the peace of Ryswick (1697).
The internal history of the Belgic provinces has little to record
during this long period in which the ambition of Louis XIV. to
possess himself of the Netherlands, in right of his wife the infanta
Maria Theresa (see SPANISH SUCCESSION), led to a series of
invasions and desolating wars. The French king managed to
incorporate a large slice of territory upon his northern frontier,
but his main object was baffled by the steady resistance and able
statesmanship of William III. of England and Holland. Mean-
while from 1692 onwards brighter prospects were opened out to
the unfortunate Belgians by the nomination by the Spanish king
of Maximilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, to be governor-
general with well-nigh sovereign powers. The elector had himself
a claim to the inheritance as the husband of an Austrian arch-
duchess, whose mother, the infanta Margaret, was the younger
sister of the French queen. Maximilian Emanuel was an able
man, who did his utmost to improve the condition of the country.
Btf rts t ^ e at t em Pted to promote trade and restore prosperity
the elector to the impoverished land by the introduction of new
of Bavaria customs laws and other measures, and particularly by
to promote t jj e construction of canals to counteract the damage
done to Belgian commerce by the closing of the Scheldt.
The position of the elector was greatly strengthened by the
partition treaty of the igth of August 1698. Under this instru-
ment the signatory powers England, France and Holland
agreed that on the demise of Charles II. the crown prince of
Bavaria under his father's guardianship should be sovereign of
Spain, Belgium and Spanish America. Charles II. himself
shortly afterwards by will appointed the Bavarian
Th* Span- pr i nc e heir to all his dominions. The death of the
tloo infant heir a few months later (6th of February 1699)
unfortunately destroyed any prospects of a peaceable
settlement of the Spanish Succession. Charles II. was persuaded
to name as his sole successor, Philip duke of Anjou, the second
son of the dauphin, and on his death (on the ist November 1700)
Louis XIV. took immediate steps to support his grandson's
claims, in spite of his formal renunciation of such claims under
the treaty of the Pyrenees. England and Holland
AWance were determined to prevent, however, at all costs the
acquisition of Belgium by a French prince, and a
coalition, known as the Grand Alliance, was formed between
these two powers and the empire to uphold the claims of the
archduke Charles, second son of the emperor.
One of the first steps of Louis was to take possession of the
Netherlands. The hereditary feud between the houses of
Austria and Bavaria induced the elector to take the
side of France - and he was nominated by Philip V.
successes, vicar-general of the Netherlands. The unhappy Belgic
provinces were again doomed for a number of years to
be the battle-ground of the contending forces, and it was on
Belgic soil that Marlborough won the great victories of Ramillies
(i 706) and of Oudenarde (i 708), by which he was enabled to drive
the French armies out of the Netherlands and to carry the war
into French territory. At the general peace concluded at
Utrecht (nth of April 1713) the long connexion between Belgium
and Spain was severed, and this portion of the Bur-
gundian inheritance of Charles V. placed under the
sovereignty of the Habsburg claimant, who had, by
the death of his brother, become the emperor Charles VI. The
Belgic provinces now came for a full century to be known as the
Austrian Netherlands. Yet such was the dread of The
Fraace and the enfeebled state of the country that Austrian
Holland retained the privilege, which had been con- Nether-
ceded to her during the war, of garrisoning the principal laa<ls -
fortresses or Barrier towns, on the French frontier, and her
right to close the navigation on the Scheldt was again ratified by
a European treaty. The beginnings of Austrian sovereignty
were marked by many collisions between the representatives
of the new rulers and the States General, and provincial " states."
Despite their troubled history and long subjection,
the Belgic provinces still retained to an unusual
degree their local liberties and privileges, and more Belgium.
especially the right of not being taxed, except by the
express consent of the states. The marquis de Prie, who (as
deputy for Prince Eugene) was the imperial governor from 1719
to 1726, encountered on the part of local authorities and town
gilds vigorous resistance to his attempt to rule the Netherlands
as an Austrian dependency, and he was driven to take strong
measures to assert his authority. He selected as his
victim a powerful popular leader at Brussels, Francis Bxecutloa
Anneesens, syndic of the gild of St Nicholas, who was
beheaded on the igth of September 1719. His name
is remembered in Belgian annals as a patriot martyr to the
cause of liberty. The administration of de Prie was not, however,
without its redeeming features. He endeavoured to create at
Ostend a seaport, capable in some measure to take the place of
Antwerp, and in 1722 a Chartered Company of Ostend
was erected for the purpose of trading in the East and Chartered
West Indies (see OSTEND). The determined hostility
of the Dutch rendered the promising scheme futile,
and after a precarious struggle for existence, Charles VI., in order
to gain the assent of the United Provinces and Great Britain to
the Pragmatic Sanction (q.v.), suppressed the Company in 1731.
For sixteen years (1725-1 741) the archduchess Mary Elizabeth,
sister of the emperor, filled the post of governor-general. Her
rule was marked by the restoration of the old form Anh .
of administration under the three councils, and was duchess
a period of general tranquillity. She died (1741) in Mary
the Netherlands, and the empress-queen, Maria *"
Theresa, who had succeeded under the Pragmatic Sanction to
the Burgundian domains of her father about a year before,
appointed her brother-in-law, Charles of Lorraine, to be governor-
general in her aunt's place, and he retained that post, to the great
advantage of Belgium, for nearly forty years. He
was deservedly known as the " Good Governor." L^a
The first years of his administration were stormy.
During the Austrian War of Succession the country was conquered
by the French, and for two years Marshal Saxe bore the title of
governor-general, but it was restored to Austria by the peace of
Aix-la-Chapelle (1748). Belgium was undisturbed by the Seven
Years' War (1756-1 763), and during the long peace which followed
enjoyed considerable prosperity. Charles of Lorraine thoroughly
identified himself with the best interests of the country, and was
the champion of its liberties, and though he had at times to make
a stand against the imperialistic tendencies of the chancellor
Kaunitz, he was able to rely on the steady support of the empress,
who appreciated the wise and liberal policy of her brother-in-law.
Although the Scheldt was still closed, Charles endeavoured by
a large extension of the canal system to facilitate commercial
intercourse, he encouraged agriculture, and was successful in
restoring the prosperity of the country. He also did much for
the advancement of learning, founding, among other institutions,
HISTORY]
BELGIUM
6 75
the Academy of Science, and he consistently restrained the undue
intervention of the church in secular affairs, and placed re-
strictions upon the accumulation of property in the hands of
religious bodies.
The death of Charles of Lorraine preceded only by a few
months that of Maria Theresa, whose son Joseph II. not only
appointed his sister, the archduchess Maria Christine,
?ea/'* governor-general, but visited Belgium in person and
Joseph H. showed a great and active interest in its affairs.
Here as elsewhere in his dominions his intentions
were excellent, but his reforming zeal outran discretion, and his
hasty and self-opinionated interferences with treaty rights and
traditional privileges ended in provoking opposition and disaster.
Finding the United Provinces hampered by a war with England,
he seized the opportunity to try to get rid of the impediments
placed upon Belgian development by the Barrier and other
treaties with Holland. He was able to compel the Dutch to
withdraw their garrisons from the Barrier towns, but was wholly
unsuccessful in his high-handed attempt to free the navigation
of the Scheldt. These efforts to coerce the Dutch, though
marred by partial failure, were, however, calculated to win for
Joseph II. popularity with his Belgian subjects; but it was far
otherwise with his policy of internal reform. He offended the
states by seeking to sweep away many of their inherited privileges
and to change the time-honoured, if somewhat obsolete, system
of civil government. He further excited the religious feelings
of the people against him, by his edict of Tolerance (1780), and
his later attempts at the reform of clerical abuses, which were
pronounced to be an infraction of the Joyous Entry (see JOYEUSE
ENTREE). Fierce opposition was aroused. Numbers of mal-
contents left the country and organized themselves as a military
force in Holland. As the discontent became more general, the
insurgents returned, took several forts, defeated the
a'rabaacoa Austrians at Turnhout, and overran the country.
revolt. On the nth of December 1789, the people of Brussels
rose against the Austrian garrison, and compelled it to
capitulate, and, on the 27th, the states of Brabant declared
their independence. The other provinces followed and, on the
nth of January 1790, the whole formed themselves into an
independent state, under the name of the " Belgian United
States." A few weeks later, on the aoth of February, Joseph II.
died, his end hastened by chagrin at the utter failure of his well-
meant efforts, and was succeeded by Leopold II.
The new emperor at once took steps to re-assert, if possible,
his authority in Belgium without having recourse to armed
Leopold II. force. He offered the states, if the people would return
pacifies to their allegiance, the restoration of their ancient
* constitution and a general amnesty. This, however,
did not suit the views of the popular party, who, under
the leadership of an advocate named Van der Moot, had pcfcses-
sion of the reins of power, and were uplifted by their success.
The terms offered in an imperial proclamation were rejected,
and preparations were made to resist coercion by the levee en
masse of a national army. When, however, in November 1790,
a powerful Austrian force entered the country, there was prac-
tically little opposition to its advance. The popular leaders
fled, the form of government, as it existed at the end of the
reign of Maria Theresa, and an amnesty for past offences was
proclaimed; a superficial pacification of the revolted provinces
was effected, and Austrian rule re-established. It was destined
to be short-lived. In 1792 the armies of revolutionary France
assailed Austria at her weakest point by an invasion of Belgium.
The battle of Jemappes (7th of November) made the French
Conquest masters of the southern portion of the Austrian
of Bel- Netherlands ; the battle of Fleurus (26th of June 1 794)
fft"4nc/i put an end to l ^ e ru ' e of tne Ha bsburgs over the Belgic
' provinces. The treaty of Campo Formio (1797) and
the subsequent treaty of Lunfiville (1801) confirmed the con-
querors in the possession of the country, and Belgium became
an integral part of France, being governed on the same footing,
receiving the Code Napoleon, and sharing in the fortunes of the
Republic and the Empire. After the fall of Napoleon and the
conclusion of the first peace of Paris (aoth of May 1814)
Belgium was indeed for some months placed under the ad-
ministration of an Austrian governor-general, but it Ualoa t
was shortly afterwards united with Holland to form Holland
the kingdom of the Netherlands. The sovereignty *rf
of the newly formed state was given to the prince of Be ' l " m
Orange, who mounted the throne (?3rd of March 1815)
under the title of William I. The congress of Vienna
(3ist of May 1815) determined the relations and fixed the
boundaries of the kingdom; and the new constitution was pro-
mulgated on the 24th of August following, the king taking the
oath at Brussels on the 27th of September.
From this date until the Belgian revolt of 1830, the history
of Holland and Belgium is that of two portions of one political
entity, but in the relations of those two portions were
to be found from the very outset fundamental causes . ISJO '
tending to disagreement and separation. The Dutch
and Belgian provinces of the Netherlands had for one hundred
and thirty years passed through totally different experiences,
and had drifted farther and farther apart from one another
in character, in habits, in ideas and above all in religion. In
the south the policy of Alva and Philip II. had been wholly
successful, and the Belgian people, Flemings and Walloons alike,
were perhaps more devoted to the Catholic faith than any other
in Europe. On the other hand the incorporation of the country
for two decades in the French republic and empire had left deep
traces on a considerable section of the population, the French
language was commonly spoken and was exclusively used in
the law courts and in all public proceedings, and French political
theories had made many converts. The Fundamental Law
promulgated by William I. aroused strong opposition among
both the Catholic and Liberal parties in Belgium. The large
powers granted to the king under the new constitution displeased
the Liberals, who saw in its provision only a disguised form of
personal government. The principle of liberty of worship and of
the press, which it laid down, was so offensive to the Catholics
that the bishops condemned it publicly, and in the Doctrinal
Judgment actually forbade their flocks to take the oath. The
" close and complete union," which was stipulated under the
treaty of 1814, began under unfavourable auspices. Nevertheless
the difficulties might have been smoothed away in the course
of time, had the Belgians felt that the Dutch were treating
them in a fair and conciliatory spirit. This, despite the un-
doubtedly good intentions of the king, was far from being the
case. Belgium was regarded too much in the light of an annexed
territory, handed over to Holland as compensation for
the losses sustained by the Dutch in the revolutionary
and Napoleonic wars. The idea that Holland was the meat
predominant partner in the kingdom of the Netherlands between
was firmly rooted in the north and naturally provoked "j" rf
in the south the feeling that Belgium was being ex- Belgium.
ploited for the benefit of the Dutch. The grievances of
the Belgians were indeed very substantial. The seat of govern-
ment was in Holland, the king was a Dutchman by birth and
training, and a Calvinistic protestant by religion. Though the
population of Belgium was 3,400,000 and that of Holland only
a little more than 2,000,000 the two countries had equal repre-
sentation in the second chamber of the states-general. Prac-
tically in all important legislative measures affecting the interests
of the two countries the Dutch government were able to com-
mand a small but permanent majority. The use of the term
" the Dutch Government " is strictly accurate, for the great
majority of the public offices were filled by northerners. In
1830, of the seven members of the ministry only one was a
Belgian; in the home department out of 117 officials n only
were Belgians; in the ministry of war 3 were Belgians out of
102; of the officers of the army 288 out of 1967. All the public
establishments, the Bank, the military schools, were
Dutch. That such was the case must not be entirely
charged to partiality, still less to deliberate unfair-
ness on the part of William I. The conduct of the king
proves that he had a most sincere regard for the welfare of his
676
Belgian subjects, and in his choice of measures and men his
aim was to secure the prosperity of his new kingdom by a policy
of unification. This was the object he had in view in his attempt
to make Dutch, except in the Walloon districts, the official
language for all public and judicial acts, and a knowledge of
Dutch a necessary qualification for every person entering the
public service. That the fierce opposition which this attempt
aroused in the Flemish-speaking provinces was ill-
considered and unwise, is shown by the fact that in
recent years there has been a patriotic movement
in these same provinces which has been successful in forcing
the Belgian government to adopt Flemish (i.e. Dutch) as well as
French for official usage. This Flemish movement is all in favour
of establishing close relations with the sister people of the north.
Moreover it cannot be gainsaid that Belgium during her union
Bdsriaa ^ Holland enjoyed a degree of prosperity that
prosperity was quite remarkable. The mineral wealth of the
during the country was largely developed, the iron manufactures
union. Q Ljggg made rapid advance, the woollen manu-
factures of Verviers received a similar impulse, and many large
establishments were formed at Ghent and other places, where
cotton goods were produced which rivalled those of England and
surpassed those of France. The extensive colonial and foreign
trade of the Dutch furnished them with markets, while the
opening of the navigation of the Scheldt raised Antwerp once
more to a place of high commercial importance. The govern-
ment also did much in the way of improving the internal com-
munications of the country, in repairing the roads and canals,
in forming new ones, in deepening and widening rivers, and the
like. Nor was the social and intellectual improvement of the
people by any means neglected. A new university was formed at
Liege, normal schools for the instruction of teachers were in-
stituted, and numerous elementary schools and schools for higher
instruction were established over the country. These measures
for the furthering of education among the people on the part
of a government mainly composed of Protestants were received
with suspicion and disfavour by the priests, and still more the
attempts subsequently made to regulate the education of the
priests themselves. The establishment under the auspices of
the king in 1825 of the Philosophical College at Louvain, and
the requirement that every priest before ordination should
spend two years in study there, gave great offence to the clerical
party, and some of the bishops were prosecuted for the violence
of their denunciations at this intrusion of the secular arm into
the religious domain. With the view of terminating these
differences the king in 1827 entered into a concordat with the
pope, and an agreement was reached with regard to nominations
to bishoprics, clerical education and other questions, which
should have satisfied all reasonable men. But in 1828 the two
extreme parties, the Catholic Ultramontanes and the revolu-
tionary Liberals, in their common hatred to the Dutch regime,
formed an alliance, the union, for the overthrow of the govern-
ment. Petitions were sent in setting forth the Belgian grievances,
demanding a separate administration for Belgium and a full
concession of the liberties guaranteed by the constitution.
Matters were in this state when the news of the success of the
July revolution of 1830 at Paris reached Brussels, at this time
a city of refuge for the intriguing and discontented
^ a l most ever y country of Europe. The first outbreak
to k place on the 25th of August, the anniversary
of the king's accession. An opera called La Muette,
which abounds in appeals to liberty, was played, and the audience
were so excited that they rushed out into the street crying,
"Imitons les Parisiens!" A mob speedily gathered together,
who proceeded to destroy or damage a number of public buildings
and the private residences of unpopular officials. The troops
were few in number and offered no opposition to the mob, but
a burgher guard was enrolled among the influential and middle-
class citizens for the protection of life and property. The in-
telligence of these events in the capital soon spread through the
provinces; and in most of the large towns similar scenes were
enacted, beginning with plunderings and outrages, followed
BELGIUM
[HISTORY
oti830.
by the institution of burgher guards for the maintenance of peace.
The leading men of Brussels were most anxious not to push
matters to extremities. They demanded the dismissal of the
specially obnoxious minister, Van Maanen, and a separate ad-
ministration for Belgium. The government, however, could not
make up their minds what course to pursue, and by allowing
things to drift ended by converting a popular riot into a national
revolt. The heir apparent, the prince of Orange (see WILLIAM II.
of the Netherlands) , was sent on a peaceful mission to Brussels,
but furnished with such limited powers, as under the circum-
stances were utterly inadequate. He did his best to get at the
real facts, and after a number of conferences with the leaders
became so convinced that nothing but a separate administration
of the two countries would restore tranquillity that he promised
to use his influence with his father to bring about that object
on receiving assurances that the personal union under the house
of Orange would be maintained. The king summoned an extra-
ordinary session of the states-general, which met at the Hague on
the I3th of September and was opened by a speech from the
throne, which was firm and temperate, but by no means definite.
The proceedings were dilatory, and the attitude of the Dutch
deputies exceedingly exasperating. The result was that the
moderate party in Belgium quickly lost their influence, and
those in favour of violent measures prevailed. Meanwhile
although the states were still sitting at the Hague, an army
of 14,000 troops under the command of Prince Frederick, second
son of the king, was gradually approaching Brussels. It was
hoped that the inhabitants would welcome the prince and that
a display of armed force would speedily restore order. After
much unnecessary delay, at a time when prompt action was
required, the prince on the 23rd of September entered Brussels
and, with little opposition, occupied the upper or court portion
of it, but when they attempted to advance into the lower town
the troops found the streets barricaded and defended by citizens
in arms. Desultory fighting between the soldiers and the
insurgents continued for three days until, finding that he was
making no headway, the prince ordered a retreat. The news
spread like wildfire through the country, and the principal
towns declared for separation. A provisional government was
formed at Brussels, which declared Belgium to be an independent
state, and summoned a national congress to establish a system
of government. King William now did his utmost to avoid
a rupture, and sent the prince of Orange to Antwerp to promise
that Belgium should have a separate administration; but it
was too late. Antwerp was the only important place that re-
mained in the hands of the Dutch, and the army on retreating
from Brussels had fallen back on this town. At the end of
October an insurgent army had arrived before the gates, which
were opened by the populace to receive them, and the troops,
under General Chasse, retired within the citadel. The general
ordered a bombardment of the town for two days, destroying
a number of houses and large quantities of merchandize. This
act served still further to inflame the minds of the Belgians
against the Dutch.
A convention of the representatives of the five great powers
met in London in the beginning of November, at the request
of the king of the Netherlands, and both sides were /a ee tiag
brought to consent to a cessation of hostilities. On the of the
loth of November the National Congress, consisting National
of 200 deputies, met at Brussels and came to three Co "f ress -
important decisions: (i) the independence of the country
carried unanimously; (2) a constitutional hereditary monarchy
174 votes against 13; (3) the perpetual exclusion of the
Orange-Nassau family 161 votes against 28. On the 2oth of
December the conference of London proclaimed the dissolution
of the kingdom of the Netherlands, but claimed the right of
regulating the conditions under which it should take place.
On the 28th of January 1831, the congress proceeded to the
election of a king, and out of a number of candidates the choice
fell on the duke of Nemours, second son of Louis Philippe, but
he declined the office. The congress then elected Baron Surlet
de Chokier to the temporary post of regent, and proceeded to
HISTORY]
BELGIUM
677
draw up a constitution on the British parliamentary pattern. The
constitution expressly declared that the king has no powers
except those formally assigned to him. Ministers were to be
appointed by him, but be responsible to the cham-
hers. The legislature was composed of two chambers
uoa. the senate and the chamber of deputies. Both cham-
bers were elected by the same voters, but senators
required a property qualification, the payment of at least
2000 florins in taxes. Senators and deputies received salaries.
The franchise was for that time a low one every one who paid
at least 20 florins in taxes had a vote. The choice of a king was
more difficult than that of drawing up a constitution. It was
desirable that the new sovereign should be able to count upon
the friendly support of the great powers, and yet not be actually
a member of their reigning dynasties. It was from fear of
arousing the susceptibilities of neighbouring states, especially
Great Britain, that Louis Philippe had refused to sanction the
election of his son. It was for this reason that the name of
Leopold of Saxe-Coburg, the widower of Princess Charlotte of
England, had not been placed among the candidates in January.
Overtures were, however, made to him, as soon as it was under-
stood that, as the result of private negotiations at the London
conference, the selection of this prince would be favourably
received both by Great Britain and France. Leopold
tm signified his readiness to accept the crown after having
Belgians, first ascertained that he would have the support of
the great powers in bringing about a satisfactory
settlement with Holland on those points which he considered
essential to the security and welfare of the new kingdom. The
election took place on the 4th of June, when 152 votes out of 196,
four being absent, determined that Leopold should be proclaimed
king of the Belgians, under the express condition that he "would
accept the constitution and swear to maintain the national
independence and territorial integrity." Leopold made his
public entry into Brussels, on the 2ist, and subsequently visited
other parts of the kingdom, and was everywhere received with
demonstrations of loyalty and respect.
At this juncture news suddenly arrived that the Dutch were
preparing to invade the country with a large army. It com-
prised 45,000 infantry and 6000 cavalry with 7 2 pieces of artillery,
while Leopold could scarcely bring forward 25,000 men to oppose
it. On the 2nd of August the whole of the Dutch army had
crossed the frontier; Leopold collected his forces, such as they
were, near Louvain in order to cover his capital. The two armies
met on the gth of August. The undisciplined Belgians, despite
the personal efforts of their king , were speedily routed, and
Leopold and his staff narrowly escaped capture. He, however,
made good his retreat to the capital, and, on the advance of a
French army, the prince of Orange did not deem it prudent to
push on farther. A convention was concluded between him
and the French general, in consequence of which he returned
to Holland and the French likewise recrossed the frontier.
Leopold now proceeded with vigour to strengthen his position
and to restore order and confidence. French officers were
selected for the training and disciplining of the army, the civil
list was arranged with economy and order, and reforms were
introduced into the public service and system of administration.
He kept on the best of terms, though a Protestant, with the
Roman Catholic clergy and nobility, and his subsequent marriage
with the daughter of the French king (pth of August 1832),
and the contract that the children of the marriage should be
brought up in the Roman Catholic faith, did much to inspire
confidence in his good intentions.
Meanwhile the conference in London had drawn up the
project of a treaty for the separation of Holland and Belgium,
which was declared "to be final and irrevocable."
otsepan- ^ ne con ditions were far less favourable to Belgium
Uoa. than had been hoped, and it was not without much
heart-burning and considerable opposition, that the
senate and chamber of deputies gave their assent to them.
The treaty, which contained 24 articles, was signed on the
of November 1831. By these articles the grand-duchy
of Luxemburg was divided, but the king of Holland retained
possession of the fortress of Luxemburg, and also received a
portion of Limburg to compensate him for the part of Luxemburg
assigned to Belgium. The district of Maestricht was likewise
partitioned, but the fortress remained Dutch. The Scheldt
was declared open te the commerce of both countries. The
national debt was divided. The powers recognized the inde-
pendence of Belgium, " as a neutral state."
This agreement was ratified by the Belgian and French
sovereigns on the 20th and 24th of November, by the British
on the 6th of December, but the Austrian and Prussian and
Russian governments, whose sympathies were with the
" legitimate " King William rather than with a prince who
owed his crown to a revolution, did not give their ratification
till some five months later. Even then King William remained
obdurate, refused to sign and continued to keep possession
of Antwerp. After fruitless efforts on the part of the great powers
to obtain his acquiescence, France and Great Britain resolved
to have recourse to force. On the 5th of November their com-
bined fleets sailed for the coast of Holland, and, on the i8th,
a French army of 6o,oco men, under the command of The
Marshal Gerard, crossed the Belgian frontier to besiege Preach
Antwerp. The Dutch garrison capitulated on the ***'**
23rd of December, and on the 3 ist the town was handed
over to the Belgians, and the French troops withdrew across
the frontier. The Dutch, however, still held two forts, which
enabled them to command the navigation of the Scheldt, and
these they stubbornly refused to yield. Belgium therefore kept
possession of Limburg and Luxemburg, except the fortress of
Luxemburg, which as a fortress of the German confederation was,
under the terms of the treaty of Vienna, garrisoned by Prussian
troops. These territories were treated in every way as a part
of Belgium, and sent representatives to the chambers. Great
indignation was therefore felt at the idea of giving
them up, when Holland (i 4th of March 1838) signified
its readiness to accept the conditions of the treaty, question.
The chambers argued that Belgium had been induced
to agree to the twenty-four articles in 1832 in the hope of thereby
at once terminating all harassing disputes, but as Holland
refused then to accept them, the conditions were no longer
binding and the cirajmstances were now quite changed. They
urged that Luxemburg in fact formed an integral part of Belgium
and that the people were totally opposed to a union with Holland.
They offered to pay for the territory in dispute, but the treaty
gave them no right of purchase, and the proposal was not enter-
tained. Addresses were unanimously voted urging
the king to resist separation, great excitement was settlement
aroused throughout the country and preparations between
were made for war. But the firmness of the allied Holland
powers and their determination to uphold the condi- Beifium.
tions of the treaty compelled the king most reluctantly
to submit to the inevitable. The treaty was signed in London
on the ipth of April 1839. It saddled Belgium with a portion
of Holland's debt, and a severe financial crisis followed.
The Belgian revolution owed its success to the union of the
Catholic and Liberal parties; and the king had been very careful
to maintain the alliance between them. This continued s<n ._ yte
to be the character of the government till 1840, but by between
degrees it had been growing more and more conserva- the
live, and was giving rise to dissatisfaction. A ministry
was formed on more liberal principles, but it clashed Liberals.
with the Catholic aristocracy, who had the majority in
the senate. A neutral ministry under M. Charles Nothomb was
then formed. In 1842 it carried a new law of primary instruction,
which aroused the dislike of the anti-clerical Liberals. The
Nothomb ministry retired in 1845. In March 1846 the king
formed a purely Catholic ministry, but it was fiercely attacked by
the Liberals, who had for several years been steadily organizing.
A congress was summoned to meet at Brussels (i4th of June 1846)
composed of delegates from the different Liberal associations
throughout the country. Three hundred and twenty delegates
met and drew up an Act of Federation and a programme of
BELGIUM
[HISTORY
reforms. The election of 1847 gave a majority to the Liberals
and a purely Liberal ministry was formed, and from this date
onwards it has been the constitutional practice in Belgium to
choose a homogeneous ministry from the party which possesses
a working majority in the chamber. In 1848 a new electoral
law was passed, which lowered the franchise to 20
reform* 1 fl rms ' worth of property and doubled the number of
electors. Hence it came to pass that Belgium passed
safely through the crisis of the French revolution of 1848. The
extreme democratic and socialistic party made with French
aid some spasmodic efforts to stir up a revolutionary movement,
but they met with no popular sympathy; the throne of Leopold
stood firmly based upon the trust and respect of the Belgian
nation for the wisdom and moderation of their king.
The attention of the government was now largely directed to
the stimulating of private industry and the carrying out of
public works of great practical utility, such as the extension of
railways and the opening up of other internal means of com-
munication. Commercial treaties were also entered into with
various countries with the view of providing additional outlets
for industrial products. The king also sought as much as
possible to remove from the domain of politics every irritating
question, believing that a union of the different parties was most
for the advantage of the state. In 1850 the question of middle-
class education was settled. In 1852 the Liberal cabinet was
overthrown and a ministry of conciliation was formed. A bill
was passed authorizing the army to be raised to 100,000 men
including reserve. The elections of 1854 modified the parlia-
mentary situation by increasing the strength of the Conserva-
tives; the ministry resigned and a new one was formed, under
Pierre de Decker, of moderate Catholics and Progressives. In
1857 the government of M. de Decker brought in a bill to establish
" the liberty of charity," but in reality to place the administration
of charities in the hands of the priesthood. This led to a violent
agitation throughout the kingdom and the military had to be
called out. Eventually the bill was withdrawn, the ministers
resigned and a Liberal ministry was formed under M. Charles
Rogier. In 1860 the communal octrois or duties on articles of
food brought into the towns was abolished; in 1863 the naviga-
tion of the Scheldt was made free, and a treaty of commerce
established with England. The elections of July 1864 gave a
majority to the Liberals, and M. Rogier continued in office.
On the loth of December 1865, King Leopold died, after a
reign of thirty-four years. He was greatly beloved by his people,
and to him Belgium owed much, for in difficult circum-
stances an d critical times he had managed its affairs
with great tact and judgment. He was succeeded by
his eldest son Leopold II., who was immediately
proclaimed king and took the oath to the constitution on the
1 7th of December. On the outbreak of war between France and
Germany in 1870, Belgium saw the difficulty and danger of her
position, and lost no time in providing for contingencies. A
large war credit was voted, the strength of the army was raised
and strong bodies of troops were moved to the frontier. The
feeling of danger to Belgium also caused great excitement in
England. The British government declared its intention to
maintain the integrity of Belgium in accordance with the treaty
of 1839, and it induced the two belligerent powers to agree not
to violate the neutrality of Belgian territory. A considerable
portion of the French army routed at Sedan did indeed seek
refuge across the frontier; but they laid down their arms
according to convention, and were duly " interned."
In 1870 the Liberal party, which had been in power for thirteen
years, was overthrown by a union of the Catholics with a
number of Liberal dissentients to whom the policy of the
government had given offence, and a Catholic cabinet, at the
head of which was Baron Jules Joseph d'Anethan, took office.
At the election of August 1870, the Catholics obtained a majority
in both chambers. They increased their power considerably
by reducing the voting qualification for electors to provincial
councils to 20 frs., and to communal councils to 10 frs.,
and also by recognizing the importance of what was styled " the
//.
Flemish Movement." Hitherto French had been the official
language of the states. The use of Flemish in public documents,
in judicial procedure and in official correspondence was hereafter
required in the Flemish provinces, and Belgium The
became officially bi-lingual. It was, as has been Flemltb
already pointed out, a reversion to the policy of the Move-
Dutch king, which in 1830 had been so strongly
denounced by the leaders of the Belgian revolution, and its
object was the same, i.e. to prevent frenchification of a population
that was Teutonic by race and speech. In 1871 M. Malou had
become the head of a cabinet of moderate Catholics, and he
retained office till 1878. This was the period of the struggle
between the pope and the Italian government, and the German
Kulturkampf. The Belgian Ultramontanes agitated strongly in
favour of the re-estabiishment of the temporal power and
against the policy of Bismarck. Though discountenanced by
the ministry, the violence of the Ultra-clericals compassed its
downfall. They passed a law adopting the ballot in 1877, but at
the election of the following year a Liberal majority was returned.
The new cabinet, under M. Frere-Orban, devoted itself solely
to the settlement of the educational system. Hitherto since
1842 in all primary schools instruction by the clergy
in the Catholic faith was obligatory, children belonging
to other persuasions being dispensed from attendance. t&J9.
In 1879 a bill was passed for the secularization of
primary education; but an attempt was made to conciliate the
clergy by Art. 4, which enacted " religious instruction is rele-
gated to the care of families and the clergy of the various creeds.
A place in the school may be put at their disposal where the
children may receive religious instruction," at hours other than
those set apart for regular education. The bill likewise provided
for a rigorous inspection of the communal schools. The passing
of this law; was met by the clergy by uncompromising resistance.
The bishops ordered that absolution be refused to teachers in the
schools " sans Dieu," and to the parents who sent their children
to them, and urged the establishment of private Catholic schools.
All over Belgium the agitation spread, and the clergy, who were
practically independent of state control, gained the victory. In
November 1879 it was calculated that there were but 240,000
scholars in the secularized schools against 370,000 in the Catholic
schools. In Flanders over 80 % of the children attended the
Catholic schools. The government appealed to the pope, but
the Holy See declined to take any action, and so great was the
embitterment that the Belgian minister at the Vatican and the
papal nuncio at Brussels were recalled, and in 1880 the clergy
refused to associate themselves with the fetes of the national
jubilee. In order to emerge victorious in such a struggle the
Liberal party had need of all their strength, but a split took
place between the sections known as the doctrinaires and the
progressists, on the question of an extension of the franchise, and
at the election of 1884 the Catholics carried all before them at the
polls. From 1884 up to the present time the clerical party have
maintained their supremacy.
A Catholic administration under M. Malou at once took in
hand the schools question. A law was passed, despite violent
protests from the Liberals, which enacted that the communes
might maintain the private Catholic schools established since
1879 and suppress unsectarian schools at their pleasure. They
might retain at least one unsectarian or adopt one Catholic school,
where 25 heads of families demanded it. The state subsidized
all the communal schools, Catholic and unsectarian alike. Under
this law in all districts under clerical control the unsectarian
schools were abolished. In October 1884, M. Beernaert replaced
M. Malou as prime minister, and retained that post for the
following ten years. He had in 1886 a troublous and dangerous
situation to deal with. Socialism had become a political force
in the land. Socialism of a German type had taken
deep root among the working men of the Flemish outbreak
towns, especially at Ghent and Brussels; socialism of in 1886.
a French revolutionary type a.rnong the Walloon
miners and factory hands. On the iSt.h of March 1886, a socialist
rising suddenly burst out at Liege, on the occasion of the
HISTORY]
BELGIUM
679
anniversary of the Paris Commune, and rapidly spread in other
industrial centres of the Walloon districts. Thousands of work-
men went on strike, demanding better wages and the suffrage.
The ministry acted promptly and with vigour, the outbreak was
suppressed by the employment of the military and order was
restored. But as soon as this was accomplished the government
opened a comprehensive enquiry into the causes of dissatisfaction,
Atritatloa wn ' cn served as the basis of numerous social laws, and
tor "n- led eventually to the establishment of universal
vision of suffrage and the substitution in Belgium of a demo-
te coo- cr atic for a middle-class r6gime. It was not effected
itltution. t -jj severa j years had been spent in long parliamentary
discussions, by demonstrations on the part of the supporters of
franchise revision and by strikes of a political tendency. At
last the senate and chamber declared, May 1892, that the time
for a revision of certain articles of the constitution had come.
As prescribed by the constitution, a dissolution took place and
two new chambers were elected. The Catholics had a majority
in both, but not enough to enable them to dispense with the
assistance of the Liberals, the constitution requiring for every
revision a two-thirds majority. The bills proposed for extending
the franchise were all rejected (April i ith and 1 2th). Thereupon
the council of the Labour party proclaimed a general strike.
Fifty thousand workmen struck, in Brussels there were violent
demonstrations, and the agitation assumed generally a dangerous
aspect. Both the government and the opposition in the chambers
saw that delay was impossible, and that revision must be carried
out. Agreement was reached by the acceptance of a com-
promise proposed by M. Albert Nyssens, Catholic
TheNys- d e p u ty and professor of penal procedure and com-
" mercial law at the university of Louvain, and on the
1 8th of April the chamber adopted an electoral system
until then unknown le suffrage universel plural. The citizen in
order to possess a vote for the election of representatives to the
chambers was to be of a minimum age of twenty-five years, and
of thirty years for the election of senators and provincial and
communal councillors. For the four categories of elections a
supplementary vote was given to (a) citizens who having attained
the age of thirty-five years, and being married or widowers with
children, paid at least 5 f. income tax, and (b) to citizens of
the age of twenty-five years possessing real estate to the value of
2000 f. or Belgian state securities yielding an income of at
least 100 f. Two supplementary votes were bestowed upon
citizens having certain educational certificates, or discharging
functions or following professions implying their possession.
This elaborate system was only carried into law after considerable
and violent opposition in the sessions of 1894 and 1895. It was
chiefly the work of the ministry of M. de Burlet, who succeeded
to the place of M. Beernaert in March 1894.
The composition of the elected bodies for the years 1894-1895
was: for the chamber of representatives 1,354,891 electors
with 2,085,605 votes, for the senate and provincial
Catholic councils 1,148,433 electors with 1,856,838 votes.
Tne result of the first election in October 1894 was
to give the Catholic party an overwhelming majority.
The old Liberal party almost disappeared, while the Walloon
provinces returned a number of Socialists. In February 1896
M. de Burlet, being in bad health, transferred the direction of
the government to M. Smet de Naeyer. The election of 1894
had given the Liberals a much smaller number of seats than they
ought to have had according to the number of votes they polled,
and a cry arose for the establishment of proportional representa-
tion. Both sides felt that reform was again necessary, but the
Catholic majority disagreed among themselves as to the form
it should take. In 1899 M. Smet de Naeyer gave place as head
of the ministry to M. van den Peereboom. But the proposals
Propor- ^ tne l atter me t with organized obstruction on the
tionai part of the Socialist deputies, and after a few months'
represent- tenure of office he gave way to M. Smet de Naeyer
* a a - once more. The new cabinet at once (August 1899)
introduced a bill giving complete proportional representation
in parliamentary elections to all the arrondissements, and it
Politic* la
1905.
was passed despite the defection of a number of Catholic
deputies led by M. Woeste. The election in May 1000 resulted
in the return of a substantial (though reduced) Catholic
majority in both chambers.
During this period of Catholic ascendancy social legislation
was not neglected. Among the enactments the following are
the most important: the institution of industrial
and labour councils, composed of employers and
employe's, and of a superior council, formed of officials,
workmen and employers (1887); laws assisting the
erection of workmen's dwellings and supervising the labour
of women and children (1889); laws for ameliorating the system
of Friendly Societies (1890); laws regulating workshops (1896);
conferring corporate rights on trades' unions (1898); guarantee-
ing the security and health of working men during hours of labour
(1899). In 1900 laws were passed regulating the contract of
labour, placing the workman on a footing of perfect equality
with his employer, assuring the married woman free control of
her savings, and organizing a system of old-age pensions.
Primary education was dealt with in 1895 by a law, which made
religious instruction obligatory, and extended state support to
all schools that satisfied certain conditions. In 1899 there were
in Belgium 6674 subsidized schools, having 775,000 scholars
out of a total of 950,000 children of school age. Only 68,000
did not receive religious instruction. The Catholic party also
strove to mitigate the principle of obligatory military service by
encouraging the system of volunteering and by a reduction
of the time of active service and of the number with the colours.
In 1905 the 75th anniversary of Belgian independence was
celebrated, and there was a great manifestation of loyalty
to King Leopold II. for the wisdom and prudence
shown by him during his long reign. Owing to dis-
sensions among the Catholic and Conservative party
on the subject of military service and the fortification of Antwerp,
their majority in the chamber in 1904 fell from 26 to 20, that
in the senate from 16 to 1 2. The partial election in 1906 reduced
the majority in the chamber to 12, while the partial election
in 1908 brought the majority down to 8. The Smet de Naeyer
ministry which had held office since 1900 was defeated in April
1907 in a debate on the mining law over the proposal concerning
the length of the working day. A new cabinet was formed
on the 2nd of May following under the presidency of M. de Trooz,
who had been minister of the interior under M. Smet de Naeyer,
and who retained that portfolio in conjunction with the
premiership. M. de Trooz died on the 3ist of December 1907,
and was succeeded by M. Schollaert, president of the chamber.
The count of Flanders, brother of the king, died on the
1 7th of November 1905, leaving his son Albert heir to the
throne.
The Congo question had meanwhile become an acute one
in Belgium. The personal interest taken by Leopold II. in the
exploration and commercial development of the
equatorial regions of Africa had led, in the creation of Belgium
the Congo Free State, to results which had originally Congo.
not been anticipated. The Comitt des tudes du Haul
Congo, formed in 1878 at the instance of the king and mainly
financed by him had developed into the International Association
of the Congo, of which a Belgian officer, Colonel M. Strauch, was
president. Through the efforts in Africa of H. M. Stanley a
rudimentary state was created, and through the efforts of King
Leopold in Europe the International Association was recognized
during 1884-1885 by the powers as an independent state.
Declarations to this effect were exchanged between the Belgian
government and the Association on the 23rd of February 1885.
In April of the same year the Belgian chambers authorized the
king to be the chief of the state founded by the Association,
which had already taken the name of tat Independent du Congo.
The union between Belgium and the new state was declared
to be purely personal, but its European headquarters were in
Brussels, its officials, in the course of time, became almost ex-
clusively Belgian, and financially and commercially the con-
nexion between the two countries became increasingly close.
68o
BELGIUM
[LITERATURE
In 1889 King Leopold announced that he had by his will be-
queathed the Congo state to Belgium, and in 1890 the Belgian
government, in return for financial help, acquired the right of
annexing the country under certain conditions. At later dates
definite proposals for immediate annexation were considered
but not adopted, the king showing a strong disinclination to
cede the state, while among the mass of the Belgians the dis-
inclination to annex was equally strong. It was not until
terrible reports as to the misgovernment of the Congo created
a strong agitation for reform in Great Britain, America and other
countries responsible for having aided in the creation of the state,
that public opinion in Belgium seriously concerned itself with
the subject. The result was that in November 1907 a new
treaty of cession was presented to the Belgian chambers,^while
in March 1908 an additional act modified one of the most objec-
tionable features of the treaty a clause by which the king
retained control of the revenue of a vast territory within the
Congo which he had declared to be his private property. A
colonial law, also submitted to the chambers, secured for Belgium
in case of annexation complete parliamentary control over the
Congo state, and the bill for annexation was finally passed in
September 1908.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Th. Juste, Histoire de la Belgique (2 vols., 1853) ;
La Revolution beige de 1830 (2 vols., 1872) ; Conerts national de
Belgique (2 vols., 1880); Memoirs of Leopold I. (2 vols., 1868);
De Gerlache, Histoire du royaume des Pays-Bas (3 vols., 1859);
D. C. Boulger, The History of Belgium, part i. (1900) ; C. White, The
Bdgic Revolution of 1830 (2 vols., 1835) ; Moke and Hubert, Histoire
de Belgique (jusque 1885) (1892) ; L. Hymans, Histoire parlementaire
de la Belgique (1830-1899); Cinquante ans de liberte (4 vols., 1881) ;
J. J. Thonissen, La Belgique sousle^ rigne de Leopold I" (4 vols., 1855-
1858) ; De Laveleye, Le Parti clerical en Belgique (1874) ; Vander-
velde and Destree, Le Socialisme beige (1898); C. Woeste, Vinet
ans de polemique (1890); Hamelius, Le Mouvement flamand (1894).
(G. E.)
LITERATURE
Belgian literature, taken in the widest sense of the term, falls
into three groups, consisting of works written respectively in
Flemish, Walloon and French. The earlier Flemish authors
are treated under DUTCH LITERATURE; the revival of Flemish
Literature (q. v.) since the separation of Belgium from the Nether-
lands in 1830, and Walloon Literature (q.v.), are each separately
noticed. The earlier French writers born on what is now Belgian
territory e.g. Adenes le Rois, Jean Froissart, Jean Lemaire des
Beiges and others are included in the general history of French
Literature (q.v.). It remains to consider the literature written
by Belgians in French during the igth century, and its rapid
development since the revolution of 1831.
Belgian writers were commonly charged with provincialism,
but the prejudice against them has been destroyed by the
brilliant writers of 1870-1880. It was also asserted that Belgian
French literature lacked a national basis, and was merely a
reflection of Parisian models. The most important section of it,
however, has a distinctive quality of its own. Many of its most
distinguished exponents are Flemings by birth, and their writings
reflect the characteristic Flemish scenery; they have the
sensuousness, the colour and the realism of Flemish art; and
on the other hand the tendency to mysticism, to abstraction, is
far removed from the lucidity and definiteness associated with
French literature properly so-called. This profoundly national
character disengaged itself gradually, and has been more strik-
ingly evident since 1870. The earlier writers of the century
were content to follow French tradition.
The events of 1830-1831 gave a great stimulus to Belgian
letters, but the country possessed writers of considerable merit
before that date. Adolphe Mathieu (1802-1876) belongs to the
earlier half of the century, although the tenth and last volume
of his (Euvres en tiers was only printed in 1870. His later works
show the influence of the Romantic revival. Auguste Clavareau
(1787-1864), a mediocre poet, an imitator of the French and
Dutch, produced some successful comedies, but he ceased to
write plays before 1830. Edouard Smits (1789-1852) showed
romantic tendencies in his tragedies of Marie de Bourgogne (1823),
Elfrida (1825), and Jeanne de Flandre (1828) . The first of these
had a great success, partly no doubt because of its patriotic
subject. For four years before 1830 Andre van Hasselt (q.v.)
had been publishing his verses in the Sentinelle des Pays-Bas,
and from 1829 onwards he was an ardent romanticist. A burst
of literary and artistic activity followed the Revolution; and
van Hasselt's house became a centre of poets, artists and
musicians of the romantic school. The best work of the Belgian
romanticists is in the rich and picturesque prose of the i6th
century romance of Charles de Coster (see DE COSTER), and in
the melancholy and semi-philosophical writings of the moralist
Octave Pirmez (q.v.). The Poesies (1841) and the Chansons
(1866) of Antoine Clesse (1816-1889), have been compared with
the work of Beranger;'and the Catholic party found a champion
against the liberals and revolutionists in the satirical poet, Benoit
Quinet (b. 1819). Among the famous dramatic pieces of this
epoch was the Andre Chenier (1843) of Edouard Wacken (1810-
1861), who was a lyric rather than a dramatic poet; also the
comedies of Louis Labarre (1810-1892) and of Henri Delmotte
(1822-1884). Charles Potvin (1818-1902), apoet and a dramatist,
is best known by a patriotic Histoire des lettres en Belgique,
forming vol. iv. of the Belgian compilation, Cinquante ans de
liberte (1882), and by his essays in literary history. Eugene van
Bemmel (1824-1880) established an excellent historical tradition
in his Histoire de la Belgique (1880), reproducing textually the
original authorities, and also edited a Belgian Encyclopaedia
(1873-1875), the Patria Belgica. Baron E. C. de Gerlache (1785-
1871) wrote the history of the Netherlands from the ultramontane
standpoint. The romanticists were attacked in an amusing
satire, Les Voyages et aventures de M. Alfred Nicolas (1835), by
Francois Grandgagnage (1797-1877), who was a nationalist in
the narrowest sense, and regarded the movement as an inde-
fensible invasion of foreign ideas. The best of the novelists of
this period, excluding Charles de Coster, was perhaps Estelle
Ruelens (nee Crevecceur; 1821-1878); she wrote under the
pseudonym of " Caroline Graviere. " Her tales were collected by
the bibliophile "P. L.Jacob " (Paris, 1873-1874).
The whole of this literature derived more or less from foreign
sources, and, with the exception of Charles de Coster and Octave
Pirmez, produced no striking figures. De Coster died in 1879,
and Pirmez in 1883, and the new movement in Belgian literature
dates from the banquet given in the latter year to Camille
Lemonnier (q.v.) whose powerful personality did much to turn
" Young Belgium " into a national channel. Lemonnier himself
cannot be exclusively claimed by any of the conflicting schools of
young Vriters. He was by turns naturalist, lyrist and symbolist ;
and it has been claimed that the germs of all the later develop-
ments in Belgian letters may be traced in his work. The quin-
quennial prize of literature had been refused to his Un male, and
the younger generation of artists and men of letters gave him a
banquet which was recognized as a protest against the official
literature, represented by Louis Hymans (1829-1884), Gustave
Frederix (b. 1834), the literary critic of L'lndependance beige,
and others. The centres around which the young writers were
grouped were two reviews, L' Art moderne and La Jeune Belgique.
L'Art moderne was founded in 1882 by Edmond Picard, who had
as his chief supporters Victor Arnould and Octave Maus. The
first editor of La Jeune Belgique was M. Warlomont (1860-1889),
known under the pen-name of " Max Waller." This review,
which owed much of its success to Waller's energy, defended the
intense preoccupation of the new writers with questions of style,
and became the depository of the Parnassian tradition in Belgium.
It had among its early contributors Georges Eekhoud, Albert
Giraud, Iwan Gilkin and Georges Rodenbach. Edmond Picard
(b. 1836) was one of the foremost in the battle. He was well
known as an advocate in Brussels, and made a considerable
contribution to jurisprudence as the chief writer of the Pandectes
beiges (1886-1890). His Pro arte (1886) was a kind of literary
code for the young Belgian writers. His novels, of which La
Forge Roussel (1881) is a good example, were succeeded in 1902-
1903 by two plays, Jericho and Fatigue de vivre.
Georges Eekhoud, born at Antwerp on the 27th of May 1854,
was in some ways the most passionately Flemish of the whole
BELGRADE
681
group. He described the life of the peasants of his native
Flanders with a bold realism, making himself the apologist of
the vagabond and the outcast in a series of tragic stories:
Kees Doorik ( 1 883) , Kermesses ( 1 883) , Nouvelles Kermesses ( 1 887) ,
Le Cycle palibulaire (1892), Mes Communions (1895), Estal Vigor
(1899) and La Faneuse d' amour (1900), &c. Nouvelle Carthage
(1888) deals with modern Antwerp. In 1892 he produced a
striking book on English literature entitled Au siede de Shake-
speare, and has written French versions of Beaumont and
Fletcher's Philaster (1895) and of Marlow's Edward II.
(1896).
The earlier work of " Young Belgium " in poetry was experi-
mental in character, and was marked by extravagances of style
and a general exuberance which provoked much hostile criticism.
The young writers of 1870 to 1880 had not long to wait, however,
for recognition both at home and in Paris, where many of them
found hospitality in the pages of the Mercure de France from
1890 onwards. They divided their allegiance between the
leaders of the French Parnassus and the Symbolists.
The most powerful of the Belgian poets, Emile Verhaeren (q.v.) ,
is the most daring in his technical methods of expressing bizarre
sensation, and has been called the " poet of paroxysm." His
reputation extends far beyond the limits of his own country.
Many of the Belgian poets adhere to the classical form.
Albert Giraud (born at Louvain in 1860) was faithful to the
Parnassian tradition in his Pierrot lunaire (1884), Pierrot narcisse
(1891) and Hors du siede (1886). In the earlier works of Iwan
Gilkin (born at Brussels in 1858) the influence of Charles Baude-
laire is predominant. He wrote Damnation de I' artiste (1890),
Tenebres (1892), Stances dories (1893), La Nuit (1897) and
Promtihee (1899). The poems of Valere Gille (born at Brussels
in 1867), whose Cithare was crowned by the French Academy in
1898, belong to the same group. Emile van Arenberghe (born
at Louvain in 1854) is the author of some exquisite sonnets.
Fernand Severin (b. 1867) in his Poemes ingtnus (1900) aims at
simplicity of form, and seems to have learnt the art of his
musical verse direct from Racine. With Severin^ is closely
associated Georges Marlow (b. 1872), author of L'Ame en exil
(1895)-
Georges Rodenbach (1855-1898) spent most of his life in
Paris and was an intimate of Edmond de Goncourt. He produced
some Parisian and purely imitative work; but the best part of
his production is the outcome of a passionate idealism of the
quiet Flemish towns in which he had passed his childhood and
early youth. In his best known work, Bruges la Morte (1892), he
explains that his aim is to evoke the town as a living being,
associated with the moods of the spirit, counselling, dissuading
from and prompting action.
The most famous of all modern Belgian writers, Maurice
Maeterlinck (q.v.), made his dfibut in a Parisian journal, the
Pltiade, in 1886. He succeeded more nearly than any of his
predecessors in expressing or suggesting ideas and emotions
which might have been supposed to be capable of translation
only in terms of music. " The unconscious self, or rather the
sub-conscious self," says Emile Verhaeren, " recognized in the
verse and prose of Maeterlinck its language or rather its stammer-
ing attempt at language." Maeterlinck was a native of Ghent,
and the first poems of two of his fellow-townsmen also appeared
in the Pltiade. These were GrSgoire le Roy (b. 1862), author
of La Chanson d'un soir (1886), and Man Cxur pleure d'autrefois
(1889); and Charles van Lerberghe (b. 1861), author of a play,
Les Flaireurs (1890) and a collection of Poemes (1897).
Max Elskamp (born at Antwerp in 1862) is the author of some
volumes of religious poetry Dominical (1892), Salutations, dont
d'angfliques (1893), En symbole vers I'apostolat(i8<)5) for which
he has devised as background an imaginary city. Eugene
Demolder (b.i862) also created a mythical city as a setting for
his prose contcs in the Llgende d'Yperdamme (1897).
Belgian literary activity extends also to historical research.
Baron Kervyn de Lettenhove (1817-1891) wrote a Histoire de
Flandre (7 vols., 1847-1855), and a number of monographs
on separate points in Flemish and English history. Though an
accurate historian, he allowed himself to be prejudiced by his
extreme Catholic views. He was a vehement defender of
Mary Stuart. Louis Gachard (1800-1885) wrote many valuable
works on i6th century history; Mgr. Name'che (1810-1893)
completed the 2gth volume of his Cours d'histoire nationale
before his death; Charles Piot (b. 1812) edited the correspond-
ence of Cardinal de Granvelle; Alphonse Wauters (1818-1898),
archivist of Brussels, published many archaeological works; and
Charles Rahlenbeck (1823-1903) wrote enthusiastically of the
history of Protestantism in Belgium. One of the most masterly
writers of French in Belgium was the economist Emile de
Laveleye (q.v.). In aesthetics should be noted the historian
of music, Francois Joseph F6tis (1784-1871); F. A. Gevaert
(1828-1908), author of Histoire et theorie de la musique d'antiquitt
(2 vols., 1875-1881); and Victor Mahillon (b. 1841) for his
work in acoustics and his descriptive catalogue (1893-1900)
of the museum of musical instruments belonging to the Brussels
conservatoire. In psychology Joseph Delboeuf (1831-1806)
enjoyed a great reputation outside Belgium; Elis6e Reclus
(b. 1830) , though a Frenchman by birth, completed his Geographic
universelle (1875-1894) in exile at Brussels; and Ernest Nys
has written many standard works on international law. In the
history of literature an important work is compiled by Ferdinand
van der Haeghen and others in the Bibliotheca Belgica (1880, &c.),
comprising a description of all the books printed in the Nether-
lands in the i sth and 1 6th centuries. The vicomte de Spoelberch
de Lovenjoul (1836-1907) was well known in France as the
author of {Sainte-Beuve intonnu (1901), La Genese d'un roman
de Balzac (1901), Une Page perdue de H. de Balzac (1903), and
of numerous bibliographical works.
See F. V. Goethals, Histoire des lettres, des sciences et des arts en
Belgique (4 vols., 1840-1844); Fr. Masoin, Histoire de la lilterature
franfaise en Belgique de 181$ a 1830 (1003); F. Nautet, Histoire des
lettres beiges a' expression fran^aise (3 vols., 1892 et seq.), written from
the point of view of young Belgium, and by no means impartial;
A. de Koninck, Bibliographie nationale brought down to 1880;
Biographie nationale de Belgique (1866, &c.) in progress; see also
articles by Emile Verhaeren in the Revue des revues (isth June 1896),
by Albert Mockel in the Revue encyclopedique (24th July 1897); a
collection of criticisms chiefly on Belgian writers by Eugene Gilbert,
France et Belgique; etudes litteraires (1905); Frdderic Faber,
Histoire du theatre franc.ais en Belgique (5 vols., 1878-1880). An
excellent anthology of Belgian poets was published by K. Pol de
Mont with the title of Modernites (1898). (E. G.)
BELGRADE (Servian, Biogrador Beograd, i.e. " White Castle"),
the capital of Servia. Pop. (1900) 69,097. Belgrade occupies a tri-
angular ridge or foreland, washed on the north-west by the Save,
and on the north-east by the Danube; these rivers flowing respect-
ively from the south-west and north-west. The sides of the
triangle slope down abruptly towards the west, more gradually
towards the east; at the base stands the cone of Avala Hill,
the last outpost of the Rudnik Mountains, which extend far
away to the south; and, at the apex, a cliff of Tertiary chalk,
200 ft. high, overlooks the confluence of the two rivers, the large,
flat island of Veliki Voyn and several smaller islets. This cliff
is crowned by the walls and towers of the citadel, once white,
but now maroon with age, and, though useful as a prison and
barracks, no longer of any military value. Behind the citadel,
and along its glacis on the southern side, are the gardens of
Kalemegdan, commanding a famous view across the river;
behind Kalemegdan comes Belgrade itself, a city of white
houses, among which a few great public buildings, like the high
school, national bank, national theatre and the so-called
New Palace, stand forth prominently. The town was formerly
divided into three parts, namely, the Old town, the Russian town
(Sava-Makhala or Save district), and the Turkish town (Dortol, or
Cross-road). A great change, however, took place in the course of
the 1 9th century, and the old divisions are only partially applic-
able, while there has to be added the Tirazia , an important suburban
extension along the line of the aqueduct or Tirazi. A few old
Turkish houses, built of plaster, with red-tiled roofs, are left
among the ill-paved and insanitary districts bordering upon
the rivers, but as the royal residence, the seat of government,
and the centre of the import trade, Belgrade was, after i86oj
682
BELHAVEN AND STENTON BELISARIUS
rapidly transformed into a modern European town, with wide
streets, electric tramways and electric lighting. Only the
multitude of small gardens, planted with limes, acacias and lilacs,
and the bright costumes of the Servian or Hungarian peasants,
remain to distinguish it from a western capital. For a town of
such importance, which is also the seat of the metropolitan of
Servia, Belgrade has very few churches, and these are of a
somewhat modest type. There were, in 1900, four Servian
Orthodox churches, including the cathedral, one Roman Catholic
chapel, one Evangelical chapel (German), two synagogues and
one mosque. This last is kept up entirely at the expense of the
Servian government.
The highest educational establishments are to be found in
Belgrade: the Velika Shkola (a small university with three
faculties), the military academy, the theological seminary, the
high school for girls, a commercial academy, and several schools
for secondary education on German models. A commercial
tribunal, a court of appeal and the court of cassation are also
in Belgrade. There is a fine monument to Prince Michael (1860-
1868) who succeeded in removing the Turkish garrison from
the Belgrade citadel and obtaining other Turkish fortresses in
Servia by skilful diplomacy. There are also an interesting
national museum, with Roman antiquities and numismatic
collections, a national library with a wealth of old Servian MSS.
among its 40,000 volumes, and a botanical garden, rich in
specimens of the Balkan flora. To promote commerce there are a
stock and produce exchange (Berza), a national bank, privileged
to issue notes, and several other banking establishments. The
insurance work is done by foreign companies.
The bulk of the foreign trade of Servia passes through Belgrade,
but the industrial output of the city itself is not large, owing to
the scarcity both of labour and capital. The principal industries
are brewing, iron-founding and the manufacture of cloth, boots,
leather, cigarettes, matches, pottery, preserved meat and
confectionery. The railway from Budapest to Constantinople
crosses the Save by a fine bridge on the south-west, above the
landing-place for steamers. Farther south is the park of Top-
chider, with an old Turkish kiosk built for Prince Milosh (1818-
1839) in the beautifully laid-out grounds. In the adjoining
forest of lime-trees, called Koshutnyak or the " deer-park,"
Prince Michael was assassinated in 1868. Just opposite the
citadel, in a north-westerly direction, half-an-hour by steamer
across the Danube, lies the Hungarian town of Semlin. For
administrative purposes, Belgrade forms a separate department
of the kingdom.
The first fortification of the rock, at the confluence of the
Save and the Danube, was made by the Celts in the 3rd century
B.C. They gave it the name of Singidunum, by which Belgrade
was known until the 7th century A.D. The Romans took it
from the Celts, and replaced their fort by a regular Roman
castrum, placing in it a strong garrison. Roman bricks, dug
up in the fortress, bear the inscription, Legio IV. Flavia Felix.
From the 4th to the beginning of the 6th century A.D. it often
changed its masters (Huns, Sarmatians, Goths, Gepids); then
the emperor Justinian brought it once more under Roman rule
and fortified and embellished it. Towards the end of the 8th
century it was taken by the Franks of Charlemagne. In the 9th
century it was captured by the Bulgarians, and held by them
until the beginning of the nth century, when the Byzantine
emperor Basil II. reconquered it for the Greek empire. The
Hungarians, under king Stephen, took it from the Greeks in
1124. From that time it was constantly changing hands
Greeks, Bulgarians, Hungarians, replacing each other in turn.
The city was considered to be the key of Hungary, and its
possession was believed to secure possession of Servia, besides
giving command of the traffic between the Upper and the Lower
Danube. It has, in consequence, seen more battles under its
walls than most fortresses in Europe. The Turks used to call
it Darol-4-Jehad, " the home of wars for faith." During the
i4th century it was in the hands of the Servian kings. The
Servian prince George Brankovich ceded it to the Hungarians in
1427. The Turkish forces unsuccessfully besieged the city
in 1444 and 1456, on which last occasion a glorious victory was
obtained by the Christian garrison, led by the famous John
Hunyady and the enthusiastic monk John Cap's tran. In 1521
Sultan Suleiman took it from the Hungarians, and from that
year it remained in Turkish possession until 1688, when the
Austrians captured it, only to lose it again in 1690. In 1717
Prince Eugene of Savoy conquered it for Austria, which kept
it until 1739, improving the fortifications and giving great
impulse to the commercial development of the town. From
1739 to 1789 the Turks were again its masters, when, in that
last year, the Austrians under General Laudon carried it by
assault, only to lose it again in 1792. In 1807 the Servians,
having risen for their independence, forced the Turkish garrison
to capitulate, and became masters of Belgrade, which they kept
until the end of September 1813, when they abandoned it to the
Turks. Up to the year 1862 not only was the fortress of Belgrade
garrisoned by Turkish troops, but the Danubian slope of the town
was inhabited by Turks, living under a special Turkish ad-
ministration, while the modern part of the town (the plateau
of the ridge and the western slope) was inhabited by Servians
living under their own authorities. This dual government was
a constant cause of friction between the Servians and the Turks,
and on the occasion of one conflict between the two parties
the Turkish commander of the fortress bombarded the Servian
part of the town (June 1862). The indirect consequence of
this incident was that in 1866, on the categoric demand of Prince
Michael of Servia, and under the diplomatic pressure of the great
powers, the sultan withdrew the Turkish garrison from the
citadel and delivered it to the Servians. (C. Mi.)
BELHAVEN AND STENTON, JOHN HAMILTON, 2ND BARON
(1656-1708), was the eldest son of Robert Hamilton, Lord
Presmennan (d. 1696), and was born on the 5th of July 1656.
Having married Margaret, granddaughter of John Hamilton,
ist Baron Belhaven and Stenton, who had been made a peer by
Charles I. in 1647, he succeeded to this title in 1679. In 1681
he was imprisoned for opposing the government and for speaking
slightingly of James, duke of York, afterwards James II., in
parliament, and in 1689 he was among those who asked William
of Orange to undertake the government of Scotland. Belhaven
was at the battle of Killiecrankie; he was a member of the
Scottish privy council, and he was a director of the Scottish
Trading Company, which was formed in 1695 and was respons-
ible for the Darien expedition. He favoured the agitation for
securing greater liberty for his country, an agitation which
culminated in the passing of the Act of Security in 1705, and he
greatly disliked the union of the parliaments, a speech which he
delivered against this proposal in November 1706 attracting
much notice and a certain amount of ridicule. Later he was
imprisoned, ostensibly for favouring a projected French invasion,
and he died in London on the 2ist of June 1708. Belhaven is
chiefly famous as an orator, and two of his speeches, one of them
the famous one of November 1706, were printed by D. Defoe in
an appendix to his History of the Union (1786).
Belhaven's son, John, who fought on the English side at
Sheriffmuir, became the 3rd baron on his father's death. He
was drowned in November 1721, whilst proceeding to take up
his duties as governor of Barbados, and was succeeded by his
son John (d. 1764). After the death of John's brother James in
1777 the title was for a time dormant; then in 1799 the House
of Lords declared that William Hamilton (1765-1814), a de-
scendant of John Hamilton, the paternal great-grandfather
of the 2nd baron, was entitled to the dignity. William, who
became the 7th baron, was succeeded by his son Robert (1793-
1868), who was created a peer of the United Kingdom as Baron
Hamilton of Wishaw in 1 83 1 . He died without issue in December
1868, when the barony of Hamilton became extinct; in 1875
the House of Lords declared that his cousin, James Hamilton
(1822-1893) was rightfully Baron Belhaven and Stenton, and
the title descended to his kinsman, Alexander Charles (b. 1840),
the xoth baron.
BELISARIUS (c. 505-565), one of the most famous generals of
the later Roman empire, was born about A.D. 505, in "Germania,"
BELIT--BELKNAP, J.
683
a district on the borders of Thrace and Macedonia. His name is
supposed to be Slavonic. As a youth he served in the body-
guard of Justinian, who appointed him commander of the
Eastern army. He won a signal victory over the Persians in
530, and successfully conducted a campaign against them, until
forced, by the rashness of his soldiers, to join battle and suffer
defeat in the following year. Recalled to Constantinople, he
married Antonina, a clever, intriguing woman, and a favourite of
the empress Theodora. During the sedition of the " green "
and "blue" parties of the circus (known as the Nika sedition,
532) he did Justinian good service, effectually crushing the rebels
who had proclaimed Hypatius emperor. In 533 the command
of the expedition against the Vandal kingdom in Africa, a
perilous office, which the rest of the imperial generals shunned,
was conferred on Belisarius. With 15,000 mercenaries, whom he
had to train into Roman discipline, he took Carthage, defeated
Gelimer the Vandal king, and carried him captive, in 534, to
grace the first triumph witnessed in Constantinople. In reward
for these services Belisarius was invested with the consular
dignity, and medals were struck in his honour. At this time the
Ostrogothic kingdom, founded in Italy by Theodoric the Great,
was shaken by internal dissensions, of which Justinian resolved
to avail himself. Accordingly, Belisarius invaded Sicily; and,
after storming Naples and defending Rome for a year against
almost the entire strength of the Goths in Italy, he concluded
the war by the capture of Ravenna, and with it of the Gothic
king Vitiges. So conspicuous were Belisarius's heroism and
military skill that the Ostrogoths offered to acknowledge him
emperor of the West. But his loyalty did not waver; he
rejected the proposal and returned to Constantinople in 540.
Next year he was sent to check the Persian king Chosroes (Anu-
shirvan); but, thwarted by the turbulence of his troops, he
achieved no decisive result. On his return to Constantinople he
lived under a cloud for some time, but was pardoned through
the influence of Antonina with the empress. The Goths having
meanwhile reconquered Italy, Belisarius was despatched with
utterly inadequate forces to oppose them. Nevertheless, during
five campaigns he held his enemies at bay, until he was removed
from the command, and the conclusion of the war was entrusted
to the eunuch Narses. Belisarius remained at Constantinople
in tranquil retirement until 559, when an incursion of Bulgarian
savages spread a panic through the metropolis, and men's eyes
were once more turned towards the neglected veteran, who
placed himself at the head of a mixed multitude of peasants and
soldiers, and repelled the barbarians with his wonted courage
and adroitness. But this, like his former victories, stimulated
Justinian's envy. The saviour of his country was coldly received
and left unrewarded by his suspicious sovereign. Shortly after-
wards Belisarius was accused of complicity in a conspiracy
against the emperor (562); his fortune was .confiscated, and he
was confined as a prisoner in his palace. He was liberated and
restored to favour in 563, and died in 565.
The fiction of Belisarius wandering as a blind beggar through
the streets of Constantinople, which has been adopted by
Marmontel in his B&lisaire, and by various painters and poets,
is first heard of in the loth century. Gibbon justly calls Beli-
sarius the Africanus of New Rome. He was merciful as a
conqueror, stern as a disciplinarian, enterprising and wary as a
general; while his courage, loyalty and forbearance seem to
have been almost unsullied. He was the idol of his soldiers, a
good tactician, but not a great strategist.
AUTHORITIES. Procopius, De Bellis and Historic. Arcana (best
edition by J. Haury, 1905, 1907) ; see Gibbon, Decline and Fall (ed.
Bury, vol. 4) ; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (vol. 4) ; J. B.
Bury, Later Roman Empire, vol. i. ; Diehl, Justinien (Paris, 1901).
a- B. B.)
BELIT (signifying the " lady," par excellence), in the Baby-
lonian religion the designation of the consort of Bel (?..). Her
real name was Nin-lil, i.e. the " lady of power," if the explanation
suggested in BEL for the second element is correct. She is also
designated as Nin-Khar-sag, " Lady of the mountain," which
name stands in some relationship to Im-Khar-sag, " storm
mountain " the name of the staged tower or sacred edifice to
Bel at Nippur. As the consort of En-til, the goddess Nin-lil or
Bel it belongs to Nippur and her titles as " ruler of heaven and
earth," and " mother of the gods " are all due to her position
as the wife of Bel. While recognized by a temple of her own in
Nippur and honoured by rulers at various times by having votive
offerings made in her honour and fortresses dedicated in her
name, she, as all other goddesses in Babylonia and Assyria with
the single exception of Ishtar, is overshadowed by her male
consort. The title Ik-lit was naturally transferred to the great
mother-goddess Ishtar after the decline of the cult at Nippur,
and we also find the consort of Marduk, known as Sarpanit,
designated as Belit, for the sufficient reason that Marduk, after
the rise of the city of Babylon as the seat of his cult, becomes the
Bel or " lord " of later days. (M. JA.)
BELIZE, or BALIZE, the capital and principal seaport of
British Honduras, on the Caribbean Sea, in 17 29' N. and
88 n' W, Pop. (1004) 9969. Belize occupies both banks of
the river Belize, at its mouth. Its houses are generally built of
wood, with high roofs and wide verandahs shaded by cocoanut
or cabbage palms. The principal buildings are the court house,
in the centre of the town, government house, at the southern
end, Fort George, towards the north, the British bank of
Honduras, the hospital, the Roman Catholic convent, and the
Wesleyan church, which is the largest and handsomest of all.
Mangrove swamps surround the town and epidemics of cholera,
yellow fever and other tropical diseases have been frequent;
but the unhealthiness of the climate is mitigated to some extent
by the high tides which cover the marshes, and the invigorating
breezes which blow in from the sea. Belize is connected by
telegraph and telephone with the other chief towns of British
Honduras, but there is no railway, and communication even by
road is defective. The exports are mahogany, rosewood, cedar,
logwood and other cabinet-woods and dye-woods, with cocoanu ts,
sugar, sarsaparilla, tortoiseshell, deerskins, turtles and fruit,
especially bananas. Breadstuffs, cotton fabrics and hardware
are imported.
Belize probably derives its name from the French balise,
" a beacon," as no doubt some signal or light was raised here
for the guidance of the buccaneers who once infested this region.
Local tradition connects the name with that of Wallis or Wallace,
a Scottish buccaneer, who, in 1638, settled, with a party of
logwood cutters, on St George's Cay, a small island off the town.
In the 1 8th century the names Wallis and Belize were used
interchangeably for the town, the river and the whole country.
The history of Belize is inextricably bound up with that of the
rest of British Honduras (q.v.).
BELJAME, ALEXANDRE (1842-1006), French writer, was born
at Villiers-le-Bel, Seine-et-Oise, on the 26th of November 1842.
He spent part of his childhood in England and was a frequent
visitor in London. His lectures on English literature at the
Sorbonne, where a chair was created expressly for him, did much
to promote the study of English in France. In 1905-1906 he
was Clark lecturer on English literature at Trinity College,
Cambridge. He died at Domont (Seine-et-Oise) on the igth of
September 1906. His best known book was a masterly study
of the conditions of literary life in England in the i8th century
illustrated by the lives of Dryden, Addison and Pope. This
book, Le Public et les hommes de lettresen Angleterre au XVIII'
siecle ( 1 88 1 ) , was crowned by the French Academy on the appear-
ance of the second edition in 1897. He was a good Shakespearian
scholar, and his editions ol Macbeth, Othello and Julius Caesar
also received an academic prize in 1002.
BELKNAP, JEREMY (1744-1798), American author and
clergyman, was born at Boston on the 4th of June 1744, and was
educate'd at Harvard College, where he graduated in 1762.
In 1 767 he became minister of a Congregational church at Dover,
New Hampshire, remaining there until 1787, when he removed
to Federal Street church, Boston. He is recognized as the
founder of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and in 1792
became an overseer of Harvard. He died at Boston on the
2oth of June 1798. Belknap's chief works are: History of
New Hampshire (1784-1792); An Historical Account of those
684
BELKNAP, W. W. BELL, SIR C.
persons who have been distinguished in America, generally known
as American Biography (1792-1794); TheForesters (1792), &c.
BELKNAP, WILLIAM WORTH (1829-1890), American
soldier and politician, was born at Newburgh, N.Y., on the
22nd of September 1829. Entering the Union army in 1861,
he took part in the battles of Shiloh, Corinth and Vicksburg,
as major of the isth Iowa volunteers. In the Atlanta
campaign under Sherman he gained considerable distinction,
rising successively to the rank of brigadier-general in 1864
and major-general in 1865. During the four years that followed
he was collector of internal revenue for Iowa, leaving that post in
1869 to become secretary of war. In 1876, in consequence of
unproved accusations of corruption, he resigned. He died at
Washington, B.C., on the I3th of October 1890.
BELL, ALEXANDER GRAHAM (1847- ), American
inventor and physicist, son of Alexander Melville Bell, was bom
in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 3rd of March 1847. He was
educated at the university of Edinburgh and the university of
London, and removed with his father to Canada in 1870. In
1872 he became professor of vocal physiology in Boston Univer-
sity. In 1876 he exhibited an apparatus embodying the results
of his studies in the transmission of sound by electricity, and this
invention, with improvements and modifications, constitutes
the modern commercial telephone. He was the inventor also of
the photophone, an instrument for transmitting sound by
variations in a beam of light, and of phonographic apparatus.
Later, he interested himself in the problem of mechanical flight.
He published many scientific monographs, including a memoir
on the formation of a deaf variety in the human race.
BELL, ALEXANDER MELVILLE (1810-1905), American
educationalist, was born at Edinburgh, Scotland, on the ist of
March 1819. He studied under and became the principal assist-
ant of his father, Alexander Bell, an authority on phonetics
and defective speech. From 1843 to 1865 he lectured on elocution
at the university of Edinburgh, and from 1865 to 1870 at the
university of London. In 1868, and again hi 1870 and 1871, he
lectured in the Lowell Institute course in Boston. In 1870 he
became a lecturer on philology at Queen's College, Kingston,
Ontario; and in 1881 he removed to Washington, D.C., where
he devoted himself to the education of deaf mutes by the " visible
speech " method of orthoepy, in which the alphabetical characters
of his own invention were graphic diagrams of positions and
motions of the organs of speech. He held high rank as an
authority on physiological phonetics (q.v.) and was the author of
numerous works on orthoepy, elocution and education, including
Steno- Phonography (1852); Letters and Sounds (1858); The
Standard Elocutionist (1860); Principles of Speech and Dictionary
of Sounds (1863); Visible Speech: The Science of Universal
Alphabetics (1867); Sounds and their Relations (1881); Lectures
on Phonetics (1885); A Popular Manual of Visible Speech and
Vocal Physiology (1889); World English: the Universal Language
(1888); The Science of Speech (1897); The Fundamentals of
Elocution (1899).
See John Hitz, Alexander Melville Bell (Washington, 1906).
BELL, ANDREW (1733-1832), British divine and educational-
ist, was born at St Andrews on the 27th of March 1753. He
graduated at the university there, and afterwards spent some
years as a tutor in Virginia, U.S.A. On his return he took orders,
and in 1787 sailed for India, where he held eight army chap-
laincies at the same time. In 1789 he became superintendent
of the male orphan asylum at Madras, and having been obliged
from scarcity of teachers to introduce the system of mutual
tuition by the pupils, found the scheme answer so well that he
became convinced of its universal applicability. In 1797, after
his return to London, he published a small pamphlet explaining
his views on education. Little public attention was drawn
towards the " monitorial " plan till Joseph Lancaster (q.v.), the
Quaker, opened a school in Southwark, conducting it in accord-
ance with Bell's principles, and improving on his system. The
success of the method, and the strong support given to Lancaster
by the whole body of Nonconformists gave immense impetus to
the movement. Similar schools were established in great
numbers; and the members of the Church of England, becoming
alarmed at the patronage of such schools resting entirely in the
hands of dissenters, resolved to set up similar institutions in
which their own principles should be inculcated. In 1807 Bell
was called from his rectory of Swanage in Dorset to organize a
system of schools in accordance with these views, and hi 1811
became superintendent of the newly formed " National Society
for Promoting the Education of the Poor in the Principles of the
Established Church." For his valuable services he was in some
degree recompensed by his preferment to a prebend of West-
minster, and to the mastership of Sherburn hospital, Durham.
He tried, but without success, to plant his system in Scotland
and on the continent. He died on the 27th of January 1832, at
Cheltenham, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. His great
fortune was bequeathed almost entirely for educational purposes.
Of the 120,000 given in trust to the provost of St Andrews, two
city ministers and the professor of Greek in the university, half
was devoted to the founding of the important school, called the
Madras College, at St Andrews; 10,000 was left to each of the
large cities, Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leith, Inverness and Aberdeen,
for school purposes; and 10,000 was also given to the Royal
Naval School.
Southey's Life of Dr Bell (3 vols.) is very tedious; J. D. Meikle-
john's An Old Educational Reformer is concise and accurate.
BELL, SIR CHARLES (1774-1842), Scottish anatomist, was
born at Edinburgh in November 1774, the youngest son of the
Rev. William Bell, a clergyman of the Episcopal Church of
Scotland; among his brothers were the anatomist, John Bell,
and the jurist, G. J. Bell. After attending the high school and
the university of Edinburgh, he embraced the profession of
medicine, and devoted himself chiefly to the study of anatomy,
under the direction of his brother John. His first work, entitled
A System of Dissections, explaining the anatomy of the human
body, the manner of displaying the parts, and their varieties in
disease, was published in Edinburgh in 1798, while he was still
a pupil, and for many years was considered to be a valuable
guide to the student of practical anatomy. In 1802 he published
a series of engravings of original drawings, showing the anatomy
of the brain and nervous system. These drawings, which are
remarkable for artistic skill and finish, were taken from dis-
sections made by Bell for the lectures or demonstrations he gave
on the nervous system as part of the course of anatomical
instruction of his brother. In 1804 he wrote the third volume,
containing the anatomy of the nervous system and of the organs
of special sense, of The Anatomy of the Human Body, by John
and Charles Bell. In November of the same year he migrated
to London, and from that date, for nearly forty years, he kept up
a regular correspondence with his brother George, much of which
was published in the Letters of Sir Charles Bell, &c., 1870. The
earlier letters of this correspondence show how rapidly he rose
to distinction in a field where success was difficult, as it was
already occupied by such men as John Abernethy, Sir Astley
Cooper and Henry Cline. Before leaving Edinburgh, he had
written his work on the Anatomy of Expression, which was
published in London soon after his arrival and at once attracted
attention. His practical knowledge of anatomy and his skill as an
artist qualified him in an exceptional manner for such a work.
The object of this treatise was to describe the arrangements by
which the influence of the mind is propagated to the muscular
frame, and to give a rational explanation of the muscular move-
ments which usually accompany the various emotions and
passions. One special feature was the importance attributed
to the respiratory arrangements as a source of expression, and it
was shown how the physician and surgeon might derive informa-
tion regarding the nature and extent of important diseases by
observing the expression of bodily suffering. This work, apart
from its value to artists and psychologists, is of interest histori-
cally, as there is no doubt the investigations of the author into
the nervous supply of the muscles of expression induced him to
prosecute inquiries which led to his great discoveries in the
physiology of the nervous system.
In 181 1 Bell published his New Idea of the Anatomy of the Brain,
BELL, G. J. BELL, H. G.
685
in which he announced the discovery of the different functions
of the nerves corresponding with their relations to different
parts of the brain; his latest researches were described in The
Nervous System of the Human Body (1830), a collection of papers
read by him before the Royal Society. He discovered that in the
nervous trunks there are special sensory filaments, the office
of which is to transmit impressions from the periphery of the
body to the sensorium, and special motor filaments which convey
motor impressions from the brain or other nerve centre to the
muscles. He also showed that some nerves consist entirely of
sensory filaments and are therefore sensory nerves, that others
are composed of motor filaments and are therefore motor nerves,
whilst a third variety contains both kinds of filaments and are
therefore to be regarded as sensory-motor. Furthermore, he
indicated that the brain and spinal cord may be divided into
separate parts, each part having a special function one part
ministering to motion, the other to sensation, and that the origin
of the nerves from one or other or both of those sources endows
them with the peculiar property of the division whence they
spring. He also demonstrated that no motor nerve ever passes
through a ganglion. Lastly, he showed, both from theoretical
considerations and from the result of actual experiment on the
living animal, that the anterior roots of the spinal nerves are
motor, while the posterior are sensory. These discoveries as a
whole must be regarded as the greatest in physiology since that
of the circulation of the blood by William Harvey. They were
not only a distinct and definite advance in scientific knowledge,
but from them flowed many practical results of much importance
in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. It is not surprising
that Bell should have viewed his results with exultation. On
the 26th of November 1807, he wrote to his brother George:
" I have done a more interesting nova anatomia cerebri humani
than it is possible to conceive. I lectured it yesterday. I
prosecuted it last night till one o'clock; and I am sure it will
be well received." On the 3ist of the same month he wrote:
" I really think this new anatomy of the brain will strike more
than the discovery of the lymphatics being absorbents."
In 1807 he produced a System of Comparative Surgery, in which
surgery is regarded almost wholly from an anatomical and
operative point of view, and there is little or no mention of the
use of medicinal substances. It placed him, however, in the
highest rank of English writers on surgery. In 1809 he re-
linquished his professional work in London, and rendered
meritorious services to the wounded from Coruna, who were
brought to the Haslar hospital at Portsmouth. In 1810 he pub-
lished a series of Letters concerning the Diseases of the Urethra,
in which he treated of stricture from an anatomical and patho-
logical point of view. In 1812 he was appointed surgeon to the
Middlesex hospital, a post he retained for twenty-four years.
He was also professor of anatomy, physiology and surgery to
the College of Surgeons of London, and for many years teacher
of anatomy in the school which used to exist in Great Windmill
Street. In 1815 he went to Brussels to treat the wounded of
the battle of Waterloo. In 1816, 1817 and 1818, he published
a series of Quarterly Reports of Cases in Surgery; in 1821 a volume
of coloured plates with descriptive letterpress, entitled Illustra-
tions of the great operations of Surgery, Trepan, Hernia, Amputa-
tion and Lithotomy, and in 1824 Observations on Injuries of the
Spine and of the Thigh Bone. On the formation of University
College, Gower Street, he was for a short time head of the
medical department. In 1832 he wrote a paper for the Royal
Society of London on the " Organs of the Human Voice," in which
he gave many illustrations of the physiological action of these
parts, and in 1833 a Bridgewater treatise, The Hand: its Mechan-
ism and Vital Endowments as evincing Design. Along with Lord
Brougham he annotated and illustrated an edition of Paley's
Natural Theology, published in 1836. The Royal Society of
London awarded to him in 1829 the first annual medal of that
year given by George IV. for discoveries in science; and when
William IV. ascended the throne, Charles Bell received the
honour of knighthood along with a few other men distinguished
in science and literature.
In 1836 the chair of surgery in the university of Edinburgh
was offered to him. He was then one of the foremost scientific
men in London, and he had a large surgical practice. But his
opinion was " London is a place to live in, but not to die in ";
and he accepted the appointment. In Edinburgh he did not
earn great local professional success; and, it must be confessed,
he was not appreciated as he deserved. But honours came
thick upon him. On the continent of Europe he was spoken
of as greater than Harvey. It is narrated that one day P. J.
Roux, a celebrated French physiologist, dismissed his class
without a lecture, saying " C'est assez, messieurs, vous avez vu
Charles Bell." During his professorship he published the Institutes
of Surgery, arranged in the order of the lectures delivered in the
university of Edinburgh (1838); and in 1841 he wrote a volume
of Practical Essays, two of which, " On Squinting," and " On
the action of purgatives," are of great value. He died at
Hallow Park near Worcester on the z8th of April 1842.
BELL, GEORGE JOSEPH (1770-1843), Scottish jurist, was
born at Edinburgh on the zoth of March 1770. He was an elder
brother of Sir Charles Bell. At the age of eight he entered the
high school, but he received no university education further than
attending the lectures of A. F. Tytler, Dugald Stewart and
Hume. He became a member of the Faculty of Advocates in
1791, and was one of the earliest and most attached friends
of Francis Jeffrey. In 1804 he published a Treatist on the Law
of Bankruptcy in Scotland, which he subsequently enlarged
and published in 1826 under the title of Commentaries on the Law
of Scotland and on the principles of Mercantile Jurisprudence
an institutional work of the very highest excellence, which has
had its value acknowledged by such eminent jurists as Joseph
Story and James Kent. In 1821 Bell was elected professor of
the law of Scotland in the university of Edinburgh; and in
1831 he was appointed to one of the principal clerkships in
the supreme court. He was placed at the head of a com-
mission in 1833 to inquire into the Scottish bankruptcy law;
and in consequence of the reports of the commissioners, chiefly
drawn up by himself, many beneficial alterations were made.
He died on the 23rd of September 1843. Bell's smaller treatise,
Principles of the Law of Scotland, became a standard text-book
for law students. The Illustrations of the Principles is also a
work of high value.
BELL, HENRY (1767-1830), Scottish engineer, was born
at Torphichen, Linlithgowshire, in 1767. Having received
the ordinary education of a parish school, he was apprenticed
to his uncle, a millwright, and, after qualifying himself as a
ship-modeller at Bo'ness, went to London, where he found
employment under John Rennie, the celebrated engineer. Re-
turning to Scotland in 1790, he first settled as a carpenter at
Glasgow and afterwards removed to Helensburgh, on the Firth
of Clyde, where he pursued his mechanical projects, and also
found occasional employment as an engineer. In January
1812 he placed on the Clyde a steamboat (which he named the
" Comet ") of about 25 tons, propelled by an engine of three
horse power, at a speed of 7 m. an hour. Although the honour
of priority is admitted to belong to the American engineer
Robert Fulton, there appears to be no doubt that Fulton had
received very material assistance in the construction of his
vessel from Bell and others in Great Britain. A handsome sum
was raised for Bell by subscription among the citizens of Glasgow ;
and he also received from the trustees of the river Clyde a pension
of 100 a year. He died at Helensburgh on the i4th of November
1830. A monument to his memory stands on the banks f the
Clyde, at Dunglass, near Bowling.
BELL, HENRY GLASSFORD (1803-1874), a Scottish lawyer
and man of letters, was born at Glasgow on the 8th of November
1803. He received his education at the Glasgow high school
and at Edinburgh University. He became intimate with " Delta"
Moir, James Hogg, John Wilson (Christopher North), and others
of the brilliant staff of Blackwood's Magazine, to which he was
drawn by his political sympathies. In 1828 he became editor of
the Edinburgh Literary Journal, which was eventually incor-
porated in the Edinburgh Weekly Chronicle. He was admitted
686
BELL, J. BELL, R.
to the bar in 1832. In 1839 he was appointed sheriff-substitute
of Lanarkshire, and in 1867 he succeeded Sir Archibald Alison
in the post of sheriff-principal of the county, an office which he
filled with distinguished success. In 1831 he published Summer
and Winter Hours, a volume of poems, of which the best known
is that on Mary, queen of Scots. He further defended the cause of
the unfortunate queen in a prose Life (2 vols., 1828-1831).
Among his other works may be mentioned a preface which he
wrote to Bell and Bains's edition (1865) of the works of Shake-
speare, and Romances and Minor Poems (1866). He figures
in the society of the Nodes Ambrosianae as " Tallboys." He
died on the 7th of January 1874.
BELL, JACOB (1810-1859), British pharmaceutical chemist,
was born in London on the sth of March 1810. On the com-
pletion of his education, he joined his father in business as a
chemist in Oxford Street, and at the same time attended the
chemistry lectures at the Royal Institution, and those on
medicine at King's College. Always keenly alive to the interests
of chemists in general, Bell conceived the idea of a society which
should at once protect the interests of the trade, and improve
its status, and at a public meeting held on the isth of April 1841,
it was resolved to found the Pharmaceutical Society of Great
Britain. Bell carried his scheme through in the face of many
difficulties, and further advanced the cause of pharmacy by
establishing the Pharmaceutical Journal, and superintending
its publication for eighteen years. The Pharmaceutical Society
was incorporated by royal charter in 1843. One of the first abuses
to engage the attention of the new body was the practice of
pharmacy by unqualified persons, and in 1845 Bell drew up the
draft of a bill to deal with the matter, one of the provisions of
which was the recognition of the Pharmaceutical Society as the
governing body in all questions connected with pharmacy.
For some time after this the question of pharmaceutical legisla-
tion was widely discussed. In 1850 Bell successfully contested
the borough of St Albans in order that he might be able to advo-
cate his proposals for reform more effectually in parliament.
In 1851 he brought forward a bill embodying these proposals.
It passed its second reading, but was considerably whittled
down in committee, and when eventually it became law it only
partially represented its sponsor's intentions. Bell was the
author of an Historical Sketch of the Progress of Pharmacy in
Great Britain. He died on the I2th of June 1859.
BELL, JOHN (1691-1780), Scottish traveller, was born at
Antermony in Scotland in 1691, and educated for the medical
profession, in which he took the degree of M.D. In 1714 he set
out for St Petersburg, where, through the introduction of a
countryman, he was nominated medical attendant to Valensky,
recently appointed to the Persian embassy, with whom he
travelled from 1715 to 1718. The next four years he spent in
an embassy to China, passing through Siberia and the great
Tatar deserts. He had scarcely rested from this last journey
when he was summoned to attend Peter the Great in his perilous
expedition to Derbend and the Caspian Gates. The narrative
of this journey he enriched with interesting particulars of the
public and private life of that remarkable prince. In 1738 he
was sent by the Russian government on a mission to Constanti-
nople, to which, accompanied by a single attendant who spoke
Turkish, he proceeded in the midst of winter and all the horrors
of war, returning in May to St Petersburg. It appears that
after this he was for several years established as a merchant
at Constantinople, where he married in 1746. In the following
year he retired to his estate of Antermony, where he spent the
remainder of his life. He died in 1780. His travels, published
at Glasgow in 1763, were speedily translated into French, and
widely circulated in Europe.
BELL, JOHN (1763-1820), Scottish anatomist and surgeon,
an elder .brother of Sir Charles Bell, was born at Edinburgh on
the 1 2th of May 1763. After completing his professional educa-
tion at Edinburgh, he carried on from 1790 in Surgeons' Square
an anatomical lecture-theatre, where, in spite of much opposition,
due partly to the unconservative character of his teaching, he
attracted large audiences by his lectures, in which he was for a
time assisted by his younger brother Charles. In 1793-1795 he
published Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds, and in
1800 he became involved in an unfortunate controversy with
James Gregory (1753-1821), the professor of medicine at Edin-
burgh. Gregory in 1800 attacked the system whereby the
fellows of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh acted in
rotation as surgeons at the Royal Infirmary, with the result
that the younger fellows were excluded. Bell, who was among
the number, composed an Answer for the Junior Members (1800),
and ten years later published a collection of Letters on Professional
Character and Manners, which he had addressed to Gregory.
After his exclusion from the infirmary he ceased to lecture and
devoted himself to study and practice. In 1816 he was injured
by a fall from his horse and in the following year went to Italy
for the benefit of his health. He died at Rome on the isth of
Aprili820. His works also included Principles of Surgery (1801),
Anatomy of the Human Body, which went through several
editions and was translated into German, and Observations on
Italy, published by his widow in 1825.
BELL, JOHN (1797-1869), American political leader, was born
near Nashville, Tennessee, on the isth of February 1797. He
graduated at the university of Nashville in 1814, and in 1817
was elected to the state senate, but retiring after one term, he
devoted himself for ten years to the study and the practice of
the law. From 1827 until 1841 he was a member of the national
House of Representatives, of which from June 1834 to March
1835 he was the speaker, and in which he was conspicuous as a
debater and a conservative leader. Though he entered political
life as a Democrat, he became estranged from his party's leader,
President Jackson, also a Tennessean, and after 1835 was one of
the leaders of the Whig party in the South. In March 1841 he
became the secretary of war in President Harrison's cabinet,
but in September, after the death of Harrison and the rupture
between the Whig leaders and President Tyler, he resigned this
position. From 1847 until 1859 he was a member of the United
States Senate, and attracted attention by his ability in debate
and his political independence, being one of two Southern
senators to vote against the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854 and
against the admission of Kansas with the Lecompton or pro-
slavery constitution in 1858. Strongly conservative by tempera-
ment and devoted to the Union, he ardently desired to prevent
the threatened secession of the Southern states in 1860, and
was the candidate, for the presidency, of the Constitutional
Union Party, often called from the names of its candidates for
the presidency and the vice-presidency (Edward Everett) the
" Bell and Everett Party," which was made up largely of former
Whigs and Southern " Know-Nothings," opposed sectionalism,
and strove to prevent the disruption of the union. The party
adopted no platform, and discarding all other issues, resolved
that " it is both the part of patriotism and of duty to recognize
no political principle other than the constitution of the country,
the union of the states, and the enforcement of the laws." Bell
was defeated, but received a popular vote of 587,830 (mostly
cast in the Southern states), and obtained the electoral votes of
Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee 39 altogether, out of a total
of 303. Bell tried earnestly to prevent the secession of his own
state, but after the issue of President Lincoln's proclamation
of the isth of April 1861 calling on the various states for volun-
teers, his efforts were unavailing, and when Tennessee joined the
Confederacy Bell " went with his state." He took no part in
the Civil War, and died on the loth of September 1869.
BELL, ROBERT (1800-1867), Irish man of letters, was born at
Cork on the i6th of January 1800. He was educated at Trinity
College, Dublin, where he was one of the founders of the Dublin
Historical Society. In 1828 he settled in London, where he
edited a weekly paper, the Atlas, and until 1841 was engaged
in journalism, and afterwards in miscellaneous literary work. He
died on the I2th of April 1867. His most important work is his
annotated edition of the English Poets (24 vols., 1854-1857;
new ed., 29 vols., 1866), the works of each poet being prefaced by
a memoir. For Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopaedia he wrote: History
of Russia (3 vols., 1836-1838); Lives of English Poets (2 vols.,
BELL
687
1839) ; a continuation, with W. Wallace, of Sir James Mackin-
tosh's History of England (vols. iv.-x., 1830-1840); and the fifth
volume (1840) of the Lives of the British Admirals, begun by
R. Southey. He was a director of the Royal Literary Fund,
and well known for his open-hearted generosity to fellow men of
letters.
BELL, a hollow metallic vessel used for making a more or less
loud noise (A.S. bdlan, to bellow; Mid. Eng. "to bell"; cf.
" As loud as belleth winde in helle," in Chaucer, House of Fame,
iii. 713). Bells are usually cup-like in shape, and are constructed
so as to give one fundamental note when struck. The term does
not strictly include gongs, cymbals, metal plates, resonant bars
of metal or wood, or tinkling ornaments, such as e.g. the " bells "
upon the Jewish high priest's dress (Exodus xxviii. 32); nor is
it necessary here to deal with the common useful varieties of
sheep or cow bells, or bells on sledges or harness. For house
bells see the end of this article. A " diving-bell " (see DIVERS)
is only so called from the analogy of its shape.
The main interest of bells and bell-ringing has reference to
church or tower bells, their history, construction and uses.
Early Bells. Of bells before the Christian era there is no
trustworthy evidence. The instruments which summoned the
Romans to public baths or processions, or that which Lucian
(A.D. 180) describes as set in motion by a water-clock (clepsydra)
to measure time, were probably cymbals or resonant plates of
metal, like the timbrels (corybantia aera, Virg. Aen. iii. in)
used in the worship of Cybele, or the Egyptian sistrum, which
seems to have been a sort of rattle. The earliest Latin word
for a bell (campana) is late Latin of the 4th or 5th century
A.D.; and the first application of bells to churches has been
ascribed to Paulinus, bishop of Nola in Campania about A.D. 400.
There is, however, no confirmation of this story, which may have
arisen from the words campana and nola (a small bell) ; and in a
letter from Paulinus to the emperor Severus, describing very
fully the decoration of his church, the bishop makes no mention
of bells. It has been maintained with somewhat more reason
that Pope Sabinianus (604) first used church bells; but it seems
clear that they were introduced into France as early as 550.
In the yth century Bede mentions a bell brought from Italy
by Benedict Biscop for his abbey at Wearmouth, and speaks
of the sound of a bell being well known at Whitby Abbey at the
time of St Hilda's death (680). St Dunstan hung many in the
loth century; and in the nth they were not uncommon in
Switzerland and Germany. It is said that the Greek Christians
were unacquainted with bells till the Qth century; but it is
known that for political reasons, after the taking of Constanti-
nople by the Turks in 1453, their use was forbidden lest they
should provide a popular signal for revolt.
Several old bells are extant in Scotland, Ireland and Wales;
the oldest are often quadrangular, made of thin iron plates
hammered and riveted together. A well-known specimen is
St Patrick's bell preserved at Belfast, called Clog an eadhachta
Phatraic, " the bell of St Patrick's will." It is 6 in. high, 5
broad, 4 deep, adorned with gems and gold and silver filigree-
work; it is inscribed 1091 and 1105, but it is probably alluded to
in Ulster annals in 552. (For Scottish bells, see Illustrated Cata-
logue of Archaeological Museum, Edinburgh, for 1856.)
The four-sided bell of the Irish missionary St Gall (646) is
preserved at the monastery of St Gall, Switzerland. In these
early times bells were usually small; even in the nth century
a bell presented to the church at Orleans weighing 2600 Ib was
thought large. In the I3th century larger bells were cast. The
bell Jacqueline of Paris, cast in 1400, weighed 15,000 Ib; another
Paris bell of 1472, 25,000 Ib; and the famous Amboise bell at
Rouen (1501) 36,364 ft.
To these scanty records of the early history of bells may be
added the enumeration of different kinds of bells by Hieronymus
Magius, in his work De Tintinnabulis: I. Tintinnabulum, a little
bell, otherwise called tinniolum, for refectory or dormitory, accord-
ing to Joannes Belethus, but Guillaume Durand names squilla for
the refectory; 2. Petasius, or larger " broad-brimmed hat " bell;
3. Codon, orifice of trumpet, a Greek hand-bell; 4. Nola, a very
small bell, used in the choir, according to Durand; 5. Campana, a
large bell, first used in the Latin churches in the steeple (Durand) ,
in the tower (Belethus) ; 6. Squilla, a shrill little bell. We read
of cymbalum for the cloister (Durand) or campanella for the
cloister (Belethus); nolula or dupla in the clock; signum in
the tower (e.g. in the Excerptions of St Egbert, 750); the Portu-
guese still call a bell sino.
Bell-founding. The earliest bells were probably not cast,
but made of plates riveted together, like the bells of St Gall
or Belfast above mentioned. The bell-founder's art, originally
practised in the monasteries, passed gradually into the hands
of a professional class, by whom, in England and the Low
Countries especially, were gradually worked out the principles
of construction, mixture of metals, lines and proportions, now
generally accepted as necessary for a good bell. In England
some of the early founders were peripatetic artificers, who
travelled about the country, setting up a temporary foundry
to cast bells wherever they were wanted. Miles Graye (c. 1650),
a celebrated East Anglian founder, carried on his work in this
fashion, and in old churchwardens' accounts are sometimes
found notices of payment for the casting of bells at places where
no regular foundry is known to have existed. The chief centres
of the art in medieval times were London, York, Gloucester
and Nottingham; and bells by e.g. "John of York" (i4th
century), Samuel Smith, father and son, of York (1680-1730),
Abraham Rudhall and his descendants of Gloucester (1684-
1774), Mot (i6th century), Lester and Pack (1750), Christopher
Hodson of London (who cast " Great Tom " of Oxford, 1681)
and Richard Phelps (1716) are still in high repute. The White-
chapel Bell Foundry (now Mears and Stainbank), established
by Robert Mot in 1 570, incorporated the business of the Rudhalls,
Lester and Pack, Phelps, Briant and others, and is now one
of the leading firms of bell-founders; others being Warner
and Sons of Spitalfields and Taylor & Co., Loughborough, the
founders of " Great Paul " for St Paul's cathedral (1881). Of
Dutch and Flemish founders the firms of van den Gheyn (1550),
Hemony (1650), Aerschodt & Wagheven at Louvain and others
have a great reputation in the Low Countries, especially for
" carillons," such as those at Antwerp or Bruges, a form of
bell-music which has not taken much root in England, despite
the advocacy of the Rev. H. R. Haweis, who proclaimed its
superiority to English change-ringing.
Bell-metal is a mixture of copper and tin in the proportion
of 4 to i. In Henry III.'s reign it was 2 to i. In Layard's
Nineveh bronze bells, it was 10 to i. Zinc and lead are used in
small bells. The thickness of the bell's edge is about one-tenth
of its diameter, and its height is twelve times its thickness.
Bells, like viols, have been made of every conceivable shape
within certain limits. The long narrow bell, the quadrangular,
and the mitre-shaped in Europe at least indicate antiquity,
and the graceful curved-inwardly-midway and full trumpet-
mouthed bell indicates an age not earlier than the i6th century.
The bell is first designed on paper according to -the scale of
measurement. Then the crook is made, which is a kind of double
wooden compass, the legs of which are respectively curved to
the shape of the inner and outer sides of the bell, a space of the
exact form and thickness of the bell being left betwixt them.
The compass is pivoted on a stake driven into the bottom of
the casting-pit. A stuffing of brickwork is built round the stake,
leaving room for a fire to be lighted inside it. The outside of this
stuffing is then padded with fine soft clay, well mixed and bound
together with calves' hair, and the inner leg of the compass run
round it, bringing it to the exact shape of the inside of the bell.
Upon this core, well smeared with grease, is fashioned the false
clay bell, the outside of which is defined by the outer leg of the
compass. Inscriptions are now moulded in wax on the outside
of the clay-bell; these are carefully smeared with grease, then
lightly covered with the finest clay, and then with coarser clay,
until a solid mantle is thickened over the outside of the clay bell.
A fire is now lighted, and the whole baked hard; the grease and
wax inscriptions steam out through holes at the top, leaving
the sham clay bell baked hard and tolerably loose, between the
688
BELL
core and the cope or mantle. The cope is then lifted, the clay
bell broken up, the cope let down again, enclosing now between
itself and the core the exact shape of the bell. The metal is then
boiled and run molten into the mould. A large bell will take
several weeks to cool. When extricated it ought to be scarcely
touched and should hardly require tuning. This is called its
maiden state, and it used to be so sought after that many bells
were left rough and out of tune in order to claim it.
Bell Tones and Tuning. A good bell, fairly struck, should
give out three distinct notes a " fundamental " note or " tonic " ;
the octave above, or " nominal "; and the octave below, or
"hum-ncte." (It also gives out the "third" and "fifth"
above the fundamental; but of these it is less necessary to take
notice.) Very few bells, however, have any two of these notes,
and hardly any all three, in unison the " hum-notes " being
generally a little sharper, and the " fundamentals " a little
flatter, than their respective " nominals." In tuning a " ring "
or series of bells, the practice of founders has hitherto been to
take one set of notes (in England usually the nominals, on the
continent the fundamentals) and put these into tune, leaving
the other tones to take care of themselves. But in different
circumstances different tones assert themselves. Thus, when
bells are struck at considerable intervals, the fundamental notes
being fuller and more persistent are more prominent; but when
struck in rapid succession (as in English change-ringing or
with the higher bells of a Belgian " carillon," which take the
" air ") the higher tone of the '.' nominal " is more perceptible.
The inharmonious character of many Belgian carillons, and of
certain Belgian and French rings in England, is ascribed by
Canon A. B. Simpson (in his pamphlet, Why Bells sound out of
Tune, 1897) to neglect of the " nominals," the fundamentals
only being tuned to each other. To tune a series of bells properly,
the fundamental tone of each bell must be brought into true
octave with its nominal, and the whole series of bells, thus
rectified, put into tune with each other. The " hum-note "
of each, which is the tone of the whole mass of metal, should also
be in tune with the others. If flatter than the nominal, it cannot
be sharpened: but if sharper (as is more usual), it may be flattened
by thinning the metal near the crown of the bell. The great bell
(" Great Paul ") cast by Messrs Taylor for St Paul's cathedral,
London, has all its tones in true harmony, except that the tone
next above the fundamental (E|>) is a " fourth " (A\>) instead
of a " third " (G or G|>). The great bell cast by the same founders
for Beverley Minster is in perfect tune; and with the improved
machinery now in use, there is no reason why this should not
henceforth be the case with all church bells.
The quality of a bell depends not only on the casting and the
fineness and mixture of metals, but upon the due proportion of
metal to the calibre of the bell. The larger the bell the lower
the tone; but if we try to make a large E bell with metal only
enough for a smaller F bell, the E bell will be puny and poor. It
has been calculated that for a peal of bells to give the pure chord
of the ground tone or key-note, third, fifth and octave, the
diameters are required to be as thirty, twenty-four, twenty,
fifteen, and the weights as eighty, forty-one, twenty-four and
ten.
History and Uses of Bells. The history of bells is full of
romantic interest. In civilized times they have been intimately
associated, not only with all kinds of religious and social uses,
but with almost every important historical event. Their influence
upon architecture is not less remarkable, for to them indirectly
we probably owe most of the famous towers in the world.
Church towers at first, perhaps, scarcely rose above the roof,
being intended as lanterns for the admission of light, and addition
to their height was in all likelihood suggested by the more common
use of bells.
Bells early summoned soldiers to arms, as well as Christians
to church. They sounded the alarm in fire or tumult; and the
rights of the burghers in their bells were jealously guarded.
Thus the chief bell in the cathedral often belonged to the town,
not to the cathedral chapter. The curfew, the Carolus and
St Mary's bell in the Antwerp tower all belong to the town; the
rest are the property of the chapter. He who commanded the
bell commanded the town; for by that sound, at a moment's
notice, he could rally and concentrate his adherents. Hence a
conqueror commonly acknowledged the political importance of
bells by melting them down; and the cannon of the conquered
was in turn melted up to supply the garrison with bells to be used
in the suppression of revolts. Many a bloody chapter in history
has been rung in and out by bells.
On the third day of Easter 1282, at the ringing of the Sicilian
vespers (which have given their name to the affair), 8000 French
were massacred in cold blood by John of Procida, who had thus
planned to free Sicily from Charles of Anjou. On the 24th of
August, St Bartholomew's day, 1571, bells ushered, in the
massacre of the Huguenots in France, to the number, it is said, of
100,000. Bells have rung alike over slaughtered and ransomed
cities; and far and wide throughout Europe in the hour of
victory or irreparable loss. At the news of Nelson's triumph
and death at Trafalgar, the bells of Chester rang a merry peal
alternated with one deep toll, and similar incidents could be
multiplied.
There are many old customs connected with the use of church
bells, some of which have died out, while others remain here and
there. The best known and perhaps oldest of these is the
" Curfew " (couvre-feu) , first enforced (though not perhaps
introduced) by William the Conqueror in England as a signal for
all lights and fires to be extinguished at 8 P.M. probably to
prevent nocturnal gatherings of disaffected subjects. In many
towns it survived into the igth century as a signal for closing
shops at 8 or 9; and it is still kept up in various places as an old
custom; thus at Oxford the familiar boom of " Tom's " 101
strokes is still the signal for closing college gates at 9. The
largest and heaviest bells were used for the Curfew, to carry the
sound as far as possible, as it did to Milton's ear, suggesting the
descriptive lines in II Penseroso (74-75) :
" Oft, on a plot of rising ground,
I hear the far-off curfew sound
Over some wide-watered shore,
Swinging slew with sullen roar."
Gray's allusion in the Elegy is well known; as also are those of
Shakespeare to the elves " that rejoice to hear the solemn
curfew " (Tempest), or the fiend that " begins at curfew and
walks till the first cock " (King Lear) ; or Milton's in Comus
to the ghost " that breaks his magic chains at curfew
time."
Among secular uses connected with church bells are the
" Mote " or " Common " bell, summoning to municipal or other
meetings, as e.g. the 7th at St Mary's, Stamford, tolled for
quarter sessions, or the bell at St Mary's, Oxford, for meetings
of Convocation. In some places one of the bells is known as the
" Vestry Bell." The " Pancake Bell," still rung here and there
on Shrove Tuesday, was originally a summons to confession
before Lent; the " Harvest. Bell " and " Seeding Bell " called
labourers to their work; while the " Gleaning Bell " fixed the
hours for beginning or leaving off gleaning, so that everyone
might start fair and have an even chance. The " Oven Bell "
gave notice when the lord of the manor's oven was ready for his
tenants to bake their bread; the " Market Bell " was a signal
for selling to begin; and in some country districts a church bell
is still rung at dinner time. The general diffusion of clocks and
watches has rendered bells less necessary for marking the events
of daily life; and most of these old customs have either dis-
appeared or are fast disappearing. At Strassburg a large bell
of eight tons weight, known as the " Holy Ghost Bell," is only
rung when two fires are seen in the town at once; a " storm-
bell " warns travellers in the plain of storms approaching from
the mountains, and the " Thor Glocke " (gate bell) gives the
signal for opening or shutting the city gates. On the European
continent, especially in countries which, like Belgium and
Holland, were distracted by constant war, bells acquired great
public importance. They were formally baptized with religious
ceremonies (as also in England in pre- Reformation days), the
notabilities of a town or church standing as sponsors; and they
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689
were very generally supposed to have the power of scaring away
evil spirits.
Other old customs are naturally connected with the ecclesi-
astical uses of bells. The " Passing Bell," rung for the dying,
is now generally rung after death; the ancient mode of indicating
the sex of the deceased, viz. two pulls for a woman and three
for a man being still very common, with many varying customs
as regards the interval after death or the bell to be used, e.g.
smaller bells for children and females, and larger ones for aged
men; the tenor bell being sometimes reserved for the death of
the incumbent, or of a bishop or member of the royal family.
" Burial Peals," once common at or after funerals to scare away
the evil spirits from the soul of the departed, though discouraged
by bishops as early as the I4th century, were kept alive by
popular superstition, and only finally checked in Puritan times;
but they have been revived, since the spread of change-ringing,
in the "muffled peals" now frequently rung as a mark of
respect to deceased persons of public or local importance, or the
short " touches " on hand-bells sometimes rung at the grave by
the comrades of a deceased ringer. The " Sermon-Bell," rung
in pre-Reformation times to give notice that a sermon was to
be preached (cf. Shakespeare, Henry IV., Pt. II. iv. 2. 4-7),
survives in some places in a custom of ringing the tenor bell
before a service with a sermon; and a similar custom before
a celebration of the Holy Communion preserves the memory of
the " Sacrament Bell." The ancient " Sanctus " or " Sance "
bell, hung on the rood-screen or in a small bell cot on the chancel
gable, and sounded three times when the priest said the Ter-
sanctus (Holy, Holy, Holy) in the office of mass, was specially
obnoxious to Puritan zeal, and few of them survived the Refor-
mation. An early morning bell, rung in many places for no
apparent reason, is probably a relic of the Ave Maria or Angelus
bell. The inscription on some old bells, Lectum fuge, discute
somnum (" Away from bed, shake off sleep "), points to this use,
as also does the name " Gabriel " applied to the bell used for
ringing the Angelus. In old times bells were generally named
at their baptism, after the Virgin Mary or saints, or their donors;
thus the bells at Oseney Abbey in the I3th century were called
Hautclere, Doucement, Austyn, Marie, Gabriel and John;
sometimes they were known by mere nicknames, such as " Great
(or " Mighty ") Tom " at Oxford, or " Big Ben," " Great Paul,"
&c., in recent times.
Bell Inscriptions. The names of bells were often stamped
upon them in the casting; whence arose inscriptions upon church
bells, giving in monkish Latin the name of some saint, a prayer
to the Virgin, or for the soul of the donor, or a distich upon
the function of the bell itself; e.g.
" Funera plango, fulgura frango, Sabbata pango,
Excito lentos, dissipo ventos, paco cruentos. '
(I mourn for death, I break the lightning, I fix the Sabbath, I
rouse the lazy, I scatter the winds, I appease the cruel.)
The character of the lettering and the foundry marks upon
old bells, are of great assistance in determining their date.
Sometimes a set of bells has each a separate verse, e.g. on a ring
of five in Bedfordshire:
1st. " Hoc signum Petri pulsatum nomine Christ!."
(This emblem of Peter is struck in the name of Christ.)
2nd. " Nomen Magdalene campana sonat melode."
(This bell named Magdalen sounds melodiously.)
3rd. " Sit nomen Domini benedictum semper in eum."
(May the name of the Lord always be blessed upon him, i.e. on
the bell when struck.)
4th. " Musa Raphaelis sonat auribus Immanuelis."
(The music of Raphael sounds in the ear of Immanuel.)
5th. " Sum Rosa pulsata mundique Maria vocata."
(I, Maria, am struck and called the Rose of the world.)
The names of these five bells were thus: Peter, Magdalen,
(?) Jesus, Raphael and Mary.
Other inscriptions take the form of an invocation or prayer
for the bell itself, its donor or those who hear it, e.g.
" Augustine tuam campanam protege sanam."
(Augustine, protect thy bell and keep it sound.)
" Sancte Johannes, ora pro animabus Johannis I'udscy, militis,
et Mariae, consortae suae.'
(St John, pray for the souls of John'Pudsey, knight, and Mary
his wife.)
" Protege pura via quos convoco virgo Maria."
(Guard in the way those whom I pure Virgin Mary call.)
The " Mittags Glocke " (mid-day bell) at Strassburg, taken
down at the time of the French Revolution, bore the legend:
"Vox ego sum vitae; voco YOS; orate venite."
(I am the voice of life: I call you: come and pray.)
A bell in Rouen cathedral, melted down in 1793, was inscribed:
" Je suis George d'Ambois,
Qui trente cinque mille pois;
Mais lui qui me pesera
Trente six mille me trouvera."
(I am George d'Ambois, weighing 35,000 Ib; but he who weighs
me will find me 36,000.)
A similar inscription is said to have been cast on the largest
of the bells placed by Edward III. in a " clocher " or bell hut
in the Little Cloisters at Westminster: .
" King Edward made mee thirty thousand weight and three,
Take mee down and wey mee and more you shall find mee."
On the "Thor Glocke " at Strassburg above mentioned are
the words:
" Dieses Thor Glocke das erst mal schallt
Als man 1618 sahlt
Dass Mgte jahr regnet man
Nach doctor Luther Jubal jahr
Das Bos hinaus das'Gut hinein
Zu lauten soil igr arbeit seyn."
The reference is to the year 1517, when Luther began his
crusade, and the verse may be Englished as follows:
When first ringeth this Gate Bell
1618 years we tell.
We reckon this a year to be
From Dr Luther's jubilee.
To ring out ill, the good ring in,
Its daily task shall now begin.
Large Bells. There are a few bells of world-wide renown,
and several others more or less celebrated. The great bell at
Moscow, " Tsar Kolokol," which, according to the inscription,
was cast in 1733, was in the earth 103 years and was raised by
the emperor Nicholas in 1836. The present bell seems never
to have been actually hung or rung, having been cracked in
the furnace; and it now stands on a raised platform in the
middle of a square. It is used as a chapel. It weighs about
1 80 tons, height 19 ft. 3 in., circumference 60 ft. 9 in., thickness
2 ft., weight of broken piece n tons. The second Moscow bell,
the largest in the world in actual use, weighs 128 tons. In a
pagoda in Upper Burma hangs a bell 16 ft. in diameter, weighing
about 80 tons. The great bell at Peking weighs 53 tons; Nan-
king, 22 tons; Olmutz, 17 tons; Vienna (1711), 17 tons;
Notre Dame (1680), 17 tons; Erfurt, 13 tons; Great Peter,
York Minster, recast in 1845, 12^ tons; Great Paul, at St Paul's
cathedral, i6J tons; Great Tom at Oxford, 7^ tons; Great
Tom at Lincoln, sJ tons. Big Ben of the Westminster Clock
Tower weighs 13^ tons; it was cast by George Mears under
the direction of the first Lord Grimthorpe (E. Beckett Denison)
in 1858. Its four quarters were cast by Warner in 1856. The
" Kaiserglocke " of Cologne cathedral, recast in 1875, with
metal from French cannon captured in 1870-1871, weighs 27$
tons.
These large bells are either not moved at all, or only slightly
swung to enable the clapper to touch their side; in some cases
they are struck by a hammer or beam from outside. The heaviest
ringing peals in England are those at Exeter and St Paul's
cathedrals, tenors 72 cwt. and 62 cwt. respectively.
Bell-ringing. The science and art of bell-ringing, as practised
upon church and tower bells, falls under two main heads: (i)
Mechanical ringing, in connexion with the machinery of a clock
or " carillon "; (2) Ringing by hand, by means of ropes attached
to the fittings of the bells, whereby the bell itself is either moved
as it hangs mouth downwards sufficiently for the clapper just
to touch its side (called technically " chiming ") ; or is swung
round nearly full circle with its mouth uppermost (technically
690
BELL
" ringing "), in which case the impact of the clapper is much
heavier, and the sound produced is consequently louder and more
far-reaching. Mechanical ringing is more common on the con-
tinent of Europe, especially in Belgium and Flanders; ringing
by hand is more common in England, where the development
of change-ringing (see below) has brought it into prominence.
(1) Mechanical ringing is effected by a system of wires con-
nected with small hammers striking the bells, usually on their
outside, and worked either by connexion with the machinery
of a clock, so as to play tunes or artificially arranged chimes
at definite intervals; or with a key-board resembling that of
an organ. The first of these methods is familiar in the chimes
(Cambridge, Westminster, &c.) heard from many towers at the
striking of the hours and quarters; or in hymn tunes played at
intervals (e.g. of three hours) upon the church bells. The second
method is peculiar to the " carillon " (q.v.), as found everywhere
in Belgium, where with a set of from 20 or 30 to 60 or 70 bells
a much wider scope for tunes and harmonies is provided than
in English belfries, few of which have more than one octave of
bells in one key only and none more than 1 2 bells. The carillons
at Louvain and Bruges contain 40 bells, and that of Me.chlin
44, while in the tower of Antwerp cathedral there are upwards of
90 bells, for the largest of which, cast in 1507, Charles V. stood
sponsor at its consecration.
(2) Ringing by Hand. Church bells may be " chimed " or
" rung " (see above). One man can, as a rule, chime three bells,
with a rope in each hand and one foot in the loop of another;
but by the use of an " Ellacombe " or other chiming apparatus
one man can work six, eight or ten bells. Some prefer the
quieter sound of chiming as an introduction to divine service,
but where a band of ringers is available and change-ringing is
practised the bells as a rule are rung. The practice of " clocking "
a bell, in which the clapper, by means of a cord- attached to it
and pulled from below, is allowed to swing against the bell at
rest, is often employed to save trouble; but the jar is very
likely to crack the bell. In ringing, or in true chiming, the bell
is in motion when struck.
For ringing, a bell is pulled up and " set " mouth uppermost.
She (to ringers a bell is feminine) is then pulled off, first at
" handstroke " (i.e. with the hands on the " sally " or tufted
portion of the rope, a few feet from its lower end) and then at
" back-stroke " in the reverse direction (with the hands nearer
the lower end, the rope having at the previous pull coiled round
three-quarters of the wheel's circumference), describing at each
pull almost a full circle till she comes back to the upright position.
At each revolution the swing is chiefly done by the weight of the
bell, the ringer giving a pull of just sufficient strength to bring
the bell back into the upright position; otherwise its swing
would become gradually shorter till it remained at rest mouth
downwards.
Change-ringing. When a given number of bells are rung over
and over again in the same order, from the highest note, or
" treble," to the lowest, or " tenor " i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 they are
said to be rung in " rounds." " Changes " are variations of this
order e.g. 2135476, 2314567; and " change-ringing "
is the art of ringing bells in " changes," so that a different
" change " or rearrangement of order is produced at each pull
of the bell-ropes, until, without any repetition of the same
change, the bells come back into " rounds." The general prin-
ciple of all methods of change-ringing is that each bell, after
striking in the first place or " lead," works gradually " up " to
the last place or " behind," and " down " again to the first, and
that no bell ever shifts more than one place in each change.
Thus the ringer of any bell knows that whatever his position
in one change, his place in the next will be either the same, or the
place before or the place after. He does not have to learn by
heart the different changes or variations of order; nor need he,
unless he is the " conductor," know the exact order of any one
change. He has to bear in mind, first, which way his bell is
working, viz. whether " up " from first to last place, or " down "
from last to first; secondly, in what place his bell is striking;
thirdly, what bell or bells are striking immediately before or
after him this being ascertained chiefly by " rope-sight," i.e.
the knack, acquired by practice, of seeing which rope is being
pulled immediately before and after his own. He must also
remember and apply the rules of the particular " method "
which is being rung. The following table representing the first
twenty changes of a " plain course " of " Grandsire Triples "
(for these terms, see below) illustrates the subject-matter of this
section:
1234567" Rounds."
2135476 (ist change.)
23 14567
324 ! 657
34261 75
4362715 (5th change.)
463725 i
647352 i
6745312
7654132
7561423 (loth change.)
5716243
5 i 72634
1527364
1253746
2157364 (isth change.)
2513746
523M76
5324167
3542617
3456271 (20th change.)
It will be observed that at the ist change the third bell and
at the i sth the fifth bell, according to the rule of this " method,"
strikes a second blow in the third place (" makes third's place ").
This stops the regular work of the bells which at the previous
change were in the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th places (" in 4, 5, 6, 7 "),
causing them to take a step backwards in their course " up " or
" down," or as it is technically called, to " dodge." Were it not
for this, the bells would come back into "rounds" at the i4th
change. It is by the use of " place-making " and " dodging,"
according to the rules of various " methods," that the required
number of changes, upon any number of bells, can be produced.
But in order that this may be done, without the bells coming
back into " rounds " (as, e.g. in the " plain course " of Grandsire
Triples, above given, they Will do in seventy changes), further
modifications of the " coursing order," called technically " Bobs "
and " Singles," must be introduced. In ringing, notice of these
alterations as they occur is given by one of the ringers, who acts
as " conductor," calling out " Bob " or " Single " at the right
moment to warn the ringers of certain bells to make the requisite
alteration in the regular work of their bells. (Hence, in ringing
language, to " call " a peal or touch = to conduct it.) Particulars
of these, as of other details of change-ringing, may be gathered
from books dealing with the technique of the art; but they are
best mastered in actual practice. The term " single," applied
to five-bell ringing meant that, as the first three bells remained
unchanged, only a single pair of bells changed places, e.g.
15432, 15423. On larger numbers of bells it loses this
meaning; but the effect of this " call " is that the " coursing
order " of a single pair of bells is inverted. The origin of " Bob " is
unknown. As a " call " it was perhaps adopted as a short, sharp
sound, easily uttered and easily heard by the ringers. As
applied to a " method " or system of ringing it may refer to the
evolution of " dodging," e.g. in " Treble Bob " to the zigzag
" dodging " path of the treble bell; but none of the old writers
attempts to explain it.
The number of possible " changes " on any given series of bells
may be ascertained, according to the mathematical formula of
"permutations," by multiplying the number of the bells together.
Thus on three bells, only 6 changes or variations of order (1X2X3)
can be produced; on four bells, 1X2X3X4=24; on five,
24X5 = 120; on six, 120X6 = 720; on seven, 720X7 = 5040.
A " peal " on any such number of bells is in ordinary language
the ringing of all the possible changes. But technically, only
the full extent of changes upon seven bells, usually rung with a
" tenor behind," is called a " peal "; a shorter performance
upon seven or more bells, or the full extent upon less than seven,
being, in ringing parlance, a " touch." On six bells the full
extent of changes must be repeated continuously seven times
(720X7 = 5040), and on five bells forty-two times (120X42
= 5040) to rank as a "peal." On eight or more bells 5000
changes in round numbers is accepted as the minimum standard
for a peal; and on such numbers of bells up to twelve (the
largest number used in change-ringing), peals are so arranged
that the bells come into rounds at, or at some point beyond,
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691
5000 changes. As many as 16,000 changes, occupying from nine
to ten hours, have been rung upon church bells. But the great
physical strain upon the ringers to say nothing of the effect
upon those who are within hearing makes such performances
exceptional. The word "peal" is often, though incorrectly, used
(i) for a set of church bells (" a peal of six," " a peal of eight "),
for which the correct term is "a ring" of bells; (2) for any
shorter performance than a full peal (e.g. " wedding-peal,"
" muffled peal," &c.), called in ringing language a " touch."
Its use as equivalent for " method," found in old campano-
logical works, is now obsolete.
Change-ringing upon five bells is called " Doubles," upon
seven bells " Triples," upon nine " Caters " (Fr. quatre), and
upon eleven " Cinques," from the fact that at each change two,
three, four or five pairs of bells change places with each other.
" Doubles " can be and are rung when there are only five bells;
but as a rule these "odd-bell" systems are rung with a "tenor
behind," i.e. struck at the end of each change; the number of
bells in a tower being usually an even number six, eight, ten
or twelve. In " even-bell " systems the tenor is " rung in "
or " turned in," i.e. changes with the other bells, and a different
terminology is employed; change-ringing on six bells being
called " Minor "; on eight bells, " Major "; on ten bells,
" Royal "; and on twelve, " Maximus." The principal
" methods " of change-ringing, each of which has its special
rules, are (i) " Grandsire "; (2) " Plain Bob "; (3) " Treble
Bob "; (4) " Stedman," from the name of its inventor, Fabian
Stedman, about 1670. In " Grandsire " the treble and one other
bell, in " Plain Bob " the treble alone, has a " plain hunt," i.e.
works from the first place, or " lead," to the last place, or
" behind," and back again, without any dodging; in " Treble
Bob " the treble has a uniform but zigzag course, dodging in
each place on its way up and down. This is called a " Treble
Bob hunt "; and under these two heads, according to the work
of the treble, are classified a variety of " plain methods " and
" Treble Bob methods," among the latter being the so-called
" Surprise " methods, the most complicated and difficult of all.
" Stedman's principle," which is sui generis, consists in the three
front bells ringing their six possible changes, while the remaining
pair or pairs of bells dodge. It is thus an " odd-bell " method
adapted to five, seven, nine or eleven bells; as also is " Grand-
sire," though occasionally rung on even numbers of bells.
" Treble Bob " is always, and " Plain Bob " generally, rung
on even numbers six, eight, ten or twelve. In ringing, whenever
the treble has a uniform course, unaffected by " Bobs " or
" Singles," it serves as a guide to the other changing bells,
according to the place in which they meet and cross its path from
" behind " to the " lead." The order in which the different dodges
occur, and the " course bell," i.e. the bell which he follows from
behind to lead, are also useful, and on large numbers of bells
indispensable, guides to the ringer.
Quite distinct from the art of change-ringing is the science
of " composing," i.e. arranging and uniting by the proper
" calls," subject to certain fixed laws and conditions, a number
of groups of changes, so that no one change, or series of changes
represented in those groups, shall be repeated. A composition,
long or short, is said to be " true " if it is free from, " false "
if it involves, such repetition; and the body of ascertained laws
and conditions governing true composition in any method
constitutes the test or " proof " to be applied to a composition
in that method to demonstrate its truth or falseness. Many practi-
cal ringers know little or nothing of the principles of composition,
and are content with performing compositions received from
composers, or published in ringing books and periodicals. An
elaborate statement of the principles of composition in the
" Grandsire " method may be found in an appendix to Snowdon's
Grandsire (1888), by the Rev. C. D. P. Davies. Those which
apply to " Treble Bob " are explained in Snowdon's Treatise on
Treble Bob, Part I. But, so far as can be ascertained, there is no
treatise dealing with the science of composition as a whole; nor is
it possible here to attempt a popular exposition of its principles.
One of the objects kept in view by composers is musical
effect. Certain sequences or contrasts of notes strike the ear as
more musical than others; and an arrangement which brings
up the more musical changes in quicker succession improves
the musical effect of the " peal " or " touch." On seven bells
all the possible changes must be inserted in a true peal; but on
larger numbers of bells, where the choice is from an immense
number of possible changes, the composer is free to select those
which are most musical. Unless, however, the bells of any given
" ring " are in perfect tune and harmony with each other, their
musical effect must be impaired, however well they are rung.
This gives importance to the science and art of bell-tuning,
in which great progress has been made (see above).
The art of scientific change-ringing, peculiar to England,
does not seem to have been evolved before' the middle of the
1 7th century. Societies or gilds of ringers, however, existed
much earlier. A patent roll of 39 Henry III. (1255) confirms
the " Brethren of the Guild of Westminster, who are appointed
to ring the great bells there," in the enjoyment of the " privileges
and free customs which they have enjoyed from the time of
Edward the Confessor." In 1602 (as appears from a MS. in the
library of All Souls' College, Oxford) was founded a society
called the" Scholars of Cheapside." In 1637 began the " Ancient
Society of College Youths," so called from their meeting to practise
on the six bells at St Martin's, College Hill, a church destroyed
in the Great Fire of London, 1666. At first only " rounds "
and "call-changes" were rung, till about 1642, when 120
" Bob Doubles " were achieved; but slow progress was made
till 1677, when Fabian Stedman of Cambridge published his
Campanologia, dedicating it to this society, his method being
first rung about this time by some of its members. Before the
end of the i7th century was founded the " Society of London
Scholars," the name of which was changed in 1746 to " Cumber-
land Youths " in compliment to the victor of Culloden. These
two metropolitan societies still exist, and include in their member-
ship most of the leading change-ringers of England: one of the
oldest provincial societies being that of Saffron Walden in
Essex, founded in 1623, and still holding an annual ringing
festival. In the latter half of the i8th and first half of the igth
century change-ringing, which at first seems to have been an
aristocratic pastime, degenerated in social repute. Church
bells and their ringers, neglected by church authorities, became
associated with the lower and least reputable phases of parochial
life; and belfries were too often an adjunct to the pothouse.
In the last half of the igth century there was a great revival
of change-ringing, leading to improvements in belfries and in
ringers, and to their gradual recognition as church workers.
Diocesan or county associations for the promotion of change-
ringing and of belfry reform spread knowledge of the art and
aroused church officials to greater interest in and care for their
bells. A Central Council of Church Bell Ringers, consisting
of delegates from these various societies, meets annually in
London or at some provincial centre to discuss ringing matters,
and to collect and formulate useful knowledge upon practical
questions e.g. the proper care of bells and the means of prevent-
ing annoyance from their use in the neighbourhood of houses,
rules for the conduct of belfries, &c. It is now less likely than
ever that the Belgian carillons will be preferred in England to
the peculiarly English system of ringing bells in peal; by which,
whatever its difficulties, the musical sound of bells is most fully
brought out, and their scientific construction best stimulated.
AUTHORITIES. The literature of bell-lore (or campanology)
consists chiefly of scattered treatises or pamphlets upon the tech-
nique of different methods of change-ringing, or upon the bells of
particular counties or districts. The earliest that deal with the
science and art of change-ringing are Campanologia or the Art of
Ringing Improved (1677), and a chapter of ' Advice to a Ringer '
in the School of Recreations, or Gentleman's Tutor (1684), showing
that in its early days bell-ringing was a fashionable pastime. Then
follow Campanologia, or the Art of Ringing made Easy (1766), Claris
Campanologia, a Key to Ringing (1788), and Shipway s Campanologia
(1816). The revival of change-ringing in recent years has produced
many manuals: e.g. Snowdon's Rope-Sight (explaining the " Plain
Bob " method), Grandsire, Treatise on Treble Bob, Double Norwich
Court Bob Major, and Standard Methods (with a book of diagrams) ;
692
BELLABELLA BELLADONNA
Troyte on Change-Ringing; The Duffield Method, by Sir A. P.
Hevwood, Bart., its inventor. Somewhat prior to these are various
works by the Rev. H. T. Ellacorabe, inventor of a chiming apparatus
which bears his name, and a pioneer in belfry reform. Among these
are accounts of the church bells of Devon, Somerset and Gloucester,
and pamphlets on Belfries and Ringers, Chiming, &c.; much of their
contents being summarized in The Ringer's Guide to the Church Bells
of Devon, by C. Pearson (1888). A Glossary of Technical Terms used
in connexion with church bells and change-ringing was published
(iqoi) under the auspices of the Central Council of Church Bell
Ringers. On the history of church bells and customs connected with
them much curious information is given in North s English Bells
and Bell Lore (1888). By the same author are monographs on the
church bells of Leicestershire, Northamptonshire, Lincolnshire and
Hertfordshire. There are similar works on the church bells of buttolk
and Cambridgeshire, by Dr Raven; of Huntingdonshire, by the
Rev. T. M. N. Owen; and on the church bells of Essex, by the
Rev C. Deedes. A compilation and summary of many data of bell-
lore will be found in A Book about Bells, by the Rev. G. S. Tyack;
and in a volume by Dr Raven in the " Antiquary's Books series
(Methuen, 1906), entitled The Bells of England, which deals with the
antiquarian side of bell-lore. See also Quarterly Review, No. cxc.
(September 1854); Windsor Magazine (December 1896); Lord
Rayleigh's paper " On the Tones of Bells " in the Phil. Ma%. for
January 1890; and a series of articles from the Guardian, reprinted
as a pamphlet under the title, Church Bells and Bell-ringing.
( 1 . L. r.)
House Bells. Buildings are commonly provided with bells,
conveniently arranged so as to enable attendants to be summoned
to the different rooms. In the old system, which has been
largely superseded by pneumatic and still more by electric bells,
the bells themselves are of the ordinary conical shape and are
provided with clappers hung loosely inside them. Being sup-
ported on springs they continue to swing, and therefore to give
out sound as the clapper knocks against the sides, for some time
after they have been set in motion by means of the strings or
wires by which each is connected to a bell-pull in the rooms.
These wires are generally placed out of sight inside the walls,
and bell-cranks are employed to take them round corners and
to change the direction of motion as required. A lightly poised
pendulum is often attached to each bell, to show by its motion
when it has been rung. In pneumatic bells the wires are replaced
by pipes of narrow bore, and the current of air which is caused
to flow along these by the pressing of a push-button actuates
a small hammer which impinges rapidly against a bell or gong.
An electric bell consists of a small electro-magnet acting on a
soft iron armature which is supported in such a way that normally
it stands away from the magnet. When the latter is energized
by the passage of an electric current, the armature is attracted
towards it, and a small hammer attached to it strikes a blow on
the bell or gong. This " single stroke " type of bell is largely
used in railway signalling instruments. For domestic purposes,
however, the bells are arranged so that the hammer strikes a series
of strokes, continuing so long as the push-button which closes
the electric circuit is pressed. A light spring is provided against
which the armature rests when it is not attracted by the electro-
magnet, and the current is arranged to pass through this spring
and the armature on its way to the magnet. When the armature
is attracted by the magnet it breaks contact with this spring,
ttie current is interrupted, and the magnet being no longer
energized allows the armature to fall back on the spring and thus
restore the circuit. In this way a rapid to and fro motion is
imparted to the hammer. The electric current is supplied by a
battery, usually either of Leclanch6 or of dry cells. One bell
will serve for all the rooms of a house, an "indicator" being
provided to show from which it has been rung. Such indicators
are of two main types: the current either sets in motion a
pendulum, or causes a disk bearing the name or number of the
room concerned to come into view. Each push must have one
wire appropriated to itself leading from the battery through
the indicator to the bell, but the return wire from the bell to
the battery may be common to all the pushes. Bells of this kind
cease to ring whenever the electrical continuity of any of these
wires is interrupted, but in some cases, as in connexion with
burglar-alarms, it is desirable that the bell, once set in action,
shall continue to ring even though the wires are cut.
For this purpose, in " continuous ringing " bells, the current,
started by the push or alarm apparatus, instead of working
the bell, is made to operate a relay -switch and thus to bring into
circuit a second battery which continues to ring the bell, no
matter what happens to the first circuit. (H. M. R.)
BELLABELLA, the common name (popularized from the
Indian corruption of Milbank) for a tribe of Kwakiutl Indians
at Milbank, British Columbia, including the subtribes Kokaitk,
Oetlitk and Oealitk. They were converted to Christianity
by Protestant missionaries, and number about 300.
BELLACOOLA or BILQULA, a tribe of North American Indians
of Salishan stock, inhabiting the coast of British Columbia.
They number some 300.
BELLADONNA (from the Ital. bella donna, " beautiful lady,"
the berries having been used as a cosmetic), the roots and leaves of
Atropa belladonna, or deadly nightshade (q.v,), widely used in
medicine on account of the alkaloids which they contain. Of
these the more important are atropine (or atropia), hyoscyamine,
hyoscine and belladonine; atropine is the most important,
occurring as the malate to the extent of about 0-47 % in the leaves,
and from 0-6 to 0-25 % in the roots.
Atropine, C^H^NCs, was discovered in 1833 by P. L. Geiger
and Hesse and by Mein in the tissues of Atropa belladonna, from
which it may be extracted by means of chloroform. By crystal-
lization from alcohol it is obtained as colourless needles, melting
at 115. Hydrolysis with hydrochloric acid or baryta water
gives tropic acid and tropine; on the other hand, by boiling
equimolecular quantities of these substances with dilute hydro-
chloric acid, atropine is reformed. Since both these substances
have been synthesized (see' TROPINE), the artificial formation
of atropine is accomplished. Atropine is optically inactive;
hyoscyamine, possibly a physical isomer, which yields atropine
when heated to 108-6, is laevorotatory.
Medicine. The official doses of atropine are from -5-^ to -j-J-j;
grain, and the sulphate, which is in general use in medicine,
has a similar dose. It is highly important to observe that the
official doses of the various pharmacopoeias may with safety
be greatly exceeded in practice. They are based on the ex-
perimental toxic, as distinguished from lethal dose. A toxic
dose causes unpleasant symptoms, but in certain cases, such as
this, it may require very many times a toxic dose to produce
the lethal effect. In other words, whilst one-fiftieth of a grain
may cause unpleasant symptoms, it may need more than a grain
to kill. So valuable are certain of the properties of atropine
that it is often desirable to give doses of one-twentieth or one-
tenth of a grain; but these will never be ventured upon by the
practitioner who is ignorant of the great interval between the
minimum toxic and the minimum lethal dose. It actually needs
twenty to thirty grains of atropine to kill a rabbit: the animal
is, however, somewhat exceptional in this regard. The most
valuable preparations of this potent drug are the liquor atropinae
sulphatis, which is a i % solution, and the lamella for insertion
within the conjunctival sac which contains one five-thousandth
part of a grain of the alkaloid.
Pharmacology. When rubbed into the skin with such sub-
stances as alcohol or glycerine, which are absorbed, atropine is
carried through the epidermis with them, and in this manner
or when simply applied to a raw surface it paralyses the
terminals of the pain-conducting sensory nerves. It acts
similarly, though less markedly, upon the nerves which determine
the secretion of the perspiration, and is therefore a local anaes-
thetic or anodyne and an anhidrotic. Being rapidly absorbed
into the blood, it exercises a long and highly important series of
actions on nearly every part and function of the nervous system.
Perhaps its most remarkable action is that upon the terminals
of nearly all the secretory nerves in the body. This causes the
entire skin to become|dry as in the case of the local action above
mentioned ; and it arrests the secretion of saliva and mucus in
the mouth and throat, causing these parts to become very dry
and to feel very uncomfortable. This latter result is due to
paralysis of the chorda tympani nerve, which is mainly responsible
for the salivary secretion. Certain nerve fibres from the sym-
pathetic nervous system, which can also cause the secretion of a
BELLADONNA
693
(specially viscous) saliva, are entirely unaffected by atropine.
A curious parallel to this occurs in its action on the eye. There
is much uncertainty as to the influence of atropine on the secre-
tions of the stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas and kidneys, and
it is not possible to make any definite statement, save that in all
probability the activities of the nerves innervating the gland-
cells in these organs are reduced, though they are certainly not
arrested, as in the other cases. The secretion of mucus by the
bronchi and trachea is greatly reduced and their muscular tissue
is paralysed a fact of which much use is made in practical
medicine. The secretion of milk, if occurring in the mammary
gland, is much diminished or entirely arrested. Given internally,
atropine does not exert any appreciable sedative action upon the
nerves of pain.
The action of atropine on the motor nerves is equally important.
Those that go to the voluntary muscles are depressed only by
very large and dangerous doses. The drug appears to have no
influence upon the contractile cells that constitute muscle-fibre,
any more than it has directly upon the secretory cells that
constitute any gland. But moderate doses of atropine markedly
paralyse the terminals of the nerves that go to involuntary
muscles, whether the action of those nerves be motor or inhibitory.
In the intestine, for instance, are layers of muscle-fibre which are
constantly being inhibited or kept under check by the splanchnic
nerves. These are paralysed by atropine, and intestinal peri-
stalsis is consequently made more active, the muscles being
released from nervous control. The motor nerves of the arteries,
of the bladder and rectal sphincters, and also of the bronchi, are
paralysed by atropine, but the nervous arrangements of those
organs are highly complex and until they are further unravelled
by physiologists, pharmacology will be unable to give much
information which might be of great value in the employment
of atropine. The action upon the vaso-motor system is, however,
fairly clear. Whether effected entirely by action on the nerve
terminals, or by an additional influence upon the vaso-motor
centre in the medulla oblongata, atropine certainly causes
extreme dilatation of the blood-vessels, so much so that the skin
becomes flushed and there may appear, after large doses, an
erythematous rash, which must be carefully distinguished, in
cases of supposed belladonna poisoning, from that of scarlet fever:
more especially as the temperature may be elevated and the
pulse is very rapid in both conditions. But whilst the character-
istic action of atropine is to dilate the blood-vessels, its Erst
action is to stimulate the vaso-motor centre thereby causing
temporary contraction of the vessels and to increase the rapidity
of the heart's action, so that the blood-pressure rapidly rises.
Though transient, this action is so certain, marked and rapid,
as to make the subcutaneous injection of atropine invaluable
in certain conditions. The respiratory centre is similarly
stimulated, so that atropine must be regarded as a temporary
but efficient respiratory and cardiac stimulant.
Toxic doses of atropine and therefore of belladonna raise
the temperature several degrees. The action is probably nervous,
but in the present state of our knowledge regarding the control
of the temperature by the nervous system, it cannot be further
defined. In small therapeutic and in small toxic doses atropine
stimulates the motor apparatus of the spinal cord, just as it
stimulates the centres in the medulla oblongata. This is indeed,
as Sir Thomas Fraser has pointed out, " a strychnine action."
In large toxic and in lethal doses the activity of the spinal cord
is lowered.
No less important than any of the above is the action of
atropine on the cerebrum. This has long been a debated matter,
but it may now be stated, with considerable certainty, that the
higher centres are incoordinately stimulated, a state closely
resembling that of delirium tremens being induced. In cases
of poisoning the delirium may last for many hours or even days.
Thereafter a more or less sleepy state supervenes, but it is not the
case that atropine ever causes genuine coma. The stuporose
condition is the result of exhaustion after the long period of
cerebral excitement. It is to be noted that children, who are
particularly susceptible to the influence of certain of the other
potent alkaloids, such as morphine and strychnine, will take
relatively large doses of atropine without ill-effect.
The action of atropine on the eye is of high theoretical and
practical importance. The drug affects only the involuntary
muscles of the eye, just as it affects only the involuntary or
non-striated portion of the oesophagus. The result of its in-
stillation into the eye and the same occurs when the atropine
has been absorbed elsewhere is rapidly to cause wide dilatation
of the pupil. This can be experimentally shown by the method
of exclusion to be caused by a paralysis of the terminals of the
third cranial nerve in the sphincter pupillae of the iris. The
action of atropine in dilating the pupil is also aided by a stimula-
tion of the fibres from the sympathetic nervous system, which
innervate the remaining muscle of the iris the dilator papillae.
As a result of the extreme pupillary dilatation, the tension of the
eyeball is greatly raised. The sight of many an eye has been
destroyed by the use of atropine in ignorance of this action on
the intra-ocular tension in cases of incipient glaucoma. The
use of atropine is absolutely contra-indicated in any case where
the intra-ocular tension already is, or threatens to become,
unduly high. This warning applies notably to those usually
women who are accustomed indiscriminately to use belladonna
or atropine in order to give greater brilliancy to their eyes. The
fourth ocular result of administering atropine is the production
of a slight but definite degree of local anaesthesia of the eyeball.
It follows from the above that a patient who is definitely under
the influence of atropine will display rapid pulse, dilated pupils,
a dry skin and a sense of discomfort, due to dryness of the mouth
and throat.
Therapeutics. The external uses of the drug are mainly
analgesic. The liniment or plaster of belladonna will relieve
many forms of local pain. Generally speaking, it may be laid
down that atropine is more likely than iodine to relieve a pain
of quite superficial origin; and conversely. Totally to be
reprobated is the use, in order to relieve pain, of belladonna or
any other application which affects the skin, in cases where
the surgeon may later be required to operate. In such cases,
it is necessary to use such anodyne measures as will not interfere
with the subsequent demands that may be made of the skin,
i.e. that it be aseptic and in a condition so sound that it is able
to undertake the process of healing itself after the operation
has been performed. Atropine is universally and constantly
used in ophthalmic practice in order to dilate the pupil for
examination of the retina by the ophthalmoscope, or in cases
where the inflamed iris threatens to form adhesions to neigh-
bouring parts. The drug is often replaced in ophthalmology
by homatropine an alkaloid prepared from tropine which
acts similarly to atropine but has the advantage of allowing
the ocular changes to pass away in a much shorter time. The
anhidrotic action of atropine is largely employed in controlling
the night-sweats so characteristic of pulmonary tuberculosis,
small doses of the solution of the sulphate being given at night.
The uses of atropine in cardiac affections are still obscure
and dubious. It can only be laid down that the drug is a valuable
though temporary stimulant in emergencies, and that its use as
a plaster or internally often relieves cardiac pain. Recollection
of the extraordinary complexity of the problems which are
involved in the whole question of pain of cardiac origin will
emphasize the extreme vagueness of the above assertion. Pro-
fessor Schafer recommended the use of atropine prior to the
administration of a general anaesthetic, in cases where the
action of the vagus nerve upon the heart is to be dreaded; and
there is little doubt of the value of this precaution, which has
no attendant disadvantages, in all such cases. Atropine is
often of value as an antidote, as in poisoning by pilocarpine,
muscarine (mushroom poisoning), prussic acid, &c.
Omitting numerous minor applications of this drug, we may
pass to two therapeutic uses which are of unquestionable utility.
In cases of whooping-cough or any other condition in which
there is spasmodic action of the muscular fibre in the bronchi
a definition which includes nearly every form of asthma and
many cases of bronchitis atropine is an almost invaluable
694
BELLAGIO BELLARMINE
drug. Not only does it relieve the spasm, but it lessens the
amount of secretion often dangerously excessive which is
often associated with it. The relief of symptoms in whooping-
cough is sharply to be distinguished from any influence on the
course of the disease, since the drug does not abbreviate its
duration by a single day. In treating an actual and present
attack of asthma, it is advisable to give the standardized tincture
of belladonna unless expense is no consideration, in which
case atropine may itself be used in doses of twenty minims
every quarter of an hour as long as no evil effects appear. Relief
is thereby constantly obtained. Smaller doses of the drug
should be given three times a day between the attacks.
The nocturnal enuresis or urinary incontinence of children
and of adults is frequently relieved by this drug. The excellent
toleration of atropine displayed by children must be remem-
bered, and if its use is " pushed " a cure may almost always
be expected.
Toxicology. The symptoms of poisoning by belladonna or
atropine are dealt with above. The essential point here to be
added is that death takes place from combined cardiac and
respiratory failure. This fact is, of course, the key to treatment.
This consists in the use of emetics or the stomach-pump, with
lime-water, which decomposes the alkaloid. These measures are,
however, usually rendered nugatory by the very rapid absorption
of the alkaloid. Death is to be averted by such measures as will
keep the heart and lungs in action until the drug has been
excreted by the kidneys. Inject stimulants subcutaneously;
give coffee hot and strong by the mouth and rectum, or use
large doses of caffeine citrate; and employ artificial respiration.
Do not employ such physiological antagonists as pilocarpine
or morphine, for the lethal actions of all these drugs exhibit
not mutual antagonism but coincidence.
BELLAGIO, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province
of Como, about 15 m. N.N.E. by steamer from the town of
Como, situated on the promontory which divides the two
southern arms of the Lake of Como. Pop. (1901) 3536. It is
chiefly remarkable for the beauty of its scenery, and is a very
favourite resort in the spring and autumn. Some of the gardens
of its villas are remarkably fine. The manufacture of silks and
carving in olive wood are carried on.
BELLAIRE, a city of Belmont county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
the Ohio river, 5 m. S. of Wheeling, West Virginia. Pop.
(1890) 9934; (1900) 9912 (1159 foreign-born); (1910) 12,946.
It is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Pennsylvania, and the
Ohio River & Western railways. Bellaire is the shipping centre
of the Belmont county coalfield which in 1907 produced 19-3 %
of the total output of coal for the state. Iron, limestone and fire-
clay are found in the vicinity; among the manufactures are
iron and steel, glass, galvanized and enamelled ware, agricultural
implements and stoves. The value of the city's factory products
increased from $8,837,646 in 1900 to $10,712,438 in 1905, or
21-2 %. Bellaire was settled about 1795, was laid out in 1836,
was incorporated as a village in 1858, and was chartered as a
city in 1874.
BELLAMY, EDWARD (1850-1898), American author and
social reformer, was born at Chicopee Falls, Massachusetts, on
the 25th of March 1850. He studied for a time at Union College,
Schenectady, New York, and in Germany; was admitted to the
bar in 1871; but soon engaged in newspaper work, first as an
associate editor of the Springfield Union, Mass., and then as an
editorial writer for the New York Evening Post. After publishing
three novelettes (Six to One, Dr Heidenho/'s Process and Miss
Ludington's Sister), pleasantly written and showing some in-
ventiveness in situation, but attracting no special notice, in 1888
he caught the public attention with Looking Backward, 2000-
1887, in which he set forth ideas of co-operative or semi-social-
istic life in village or city communities. The book was widely
circulated in America and Europe, and was translated into
several foreign languages. It was at first judged merely as a
romance, but was soon accepted as a statement of the deliberate
wishes and methods of its author, who devoted the remainder
of his life as editor, author, lecturer and politician, to the pro-
motion of the communistic theories of Looking Backward, which
he called " nationalism "; a Nationalist party (the main points
of whose immediate programme, according to Bellamy, were
embodied in the platform of the People's party of 1892) was
organized, but obtained no political hold. In 1897 Bellamy
published Equality, a sequel to Looking Backward. He died at
Chicopee Falls on the 22nd of May 1898.
BELLAMY, GEORGE ANNE (1727-1788), English actress,
born at Fingal, Ireland, by her own account, on the 23rd of
April 1733, but more probably in 1727, was the illegitimate
daughter of Lord Tyrawley, British ambassador at Lisbon.
Her mother married there a Captain Bellamy, and the child
received the name George Anne, by mistake for Georgiana.
Lord Tyrawley acknowledged the child, had her educated in a
convent in Boulogne, and through him she came to know a
number of notable people in London. On his appointment as
ambassador to Russia, she went to live with her mother in
London, made the acquaintance of Mrs Woffington and Garrick,
and adopted the theatrical profession. Her first engagement
was at Covent Garden as Monimia in the Orphan in 1 744. Owing
to her personal charms and the social patronage extended to her,
her success was immediate, and till 1770 she acted in London,
Edinburgh and Dublin, in all the principal tragic rdles. She
played Juliet to Garrick's Romeo at Drury Lane at the time that
Spranger Barry (q.v.) was giving the rival performances at Covent
Garden, and was considered the better of the Juliets. Her last
years were unhappy, and passed in poverty and ill-health. She
died on the i6th of February 1788.
Her Apology (6 vols., 1785) gives an account of her long career
and of her private life, the extravagance and licence of which were
notorious.
BELLAMY, JOSEPH (1710-1790), American theologian, was
born in Cheshire, Connecticut, on the zoth of February 1719.
He graduated from Yale in 1735, studied theology for a time
under Jonathan Edwards, was licensed to preach when scarcely
eighteen years old, and from 1740 until his death, on the 6th of
March 1 7 90, was pastor of the Congregational church at Bethlehem,
Connecticut. The publication of his best-known work, True
Religion Delineated (1750), won for him a high reputation as a
theologian, and the book was several times reprinted both in
England and in America. Despite the fact that with the excep-
tion of the period of the " Great Awakening " (1740-1742), when
he preached as an itinerant in several neighbouring colonies, his
active labours were confined to his own parish, his influence
on the religious thought of his time in America was probably
surpassed only by that of his old friend and teacher Jonathan
Edwards. This influence was due not only to his publications,
but also to the " school " or classes for the training of clergymen
which he conducted for. many years at his home and from which
went forth scores of preachers to every part of New England and
the middle colonies (states). Bellamy's " system " of divinity
was in general similar to that of Edwards. During the War of
Independence he was loyal to the American cause. The univer-
sity of Aberdeen conferred upon him the honorary degree of D.D.
in 1768. He was a powerful and dramatic preacher. His
published works, in addition to that above mentioned, include
The Wisdom of God in the Permission of Sin (1758), his most
characteristic work; Theron, Paulinus and Aspasio; or
Letters and Dialogues upon the Nature of Love to God, Faith in
Christ, and Assurance of a Title to Eternal Life (1759); The Nature
and Glory of the Gospel (1762); A Blow at the Root of Antinomian-
ism (1763); There is but One Covenant (1769); Four Dialogues on
the Half -Way Covenant ( 1 769) ; and A Careful and Strict Examina-
tion of the External Covenant (1769).
His collected Works were published in 3 vols. (New York, 1811-
1812), and were republished with a Memoir by Rev. Tryon Edwards
(2 vols., Boston, 1850).
BELLARMINE (Ital. Bellarmino), ROBERTO FRANCESCO
ROMOLO (1542-1621), Italian cardinal and theologian, was
born at Monte Pulciano, in Tuscany, on the 4th of October 1542.
He was destined by his father to a political career, but feeling
a call to the priesthood he entered the Society of Jesus in 1 560.
BELLARY
695
After spending three years at Rome, he was sent to the Jesuit
settlement at Mondovi in Piedmont, where he studied and at
the same time taught Greek, and, though not yet in orders,
gained some reputation as a preacher. In 1567 and 1568 he
was at Padua, studying theology under a master who belonged
to the school of St Thomas Aquinas. In 1 569 he was sent by the
general of his order to Louvain, and in 1570, after being ordained
priest, began to lecture on theology at the university. His
seven years' residence in the Low Countries brought him into
dose relations with modes of thought differing essentially from
his own; and, though he was neither by temperament nor
training inclined to be affected by the prevailing Augustinian
doctrines of grace and free-will, the controversy into which he
fell on these questions compelled him to define his theological
principles more clearly. On his return to Rome in 1576 he was
chosen by Gregory XIII. to lecture on controversial theology in
the newly-founded Roman College. The result of these labours
appeared some years afterwards in the far-famed Disputationes
de Controversies Christianae Fidei adversus hujus temporis
Haereticos (3 vols., 1581, 1582, 1593). These volumes, which
called forth a multitude of answers on the Protestant side,
exhaust the controversy as it was carried on in those days,
and contain a lucid and uncompromising statement of Roman
Catholic doctrine. For many years afterwards, Bellarmine
was held by Protestant advocates as the champion of the papacy,
arid a vindication of Protestantism generally took the form
of an answer to his works. In 1589 he was selected by Sixtus V.
to accompany, in the capacity of theologian, the papal legation
sent to France soon after the murder of Henry III. He was
created cardinal in 1599 by Clement VIII., and two years later
was made archbishop of Capua. His efforts on behalf of the
clergy were untiring, and his ideal of the bishop's office may
be read in his address to his nephew, Angelo della Ciaia, who
had : been raised to the episcopate (A dmonit io ad episcopum
Theanensem, nepotem suum, Rome, 1612). Being detained
in Rome by the desire of the newly-elected pope, Paul V., he
resigned his archbishopric in 1605. He supported the church
in its conflicts with the civil powers in Venice, France and
England, and sharply criticized James I. for the severe legislation
against the Roman Catholics that followed the discovery of the
Gunpowder Plot. When health failed him, he retired to Monte
Pulciano, where from 1607 to 1611 he acted as bishop. In 1610
he published his De Potestate summiPontificis in rebus temporalibus
directed against the posthumous work of William Barclay of
Aberdeen, which denied the temporal power of the pope.
Bellarmine trod here on difficult ground, for, although maintain-
ing that the pope had the indirect right to depose unworthy
rulers, he gave offence to Paul V. in not asserting more strongly
the direct papal claim, whilst many French theologians, and
especially Bossuet, condemned him for his defence of ultra-
montanism. As a consultor of the Sacred Office, Bellarmine
took a prominent part in the first examination of Galileo's
writings. His conduct in this matter has been constantly mis-
represented. He had followed with interest Galileo's scientific
discoveries and a respectful admiration grew up between them.
Bellarmine did not proscribe the Copernican system, as has
been maintained by Reusch (Der Process Galilei's und die
Jesuilen, Bonn, 1879, p. 125); all he claimed was that it should
be presented as an hypothesis until it should receive scientific
demonstration. When Galileo visited Rome in December 1615
he was warmly received by Bellarmine, and the high regard in
which he was held is clearly testified in Bellarmine's letters
and in Galileo's dedication to the cardinal of his discourse on
" flying bodies." The last years of Bellarmine's life were mainly
devoted to the composition of devotional works and to securing
the papal approbation of the new order of the Visitation, founded
by his friend St Francis de Sales, and the beatification of St
Philip Neri. He died in Rome on the I7th of September 1621.
Bellarmine, whose life was a model of Christian virtue, is the
greatest of modern Roman Catholic controversialists, but the
value of his theological works is seriously impaired by a very
defective exegesis and a too frequent use of " forced " conclusions.
His devotional treatises were very popular among English
Roman Catholics in the penal days.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Of the older editions of Bellarmine's complete
works the best is that in 7 vols. published at Cologne (1617-1620);
modern editions appeared in 8 vols. at Naples (1856-1862, reprinted
1872), and in 12 vols. at Paris (1870-1874). For complete biblio-
graphy of all works of Bellarmine, of translations and controversial
writings against him, see C.Sommcrvogel, Bibliothlque de laGompagnie
de Jesus (Brussels and Paris, 1890 et seq), vol. i. cols. 1151-1254;
id.. Addenda, pp. x.-xi. vol. viii., cols. 1797-1807. The main source
for the life of Bellarmine is his Latin Autobiography (Rome, 1675;
Louvain, 1753), which was reprinted with original text and German
translation in the work of Dollinger and Reusch entitled Die Selbst-
biographie des Cardinals Bellarmin (Bonn, 1887). The Epiitolae
Famitiares, a very incomplete collection of letters, was published by
J. Fuligatti (Rome, 1650), who is also the author of Vita del cardinale
Rfllarmino della Compagnia di Giesu (Rome, 1624). Cf. D. Bartoli,
Delia vita di Roberto cardinal Bellarmino (Rome, 1 678), and M. Cervin,
Imago virtutnm Roberti card. Bellarmini Politiani (Siena, 1622).
AH these are panegyrics of small historical value. The best modern
studies are I. B. Couderc's Le Venerable Cardinal Bellarmin (2 vols.,
Paris, 1893), and X. le Bachelet's article in A. Vacant's Diet, de
theol. cat. cols. 560-599, with exhaustive bibliography.
BELLARY. or BALLARI, a city and district of British India,
in the Madras presidency. The city is 305 m. by rail from Madras.
Pop. (1001) 58,247. The fort rises from a huge mass of granite
rock, which with a circumference of nearly 2 m., juts up abruptly
to a height of 450 ft. above the plain. The length of this rock
from north-east to south-west is about 1150 ft. To the E. and
S. lies an irregular heap of boulders, but to the W. is an unbroken
precipice, and the N. is walled by bare rugged ridges. It is
defended by two distinct lines of works. The upper fort is a
quadrangular building on the summit, with only one approach,
and was deemed impregnable by the Mysore princes. But as it
has no accommodation for a garrison, it is now only occupied by
a small guard of British troops in charge of prisoners. The ex-
nawab of Kurnool was confined in it for forty years for the
murder of his wife. It contains several cisterns, excavated in
the rock. Outside the turreted rampart are a ditch and covered
way. The lower fort lies at the eastern base of the rock and
measures about half a mile in diameter. It contains the barracks
and the commissariat stores, the Protestant church, orphan-
age, Masonic lodge, post-office and numerous private dwellings.
The fort of Bellary was originally built by Hanumapa, in the i6th
century. It was first dependent on the kingdom of Vijayanagar,
afterwards on Bijapur, and subsequently subject to the nizam
and Hyder Ali. The latter erected the present fortifications
according to tradition with the assistance of a French engineer
in his service, whom he afterwards hanged for not building the
fort on a higher rock adjacent to it. Bellary is an important
cantonment and the headquarters of a military division. There
is a considerable trade in cotton, in connexion with which there
are large steam presses, and some manufacture of cotton cloth.
There is a cotton spinning mill. In 1001 Bellary was chosen as
one of the places of detention in India for Boer prisoners of war.
The district of BELLARY has an area of 5714 sq. m. It
consists chiefly of an extensive plateau between the Eastern and
Western Ghats, of a height varying from 800 to 1000 ft. above
the sea. The most elevated tracts are on the west, where the
surface rises towards the culminating range of hills, and on the
south, where it rises to the elevated tableland of Mysore.
Towards the centre the almost treeless plain presents a mono-
tonous aspect, broken only by a few rocky elevations that rise
abruptly from the black soil. The hill ranges in Bellary are
those of Sandur and Kampli to the west, the Lanka Malla to the
east and the Copper Mountain (3148 ft.) to the south-west.
The district is watered by five rivers: the Tungabhadra,
formed by the junction of two streams, Tunga and Bhadra,
the Haggari, Hindri, Chitravati and Pennar, the last considered
sacred by the natives. None of the rivers is navigable and all
are fordable during the dry season. The climate of Bellary is
characterized by extreme dryness, due to the passing of the air
over a great extent of heated plains, and it has a smaller rainfall
than any other district in south India. The average daily
variation of the thermometer is from 67 to 83 F. The
6 9 6
BELL-COT BELLEGARDE
prevailing diseases are cholera, fever, small-pox, ophthalmia,
dysentery and those of the skin among the lower classes. Bellary
is subject to disastrous storms and hurricanes, and to famines
arising from a series of bad seasons. There were memorable
famines in 1751, 1793, 1803, l8 33, 1834, 1866, 1877 and 1896.
In i ooi the population was 947,214, showing an increase of 8 %
in the decade. The principal crops are millet, other food-grains,
pulse, oil-seeds and cotton. There are considerable manu-
factures of cotton and woollen goods, and cotton is largely
exported. The district is traversed by the Madras and Southern
Mahratta railways, meeting on the eastern border at Guntakal
junction, where another line branches off to Bezwada.
Little is known of the early history of the district. It contains
the ruined capital of the ancient Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar,
and on the overthrow of that state by the Mahommedans, in
1564, the tract now forming the district of Bellary was split up
into a number of military holdings, held by chiefs called poligars.
In 1635 the Carnatic was annexed to the Bijapur dominions,
from which again it was wrested in 1680 by Sivaji, the founder
of the Mahratta power. It was then included in the dominions
of Nizam-ul-mulk, the nominal viceroy of the great Mogul in the
Deccan, from whom again it was subsequently conquered by
Hyder Ali of Mysore. At the close of the war with Tippoo
Sultan in 1792, these territories fell to the share of the nizam of
Hyderabad, by whom they were ceded to the British in 1800,
in return for protection by a force of British troops to be stationed
at his capital. In 1808 the " Ceded Districts," as they were
called, were split into two districts, Cuddapah and Bellary. In
1882 the district of Anantapur, which had hitherto formed part
of Bellary, was formed into a separate collectorate.
See Bellary Gazetteer, 1904.
BELL-COT, BELL-GABLE, or BELL-TURRET, the place where
one or more bells are hung in chapels or small churches
which have no towers. Bell-cots are sometimes double, as at
Northborough and Coxwell ; a very common form in France and
Switzerland admits of three bells. In these countries also they
are frequently of wood and attached to the ridge. In later
times bell-turrets were much ornamented; on the continent of
Europe they run up into a sort of small, slender spire, called
fleche in France, and guglio in Italy. A bell-cot, gable or turret
often holds the " Sanctus-bell," rung at the saying of the
" Sanctus " at the beginning of the canon of the Mass, and at
the consecration and elevation of the Elements in the Roman
Church. This differs but little from the common bell-cot,
except that it is generally on the top of the arch dividing the
nave from the chancel. At Cleeve, however, the bell seems to
have been placed in a cot outside the wall. Sanctus-bells have
also been placed over the gables of porches.
BELLEAU, REMY (c. 1527-1577), French poet, and member
of the Pleiade (see DAURAT), was born at Nogent-le-Rotrou
about 1527. He studied with Ronsard and others under Jean
Daurat at the College de Coqueret. He was attached to Ren6
de Lorraine, marquis d'Elbceuf, in the expedition against Naples
in 1557, where he did good military service. On his return he
was made tutor to the young Charles, marquis d'Elbceuf, who,
under Belleau's training became a great patron of the muses.
Belleau was an enthusiast for the new learning and joined the
group of young poets with ardour. In 1556 he published the
first translation of Anacreon which had appeared in French.
In the next year he published his first collection of poems, the
Petites inventions, in which he describes stones, insects and
flowers. The Amours et nouveaux tchanges des pierres precieuses
.... (1576) contains perhaps his most characteristic work. Its
title is quoted in the lines of Ronsard's epitaph on his tomb:
" Luy mesme a basti son tombeau
Dedans ses Pierrss Precieuses."
He wrote commentaries to Ronsard's Amours in 1560, notes
which evinced delicate taste and prodigious learning. Like
Ronsard and Joachim Du Bellay, he was extremely deaf. His
days passed peacefully in the midst of his books and friends, and
he died on the 6th of March 1577. He was buried in the nave
of. the Grands Augustins at Paris, and was borne to the tomb on
the pious shoulders of four poets, Ronsard, J. A. de Baif , Philippe
Desportes and Amadis Jamyn. His most considerable work is
La Bergerie (1565-1572), a pastoral in prose and verse, written in
imitation of Sannazaro. The lines on April in the Bergerie are
well known to all readers of French poetry. Belleau was the
French Herrick, full of picturesqueness, warmth and colour. His
skies drop flowers and all his air is perfumed, and this volup-
tuous sweetness degenerates sometimes into licence. Extremely
popular in his own age, he shared the fate of his friends, and
was undeservedly forgotten in the next. Regniersaid: "Belleau
ne parle pas comme on parle a la ville "; and his lyrical beauty
was lost on the trim i7th century. His complete works were
collected in 1578, and contain, besides the works already
mentioned, a comedy entitled La Reconnue, in short rhymed lines,
which is not without humour and life, and a comic masterpiece,
a macaronic poem on the religious wars, Dictamen metrificum de
hello huguenotico et reistrorum 1 piglamine ad sodales (Paris, no date) .
The (Euvres completes (3 vols., 1867) of Remy Belleau were edited
by A. Gouverneur; and his (Euvres poetiques (2 vols., 1879) by
M. Ch. Marty-Laveaux in his Pleiade franfaise; see also C. A.
Sainte-Beuve, Tableau historique et critique de la poesie franchise
auXVI' siecle (ed. 1876), i. pp. 155-160, and ii. pp. 296 seq.
BELLECOUR (1725-1778), French actor, whose real name was
JEAN CLAUDE GILLES COLSON, was born on the i6th of January
1725, the son of a portrait-painter. He showed decided artistic
talent, but soon deserted the brush for the stage under the name
of Bellecour. After playing in the provinces he was called to
the Comedie Francaise, but his debut, on the 2ist of December
1750, as Achilles in Iphigenie was not a great success. He soon
turned to more congenial comedy roles, which for thirty years he
filled with great credit. He was a very natural player, and his
willingness to give others on the stage an opportunity to show
their talents made him extremely popular. He wrote a successful
play, Fausses apparences (1761), and was very useful to the
Comedie Francaise in editing and adapting the plays of others.
He died on the igth of November 1778.
His wife, ROSE PERRINE LE ROY DE LA CORBINAYE, was born
at Lamballe on the 2oth of December 1730, the daughter of an
artillery officer. Under the stage name of Beaumenard she
made her first Paris appearance in 1743 as Gogo in Favart's
Le Coq du village. After a year at the Opera Comique she played
in several companies, including that of Marshal Saxe, who
is said to have been not insensible to her charms. In 1749 she
made her debut at the Comedie Francaise as Dorine in Tartuffe,
and her success was immediate. She retired in 1756, but after
an absence of five years, during which she married, she reappeared
as Madame Bellecour, and continued her successes in soubrette
parts in the plays of Moliere and de Regnard. She retired
finally at the age of sixty, but troublous times had put an end to
the pension which she received from Louis XVI. and from the
theatre, and she died in abject poverty on the sth of August
1 799. There is a charming portrait of her owned by the Theatre
Franfais.
BELLEFONTAINE, a city and the county-seat of Logan
county, Ohio, U.S.A., about 45 m. N.W. of Columbus. Pop.
(1890) 4245; (1900) 6649 (267 foreign-born); (1910) 8238.
It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis
(which has large shops here) and the Ohio Central railways;
also by the Dayton, Springfield & Urbana electric railway. It
is built on the south-west slope of a hill having an elevation of
about 1500 ft. above sea-level and at the foot of which are several
springs of clear water which suggested the city's name. Among
the city's manufactures are iron bridges, carriage-bodies, flour and
cement. The municipality owns and operates its water-works
system and its gas and electric-lighting plants. Bellefontaine
was first settled about 1818, was laid out as a town and made
the county-seat in 1820 and was incorporated in 1835.
BELLEGARDE, the name of an important French family.
Roger de Saint-Lary, baron of Bellegarde, served with distinction
in the wars against the French Protestants. He showed much
devotion to Henry III., who loaded him with favours and made
him marshal of France. He eventually fell into disgrace,
1 Retires, German soldiers of fortune.
BELLEGARDE BELLE-ISLE
697
however, and died by poisoning in 1579. His nephew, Roger de
Saint-Lary de Termes, a favourite with Henry III., Henry IV.
and Louis XIII., was royal master of the horse and governor of
Burgundy. His estate of Seurre in Burgundy was created a
duchy in the peerage of France (duch(-pairie) in his favour under
the name of Bellegarde, in 1619. In 1645 the title of this duchy
was transferred to the estate of Choisy-aux-Loges in Gatinais,
and was borne later by the family of Pardaillan de Gondrin, heirs
of the house of Saint-Lary-Bellegarde. When Seurre passed
into the possession of the princes of Conde 1 they in the same way
acquired the title of dukes of Bellegarde. (M. P.*)
BELLEGARDE, HEINRICH JOSEPH JOHANNES, COUNT
VON (1756-1845), Austrian soldier and statesman, was born at
Dresden on the zgth of August 1756, and for a short time served
in the Saxon army. Transferring his services to Austria in 1771
he distinguished himself greatly as colonel of dragoons in the
Turkish War of 1788-1789, and served as a major-general in
the Netherlands campaigns of 1793-1794. In the campaign of
1796 in Germany, as a lieutenant field marshal, he served on
the staff of the archduke Charles, whom he accompanied to Italy
in the following year. He was also employed in the congress of
Rastatt. In 1799 he commanded a corps in eastern Switzerland,
connecting the armies of the archduke and Suvarov, and finally
joined the latter in north Italy. He conducted the siege of the
citadel of Alessandria, and was present at the decisive battle
of Novi. He served again in the latter part of the Marengo
campaign of 1800 in the rank of general of cavalry. In 1805,
when the archduke Charles left to take command in Italy,
Bellegarde became president ad interim of the council of war.
He was, however, soon employed in the field, and at the sanguin-
ary battle of Caldiero he commanded the Austrian right. In
the war of 1809 he commanded the extreme right wing of the
main army (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS) . Cut off from Charles
as the result of the battle of Eckmiihl, he retreated into
Bohemia, but managed to rejoin before the gre^it battles
near Vienna (Aspern and Wagram). From 1809 to 1813 Belle-
garde, now field marshal, was governor-general of Galicia, but
was often called to preside over the meetings of the Aulic
Council, especially in 1810 in connexion with the reorganization
of the Austrian army. In 1813, 1814 and 1815 he led the
Austrian armies in Italy. His successes in these campaigns
were diplomatic as well as military, and he ended them by
crushing the last attempt of Murat in 1815. From 1816 to 1825
(when he had to retire owing to failing eyesight) he held various
distinguished civil and military posts. He died in 1845.
See Smola, Das Leben des F. M. von Bellegarde (Vienna, 1847).
BELLE-ILE-EN-MER, an island off the W. coast of France,
forming a canton of the department of Morbihan, 8 m. S. by W. of
the peninsula of Quiberon. Pop. (1906) 9703. Area, 33 sq. m.
The island is divided into the four communes of Le Palais,
Bangor, Sauzon and Locmaria. It forms a treeless plateau with
an average height of 130 ft. above sea-level, largely covered
with moors and bordered by a rugged and broken coast. The
climate is mild, the fig-tree and myrtle growing in sheltered spots
and the soil, where cultivated, is productive. The inhabitants
are principally engaged in agriculture and the fisheries, and in
the preservation of sardines, anchovies, &c. The breed of draught
horses in the island is highly prized. The chief town, Le Palais
(pop. 2637), has an old citadel and fortifications, and possesses a
port which is accessible to vessels drawing 13 ft. of water.
Belle-lie must have been inhabited from a very early period,
as it possesses several stone monuments of the class usually
called Druidic.
The Roman name of the island seems to have been Vindilis,
which in the middle ages became corrupted to Guedel. In 1572
the monks of the abbey of Ste Croix at Quimperle ceded the
island to the Retz family, in whose favour it was raised to a
marquisate in the following year. It subsequently came into
the hands of the family of Fouquet, and was ceded by the latter
to the crown in 1718. It was held by English troops from 1761
to 1763 when the French got it' in exchange for Nova Scotia.
A few of the inhabitants of the latter territory migrated to
Belle-lie, which is partly peopled by their descendants. In
the state prison of Nouvelle Force at Le Palais political prisoners
have at various times been confined.
BELLE-ISLE, CHARLES LOUIS AUGUSTE FOUQUET.
COMTE, and later Due, DE (1684-1761), French soldier and
statesman, was the grandson of Nicholas Fouquet, superintendent
of finances under Louis XIV., and was born at Villefranche
de Rouergue. Although his family was in disgrace, he entered
the army at an early age and was made proprietary colonel of a
dragoon regiment in 1 708. He rose during the War of the Spanish
Succession to the rank of brigadier, and in March 1718 to that
of martchal de camp. In the Spanish War of 1718-1719 he was
present at the capture of Fontarabia in 1718 and at that of St
Sebastian in 1719. When the duke of Bourbon became prime
minister, Belle-Isle was imprisoned in the Bastille, and then
relegated to his estates, but with the advent of Cardinal Fleury
to power he regained some measure of favour and was made
a lieutenant-general. In the War of the Polish Succession he
commanded a corps under the orders of Marshal Berwick, cap-
tured Trier and Trarbach and took part in the siege of Philipps-
burg (1734). When peace was made in 1736 the king, in recogni-
tion both of his military services and of the part he had taken
in the negotiations for the cession of Lorraine, gave him the
government of the three important fortresses of Metz, Toul
and Verdun an office which he kept till his death. His
military and political reputation was now at its height, and he
was one of the principal advisers of the government in military
and diplomatic affairs. In 1741 he was sent to Germany as
French plenipotentiary to carry out, in the interests of France,
a grand scheme of political reorganization in the moribund
empire, and especially to obtain the election of Charles, elector
of Bavaria, as emperor. His diplomacy was thus the mainspring
of the War of the Austrian Succession (?..), and his military
command in south Germany was full of incidents and vicissitudes.
He had been named marshal of France in 1741, and received a
large army, with which it is said that he promised to make
peace in three months under the walls of Vienna. The truth of
this story is open to question, for no one knew better than Belle-
Isle the limitations imposed upon commanders by the military
and political circumstances of the times. These circumstances
in fact rendered his efforts, both as a general and as a statesman,
unavailing, and the one redeeming feature in the general failure
was his heroic retreat from Prague. In ten days he led 14,000
men into and across the Bohemian Forest, suffering great priva-
tions and harassed by the enemy, but never allowing himself
to be cut off, and his subordinate Chevert defended Prague so
well that the Austrians were glad to allow him to rejoin his
chief. The campaign, however, had discredited Belle-Isle;
he was ridiculed at Paris by the wits and the populace, even
Fleury is said to have turned against him, and, to complete his
misfortunes, he was taken prisoner by the English in going
from Cassel to Berlin through Hanover. He remained a year
in England, in spite of the demands of Louis XV. and of the
emperor Charles VII. During the campaign of 1746 he was
in command of the " Army of Piedmont " on the Alpine frontier,
and although he began his work with a demoralized and inferior
army, he managed not only to repel the invasion of the Spanish
and Italian forces but also to carry the war back into the plain
of Lombardy. At the peace, having thus retrieved his military
reputation, he was created duke and peer of France (1748).
In 1757 his credit at court was considerable, and the king named
him secretary for war. During his three years' ministry he under-
took many reforms, such as the development of the military
school for officers, and the suppression of the proprietary
colonelcies of nobles who were too young to command; and he
instituted the Order of Merit. But the Seven Years' War was
by that time in progress and his efforts had no immediate effect.
He died at Versailles on the z6th of January 1761. Belle-Isle
interested himself in literature; was elected a member of the
French Academy in 1740, and founded the Academy of Metz
in 1760. The dukedom ended with his death, his only son
having been killed in 1758 at the battle of Crefeld.
6 9 8
BELLE ISLE BELLEROPHON
His brother, Louis CHARLES ARMAND FOUQTJET, known as
the Chevalier de Belle-Isle (1693-1746), was also a soldier and
a diplomatist. He served as a junior officer in the War of the
Spanish Succession and as brigadier in the campaign of 1734
on the Rhine and Moselle, where he won the grade of martchal
de camp. He was employed under his brother in political
missions in Bavaria and in Swabia in 1741-1742, became a
lieutenant-general, fought in Bohemia, Bavaria and the Rhine
countries in 1742-1743, and was arrested and sent to England
with the marshal in 1 744. On his release he was given a command
in the Army of Piedmont. He fell a victim to his romantic
bravery at the action of Exilles (Col de 1'Assiette) on the igth
of July 1746.
See Jean de Maugre, Oraison funebre du marechal de Belleisle
(Montmedy, 1762); R. P. de Neuville, Memoires du marechal due
de Belleisle (Paris, 1761); D. C. (Chevrier), La Vie politique et mili-
taire du marechal due de Belleisle (London, 1760), and Testament
politique du marechal due de Belleisle (Hague, ^1762); Le Codicille et
I'espnt ou commentaire des maximes du marechal due de Belleisle
(Amsterdam, 1761) ; F. M. Chavert, Notice sur le marechal de Belle-
isle (Metz, 1856); L. Leclerc, loge du marechal de Belleisle (Metz,
1862); E. Michel, ftloge du marechal de Belleisle (Paris, 1862); and
Jobez, La France sous Louis XV (6 vols., Paris, 1868-1874).
BELLE ISLE, STRAIT OF, the more northern of the two
channels connecting the Gulf of St Lawrence with the Atlantic
Ocean. It separates northern Newfoundland from Labrador,
and extends N.E. and S.W. for 35 m., with a breadth
of 10 to 15 m. It derives its name from a precipitous granite
island, 700 ft. in height, at its Atlantic entrance. On this light-
houses are maintained by the government of Canada and constant
communication with the mainland is kept up by wireless tele-
graphy. The strait is in the most direct route from Europe
to the St Lawrence, but is open only from June till the end of
November, and even during this period navigation is often
rendered dangerous by floating ice and fogs. Through it Jacques
Cartier sailed in 1534- The southern or Cabot Strait, between
Cape Ray in Newfoundland and Cape North in Cape Breton,
was discovered later, and the expansion below Belle Isle was
long known as La Grande Bale. Cabot Strait is open all the year,
save for occasional inconvenience from drift ice.
BELLENDEN (BALLANTYNE or BANNATYNE), JOHN (fl.
1533-1587), Scottish writer, was born about the end of the
1 5th century, in the south-east of Scotland, perhaps in East
Lothian. He appears to have been educated, first at the univer-
sity of St Andrews and then at that of Paris, where he took the
degree of doctor. From his own statement, in one of his poems,
we learn that he had been in the service of James V. from the
king's earliest years, and that the post he held was clerk of
accounts. At the request of James he undertook translations of
Boece's Hisloria Scolorum, which had appeared at Paris in 1527,
and the first five books of Livy. As a reward for his versions,
which he finished in 1533, he was appointed archdeacon of
Moray and a canon of Ross. He was a strenuous opponent of
the Reformation and was compelled to go into exile. He is said
by some authorities to have died at Rome in 1550; by others
to have been still living in 1587. His translation of Boece,
entitled The History and Chronicles of Scotland, is a remarkable
specimen of Scottish prose, distinguished by its freedom and
vigour of expression. It was published in 1536; and was
reprinted in 2 vols., edited by Maitland, in 1821. The translation
of Livy was not printed till 1822 (also in 2 vols.). Two MSS. of
the latter are extant, one, the older, in the Advocates' library,
Edinburgh (which was the basis of the normalized text of 1822),
the other (c. 1550) in the possession of Mr Ogilvie Forbes of
Boyndlie. An edition of the work was edited for the Scottish
Text Society by Mr W. A. Craigie (2 vols. 1901, 1903). The
second volume of this edition contains also a complete reprint
of the portions of the holograph first draft which were discovered
in the British Museum in 1902. Two poems by Bellendcn The
Proheme to the Cosmographe and the Proheme of the History
appeared in the 1 536 edition of the History of Scotland. Others,
bearing his name in the well-known Bannatyne MS. collection,
made by his namesake George Bannatyne (q.v.), may or may not
be his. Sir David Lyndsay, in his prologue to the Papyngo,
speaks vaguely of:
" Ane cunnyng Clark quhilk wrythith craftelie
Ane plant of poetis callit Ballendyne,
Quhose ornat workis my wit can nocht defyne."
The chief sources of information regarding Bellenden's life are the
Accounts of the Lord High Treasurer of Scotland, his own works and
the ecclesiastical records.
BELLENDEN, WILLIAM, Scottish classical scholar. Hardly
anything is known of him. He lived in the reign of James I.
(VI. of Scotland) ,who appointed him magister libellorum supplicum
or master of requests. King James is also said to have provided
Bellenden with the means of living independently at Paris,
where he became professor at the university, and advocate in
the parliament. The date of his birth cannot be fixed, and it
can only be said that he died later than 1625. The first of the
works by which he is known was published anonymously in 1608,
with the title Ciceronis Princeps, a laborious compilation of all
Cicero's remarks on the origin and principles of regal government,
digested and systematically arranged. In 1612 there appeared
a similar work, devoted to the consideration of consular authority
and the Roman senate, Ciceronis Consul, Senator, Senatusque
Romanus. His third work, De Statu Prisci Orbis, 1615, is a
good outline of general history. All three works were combined
in a single large volume, entitled De Statu Libri Tres, 1615, which
was first brought into due notice by Dr Samuel Parr, who, in
1787, published an edition with a preface, famous for the elegance
of its Latinity, in which he eulogized Burke, Fox and Lord
North as the " three English luminaries." The greatest of
Bellenden's works is the extensive treatise De Tribus Luminibus
Romanorum, printed and published posthumously at Paris in
1633. The book is unfinished, and treats only of the first
luminary, Cicero; the others intended were apparently Seneca
and Pliny. It contains a most elaborate history of Rome and
its institutions, drawn from Cicero, and thus forms a storehouse
of all the historical notices contained in that voluminous author.
It is said that nearly all the copies were lost on the passage to
England. One of the few that survived was placed in the univer-
sity library at Cambridge, and freely drawn upon by Conyers
Middieton, the librarian, in his History of the Life of Cicero.
Both Joseph Warton and Dr Parr accused Middieton of deliberate
plagiarism, which was the more likely to have escaped detection
owing to the small number of existing copies of Bellenden's work.
BELLEROPHON, or BELLEROPHONTES, in Greek legend,
son of Glaucus or Poseidon, grandson of Sisyphus and local hero
of Corinth. Having slain by accident the Corinthian hero
Bellerus (or, according to others, his own brother) he fled to
Tiryns, where his kinsman Proetus, king of Argos, received him
hospitably and purged him of his guilt. But Anteia (or Sthene-
boca), wife of Proetus, became enamoured of Bellerophon, and,
when he refused her advances, charged him with an attempt
upon her virtue. Proetus thereupon sent him to lobates, his
wife's father, king of Lycia, with a letter or sealed tablet, in
which were instructions, apparently given by means of signs, to
take the life of the bearer. Arriving in Lycia, he was received
as a guest and entertained for nine days. On the tenth, being
asked the object of his visit, he handed the letter to the king,
whose first plan for complying with it was to send him to slay
the Chimaera, a monster which was devastating the country.
Bellerophon,mounted on Pegasus(<?.t>.) ,kept up in the air out of the
way of the Chimaera, but yet near enough to kill it with his spear,
or, as he is at other times represented, with his sword or with a bow.
He was next ordered out against the Solymi, a hostile tribe, and
afterwards against the Amazons, from both of which expeditions
he not only returned victorious, but also on his way back slew
an ambush of chosen warriors whom lobates had placed to
intercept him. His divine origin was now proved; the king
gave him his daughter in marriage; and the Lycians presented
him with a large and fertile estate on which he lived (Apollodorus,
ii. 3; Homer, Iliad,- vi. 155). Bellerophon is said to have
returned to Tiryns and avenged himself on Anteia: he persuaded
her to fly with him on his winged horse, and then flung her into
BELLES-LETTRES BELLINGHAM
699
the sea near the island of Melos (Schol. Aristoph., Pax, 140).
His ambitious attempt to ascend to the heavens on Pegasus
brought upon him the wrath of the gods. His son was smitten
by Ares in battle; his daughter Laodameia was slain by Artemis;
he himself, flung from his horse, lamed or blinded, became a
wanderer pver the face of the earth until his death (Pindar,
Isthmia, vi. [vii.], 44; Horace, Odes, iv. n, 26). Bellerophon
was honoured as a hero at Corinth and in Lycia. His story
formed the subject of the lobates of Sophocles, and of the Bellero
phonies and Stheneboea of Euripides. It has been suggested that
Perseus, the local hero of Argos, and Bellerophon were originally
one and the same, the difference in their exploits being the
result of the rivalry of Argos and Corinth. Both are connected
with the sun-god Helios and with the sea-god Poseidon, the
symbol of the union being the" winged horse Pegasus. Bellerophon
has been explained as a hero of the storm, of which his conflict
with the Chimaera is symbolical. The most frequent representa-
tions of Bellerophon in ancient art are (i) slaying the Chimaera,
(2) departing from Argos with the letter, (3) leading Pegasus to
drink. Among the first is to be noted a terra-cotta relief from
Melos in the British Museum, where also, on a vase of black ware,
is what seems to be a representation of his escape from
Stheneboea.
See H. A. Fischer, Bellerophon (1851); R. Engelmann, Annali
of the Archaeological Institute at Rome (1874); O. Treuber, Ge-
schichU der Lykier (1887) ; articles in Pauly-Wissowa's Real-Encydo-
padie, W. H. Reseller's Lexikon der Mythologie, Daremberg and
Saglio's Dictionnaire des antiguitis; L. Preller, Griechische
Mythologie.
BELLES-LETTRES (Fr. for " fine literature "), a term used
to designate the more artistic and imaginative forms of literature,
as poetry or romance, as opposed to more pedestrian and exact
studies. The term appears to have been first used in English
by Swift (1710).
BELLEVILLE, a city and port of entry of Ontario, Canada;
and capital of Hastings county, 106 m. E.N.E. of Toronto,
on Bay of Quinte and the Grand Trunk railway. Pop. (1901)
9117. Communication is maintained with Lake Ontario and
St Lawrence ports by several lines of steamers. It is the com-
mercial centre of a fine agricultural district, and has a large
export tra de in cheese and farm produce. The principal industries
are planing mills and cement works, cheese factories and dis-
tilleries. There are several educational institutions, including a
business college, a convent, and a government institute for the
deaf and dumb. Albert College, under the control of the Methodist
church, was formerly a university, but now confines itself to
secondary education.
BELLEVILLE, a city and the county-seat of St Clair county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the S.W. part of the state 14 m. S.E.
of St Louis, Missouri. Pop. (1890) 13,361; (1900) 17,484,
of whom 2750 were foreign-born; (1910) 21,122. Belleville is
served by the Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, and
the Southern railways, also by extensive interurban electric
systems; and a belt line to O'Fallon, Illinois, connects Belleville
with the Baltimore & Ohio South Western railway. A large
element of the population is of German descent or German
birth, and two newspapers are published in German, besides
three dailies, three weeklies and a semi-weekly in English.
Among the industrial establishments of the city are stove and
range factories, flour mills, rolling mills, distilleries, breweries,
shoe factories, copper refining works, nail and tack factories,
glass works and agricultural implement factories. The value
of the city's factory products increased from $2,873,334 in 1900
to $4,356,615 in 1905 or 51-6%. Belleville is in a rich agri-
cultural region, and in the vicinity there are valuable coal mines,
the first of which was sunk in 1852; from this dates the industrial
development of the city. Belleville was first settled in 1813,
was incorporated as a city in 1850, and was re-incorporated
in 1876.
BELLEY, a town of eastern France, capital of an arrondisse-
ment in the department of Ain, 52 m. S.E. of Bourg by
the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), town, 3709; commune,
5707. It is situated on vine-covered hills at the southern
extremity of the Jura, 3 m. from the right bank of the Rhone.
Apart from the cathedral of St Jean, which, with the exception
of the choir of 1413, is a modern building, there is little of
architectural interest in the town. Belley is the seat of a bishopric
and a prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance. The manu-
facture of morocco leather goods and the quarrying of the
lithographic stone of the vicinity are carried on, and there is
trade in cattle, grain, wine, truffles and dressed pork. Belley
is of Roman origin, and in the sth century became an episcopal
see. It was the capital of the province of Bugey, which was a
dependency of Savoy till 1601, when it was ceded to France.
In 1385 the town was almost entirely destroyed by an act of
incendiarism, but was subsequently rebuilt by the dukes of
Savoy, who surrounded it with ramparts of which little is
left.
BELLI, GIUSEPPE GIOACHINO (1791-1863), Italian poet,
was born at Rome, and after a period of literary employment
in poor circumstances was enabled by marriage with a lady of
means to follow his own special bent. He is remembered for
his vivid popular poetry in the Roman dialect, a number of
satirical sonnets which in their own way are unique.
See Morandi's edition, I sonetti romaneschi (1886-1889).
BELLIGERENCY, the state of carrying on war (Lat. helium,
war, and gerere, to wage) in accordance with the law of nations.
Insurgents are not as such excluded from recognition as belli-
gerents, and, even where not recognized as belligerents by the
government against which they have rebelled, they may be so
recognized by a neutral state, as in the case of the American
Civil War, when the Southern states were recognized as belli-
gerents by Great Britain, though regarded as rebels by the
Northern states. The recognition by a neutral state of belli-
gerency does not, however, imply recognition of independent
political existence. The regulations annexed to the Hague
Convention, relating to the laws and customs of war (29th of July
1899), contain a section entitled " Belligerents " which is
divided into three chapters, dealing respectively with (i.) The
Qualifications of Belligerents; (ii.) Prisoners of War; (iii.) The
Sick and Wounded. To entitle troops to the special privileges
attaching to belligerency, chapter i. provides that all regular,
militia or volunteer forces shall alike be commanded by persons
responsible for the acts of their men, that all such shall carry
distinctive emblems, recognizable at a distance, that arms shall
be carried openly and operations conducted in accordance with
the usages of war observed among civilized mankind. It provides,
nevertheless, for the emergency of the population of a territory,
which has not already been occupied by the invader, spontane-
ously taking up arms to resist the invading forces, without
having had time to comply with the above requirements; they,
too, are to be treated as belligerents " if they respect the laws
and customs of war." In naval war, privateering having been
finally abolished as among the parties to it by the declaration
of Paris, a privateer is not entitled, as between such parties,
to the rights of belligerency. As between states, one of whom
is not a party to the Declaration, the right to grant letters of
marque would remain intact for both parties, and the privateer,
as between them, would be a belligerent; as regards neutrals,
the situation would be complicated (see PRIVATEER). On
prisoners of war and sick and wounded, see WAR. (T. BA.)
BELLINGHAM, SIR EDWARD (d. 1549), lord deputy of
Ireland, was a son of Edward Bellingham of Erringham, Sussex,
his mother being a member of the Shelley family. As a soldier
he fought in France and elsewhere, then became an English
member of parliament and a member of the privy council, and
in 1547 took part in some military operations in Ireland. In
May 1548 he was sent to that country as lord deputy. Ireland
was then in a very disturbed condition, but the new governor
crushed a rebellion of the O'Connors in Leinster, freed the Pale
from rebels, built forts, and made the English power respected
in Munster and Connaught. Bellingham, however, was a
headstrong man and was constantly quarrelling with his council;
but one of his opponents admitted that he was " the best man of
yoo
BELLINGHAM BELLINI
war that ever he had seen in Ireland." His short but successful
term of office was ended by his recall in 1549.
See R. Bagwell, Ireland Under the Tudors, vol. i. (1885).
BELLINGHAM, a city of Whatcom county, Washington,
U.S.A., on the E. side of Bellingham Bay, 96 m. N. of Seattle.
Pop. (1900) 11,062; (1905, state est.) 26,000; (1910, U.S. census)
24,298. Area about 23 sq. m. It is served by the Great
Northern, the Northern Pacific, the Canadian Pacific," and
the Bellingham Bay & British Columbia railways being a
terminus of the last named, which operates only 62 m. of line
and connects with the Mt. Baker goldfields and the Nooksack
valley farm and orchard region. A suburban electric line was
projected in 1907. About 23 m. south-east of the city is the
main body of Lake Whatcom, 13 m. long, i J m. wide, and 318 ft.
higher than the city and the source of its water-supply, a gravity
system which cost $1,000,000, being owned by the city. Belling-
ham has two Carnegie libraries. Among the principal buildings
are the county court-house, the city hall, the Young Men's
Christian Association building, and Beck's theatre, with a
seating capacity of 2200. The largest of the state's normal
colleges is situated here; in 1907 it had a faculty of 25 and
350 students; there are two high schools, two business colleges,
and one industrial school also in the city. The excellent harbour,
and the fact that Bellingham is nearer to the great markets of
Alaska than any other city in the states, make the port an im-
portant shipping centre. In the value of manufactured product
the city was fourth in the state in 1905 (being passed only by
Tacoma, Seattle and Spokane), with a value of $3,293,988;
according to a census taken by the local chamber of commerce
the value of the product in 1906 was $7,751,464. The principal
industrial establishments are shingle (especially cedar) and
saw-mills, salmon canneries and factories for the manufacture
of tin cans, and machinery used in the canning of salmon. Motive
and electric lighting power is brought 52 m. from the falls
of the north fork of the Nooksack river, where there is a power
plant which furnishes 3500 horsepower. There are deposits
of clay and limestone in the surrounding country, and cement
is manufactured in the vicinity of the city. The blue-grey
Chuckanut sandstone is quarried on the shore of Chuckanut
Bay, south of Bellingham; and a coarse, dark-brown sandstone
is quarried on Sucia Island, west of the city. There are quarries
also on Waldron Island. Bellingham was formed in 1903 by
the consolidation of the cities of New Whatcom (pop. in 1900,
6834) and Fairhaven (pop. in 1900, 4228), and was chartered
as a city of the first class in 1904; it is named from Bellingham
Bay, which Vancouver is supposed to have named, in 1792,
in honour of Sir Henry Bellingham.
BELLINI, the name of a family of craftsmen in Venice, three
members of which fill a great place in the history of the Venetian
school of painting in the isth century and the first years of the
i6th.
I. JACOPO BELLINI (c. 1400-1470-71) was the son of a tin-
smith or pewterer, Nicoletto Bellini, by his wife Franceschina.
When the accomplished Umbrian master Gentile da Fabriano
came to practise at Venice, where art was backward, several
young men of the city took service under him as pupils. Among
these were Giovanni and Antonio of Murano and Jacopo Bellini.
Gentile da Fabriano left Venice for Florence in 1422, and the
two brothers of Murano stayed at home and presently founded
a school of their own (see VIVARINI) . But Jacopo Bellini followed
his teacher to Florence, where the vast progress lately made,
alike in truth to natural fact and in sense of classic grace and style,
by masters like Donatello and Ghiberti, Masaccio and Paolo
Uccello, offered him better instruction than he could obtain even
from his Umbrian teacher. But his position as assistant to
Gentile brought him into trouble. As a stranger coming to
practise in Florence, Gentile was jealously looked on. One day
some young Florentines threw stones into his shop, and the
Venetian pupil ran out and drove them off with his fists. Think-
ing this might be turned against him, he went and took service on
board the galleys of the Florentine state; but returning after a
year, found he had in his absence been condemned and fined for
assault. He was arrested and imprisoned, but the matter was
soon compromised, Jacopo submitting to a public act of penance
and his adversary renouncing further proceedings. Whether
Jacopo accompanied his master to Rome in 1426 we cannot
tell; but by 1429 we find him settled at Venice and married
to a wife from Pesaro named Anna (family name. uncertain),
who in that year made a will in favour of her first child then
expected. She survived; however, and bore her husband two
sons, Gentile and Giovanni (though some evidences have been
thought to point rather to Giovanni having been his son by another
mother), and a daughter Nicolosia. In 1436 Jacopo was at
Verona, painting a Crucifixion in fresco for the chapel of S.
Nicholas in the cathedral (destroyed by order of the archbishop
in 1750, but the composition, a vast one of many figures, has been
preserved in an old engraving). Documents ranging from 1437
to 1465 show him to have been a member of the Scuola or mutual
aid society of St John the Evangelist at Venice, for which he
painted at an uncertain date a series of eighteen subjects of the
Life of the Virgin, fully described by Ridolfi but now destroyed
or dispersed. In 1439 we find him buying a panel of tarsia work
at the sale of the effects of the deceased painter Jacobello del
Fiore, and in 1440 entering into a business partnership with
another painter of the city called Donate. About this time he
must have paid a visit to the court of Ferrara, where there
prevailed a spirit of free culture and humanism most congenial
to his tastes. Pisanello, the first great naturalist artist of north
Italy, whose influence on Jacopo at the outset of his career had
been only second to that of Gentile da Fabriano, had been some
time engaged on a portrait of Leonello d'Este, the elder son of
the reigning marquis Niccolo III. Jacopo (according to an almost
contemporary sonneteer) competed with a rival portrait, which
was declared by the father to be the better of the two. In the
next year, the last of the marquis Niccolo's life, we find him
making the successful painter a present of two bushels of wheat.
The relations thus begun with the house of Este seem to have been
kept up, and among Jacopo's extant drawings are several that
seem to belong to the scheme of a monument erected to the
memory of the marquis Niccolo ten years later. He was also
esteemed and employed by Sigismondo Malatesta at the court
of Rimini. In 1443 Jacopo took as an articled pupil a nephew
whom he had brought up from charity; in 1452 he painted a
banner for the Scuola of St Mary of Charity at Venice, and the
next year received a grant from the confraternity for the marriage
of his daughter Nicolosia with Andrea Mantegna, a marriage
which had the effect of transferring the gifted young Paduan
master definitively from the following of Squarcione to that
of Bellini. In 1456 he painted a figure of Lorenzo Giustiniani,
first patriarch of Venice, for his monument in San Pietro de
Castello, and in 1457, with a son for salaried assistant, three
figures of saints in the great hall of the patriarch. For some
time about these years Jacopo and his family would seem to
have resided at, or at least to have paid frequent visits to Padua,
where he is reported to have carried out works now lost, including
an altar-piece painted with the assistance of his sons in 1459-1460
for the Gattamelata chapel in the Santo, and several portraits
which are described by 16th-century witnesses but have dis-
appeared. At Venice he painted a Calvary for the Scuola of St
Mark (1466). His activity can be traced in documents down
to August 1470, but in November 1471 his wife Anna describes
herself as his relict, so that he must have died some time in the
interval.
The above are all the facts concerning the life of Jacopo
Bellini which can be gathered from printed and documentary
records. The materials which have reached posterity for a
critical judgment on his work consist of four or five pictures only,
together with two important and invaluable books of drawings.
These prove him to have been a worthy third, following the
Umbrian Gentile da Fabriano and the Veronese Pisanello, in
that trio of remarkable artists who in the first half of the isth
century carried towards maturity the art of painting in Venice
and the neighbouring cities. Of his pictures, an important
signed example is a life-size Christ Crucified in the archbishop's
BELLINI
701
palace at Verona. The rest are almost all Madonnas: two
signed, one in the Tadini gallery at Lovere, another in the
Venice academy; a third, unsigned and long ascribed in error to
Gentile da Fabriano, in the Louvre, with the portrait of Sigis-
mondo Malatesta as donor; a fourth, richest of all in colour and
ornamental detail, recently acquired from private hands for the
Uffizi at Florence. Plausibly, though less certainly, ascribed to
him are a fifth Madonna at Bergamo, a warrior-saint on horseback
(San Crisogono) in the church of San Trovaso at Venice, a Cruci-
fixion in the Museo Correr, and an Adoration of the Magi in
private possession at Ferrara. Against this scanty tale of
paintings we have to set an abundance of drawings and studies
preserved in two precious albums in the British Museum and the
Louvre. The former, which is the earlier in date, belonged to
the painter's elder son Gentile and was by him bequeathed to
his brother Giovanni. It consists of ninety-nine paper pages,
all drawn on both back and front with a lead point, an instrument
unusual at this date. Two or three of the drawings have been
worked over in pen; of the remainder many have become dim
from time and rubbing. The album at the Louvre, discovered
in 1883 in the loft of a country-house in Guienne, is equally rich
and better preserved, the drawings being all highly finished in
pen, probably over effaced preliminary sketches in chalk or lead.
The range of subjects is much the same in both collections, and
in both extremely varied, proving Jacopo to have been a crafts-
man of many-sided curiosity and invention. He passes indis-
criminately from such usual Scripture scenes as the Adoration
of the Magi, the Agony in the Garden, and the Crucifixion, to
designs from classic fable, copies from ancient bas-reliefs, stories
of the saints, especially St Christopher and St George, the latter
many times repeated (he was the patron saint of the house of
Este), fanciful allegories of which the meaning has now become
obscure, scenes of daily life, studies for monuments, and studies
of animals, especially of eagles (the emblem of the house of Este) ,
horses and lions. He loves to marshal his figures' in vast open
spaces, whether of architecture or mountainous landscape. In
designing such spaces and in peopling them with figures of
relatively small scale, we see him eagerly and continually putting
to the test the principles of the new science of perspective. His
castellated and pinnacled architecture, in a mixed medieval and
classical spirit, is elaborately thought out, and scarcely less so his
groups and ranges of barren hills, broken in clefts or ascending
in spiral terraces. With a predilection for tall and slender
proportions, he draws the human figure with a flowing generalized
grace and no small freedom of movement; but he does not
approach either in mastery of line or in vehemence of action a
Florentine draughtsman such as Antonio Pollaiuolo. Jacopo's
influence on the development of Venetian art wa.s very great,
not only directly through his two sons and his son-in-law Mant-
egna, but through other and independent contemporary work-
shops of the city, in none of which did it remain unfelt.
II. GENTILE BELLINI* (1420-1430-1507), the elder son of
Jacopo, first appears independently as the painter of a Madonna,
much in his father's manner, dated 1460, and now in the Berlin
museum. We have seen how in the previous year he and his
brother assisted their father in the execution of an altar-piece
for the Santo at Padua. In July 1466 we find him contracting
with the officers of the Scuola of St Mark as an independent
artist to decorate the doors of their organ. These paintings still
exist in a blackened condition. They represent four saints,
colossal in size, and designed with much of the harsh and searching
austerity which characterized the Paduan school under Squar-
cione. In December of the same year Gentile bound himself to
execute for the great hall of the same company two subjects of
the Exodus, to be done better than, or at least as well as, his
father's work in the same place. These paintings have perished.
For the next eight years the history of Gentile's life and work
remains obscure. But he must have risen steadily in the esteem
of his fellow-citizens, since in 1474 we find him commissioned
by the senate to restore, renew, and when necessary replace, the
series of paintings, the work of an earlier generation of artists,
which were perishing from damp on the walls of the Hall of the
Great Council in the ducal palace. This was evidently intended
to be a permanent employment, and in payment the painter was
to receive the reversion of a broker's stall in the Fondaco dei
Tedeschi; a lucrative form of sinecure frequently allotted to
artists engaged for tasks of long duration. In continuation of
this work Gentile undertook a series of independent paintings
on subjects of Venetian history for the same hall, but had
apparently only finished one, representing the delivery of the
consecrated candle by the pope to the doge, when his labours
were interrupted by a mission to the East. The sultan
Mahommed II. had despatched a friendly embassy to Venice,
inviting the doge to visit him at Constantinople and at the same
time requesting the despatch of an excellent painter to work at
his court. The former part of the sultan's proposal the senate
declined, with the latter they complied; and Gentile Bellini with
two assistants was selected for the mission, his brother Giovanni
being at the same time appointed to fill his place on the works
for the Hall of the Great Council. Gentile gave great satisfaction
to the sultan, and returned after about a year with a knighthood,
some fine clothes, a gold chain and a pension. The surviving
fruits of his labours at Constantinople consist of a large painting
representing the reception of an ambassador in that city, now in
the Louvre; a highly finished portrait of the sultan himself, now
one of the treasures, despite its damaged condition, of the
collection of the late Sir Henry Layard; an exquisitely wrought
small portrait in water-colour of a scribe, found in 1905 by a
private collector in the bazaar at Constantinople and now in the
collection of Mrs Gardner at Boston; and two pen-and-ink
drawings of Turkish types, now in the British Museum. Early
copies of two or three other similar drawings are preserved in
the Stadel Institute at Frankfurt; such copies may have been
made for the use of Gentile's Umbrian contemporary, Pin-
turicchio, who introduced figures borrowed from them into
some of his decorative frescoes in the Appartamento Borgia
at Rome.
A place had been left open for Gentile to continue working
beside his brother Giovanni (with whom he lived always on terms
of the closest amity) in the ducal palace; and soon after 1480
he began to carry out his share in the great series of frescoes,
unfortunately destroyed by fire in 1577, illustrating the part
played by Venice in the struggles between the papacy and the
emperor Barbarossa. These works were executed not on the
wall itself but on canvas (the climate of Venice having so
many times proved fatal to wall paintings), and probably in oil,
a method which all the artists of Venice, following the example
set by Antonello da Messina, had by this time learnt or were
learning to practise. The subjects allotted to Gentile, in addition
to the above-mentioned presentation of the consecrated candle,
were as follows: the departure of the Venetian ambassadors
to the court of Barbarossa, Barbarossa receiving the ambassadors,
the pope inciting the doge and senate to war, the pope bestowing
a sword and his blessing on the doge and his army (a drawing in
the British Museum purports to be the artist's original sketch
for this composition), and according to some authorities also the
gift of the symbolic ring by the pope to the victorious doge on
his return. These works received the highest praise both from
contemporary and from later Venetian critics, but no fragment
of them survived the fire of 1577. Their character can to some
extent be judged by a certain number of kindred historical and
processional. works by the same hand which have been preserved.
Of such the Academy at Venice has three which were painted
between 1490 and 1500 for the Scuola of St John the Evangelist,
and represent certain events connected with a famous relic
belonging to the Scuola, namely, a supposed fragment of the
true cross. All have been much injured and re-painted; never-
theless one at least, showing the procession of the relic through
St Mark's Place and the thanksgiving of a father who owed to
it the miraculous cure of his son, still gives a good idea of the
painter's powers and style. Great accuracy and firmness of
individual portraiture, a strong gift, derived no doubt from his.
father's example, for grouping and marshalling a crowd of
personages in spaces of fine architectural perspective, the
702
BELLINI
severity and dryness of the Paduan manner much mitigated by
the dawning splendour of true Venetian colour these are the
qualities that no injury has been able to deface. They are again
manifest in an interesting Adoration of the Magi in the Layard
collection; and reappear still more forcibly in the last work
undertaken by the artist, the great picture now at the Brera in
Milan of St Mark preaching at Alexandria ; this was commissioned
by the Scuola of St Mark in March 1505, and left by the artist
in his will, dated i8th of February 1507, to be finished by his
brother Giovanni. Of single portraits by this artist, who was
almost as famous for them as for processional groups, there
survive one of a doge at the Museo Correr in Venice, one of
Catarina Cornaro at Budapest, one of a mathematician at the
National Gallery, another of a monk in the same gallery, signed
wrongly to all appearance with the name of Giovanni Bellini,
besides one or two others in private hands. The features of
Gentile himself are known from a portrait medallion by Camelio,
and can be recognized in two extant drawings, one at Berlin
supposed to be by the painter's own hand, and another, much
larger and more finished, at Christ Church, Oxford, which is
variously attributed to Bonsignori and A. Vivarini.
III. GIOVANNI BELLINI (1430-1431-1516) is generally
assumed to have been the second son of Jacopo by his wife Anna;
though the fact that she does not mention him in her will with
her other sons has thrown some slight doubt upon the matter.
At any rate he was brought up in his father's house, and always
lived and worked in the closest fraternal relation with Gentile.
Up till the age of nearly thirty we find documentary evidence
of the two sons having served as their father's assistants in
works both at Venice and Padua. In Giovanni's earliest inde-
pendent works we find him more strongly influenced by the
harsh and searching manner of the Paduan school, and especially
of his own brother-in-law Mautegna, than by the more graceful
and facile style of Jacopo. This influence seems to have lasted
at full strength until after the departure of his brother-in-law
Mantegna for the court of Mantua in 1460. The earliest of
Giovanni's independent works no doubt date from before this
period. Three of these exist at the Correr museum in Venice:
a Crucifixion, a Transfiguration, and a Dead Christ supported by
Angels. Two Madonnas of the same or even earlier date are in
private collections in America, a third in that of Signor Frizzoni
at Milan; while two beautiful works in the National Gallery
of London seem to bring the period to a close. One of these is
of a rare subject, the Blood of the Redeemer; the other is the
fine picture of Christ's Agony in the Garden, formerly in the
Northbrook collection. The last-named piece was evidently
executed in friendly rivalry with Mantegna, whose version of
the subject hangs near by; the main idea of the composition
in both cases being taken from a drawing by Jacopo Bellini in
the British Museum sketch-book. In all these pictures Giovanni
combines with the Paduan severity of drawing and complex
rigidity of drapery a depth of religious feeling and human pathos
which is his own. They are all executed in the old tempera
method; and in the last named the tragedy of the scene is
softened by a new and beautiful effect of romantic sunrise
colour. In a somewhat changed and more personal manner,
with less harshness of contour and a broader treatment of forms
and draperies, but not less force of religious feeling, are the two
pictures of the Dead Christ supported by Angels, in these days
one of the master's most frequent themes, at Rimini and at
Berlin. Chronologically to be placed with these are two
Madonnas, one at the church of the Madonna del Orto at Venice
and one in the Lochis collection at Bergamo; devout intensity
of feeling and rich solemnity of colour being in the case of all
these early Madonnas combined with a singularly direct rendering
of the natural movements and attitudes of children.
The above-named works, all still executed in tempera, are
no doubt earlier than the date of Giovanni's first appointment
to work along with his brother and other artists in the Scuola
di San Marco, where among other subjects he was commissioned
in 1470 to paint a Deluge with Noah's Ark. None of the master's
works of this kind, whether painted for the various schools or
confraternities or for the ducal palace, have survived. To the
decade following 1470 must probably be assigned a Transfigura-
tion now in the Naples museum, repeating with greatly ripened
powers and in a much serener spirit the subject of his early
effort at Venice; and also the great altar-piece of the Coronation
of the Virgin at Pesaro, which would seem to be his earliest
effort in a form of art previously almost monopolized in Venice
by the rival school of the Vivarini. Probably not much later
was the still more famous altar-piece painted in tempera for a
chapel in the church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, where it perished
along with Titian's Peter Martyr and Tintoretto's Crucifixion
in the disastrous fire of 1867. After 1479-1480 very much of
Giovanni's time and energy must have been taken up by his
duties as conservator of the paintings in the great hall of the ducal
palace, in payment for which he was awarded, first the reversion
of a broker's place in the Fondaco dei Tedeschi, and afterwards,
as a substitute, a fixed annual pension of eighty ducats. Besides
repairing and renewing the works of his predecessors he was
commissioned to paint a number of new subjects, six or seven
in all, in further illustration of the part played by Venice in the
wars of Barbarossa and the pope. These works, executed with
much interruption and delay, were the object of universal admira-
tion while they lasted, but not a trace of them survived the fire
of 1577; neither have any other examples of his historical and
processional compositions come down, enabling us to compare
his manner in such subjects with that of his brother Gentile.
Of the other, the religious class of his work, including both
altar-pieces with many figures and simple Madonnas, a consider-
able number have fortunately been preserved. They show him
gradually throwing off the last restraints of the 15th-century
manner; gradually acquiring a complete mastery of the new oil
medium introduced in Venice by Antonello da Messina about
1473, and mastering with its help all, or nearly all, the secrets
of the perfect fusion of colours and atmospheric gradation of
tones. The old intensity of pathetic and devout feeling gradually
fades away and gives place to a noble, if more worldly, serenity
and charm. The enthroned Virgin and Child become tranquil and
commanding in their sweetness; the personages of the attendant
saints gain in power, presence and individuality; enchanting
groups of singing and viol-playing angels symbolize and complete
the harmony of the scene. The full splendour of Venetian colour
invests alike the figures, their architectural framework, the
landscape and the sky. The altar-piece of the Frari at Venice,
the altar-piece of San Giobbe, now at the academy, the Virgin
between SS. Paul and George, also at the academy, and the altar-
piece with the kneeling doge Barbarigo at Murano, are among
the most conspicuous examples. Simple Madonnas of the same
period (about 1485-1490) are in the Venice academy, in the
National Gallery, at Turin and at Bergamo. An interval of some
years, no doubt chiefly occupied with work in the Hallof the Great
Council, seems to separate the last-named altar-pieces from that
of the church of San Zaccaria at Venice, which is perhaps the
most beautiful and imposing of all, and is dated 1505, the year
following that of Giorgione's Madonna at Castelfranco. Another
great altar-piece with saints, that of the church of San Francesco
de la Vigna at Venice, belongs to 1507; that of La Corona at
Vicenza, a Baptism of Christ in a landscape, to 1510; to 1513
that of San Giovanni Crisostomo at Venice, where the aged saint
Jerome, seated on a hill, is raised high against a resplendent
sunset background, with SS. Christopher and Augustine standing
facing each other below him, in front. Of Giovanni's activity
in the interval between the altar-pieces of San Giobbe and of
Murano and that of San Zaccaria, there are a few minor evidences
left, though the great mass of its results perished with the fire
of the ducal palace in 1577. The examples that remain consist
of one very interesting and beautiful allegorical picture in the
Uffizi at Florence, the subject of which had remained a riddle
until it was recently identified as an illustration of a French
medieval allegory, the Pelerinage de I'dme by Guillaume de
Guilleville; with a set of five other allegories or moral emblems,
on a smaller scale and very romantically treated, in the academy
at Venice. To these should probably be added, as painted
BELLINI, L. BELLINZONA
towards the year 1505, the portrait of the doge Loredano in the
National Gallery, the only portrait by the master which has
been preserved, and in its own manner one of the most masterly
in the whole range of painting.
The last ten or twelve years of the master's life saw him
besieged with more commissions than he could well complete.
Already in the years 1 501-1 504 the marchioness Isabella Gonzaga
of Mantua had had great difficulty in obtaining delivery from
him of a picture of the " Madonna and Saints " (now lost) for
which part payment had been made in advance. In 1 505 she en-
deavoured through Cardinal Bembo to obtain from him another
picture, this time of a secular or mythological character. What
the subject of this piece was, or whether it was actually delivered,
we do not know. Albrecht Dtirer, visiting Venice for a second
time in 1 506, reports of Giovanni Bellini as still the best painter
in the city, and as full of all courtesy and generosity towards
foreign brethren of the brush. In 1507 Gentile Bellini died,
and Giovanni completed the picture of the " Preaching of St
Mark " which he had left unfinished; a task on the fulfilment of
which the bequest by the elder brother to the younger of their
father's sketch-book had been made conditional. In 1513
Giovanni's position as sole master (since the death of his brother
and of Alvise Vivarini) in charge of the paintings in the Hall
of the Great Council was threatened by an application on the
part of his own former pupil, Titian, for a joint-share in the
same undertaking, to be paid for on the same terms. Titian's
application was first granted, then after a year rescinded, and
then after another year or two granted again; and the aged
master must no doubt have undergone some annoyance from
his sometime pupil's proceedings. In 1514 Giovanni undertook
to paint a Bacchanal for the duke Alfonso of Ferrara, but died
in 1516, leaving it to be finished by his pupils; this picture is
now at Alnwick.
Both in the artistic and in the worldly sense, the career of
Giovanni Bellini was upon the whole the most serenely and
unbrokenly prosperous, from youth to extreme old age, which
fell to the lot of any artist of the early Renaissance. He lived
to see his own school far outshine that of his rivals, the Vivarini
of Murano; he embodied, with ever growing and maturing
power, all the devotional gravity and much also of the worldly
splendour of the Venice of his time; and he saw his influence
propagated by a host of pupils, two of whom at least, Giorgione
and Titian, surpassed their master. Giorgione he outlived by
five years; Titian, as we have seen, challenged an equal place
beside his teacher. Among the best known of his other pupils
were, in his earlier time, Andrea Previtali, Cima da Conegliano,
Marco Basaiti, Niccolo Rondinelli, Piermaria Pennacchi, Martino
da Udine, Girolamo Mocetto; in later time, Pierfrancesco
Bissolo, Vincenzo Catena, Lorenzo Lotto and Sebastian del
Piombo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Vasari, ed. Milanesi, vol. iii. ; Ridolfi, Le
Maraviglie, &c., vol. i. ; Francesco Sansovino, Venezia Descritta;
Morelli, Notizia, &c., di un Anonimo; Zanetti, Pittura Veneziana;
F. Aglietti, Elogio Storico di Jacopo e Giovanni Bellini; G. Berna-
scpni, Cenni intorno la vita e le opere di Jacopo Bellini; Moschini,
Giovanni Bellini e pittori contemforanei;E,. Galichon in Gazette des
beaux-arts (1866) ; Crowe and Cavalcaselle, History of Painting in
North Italy, vol. i. ; Hubert Janitschek, "Giovanni Bellini in
Dohme's Kunsl tind Kiinstler; Julius Meyer in Meyer's Allge-
meines Kiinstler -Lexikon, vol. iii. (1885) ; Pompeo Molmenti,
" I pittori Bellini " in Studi e ricerche di Storia d' Arte; P. Paoletti,
Raccolta di documenti inediti, fasc. i. ; Vasari, Vile di Gentile da
Fabriano e Vittor Pisanello, ed. Venturi ; Corrado Ricci in Rassegna
d' Arte (1901, 1903), and Rivista d' Arte (1906) ; Roger Fry, Giovanni
Bellini in "The Artist's Library"; Everard Meynell, Giovanni
Bellini in Newnes's " Art Library " (useful for a nearly complete
set of reproductions of the known paintings); Corrado Ricci,
Jacopo Bellini e i supi Libri di Disegni; Victor Goloubeff, Les
Dessins de Jacopo Bellini (the two works last cited reproduce in full,
that of M. Goloubeff by far the most skilfully, the contents of both
the Paris and the London sketch-books). (S. C.)
BELLINI, LORENZO (1643-1704), Italian physician and
anatomist, was born at Florence on the 3rd of September 1643.
At the age of twenty, when he had already begun his researches
on the structure of the kidneys and had described the ducts
known by his name (Exercitatio anatomica de structura el usu
renum, 1662), he was chosen professor of theoretical medicine
at Pisa, but soon after was transferred to the chair of anatomy.
After spending thirty years at Pisa, he was invited to Florence
and appointed physician to the grand duke Cosimo III., and was
also made senior consulting physician to Pope Clement XI.
He died at Florence on the 8th of January 1704. His works
were published in a collected form at Venice in 1708.
BELLINI, VINCENZO (1801-1835), operatic composer of the
Italian school, was bom at Catania in Sicily, on the ist of
November 1801. He was descended from a family of musicians,
both his father and grandfather having been composers of some
reputation. After having received his preparatory musical
education at home, he entered the conservatoire of Naples,
where he studied singing and composition under Tritto and
Zingarelli. He soon began to write pieces for various instruments,
as well as a cantata and several masses and other sacred com-
positions. His first opera, Adelson e Savina, was performed in
1825 at a small theatre in Naples; his second dramatic work,
Bianco e Fernando, was produced next year at the San Carlo
theatre of the same city, and made his name known in Italy.
His next work, // Pirata (1827), was written for the Scala in
Milan, to words by Felice Romano, with whom Bellini formed
a union of friendship to be severed only by his death. The
splendid rendering of the music by Tamburini, Rubini and other
great Italian singers contributed greatly to the success of the
work, which at once established the European reputation of its
composer. In almost every year of the short remainder of his
life he produced a new operatic work, which was received with
rapture by the audiences of France, Italy, Germany and England.
The names and dates of four of Bellini's operas familiar to most
lovers of Italian music are: / Montecchi e Capuleli (1830), in
which the part of Romeo became a favourite with all the great
contraltos; La Sonnambttla (1831); Norma, Bellini's best and
most popular creation (1831); and / Puritani (1835), written for
the Italian opera in Paris, and to some extent under the influence
of French music. In 1833 Bellini had left his country to accom-
pany to England the singer Pasta, who had created the part of
his Sonnambula. In 1834 he accepted an invitation to write an
opera for the national grand opera in Paris. While he was
carefully studying the French language and the cadence of French
verse for the purpose, he was seized with a sudden illness and
died at his villa in Puteaux near Paris on the 24th of September
1835. His operatic creations are throughout replete with a
spirit of gentle melancholy, frequently monotonous and almost
always undramatic, but at the same time irresistibly sweet.
To this spirit, combined with a rich flow of cantilena, Bellini's
operas owe their popularity. " I shall never forget," wrote
Wagner, " the impression made upon me by an opera of Bellini
at a period when I was completely exhausted with the ever-
lastingly abstract complication used in our orchestras, when a
simple and noble melody was revealed anew to me."
See also G. Labat, Bellini (Bordeaux, 1865); A. Pougin, Bellini,
sa vie et ses ceuvres (Paris, 1868).
BELLINZONA (Ger. Bellenz), the political capital of the
Swiss canton of Tessin or Ticino. It is 105 m. from Lucerne by
the St Gotthard railway, 19 m. from Lugano and 14 m. from
Locarno at the head of the Lago Maggiore, these two towns
having been till 1881 capitals of the canton jointly with Bellin-
zona. The old town is built on some hills, on the left bank of the
Tessin or Ticino river, and a little below the junction of the main
Ticino valley (the Val Leventina) with that of Mesocco. It
thus blocked the road from Germany to Italy, while a great wall
was built from the town to the river bank. Bellinzona still
possesses three picturesque castles (restored in modern times),
dating in their present form from the isth century. They
belonged for several centuries to the three Swiss cantons which
were masters of the town. The most westerly, Castello Grande
or of San Michele, belonged to Uri; the central castle, that of
Montebello, was the property of Schwyz; while the most
easterly castle, that of Sasso Corbaro, was in the hands of Unter-
walden. The 13th-century church of San Biagio (Blaise) has a
remarkable 14th-century fresco, while the collegiate church of
704
BELLMAN BELLOT
San Stefano dates from the 1 6th century. In 1 900 the population
of Bellinzona was 4949, practically ail Romanists and Italian-
speaking.
Possibly Bellinzona is of Roman origin, but it is first mentioned
in 590. It played a considerable part in the early history of
Lombardy, being a key to several Alpine passes. In the 8th
century it belonged to the bishop of Como, while in the I3th and
I4th centuries it was tossed to and fro between the cities of Milan
and Como. In 1402 it was taken from Milan by Albert von Sax,
lord of the Val Mesocco, who in 1419 sold it to Uri and Obwalden,
which, however, lost it to Milan in 142 2 after the battle of Arbedo.
In 1499 (like the rest of the Milanese) it was occupied by the
French, but in 1 500 it'was taken by Uri. In 1 503 the French king
ceded it to Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, which henceforth
ruled it very harshly through their bailiffs till 1798. At that
date it became the capital of the canton Bellinzona of the
Helvetic republic, but in 1803 it was united to the newly-formed
canton of Tessin. (W. A. B. C.)
BELLMAN, KARL HIKAEL (1740-1795), Swedish poet, son
of a civil servant, was born at Stockholm on the 4th of February
1740. When quite a child he developed an extraordinary gift
of improvising verse, during the delirium of a severe illness,
weaving wild thoughts together lyrically and singing airs of his
own composition. When he was nineteen he became clerk in
a bank and afterwards in the customs, but his habits were
irregular and he was frequently in great distress, particularly
after the death of his patron, Gustavus III. As early as 1757
he published Evangeliska Dodstankar, meditations on the
Passion from the German of David von Schweidnitz, and during
the next few years wrote, besides other translations, a great
quantity of poems, imitative for the most part of Dalin. In
1760 appeared his first characteristic work, Manan (The Moon),
a satirical poem, which was revised and edited by Dalin. But
the great work of his life occupied him from 1765 to 1780, and
consists of the collections of dithyrambic odes known as Fred-
mans Epistiar (1790) and Fredmans Sanger (1791). Fredman
and his friends were well-known characters in the Stockholm
pot-houses, where Bellman had studied them from the life.
No poetry can possibly smell less of the lamp than Bellman's.
He was accustomed, when in the presence of none but con-
fidential friends, to announce that the god was about to visit
him. He would shut his eyes, take his zither, and begin appar-
ently to improvise the music and the words of a long Bacchic
ode in praise of love or wine. Most of his melodies are taken
direct, or with slight adaptations, from old Swedish ballads, and
still retain their popularity. Fredman 's Epistles bear the clear
impress of individual genius; his torrents of rhymes are not
without their method; wild as they seem, they all conform to
the rules of style, and among those that have been preserved
there are few that are not perfect in form. A great Swedish
critic has remarked that the voluptuous joviality and the humour
of Bellman is, after all, only " sorrow clad in rose-colour," and
this underlying pathos gives his poems their undying charm.
His later works, Bacchi Tempel (The Temple of Bacchus) (1783),
eight numbers of a journal called Hvad behagas? (What you
Will) (1781), in 1780 a religious anthology entitled in a later
edition (1787) Zions Hogtid (Zion's Holiday), and a translation
of Gellert's Fables, are comparatively unimportant. He died
on the nth of February 1795. Much of Bellman's work was
only printed after his death, Bihang till Fredmans Epistiar
(Nykoping, 1809), Fredmans Handskrifter (Upsala, 1813),
Skaldestycken (" Poems," Stockholm, 1814) being among the
most important of these posthumous works. A colossal bronze
bust of the poet by Bystrom (erected by the Swedish Academy
in 1829) adorns the public gardens of Stockholm, and a statue
by Alfred Nystrom is in the Hasselbacken, Stockholm. Bellman
had a grand manner, a fine voice and great gifts of mimicry,
and was a favourite companion of King Gustavus III.
The best edition of his works was published at Stockholm, edited
Dy j. <_. Larlen, with biographical notes, illustrations and music
(5 vols., 1856-1861); see also monographs on Bellman by Nils
fcrdmann (Stockholm, 1895) and by F. Niedner (Berlin, 1905).
BELLO, ANDRES (1781-1865), South American poet and
scholar, was born at Caracas (Venezuela) on the zgth of November
1 78 1, and in early youth held a minor post in the civil administra-
tion. He joined the colonial revolutionary party, and in 1810
was sent on a political mission to London, where he resided for
nineteen years, acting as secretary to the legations of Chile,
Colombia and Venezuela, studying in the British Museum,
supplementing his small salary by giving private lessons in
Spanish, by journalistic work and by copying Jeremy Bentham's
almost indecipherable manuscripts. In 1829 he accepted a
post in the Chilean treasury, settled at Santiago and took a
prominent part in founding the national university (1843), of
which he became rector. He was nominated senator, and died
at Santiago de Chile on the isth of October 1865. Bello was
mainly responsible .for the civil code promulgated on the i4th
of December 1855. His prose works deal with such various
subjects as law, philosophy, literary criticism and philology;
of these the most important is his Gramatica castellana (1847),
the leading authority on the subject. But his position in litera-
ture proper is secured by his Silvas Americanos, a poem written
during his residence in England, which conveys with extra-
ordinary force the majestic impression of the South American
landscape.
Bello's complete works were issued in fifteen volumes by the
Chilean government (Santiago de Chile, 1881-1893); he is the sub-
ject of an excellent biography (Santiago de Chile, 1882) by Miguel
Luis Amunategui. (J. F.-K.)
BELLO-HORIZONTE, or MINAS, a city of Brazil, capital of
the state of Minas Geraes since 1898, about 50 m. N.W. of
Ouro Preto, connected with the Central of Brazil railway by a
branch line 9 m. in length. Pop. (estimated) in 1906, 25,000 to
30,000. The city was built by the state on an open plateau, and
provided with all necessary public buildings, gas, water and
tramway services before the seat of government was transferred
from Ouro Preto. The cost of transfer was about 1,000,000.
The city has grown rapidly, and is considered one of the most
attractive state capitals of Brazil.
BELLONA (originally DUELLONA), in Roman mythology,
the goddess of war (helium, i.e. duellum), corresponding to the
Greek Enyo. By later mythologists she is called sometimes
the sister, daughter or wife of Mars, sometimes his charioteer
or nurse. Her worship appears to have been promoted in Rome
chiefly by the family of the Claudii, whose Sabine origin, together
with their use of the name of " Nero," has suggested an identifi-
cation of Bellona with the Sabine war goddess Nerio, herself
identified, like Bellona, with Virtus. Her temple at Rome,
dedicated by Appius Claudius Caecus (296 B.C.) during a battle
wrth the Samnites and Etruscans (Ovid, Fasti vi. 201), stood in
the Campus Martius, near the Flaminian Circus, and outside
the gates of the city. It was there that the senate met to discuss
a general's claim to a triumph, and to receive ambassadors
from foreign states. In front of it was the columna bellica,
where the ceremony of declaring war by the fetialis was performed.
From this native Italian goddess is to be distinguished the
Asiatic Bellona, whose worship was introduced into Rome from
Comana, in Cappadocia, apparently by Sulla, to whom she had
appeared, urging him to march to Rome and bathe in the blood
of his enemies (Plutarch, Sulla, 9). For her a new temple was
built, and a college of priests (Bellonarii) instituted to conduct
her fanatical rites, the prominent feature of which was to lacerate
themselves and sprinkle the blood on the spectators (Tibullus
i. 6. 45-50). To make the scene more grim they wore black
dresses (Tertullian, De Pallia) from head to foot. The festival
of Bellona, which originally took place on the 3rd of June, was
altered to the 24th of March, after the confusion of the Roman
Bellona with her Asiatic namesake.
See Tiesler, De Bellonae Cultu (1842).
BELLOT, JOSEPH RENE! (1826-1853), French Arctic explorer,
was born at Rochefort on the i8th of March 1826, the son of a
farrier. With the aid of the authorities of his native town he
was enabled at the age of fifteen to enter the naval school, in
which he studied two years and earned a high reputation. He
BELLOWS, A. F. BELLOWS AND BLOWING MACHINES 705
then took part in the Anglo- French expedition of 1845 to Mada-
gascar, and received the cross of the Legion of Honour for
distinguished conduct. He afterwards took part in another
Anglo-French expedition, that of Parana, which opened the
river La Plata to commerce. In 1851 he joined the Arctic
expedition under the command of Captain Kennedy in search
of Sir John Franklin, and discovered the strait between Boothia
Felix and Somerset Land which bears his name. Early in 1852
he was promoted lieutenant, and in the same year accompanied
the Franklin search expedition under Captain Inglefield. As on
the previous occasion, his intelligence, devotion to duty and
courage won him the esteem and admiration of all with whom he
was associated. While making a perilous- journey with two
comrades for the purpose of communicating with Sir Edward
Belcher, he suddenly disappeared in an opening between the
broken masses of ice (August 1853). A pension was granted to
his family by the emperor Napoleon III., and an obelisk was
erected to his memory in front of Greenwich hospital.
BELLOWS, ALBERT F. (1820-1883), American landscape-
painter, was born at Milford, Massachusetts, on the 2oth of
November 1829. He first studied architecture, then turned to
painting, and worked in Paris and in the Royal Academy at
Antwerp. He painted much in England; was a member of the
National Academy of Design, and of the American Water Color
Society, New York; and an honorary member of the Royal
Belgian Society of Water-Colourists. His earlier work was genre,
in oils; after 1865 he used water-colours more and more ex-
clusively and painted landscapes. Among his water-colours
are " Afternoon in Surrey " (1868); " Sunday in Devonshire "
(1876), exhibited at the Philadelphia Exposition; " New Eng-
land Village School " (1878) ; and " The Parsonage " (1879). He
died in Auburndale, Massachusetts, on the 24th of November 1883.
BELLOWS, HENRY WHITNEY (1814-1882), American
clergyman, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the nth of
June 1814. He graduated at Harvard College in 1832, and at
the Harvard Divinity School in 1837, held a brief pastorate
(1837-1838) at Mobile, Alabama, and in 1839 became pastor of
the First Congregational (Unitarian) church in New York City
(afterwards All Souls church), in charge of which he remained
until his death. Here Bellows acquired a high reputation as a
pulpit orator and lyceum lecturer, and was a recognized leader
in the Unitarian Church in America. For many years after 1846
he edited The Christian Inquirer, a Unitarian weekly paper, and
he was also for some time an editor of The Christian Examiner.
In 1857 he delivered a series of lectures in the Lowell Institute
course, on " The Treatment of Social Diseases." At the outbreak
of the Civil War he planned the United States Sanitary Commis-
sion, of which he was the first and only president (1861 to 1878).
He was the first president of the first Civil Service Reform
Association organized in the United States (1877), was an
organizer of the Union League Club and of the Century Associa-
tion in New York City, and planned with his parishioner and
friend, Peter Cooper, the establishment of Cooper Union. In
1865 he proposed and organized the national conference of
Unitarian and other Christian churches, and from 1865 to 1880
was chairman of its council. He died in New York City on the
30th of January 1882. A bronze memorial tablet by Augustus
Saint Gaudens was unveiled in All Souls church in 1886. His
published writings include Restatements of Christian Doctrine in
Twenty-Five Sermons (1860); Unconditioned Loyalty (1863),
a strong pro-Union sermon, which was widely circulated during
the Civil- War; The Old World in its New Face: Impressions of
Europe in 1867-1868 (2 vols., 1868-1869) ; Historical Sketch of the
Union League Club (1879) ; and Twenty-Four Sermons in All Souls
Church, New York, 1865-1881 (1886).
See Russell N. Bellows, Henry Whitney Bellows (Keene, N.H.,
1897), a biographical sketch reprinted from T. B. Peck's Bellows
Family Genealogy; John White Chadwick, Henry W. Bellows:
His Life and Character (New York, 1882), a memorial address; and
Charles I. Stille, History of ths United States Sanitary Commission
(Philadelphia, 1866).
BELLOWS and BLOWING MACHINES, appliances used for
producing currents of air, or for moving volumes of air from one
m. 23
place to another. Formerly all such artificially-produced
currents of air were used to assist the combustion of fires and
furnaces, but now this purpose only forms a part of the uses to
which they are put. Blowing appliances, among which are
included bellows, rotary fans, blowing engines, rotary blowers
and steam-jet blowers, are now also employed for forcing pure
air into buildings and mines for purposes of ventilation, for
withdrawing vitiated air for the same reason, and for supplying
the air or other gas which is required in some chemical processes.
Appliances of this kind differ from air compressors in that they
are primarily intended for the transfer of quantities of air at low
pressures, very little above that of the atmosphere, whereas the
latter are used for supplying air which has previously been
raised to a pressure which may be many times that of the atmo-
sphere (see POWER TRANSMISSION: Pneumatic).
Among the earliest contrivances employed for producing the
movement of air under a small pressure were those used in Egypt
during the Greek occupation. These depended upon the heating
of the air, which, being raised in pressure and bulk, was made to
force water out of closed vessels, the water being afterwards
employed for moving some kind of mechanism. In the process
of iron smelting there is still used in some parts of India an
artificial blast, produced by a simple form of bellows made from
the skins of goats; bellows of this kind probably represent one
of the earliest contrivances used for producing currents of air.
The bellows 1 now in use consists, in its simplest form, of two
flat boards, of rectangular, circular or pear shape, connected
round their edges by a wide band of leather so as to include an
air chamber, which can be increased or diminished in volume by
separating the boards or bringing them nearer together. The
leather is kept from collapsing, on the separation of the boards,
by several rings of wire which act like the ribs of animals. The
lower board has a hole in the centre, covered inside by a leather
flap or valve which can only open inwards; there is also an open
outlet, generally in the form of a pipe or nozzle, whose aperture
is much smaller than that of the valve. When the upper board
is raised air rushes into the cavity through the valve to fill up
the partial vacuum produced; on again depressing the upper
board the valve is closed by the air attempting to rush out again,
and this air is discharged through the open nozzle with a velocity
depending on the pressure exerted.
The current of air produced is evidently not continuous but
intermittent or in puffs, because an interval is needed to refill
the cavity after each discharge. In order to remedy this draw-
back the double bellows are used. To understand their action
it is only necessary to conceive an additional board with valve,
like the lower board of the single bellows, attached in the same
way by leather below this lower board. Thus there are three
boards, forming two cavities, the two lower boards being fitted
with air-valves. The lowest board is held down by a weight and
another weight rests on the top board. In working these double
bellows the lowest board is raised, and drives the air from the
lower cavity into the upper. On lowering the bottom board
again a fresh supply of air is drawn in through the bottom valve,
to be again discharged when the board is raised. As the air
passes from the lower to the upper cavity it is prevented from
returning by the valve in the middle board, and in this way a
quantity of air is sent into the upper cavity each time the lowest
board is raised. The weight on the top board provides the
necessary pressure for the blast, and at the same time causes
the current of air delivered to be fairly continuous. When the
air is being forced into the upper cavity the weight is being
1 The Old English word for this appliance was bliistbatlig, i.e.
" blow-bag," cf. German Blasebalg. By the nth century the first
part of the word apparently dropped out of use, and baelie, bylig, bag,
is found in early glossaries as the equivalent of the Latin folhs.
Baelig became in Middle English bely, i.e. " belly," a sack or bag,
and so the general word for the lower part of the trunk in man and
animals, the stomach, and another form, probably northern in
origin, belu, belw, became the regular word for the appliance, the
plural" bellies " being still used tillthe l6th century, when "bellows "
appears, and the word in the singular ceases to be used. The verb
" to bellow " of the roar of a bull, or the low of a cow, is from Old
English bellan, to bell, roar.
yo6
BELLOWS AND BLOWING MACHINES
FIGS, i and 2. Common Smiths' Bellows.
raised, and, during the interval when the lowest board is descend-
ing, the weight is slowly forcing the top board down and thus
keeping up the flow of air.
Hand-bellows for domestic use are generally shaped like a
pear, with the hinge at the narrow end. The same shape was
adop'ted for the older forms of smiths' bellows, with the difference
that two bellows were used superposed, in a manner similar to
that just described, so as to provide for a continuous blast. In
the later form of smiths' bellows the same principle is employed,
but the boards are made circular in shape and are always main-
tained roughly parallel to one another. These are shown on figs.
i and 2. Here A is the blast pipe, B the movable lowest board,
C the fixed
middle board,
close to which
the pipe A is
inserted, and D
is the movable
uppermost board
pressed upon by
the weight
shown. The
board B is raised
by means of a
hand lever L,
through either a
chain or a con-
I necting rod, and
lowered by a
weight. The size
of the weight on D depends on the air pressure required.
For instance, if a blast pressure of half a pound per
square inch is wanted and the boards are 18 in. in diameter,
and therefore have an area of 254 sq. in., on each of the
254 sq. in. there is to be a pressure of half a pound, so that
the weight to balance this must be half multiplied by 254, or
127 Ib. The diameter of the air-pipe can be varied to
suit the required conditions. Instead of bellows with flexible
sides, a sliding arrangement is sometimes used; this consists
of what are really two boxes fitting into one another with the
open sides both facing inwards, as if one were acting as a lid
to the other. By having a valve and outlet pipe fitted as in
the bellows and sliding them alternately apart and together, an
intermittent blast is produced. The chief defect of this arrange-
ment is the leakage of air caused by the difficulty in making the
joint a sufficiently good fit to be air-tight.
Blowing Engines. Where larger quantities of air at higher
pressures than can conveniently be supplied by bellows are re-
quired, as for blast furnaces and the Bessemer process of steel-
making, what are termed " blowing engines " are used. The
mode of action of a blowing engine is simple. When a piston,
accurately fitting a cylinder which has one end closed, is forcibly
moved towards the other end, a partial vacuum is formed
between the piston and the blank end, and if this space be
allowed to communicate with the outer atmosphere air will
flow in to fill the vacuum. When the piston has completed its
movement or " stroke," the cylinder will have been filled with
air. On the return of the piston, if the valve through which
the air entered is now closed and a second one communicating
with a chamber or pipe is opened, the air in the cylinder is
expelled through this second valve. The action is similar to
that of the bellows, but is carried out in a machine which is much
better able to resist higher pressures and which is more convenient
for dealing with large quantities of air. The valves through
which the atmosphere or " free " air is admitted are called
" admission " or " suction " valves, and those through which
the air is driven from the cylinder are the " discharge " or
" delivery " valves. Formerly one side only of the blowing
piston was used, the engine working " single-acting "; but now
both sides of the piston are utilized, so that when it is moving
in either direction suction will be taking place on one side and
delivery on the other. All processes in connexion with which
blowing engines are used require the air to be above the pressure
of the outer atmosphere. This means that the discharge valves
do not open quite at the beginning of the delivery stroke, but
remain closed until the air in the cylinder has been reduced
in volume and so increased in pressure to that of the air in the
discharge chamber.
The power used to actuate these blowing-engines is in most
cases steam, the steam cylinder being placed in line or " tandem "
with the air cylinder, so that the steam piston rod is continuous
with or directly joined to the piston rod of the air cylinder.
This plan is always adopted where the cylinders are placed
horizontally, and often in the case of vertical engines. The
engines are generally built in pairs, with two blowing cylinders
and one high-pressure and one low-pressure steam cylinder, the
piston rods terminating in connecting rods which are attached
to the pins of the two cranks on the shaft. In the centre of this
shaft, midway between the two engines, there is usually placed
a heavy flywheel which helps to maintain a uniform speed of
turning. Some of the largest blowing engines built in Great
Britain are arranged as beam engines; that is to say, there is
a heavy rocking beam of cast iron which in its middle position
is horizontal. One end of this beam is linked by a short con-
necting rod to the end of the piston rod of the blowing cylinder,
while the other end is similarly linked to the top of the steam
piston rod, so that as the steam piston comes up the air piston
goes down and vice versa. At the steam end of the beam a third
connecting rod works the crank of a flywheel shaft.
About the end of the ipth century an important development
took place which consisted in using the waste gas from blast
furnaces to form with air an explosive mixture, and employing
this mixture to drive the piston of the actuating cylinder in
precisely the same manner as the explosive mixture of coal gas
and air is used in a gas engine. Since the majority of blowing
engines are used for providing the air required in iron blast
furnaces, considerable saving should be effected in this way,
because the gas which escapes from the top of the furnace is
a waste product and costs nothing to produce.
The general action of a blowing engine may be illustrated
by the sectional view shown on fig. 3, which represents the
FIG. 3. Section of Cylinder of Early Blowing Engine (1851).
internal view of one of the blowing cylinders of the engines
erected at the Dowlais Ironworks as far back as 1851. Many of
the details are now obsolete, but the general scheme is the same
as in all blowing engines. Here A is the air cylinder; in this is a
piston whose rod is marked R; this piston is usually made
air-tight by some form of packing fitted into the groove which
runs round its edge. In this particular case the cylinder is placed
vertically and its piston rod is actuated from the end of a rocking
beam. The top and bottom ends are closed by covers and in these
BELLOWS AND BLOWING MACHINES
707
are a number of openings controlled by valves opening inwards
so that air can flow freely in but cannot return. The piston is
shown moving downwards. Air is now being drawn into the
space above the piston through the valves at the top, and the
air in the space A below the piston, drawn in during the previous
up-stroke, is being expelled through the valve ' into the discharge
chamber B, thence passing to the outlet pipe O. The action
is reversed on the up-stroke. Thus it will be seen that air is being
delivered both during the up-stroke and the down-stroke, and
therefore flows almost continuously to the furnaces. There must,
however, be momentary pauses at the ends of the strokes when
the direction of movement is changed, and as the piston, though
worked from an evenly rotating crank shaft, moves more quickly
at the middle and slows down to no speed at the ends of its
travel, there must be a considerable variation in the speed of
FIG. 4. Vertical Section of Lackenby Blowing Engines (1871).
delivery of the air. The air is therefore led from O into a large
storage chamber or reservoir, whence it is again taken to the
furnace; if this reservoir is made sufficiently large the elasticity
of the air in it wil! serve to compensate for the irregularities, and
a nearly uniform stream of air will flow from it. The valves
used in this case and in most of the older blowing engines consist
of rectangular metal plates hinged at one of the longer edges;
these plates are faced with leather or indiarubber so as to allow
them to come to rest quietly and without clatter and at the same
time to make them air-tight. It will be seen that some of these
valves hang vertically and others lie flat on the bottom of the
cover. The Dowlais cylinder is very large, having a diameter
of 12 ft. and a piston stroke of 12 ft., giving a discharge of 44,000
cub. ft. of air per minute, at a pressure of 4i lb to the square inch.
A later design of blowing engine, built in 1871 for the Lackenby
iron-works, Middlesbrough, is shown in section in fig. 4, and
is of a type which is still the most common, especially in the
north of England. Here A, the high-pressure steam cylinder,
and C, the low-pressure one, are placed in tandem with the air
cylinders B, B, whose pistons they actuate. In these blowing
cylinders the inlet valves in the bottom are circular disk valves
of leather, eighteen in number; the inlet valves T on the top of
the cylinder are arranged in ten rectangular boxes, having
openings in their vertical sides, inside which are hung leather
flap valves. The outlet valves O are ten in number at each end
of the cylinders, and are hung against flat gratings which are
arranged round the circumference. The blast is delivered into
a wrought iron casing M which surrounds the cylinder. The
combined area of the inlet valves is 860 sq. in., or one-sixth the
area of the piston. The speed is twenty-four revolutions per
minute and the air delivered at this speed is 15,072 cubic ft. per
minute, the horse-power in the air cylinders being 258. The
circulating pump E, air pump F, and feed pumps G, G, are
worked off the cross-head on the low-pressure side.
A more modern form of blowing engine erected at the Dowlais
works about the end of the igth century, may be taken as
typical of the present design of vertical blowing engine in use
in Great Britain. The two air cylinders are placed below and in
tandem with the steam cylinders as in the last case. The piston
rods also terminate in connecting rods working on to the crank
shaft. The air cylinders are each 88 in. in diameter, and the
high and low pressure cylinders of the compound steam engine
are 30 in. and 64 in. respectively, while the common stroke of all
four is 60 in. The pressure of the air delivered varies from 4!
to 10 lb per sq. in. and the quantity per minute is 25,000 cub. ft.
Each engine develops about 1200 horse-power. It is to be
noted that flap valves such as those used in the 1851 Dowlais
engine have in most cases given place to a larger number of
circular steel disk valves, held to their seats by springs.
In a large blowing engine built in 1905 by Messrs Davy Bros,
of Sheffield for the North-Eastern Steel Company at Middles-
brough (see Engineering, January 6, 1905) the same arrangement
was adopted as in that just described. The two air cylinders are
each 90 in. diameter and have a stroke of 72 in. The capacity of
this engine is 52,000 cub. ft. of air per minute, delivered at a
pressure of from 12^ to 15 lb per sq. in. when running at a speed
of thirty-three revolutions per minute. The air valves consist
of a large number of steel disks resting on circular seatings and
held down by springs, which for the delivery valves are so
adjusted in strength that they lift and release the air when the
desired working pressure has been reached. It is worthy of note
that in this engine no attempt is made to make the air pistons
air-tight in the usual way by having packing rings set in grooves
round the edge, but the piston is made deeper than usual and
turned so as to be a very good
fit in the cylinder and one or
two small grooves are cut
round the edge to hold the
lubricant.
To illustrate a blowing
engine driven by a gas engine
supplied with blast furnace
gas, fig. 5 gives a diagram-
matic view of the blowing
cylinder of an engine built
by Messrs Richardsons,
Westgarth & Co. of Mid-
dlesbrough about 1905.
The gas cylinder is not
shown. It will be seen
that the air cylinder is
horizontal, and it is arranged
FIG. 5. Richardsons, Westgarth
& Co.'s Blowing Engine.
to work in tandem with the gas motor cylinder. The chief
point of interest is to be found in the arrangement of the
details of the air cylinder. Its diameter is 86$ in. and the
length of piston stroke 55 in. As to the arrangement of the
valves, if the piston be moving in the direction shown, on
the left side of the piston at A air is being discharged, and
follows the course indicated by the arrows, so as first to pass
into the annular chamber which forms a continuation of the
708
BELLOWS AND BLOWING MACHINES
space A, and thence, through the spring-controlled steel disk
valves ', into the discharge chamber C, which ultimately leads
to the blast pipe. It will be seen that the valves v on the other
side of the annular chamber are closed. At the same time a
partial vacuum is being formed in the space B, to be filled by
the inflow of air through the valves v which are now open, the
corresponding discharge valves v' being closed. These valves
on the inside and outside of the annular spaces referred to are
arranged so as to form a circle round the ends of the barrel of the
cylinder. The free air, instead of being drawn into the valves
direct from the air of the engine house, is taken from an enclosed
annular chamber E, which may be in communication with the
clean, cool air outside. It will be seen that the piston is made
deep so as to allow for a long bearing surface in the cylinder.
Two metal packing rings are provided to render the piston air-
tight. The horse-power of this engine, which is designed on the
Cockerell system, is 750.
Air valves of other types than those which have been mentioned
have been tried, such as sliding grid valves, rotatory slide valves
and piston valves, but it has been found that either flap or disk
lift valves are more satisfactory for air on account of the grit
which is liable to get between slide valves and their seatings.
In some of the blowing engines made by Messrs Eraser &
Chalmers (see Engineer, June 15, 1906), sheets of flexible bronze
act as flap valves both for admission and delivery, the part
which actually closes the opening being thickened for strength.
The pressure of the air supplied by blowing engines depends
upon the purposes for which it is to be used. In charcoal
furnaces the pressure is very low, being less than i Ib per sq. in. ;
for blast furnaces using coal an average value of 4 Ib is common ;
for American blast furnaces using coke or anthracite coal the
pressure is as high as 10 Ib; while for the air required in the
Bessemer process of steel-making pressures up to 25 or 30 Ib
per sq. in. are not uncommon. According to British practice
one large blowing engine is used to supply several blast furnaces,
while in America a number of smaller ones is used, one for each
furnace.
Rotary blowers occupy a position midway between blowing
engines and fan blowers, being used for purposes requiring the
delivery of large volumes of air at pressures lower than those of
blowing engines, but higher than those of fan blowers. The
blowing engine draws in, compresses and delivers its air by the
direct action of air-tight pistons; the same effect is aimed at in a
rotary blower with
the difference that
the piston revolves
instead of moving up
and down a cylinder.
Two of the best-
known machines of
this kind are Roots'
and Baker's, both
American devices.
The mode of action
of Roots' blower,
as made by Messrs
Thwaites Bros, of
Bradford, will be
clear from the sec-
tion shown on fig. 6.
The moving parts
work in a closed
casing B, which con-
sists of half-cylin-
FIG. 6. Thwaites' Improved Roots' Blower. drical curved plates
placed a little more
than their own radius apart, the ends being enclosed by two
plates. Within the casing, and barely touching the curved
part of the casing and each other, revolve two parts C, D,
called " revolvers," the speed of rotation of which is the
same, but the direction opposite. They are compelled to keep
their proper relative positions by a pair of equal spur wheels
fixed on the ends of the shafts on which they run. The free air
enters the casing through a wire screen at A and passes into the
space E.
As the space E increases in volume owing to the movement
of the revolvers, air is drawn in; it is then imprisoned between
D and the casing, as shown at G, and is carried round until it is
free to enter F, from which it is in turn expelled by the lessening
of this space as the lower ends of the revolvers come together.
In this way a series of volumes of air is drawn in through A, to be
afterwards expelled from H in an almost perfectly continuous
stream, this result being brought about by the relative variation
in volume of the spaces E, F and G. In their most improved
form the revolvers are made hollow, of cast iron, and accurately
machined to a form such that they always keep close to one
another and to the end casing without actually touching, there
being never more space for the escape of air than ^jnd of an
inch. Machines after this design are made from the smallest size,
delivering 25 cub. ft., to the largest, with a capacity of 25,000
cub. ft. per minute working up to a pressure of 3 Ib per sq. in.
It is not found economical to attempt to work at higher pressures,
as the leakage between the revolvers and the casing becomes too
great; where a higher pressure is desired two or more blowers
can be worked in series, the air being raised in pressure by steps.
A blower using i H.P. will deliver 350 cub. ft. of air per minute
and one using 2$ H.P. will deliver 800 cub. ft., at a pressure
suitable for smiths' fires. At the higher pressure required for
cupola work somewhere about f Ib per s.q. in. 65 H.P. will
deliver 1300, and 123 H.P. 25,000 cub. ft. per minute. In the
Baker blower three revolvers are used a large one which acts
as the rotating piston and two smaller ones forming air locks or
valves.
Rotary Fans. Now that power for driving them is so generally
available, rotary blowing fans have for many purposes taken
the place of bellows. They are used for blowing smiths' fires, for
supplying the blast for iron melting cupolas and furnaces and the
forced draught for boiler fires, and for any other purpose requiring
a strong blast of air. Their construction will be clear from the
two views (figs. 7 and 8) of the form made by Messrs Gunther of
Oldham, Lancashire. The fan consists of a circular casing A
having the general appearance of a snail shell. Within this
casing revolves a series of vanes B in this case five curved as
shown, and attached together so as to form a wheel whose centre
is a boss or hub. This boss is fixed to a shaft or spindle which
revolves in bearings supported on brackets outside the casing.
As the shaft is rotated, the vanes B are compelled to revolve in
the direction indicated by the arrow on fig. 7, and their rotation
causes the air within the casing to rotate also. Thus a centri-
fugal action is set up by which there is a diminution of pressure
at the centre of the fan 'and an increase against the outer casing.
In consequence air is sucked in, as shown by the arrows on fig. 8,
through the openings C, C, at the centre of the casing around the
spindle. At the same time the air which has been forced towards
the outside of the casing and given a rotary motion is expelled
from the opening at D (fig. 8). All blowing fans work on the
same principle, though differences in detail are adopted by
different makers to meet the variety of conditions under which
they are to be used. Where the fan is to be employed for pro-
ducing a delivery or blast of air the opening D is connected to an
air pipe which serves to transmit the current of air, and C is left
open to the atmosphere; when, however, the main object is
suction, as in the case where the fan is used for ventilation, the
aperture C is connected through a suction pipe with the space'to
be exhausted, D being usually left open. Gunther fans range
in size from those which have a diameter of fan disk of 8 in. and
make 5500 revolutions per minute, to those which have a dia-
meter of 50 in. and run at from 950 to 1200 revolutions per
minute. For exhausting the fans are run less quickly than for
blowing, the speed for a fan of 10 in. diameter being 4800
revolutions for blowing and 3300-4000 for exhausting, while
the so-in. fan only runs at 550-700 when exhausting. These two
exhausting fans remove 400-500 and 12,000-15,000 cub. ft. of
air per minute respectively.
BELLOWS AND BLOWING MACHINES
709
The useful effect of rotary fans, that is to say the proportion
of the total power used to drive the fan which is actually utilized
in producing the current of air, is very low for the smaller sizes,
but may rise to 30-70% in sizes above 5 ft. in diameter. It has
its maximum value for any given fan at a certain definite speed.
Fans are most suitable in cases where it is required to move or
FIG. 7. Gunther's Blowing Fan.
deliver comparatively large volumes of air at pressures which are
little above that of the atmosphere. Where the pressure of the
current produced exceeds a quarter of a pound on the square inch
the waste of work becomes so great as to preclude their use. The
fan is not the most economical form of blower, but it is simple
and inexpensive, both in first cost and in maintenance. The
largest fans are used for ventilating purposes, chiefly in mines,
their diameters rising to 40 or even 50 ft. The useful effect of
some of these larger fans, as obtained from experiments, is as
FIG. 8. Gunther's Blowing Fan.
high as 75%. In the case of the Capell fan, which differs from
other forms in that it has two series of blades, inner and outer,
separated by a curved blank piece between the inner wings,
dipping into the fan inlet, and the outer wings, very high efficien-
cies have been obtained, being as great as 90% in some cases.
Capell fans are used for ventilating mines, buildings, and ships,
and for providing induced currents for use in boiler furnaces.
In the larger fans the casing, instead of having a curved section,
is more often built of sheet steel and is given a rectangular
section at right angles to the periphery. The Sirocco blowing
fan, of Messrs Davidson of Belfast, has a larger number of blades,
which are relatively narrow as measured radially, but wide
axially. It can be made much smaller in diameter than fans of
the older designs for the same output of air a great advantage
for use in ships or in buildings where space is limited and its
useful effect is also said to be superior. (See also HYDRAULICS,
213-)
Helical or screw blowers, often called " air propellers," are used
where relatively large volumes of air have to be moved against
hardly any perceptible difference in pressure, chiefly for purposes
of ventilation and drying. Most often the propeller is used to
move air from one room or chamber to another adjoining, and
is placed in a light circular iron frame which is fixed in a hole in
the wall through which the air is to be passed. The propeller
itself consists of a series of vanes or wings arranged helically on a
revolving shaft which is fixed in the centre of the opening. The
centre line of the shaft is perpendicular to the plane of the opening
so that when the vanes revolve the air is drawn towards and
through the opening and is propelled away from it as it passes
through. The action is similar to that of a steamship screw
propeller, air taking the place of water. Such blowers are often
driven by small electric motors working directly on the end of
the shaft. For moving large volumes of air against little pressure
and suction they are very suitable, being simpler than fans,
cheaper both in first cost and maintenance for the same volume
of air delivered, and less likely to fail or get out of order. To
obtain the best effect for the power used a certain maximum
speed of rotation must not be exceeded; at higher speeds a great
deal of the power is wasted. For example, a propeller with a
vane diameter of 2\ ft. was found to deliver a volume of air
approximately proportional to the speed up to about 700 revolu-
tions per minute, when 8000 cub. ft. per minute were passed
through the machine; but doubling this speed to 1400 revolutions
per minute only increased delivery by 1000 cub. ft. to 9000.
At the lower of these speeds the horse-power absorbed was 0-6
and at the higher one 1-6.
Other Appliances for producing Currents of Air. In its primitive
form the " trompe " or water-blowing engine adopted in Savoy,
Carniola, and some parts of America, consists of a long vertical
wooden pipe terminating at its lower end in an air chest. Water
is allowed to enter the top of the pipe through a conical plug and,
falling down in streamlets, carries with it air which is drawn in
through sloping holes near the top of the pipe. In this way a
quantity of air is delivered into the chamber, its pressure depend-
ing on the height through which the water falls. This simple
arrangement has been developed for use in compressing large
volumes of air at high pressures to be used for driving compressed
air machinery. It is chiefly used in America, and provides a,
simple and cheap means of obtaining compressed air where there is
an abundant natural supply of water falling through a consider-
able height. The pressure obtained in the air vessel is somewhat
less than half a pound per square inch for every foot of fall.
Natural sources of water are also used for compressing and
discharging air by letting the water under its natural pressure
enter and leave closed vessels, so alternately discharging and
drawing in new supplies of air. Here the action is the same as in
a blowing engine, the water taking the place of the piston.
This method was first thoroughly developed in connexion with
the Mt. Cenis tunnel works, and its use has since been extended.
In the jet blower (fig. 9) a jet of steam is used to induce a
FIG. 9. Steam-jet Blower.
current of air. Into one end of a trumpet-shaped pipe B projects
a steam pipe A. This steam pipe terminates in a small opening,
say, one-eighth of an inch, through which the steam is allowed to
BELLOY BELOIT
flow freely. The effect is to cause a movement of the air in the
pipe, with the result that a fresh supply is drawn in through the
annular opening at C, C, and a continuous stream of air passes
along the pipe. This is the form of blower made by Messrs
Meldrum Bros, of Manchester, and is largely used for delivering
air under the fire bars of boiler and other furnaces. In some
cases the jets of steam are allowed to enter a boiler furnace above
the fire, thus inducing a current of air which helps the chimney
draught and is often used to do away with the production of
smoke; they are also used for producing currents of air for
purposes other than those of boiler fires, and are very convenient
where considerable quantities of air are wanted at very low
pressures and where the presence of the moisture of the steam
does not matter.
Sometimes jets of high-pressure air flowing at great velocities
are used to induce more slowly-moving currents of larger volumes
of air at low pressures. (W. C. P.)
BELLOY, DORMONT DE, the name assumed by PIERRE
LAURENT BUIRETTE (1727-1775), French dramatist, was born
at Saint-Flour, in Auvergne, on the i7th of November 1727.
He was educated by his uncle, a distinguished advocate in Paris,
for the bar. To escape from a profession he disliked he joined a
troupe of comedians playing in the courts of the northern
sovereigns. In 1758 the performance of his Tibris, which had
already been produced in St Petersburg, was postponed through
his uncle's exertions; and when it did appear, a hostile cabal
procured its failure, and it was not until after his guardian's
death that de Belloy returned to Paris with Zelmire (1762),
a fantastic drama which met with great success. This was
followed in 1765 by the patriotic play, Le Siege de Calais. The
moment was opportune. The humiliations undergone by France
in the Seven Years' War assured a good reception for a play in
which the devotion of Frenchmen redeemed disaster. The
popular enthusiasm was unaffected by the judgment of calmer
critics such as Diderot and Voltaire, who pointed out that the
glorification of France was not best effected by a picture of
defeat. De Belloy was admitted to the Academy in 1772. His
attempt to introduce national subjects into French drama
deserves honour, but it must be confessed that his resources
proved unequal to the task. The Siege de Calais was followed by
Cast on et Bayard (1771), Pedro le cruel (1772) and Gabrielle de
Vergy (1777). None of these attained the success of the earlier
play, and de Belloy's death, which took place on the sth of March
1775, is said to have been hastened by disappointment.
BELL or INCHCAPE ROCK, a sandstone reef in the North Sea,
ii m. S.E. of Arbroath, belonging to Forfarshire, Scotland. It
measures 2000 ft. in length, is under water at high tide, but at
low tide is exposed for a few feet, the sea for a distance of 100 yds.
around being then only three fathoms deep. Lying' in the fair-
way of vessels making or leaving the Tay and Forth, besides
ports farther north, it was a constant menace to navigation.
In the great gale of 1799 seventy sail, including the " York,"
74 guns, were wrecked off the reef, and this disaster compelled the
authorities to take steps to protect shipping. Next year Robert
Stevenson modelled a tower and reported that its erection was
feasible, but it was only in 1806 that parliamentary powers were
obtained, and operations began in August 1807. Though John
Rennie had meanwhile been associated with Stevenson as
consulting engineer, the structure in design and details is wholly
Stevenson's work. The tower is 100 ft. high; its diameter at the
base is 42 ft., decreasing to 15 ft. at the top. It is solid for 30 ft.
at which height the doorway is placed. The interior is divided
into six storeys. After five years the building was finished at a
cost of 61,300. Since the lighting no wrecks have occurred on
the reef. A bust of Stevenson by Samuel Joseph (d. 1850) was
placed in the tower.
According to tradition an abbot of Aberbrothock (Arbroath)
had ordered a bell whence the name of the rock to be fastened
to the reef in such a way that it should respond to the movements
of the waves, and thus always ring out a warning to mariners.
This signal was wantonly destroyed by a pirate, whose ship was
afterwards wrecked at this very spot, the rover and his men
being drowned. Southey made the incident the subject of his
ballad of "The Inchcape Rock."
BELLUNO (anc. Bellunum), a city and episcopal see of Venetia,
Italy, the capital of the province of Belluno, N. of Treviso,
54 m. by rail arid 28 m. direct. Pop. (1901) town, 6898; com-
mune, 19,050. It is situated in the valley of the Piave, at its
confluence with the Ardo, 1285 ft. above sea-level, among the
lower Venetian Alps. It was a Roman municipium. In the
middle ages it went through various vicissitudes; it fell under
the dominion of Venice in 1511, and remained Venetian until
1797. Its buildings present Venetian characteristics; it has
some good palaces, notably the fine early Lombard Renaissance
Palazzo dei Rettori, now the seat of the prefecture. The cathe-
dral, erected after 1517 by Tullio Lombardo, was much damaged
by the earthquake of 1873, which destroyed a considerable
portion of the town, though the campanile, 217 ft. high, erected
in 1732-1743, stood firm. The facade was never finished.
Important remains of prehistoric settlements have been found
in the vicinity; cf..G. Ghirardini in Notizie degli Scavi, 1883, 27,
on the necropolis of Caverzano. (T. As.)
BELMONT, AUGUST (1816-1890), American banker and
financier, was born at Alzei, Rhenish Prussia, on the Sth of
December 1816. He entered the banking house of the Roth-
schilds at Frankfort at the age of fourteen, acted as their agent
for a time at Naples, and in 1837 settled in New York as their
American representative. He became an American citizen,
and married a daughter of Commodore Matthew C. Perry. He
was the consul-general of Austria at New York from 1844 to
1850, when he resigned in protest against Austria's treatment of
Hungary. In 1853-1855 he was charge d'affaires for the United
States at the Hague, and from 1855 to 1858 was the American
minister resident there. In 1860 he was a delegate to the
Democratic National Convention at Charleston, South Carolina,
actively supporting Stephen A. Douglas for the presidential
nomination, and afterwards joining those who withdrew to the
convention at Baltimore, Maryland, where he was chosen chair-
man of the National Democratic Committee. He energetically
supported the Union cause during the Civil War, and exerted a
strong influence in favour of the North upon the merchants and
financiers of England and France. He remained at the head of
the Democratic organization until 1872. He died in New York
on the 24th of November 1890.
His son, PERRY BELMONT (1851- ), was born in New York
on the 28th of December 1851, graduated at Harvard in 1872
and at the Columbia Law School in 1876, and practised law in
New York for five years. He was a Democratic member of
Congress from 1881 to 1889, serving in 1885-1887 as chairman
of the committee on foreign affairs. In 1889 he was United
States minister to Spain.
Another son, AUGUST BELMONT (1853- ), was born in
New York on the i8th of February 1853 and graduated at
Harvard in 1 87 5. He succeeded his father as head of the banking
house and was prominent in railway finance, and in financing
and building the New York subway. In 1904 he was one of the
principal supporters of Alton B. Parker for the Democratic
presidential nomination, and served as chairman of the finance
committee of the Democratic National Committee.
A volume entitled Letters, Speeches and Addresses of August
Belmont (the elder) was published at New York in 1890.
BELOIT, a city of Rock county, Wisconsin, U.S.A., situated
on the S. boundary of the state, on Rock river, about 91 m. N.W.
of Chicago and about 85 m. S.W. of Milwaukee. Pop. (1890)
6315; (1900) 10,436, of whom 1468 were foreign-born; (1910)
15,125. It is served by the Chicago & North-Western, and
the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by an
inter-urban electric railway to Janesville, Wisconsin and Rock-
ford, Illinois. Beloit is attractively situated on high bluffs on
both sides of the river. The city is the seat of Beloit College, a
co-educational, non-sectarian institution, founded under the
auspices of the Congregational and Presbyterian churches in
1847, and having, in 1907-1908, 36 instructors and 430 students.
It has classical, philosophical (1874) and scientific (1892) courses;
BELOMANCY BELSHAZZAR
711
women were first admitted in 1895. The Greek department of
the college has supervised since 1895 the public presentation
nearly every year of an English version of a Greek play. The
river furnishes good water-power, and among the manufactures
are wood-working machinery, ploughs, steam pumps, windmills,
gas engines, paper-mill machinery, cutlery, flour, ladies' shoes,
cyclometers and paper; the total value of the factory product
in 1905 was $4,485, 224, 60-2% more than in 1900. Beloit, founded
by New Englanders in 1838, was chartered as a city in 1856.
BELOMANCY (from Gr. /3eXos, a dart, and navrtla, prophecy
or divination), a form of divination (q.v.) by means of arrows,
practised by the Babylonians, Scythians and other ancient
peoples. Nebuchadrezzar (Ezek. xxi. 21) resorted to this
practice " when he stood in the parting of the way ... to use
divination: he made his arrows bright."
BELON, PIERRE (1517-1564), French naturalist, was born
about 1517 near Le Mans (Sarthe). He studied medicine at
Paris, where he took the degree of doctor, and then became a
pupil of the botanist Valerius Cordus (1515-1544) at Wittenberg,
with whom he travelled in Germany. On his return to France
he was taken under the patronage of Cardinal de Tournon, who
furnished him with means for undertaking an extensive scientific
journey. Starting in 1546, he travelled through Greece, Asia
Minor, Egypt, Arabia and Palestine, and returned in 1549. A
full account of his travels, with illustrations, was published in
1553. Belon, who was highly favoured both by Henry II. and
by Charles IX., was assassinated at Paris one evening in April
1564, when coming through the Bois de Boulogne. Besides the
narrative of his travels he wrote several scientific works of
considerable value, particularly the Histoire naturette des estranges
poissons (1551), De aquatilibus (1553), and L'Histoire de la nature
des oyseaux (1555), which entitle him to be regarded as one of
the first workers in the science of comparative anatomy.
BELPER, a market-town in the mid-parliamentary division
of Derbyshire, England, on the river Derwent, 7m. N. of Derby
on the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 10,934.
The chapel of St John is said to have been founded by Edmund
Crouchback, second son of Henry III., about the middle of the
I3th century. There is an Anglican convent of the Sisters of
St Lawrence, with orphanage and school. For a considerable
period one of the most flourishing towns in the county, Belper
owed its prosperity to the establishment of cotton works in 1776
by Messrs Strutt, the title of Baron Belper (cr. 1856), in the
Strutt family, being taken from the town. Belper also manu-
factures linen, hosiery, silk and earthenware; and after the
decline of nail-making, once an important industry, engineering
works and iron foundries were opened. The Derwent provides
water-power for the cotton-mills. John of Gaunt is said to have
been a great benefactor to Belper, and the foundations of a
massive building have been believed to mark the site of his
residence. A chapel which he founded is incorporated with a
modern schoolhouse. The scenery in the neighbourhood of
Belper, especially to the west, is beautiful; but there are
collieries, lead-mines and quarries in the vicinity of the town.
Belper (Beaurepaire) until 1846 formed part of the parish of
Duffield, granted by William I. to Henry de Ferrers, earl of
Derby. There is no distinct mention of Belper till 1 296, when
the manor was held by Edmund Crouchback, earl of Lancaster,
who is said to have enclosed a park and built a hunting seat,
to which, from its situation, he gave the name Beaurepaire.
The manor thus became parcel of the duchy of Lancaster and is
said to have been the residence of John of Gaunt. It afterwards
passed with Duffield to the Jodrell family. In a great storm in
1545, 40 houses were destroyed, and the place was scourged by
the plague in 1609.
See C. Willott, Historical Records of Belper.
BELSHAM, THOMAS (1750-1829), English Unitarian minister,
was born at Bedford on the 26th of April 1 7 50. He was educated
at the dissenting academy at Daventry, where for seven years
he acted as assistant tutor. After three years spent in a charge
at Worcester, he returned as head of the Daventry academy, a
post which he continued to hold till 1789, when, having adopted
Unitarian principles, he resigned. With Joseph Priestly for
colleague, he superintended during its brief existence a new
college at Hackney, and was, on Priestly's departure in 1794,
also called to the charge of the Gravel Pit congregation. In
1805 he accepted a call to the Essex Street chapel, where in
gradually failing health he remained till his death in 1829.
Belsham's first work of importance, Review oj Mr Wilberforce's
Treatise entitled Practical View (1798), was written after his
conversion to Unitarianism. His most popular work was the
Evidences of Christianity; the most important was his transla-
tion and exposition of the Epistles of St Paul (1822). He was
also the author of a work on philosophy, Elements of the Philosophy
of the Human Mind (1801), which is entirely based on Hartley's
psychology. Belsham is one of the most vigorous and able
writers of his church, and the Quarterly Review and Gentleman's
Magazine of the early years of the igth century abound in
evidences that his abilities were recognized by his opponents.
BELSHAZZAR (6th century B.C.), Babylonian general. Until
the decipherment of the cuneiform inscriptions, he was known
only from the book of Daniel (v. 2,11, 13, 18) and its reproduction
in Josephus, where he is represented as the son of Nebuchad-
rezzar and the last king of Babylon. As his came did not appear
in the list of the successors of Nebuchadrezzar handed down by
the Greek writers, various suggestions were put forward as to
his identity. Niebuhr identified him with Evil-Merodach, Ewald
with Nabonidos, others again with Neriglissor. The identifica-
tion with Nabonidos, the last Babylonian king according to the
native historian Berossus, goes back to Josephus. The decipher-
ment of the cuneiform texts put an end to all such speculations.
In 1854 Sir H. C. Rawlinson discovered the name of Bel-sarra-
uzur " O Bel, defend the king " in an inscription belonging
to the first year of Nabonidos which had been discovered in the
ruins of the temple of the Moon-god at Muqayyar or Ur. Here
Nabonidos calls him his " first-bom son," and prays that " he
may not give way to sin," but that " the fear of the great
divinity " of the Moon-god may " dwell in his heart." In the
contracts and similar documents there are frequent references
to Belshazzar, who is sometimes entitled simply " the son of the
king."
He was never king himself, nor was he son of Nebuchadrezzar.
Indeed his father Nabonidos (Nabunaid), the son of Nabu-
baladsu-iqbi, was not related to the family of Nebuchadrezzar,
and owed his accession to the throne to a palace revolution.
Belshazzar, however, seems to have had more political and
military energy than his father, whose tastes were antiquarian
and religious; he took command of the army, living with it in the
camp near Sippara, and whatever measures of defence were
organized against the invasion of Cyrus appear to have been
due to him. Hence Jewish tradition substituted him for his
less-known father, and rightly concluded that his death marked
the fall of the Babylonian monarchy. We learn from the
Babylonian Chronicle that from the 7th year of Nabonidos
(548 B.C.) onwards " the son of the king " was with the army in
Akkad, that is in the close neighbourhood of Sippara. This,
as Dr Th. G. Pinches has pointed out, doubtless accounts for the
numerous gifts bestowed by him on the temple of the Sun-god
at Sippara. So late as the sth of Ab in the 1 7 th year of Nabonidos
that is to say, about three weeks after the forces of Cyrus
had entered Babylonia and only three months before his death
we find him paying 47 shekels of silver to the temple on behalf
of his sister, this being the amount of " tithe " due from her at
the time. At an earlier period there is frequent mention of his
trading transactions which were carried out through his house-
steward or agent. Thus in 545 B.C. he lent 20 manehs of silver
to a private individual, a Persian by race, on the security of
the property of the latter, and a year later his house-steward
negotiated a loan of 16 shekels, taking as security the produce
of a field of corn.
The legends of Belshazzar's feast and of the siege and capture
of Babylon by Cyrus which have come down to us from the book
of Daniel and the Cyropaedia of Xenophon have been shown by
the contemporaneous inscriptions to have been a projection
7 I2
BELT, T. BELVEDERE
backwards of the re-conquest of the city by Darius Hystaspis.
The actual facts were very different. Cyrus had invaded
Babylonia from two directions, he himself marching towards the
confluence of the Tigris and Diyaleh, while Gobryas, the satrap
of Kurdistan, led another body of troops along the course of the
Adhem. The portion of the Babylonian army to which the
protection of the eastern frontier had been entrusted was de-
feated at Opis on the banks of the Nizallat, and the invaders
poured across the Tigris into Babylonia. On the i4thofTammuz
(June), 538 B.C., Nabonidos fled from Sippara, where he had
taken his son's place in the camp, and the city surrendered at
once to the enemy. Meanwhile Gobryas had been despatched
to Babylon, which opened its gates to the invader on the i6th
of the month " without combat or battle," and a few days later
Nabonidos was dragged from his hiding-place and made a prisoner.
According to Berossus he was subsequently appointed governor
of Karmania by his conqueror. Belshazzar, however, still held
out, and it was probably on this account that Cyrus himself did
not arrive at Babylon until nearly four months later, on the
3rd of Marchesvan. On the nth of that month Gobryas was
despatched to put an end to the last semblance of resistance in
the country " and the son (?) of the king died." In accordance
with the conciliatory policy of Cyrus, a general mourning was
proclaimed on account of his death, and this lasted for six days,
from the 2 7th of Adar to the 3rd of Nisan. Unfortunately the
character representing the word " son " is indistinct on the tablet
which contains the annals of Nabonidos, so that the reading is
not absolutely certain. The only other reading possible, ho wever,
is " and the king died," and this reading is excluded partly by
the fact that Nabonidos afterwards became a Persian satrap,
partly by the silence which would otherwise be maintained by
the " Annals " in regard to the fate of Belshazzar. Considering
how important Belshazzar was politically, and what a prominent
place he occupied in the history of the period, such a silence
would be hard to explain. His death subsequently to the
surrender of Babylon and the capture of Nabonidos, and with it
the last native effort to resist the invader, would account for the
position he assumed in later tradition and the substitution of his
name for that of the actual king.
See Th. G. Pinches, P.S.B.A., May 1884; H. Winckler, Zeit-
schriftfiir Assyriologie, ii. 2, 3 (1887) ; Records of the Past, new series,
i. pp. 22-31 (1888) ; A. H. Sayce, TJie Higher Criticism, pp. 497-537
(1893). ' (A.H.S.)
BELT, THOMAS (1832-1878), English geologist and naturalist,
was born at Newcastle-on-Tyne in 1832, and educated in that
city. As a youth he became actively interested in natural
history through the Tyneside Naturalists' Field Club. In 1852
he went to Australia and for about eight years worked at the
gold-diggings, where he acquired a practical knowledge of ore-
deposits. In 1860 he proceeded to Nova Scotia to take charge
of some gold-mines, and there met with a serious injury, which
led to his return to England. In 1861 he issued a separate work
entitled Mineral Veins: an Enquiry into their Origin, founded on
a Study of the A uriferous Quartz Veins of A ustralia. Later on he was
engaged for about three years at Dolgelly, another though small
gold-mining region, and here he carefully investigated the rocks
and fossils of the Lingula Flags, his observations being published
in an important and now classic memoir in the Geological Maga-
zine for 1867. In the following year he was appointed to take
charge of some mines in Nicaragua, where he passed four active
and adventurous years the results being given in his Naturalist
in Nicaragua (1874), a work of high merit. In this volume the
author expressed his views on the former presence of glaciers in
that country. In subsequent papers he dealt boldly and sug-
gestively with the phenomena of the Glacial period in Britain
and in various parts of the world. After many further expedi-
tions to Russia, Siberia and Colorado, he died at Denver on the
2ist of September 1878.
BELT (a word common to Teutonic languages, the Old Ger.
form being balz, from which the Lat. balteus probably derived),
a flat strap of leather or other material used as a girdle (q.v.),
especially the cinctura gladii or sword-belt, the chief " ornament
of investiture " of an earl or knight; in machinery, a flexible
strap passing round from one drum, pulley or wheel to another,
for the purpose of power-transmission^.^.). The word is applied
to any broad stripe, to the belts of the planet Jupiter, to the
armour-belt at the water-line of a warship, or to a tract of
country, narrow in proportion to its length, with special dis-
tinguishing characteristics, such as the earthquake-belt across
a continent.
BELTANE, BELTENE, BELTINE, or BEAL-TENE (Scottish
Gaelic, beatttain),tbe Celtic name for May-day, on which also was
held a festival called by the same name, originally common to
all the Celtic peoples, of which traces still linger in Ireland, the
Highlands of Scotland and Brittany. This festival, the most
important ceremony of which in later centuries was the lighting
of the bonfires known as "beltane fires," is believed to represent
the Druidical worship of the sun-god. The fuel was piled on a
hill-top, and at the fire the beltane cake was cooked. This was
divided into pieces corresponding to the number of those present,
and one piece was blackened with charcoal. For these pieces
lots were drawn, and he who had the misfortune to get the black
bit became cailleach bealtine (the beltane carline) a term of
great reproach. He was pelted with egg-shells, and afterwards
for some weeks was spoken of as dead. In the north-east of
Scotland beltane fires were still kindled in the latter half of the
1 8th century. There were many superstitions connecting them
with the belief in witchcraft. According to Cormac, archbishop
of Cashel about the year 908, who furnishes in his glossary the
earliest notice of beltane, it was customary to light two fires
close together, and between these both men and cattle were
driven, under the belief that health was thereby promoted and
disease warded off. (See Transactions of the Irish Academy,
xiv. pp. 100, 122, 123.) The Highlanders have a proverb, " he is
between two beltane fires." The Strathspey Highlanders used
to make a hoop of rowan wood through which on beltane day
they drove the sheep and lambs both at dawn and sunset.
As to the derivation of the word beltane there is considerable
obscurity. Following Cormac, it has been usual to regard it as
representing a combination of the name of the god Bel or Baal
or Bil with the Celtic teine, fire. And on this etymology theories
have been erected of the connexion of the Semitic Baal with
Celtic mythology, and the identification of the beltane fires with
the worship of this deity. This etymology is now repudiated
by scientific philologists, and the New English Dictionary accepts
Dr Whitley Stokes's view that beltane in its Gaelic form can have
no connexion with teine, fire. Beltane, as the ist of May, was
in ancient Scotland one of the four quarter days, the others being
Hallowmas, Candlemas, and Lammas.
For a full description of the beltane celebration in the Highlands
of Scotland during the l8th century, see John Ramsay, Scotland
and Scotsmen in the i8th Century, from MSS. edited by A. Allardyce
(1888) ; and see further J. Robertson in Sinclair's Statistical Account
of Scotland, xi. 620 ; Thomas Pennant, Tour in Scotland ( 1 769-1 770) ;
W. Gregor, " Notes on Beltane Cakes," Folklore, vi. (1895), p. 2;
and " Notes on the Folklore of the North-East of Scotland," p. 167
(Folklore Soc. vii. 1881) ; A. Bertrand, La Religion des Gaulois (1897) ;
Jamieson, Scottish Dictionary (1808). Cormac's Glossary has been
edited by O'Donovan and Stokes (1862).
BELUGA (Delphinapterus leucas), also called the " white
whale," a cetacean of the family Delphinidae, characterized by
its rounded head and uniformly light colour. A native of the
Arctic seas, it extends in the western Atlantic as far south as
the river St Lawrence, which it ascends for a considerable
distance. In colour it is almost pure white; the maximum
length is about twelve feet; and the back-fin is replaced by a
low ridge. Examples have been taken on the British coasts;
and individuals have been kept for some time in captivity in
America and in London. See CETACEA.
BELVEDERE, or BELVIDERE (Ital. for " fair- view "), an
architectural structure built in the upper part of a building or
in any elevated position so as to command a fine view. The
belvedere assumes various forms, such as an angle turret, a cupola,
a loggia or open gallery. The name is also applied to the whole
building, as the Belvedere gallery in the Vatican at Rome. For
Apollo Belvidere see GREEK ART, Plate II. fig. 55.
BELVIDERE BEMBERG
7*3
BELVIDERE, a city and the county-seat of Boone county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the N. part of the state, on the Kishwaukee
river, about 78 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890) 3867; (1000)
6937 (1018 foreign-born); (1910) 7253. It is served by the
Chicago & North-Western railway, and by an extensive inter-
urban electric system. Among its manufactures are sewing
machines, boilers, automobiles, bicycles, roller-skates, pianos,
gloves and mittens, corsets, flour and dairy products, Borden's
condensed milk factory being located there. Belvidere was
settled in 1836, was incorporated in 1852 and was re-incorporated
BELZONI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1778-1823), Italian
explorer of Egyptian antiquities, was born at Padua in 1778.
His family was from Rome, and in that city he spent his youth.
He intended taking monastic orders, but in 1798 the occupation
of the city by the French troops drove him from Rome and
changed his proposed career. He went back to Padua, where
he studied hydraulics, removed in 1800 to Holland, and in 1803
went to England, where he married an Englishwoman. He was
6 ft. 7 in. in height, broad in proportion, and his wife was of
equally generous build. They were for some time compelled
to find subsistence by exhibitions of feats of strength and agility
at fairs and on the streets of London. Through the kindness
of Henry Salt, the traveller and antiquarian, who was ever
afterwards his patron, he was engaged at Astley's amphitheatre,
and his circumstances soon began to improve. In 1812 he left
England, and after travelling in Spain and Portugal reached
Egypt in 1815, where Salt was then British consul-general.
Belzoni was desirous of laying before Mehemet Ali a hydraulic
machine of his own invention for raising the waters of the Nile.
Though the experiment with this engine was successful, the
design was abandoned by the pasha, and Belzoni resolved to
continue his travels. On the recommendation of the orientalist,
J. L. Burckhardt, he was sent at Salt's charges to Thebes, whence
he removed with great skill the colossal bust of Rameses II.,
commonly called Young Memnon, which he shipped for England,
where it is in the British Museum. He also pushed his investiga-
tions into the great temple of Edfu, visited Elephantine and
Philae, cleared the great temple at Abu Simbel of sand (1817),
made excavations at Karnak, and opened up the sepulchre of
Seti I. (" Belzoni's Tomb "). He was the first to penetrate into
the second pyramid of Giza, and the first European in modern
times to visit the oasis of Baharia, which he supposed to be that
of Siwa. He also identified the ruins of Berenice on the Red Sea.
In 1819 he returned to England, and published in the following
year an account of his travels and discoveries entitled Narrative
of the Operations and Recent Discoveries within the Pyramids,
Temples, Tombs and Excavations in Egypt and Nubia, &c. He
also exhibited during 1820-1821 facsimiles of the tomb of Seti I.
The exhibition was held at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, London.
In 1822 Belzoni showed his model in Paris. In 1823 he set out
for West Africa, intending to penetrate to Timbuktu. Having
been refused permission to pass through Morocco, he chose the
Guinea Coast route. He reached Benin, but was seized with
dysentery at a village called Gwato, and died there on the 3rd
of December 1823. In 1829 his widow published his drawings
of the royal tombs at Thebes.
BEM, JOSEF (1795-1850), Polish soldier, was born at Tarnow
in Galicia, and was educated at the military school at Warsaw,
where he especially distinguished himself in mathematics.
Joining a Polish artillery regiment in the French service, he took
part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and subsequently so
brilliantly distinguished himself in the defence of Danzig
(January-November 1813) that he won the cross of the Legion
of Honour. On returning to Poland he was for a time in the
Russian service, but lost his post, and his liberty as well for some
time, for his outspokenness. In 1825 he migrated to Lemberg,
where he taught the physical sciences. He was about to write a
treatise on the steam-engine, when the Polish War of Independ-
ence summoned him back to Warsaw in November 1830. It was
his skill as an artillery officer which won for the Polish general
Skrynecki the battle of Igany (March 8, 1831), and he distin-
guished himself at the indecisive battle of Ostrolcnka (May 26).
He took part in the desperate defence of Warsaw against Prince
Paskievich (September 6-7,1831). Then Bern escaped to Paris,
where he supported himself by teaching mathematics. In 1833
he went to Portugal to assist the liberal Dom Pedro against the
reactionary Dom Miguel, but abandoned the idea when it was
found that a Polish legion could not be formed. A wider field for
his activity presented itself in 1848. First he attempted to hold
Vienna against the imperial troops, and, after the capitulation,
hastened to Pressburg to offer his services to Kossuth, first
defending himself, in a long memorial, from the accusations
of treachery to the Polish cause and of aristocratic tendencies
which the more fanatical section of the Polish emigrant Radicals
repeatedly brought against him. He was entrusted with the
defence of Transylvania at the end of 1848, and in 1849, as the
general of the Szeklers (q.v.), he performed miracles with his little
army, notably at the bridge of Piski (February 9), where, after
fighting all day, he drove back an immense force of pursuers.
After recovering Transylvania he was sent to drive the Austrian
general Puchner out of the Banat of Temesvar. Bern defeated
him at Orsova (May 16), but the Russian invasion recalled him
to Transylvania. From the I2th to 22nd of July he was fighting
continually, but finally, on the 3ist of July, his army was
annihilated by overwhelming numbers near Segesvir (Schass-
burg), Bern only escaping by feigning death. Yet he fought a
fresh action at Gross-Scheueren on the 6th of August, and
contrived to bring off the fragments of his host to Temesvir, to
aid the hardly-pressed Dembinski. Bern was in command and
was seriously wounded in the last pitched battle of the war,
fought there on the 9th of August. On the collapse of the
rebellion he fled to Turkey, adopted Mahommedanism, and
under the name of Murad Pasha served as governor of Aleppo,
at which place, at the risk of his life, he saved the Christian
population from being massacred by the Moslems. Here he
died on the i6th of September 1850. The tiny, withered, sickly
body of Bern was animated by an heroic temper. Few men have
been so courageous, and his influence was magnetic. Even the
rough Szeklers, though they did not understand the language
of their " little father," regarded him with superstitious reverence.
A statue to his honour has been erected at Maros-Vasarhely,
but he lives still more enduringly in the immortal verses of the
patriot poet Sandor Petofi, who fell in the fatal action of the 3ist
of July at Segesvlr. As a soldier Bern was remarkable for his
excellent handling of artillery and the rapidity of his marches.
See Johann Czetz, Memoiren uber Bents Feldzu (Hamburg, 1856) ;
Kalm4n Deresenyi, General Bern's Winter Campaign in Transylvania,
1848-1840 (Hung.), (Budapest, 1896). (R. N. B.)
BEMA (Gr.pfjfia,), in ecclesiastical architecture, the semi-
circular recess or exedra, in the basilica, where the judges sat,
and where in after times the altar was placed. It generally is
roofed with a half dome. The seats, 0p6vot,, of the priests were
against the wall, looking into the body of the church, that of the
bishop being in the centre. The bema is generally ascended by
steps, and railed off. In Greece the bema was the general name
of any raised platform. Thus the word was applied to 'the
tribunal from which orators addressed assemblies of the citizens
at Athens. That in the Pnyx, where the Ecdesia often met,
was a stone platform from 10 to n ft; in height. Again in the
Athenian law court counsel addressed the court from such a
platform: it is not known whether each had a separate bema
or whether there was only one to which each counsel (? and the
witnesses) in turn ascended (cf. W. Wyse in his edition of Isaeus,
p. 440). Another bema was the platform on which stood the
urns for the reception of the bronze disks (^ij^ot) by means of
which at the end of the 4th century the judges recorded their
decisions.
'BEMBERG, HERMAN (1861- ), French musical composer,
was born of French parents at Buenos Aires, and studied at the
Paris Conservatoire, under Massenet, whose influence, with that
of Gounod, is strongly marked in his music. As a composer he is
known by numerous songs and pieces for the piano, as well as by
his cantata La Mori de Jeanne d' A re (1886) , comic opera Le Baiser
7M-
BEMBO BENARES
de Suzon (1888) and grand opera Elaine (produced at Covent
Garden in 1892). Among his songs the dramatic recitative
Ballade du Desesperi is well known.
BEMBO, PIETRO (1470-1547), Italian cardinal and scholar,
was born at Venice on the 2oth of May 1470. While still a boy he
accompanied his father to Florence, and there acquired a love for
that Tuscan form of speech which he afterwards cultivated in
preference to the dialect of his native city. Having completed
his studies, which included two years' devotion to Greek under
Lascaris at Messina, he chose the ecclesiastical profession. After
a considerable time spent in various cities and courts of Italy,
where his learning already made him welcome, he accompanied
Giulio de' Medici to Rome, where he was soon after appointed
secretary to Leo X. On the pontiff's death he retired, with
impaired health, to Padua, and there lived for a number of years
engaged in literary labours and amusements. In 1 5 29 he accepted
the office of historiographer to his native city, and shortly
afterwards was appointed librarian of St Mark's. The offer of a
cardinal's hat by Pope Paul III. took him in 1539 again to Rome,
where he renounced the study of classical literature and devoted
himself to theology and classical history, receiving before long
the reward of his conversion iff the shape of the bishoprics of
Gubbio and Bergamo. He died on the i8th of January 1547.
Bembo, as a writer, is the beau ideal of a purist. The exact
imitation of the style of the genuine classics was the highest
perfection at which he aimed. This at once prevented the graces
of spontaneity and secured the beauties of artistic elaboration.
One cannot fail to be struck with the Ciceronian cadence that
guides the movement even of his Italian writings.
His works (collected edition, Venice, 1729) include a History of
Venice (1551) from 1487 to 1513, dialogues, poems, and what we
would now call essays. Perhaps the most famous are a little treatise
on Italian prose, and a dialogue entitled Gli Asolani, in which
Platonic affection is explained and recommended in a rather long-
winded fashion, to the amusement of the reader who remembers the
relations of the beautiful Morosina with the author. The edition of
Petrarch's Italian Poems, published by Aldus in 1501, and the
Terzerime, which issued from the same press in 1502, were edited
by Bembo, who was on intimate terms with the great typographer.
See Opere de F. Bembo (Venice, 1729); Casa, Vita di Bembo, in
2nd vol. of his works.
BEMBRIDGE BEDS, in geology, strata forming part of the
fluvio-marine series of deposits of Oligocene age, in the Isle of
Wight and Hampshire, England. They lie between the Ham-
stead beds above and the Osborne beds below. The Bembridge
marls, freshwater, estuarine and marine clays and marls (70-120
ft.) rest upon the Bembridge limestone, a freshwater pool deposit
(15-25 ft.), with large land snails (Amphidromus and Helices),
freshwater snails (Planorbis, Limnaea), and the fruits of Char a.
The marls contain, besides the freshwater Limnaea and Unio,
such forms as Meretrix, Ostrea and Melanopsis. A thin calcareous
sandy layer in this division has yielded the remains of many
insects and fossil leaves.
See " Geology of the Isle of Wight," Mem. Geol. Survey, 2nd ed.
1889.
BEMIS, EDWARD WEBSTER (1860- ), American econo-
mist, was born at Springfield, Massachusetts, on the 7th of
April 1860. He was educated at Amherst and Johns Hopkins
University. He held the professorship of history and political
economy in Vanderbilt University from 1887 to 1892, was
associate professor of political economy in the university of
Chicago from 1892 to 1895, and assistant statistician to the
Illinois bureau of labour statistics, 1896. In 1901 he became
superintendent of the Cleveland water works. He wrote
much on municipal government, his more important works
being some chapters in History of Co-operation in the United
States (1888); Municipal Ownership of Gas in the U.S. (1891);
Municipal Monopolies (1899).
BEMONT, CHARLES (1848- ), French scholar, was born
at Paris on the i6th of November 1848. In 1884 he graduated
with two theses, Simon de Montfort and La Condamnalion de
Jean Sansterre (Revue historique, 1886). His Les Charles des
libertis anglaises (1892) has an introduction upon the history of
Magna Carta, &c., and his History of Europe from 395 to 1270, in
collaboration with G. Monod, was translated into English. He
was also responsible for the continuation of the Gascon Rolls,
the publication of which had been begun by Francisquc Michel
in 1885 (supplement to vol. i., 1896; vol. ii., for the years
1273-1290, 1900; vol. iii., for the years 1290-1307, 1906). He
received the honorary degree of Litt. Doc. at Oxford in 1909.
BEN (from Old Eng. bennan, within), in the Scottish phrase " a
but and a ben," the inner room of a house in which there is only
one outer door, so that the entrance to the inner room is through
the outer, the but (Old Eng. butan, without). Hence " a but and
a ben " meant originally a living room and sleeping room, and so
a dwelling or a cottage.
BENARES, the Holy City of the Hindus, which gives its name
to a district and division in the United Provinces of India. It
is one of the most ancient cities in the world. The derivation of
its ancient name Varanasi is not known, nor is that of its alter-
native name Kasi, which is still in common use among Hindus,
and is popularly explained to mean " bright." The original site
of the city is supposed to have been at Sarnath, 35 m. north of
the present city, where ruins of brick and stone buildings, with
three lofty stupas still standing, cover an area about half a mile
long by a quarter broad. Sakya Muni, the Buddha, came here
from Gaya in the 6th century B.C. (from which time some of the
remains may date), in order to establish his religion, which shows
that the place was even then a great centre. Hstian Tsang, the
celebrated Chinese pilgrim, visited Benares in the 7th century A.D.
and described it as containing 30 Buddhist monasteries, with
about 3000 monks, and about 100 temples of Hindu gods.
Hinduism has now supplanted Buddhism, and the Brahman fills
the place of the monk. The modern temples number upwards
of 1 500. Even after the lapse of so great a time the city is still
in its glory, and as seen from the river it presents a scene of great
picturesqueness and grandeur. The Ganges here forms a fine
sweep of about 4 m. in length, the city being situated on the
outside of the curve, on the northern bank of the river, which is
higher than the other. Being thus elevated, and extending
along the river for some 4 m., the city forms a magnificent
panorama of buildings in many varieties of oriental architecture.
The minarets of the mosque of Aurangzeb rise above all. The
bank of the river is entirely lined with stone, and there are many
very fine ghats or landing-places built by pious devotees, and
highly ornamented. These are generally crowded with bathers
and worshippers, who come to wash away their sins in the sacred
river Ganges. Near the Manikarnika ghat is the well held to
have been dug by Vishnu and filled with his sweat; great
numbers of pilgrims bathe in its venerated water. Shrines and
temples line the bank of the river. But in spite of its fine
appearance from the river, the architecture of Benares is not
distinguished, nor are its' buildings^of high antiquity. Among
the most conspicuous of these are the mosque of Aurangzeb,
built as an intentional insult in the middle of the Hindu quarter;
the Bisheshwar or Golden Temple, important less through
architectural beauty than through its rank as the holiest spot
in the holy city; and the Durga temple, which, like most of the
other principal temples, is a Mahratta building of the I7th
century. The temples are mostly small and are placed in the
angles of the streets, under the shadow of the lofty houses.
Their forms are not ungraceful, and many of them are covered
over with beautiful and elaborate carvings of flowers, animals
and palm branches. The observatory of Raja Jai Singh is a
notable building of the year 1693. The internal streets of the
town are so winding and narrow that there is not room for a
carriage to pass, and it is difficult to penetrate them even on
horseback. The level of the roadway is considerably lower than
the ground-floors of the houses, which have generally arched
rooms in front, with little shops behind them; and above these
they are richly embellished with verandahs, galleries, projecting
oriel windows, and very broad overhanging eaves supported by
carved brackets. The houses are built of chanar stone, and are
lofty, none being less than two storeys high, most of them three,
and several of five or six storeys. The Hindus are fond of paint-
ing the outside of their houses a deep red colour, and of covering
BENBOW BENCH
7*5
the most conspicuous parts with pictures of flowers, men, women,
bulls, elephants and gods and goddesses in all the many forms
known in Hindu mythology.
Benares is bounded by a road which, though 50 m. in circuit,
is never distant from the city more than five kos (7$ m.); hence
its name, Panch-kos road. All who die within this boundary,
be they Brahman or low caste, Moslem or Christian, are sure of
admittance into Siva's heaven. To tread the Panqh-kos road is
one of the great ambitions of a Hindu's life. Even if he be an
inhabitant of the sacred city he must traverse it once in the
year to free himself from the impurities and sins contracted
within the holy precincts. Thousands from all parts of India
make the pilgrimage every year. Benares, having from time
immemorial been a holy city, contains a vast number of Brah-
mans, who either subsist by charitable contributions, or are
supported by endowments in the numerous religious institutions
of the city. Hindu religious mendicants, with every conceivable
bodily deformity, line the principal streets on both sides. Some
have their legs or arms distorted by long continuance in one
position; others have kept their hands clenched until the finger
nails have pierced entirely through their hands. But besides an
immense resort to Benares of poor pilgrims from every part of
India, as well as from Tibet and Burma, numbers of rich Hindus
in the decline of life go there for religious salvation. These
devotees lavish large sums in indiscriminate charity, and it is
the hope of sharing in such pious distributions that brings
together the concourse of religious mendicants from all quarters
of the country.
The city of Benares had a population in 1901 of 209,331.
The European quarter lies to the west of the native town, on both
sides of the river Barna. Here is the cantonment of Sikraul, no
longer of much military importance, and the suburb of Sigra,
the seat of the chief missionary institutions. The principal
modern buildings are the Mint, the Prince of Wales' hospital
(commemorating the visit of King Edward VII. to the city in
1876) and the town hall. The Benares college, including a first-
grade and a Sanskrit college, was opened in 1791, but its fine
buildings date from 1852. The Central Hindu College was opened
in 1898. Benares conducts a flourishing trade by rail and river
with the surrounding country. It is the junction between the
Oudh & Rohilkhand and East Indian railways, the Ganges being
crossed by a steel girder bridge of seven spans, each 350 ft. long.
The chief manufactures are silk brocades, gold and silver thread,
gold filigree work, German-silver work, embossed brass vessels
and lacquered toys; but the brasswork for which Benares used
to be famous has greatly degenerated.
The Hindu kingdom of Benares is said to have been founded
by one Kas Raja about 1 200 B.C. Subsequently it became part
of the kingdom of Kanauj, which in A.D. 1193 was conquered by
Mahommed of Ghor. On the downfall of the Pathan dynasty
of Delhi, about A.D. 1599, it was incorporated with the Mogul
empire. On the dismemberment of the Delhi empire, it was
seized by Safdar Jang, the nawab wazir of Oudh, by whose
grandson it was ceded to the East India Company by the treaty
of I77S- The subsequent history of Benares contains two
important events, the rebellion of Chait Singh in 1781, occa-
sioned by the demands of Warren Hastings for money and troops
to carry on the Mahratta War, and the Mutiny of 1857, when the
energy and coolness of the European officials, chiefly of General
Neill, carried the district successfully through the storm.
The DISTRICT OF BENARES extends over both sides of the
Ganges and has an area of 1008 sq. m. The surface of the
country is remarkably level, with numerous deep ravines in the
calcareous conglomerate. The soil is a clayey or a sandy loam,
and very fertile except in the Usar tracts, where there is a saline
efflorescence. The principal rivers are the Ganges, Karamnasa,
Gumti and Barna. The principal crops are barley, rice, wheat,
other food-grains, pulse, sugar-cane and opium. The main line
of the East Indian railway runs through the southern portion of
the district, with a branch to Benares city; the Oudh &
Rohilkhand railway through the northern portion, starting from
the city; and a branch of the Bengal & North- Western railway
also terminates at Benares. The climate of Benares is cool in
winter but very warm in the hot season. The population in
1901 was 882,084, showing a decrease of 4% in the decade due
to the effects of famine.
The DIVISION or BENARES has an area of 10,431 sq. m., and
comprises the districts of Benares, Mirzapur, Jaunpur, Ghazipur
and Ballia. In 1901 the population was 5,069,020, showing a
decrease of 6 % in the decade.
See E. B. Havell, Benares (1906); M. A. Sherring, The Sacred
City of the Hindus (1868).
BENBOW, JOHN (1653-1702), English admiral, the son of a
tanner in Shrewsbury, was born in 1653. He went to sea when
very young, and served in the navy as master's mate and master,
from 1678 to 1681. When trading to the Mediterranean in 1686 in
a ship of his own he beat off a Salli pirate. On the accession of
William III. he re-entered the navy as a lieutenant and was
rapidly promoted. It is probable that he enjoyed the protection
of Arthur Herbert, earl of Torrington, under whom he had
already served in the Mediterranean. After taking part in the
bombardment of St Malo (1693) , and superintending the blockade
of Dunkirk (1696), he sailed in 1698 for the West Indies, where he
compelled the Spaniards to restore two vessels belonging to the
Scottish colonists at Darien (see PATERSON, WILLIAM) which they
had seized. On his return he was appointed vice-admiral, and
was frequently consulted by the king. In 1 701 he was sent again
to the West Indies as commander-in-chief. On the igth of
August 1702, when cruising with a squadron of seven ships, he
sighted, and chased, four French vessels commanded by M. du
Casse near Santa Marta. The engagement is the most disgraceful
episode in English naval history. Benbow's captains were
mutinous, and he was left unsupported in his flagship the
" Breda." His right leg was shattered by a chain-shot, despite
which he remained on the quarter-deck till morning, when the
flagrant disobedience of the captains under him, and the disabled
condition of his ship, forced him reluctantly to abandon the chase.
After his return to Jamaica, where his subordinates were tried by
court-martial, he died of his wounds on the 4th of November
1702. A great deal of legendary matter has collected round his
name, and his life is really obscure.
See Yonge's Hist, of the British Navy, vol. i. ; Campbell's British
Admirals, vol. iii. ; also Owen and Blakeway's History of Shrewsbury.
BENCE-JONES, HENRY (1814-1873), English physician and
chemist, was born at Thorington Hall, Suffolk, in 1814, the
son of an officer in the dragoon guards. He was educated at
Harrow and Trinity College, Cambridge, Subsequently he studied
medicine at St George's hospital, and chemistry at University
College, London. In 1841 he went to Giessen in Germany to work
at chemistry with Liebig. Besides becoming a fellow, and after-
wards senior censor, of the Royal College of Physicians, and a
fellow of the Royal Society, he held the post of secretary to the
Royal Institution for many years. In 1846 he was elected
physician to St George's hospital. He died in London on the
2oth of April 1873. Dr Bence-Jones was a recognized authority
on diseases of the stomach and kidneys. He wrote, in addition
to several scientific books and a number of papers in scientific
periodicals, The Life and Letters of Faraday (1870).
BENCH (an O.E. and Eng. form of a word common to Teutonic
languages, cf. Ger. Bank, Dan. baenk and the Eng. doublet
" bank "), a long narrow wooden seat for several persons, with or
without a back. While the chair was yet a seat of state or dignity
the bench was ordinarily used by the commonalty. It is still
extensively employed for other than domestic purposes, as in
schools, churches and places of amusement. Bench or Bane, in
law, originally was the seat occupied by judges in court; hence
the term is used of a tribunal of justice itself, as the King's Bench,
the Common Bench, and is now applied to judges or magistrates
collectively as the " judicial bench," " bench of magistrates."
The word is also applied to any seat where a number of people sit
in an official capacity, or as equivalent to the dignity itself, as
" the civic bench," the " bench of aldermen," the " episcopal
bench," the " front bench," i.e. that reserved for the leaders of
either party in the British House of Commons. \ King's Bench
BENCH-MARK BENEDEK
(q.v.) was one of the three superior courts of common law at
Westminster, the others being the common pleas and the ex-
chequer. Under the Judicature Act 1873, the court of king's
bench became the king's bench division of the High Court of
Justice. The court of common pleas was sometimes called the
common bench.
Sittings in bane were formerly the sittings of one of the superior
courts of Westminster for the hearing of motions, special cases,
&c., as opposed to the nisi prius sittings for trial of facts, where
usually only a single judge presided. By the Judicature Act
1873 the business of courts sitting in bane was transferred to
divisional courts.
BENCH-MARK, a surveyor's mark cut in stone or some durable
material, to indicate a point in a line of levels for the determination
of altitudes over a given district. The name is taken from the
" angle-iron " which is inserted in the horizontal incision as a
" bench " or support for the levelling staff. The mark of the
" broad-arrow " is generally incised with the bench-mark so that
the horizontal bar passes through its apex.
BENCH TABLE (Fr. bane; Ital. sedile; Ger. Bank), the
stone seat which runs round the walls of large churches, and
sometimes round the piers; it very generally is placed in the
porches.
BEND, (i) (From Old Eng. bendan), a bending or curvature,
as in " the bend of a river," or technically the ribs or " wales "
of a ship. (2) (From Old Eng. bindan, to bind), a nautical term
for a knot, the " cable bend," the " fisherman's bend." (3)
(From the Old Fr. bende, a ribbon), a term of heraldry, signifying
a diagonal band or stripe across a shield from the dexter chief
to the sinister base; also in tanning, the half of a hide from
which the thinner parts have been trimmed away, " bend-
leather " being the thickest and best sole-leather.
BENDA, the name of a family of German musicians, of whom
the most important is Georg (d. 1795), who was a pupil of his
elder brother Franz (1709-1786), Concertmeister in Berlin.
Georg Benda was a famous clavier player and oboist, but his
chief interest for modern musical history lies in his melodramas.
Being a far more solid musician than Rousseau he earns the
title of the musical pioneer of that art-form (i.e. the accompani-
ment of spoken words by illustrative music) in a sense which
cannot be claimed for Rousseau's earlier Pygmalion. Benda's
first melodrama, Ariadne auf Naxos, was written in 1774 after
his return from a visit to Italy. He was a voluminous composer,
whose works (instrumental and dramatic) were enthusiastically
taken up by the aristocracy in the time of Mozart. Mozart's
imagination was much fired by Benda's new vehicle for dramatic
expression, and in 1778 he wrote to his father with the greatest
enthusiasm about a project for composing a duodrama on the
model of Benda's Ariadne auf Naxos and Medea, both of which
he considered excellent and always carried about with him. He
concluded at the time that that was the way the problems of
operatic recitative should be solved, or rather shelved, but the
only specimen he has himself produced is the wonderful melo-
drama in his unfinished operetta, Zaide, written in 1780.
BENDER (more correctly BENDERY), a town of Russia, in the
government of Bessarabia, on the right bank of the Dniester,
37 m. by rail S.E. of Kishinev. It possesses a tobacco factory,
candle-works and brick-kilns, and is an important river port,
vessels discharging here their cargoes of corn, wine, wool, cattle,
flour and tallow, to be conveyed by land to Odessa and to Yassy
in Rumania. Timber also is floated down the Dniester. The
citadel was dismantled in 1897. The town had in 1867 a popu-
lation of 24,443, an d in 1900 of 33,741, the greater proportion
being Jews. As early as the i2th century the Genoese had a
settlement on the site of Bender. In 1709 Charles XII., after
the defeat of Poltava, collected his forces here in a camp which
they called New Stockholm, and continued there till 1713.
Bender was taken by the Russians in 1770, in 1789 and in 1806,
but it was not held permanently by Russia till 1812.
BENDIGO (formerly SANDHURST), a city of Bendigo county,
Victoria, Australia, 101 m. by rail N.N.W. of Melbourne. Pop.
(1901) 31,020. It is the centre of a large gold-field consisting
of quartz ranges, with some alluvial deposits, and many of the
mines are deep-level workings. The discovery of alluvial gold
in 1851 brought many immigrants to the district; but the
opening up of the quartz reefs in 1872 was the principal factor
in the importance of Bendigo. It became a municipality in
1855 and a city in 1871. It is the seat of Anglican and Roman
Catholic bishops. Besides mining, the local industries are the
manufacture of Epsom pottery, bricks and tiles, iron-founding,
stone-cutting, brewing, tanning and coach-building. The sur-
rounding district produces quantities of wheat and fruits for
export, and much excellent wine is made.
BENDL, KAREL or KARL (1838-1897), Bohemian composer,
was born on the i6th of April 1838 at Prague. He studied at
the organ school, and in 1858 had already composed a number
of small choral works. In 1861 his Poletuje holubice won a prize
and at once became a favourite with the local choral societies.
In 1864 Bendl went to Brussels, where for a short time he held
the post of second conductor of the opera. After visiting
Amsterdam and Paris he returned to Prague. Here in 1865
he was appointed conductor of the choral society known as
Hlahoe, and he held the post until 1879, when Baron Dervies
engaged his services for his private band. Bendl's first opera
Lejla was successfully produced in 1868. It was followed by
Bretislav a Jitka (1870), Stary Zenich, a comic opera (1883),
Karel Skreta (1883), Dite Tabora, a prize opera (1892), and
Matki Mila (1891). Other operas by Bendl are Indicka prin-
cezna, Cernohorci, a prize opera, and the two operas Carovny
Kvet and Gina. His ballad Svanda dudak acquired much
popularity; he published a mass in D minor for male voices and
another mass for a mixed choir; two songs to Ave Maria; a
violin sonata and a string quartet in F; and a quantity of songs
and choruses, many of which have come to be regarded as
national possessions of Bohemia. Bendl died on the 2oth of
September 1897 at Prague.
BENEDEK, LUDWIG, RITTER VON (1804-1881), Austrian
general, was born at Odenburg in Hungary on the I4th of July
1804, his father being a doctor. He received his commission in
the Austrian army as ensign in 1822, becoming lieutenant in 1825,
first lieutenant in 1831 and captain in 1835. He was employed
for a considerable time in the general staff, and had risen to the
rank of colonel, when he won his first laurels in the suppression
of the rising of 1846 in Galicia (see AUSTRIA: History). In this
campaign his bold leadership in the field and his capacity for
organization were so far conspicuous that he was made a Ritter
(knight) of the Leopold order by his sovereign, and a freeman
(Ehrenburger) by the city of Lemberg. In 1847 he commanded
a regiment in Italy, and on the outbreak of war with Sardinia he
was placed in command of a mixed brigade, at the head of which
he displayed against regular troops the same qualities of un-
hesitating bravery and ' resolution which had given him the
victory in many actions with the Galician rebels. His conduct at
Curtatone won for him the commandership of the Leopold order,
and shortly afterwards the knighthood of the Maria Theresa
order. At the action of Mortara his tactical skill and bravery
were again conspicuous, and Radetzky particularly distinguished
him in despatches. The archduke Albert, with whom he served,
is said to have given him the sword of his father, the great
archduke Charles. He was promoted major-general soon after-
wards over the heads of several colonels senior to him, and was
sent as a brigade commander to Hungary. Again he was
distinguished as a fighting general at Raab, Komorn, Szegedin
and many other actions, and was three times wounded. Benedek
then received the cross for military merit, and soon afterwards
was posted to the staff of the army in Italy. In 1852 he was made
lieutenant field marshal, and in 1857 commander successively of
the II., the IV. and the VIII. corps, and also a Geheimrath. In the
political crisis of 1854 he had command of a corps in the army of
observation under Hess on the Turkish frontier. In the war of
1859 in Italy, Benedek commanded the VIII. corps, and at the
battle of Solferino was in command of the right of the Austrian
position. That portion of the struggle which was fought out
between Benedek and the Piedmontese army is sometimes called
BENEDETTI
717
the battle of San Martino. Benedek, with magnificent gallantry,
held his own all day, and in the end covered the retreat of the rest
of the Austrian army to the Mincio. His reward was the com-
mandership of the order of Maria Theresa, and Vienna and many
other cities followed the example of Lemberg in 1846. His
reputation was now at its highest, and his great popularity was
enhanced, in the prevailing discontent with the reactionary and
clerical government of previous years, by the fact that he was a
Protestant and not of noble birth. He was promoted Feldzeug-
meister and in 1860 appointed quartermaster-general to the army,
and soon afterwards governor-general and commander-in-chief
in Hungary, in succession to the archduke Albert. In 1861 he
was made commander-in-chief in Venetia and the adjoining
provinces of the empire, and in the following year he received
the grand cross of the Leopold order. In 1864 he resigned the
quartermaster-generalship and devoted himself exclusively to
the command of the army in Italy. In 1861 he had been made a
life-member of the house of peers. In 1866 war with Prussia and
with Italy became imminent. Benedek was appointed to com-
mand the Army of the North against the Prussians, the control
of affairs in Italy being taken over by the archduke Albert. For
the story of the campaign of Koniggratz, in which the Austrians
under Benedek's command were decisively defeated, see SEVEN
WEEKS' WAR. Benedek took over his new command as a
stranger to the country and to the troops. Only the personal
command of the emperor and the requests of the archduke
Albert prevailed upon him to " sacrifice his honour," as he
himself said, in a task for which he felt himself ill prepared.
When he took the field his despondency was increased by the
passive obstruction which he met with amongst his own officers,
many of whom resented being placed under a man of the middle
class instead of the archduke Albert, and by the general state of
unpreparedness which he found existing at the front. Further,
his own staff was self-willed to the verge of disloyalty, and his
assistants, Lieutenant Field Marshal von Henikstein, and Major-
General Krismanic in particular, endeavoured to control Benedek's
operations in the spirit of the 18th-century strategists. Under
these circumstances, and against the superior numbers, moral
and armament of the Prussians, the Austrians were foredoomed
to defeat. A series of partial actions convinced Benedek that
success was unattainable, and he telegraphed to the emperor
advising him to make peace; the emperor refused on the ground
that no decisive battle had been fought; Benedek, thereupon,
instead of retreating across the Elbe, determined to bring on a
decisive engagement, and took up a position with the whole of
his forces near Koniggratz with the Elbe in his rear. Here he was
completely defeated by the Prussians on the 3rd of July, but they
could not prevent him from making good his retreat over the
river in magnificent order on the evening of the battle. He con-
ducted the operations of his army in retreat up to the great
concentration at Vienna under the archduke Albert, and was
then suspended from his command and a court-martial ordered ;
the emperor, however, in December determined that the inquiry
should be stopped. Benedek from this time lived in absolute
retirement, and having given his word of honour to the archduke
Albert that he would not attempt to rehabilitate himself before
the world, he published no defence of his conduct, and even
destroyed his papers relating to the campaign of 1866. This
attitude of self-sacrificing loyalty he maintained even when on
the 8th of November 1866 the official Wiener Zeitung published
an article in which he was made responsible for all the disasters
of the war. The history of the campaign from the Austrian point
of view as at present known leaves much unexplained, and the
published material is primarily of a controversial character. The
official Osterreichs Ktimpfe speaks of the unfortunate general in
the following terms: " A career full of achievements, distinction
and fame deserved a less tragic close. A dispassionate judgment
will not forget the ever fortunate and successful deeds which he
accomplished earlier in the service of the emperor, and will ensure
for him, in spite of his last heavy misfortune (Last), an honourable
memory." Praise of his earlier career could not well be denied,
and the official history is careful not to extend its eulogy to cover
the events of 1866; the recognition in these words cannot
therefore be set against the general opinion of subsequent critics
that Benedek was the victim of political necessities, perhaps of
court intrigues. For the rest of his life Benedek lived at Graz,
where he died on the 27th of April 1881.
See H. Friedjung, Benedeks nachgelassene Papiere (Leipzig, 1901,
^rd and enlarged ed., 1904), and Der Kampf urn die VorherrscHofl
in DeutsMand 1859-1866 (Stuttgart, 1897, 6th ed., 1904) ; v.
Schlichtling, Moltke und Benedek (Berlin, 1900), also therewith
A. Kniuss, Moltke, Benedek und Napoleon (Vienna, 1901); and
a roman d cU by Grafin Salburg, entitled Konigsglaube (Dresden,
1906). The brief memoir in Allgemeine deutsche Biographic re-
presents the court view of Benedek s case.
BENEDETTI, VINCENT, COUNT (1817-1900), French diplo-
matist, was born at Bastia, in the island of Corsica, on the 29th
of April 1817. In the year 1840 he entered the service of the
French foreign office, and was appointed to a post under the
marquis de la Valette, who was consul-general at Cairo. He
spent eight years in Egypt, being appointed consul in 1845; in
1848 he was made consul at Palermo, and in 1851 he accompanied
the marquis, who had been appointed ambassador at Constantin-
ople, as first secretary. For fifteen months during the progress
of the Crimean War he acted as charge d'affaires. In the second
volume of his essays he gives some recollections of his experiences
in the East, including an account of Mehemet Ali, and a (not very
friendly) sketch of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe. In 1855, after
refusing the post of minister at Teheran, he was employed in the
foreign office at Paris, and acted as secretary to the congress at
Paris (1855-1856). During the next few years he was chiefly
occupied with Italian affairs, in which he was much interested,
and Cavour said of him he was an Italian at heart. He was chosen
in 1861 to be the first envoy of France to the king of Italy, but he
resigned his post next year on the retirement of E. A. Thouvenel,
who had been his patron, when the anti-Italian party began to
gain the ascendancy at Paris. In 1864 he was appointed
ambassador at the court of Prussia.
Benedetti remained in Berlin till the outbreak of war in 1870,
and during these years he played an important part in the
diplomatic history of Europe. His position was a difficult one,
for Napoleon did not keep him fully informed as to the course of
French policy. In 1866, during the critical weeks which followed
the attempt of Napoleon to intervene between Prussia and
Austria, he accompanied the Prussian headquarters in the advance
on Vienna, and during a visit to Vienna he helped to arrange the
preliminaries of the armistice signed at Nikolsburg. It was after
this that he was instructed to present to Bismarck French
demands for "compensation," and in August, after his return to
Berlin, as a result of his discussions with Bismarck a draft treaty
was drawn up, in which Prussia promised France her support in
the annexation of Belgium. This treaty was never concluded,
but the draft, which was in Benedetti's handwriting, was kept by
Bismarck and, in 1870, a few days after the outbreak of the war,
was published by him in The Times. During 1867 Benedetti was
much occupied with the affair of Luxemburg. In July 1870,
when the candidature of the prince of Hohenzollern for the throne
of Spain became known, Benedetti was instructed by the due de
Gramont to present to the king of Prussia, who was then at Ems,
the French demands, that the king should order the prince
to withdraw, and afterwards that the king should promise that
the candidature would never be renewed. This last demand
Benedetti submitted to the king in an informal meeting on the
promenade at Ems, and the misleading reports of the conversa-
tion which were circulated were the immediate cause of the war
which followed, for the Germans were led to believe that Benedetti
had insulted the king, and the French that the king had insulted
the ambassador. Benedetti was severely attacked in his own
country for his conduct as ambassador, and the due de Gramont
attempted to throw upon him the blame for the failures of French
diplomacy. He answered the charges brought against him in a
book, Ma Mission en Prusse (Paris, 1871), which still remains
one of the most valuable authorities for the study of Bismarck's
diplomacy. In this Benedetti successfully defends himself, and
shows that he had kept his government well informed; he had
yi8
BENEDICT
even warned them a year before as to the proposed Hohenzollern
candidature. Even if he had been outwitted by Bismarck in the
matter of the treaty of 1866, the policy of the treaty was not his,
but was that of E. Drouyn de Lluys. The idea of the annexation
of part of Belgium to France had been suggested to him first by
Bismarck; and the use to which Bismarck put the draft was not
one which he could be expected to anticipate, for he had carried
on the negotiations in good faith. After the fall of the Empire he
retired to Corsica. He lived to see his defence confirmed by later
publications, which threw more light on the secret history of the
times. He published in 1895 a volume of Essais diplomatigues,
containing a full account of his mission to Ems, written in 1873 ;
and in 1897 a second series dealing with the Eastern question. He
died on the 28th of March 1900, while on a visit to Paris. He
received the title of count from Napoleon.
See Rothan, La Polttique Franfaise en 1866 (Paris, 1879); and
L' Affaire de Luxemburg (Paris, 1881); Sorel, Histoire diplomatique
(Paris, 1875) ; Sybel, Die Begrundung des deutschen Reiches (Munich,
1889), &c. (J- W. HE.)
BENEDICT (BENEDICTUS), the name taken by fourteen of
the popes.
BENEDICT I. was pope from 573 to 578. He succeeded
John III., and occupied the papal chair during the incursions of
the Lombards, and during the series of plagues and famines which
followed these invasions.
BENEDICT II. was pope from 684 to 685. He succeeded Leo
II., but although chosen in 683 he was not ordained till 684,
because the leave of the emperor Constantino was not obtained
until some months after the election.
BENEDICT III. was pope from 855 to 858. He was chosen by
the clergy and people of Rome, but the election was not confirmed
by the emperor, Louis II., who appointed an anti-pope, Anastasius
(the librarian). But the candidature of this person, who had
been deposed from the presbyterate under Leo IV., was in-
defensible. The imperial government at length recognized
Benedict and discontinued its opposition, with the result that he
was at last successful. The mythical pope Joan is usually placed
between Benedict and his predecessor, Leo IV.
BENEDICT IV. was pope from 900 to 903.
BENEDICT V. was pope from 964 to 965. He was elected by
the Romans on the death of John XII. The emperor Otto I. did
not approve of the choice, and carried off the pope to Hamburg,
where he died.
BENEDICT VI. was pope from 972 to 974. He was chosen with
great ceremony and installed pope under the protection of the
emperor, Otto the Great. On the death of the emperor the
turbulent citizens of Rome renewed their outrages, and the pope
himself was strangled by order of Crescentius, the son of the
notorious Theodora, who replaced him by a deacon called Franco.
This Franco took the name of Boniface VII.
BENEDICT VII. was pope from 974 to 983. He was elected
through the intervention of a representative of the emperor, Count
Sicco, who drove out the intruded Franco (afterwards Pope
Boniface VII.). Benedict governed Rome quietly for nearly nine
years, a somewhat rare thing in those days.
BENEDICT VIII., pope from 1012 to 1024, was called originally
Theophylactus. He was a member of the family of the count
of Tusculum, and was opposed by an anti-pope, Gregory, but
defeated him with the aid of King Henry II. of Saxony, whom he
crowned emperor in 1014. In his pontificate the Saracens began
to attack the southern coasts of Europe, and effected a settlement
in Sardinia. The Normans also then began to settle in Italy. In
Italy Benedict supported the policy of the emperor, Henry II.,
and at the council of Pavia (1022) exerted himself in favour of
ecclesiastical discipline, then in a state of great decadence.
BENEDICT IX., pope from 1033 to 1056, son of Alberic, count
of Tusculum, and nephew of Benedict VIII., was also called
Theophylactus. He was installed pope at the age of twelve
through the influence of his father. The disorders of his conduct,
though tolerated by the emperors, Conrad II. and Henry III.,
who were then morally responsible for the pontificate, at length
disgusted the Romans, who drove him out in 1044 and appointed
Silvester III. his successor. Silvester remained in the papal chair
but a few weeks, as the people of Tusculum quickly recovered
their influence and reinstated their pope. Benedict, however,
was obliged to bow before the execration of the Romans. He sold
his rights to his godfather, the priest Johannes Gratianus, who
was installed under the name of Gregory VI. (1045). The
following year Henry III. obtained at the council of Sutri the
deposition of the three competing popes, and replaced them by
Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who took the name of Clement II.
But before the close of 1047 Clement II. died, probably from
poison administered by Benedict, who was reinstalled for the
third time. At last, on the I7th of July 1048, the marquis of
Tuscany drove him from Rome, where he was never seen again.
He lived several years after his expulsion and appears to have
died impenitent.
BENEDICT X. (Johannes " Mincius," i.e. the lout or dolt,
bishop of Velletri) was pope from 1058 to 1059. He was elected
on the death of Stephen IX. through the influence of the Roman
barons, who, however, had pledged themselves to take no action
without Hildebrand, who was then absent from Rome. Hilde-
brand did not recognize him, and put forward an opposition
pope in the person of Gerard, bishop of Florence (pope as
Nicholas II.), whom he supported against the Roman aristocracy.
With the help of the Normans, Hildebrand seized the castle of
Galeria, where Benedict had taken refuge, and degraded him
to the rank of a simple priest. (L. D.*)
BENEDICT XI. (Niccolo Boccasini), pope from 1303 to 1304,
the son of a notary, was born in 1240 at Treviso. Entering the
Dominican order in 1254, he became lector, prior of the convent,
provincial of his order in Lombardy, and in 1296 its general.
In 1298 he was created cardinal priest of Santa Sabina, and in
1300 cardinal bishop of Ostia and Velletri. In 1302 he was
papal legate in Hungary. On the 22nd of October 1303 he was
unanimously elected pope. He did much to conciliate the
enemies made by his predecessor Boniface VIII., notably
France, the Colonnas and King Frederick II. of Sicily; never-
theless on the 7th of June 1304 he excommunicated William
of Nogaret and all the Italians who had captured Boniface in
Anagni. Benedict died at Perugia on the 7th of July 1304;
if he was really poisoned, as report had it, suspicion would fall
primarily on Nogaret. His successor Clement V. transferred
the papal residence to Avignon. Among Benedict's works
are commentaries on part of the Psalms and on the Gospel of
Matthew. His beatification took place in 1733.
See C. Grandjean, " Registres de Benoit XI." (Paris, 1883 ff.),
Bibliotheque des Scales franfaises d'Athenes el de Rome.
BENEDICT XII. (Jacques Fournier), pope from 1334 to 1342,
the son of a miller, was born at Saverdun on the Arriege. Enter-
ing the Cistercian cloister Bolbonne, and graduating doctor
of theology at Paris, he became in 1311 abbot of Fontfroide,
in 1317 bishop of Pamiers and in 1326 of Mirepoix. Created
cardinal priest of Santa Prisca in 1327 by his uncle John XXII.
he was elected his successor on the 2oth of December 1334.
Benedict made appointments carefully, reformed monastic
orders and consistently opposed nepotism. Unable to remove
his capital to Rome or to Bologna, he began to erect a great
palace at Avignon. In 1336 he decided against a pet notion of
John XXII. by saying that souls of saints may attain the fulness
of the beatific vision before the last judgment. In 1339 he entered
upon fruitless negotiations looking toward the reunion of the
Greek and Roman churches. French influence made futile his
attempt to come to an understanding with the -emperor Louis
the Bavarian. He died on the 25th of April 1342.
See the source publications of G. Daumet (Lettres closes, patenUs
etcuriales, . . . Paris, 1899 ff.), and J.-M.Vida\(Lettres communes, . . .
Paris, 1903 ff.). (W. W. R.*)
BENEDICT XIII. (Pedro de Luna), (c. 1328-1422 or 1423),
anti-pope, belonged to one of the most noble families in Aragon.
His high birth, his legal learning he was for a long time pro-
fessor of canon law at Montpellier and the irreproachable purity
of his life, recommended him to Pope Gregory XL, who created
him cardinal in 1375- He was almost the only one who succeeded
BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN BENEDICT, ST
719
in making a firm stand in the tumultuous conclave of 1378;
but the deliberation with which he made up his mind as to the
validity of the election of Urban VI. was equalled, when he took
the side of Clement VII., by the ardour and resourcefulness which
he displayed in defending the cause of the pope of Avignon;
it was mainly to him that the latter owed his recognition by
Castile, Aragon and Navarre. When elected pope, or rather
anti pope, by the cardinals of Avignon, on the 28th of September
1394, it was he who by his astuteness, his resolution, and, it
may be added, by his unswerving faith in the justice of his cause,
was to succeed in prolonging the lamentable schism of the West
for thirty years. The hopes he had aroused that, by a voluntary
abdication, he would restore unity to the church, were vain;
though called upon by the princes of France to carry out his
plan, abandoned by his cardinals, besieged and finally kept
under close observation in the palace of the popes (1398-1403),
he stood firm, and tired out the fury of his opponents. Escaping
from Avignon, he again won obedience in France, and his one
thought was how to triumph over his Italian rival, if neces-
sary, by force. He yielded, however, to the instances of the
government of Charles VI., and pretending that he wished
to have an interview with Gregory XII., with a view to their
simultaneous abdication, he advanced to Savona, and then to
Porto Venere. The failure of these negotiations, for which he
was only in part responsible, led to the universal movement of
indignation and impatience, which ended, in France, in the
declaration of neutrality (1408), and at Pisa, in the decree of
deposition against the two pontiffs (1409). Benedict XIII.,
who had on his part tried to call together a council at Perpignan,
was by this time recognized hardly anywhere but in his native
land, in Scotland, and in the estates of the countship of Armagnac.
He remained none the less full of energy and of illusions, repulsed
the overtures of Sigismund, king of the Romans, who had come to
Perpignan to persuade him to abdicate, and, abandoned by
nearly all his adherents, he took refuge in the impregnable
castle of Peniscola, on a rock dominating the Mediterranean
(1415). The council of Constance then deposed him, as a per-
jurer, an incurable schismatic and a heretic (26th July 1417)
After struggling with the popes of Rome, Urban VI., Boniface
IX., Innocent VII. and Gregory XII., and against the popes of
Pisa, Alexander V. and John XXIII., Pedro de Luna, clinging
more than ever to that apostolic seat which he still professed
not to desire, again took up the struggle against Martin V.,
although the latter was recognized throughout almost all Chris-
tendom, and, before his death (29th November 1422, or 23rd
May 1423), he nominated four new cardinals in order to carry
the schism on even after him.
See Fr. Ehrle, Archiv fur Lit. und Kirchengesch. vols. v., vi., vii. ;
N. Valois, La France el le grand schisme d'occident (4 vols., Paris,
1896-1902) ; Fr. Ehrle, " Martin de Alpartils chronica actitatorum
temporibus domini Benedicti XIII." (Quellen und Forschungen aus
dent Geb. der Gesch., Gorres-Gesellschaft, Paderborn, 1906). (N. V.)
BENEDICT XIII. (Piero Francesco Orsini), pope from 1724 to
1730, at first styled Benedict XIV., was born on the 2nd of
February 1649, of the ducal family of Orsini-Gravina. In
1667 he became a Dominican (as Vincentius Maria), studied
theology and philosophy, was made a cardinal in 1672 and arch-
bishop of Benevento in 1686. Elected pope on the 29th of May
1724, he attempted to reform clerical morals; but neither the
decrees of the Latin council (1725) nor his personal precepts had
much effect. He confirmed the bull Unigenitus; but, despite
the Jesuits, allowed the Dominicans to preach the Augustinian
doctrine of grace. State affairs he left entirely to the unpopular
Cardinal Nicolo Coscia. He died on the 2ist of February 1730.
His works were published in 3 vols. at Ravenna in 1728.
BENEDICT XIV. (Prospero Lorenzo Lambertini), pope from
1740 to 1758, was born at Bologna on the 3ist of March 1675.
At the age of thirteen he entered the Collegium Clementinum
at Rome. He served the Curia in many and important capacities,
yet devoted his leisure time to theological and canonistic study.
Benedict XIII. made him archbishop of Theodosia in parlibus,
then of Ancona (1727), and the next year created him cardinal
priest. In 1731 Clement XII. translated him to his native city
of Bologna, where as archbishop he was both efficient and popular.
He published valuable works, notably De seraorum Dei bealifica-
tione et canonitatione, De sacrificio missae, as well as a treatise
on the feasts of Christ and the Virgin and of some saints honoured
in Bologna. In a conclave which had lasted for months he was
elected on the 1 7th of August 1 740 the successor of Clement XII.
Benedict XIV. was not merely earnest and conscientious, but
of incisive intellect, and unfailingly cheerful and witty. In
several respects he bettered the economic conditions of the papal
states, but was disinclined to undertake the needed thorough-
going reform of its administration. In foreign politics he made
important concessions to Portugal, Naples, Sardinia. Spain, and
was the first pope expressly to recognize the king of Prussia as
such. In 1741 he issued the bull Immense pastorum principis,
demanding more humane treatment for the Indians of Brazil
and Paraguay, and in the bulls Ex quo singulari (1742) and
Omnium solliciludinum ( 1 744) he rebuked the missionary methods
of the Jesuits in accommodating their message to the heathen
usages of the Chinese and of the natives of Malabar. In accord
with the spirit of the age he reduced the number of holy days
in several Catholic countries. To the end of his life he kept up
his studies and his intercourse with other scholars, and founded
several learned societies. His masterpiece, Libri octo de synodo
diocesana, begun in Bologna, appeared during his pontificate.
He died on the 3rd of May 1758.
His works, published in twelve quarto volumes at Rome (1747-
1751), appeared in more nearly complete editions at Venice in 1767
and at Prato, 1830-1846; also Bnefe Benedicts XIV., ed. F. A.
Kraus (2nd ed., Freiburg, 1888); Benedicti XIV. Papae opera
inedita, ed. F. Heiner (Freiburg, 1904). See Herzog-Hauck, Reat-
encyklopddie, ii. 572 ff. ; Wetzer and Welter, Kirchenlexikon, ii.
317 ff- (W. W. R.*)
BENEDICT OF ALIGNAN (d. 1268), Benedictine abbot of
Notre Dame de la Grasse (1224) and bishop of Marseilles (1229),
twice visited the Holy Land (1239 and 1260), where he helped
the Templars build the great castle of Safet. He founded a
short-lived order, the Brothers of the Virgin, suppressed by the
council of Lyons (1274), and died a Franciscan. His writings
include a letter to Innocent IV. and De constructione Caslri
Saphet (Baluze, Miscellanea, ii.).
BENEDICT OF NURSIA, SAINT (c. 4 8o-c. 544), the patriarch of
Western monks. Our only authority for the facts of St Benedict's
life is bk. ii of St Gregory's Dialogues. St Gregory declares that
he obtained his information from four of St Benedict's disciples,
whom he names; and there can be no serious reason for doubting
that it is possible to reconstruct the outlines of St Benedict's
career (see Hodgkin, Holy and her Invaders, iv. 412). A precise
chronology and a pedigree have been supplied for Benedict,
according to which he was born in 480, of the great family of
the Anicii; but all we know is what St Gregory tells us, that he
was born of good family in Nursia, near Spoleto in Umbria. His
birth must have occurred within a few years of the date assigned;
the only fixed chronological point is a visit of the Gothic king
Totila to him in 543, when Benedict was already established at
Monte Cassino and advanced in years (Dial. ii. 14, 15). He was
sent by his parents to frequent the Roman schools, but shocked
by the prevailing licentiousness he fled away. It has been usual
to represent him as a mere boy at this time, but of late years
various considerations have been pointed out which make it
more likely that he was a young^ man. He went to the
mountainous districts of the Abruzzi, and at last came to the
ruins of Nero's palace and the artificial lake at Subiaco, 40 m.
from Rome. Among the rocks on the side of the valley opposite
the palace he found a cave in which he took up his abode, un-
known to all except one friend, Rornanus, a monk of a neighbour-
ing monastery, who clothed him in the monastic habit and
secretly supplied him with food. No one who has seen the spot
will doubt that the Sacro Speco is indeed the cave wherein
Benedict spent the three years of opening manhood in solitary
prayer, contemplation and austerity. After this period of
formation his fame began to spread abroad, and the monks of a
neighbouring monastery induced him to become their abbot;
but their lives were irregular and dissolute, and on his trying to
720
put down abuses they attempted to poison him. He returned
to his cave, but disciples flocked to him, and in time he formed
twelve monasteries in the neighbourhood, placing twelve monks
in each, and himself retaining a general control over all. In time
patricians and senators from Rome entrusted their young sons
to his care, to be brought up as monks; in this manner came to
him his two best-known disciples, Maurus and Placidus. Driven
from Subiaco by the jealousy and molestations of a neighbouring
priest, but leaving behind him communities in his twelve monas-
teries,' he himself, accompanied by a small band of disciples,
journeyed south until he came to Cassino, a town halfway between
Rome and Naples. Climbing the high mountain that overhangs
the town, he established on the summit the monastery with which
his name has ever since been associated, and which for centuries
was a chief centre of religious life for western Europe. He
destroyed the remnants of paganism that lingered on here, and by
his preaching gained the rustic population to Christianity. Few
other facts of his career are known: there is record of his founding
a monastery at Terracina; his death must have occurred soon
after Totila's visit in 543.
Rule of St Benedict. In order to understand St Benedict's
character and spirit, and to discover the secret of the success of
his institute, it is necessary, as St Gregory says, to turn to his
Rule. St Gregory's characterization of the Rule as " conspicuous
for its discretion" touches the most essential quality. The re-
lation of St Benedict's Rule to earlier monastic rules, and of his
institute to the prevailing monachism of his day, is explained in
the article MONASTICISM. Here it is enough to say that nowadays
it is commonly recognized by students that the manner of life
instituted by St Benedict was not intended to be, and as a matter
of fact was not, one of any great austerity, when judged by the
standard of his own day (see E. C. Butler, Lausiac History of
Palladius, part i. pp. 251-256). His monks were allowed proper
clothes, sufficient food, ample sleep. The only bodily austerities
were the abstinence from flesh meat and the unbroken fast till
mid-day or even 3 P.M., but neither would appear so onerous in
Italy even now, as to us in northern climes. Midnight office was
no part of St Benedict's Rule: the time for rising for the night
office varied from 1.30 to 3.0, according to the season, and the
monks had had unbroken sleep for 75 or even 8 hours, except in
the hot weather, when in compensation they were allowed the
traditional Italian summer siesta after the mid-day meal. The
canonical office was chanted throughout, but the directly religious
duties of the day can hardly have taken more than 4 or 5 hours
perhaps 8 on Sundays. The remaining hours of the day were
divided between work and reading, in the proportion (on the
average of the whole year) of about 6 and 4 hours respectively.
The " reading " in St Benedict's time was probably confined to
the Bible and the Fathers. The " work " contemplated by St
Benedict was ordinarily field work, as was natural in view of
the conditions of the time and best suited to the majority of the
monks; but the principle laid down is that the monks should do
whatever work is most useful. There were from the beginning
young boys in the monastery, who were educated by the monks
according to the ideas of the time. We have seen St Benedict
evangelizing the pagan population round Monte Cassino;
and a considerable time each day is assigned to the read-
ing of the Fathers. Thus the germs of all the chief works
carried on by his monks in later ages were to be found in his
own monastery.
The Rule consists of a prologue and 73 chapters. Though it has
resisted all attempts to reduce it to an ordered scheme, and
probably was not written on any set plan, still it is possible
roughly to indicate its contents: after the prologue and intro-
ductory chapter setting forth St Benedict's intention, follow
instructions to the abbot on the manner in which he should govern
his monastery (2,3); next comes the ascetical portion of the Rule,
on the chief monastic virtues" (4- 7); then the regulations for the
celebration of the canonical office, which St Benedict calls " the
Work of God " or " the divine work," his monks' first duty, "of
which nothing is to take precedence " (8-20); faults and punish-
ments (23-30); the cellarer and property of the monastery
BENEDICT, SIR J.
(31,32); community of goods (33, 34) ; various officials and daily
life (21, 22, 35-57); reception of monks (58-61); miscellaneous
(62-73).
The most remarkable chapters, in which St Benedict's wisdom
stands out most conspicuously, are those on the abbot ( 2, 3 , 2 7 , 64) .
The abbot is to govern the monastery with full and unquestioned
patriarchal authority; on important matters he must consult
the whole community and hear what each one, even the youngest,
thinks; on matters of less weight he should consult a few of the
elder monks; but in either case the decision rests entirely with
him, and all are to acquiesce. He must, however, bear in mind
that he will have to render an account of all his decisions and to
answer for the souls of all his monks before the judgment seat of
God. Moreover, he has to govern in accordance with the Rule,
and must endeavour, while enforcing discipline and implanting
virtues, not to sadden or " overdrive " his monks, or give them
cause for " just murmuring." In these chapters pre-eminently
appears that element of " discretion," as St Gregory calls it, or
humanism as it would now be termed, which without doubt has
been a chief cause of the success of the Rule. There is as yet no
satisfactory text of the Rule, either critical or manual; the best
manual text is Schmidt's editio minor (Regensburg, 1892). Of
the many commentaries the most valuable are those of Paulus
Diaconus (the earliest, c. 800), of Calmet and of Martene (Migne,
Patrol. Lat. lxvi.1.
AUTHORITIES. An old English translation of St Gregory's
Dialogues is reprinted in the Quarterly Series (Burns & Gates).
On St Benedict's life and Rule see Montalembert, Monks of the West,
bk. iv. ; Abbate L. Tosti, 5. Benedetto (translated 1896); also
Indexes to standard general histories of the period; Thomas Hodg-
kin's Italy and Her Invaders and Gregorovius' History of the City
of Rome may be specially mentioned. But by far the best sum-
maries in English are those contained in the relevant portions of
F. H. Dudden's Gregory the Great (1905), i. 107-115, ii. 160-169; on
the recent criticism of the text and contents of the Rule, see Otto
Zockler, Askese und Monchtum (1897), 355-371; and E. C. Butler,
articles in Downside Review, December 1899, and Journal oj Theo-
logical Studies, April 1902. (E. C. B.)
BENEDICT, SIR JULIUS (1804-1885), musical composer, was
born in Stuttgart on the 27th of November 1804. He was the
son of a Jewish banker, and leamt composition from Hummel
at Weimar and Weber at Dresden; with the latter he enjoyed
for three years an intimacy like that of a son, and it was Weber
who introduced him in Vienna to Beethoven on the sth of October
1823. In the same year he was appointed Kapellmeister of the
Karnthnerthor theatre at Vienna, and two years later (in 1825)
he became Kapellmeister of the San Carlo theatre at Naples.
Here his first opera, Giacinta ed Ernesto, was brought out in 1829,
and another, written for his native city, I Portoghesi in Goa, was
given there in 1830; neither of these was a great success, and in
1834 he went to Paris, leaving it in 1835 at the suggestion of
Malibran for London, where he spent the remainder of his life.
In 1836 he was given the conductorship of an operatic enterprise
at the Lyceum Theatre, and brought out a short opera, Un anno
ed un giorno, previously given in Naples. In 1838 he became
conductor of the English opera at Drury Lane during the period
of Balfe's great popularity; his own operas produced there were
The Gipsy's Warning (1838), The Bride of Venice (1843), and
The Crusaders (1846). In 1848 he conducted Mendelssohn's
Elijah at Exeter Hall, for the first appearance of Jenny Lind in
oratorio, and in 1850 he went to America as the accompanist on
that singer's tour. On his return in 1852 he became musical
conductor under Mapleson's management at Her Majesty's
theatre (and afterwards at Drury Lane), and in the same year
conductor of the Harmonic Union. Benedict wrote recitatives
for the production of an Italian version of Weber's Oberon in
1860. In the same year was produced his beautiful cantata
Undine at the Nonvich festival, in which Clara Novello appeared
in public for the last time. His best-known opera, The Lily of
Killarney, written on the subject of Dion Boucicault's play
Colleen Bawn to a libretto by Oxenford, was produced at Covent
Garden in 1862. His operetta, The Bride of Song, was brought
out there in 1864. St Cecilia, an oratorio, was performed at
the Norwich festival in 1886; St Peter at the Birmingham
BENEDICT BISCOP BENEDICTINES
721
festival of 1870; Graziella, a cantata, was given at the
Birmingham festival of 1882, and in August 1883 was produced
in operatic form at the Crystal Palace. Here also a symphony
by him was given in 1873. Benedict conducted every Norwich
festival from 1845 to 1878 inclusive, and the Liverpool Phil-
harmonic Society's concerts from 1876 to 1880. He was the
regular accompanist at the Monday Popular Concerts in London
from their start, and with few exceptions acted as conductor
of these concerts. He contributed an interesting life of Weber
to the series of biographies of " Great Musicians." In 1871 he
was knighted, and in 1874 was made knight commander of the
orders of Franz Joseph (Austria) and Frederick (Wiirttemberg).
He died in London on the sth of June 1885.
BENEDICT BISCOP (628? -690), also known as BISCOP
BADUCING, English churchman, was born of a good Northumbrian
family and was for a time a thegn of King Oswiu. He then went
abroad and after a second journey to Rome (he made five
altogether) lived as a monk at Lerins (665-667). It was under
his conduct that Theodore of Tarsus came from Rome to Canter-
bury in 669, and in the same year Benedict was appointed abbot
of St Peter's, Canterbury. Five years later he built the
monastery of St Peter at Wearmouth, on land granted him by
Ecgfrith of Northumbria, and endowed it with an excellent
library. A papal letter in 678 exempted the monastery from
external control, and in 682 Benedict erected a sister foundation
(St Paul) at Jarrow. He died on the I2th of January 690,
leaving a high reputation for piety and culture. Saxon archi-
tecture owes nearly everything to his initiative, and Bede was
one of his pupils.
BENEDICTINE, a liqueur manufactured at F6camp, France.
The composition is a trade secret, but, according to Konig, the
following are among the substances used in the manufacture of
imitations of the genuine article: fresh lemon peel, cardamoms,
hyssop tops, angelica, peppermint, thyme, cinnamon, nutmegs,
cloves and arnica flowers. (See FECAMP.)
BENEDICTINES, or BLACK MONKS, monks living according
to the Rule of St Benedict (q.v.) of Nursia. Subiaco in the
Abruzzi was the cradle of the Benedictines, and in that neigh-
bourhood St Benedict established twelve monasteries. After-
wards giving up the direction of these, he migrated to Monte
Cassino and there established the monastery which became the
centre whence his Rule and institute spread. From Monte
Cassino he founded a monastery at Terracina. These fourteen
are the only monasteries of which we have any knowledge as
being founded before St Benedict's death; for the mission of
St Placidus to Sicily must certainly be regarded as mere romance,
nor does there seem to be any solid reason for viewing more
favourably the mission of St Maurus to Gaul. There is some
ground for believing that it was the third abbot of Monte Cassino
who began to spread a knowledge of the Rule beyond the circle
of St Benedict's own foundations. About 580-590 Monte
Cassino was sacked by the Lombards, and the community came
to Rome and was established in a monastery attached to the
Lateran Basilica, in the centre of the ecclesiastical world. It
is now commonly recognized by scholars that when Gregory the
Great became a monk and turned his palace on the Caelian Hill
into a monastery, the monastic life there carried out was funda-
mentally based on the Benedictine Rule (see F. H. Dudden,
Gregory the Great, i. 108). From this monastery went forth
St Augustine and his companions on their mission to England in
596, carrying their monachism with them; thus England was
the first country out of Italy in which Benedictine life was
firmly planted. In the course of the 7th century Benedictine
life was gradually introduced in Gaul, and in the Sth it was carried
into the Germanic lands from England. It is doubtful whether
in Spain there were Benedictine monasteries, properly so called,
until a later period. In many parts the Benedictine Rule met
the much stricter Irish Rule of Columbanus, introduced by the
Irish missionaries on the continent, and after brief periods, first
of conflict and then of fusion, it gradually absorbed and sup-
planted it; thus during the Sth century it became, out of Ireland
and other purely Celtic lands, the only rule and form of monastic
life throughout western Europe, so completely that Charle-
magne once asked if there ever had ben any other monastic
rule.
What may be called the inner side of Benedictine life and
history is treated in the article MONASTICISII; here it is possible
to deal only with the broad facts of the external history. The
chief external works achieved for western Europe by the Bene-
dictines during the early middle ages may be summed up under
the following heads.
1. The Conversion of the Teutonic Races. The tendency of
modern historical scholarship justifies the maintenance of the
tradition that St Augustine and his forty companions were the
first great Benedictine apostles and missioners. Through their
efforts Christianity was firmly planted in various parts of
England; and after the conversion of the country it was English
Benedictines Wilfrid, Willibrord, Swithbert, Willehad who
evangelized Friesland and Holland; and another, Winfrid or
Boniface, who, with his fellow-monks Willibald and others,
evangelized the greater part of central Germany and founded and
organized the German church. It was Anschar, a monk of Corbie,
who first preached to the Scandinavians, and other Benedictines
were apostles to Poles, Prussians and other Slavonic peoples.
The conversion of the Teutonic races may properly be called the
work of the Benedictines.
2. The Civilization of north-western Europe. As the result of
their missionary enterprises the Benedictines penetrated into all
these lands and established monasteries, so that by the loth or
nth century Benedictine houses existed in great numbers
throughout the whole of Latin Christendom except Ireland.
These monasteries became centres of civilizing influences by the
method of presenting object-lessons in organized work, in
agriculture, in farming, in the arts and trades, and also in
well-ordered life. The unconscious method by which such great
results were brought about has been well described by J. S. Brewer
(Preface to Works of Giraldus Cambrensis, Rolls Series, iv.) and
F. A. Gasquet.
3. Education. Boys were educated in Benedictine houses from
the beginning, but at first they were destined to be monks. The
monasteries, however, played a great part in the educational side
of the Carolingian revival; and certainly from that date schools
for boys destined to live and work in the world were commonly
attached to Benedictine monasteries. From that day to this
education has been among the recognized and principal works of
Benedictines.
4. Letters and Learning. This side of Benedictine life is most
typically represented by the Venerable Bede, the gentle and
learned scholar of the early middle ages. In those times the
monasteries were the only places of security and rest in western
Europe, the only places where letters could in any measure be
cultivated. It was in the monasteries that the writings of Latin
antiquity, both classical and ecclesiastical, were transcribed and
preserved.
In a gigantic system embracing hundreds of monasteries and
thousands of monks, and spread over all the countries of western
Europe, without any organic bond between the different houses,
and exposed to all the vicissitudes of the wars and conquests of
those wild times, to say that the monks often fell short of the ideal
of their state, and sometimes short of the Christian, and even the
moral standard, is but to say that monks are men. Failures there
have been many, and scandals not a few in Benedictine history;
but it may be said with truth that there does not appear to have
been ever a period of widespread or universal corruption, however
much at times and in places primitive love may have waxed cold.
And when such declensions occurred, they soon called forth efforts
at reform and revival; indeed these constantly recurring reform-
movements are one of the most striking features of Benedictine
history, and the great proof of the vitality of the institute through-
out the ages.
The first of these movements arose during the Carolingian
revival (c. 800), and is associated with the name of Benedict of
Aniane. Under the auspices of Charlemagne and Louis the Pious
he initiated a scheme for federating into one great order, with
722
BENEDICTINES
himself as abbot general, all the monasteries of Charles's empire,
and for enforcing throughout a rigid uniformity in observance.
For this purpose a synod of abbots was assembled at Aix-la-
Chapelle in 817, and a series of 80 Capilula passed, regulating the
life of the monasteries. The scheme as a whole was shortlived
and did not survive its originator; but the Capitula were com-
monly recognized as supplying a useful and much-needed supple-
ment to St Benedict's Rule on points not sufficiently provided
for therein. Accordingly these Capitula exercised a wide influence
among Benedictines even outside the empire. And Benedict of
Aniane's ideas of organization found embodiment a century later
in the order of Cluny (910), which for a time overshadowed the
great body of mere Benedictines (see CLUNY) . Here it will suffice
to say that the most distinctive features of the Cluny system were
(i) a notable increase and prolongation of the church services,
which came to take up the greater part of the working day; (2)
a strongly centralized government, whereby the houses of the
order in their hundreds were strictly subject to the abbot of Cluny.
Though forming a distinct and separate organism Cluny claimed
to be, and was recognized as, a body of Benedictine houses; but
from that time onwards arose a number of independent bodies, or
" orders," which took the Benedictine Rule as the basis of their
life. The more important of these were: in the nth and 1 2th cen-
turies, the orders of Camaldulians, Vallombrosians, Fontevrault
and the Cistercians, and in the i3th and i4th the Silvestrines,
Celestines and Olivetans (see separate articles). The general
tendency of these Benedictine offshoots was in the direction of
greater austerity of life than was practised by the Black Monks
or contemplated by St Benedict's Rule some of them were
semi-eremitical; the most important by far were the Cistercians,
whose ground-idea was to reproduce exactly the life of St
Benedict's own monastery. These various orders were also
organized and governed according to the system of centralized
authority devised by St Pachomius (see MONASTICISM) and
brought into vogue by Cluny in the West. What has here to be
traced is the history of the great body of Benedictine monasteries
that held aloof from these separatist movements.
For the first four or five centuries of Benedictine history there
was no organic bond between any of the monasteries; each house
formed an independent autonomous family, managing its own
affairs and subject to no external authority or control except that
of the bishop of the diocese. But the influence of Cluny, even on
monasteries that did not enter into its organism, was enormous;
many adopted Cluny customs and practices and moulded their
life and spirit after the model it set; and many such monasteries
became in turn centres of revival and reform in many lands, so
that during the loth and nth centuries arose free unions of
monasteries based on a common observance derived from a
central abbey. Fleury and Hirsau are well-known examples.
Basing themselves on St Gregory's counsel to St Augustine,
Dunstan, /Ethelwold and Oswald adopted from the observance
of foreign monasteries, and notably Fleury and Ghent, what was
suitable for the restoration of English monachism, and so produced
the Concordia Regularis, interesting as the first serious attempt to
bring about uniformity of observance among the monasteries of
an entire nation. In the course of the 1 2th century sporadic and
limited unions of Black Monk monasteries arose in different parts.
But notwithstanding all these movements, the majority of the
great Black Monk abbeys continued to the end of the 1 2th century
in their primeval isolation. But in the year 1215, at the fourth
Lateran council, were made regulations destined profoundly to
modify Benedictine polity and history. It was decreed that the
Benedictine houses of each ecclesiastical province should hence-
forth be federated for the purposes of mutual help and the
maintenance of discipline, and that for these ends the abbots
should every third year meet in a provincial chapter (or synod),
in order to pass laws binding on all and to appoint visitors who,
in addition to the bishops, should canonically visit the monasteries
and report on their condition in spirituals and temporals to the
ensuing chapter. The English monks took the lead in carrying
out this legislation, and in 1 218 the first chapter of the province of
Canterbury was held at Oxford, and up to the dissolution under
Henry VIII. the triennial chapters took place with wonderful
regularity. Fitful attempts were made elsewhere to carry out the
decrees, and in 1336 Benedict XII. by the bull Benedictina tried
to give further development to the system and to secure its
general observance. The organization of the Benedictine houses
into provinces or chapters under this legislation interfered in the
least possible degree with the Benedictine tradition of mutual
independence of the houses; the provinces were loose federations
of autonomous houses, the legislative power of the chapter and
the canonical visitations being the only forms of external interfer-
ence. The English Benedictines never advanced farther along
the path of centralization; up to their destruction this polity
remained in operation among them, and proved itself by its
results to be well adapted to the conditions of the Benedictine
Rule and life.
In other lands things did not on the whole go so well, and
many causes at work during the later middle ages tended
to bring about relaxation in the Benedictine houses; above all
the vicious system of commendatory abbots, rife everywhere
except in England. And so in the period of the reforming
councils of Constance and Basel the state of the religious orders
was seriously taken in hand, and in response to the public demand
for reforming the Church " in head and members," reform
movements were set on foot, as among others, so among the
Benedictines of various parts of Europe. These movements
issued in the congregational system which is the present polity
among Benedictines. In the German lands, where the most
typical congregation was the Bursfeld Union (1446), which
finally embraced over 100 monasteries throughout Germany,
the system was kept on the lines of the Lateran decree and
the bull Benedictina, and received only some further develop-
ments in the direction of greater organization; but in Italy
the congregation of S. Justina at Padua (1421), afterwards
called the Cassinese, departed altogether from the old lines,
setting up a highly centralized government, after the model
of the Italian republics, whereby the autonomy of the monas-
teries was destroyed, and they were subjected to the authority
of a central governing board. With various modifications or
restrictions this latter system was imported into all the Latin
lands, into Spain and Portugal, and thence into Brazil, and
into Lorraine and France, where the celebrated congregation
of St Maur (see MAURISTS) was formed early in the i?th century.
During this century the Benedictine houses in many parts of
Catholic Europe united themselves into congregations, usually
characterized by an austerity that was due to the Tridentine
reform movement.
In England the Benedictines had, from every point of view,
flourished exceedingly. At the time of the Dissolution there
were nearly 300 Black Benedictine houses, great and small,
men and women, including most of the chief religious houses
of the land (for lists see tables and maps in Gasquet's English
Monastic Life, and Catholic Dictionary, art. " Benedictines ").
It is now hardly necessary to say that the grave charges brought
against the monks are no longer credited by serious historians
(Gasquet, Henry VIII. and the Monasteries; ]. Gairdner,
Prefaces to the relevant volumes of Calendars of State Papers
of Henry VIII.). In Mary's reign some of the surviving monks
were brought together, and Westminster Abbey was restored.
Of the monks professed there during this momentary revival,
one, Sigebert Buckley, lived on into the reign of James I. ; and
being the only survivor of the Benedictines of England, he
in 1607 invested with the English habit and affiliated to West-
minster Abbey and to the English congregation two English
priests, already Benedictines in the Italian congregation. By
this act the old English Benedictine line was perpetuated;
and in 1619 a number of English monks professed in Spain were
aggregated by pontifical act to these representatives of the old
English Benedictines, and thus was constituted the present
English Benedictine congregation. Three or four monasteries
of the revived English Benedictines were established on the
continent at the beginning of the I7th century, and remained
there till driven back to England by the French Revolution.
BENEDICTION
723
The Reformation and the religious wars spread havoc among
the Benedictines in many parts of northern Europe; and as
a consequence, in part of the rule of Joseph II. of Austria,
in part of the French Revolution, nearly every Benedictine
monastery in Europe was suppressed it is said that in the
early years of the igth century scarcely thirty in all survived.
But the latter half of the century witnessed a series of remark-
able revivals, and first in Bavaria, under the influence of Louis I.
The French congregation (which does not enjoy continuity with
the Maurists) was inaugurated by Dom Gueranger in 1833, and
the German congregation of Beuron in 1863. Two vigorous
congregations have arisen in the United States. . These are
all new creations since 1830. In Italy, Spain, Portugal and
Brazil only a few monasteries survive the various revolutions,
and in a crippled state; but signs are not wanting of renewed
life: St Benedict's own monasteries of Subiaco and Monte
Cassino are relatively flourishing. In Austria, Hungary and
Switzerland there are some thirty great abbeys, most of which
have had a continued existence since the middle ages. The
English congregation is composed of three large abbeys (Down-
side, Ampleforth and Woolhampton), a cathedral priory (Here-
ford) and a nunnery (Stanbrook Abbey, Worcester): there
are besides in England three or four abbeys belonging to foreign
congregations, and several nunneries subject to the bishops.
Each congregation has its president, who is merely a president,
with limited powers, and not a general superior like the
Provincials of other orders; so that the primitive Benedictine
principle of each monastery being self-contained and autono-
mous is preserved. Similarly each congregation is independent
and self-governing, there being no superior-general or central
authority, as in other orders. Leo XIII. established an inter-
national Benedictine College in Rome for theological studies,
and conferred on its abbot the title of " Abbot Primate," with
precedence among Black Monk abbots. He is only primus
inter pares, and exercises no kind of superiority over the
other abbots or congregations. Thus the Benedictine polity
may be described as a number of autonomous federations
of autonomous monasteries. The individual monks, too, belong
not to the order or the congregation, but each to the monastery
in which he became a monk. The chief external work of the
Benedictines at the present day is secondary education; there
are 114 secondary schools or gymnasia attached to the abbeys,
wherein the monks teach over 12,000 boys; and many of
the nunneries have girls' schools. In certain countries (among
them England) where there is a dearth of secular priests, Bene-
dictines undertake parochial work.
The statistics of the order (1005) show that of Black Bene-
dictines there are over 4000 choir-monks and nearly 2000
lay brothers figures that have more than doubled since 1880.
If the Cistercians and lesser offshoots of the order be added,
the sum total of choir-monks and lay brothers exceeds 11,000.
In conclusion a word must be said on the Benedictine nuns.
From the beginning the number of women living the Bene-
dictine life has not fallen far short of that of the men. St Gregory
describes St Benedict's sister Scholastica as a nun (sanctimonialis) ,
and she is looked upon as the foundress of Benedictine nuns.
As the institute spread to other lands nunneries arose on all
sides, and nowhere were the Benedictine nuns more numerous
or more remarkable than in England, from Saxon times to the
Reformation. A strong type of womanhood is revealed in the
correspondence of St Boniface with various Saxon Benedictine
nuns, some in England and some who accompanied him to the
continent and there established great convents. In the early
times the Benedictine nuns were not strictly enclosed, and
could, when occasion called for it, freely go out of their convent
walls to perform any special work: on the other hand, they did
not resemble the modern active congregations of women,
whose ordinary work lies outside the convent. It has to
be said that in the course of the middle ages, especially the
later middle ages, grave disorders arose in many convents;
and this doubtless led, in the reform movements initiated by
the councils of Constance and Basel, and later of Trent, to the
introduction of strict enclosure in Benedictine convents, which
now is the almost universal practice. At the present day
there are of Black Benedictine nuns 262 convents with 7000
nuns, the large majority being directly subject to the diocesan
bishops; if the Cistercians and others be included, there are
387 convents with nearly 11,000 nuns. In England there arc
a dozen Benedictine nunneries.
_ AUTHORITIES The chief general authority for Benedictine
history up to the middle of the I2th century is Mabillon's Annales,
in 6 vuls. folio; for the later period no such general work exists, but
the various countries, congregations or even abbeys have to be taken
separately. Montalembert's Monks of the West gives the early
history very fully; the later history, to the beginning of the i8th
century, may be found in Helyot, Hist, des ordres reltgieux, v. and
yi._ (1702). A useful sketch, with references to the best literature,
is in Max Heimbucher, Orden und Kongregationen (1896), i. 55 17-
28 ; see also the article " Benedictinerorden " in Wetzer u. Welter,
Kirchenlexicon (and ed.), and " Benedikt von Nursia und der
Benediktinerorden," in Herzog-Hauck, Realenryklopddie (3rd ed.).
For England see Ethelred Taunton, English Block Monks (1897);
and for the modern history (191(1 century) the scries entitled
" Succisa Virescit " in the Downside Review, 1880 onwards, by
J. G. Dolan. On the inner spirit and working of the institute see
F. A. Gasquet, Sketch of Monastic Constitutional History (being the
preface to the 2nd ed., 1895, of the trans, of Montalembert) and
English Monastic Life (1904); and Newman's two essays on the
Benedictines, among the Historical Sketches. On Benedictine
nuns much will be found in the above-mentioned authorities, and
also in I.ina Eckenstein, Woman in Monasticism (1896). On Bene-
dictines and the Arts see F. H. Kraus, Ceschichte der christlichen
Kunst (Freiburg-i-B., 1896-1897). (E. C. B.)
BENEDICTION (Lat. benedictio, from benedicere, to bless),
generally, the utterance of a blessing or of a devout wish for the
prosperity and happiness of a person or enterprise. In the usage
of the Catholic Church, both East and West, though the bene-
diction as defined above has its place as between one Christian
and another, it has also a special place in the sacramental system
in virtue of the special powers of blessing vested in the priesthood.
Sacerdotal benedictions are not indeed sacraments means of
grace ordained by Christ himself, but sacramentals (sacra-
menta minora) ordained by the authority of the Church and
exercised by the priests, as the plenipotentiaries of God, in virtue
of the powers conferred on them at their ordination ; " that
whatever -they bless may be blessed, and whatever they con-
secrate may be consecrated." The power to bless in this
ecclesiastical sense is reserved to priests alone; the blessing of
the paschal candle on Holy Saturday by the deacon being the
one exception that proves the rule, for he uses for the purpose
grains of incense previously blessed by the priest at the altar.
But though by some the benediction has thus been brought into
connexion with the supreme means of grace, the sacrifice of the
Mass, the blessing does not in itself confer grace and does not act
on its recipients ex opere operate. It must not be supposed,
however, that the Catholic idea of a sacerdotal blessing has any-
thing of the vague character associated with a benediction by
Protestants. Both by Catholics and by Protestants blessings may
be applied to things inanimate as well as animate; but while
in the reformed Churches this involves no more than an appeal
to God for a special blessing, or a solemn " setting apart " of
persons or objects for sacred purposes, in the Catholic idea it
implies a special power, conferred by God, of the priests over
the invisible forces of evil. It thus stands in the closest relation
to the rite of exorcism, of which it is the complement.
According to Catholic doctrine, the Fall involved the subjec-
tion, not only of man, but of all things animate and inanimate,
to the influence of evil spirits; in support of which St Paul's
epistles to the Romans (viii.) and to Timothy (i Tim. iv. 4-5)
are quoted. This belief is, of course, not specifically Christian;
it has been held at all times and everywhere by men of the most
various races and creeds; and, if there be any validity in the
contention that that is true which has been held semper, vbique,
et ab omnibus, no fact is better established. In general it may
be said, then, that whereas exorcism is practised in order to
cast out devils already in possession, benediction is the formula
by which they are prevented from entering in. Protestants
have condemned these formulae as so much magic, and in this
724
BENEDICTUS BENEDICTUS ABBAS
modem science tends to agree with them; but to orthodox
Protestants at least Catholics have a perfect right to reply that,
in taking this line, they are but repeating the accusation brought
by the Pharisees against Christ, viz. that he cast out devils
"by Beelzebub, prince of the devils."
Though, however, the discomfiture of malignant spirits still
plays an important part in the Catholic doctrine of benedictions,
this has on the whole tended to become subordinated to other
benefits. This is but natural; for, though the progress of
knowledge has not disproved the existence of devils, it has
greatly limited the supposed range of their activities. According
to Father Patrick Morrisroe, dean and professor of liturgy at
Maynooth, the efficacy of benedictions is fourfold: (i) the
excitation of pious emotions and affections of the heart, and by
their means the remission of venial sins and of the temporal punish-
ments due for these; (2) freedom from the power of evil spirits;
(3) preservation and restoration of bodily health; (4) various
other benefits, temporal and spiritual. Benedictions, moreover,
are twofold: (a) invocative, i.e. those invoking the divine
benignity for persons and things without changing their con-
dition, e.g. children or food; (6) constitutive, i.e. those which
give to persons or things an indelible religious character, i.e.
monks and nuns, or the furniture of the altar. The second of
these brings the act of benediction into contact with the principle
of consecration (?..); for by the formal blessing by the duly
constituted authority persons, places and things are consecrated,
i.e. reserved to sacred uses and preserved from the contaminating
influence of evil spirits. Thus graveyards are consecrated, i.e.
solemnly blessed in order that the powers of evil may not disturb
the bodies of the faithful departed; thus, too, the blessing of
bells gives them a special power against evil demons.
Though the giving of blessings as a sacerdotal function is
proper to the whole order of priests, particular benedictions
have, by ecclesiastical authority, been reserved for the bishops,
who may, however, delegate some of them; i.e. the benediction
of abbots, of priests at their ordination, of virgins taking the veil,
of churches, cemeteries, oratories, and of all articles for use in
connexion with the altar (chalices, patens, vestments, &c.), of
military colours, of soldiers and of their arms. The holy oil is
also blessed by bishops in the Roman Catholic Church; in the
Greek Church, on the other hand, the oil for the chrism at baptism
is blessed by the priest. To the pope alone is reserved the blessing
of the pallium, the golden rose, the ' ' Agnus-Dei "and royal swords ;
he alone, too, can issue blessings that involve some days' indul-
gence. The ceremonies prescribed for the various benedictions
are set forth in the Rituale Romanum (tit. viii.). In general it
is laid down (cap. i.) that the priest, in benedictions outside the
Mass, shall be vested in surplice and stole, and shall give the
blessing standing and bare-headed. Certain prayers are said
before each benediction, after which he sprinkles the person or
thing to be blessed with holy water and, where prescribed, censes
them. He is attended by a minister with a vase of holy water,
an aspergillum and a copy of the Rituale or missal. In all bene-
dictions the sign of the cross is made. In the blessing of the holy
water (cap. ii.), the essential instrument of all benedictions, the
object is clearly to establish its potency against evil spirits.
First the " creature of salt " is exorcized, " that . . . thou
mayest be to all who take thee health of body and soul; that
wherever thou art sprinkled every phantasy and wickedness and
wile of diabolic deceit may flee and leave that place, and every
unclean spirit "; a prayer to God for the blessing of the salt
follows; then the " creature of water " is exorcized, " that thou
mayest become exorcized water for the purpose of putting to
flight every power of the enemy, that thou mayest avail to uproot
and expel this enemy with all his apostate angels, by the virtue
of the same our Lord Jesus Christ, &c."; and again a prayer
to God follows that the water may " become a creature in the
service of His mysteries, for the driving out of demons, &c."
In the formulae of blessings that follow, the special efficacy
against devils is implied by the aspersion with holy water; the
benedictions themselves are usually merely invocative of the
divine protection or assistance, though, e.g., in the form for
blessing sick animals the priest prays that " all diabolic power in
them may be destroyed, and that they may be ill no longer." It
is to be remarked that the " laying on of hands," which in the Old
and the New Testament alike is the usual "form " of blessing, is not
used in liturgical benedictions, the priest being directed merely
to extend his right hand towards the person to be blessed. The
appendix de Benediclionibus to the Rituale Romanum contains
formulae, often of much simple beauty, for blessing all manner of
persons and things, from the congregation as a whole and sick
men and women, to railways, ships, blast-furnaces, lime-kilns,
articles of food, medicine and medical bandages and all manner
of domestic animals.
The Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, commonly called
simply " Benediction " (Fr. salut, Ger. Segen), is one of the
most popular of the services of the Roman Catholic Church. It
is usually held in the afternoon or evening, sometimes at the
conclusion of Vespers, Compline or the Stations of the Cross,
and consists in the singing of certain hymns and canticles, more
particularly the O salutaris hostia and the Tantum ergo, before
the host, which is exposed on the altar in a monstrance and
surrounded by not less than ten lighted candles. Often litanies
and hymns to the Virgin are added. At the conclusion the priest,
his shoulders wrapped in the humeral veil, takes the monstrance
and with it makes the sign of the cross over the kneeling con-
gregation, whence the name Benediction. The service, the details
of which vary in different countries, is of comparatively modern
origin. Father Thurston traces it to a combination in the i6th
and 1 7th centuries of customs that had their origin in the i3th,
i.e. certain gild services in honour of the Blessed Virgin, and
the growing habit, resulting naturally from the doctrine of
transubstantiation, of ascribing a supreme virtue to the act of
looking on the Holy Sacrament.
In the reformed Churches the word " benediction " is techni-
cally confined to the blessing with which the priest or minister
dismisses the congregation at the close of the service.
See the article " Benediktionen," by E. C. Achelis in Herzog-
Hauck, Realencyklopadie (Leipzig, 1897) ; The Catholic Encyclo-
paedia (London and New York, 1908) s. " Blessing," by P. Morrisroe,
and " Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament," by Herbert Thurston,
S.J. ; in all of which further authorities are cited.
BENEDICTUS, the hymn of Zacharias (Luke i. 68 sqq.), so
called from the opening word of the Latin version. The hymn
has been used in Christian worship since at least the pth century,
and was adopted into the Anglican'Order of Morning Prayer from
the Roman service of matin-lauds. In the Prayer-Book of 1549
there was no alternative to the Benedictus; it was to be used
" throughout the whole year." In 1552 the Jubilate was inserted
without any restriction as to how often it should take the place of
the Benedictus. Such restriction is clearly implied in the words
" except when that (Benedictus) shall happen to be read in the
chapter for the day, or for the Gospel on Saint John Baptist's
day," which were inserted in 1662. The rubric of 1532 had this
curious wording: " And after the Second Lesson shall be used
and said, Benedictus in English, as followeth."
The name is also given to a part of the Roman Catholic mass
service beginning Benedictus qui venit.
BENEDICTUS ABBAS (d. 1194), abbot of Peterborough, whose
name is accidentally connected with the Gesta Henrici Regis
Secundi, one of the most valuable of English 12th-century
chronicles. He first makes his appearance in 1174, as the
chancellor of Archbishop Richard, the successor of Becket in
the primacy. In 1175 Benedictus became prior of Holy Trinity,
Canterbury; in 1177 he received from Henry II. the abbacy of
Peterborough, which he held until his death. As abbot he
distinguished himself by his activity in building, in administering
the finances of his house and in collecting a library. He is
described in the Chronicon Petroburgense as " blessed both in name
and deed." He belonged to the circle of Becket's admirers, and
wrote two works dealing with the martyrdom and the miracles of
his hero. Fragments of the former work have come down to us
in the compilation known as the Quadrilogus, which is printed in
the fourth volume of J. C. Robertson's Materials for the History
BENEDIX BENEFICE
725
of Thomas Becket (Rolls series) ; the miracles are extant in their
entirety, and are printed in the second volume of the same
collection. Benedictus has been credited with the authorship
of the Gesta Henrici on the ground that his name appears in the
title of the oldest manuscript. We have, however, conclusive
evidence that Benedictus merely caused this work to be tran-
scribed for the Peterborough library. It is only through the force
of custom that the work is still occasionally cited under the name
of Benedictus. The question of authorship has been discussed
by Sir T. D. Hardy, Bishop Stubbs and Professor Liebermann;
but the results of the discussion are negative. Stubbs conjectur-
ally identified the first part of the Gesta (1170-1177) with the
Liber Tricolumnis, a register of contemporary events kept by
Richard Fitz Neal (q.v.), the treasurer of Henry II. and author of
the Dialogus de Scaccario; the latter part (1177-1192) was by
the same authority ascribed to Roger of Hoveden, who makes
large use of the Gesta in his own chronicle, copying them with
few alterations beyond the addition of some documents. This
theory, so far as concerns the Liber Tricolumnis, is rejected by
Liebermann and the most recent editors of the Dialogus (A.
Hughes, C. G. Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford, 1902). We can
only say that the Gesta are the work of a well-informed con-
temporary who appears to have been closely connected with the
court and is inclined on all occasions to take the side of Henry II.
The author confines himself to the external history of events, and
his tone is strictly impersonal. He incorporates some official
documents, and in many places obviously derives his information
from others which he does not quote. There is a break in his work
at the year 1177, where the earliest manuscript ends; but the
reasons which have been given to prove that the authorship
changes at this point are inconclusive. The work begins at
Christmas 1169, and concludes in 1192; it is thus in form a
fragment, covering portions of the reign of Henry II. and
Richard I.
See W. Stubbs' Gesta regis Henrici Secundi Benedicti abbatis
(2 vols.. Rolls series, 1867), and particularly the preface to the first
volume; F. Liebermann in Einleitung in den Dialogus de Scaccario
(Gottingen, 1875) ' ' n Ostenglische Geschichtsquellen (Hanover, 1892) ;
and in Pertz's Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Scriptores, vol. xxvii.
pp. 82, 83; also the introduction to the Dialogus de Scaccario in
the Oxford edition of 1902. , (H. W. C. D.)
BENEDIX, JULIUS RODERICK (1811-1873), German
dramatist and librettist, was born at Leipzig on the 2ist of
January 1811, and was educated at the Thomasschule at Leipzig.
He joined the stage in 1831, his first engagement being with the
travelling company of H. E. Bethmann in Dessau, Cothen,
Bernburg and Meiningen. Subsequently he was tenor in several
theatres in Westphalia and on the Rhine, and became manager
of the theatre at Wesel, where he produced a comedy, Das
bemooste Haupt (1841), which met with great success. After an
engagement in Cologne, he managed the new theatre at Elberfeld
(1844-1845) and in 1849 was appointed teacher on the staff of
the Rhenish school of music in Cologne. In 1855 he was
appointed intendant of the municipal theatre in Frankfort-on-
Main, but retired in 1861, and died in Leipzig on the 26th of
September 1873. Benedix's comedies, the scenes of which are
mostly laid in upper middle-class life, still enjoy some popularity;
the best-known are: Dr Wespe; Die Hochzeitsreise; Der Vetter;
Das Gefangnis; Das Lugen; Ein Lusts piel; Der Storenfried;
Die Dienslbolen; Aschenbrodel; Die ziirllichen Venvandten.
The chief characteristics of his farces are a clear plot and bright,
easy and natural dialogue. Among his more serious works are:
Bilder aus dem Schauspielerleben (Leipzig, 1847); Der miindliche
Vortrag (Leipzig, 1859-1860) ; Das Wesen des deutschen Rhythmus
(Leipzig, 1862) and, posthumously, Die Shakespearomanie (1873),
in which he attacks the extreme adoration of the British poet.
Benedix's Gesammelte dramatische Werke appeared in 27 vols.
(Leipzig, 1846-1875); a selection under the title Volkstheater in
20 vols. (Leipzig, 1882) ; and a collection of smaller comedies as
Haustheater in 2 vols. (loth ed., Leipzig, 1891); see Benedix's
autobiography in the Gartenlaube for 1871.
BENEFICE (Lat. beneficium, benefit), a term first applied
under the Roman empire to portions of land, the usufruct of
which was granted by the emperors to their soldiers or others
for life, as a reward or beneficium for past services, and as a
retainer for future services. A list of all such beneficia was
recorded in the Book of Benefices (Liber Beneficiorum), which was
kept by the principal registrar of benefices (Primiscrinius Bene-
ficiorum) . In imitation of the practice observed under the Roman
empire, the term came to be applied under the feudal system
to portions of land granted by a lord to his vassal for the main-
tenance of the latter on condition of his rendering military
service; and such grants were originally for life only, and the
land reverted to the lord on the death of the vassal. In a
similar manner grants of land, or of the profits of land, appear
to have been made by the bishops to their clergy for life, on the
ground of some extraordinary merit on the part of the grantee.
The validity of such grants was first formally recognized by the
council of Orleans, A.D. 511, which forbade, however, under any
circumstances, the alienation from the bishoprics of any lands so
granted. The next following council of Orleans, 533, broke in
upon this principle, by declaring that a bishop could not reclaim
from his clergy any grants made to them by his predecessor,
excepting in cases of misconduct. This innovation on the ancient
practice was confirmed by the subsequent council of Lyons, 566,
and from this period these grants ceased to be regarded as
personal, and their substance became annexed to the churches,
in other words, they were henceforth enjoyed jure tituli, and no
longer jure personali. How and when the term beneficia came
to be applied to these episcopal grants is uncertain, but they are
designated by that term in a canon of the council of Mainz,
813-
The term benefice, according to the canon law, implies always
an ecclesiastical office, propter quod beneficium datur, but it does
not always imply a cure of souls. It has been defined to be the
right which a clerk has to enjoy certain ecclesiastical revenues
on condition of discharging certain services prescribed by the
canons, or by usage, or by the conditions under which his office
has been founded. These services might be those of a secular
priest with cure of souls, or they might be those of a regular
priest, a member of a religious order, without cure of souls;
but in every case a benefice implied three things: (i) An
obligation to discharge the duties of an office, which is altogether
spiritual; (2) The right to enjoy the fruits attached to that
office, which is the benefice itself; (3) The fruits themselves,
which are the temporalities. By keeping these distinctions in
view, the right of patronage in the case of secular benefices
becomes intelligible, being in fact the right, which was originally
vested in the donor of the temporalities, to present to the bishop
a clerk to be admitted, if found fit by the bishop, to the office to
which those temporalities are annexed. Nomination or presenta-
tion on the part of the patron of the benefice is thus the first
requisite in order that a clerk should become legally entitled
to a benefice. The next requisite is that he should be admitted
by the bishop as a fit person for the spiritual office to which the
benefice is annexed, and the bishop is the judge of the sufficiency
of the clerk to be so admitted. By the early constitutions of the
Church of England a bishop was allowed a space of two months
to inquire and inform himself of the sufficiency of every pre-
sentee, but by the ninety-fifth of the canons of 1604 that interval
has been abridged to twenty-eight days, within which the bishop
must admit or reject the clerk. If the bishop rejects the clerk
within that time he is liable to a duplex querela in the eccle-
siastical courts, or to a quart impedit in the common law courts,
and the bishop must then certify the reasons of his refusal.
In cases where the patron is himself a clerk in orders, and wishes
to be admitted to the benefice, he must proceed by way of petition
instead of by deed of presentation, reciting that the benefice is
in his own patronage, and petitioning the bishop to examine
him and admit him. Upon the bishop having satisfied himself
of the sufficiency of the clerk, he proceeds to institute him to the
spiritual office to which the benefice is annexed, but before such
institution can take place, the clerk is required to make a declara-
tion of assent to the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion and to the
Book of Common Prayer according to a form prescribed in the
Clerical Subscription Act 1865, to make a declaration against
726
BENEFICIARY BENEKE
simony in accordance with that act, and to take and subscribe
the oath of allegiance according to the form in the Promissory
Oaths Act 1868. The bishop, by the act of institution, commits
to the clerk the cure of souls attached to the office to which the
benefice is annexed. In cases where the bishop himself is patron
of the benefice, no presentation or petition is required to be
tendered by the clerk, but the bishop having satisfied himself
of the sufficiency of the clerk, collates him to the benefice and
office. It is not necessary that the bishop himself should person-
ally institute or collate a clerk; he may issue a fiat to his vicar-
general, or to a special commissary for that purpose. After the
bishop or his commissary has instituted the presentee, he issues
a mandate under seal, addressed to the archdeacon or some
other neighbouring clergyman, authorizing him to induct the
clerk into his benefice, in other words, to put him into legal
possession of the temporalities, which is done by some outward
form, and for the most part by delivery of the bell-rope to
the clerk, who thereupon tolls the bell. This form of induction
is required to give the clerk a legal title to his beneficium,
although bis admission to the office by institution is sufficient
to vacate any other benefice which he may already possess.
By a decree of the Lateran council of 1215, which was en-
forced in England, no clerk can hold two benefices with cure of
souls, and if a beneficed clerk shall take a second benefice with
cure of souls, he vacates ipso facto his first benefice. Dispensa-
tions, however, could be easily obtained from Rome, before the
reformation of the Church of England, to enable a clerk to hold
several ecclesiastical dignities or benefices at the same time, and
by the Peterpence, Dispensations, &c. Act 1534, the power to
grant such dispensations, which had been exercised previously
by the court of Rome, was transferred to the archbishop of
Canterbury, certain ecclesiastical persons having been declared
by a previous statute (1529) to be entitled to such dispensations.
The system of pluralities carried with it, as a necessary con-
sequence, systematic non-residence on the part of many incum-
bents, and delegation of their spiritual duties in respect of their
cures of souls to assistant curates. The evils attendant on this
system were found to be so great that the Pluralities Act 1838
was passed to abridge the holding of benefices in plurality,
and it was enacted that no person should hold under any
circumstances more than two benefices, and this privilege
was made subject to the restriction that his benefices were
within ten statute miles of each other. By the Pluralities Act
1850, the restriction was further narrowed, so that no spiritual
person could hold two benefices except the churches of such
benefices were within three miles of each other by the nearest
road, and the annual value of one of such benefices did not
exceed 100. By this statute the term benefice is defined to
mean benefice with cure of souls and* no other, and therein to
comprehend all parishes, perpetual curacies, donatives, endowed
public chapels, parochial chapelries and chapelries or districts
belonging or reputed to belong, or annexed or reputed to be
annexed, to any church or chapel. The Pluralities Acts Amend-
ment Act 1885, however, enacted that, by dispensation from the
archbishop, two benefices could be held together, the churches
of which are within four miles of each other, and the annual value
of one of which does not exceed 200.
All benefices except those under the clear annual value of 50
pay their first fruits (one year's profits) and tenths (of yearly
profits) to Queen Anne's Bounty for the augmentation of the
maintenance of the poorer clergy. Their profits during vacation
belong to the next incumbent. Tithe rent charge attached to a
benefice is relieved from payment of one-half of the agricultural
rates assessed thereon. Benefices may be exchanged by agree-
ment between incumbents with the consent of the ordinary, and
they may, with the consent of the patron and ordinary, be united
or dissolved after being united. They may also be charged with
the repayment of money laid out for their permanent advantage,
and be augmented wholly by the medium of Queen Anne's
Bounty.
A benefice is avoided or vacated (i) by death; (2) by resigna-
tion, if the bishop is willing to accept the resignation: by the In-
cumbents' Resignation Act 1871, AmendmentAct i88y,anyclergy-
man who has been an incumbent of one benefice continuously for
seven years, and is incapacitated by permanent mental or bodily
infirmities from fulfilling his duties, may, if the bishop thinks fit,
have a commission appointed to consider the fitness of his
resigning; and if the commission report in favour of his resign-
ing, he may, with the consent of the patron (or, if that is refused,
with the consent of the archbishop) resign the cure of souls into
the bishop's hands, and have assigned to him, out of the benefice,
a retiring-pension not exceeding one-third of its annual value,
which is recoverable as a debt from his successor; (3) by cession,
upon the clerk being instituted to another benefice or some other
preferment incompatible with it; (4) by deprivation and sentence
of an ecclesiastical court; under the Clergy Discipline Act 1892,
an incumbent who has been convicted of offences against the law
of bastardy, or against whom judgment has been given in a
divorce or matrimonial cause, is deprived, and on being found
guilty in the consistory court of immorality or ecclesiastical
offences (not in respect of doctrine or ritual) , he may be deprived
or suspended or declared incapable of preferment; (5) by act of
law in consequence of simony; (6) by default of the clerk in
neglecting to read publicly in the church the Book of Common
Prayer, and to declare his assent thereto within two months after
his induction, pursuant to an act of 1662.
See also ADVOWSON; GLEBE; INCUMBENT; VICAR; also Philli-
more, Eccles. Law; Cripps, Law of Church and Clergy.
BENEFICIARY (from Lat. beneficium, a benefit), in law, one
who holds a benefice; one who is beneficially entitled to, or
interested in, property, i.e. entitled to it for his own benefit, and
not merely holding it for others, as does an executor or trustee.
In this latter sense it is nearly equivalent to cestui que trust, a
term which it is gradually superseding in modern law.
BENEKE, FRIEDRICH EDUARD (1798-1854), German
psychologist, was born at Berlin on the I7th of February 1798,
studied at the universities of Halle and Berlin, and served as a
volunteer in the war of 1815. After studying theology under
Schleiennacher and De Wette, he turned to pure philosophy,
studying particularly English writers and the German modifiers
of Kantianism, such as Jacobi, Fries and Schopenhauer. In 1820
he published his Erkenntnisslehre, his Erfahrungsseelenlehre als
Grundlage alles Wissens, and his inaugural dissertation De Veris
Philosophiae Initiis. His marked opposition to the philosophy
of Hegel, then dominant in Berlin, was shown more clearly in the
short tract, Neue Crundlegung zur Metaphysik (1822), intended
to be the programme for his lectures as privat-docent, and in the
able treatise, Grundlcgungzur Pliysik der Sitlen (1822), written, in
direct antagonism to Kant's Metaphysic of Ethics, to deduce
ethical principles from a basis of empirical feeling. In 1822 his
lectures were prohibited at Berlin, according to his own belief
through the influence of Hegel with the Prussian authorities, who
also prevented him from obtaining a chair from the Saxon
government. He retired to Gottingen, lectured there for some
years, and was then allowed to return to Berlin. In 1832 he
received an appointment as professor extraordinarius in the
university, which he continued to hold till his death. On the ist
of March 1854 he disappeared, and more than two years later his
remains were found in the canal near Charlottenburg. There was
some suspicion that he had committed suicide in a fit of mental
depression.
The distinctive peculiarity of Beneke's system consists, first,
in the firmness with which he maintained that in empirical
psychology is to be found the basis of all philosophy; and
secondly, in his rigid treatment of mental phenomena by the
genetic method. According to him, the perfected mind is a
development from simple elements, and the first problem of
philosophy is the determination of these elements and of the
processes by which the development takes place. In his Neuc
Psychologic (essays iii., viii. and ix.), he defined his position with
regard to his predecessors and contemporaries, and both there
and in the introduction to his Lehrbuch signalized as the two great
stages in the progress of psychology the negation of innate ideas
by Locke, and of faculties, in the ordinary acceptation of the
BENETT BENEVENTO
727
term, by Herbart. The next step was his own; he insisted that
psychology must be treated as one of the natural sciences. As is
the case with them, its content is given by experience alone, and
differs from theirs only in being the object of the internal as
opposed to the external sense. But by this Beneke in no wise
meant a psychology founded on physiology. These two sciences,
in his opinion, had quite distinct provinces and gave no mutual
assistance. Just as little help is to be expected from the science
of the body as from mathematics and metaphysics, both of which
had been pressed by Herbart into the service of psychology. ' The
true method of study is that applied with so much success in the
physical sciences critical examination of the given experience,
and reference of it to ultimate causes, which may not be themselves
perceived, but are nevertheless hypotheses necessary to account
for the facts. (See on method, Neue Psych., essay i.)
Starting from the two assumptions that there is nothing, or at
least no formed product, innate in the mind, and that definite
faculties do noworiginally exist, and from the fact that our minds
nevertheless actually have a definite content and definite modes of
action, Beneke proceeds to state somewhat dogmatically his scien-
tifically verifiable hypotheses as to the primitive condition of the
soul and the laws according to which it develops. Originally the
soul is possessed of or is an immense variety of powers, faculties or
forces (conceptions which Beneke, in opposition to Herbart, holds to
be metaphysically justifiable), differing from one another only in
tenacity, vivacity, receptivity and grouping. These primitive im-
material forces, so closely united as to form but one being (essence),
acquire definiteness or form through the action upon them of stimuli
or excitants from the outer world. This action of external impres-
sions which are appropriated by the internal powers is the first
fundamental process in the genesis of the completed mind._ If the
union of impression and faculty be sufficiently strong, consciousness
(not ie//-consciousness) arises, and definite sensations and perceptions
begin to be formed. These primitive sensations, however, are not
to be identified with the sensations of the special senses, for each of
these senses is a system of many powers which have grown into a
definite unity, have been educated by experience. From ordinary
experience it must be concluded that a second fundamental process
is incessantly going on, viz. the formation of new powers, which
takes place principally during sleep. The third and most important
process results from the fact that the combination between stimulus
and power may be weak or strong; if weak, then the two elements
are said to be movable, and they may flow over from one to another
of the already formed psychical products. Any formed faculty
does not cease to exist on the removal of its stimulus; in virtue of
its fundamental property, tenacity, it sinks back as a trace (Spur)
into unconsciousness, whence it may be recalled by the application
to it of another stimulus, or by the attraction towards it of some
of the movable elements or newly-formed original powers. These
traces and the flowing over of the movable elements are the most
important conceptions in Beneke's psychology; by means of them
he gives a rationale of reproduction and association, and strives to
show that all the formed faculties are simply developments from
traces of earlier processes. Lastly, similar forms, according to the
degree of their similarity, attract one another or tend to form closer
combinations.
All psychical phenomena are explicable by the relation of impres-
sion and power, and by the flow of movable elements; the whole
process of mental development is nothing but the result of the action
and interaction of the above simple laws. In general this growth
may be said to take the direction of rendering more and more definjte
by repetition and attraction of like to like the originally indefinite
activities of the primary faculties. Thus the sensations of the
special senses are gradually formed from the primary sensuous feel-
ings (sinnliche Empfindungen) ; concepts are formed from intuitions
of individuals by the attraction of the common elements, and
the consequent flow towards them of movable forms. Judgment is
the springing into consciousness of a concept alongside of an in-
tuition, or of a higher concept alongside of a lower. Reasoning is
merely a more complex judgment. Nor are there special faculties
of judging or reasoning. The understanding is simply the mass of
concepts lying in the background of unconsciousness, ready to be
called up and to flow with force towards anything closely connected
with them. Even memory is not a special faculty ; it is simply the
fundamental property of tenacity possessed by the original faculties.
The very distinction between the great classes, Knowledge, Feeling
and Will, may be referred to elementary differences in the original
relations of faculty and impression.
This is the groundwork of Beneke's philosophy. It should be
carefully compared with the association psychology of modern
British thinkers, most of whose results and processes will be found
there worked into a comprehensive system (see ASSOCIATION^ OF
IDEAS). In logic, metaphysics and ethics Beneke's speculations
are naturally dependent on his psychology.
The special value of Beneke s works, as has been already said,
consists in the many specimens of acute psychological analysis
scattered throughout them. As a complete explanation of psychical
facts, the theory seems defective. The original hypotheses, peculiar
to Beneke, on which the whole depends, are hastily assumed and
rest on a clumsy mechanical metaphor. As is the cane with all
empirical theories of mental development, the higher categories
or notions, which are apparently shown to result from the simple
elements, are really presupposed at every step. Particularly un-
satisfactory js the account of consciousness, which is said to arise
from the union of impression and faculty. The necessity of con-
sciousness for any mental action whatsoever is apparently granted,
but the conditions involved in it are never discussed or mentioned.
The same defect appears in the account of ethical judgment; no
amount of empirical fact can ever yield the notion of absolute duty.
His results have found acceptance mainly with practical teachers.
Undoubtedly his minute analysis of temperament and careful
exposition of the means whereby the young, unformed mind may be
trained are of infinite value; but the truth of many of his doctrines
on these points lends no support to the fundamental hypotheses,
from which, indeed, they might be almost entirely severed.
Beneke was a most prolific writer, and besides the works mentioned
above, published large treatises in the several departments of
philosophy, both pure and as applied to education and ordinary
life. A complete list of his writings will be found in the appendix
to Dressler's edition of the Lehrbuch der Psychologie als Naturwissen-
schaft ( 1 86 1 ) . The chief are -.Psychologische Skizxen ( 1 825, 1 827) ;
Lehrbuch der Psychologie (1832); Metaphysik und Religion sphilo-
sophie (1840); Die neue Psychologie (1845); Pragmattsche Pty-
chologie oder Seelenlehre in der Anviendung auf das Leben (1832).
Among German writers, who, though not professed followers of
Beneke, have been largely influenced by him, may be mentioned
Ueberweg and Karl Fortlage (1806-1881). In England, perhaps,
the only writer who shows traces of acquaintance with his works
is J. D. Morell (Introd. to Mental Philosophy). The most eminent
members of the school are J. G. Dressier (whose Beneke oder Seelen-
lehre als Naturwissenschaft is an admirable exposition), Fried. Dittes
and G. Raue. The compendium by the last-named author passed
through four editions in Germany, and has been translated into
French, Flemish and English. The English translation. Elements
of Psychology (1871), gives a lucid and succinct view of the whole
system.
Among more recent works on Beneke are O. E. Hummel, Die
Unterricntslehre Benekes (Leipzig, 1885) ; on his ethical theory, C. H.
Th. Kiihn, Die Sittenlehre F. E. Benekes (1892); Joh. Friedrich.
F. E. Beneke (Wiesbaden, 1898, with biography and list of works);
Otto Gramzow, F. E. Benekes Leben und Philos. (Bern, 1899, with
full bibliography) ; on his theory of knowledge, H. Renner, Benekes
Erkenntnistheone (Halle, 1902); on his metaphysics, Die Metaphysik
Benekes, by A. Wandschneider (Berlin, 1903); Brandt, Beneke,
the Man and His Philosophy (New York, 1895) ; Falckenberg, Hist,
of Phil. (Eng. trans., 1895); and H. Hoffding, Hist, of Mod. Phil.
vol. ii. (Eng. trans., 1900). (R. AD.)
BENETT, ETHELDRED (1776-1845), one of the earliest of
English women geologists, the second daughter of Thomas
Benett, of Pyt House near Tisbury, was born in 1776. Later
she resided at Norton House, near Warminster, in Wiltshire,
and for more than a quarter of a century devoted herself to
collecting and studying the fossils of her native county. She
contributed " A Catalogue of the Organic Remains of the County
of Wilts " to Sir R. C. Hoare's County History, and a limited
number of copies of this work were printed as a separate volume
(1831) and privately distributed. She died on the nth of
January 1845.
BENEVENTO, a town and archiepiscopal see of Campania,
Italy, capital of the province of Benevcnto, 60 m. by rail and
32 m. direct N.E. of Naples, situated on a hill 400 ft. above
sea-level at the confluence of the Calore and Sabbato. Pop.
(1901) town, 17,227; commune, 24,137. It occupies the site of
the ancient Beneventum, originally Maleventum or Maluentum,
supposed in the imperial period to have been founded by Dio-
medes. It was the chief town of the Samnites, who took refuge
here after their defeat by the Romans in 314 B.C. It appears not
to have fallen into the hands of the latter until Pyrrhus's absence
in Sicily, but served them as a base of operations in the last
campaign against him in 275 B.C. A Latin colony was planted
there in 268 B.C., and it was then that the name was changed for
the sake of the omen, and probably then that the Via Appia was
extended from Capua to Beneventum. It remained in the hands
of the Romans during both the Punic and the Social Wars, and
was a fortress of importance to them. The position is strong,
being protected by the two rivers mentioned, and the medieval
fortifications, which are nearly 2 m. in length, probably follow
the ancient line, which was razed to the ground by Totila in
728
BENEVOLENCE BENFEY
A.D. 542. After the Social War it became a municipium and
under Augustus a colony. Being a meeting point of six main
roads, 1 it was much visited by travellers. Its importance is
vouched for by the many remains of antiquity which it possesses,
of which the most famous is the triumphal arch erected in honour
of Trajan by the senate and people of Rome in A.D. 114, with
important reliefs relating to its history (E. Petersen in
Romische Mitleilungen, 1892, 241; A. von Domaszewzki in
Jahreshefte des Osterreich. archaologischenlnstituts, ii., 1899, 173).
There are also considerable remains of the ancient theatre, a
large cryptoporticus 197 ft. long known as the ruins of Santi
Quaranta, and probably an emporium (according to Meomartini,
the portion preserved is only a fraction of the whole, which once
measured 1791 ft. in length) and an ancient brick arch (called
the Arco del Sacramento), while below the town is the Ponte
Lebroso, a bridge of the Via Appia over the Sabbato, and along
the road to Avellino are remains of thermae. Many inscriptions
and ancient fragments may be seen built into the houses; in
front of the Madonna delle Grazie is a bull in red Egyptian
granite, and in the Piazza Papiniano the fragments of two
Egyptian obelisks erected in A.D. 88 in front of the temple of
Isis in honour of Domitian. In 1903 the foundations of this
temple were discovered close to the Arch of Trajan, and many
fragments of fine sculptures in both the Egyptian and the
Greco-Roman style belonging to it were found. They had
apparently been used as the foundation of a portion of the city
wall, reconstructed in A.D. 663 under the fear of an attack by
Constans, the Byzantine emperor, the temple having been
destroyed under the influence of the bishop, St Barbatus, to
provide the necessary material (A. Meomartini, 0. Marucchi
and L. Savignoni in Notizie degli Scam, 1904, 107 sqq.). Not
long after it had been sacked by Totila Benevento became the
seat of a powerful Lombard duchy and continued to be inde-
pendent until 1053, when the emperor Henry III. ceded it to
Leo IX. in exchange for the bishopric of Bamberg; and it
continued to be a papal possession until 1806, when Napoleon
granted it to Talleyrand with the title of prince. In 1815 it
returned to the papacy, but was united to Italy in 1 860. Manfred
lost his life in 1 266 in battle with Charles of Anjou not far from
the town. Much damage has been done by earthquakes from
time to time. The church of S. Sofia, a circular edifice of about
760, now modernized, the roof of which is supported by six
ancient columns, is a relic of the Lombard period; it has a fine
cloister of the i2th century constructed in part of fragments of
earlier buildings; while the cathedral with its fine arcaded
facade and incomplete square campanile (begun in 1279) dates
from the gth century and was rebuilt in 1 1 14. The bronze doors,
adorned with bas-reliefs, are good; they may belong to the
beginning of the I3th century. The interior is in the form of a
basilica, the double aisles being borne by ancient columns, and
contains ambones and a candelabrum of 1311, the former resting
on columns supported by lions, and decorated with reliefs and
coloured marble mosaic. The castle at the highest point of the
town was erected in the I4th century.
Benevento is a station on the railway from Naples to Foggia,
and has branch lines to Campobasso and to Avellino.
See A. Meomartini, Monumenti e opere d'Arte di Benevento (Bene-
vento, 1899); T. Ashby, Melanges de I'ecole fran^aise, 1903, 416.
BENEVOLENCE (Lat. bene, well, and -nolens, wishing), a term
for an act of kindness, or a gift of money, or goods, but used in a
special sense to indicate sums of money, disguised as gifts, which
were extorted by various English kings from their subjects,
without consent of parliament. Among the numerous methods
which have been adopted by sovereigns everywhere to obtain
support from their people, that of demanding gifts has frequently
found a place, and consequently it is the word and not the method
which is peculiar to English history. Edward II. and Richard II.
1 These were (l) the prolongation of the Via Appia from Capua,
) its continuation to Tarentum and Brundisium, of which there
were two different lines between Beneventum and Aquilonia at
different dates (see APPIA, VIA), (3) the Via Traiana to Brundisium
by Herdoniae, (4) the road to Telesia and Aesernia, (5) the road
to Aesernia by Bovianum, (6) the road to Abellinum and Salernum.
had obtained funds by resorting to forced loans, a practice which
was probably not unusual in earlier times. Edward IV., however,
discarded even the pretence of repayment, and in 1473 the word
benevolence was first used with reference to a royal demand for a
gift. Edward was very successful in these efforts, and as they
only concerned a limited number of persons he did not incur
serious unpopularity. But when Richard III. sought to emulate
his brother's example, protests were made which led to the
passing of an act of parliament in 1484 abolishing benevolences
as " new and unlawful inventions." About the same time the
Chronicle of Croyland referred to a benevolence as a " nova et
inaudita impositio muneris ut per benevolentiam quilibet daret
id quod vellet, immo verius quod nollet." In spite of this act
Richard demanded a further benevolence; but it was Henry VII.
who made the most extensive use of this system. In 1491 he sent
out commissioners to obtain gifts of money, and in 1496 an act
of parliament enforced payment of the sums promised on this
occasion under penalty of imprisonment. ' Henry's chancellor,
Cardinal Mprton, archbishop of Canterbury, was the traditional
author of a method of raising money by benevolences known as
" Morton's Fork." If a man lived economically, it was reasoned
he was saving money and could afford a present for the king. If,
on the contrary, he lived sumptuously, he was evidently wealthy
and could likewise afford a gift. Henry VII. obtained consider-
able sums of money in this manner; and in 1545 Henry VIII.
demanded a " loving contribution " from all who possessed lands
worth not less than forty shillings a year, or chattels to the value
of 15; and those who refused to make payment were summoned
before the privy council and punished. Elizabeth took loans
which were often repaid; and in 1614 James I. ordered the
sheriffs and magistrates in each county and borough to collect a
general benevolence from all persons of ability, and with some
difficulty about 40,000 was collected. Four counties had, how-
ever, distinguished themselves by protests against this demand,
and the act of Richard III. had been cited by various objectors.
Representatives from the four counties were accordingly called
before the privy council, where Sir Edward Coke defended the
action of the king, quoted the Tudor precedents and urged that
the act of 1484 was to prevent exactions, not voluntary gifts such
as James had requested. Subsequently Oliver St John was fined
and imprisoned for making a violent protest against the bene-
volence,and on the occasion of his trial Sir Francis Bacon defended
the request for money as voluntary. Ini6i5an attempt to exact
a benevolence in Ireland failed, and in 1620 it was decided to
demand one for the defence of the Palatinate. Circular letters
were sent out, punishments were inflicted, but many excuses were
made and only about 34,000 was contributed. In 1621 afurther
attempt was made, judges of assize and others were ordered to
press for contributions, and wealthy men were called before the
privy council and asked to name a sum at which to be rated.
About 88,000 was thus raised, and in 1622 William Fiennes, ist
Viscount Saye and Sele, was imprisoned for six months for
protesting. This was the last time benevolences were actually
collected, although in 1622 and 1625 it was proposed to raise
money in this manner. In 1633 Charles I. consented to collect
a benevolence for the recovery of the Palatinate for Charles
Louis, the son of his sister Elizabeth, but no further steps were
taken to carry out the project.
See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England, vol. iii. (Oxford,
1895) ; H. Hallam, Constitutional History of England, vol. i. (London,
'855); T. P. Taswell-Langmead, English Constitutional History
(London, 1896) ; S. R. Gardiner, History of England, passim (London,
1893).
BENFEY, THEODOR (1809-1881), German philologist, son of
a Jewish trader at Norten, near Gottingen, was born on the 28th
of January 1809. Although originally designed for the medical
profession, his taste for philology was awakened by a careful
instruction in Hebrew which he received from his father. After
brilliant studies at Gottingen he spent a year at Munich, where
he was greatly impressed by the lectures of Schelling and Thiersch,
and afterwards settled as a teacher in Frankfort. His pursuits
were at first chiefly classical, and his attention was diverted to
Sanskrit by an accidental wager that he would learn enough of
BENGAL
729
the language in a few weeks to be able to review a new book upon
it. This feat he accomplished, and rivalled in later years when
he learned Russian in order to translate V. P. Vasilev's work on
Buddhism. For the time, however, his labours were chiefly in
classical and Semitic philology. At G6ttingen, whither he had
returned as privat-docent, he wrote a little work on the names of
the Hebrew months, proving that they were derived from the
Persian, prepared the great article on India in Ersch and Grtiber's
Encyclopaedia, and published from 1839 to 1842 the Lexicon of
Greek Roots which gained him the Volney prize of the Institute
of France. From this time his attention was principally given
to Sanskrit. He published in 1848 his edition of the Sama-veda;
in 1852-1854 his Manual of Sanskrit, comprising a grammar and
chrestomathy; in 1858 his practical Sanskrit grammar, after-
wards translated into English; and in 1859 his edition of the
Panlscha Tantra, with an extensive dissertation on the fables
and mythologies of primitive nations. All these works had been
produced under the pressure of poverty, the government,
whether from parsimony or from prejudice against a Jew,
refusing to make any substantial addition to his small salary
as extra-professor at the university. At length, in 1862, the
growing appreciation of foreign scholars shamed it into making
him an ordinary professor, and in 1866 Benfey published the
laborious work by which he is on the whole best known, his
great Sanskrit-English Dictionary. In 1869 he wrote a history
of German philological research, especially Oriental, during the
igth century. In 1878 his jubilee as doctor was celebrated by
the publication of a volume of philological essays dedicated to
him and written by the first scholars in Germany. He had
designed to close his literary labours by a grammar of Vedic
Sanskrit, and was actively preparing it when he was interrupted
by illness, which terminated in his death at Gottingen on the
26th of June 1881.
A collection of his various writings was published in 1890, prefaced
by a memoir by his son.
BENGAL, a province of British India, bounded on the E. by
the province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, the boundary line
being the Madhumati river and the Ganges; on the S. by the
Bay of Bengal and Madras; on the W. by the Central Provinces
and United Provinces; and on the N. by Nepal and Sikkim.
It has an area of 141,580 sq. m. and a population of 54,096,806.
It consists of the provinces of Behar, Orissa and Chota Nagpur,
and the western portion of the Ganges valley, but without the
provinces of Northern and Eastern Bengal; and is divided into
the six British divisions of the presidency, Bhagalpur, Patna,
Burdwan, Chota Nagpur and Orissa, and various native states.
The province was reconstituted in 1905, when the Chittagong,
Dacca and Rajshahi divisions, the district of Malda and the state
of Hill Tippera were transferred from Bengal to a new province,
Eastern Bengal and Assam; the five Hindi-speaking states of
Chota Nagpur, namely Chang Bhakar, Korea, Sirguja, Udaipur
and Jashpur, were transferred from Bengal to the Central
Provinces; and Sambalpur and the five Oriya states of Bamra,
Rairakhol, Sonpur, Patna and Kalahandi were transferred from
the Central Provinces to Bengal. The province of Bengal,
therefore, now consists of the thirty-three British districts of
Burdwan, Birbhum, Bankura, Midnapore, Hugli, Howrah,
Twenty-four Parganas, Calcutta, Nadia, Murshidabad, Jessore,
Khulna, Patna, Gaya, Shahabad, Saran, Champaran, Muzaf-
farpur, Darbhanga, Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Santal
Parganas, Cuttack, Balasore, Angul and Khondmals, Puri,
Hazaribagh, Ranchi, Palamau, Manbhum, Singhbum and
Sambalpur, and the native states of Sikkim and the tributary
states of Orissa and Chota Nagpur.
The name Bengal is derived from Sanskrit geography, and
applies strictly to the country stretching southwards from
Bhagalpur to the sea. The ancient Banga formed one of the five
outlying kingdoms of Aryan India, and was practically conter-
minous with the delta of Bengal. It derived its name, according
to the etymology of the Pundits, from a prince of the Maha-
bharata, to whose portion it fell on the primitive partition of the
country among the Lunar race of Delhi. But a city called
Bangala, near Chittagong, which, although now washed away,
is supposed to have existed in the Mahommedan period, appears
to have given the name to the European world. The word
Bangala was first used by the Mussulmans; and under their rule,
like the Banga of old Sanskrit times, it applied specifically to
the Gangetic delta, although the later conquests to the east of
the Brahmaputra were eventually included within it. In their
distribution of the country for fiscal purposes, it formed the
central province of a governorship, with Behar on the north-west,
and Orissa on the south-west, jointly ruled by one deputy of the
Delhi emperor. Under the English the name has at different
periods borne very different significations. Francis Fernandez
applies it to the country from the extreme east of Chittagong
to Point Palmyras in Orissa, with a coast line which Purchas
estimates at 600 m., running inland for the same distance and
watered by the Ganges. This territory would include the
Mahommedan province of Bengal, with parts of Behar and
Orissa. The loose idea thus derived from old voyagers became
stereotyped in the archives of the East India Company. All its
north-eastern factories, from Balasore, on the Orissa coast, to
Patna, in the heart of Behar, belonged to the " Bengal Estab-
lishment," and as British conquests crept higher up the rivers,
the term came to be applied to the whole of northern India.
The presidency of Bengal, in contradistinction to those of Madras
and Bombay, eventually included all the British territories
north of the Central Provinces, from the mouths of the Ganges
and Brahmaputra to the Himalayas and the Punjab. In 1831
the North-Western Provinces were created, which are now
included with Oudh in the United Provinces; and the whole
of northern India is now divided into the four lieutenant-
governorships of the Punjab, the United Provinces, Bengal, and
Eastern Bengal and Assam, and the North- West Frontier Pro-
vince under a commissioner.
Physical Geography. Three sub-provinces of the present
lieutenant-governorship of Bengal namely, Bengal proper,
Behar and Orissa consist of great river valleys; the fourth,
Chota Nagpur, is a mountainous region which separates them
from the central India plateau. Orissa embraces the rich deltas
of the Mahanadi and the neighbouring rivers, bounded by the
Bay of Bengal on the S.E. , and walled in on the N.W. by tributary
hill states. Proceeding west, the sub-province of Bengal proper
stretches to the banks of the Ganges and inland from the sea-
board to the Himalayas. Its southern portion is formed by the
delta of the Ganges; its northern consists of the Ganges valley.
Behar lies on the north-west of Bengal proper, and comprises
the higher valley of the Ganges from the spot where it issues
from the United Provinces. Between Behar and Orissa lies the
province of Chota Nagpur, of which a portion was given in 1905
to the Central Provinces. The valley of the Ganges, which is
now divided between Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam,
is one of the most fertile and densely-populated tracts of country
in the world. It teems with every product of nature. Tea,
indigo, turmeric, lac, waving white fields of the opium-poppy,
wheat and innumerable grains and pulses, pepper, ginger, betel-
nut, quinine and many costly spices and drugs, oil-seeds of sorts,
cotton, the silk mulberry, inexhaustible crops of jute and other
fibres; timber, from the feathery bamboo and coroneted palm
to the iron-hearted sal tree in short, every vegetable product
which feeds and clothes a people, and enables it to trade with
foreign nations, abounds. Nor is the country destitute of mineral
wealth. The districts near the sea consist entirely of alluvial
formations; and, indeed, it is stated that no substance so coarse
as gravel occurs throughout the delta, or in the heart of the
provinces within 400 m. of the river mouths.
The climate varies from the snowy regions of the Himalayas
to the tropical vapour-bath of the delta and the burning winds
of Behar. The ordinary range of the thermometer aiaat ,
on the plains is from about 52 F. in the coldest
month to 103 in the shade in summer. A temperature below
60 is considered very cold, while with care the temperature of
well-built houses rarely exceeds 95 in the hot weather. The
rainfall varies from 37 in. in Behar to about 65 in. in the delta.
730
BENGAL
Lower Bengal exhibits the two typical stages in the life of a
great river. In the northern districts the rivers run along the
valleys, receive the drainage from the country on
either side, absorb broad tributaries and rush forward
with an ever-increasing volume. But near the centre of the
provinces the rivers enter upon a new stage of their career.
Their main channels bifurcate, and each new stream so created
throws off its own set of distributaries to right and left. The
country which they thus enclose and intersect forms the delta
of Bengal. Originally conquered by the fluvial deposits from the
sea, it now stretches out as a vast dead level, in which the rivers
find their velocity checked, and their current no longer able to
carry along the silt which they have brought down from northern
India. The streams, accordingly, deposit their alluvial burden
in their channels and upon their banks, so that by degrees their
beds rise above the level of the surrounding country. In this
way the rivers in the delta slowly build themselves up into
canals, which every autumn break through or overflow their
margins, and leave their silt upon the adjacent flats. Thousands
of square miles in Lower Bengal annually receive a top-dressing
of virgin soil from the Himalayas, a system of natural manuring
which renders elaborate tillage a waste of labour, and defies the
utmost power of over-cropping to exhaust its fertility. As the
rivers creep farther down the delta, they become more and
more sluggish, and their bifurcations and interlacings more com-
plicated. The last scene of all is a vast amphibious wilderness of
swamp and forest, amid whose solitudes their network of
channels insensibly merges into the sea. The rivers, finally
checked by the sea, deposit their remaining silt, which emerges
as banks or blunted promontories, or, after a year's battling
with the tide, adds a few feet or it may be a few inches to the
foreshore.
The Ganges gives to the country its peculiar character and
aspect. About 200 m. from its mouth it spreads out into
numerous branches, forming a large delta, composed, where it
borders on the sea, of a labyrinth of creeks and rivers, running
through the dense forests of the Sundarbans, and exhibiting
during the annual inundation the appearance of an immense sea.
At this time the rice fields to the extent of many hundreds of
square miles are submerged. The scene presents to a European
eye a panorama of singular novelty and interest rice fields
covered with water to a great depth; the ears of grain floating
on the surface; the stupendous embankments, which restrain
without altogether preventing the excesses of the inundations;
and peasants going out to their daily work with their cattle in
canoes or on rafts. The navigable streams which fall into the
Ganges intersect the country in every direction and afford great
facilities for internal communication. In many parts boats can
approach by means of lakes, rivulets and water-courses to the
door of almost every cottage. The lower region of the Ganges
is the richest and most productive portion of Bengal, abounding
in valuable produce. The other principal rivers in Bengal are
the Sone, Gogra, Gandak, Kusi, Tista; the Hugli, formed by the
junction of the Bhagirathi and Jalangi, and farther to the west,
the Damodar and Rupnarayan; and in the south-west, the
Mahanadi or great river of Orissa. In a level country like
Bengal, where the soil is composed of yielding and loose materials,
the courses of the rivers are continually shifting from the wearing
away of their different banks, or from the water being turned
off by obstacles in its course into a different channel. As this
channel is gradually widened the old bed of the river is left dry.
The new channel into which the river flows is of course so much
land lost, while the old bed constitutes an accession to the
adjacent estates. Thus, one man's property is diminished,
while that of another is enlarged or improved; and a distinct
branch of jurisprudence has grown up, the particular province
of which is the definition and regulation of the alluvial rights
alike of private property and of the state.
Geology. The greater part of Bengal is occupied by the
alluvial deposits of the Ganges, but in the south-west rises the
plateau of Chota Nagpur composed chiefly of gneissic rocks.
The great thickness of the Gangetic alluvium is shown by a
borehole at Calcutta which was carried to a depth of about
460 ft. below the present level of the sea without entering any
marine deposit. Over the surface of the gneissic rocks are
scattered numerous basins of Gondwana beds. Some of these
are undoubtedly faulted into their present positions, and to this
they owe their preservation. In the Rajmahal Hills basaltic
lava flows are interbedded with the Gondwana deposits, and in
the Karharbari coalfield the Gondwana beds are traversed by
dikes of mica-peridotite and basalt, which are supposed to be of
the same age as the Rajmahal lavas. The Gondwana series is
economically of great importance. It includes numerous seams
of coal, many of which are worked on an extensive scale (at
Giridih, Raniganj, &c.). The quality of the coal is good, but
unfortunately it contains a large amount of ash, the average
being as high as 17 %.
People. In the sub-provinces under the lieutenant-governor
of Bengal dwell a great congeries of peoples, of widely diverse
origin, speaking different languages and representing far
separated eras of civilization. The province, in fact, became so
unwieldy that this was the chief reason for its partition in 1905.
The people exhibit every stage of human progress, and every
type of human enlightenment and superstition from the educated
classes to primitive hill tribes. On the same bench of a Calcutta
college sit youths trained up in the strictest theism, others
indoctrinated in the mysteries of the Hindu trinity and pantheon,
with representatives of every link in the chain of superstition
from the harmless offering of flowers before the family god to
the cruel rites of Kali, whose altars in the most civilized districts
of Bengal, as lately as the famine of 1866, were stained with
human blood. Indeed, the very word Hindu is one of absolutely
indeterminate meaning. The census officers employ it as a
convenient generic to include 42 millions of the population of
Bengal, comprising elements of transparently distinct ethnical-
origin, and separated from each other by their language, customs
and religious rites. But Hinduism, understood even in this wide
sense, represents only one of many creeds and races found within
Bengal. The other great historical cultus, which during the
last twelve centuries did for the Semitic peoples what Chris-
tianity accomplished among the European Aryans, has won to
itself one-fifth of the population of Bengal. The Mahommedans
number some 9,000,000 in Bengal, but the great bulk of their
numbers was transferred to Eastern Bengal and Assam. They
consist largely of the original inhabitants of the country, who
were proselytized by the successive Pathan and Mogul invasions.
In the face of great natural catastrophes, such as river inunda-
tions, famines, tidal waves and cyclones of the lower provinces
of Bengal, the religious instinct works with a vitality unknown
in European countries. Until the British government stepped
in with its police and canals and railroads, between the people
and what they were accustomed to consider the dealings of
Providence, scarcely a year passed without some terrible mani-
festation of the power and the wrath of God. Mahratta invasions
from central India, piratical devastations on the sea-board,
banditti who marched about the interior in bodies of 50,000 men,
floods which drowned the harvests of whole districts, and
droughts in which a third of the population starved to death,
kept alive a sense of human powerlessness in the presence of an
omnipotent fate. Under the Mahommedans a pestilence turned
the capital into a silent wilderness, never again to be re-peopled.
Under British rule it is. estimated that 10 millions perished
within the Lower Provinces alone in the famine of 1769-1770;
and the first surveyor-general of Bengal entered on his maps a
tract of many hundreds of square miles as bare of villages and
" depopulated by the Maghs." But since the advent of British
administration the history of Bengal has substantially been a
record of prosperity; the teeming population of its river valleys
is one of the densest in the world, and the purely agricultural
districts of Saran and Muzaffarpur in the Patna division support
over 900 persons to the square mile, a number hardly surpassed
elsewhere except in urban areas.
Language. Excluding immigrants the languages spoken by
the people of Bengal belong to one or other of four linguistic
BENGAL
families Aryan, Dravidian", Munda and Tibeto-Burman. Of
these the languages of the Aryan family are by far the most
important, being spoken by no less than 95 % of the population
according to the census of 1901 . The Aryan languages are spoken
in the plains by almost the whole population; the Munda and
Dravidian in the Chota Nagpur plateau and adjoining tracts;
and the Tibeto-Burman in Darjeeling, Sikkim and Jalpaiguri.
The most important Aryan languages are Bengali (q.v.), Bihari,
Eastern Hindi and Oriya. On the average in the province,
before partition, out of every 1000 persons 528 spoke Bengali,
341 Hindi and Bihari, and 79 Oriya. As a rule Bengali is the
language of Bengal proper, Hindi of Behar and Chota Nagpur,
and Oriya of Orissa.
Agriculture. The staple crop of the province is rice, to which
about 66% of the cropped area is devoted. There are three
harvests in the year the boro, or spring rice; dus, or autumn
rice; and dman, or winter rice. Of these the last or winter rice
is by far the most extensively cultivated, and forms the great
harvest of the year. The dman crop is grown on low land. In
May, after the first fall of rain, a nursery ground is ploughed
three times, and the seed scattered broadcast. When the seed-
lings make their appearance another field is prepared for trans-
planting. By this time the rainy season has thoroughly set in,
and the field is dammed up so as to retain the water. It is then
repeatedly ploughed until the water becomes worked into the
soil, and the whole reduced to thick mud. The young rice is then
taken from the nursery, and transplanted in rows about 9 in.
apart. Am'an rice is much more extensively cultivated than dus,
and in favourable years is the most valuable crop, but being
sown in low lands is liable to be destroyed by excessive rain-
fall. Harvest takes place in December or January. Aus rice is
generally sown on high ground. The field is ploughed when the
early rains set in, ten or twelve times over, till the soil is reduced
nearly to dust, the seed being sown broadcast in April or May.
As soon as the young plants reach 6 in. in height, the land is
harrowed for the purpose of thinning the crop and to clear it of
weeds. The crop is harvested in August or September. Boro, or
spring rice, is cultivated on low marshy land, being sown in a
nursery in October, transplanted a month later, and harvested
in March and April. An indigenous description of rice, called uri
orjaradhdn, grows in certain marshy tracts. The grain is very
small, and is gathered for consumption only by the poorest.
Wheat forms an important food staple in Behar, whence there is
a considerable export to Calcutta. Oil-seeds are very largely
grown, particularly in Behar. The principal oil-seeds are sarisha
(mustard), til (sesamum) and tisi or masina (linseed). Jute (pat
or kosta) forms a very important commercial staple of Bengal.
The cultivation of this crop has rapidly increased of late years.
Its principal seat of cultivation, however, is Eastern Bengal,
where the superior varieties are grown. The crop grows on
either high or low lands, is sown in April and cut in August.
Apart from the quantity exported and the quantity made up by
hand, it supports a prosperous mill industry, chiefly in the neigh-
bourhood of Calcutta and Howrah. In 1 905 there were thirty-six
jute mills in the province and 2j million acres were cropped.
The value of jute and of the goods manufactured from it re-
presents more than a third of the aggregate value of the trade
of Calcutta. Indigo used to be an important crop carried on
with European capital in Behar, but of late years the industry
has almost been destroyed by the invention of artificial indigo.
Tea cultivation is the other great industry carried on by European
capital, but that is chiefly confined to Assam, the industry in
Darjeeling and the Dwars being on a small scale. Opium is
grown in Behar with its head station at Patna. The cultivation
of the cinchona plant in Bengal was introduced as an experiment
about 1862, and is grown on government plantations in Darjeeling.
Mineral Products. The chief mineral product in Bengal is coal,
which disputes with the gold of Mysore for the place of premier
importance in the mining industries of India. The most import-
ant mine in point of area, accessibility and output is Raniganj,
with an area of 500 sq. m. Another of rising importance is that of
Jherria, with an area of 200 sq. m., which is situated only 16 m. to
the west of Raniganj; while Daltonganj also has an area of 200
sq. m. The- small coalfield of Karharbari with an area of only
ii sq. m. yields the best coal in Bengal. Besides these four
coalfields there are twenty-five others of various sizes, which are
only in the initial stages of development.
Commerce. The sea-borne trade of Bengal is almost entirely
concentrated at Calcutta (q.v.), which also serves as the chief port
for Eastern Bengal and Assam, and for the United Provinces.
The principal imports are cotton piece goods, railway materials,
metals and machinery, oils, sugar, cotton, twist and salt; and the
principal exports are jute, tea, hides, opium, rice, oil-seeds, indigo
and lac. The inter-provincial trade is mostly carried on with
Eastern Bengal and Assam, the United Provinces and the Central
Provinces. From the United Provinces come opium, hides, raw
cotton, wheat, shellac and oil-seeds; and from Assam, tea,
oil-seeds and jute. The frontier trade of Bengal is registered
with Nepal, Sikkim, Tibet and Bhutan, but except with Nepal
the amount is insignificant.
Railways. Bengal is well supplied with railways, which natu-
rally have the seaport of Calcutta as the centre of the system.
South of the Ganges, the East Indian follows the river from the
North-Western Provinces, with its terminus at Howrah on the
Hugli, opposite Calcutta. A chord line passes by the coalfield of
Raniganj, which enables this great railway to be worked more
economically than any other in India. The Bengal-Nagpur,
from the Central Provinces, also has its terminus at Howrah,
and the section of this railway through Midnapore carries the East
Coast line from Madras. North of the Ganges the Eastern
Bengal runs north to Darjeeling, and maintains a service of river
steamers on the Brahmaputra. The Bengal Central serves the
lower Gangetic delta. Both of these have their termini at Scaldah,
an eastern suburb of Calcutta. Northern Behar is traversed by
the Bengal & North-Western, with an extension eastwards
through Tirhoot to join the Eastern Bengal. In addition there
are a few light lines and steam tramways.
Canals and Rivers. Rivers and other waterways still cany a
large part of the traffic of Bengal, especially in the delta. The
government maintains two channels through the Sundarbans,
known as the Calcutta and Eastern canals, and likewise does its
best to keep open the Nadiya rivers, which form the communica-
tion between the main stream of the Ganges and the Hugli.
There is further a route by water between Calcutta and Midnapore.
The most important canals, those in Orissa (see MAHANADI) and
on the Sone river in southern Behar, have been constructed
primarily for irrigation, though they are also used for navigation.
Except as a protection against famine, expenditure on irrigation
is not remunerative in Bengal, on account of the abundance of
rivers, and the general dampness of the climate.
Administration. The administration of Bengal is conducted
by a lieutenant-governor, with a chief secretary, two secretaries
and three under-secretaries. There is no executive council, as in
Madras and Bombay; but there is a board of revenue, consist-
ing of two members. For legislative purposes the lieutenant-
governor has a council of twenty members, of whom not more
than ten may be officials. Of the remaining members seven are
nominated on the recommendation of the Calcutta corporation,
groups of municipalities, groups of district boards, selected public
associations and the senate of Calcutta university. The number
of divisions or commissionerships is 6, of which Chota Nagpur
ranks as " non-regulation." The number of districts is 33.
Army. In Lord Kitchener's reconstitution of the Indian
army in 1904 the old Bengal command was abolished and its
place taken by the Eastern army corps, which includes all the
troops from Meerut to Assam. The boundaries of the 8th
division include those of the former Oudh, Allahabad, Assam
and Presidency districts; and the troops now quartered in
Bengal only consist of the Presidency brigade with its head-
quarters at Fort William.
History. The history of so large a province as Bengal forms
an integral part of the general history of India. The northern
part, Behar (q.v.), constituted the ancient kingdom of Magadha,
the nucleus of the imperial power of the successive great dynasties
732
BENGAL
of the Mauryas, Andhras and Guptas; and its chief town, Patna,
is the ancient Pataliputra (the Palimbothra of the Greeks), once
the capital of India. The Delta or southern part of Bengal lay
beyond the ancient Sanskrit polity, and was governed by a
number of local kings belonging to a pre-Aryan stock. The
Chinese travellers, Fa Hien in the sth century, and Hstian
Tsang in the ;th century, found the Buddhist religion prevailing
throughout Bengal, but already in a fierce struggle with
Hinduism a struggle which ended about the Qth or toth century
in the general establishment of the latter faith. Until the end
of the 1 2th century Hindu princes governed in a number of petty
principalities, till, in 1199, Mahommed Bakhtiyar Khilji was
appointed to lead the first Mussulman invasion into Bengal.
The Mahommedan conquest of Behar dates from 1197 A.D., and
the new power speedily spread southwards into the delta. From
about this date until 1340 Bengal was ruled by governors
appointed by the Mahommedan emperors' in the north. From
1340 to 1539 its governors asserted a precarious independence,
and arrogated the position of sovereigns on their own account.
Frdm 1540 to 1576 Bengal passed under the rule of the Pathan
or Afghan dynasty, which commonly bears the name of Sher
Shah. On the overthrow of this house by the powerful arms of
Akbar, Bengal was incorporated into the Mogul empire, and
administered by governors appointed by the Delhi emperor,
until the treaties of 1765, which placed Bengal, Behar and
Orissa under the administration of the East India Company.
The Company formed its earliest settlements in Bengal in the
first half of the 1 7th century. These settlements were of a purely
commercial character. In 1620 one of the Company's factors
dates from Patna; in 1624-1636 the Company established itself,
by the favour of the emperor, on the ruins of the ancient Portu-
guese settlement of Pippli, in the north of Orissa; in 1640-1642
an English surgeon, Gabriel Boughton, obtained establishments
at Balasore, also in Orissa, and at Hugli, some miles above
Calcutta. The vexations and extortions to which the Company's
early agents were subjected more than once almost induced
them to abandon the trade, and in 1677-1678 they threatened
to withdraw from Bengal altogether. In 1685, the Bengal
factors, driven to extremity by the oppression of the Mogul
governors, threw down the gauntlet; and after various successes
and hairbreadth escapes, purchased from the grandson of
Aurangzeb, in 1696, the villages which have since grown up into
Calcutta, the metropolis of India. During the next fifty years
the British had a long and hazardous struggle alike with the
Mogul governors of the province and the Mahratta armies which
invaded it. In 1 7 56 this struggle culminated in the great outrage
known as the Black Hole of Calcutta, followed by Clive's battle
of Plassey and capture of Calcutta, which avenged it. That
battle, and the subsequent years of confused fighting, established
British military supremacy in Bengal, and procured the treaties
of 1765, by which the provinces of Bengal, Behar and Orissa
passed under British administration. To Warren Hastings
(1772-1785) belongs the glory of consolidating the British power,
and converting a military occupation into a stable civil govern-
ment. To another member of the civil service, John Shore,
afterwards Lord Teignmouth (1786-1793), is due the formation
of a regular system of Anglo-Indian legislation. Acting through
Lord Cornwallis, then governor-general, he ascertained and
defined the rights of the landholders in the soil. These land-
holders under the native system had started, for the most part,
as collectors of the revenues, and gradually acquired certain
prescriptive rights as quasi-proprietors of the estates entrusted
to them by the government. In 1793 Lord Cornwallis declared
their rights perpetual, and made over the land of Bengal to the
previous quasi-proprietors or zamindars, on condition of the
payment of a fixed land tax. This piece of legislation is known
as the Permanent Settlement of the Land Revenue. But the
Cornwallis code, while defining the rights of the proprietors,
failed to give adequate recognition to the rights of the under-
tenants and the cultivators. His Regulations formally reserved
the latter class of rights, but did not legally define them, or
enable the -husbandmen to enforce them in the courts. After
half a century of rural disquiet, the rights of the cultivators
were at length carefully formulated by Act X. of 1859. This
measure, now known as the land law of Bengal, effected for the
rights of the under-holders and cultivators what the Cornwallis
code in 1793 had effected for those of the superior landholders.
The status of each class of persons interested in the soil, from
the government as suzerain, through the zaminddrs or superior
landholders, the intermediate tenure-holders and the under-
tenants, down to the actual cultivator, is now clearly defined.
The act dates from the first year after the transfer of India from
the company to the crown; for the mutiny burst out in 1857.
The transactions of that revolt chiefly took place in northern
India, and are narrated in the article INDIAN MUTINY. In
Bengal the rising began at Barrackpore, was communicated
to Dacca in Eastern Bengal, and for a time raged in Behar,
producing the memorable defence of the billiard-room at Arrah
by a handful of civilians and Sikhs one of the most splendid
pieces of gallantry in the history of the British arms. Since
1858, when the country passed to the crown, the history of Bengal
has been one of steady progress. Five great lines of railway
have been constructed. Trade has enormously expanded; new
centres of commerce have sprung up in spots which formerly
were silent jungles; new staples of trade, such as tea and jute,
have rapidly attained importance; and the coalfields and iron
ores have opened up prospects of a new and splendid era in the
internal development of the country.
During the decade 1891-1901 Bengal was fortunate in escaping
to a great extent the two calamities of famine and plague which
afflicted central and western India. The drought of 1896-1897
did indeed extend to Bengal, but not to such an extent as to
cause actual famine. The distress was most acute in the densely
populated districts of northern Behar, and in the remote hills
of Chota Nagpur. Plague first appeared at Calcutta in a sporadic
form in April 1898, but down to April of the following year the
total number of deaths ascribed to plague throughout the
province was less than 1000, compared with 191,000 for Bombay.
At the beginning of 1900, however, there was a serious recrud-
escence of plague at Calcutta, and a malignant outbreak in the
district of Patna, which caused 1000 deaths a week. In the
early months of 1901, plague again appeared in the same regions.
The number of deaths in 1904 was 75,436, the highest recorded
up to that date.
The earthquake of the i2th of June 1897, which had its centre
of disturbance in Assam, was felt throughout eastern and
northern Bengal. In all the large towns the masonry buildings
were severely damaged or totally wrecked. The permanent way
of the railways also suffered. The total number of deaths
returned was only 135. Far more destructive to life was the
cyclone and storm-wave that broke over Chittagong district on
the night of the 24th of October 1897. Apart from damage to
shipping and buildings, the low-lying lands along the coast were
completely submerged, and in many villages half the inhabitants
were drowned. The loss of human lives was reported to be about
14,000, and the number of cattle drowned about 15,000. As
usual in such cases, a severe outbreak of cholera followed in the
track of the storm-wave. Another natural calamity on a large
scale occurred at Darjeeling in October 1899. Torrential rains
caused a series of landslips, carrying away houses and breaking
up the hill railway.
The most notable event, however, of recent times was the
partition of the province, which was decided upon by Lord
Curzon, and carried into execution in October 1905. Serious
popular agitation followed this step, on the ground (inter alia)
that the Bengali population, the centre of whose interests and
prosperity was Calcutta, would now be divided under two
governments, instead of being concentrated and numerically
dominant under the one; while the bulk would be in the new
division. In 1906-1909 the unrest developed to a considerable
extent, requiring special attention from the Indian and home
governments; but as part of the general history of India the
movement may be best discussed under that heading (see INDIA:
History).
BENGAL, BAY OF BENGALI
See Parliamentary Papers relating to the reconstitution of the
provinces of Bengal and Assam (Cd. 2658 and Cd. 2746, 1905)
Colonel E. T. Dalton, The Ethnology of Bengal (1872); Sir W. W.
Hunter, Annals of Rural Bengal (1868), and Orissa (1872) ; Sir H. H.
Risley, Tribes and Castes of Bengal (1891); C. E. Buckland, Bengal
under the Lieutenant-Governors (iqoi); and Sir James Bourdillon,
The Partition of Bengal (Society of Arts, 1905).
BENGAL, BAY OF, a portion of the Indian Ocean, resembling
a triangle in shape, lying between India and Burma. A zone
50 m. wide extending from the island of Ceylon and the Coro-
mandel coast to the head of the bay, and thence southwards
through a strip embracing the Andaman and Nicobar islands, is
bounded by the 100 fathom line of sea bottom; some 50 m.
beyond this lies the soo-fathom limit. Opposite the mouth of the
Ganges, however, the intervals between these depths are very
much extended by deltaic influence. The bay receives many
large rivers, of which the most important are the Ganges and
Brahmaputra on the north, the Irrawaddy on the east, and the
Mahanadi, Godavari, Kistna and Cauvery on the west. On the
west coast it has no harbours, Madras having a mere open
roadstead, but on the east there are many good ports, such as
Akyab, Moulmein, Rangoon and Tavoy river. The islands in
the bay are very numerous, including the Andaman, Nicobar
and Mergui groups. The group of islands, Cheduba and others,
in the north-east, off the Burmese coast, are remarkable for a
chain of mud volcanoes, which are occasionally active. Thus in
December 1 906 a new island of mud was thrown up, and measured
307 by 217 yds.
BENGALI, with ORIYA and ASSAMESE, three of the four forms
of speech which compose the Eastern Group of the Indo-Aryan
Languages (q.v.). This group includes all the Aryan languages
spoken in India east of the longitude of Benares, and its members
are the following:
733
Bengali .
Oriya
Assamese
Bihari
Number of speakers in
British India, 1901.
. 44,624,048
. 9.687,429
1,350,846
34.579,844
Total
90,242,167
Of these Bihari is treated separately. In the present article we
shall devote ourselves to the examination of Bengali together
with the two other closely connected languages. The reader is
throughout assumed to be in possession of the facts described
under the heads INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT.
Bengali is spoken in the province of Bengal proper, i.e. in, and
on both sides of, the delta of the Ganges, and also in the Eastern
Language. Bengal portion of the province of Eastern Bengal and
Assam. The name " Bengali " is an English word,
derived from the English word " Bengal." Natives call the
language Ban_ga-Bkd}d, or the language of Banga, i.e. " Bengal."
" Oriya " is the native name for the language of Odra or Orissa.
Assamese, again an English word, is spoken in the Assam Valley.
Its native name is Asamiya, pronounced 6hamiya. All these
languages have alphabets derived from early forms of the
well-known Nagari character of northern India. That of
Bengali dates from about the nth century A.D. It is a cursive
script which admits of considerable speed in writing. The
Assamese alphabet is the same as that of Bengali, but has one
additional character to represent the sound of w, which has to be
expressed in the former language in a very awkward fashion. In
Orissa, till lately, writing was done on a talipot palm-leaf, on
which the letters were scratched with an iron stylus. In such
circumstances straight lines would tend to split the leaf, and
accordingly the alphabet received a peculiar curved appearance
typical of it and of one or two other South Indian methods of
writing.
The three languages are all the immediate descendants of
Magadhi Prakrit (see PRAKRIT), the headquarters of which were
in south Behar, near the modern city of Patna. From here it
spread in three lines southwards, where it developed into
Oriya; south-eastwards into Bengal proper, where it became
Bengali; and eastwards, through Northern Bengal, into Assam,
where it became Assamese. It thus appears that the language of
Northern Bengal, though usually and conveniently treated as a
dialect of Bengali, is not so in reality, but is a connecting link
between Assamese and Bihari, the language of Behar. It is
noteworthy that Northern Bengali and Assamese often agree in
their grammar with Oriya, as against standard Bengali.
Omitting border forms of speech, Bengali, as a vernacular,
has two main dialects, a western and an eastern, the former
being the standard. The boundary-line between the two may
be roughly put at the Sgth degree of east longitude. The eastern
dialect has many marked peculiarities, amongst which we may
mention a tendency to disaspiration, the pronunciation of c as
ts, of ch as s, and olj as *. In the northern part of the tract a
medial r is often elided, and in the extreme east there is a broader
pronunciation of the vowel a, like that in the English word
" ball," k is sounded like the ch in " loch," and both c and ch
are pronounced like t . The letter p is often sounded like v>, and
5 like h, which again, when initial, is dropped. The distinction
between cerebral and dental letters is lost, so that the words
alh and stit are both pronounced '<U. In the south-cast, near
Chittagong, corruption has gone even further, and the local
dialect, which is practically a new language, is unintelligible
to a man from Western Bengal. Throughout the eastern
districts there is a strong tendency to epenthesis, e.g. kali is
pronounced kaU. A more important dialectic difference in
Bengali is that between the literary speech and the vernacular.
The literary vocabulary is highly Sanskritized, so much so
that it is not understood by any native of Bengal who has
not received special instruction in it. Its grammar preserves
numerous archaic or pseudo-archaic forms, which are invariably
contracted in the colloquial speech of even the most highly
educated. For instance, " I do " is expressed in the literary
dialect by karitichi, but in the vernacular by korcci or kdcci.
Oriya and Assamese may be said to have no dialects. There
are a few local variations, but the standard form of speech, as a
whole, is used everywhere in the respective tracts where the
languages are spoken.
The three languages, being all children of a common parent,
present many similar features. Oriya on the whole preserves
the usual accentuation of the Indo-Aryan Languages (?..),
seldom having the stress syllable farther back than the ante-
penultimate. Bengali, on the other hand, throws the accent
as far back as possible, and this produces the contracted forms
which we observe in the colloquial language, the first syllable
of a word being strongly accented, and the rest being hurried
over. Literary Bengali preserves the full form of the word, and
in reading aloud this -full form is adhered to. Assamese follows
Bengali in its accentuation, but the language has never been the
toy of euphuism. In its literature colloquial words are employed,
and are written as they are pronounced colloquially.
In the following account of the three languages, Bengali, literary
and colloquial, will be primarily dealt with, and then the points of
difference between it and the other two will be described. Abbrevia-
tions used: A. = Assamese, Bg. = Bengali, O. =Oriya, Pr. = Prakrit,
Mg. Pr. = Magadhi Prakrit, Skr.= Sanskrit.
Vocabulary. As already said, Literary Bengali abounds in
tatsamas, or words borrowed in modern times from Sanskrit (see
INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES), and these have also intruded themselves
into the speech of the educated. So much has the false taste for
these learned words obtained the mastery that, in the literary lan-
juage, when a genuine Bengali or tadbhava word is used in literature
it is frequently not put into writing, but the corresponding learned
tatsama. is written in its place, although the tadbhava is read. It is
as though a French writer wrote sicca when he wished the word
seche to be pronounced. Similarly, the Bengali word for the goddess
)f Fortune is Lakkhi, but in books this is always written in the Skr.
orm Lakjmi, although no_ Bengali would dream of saying anything
sut Lakkhi, even when reciting a purple passage ore rotunda. In fact,
the vocal organs of most Bengalis are incapable of uttering the sound
xmnoted by the letters Laksml. The result is that the spelling of a
" ngali word rarely represents its pronunciation. Oriya also borrows
ely from Sanskrit, but there is no confusion between tatsamas
and tadbhavas, as in Bengali. Assamese, on the other hand, is re-
markably free from these parasites, its vocabulary being mainly
adbhava. In Eastern Bengal, where Mussulmans predominate,
there is a free use of words borrowed from Arabic and Persian.
734
BENGALI
Owing to geographical and historical circumstances, Oriya is to
some extent infected by Telugu and Marathi idioms.while the Tibeto-
Burman dialects and Ahom have left their marks upon Assamese.
Phonetics. The three forms of speech agree in sounding the vowel
a like the 6 in " hot." When writing phonetically, this sound is
represented in the present article by 6. The pronunciation of this
frequently recurring vowel gives a tone to the general sound of the
languages which at once strikes a foreigner. In Bg. and A. a final
vowel preceded by a single consonant is generally not pronounced.
In Bg. this is only true for nouns, a final a being freely sounded
in adjectives and verbs. In O., on the other hand, a final a is always
pronounced. The sound of such a final a is in all three languages
the same as that of the seccond o in " promote" ; thus, the Bg. bara
is pronounced bor.o. In Bg. a medial a sometimes has the sound of
the first o in " promote," as, for instance, in the word ban (ion), a
forest. In A. and Eastern Bg. a medial a is often sounded like the
a in " ball," and is then transliterated d. A has preserved as a rule
its proper sound of o in "father." The distinction between i and i
ana between and u is everywhere lost in pronunciation, although
in tatsama words the Sanskrit spelling is followed in literature. Thus,
in Bg., the Skr. vyaflta is pronounced betito, with the accent on the
first syllable. In A. the distinction between these long and short
vowels is obliterated more than elsewhere, the reason being, as in
Bg., the changes of pronunciation due to the shifting back of the
accent. In O., the Skr. vowel r, is pronounced ru. Elsewhere it is
ri. In O. the vowel e is always long, but in Bg. it may be long or
short, and in A. it is always short. The syllable ya preceded by a
consonant has in Bg. the sound of a short e, so that vyakti is pro-
nounced bekti. Moreover, in the same language the letter e is often
pronounced like the a in the German Mann, a sound here phonetic-
ally represented by d; thus, dekha is sometimes pronounced dekho,
and sometimes ddkho or even ddko. The syllable ya, when following
a consonant, also has this d-sound, so that the English word " bank "
is written bydnk in Bengali characters. O in O. is always long.
In Bg., when it has not got the accent it is shortened to the sound of
the first o in " promote," a sound which, as we have seen, is also
sometimes taken by a medial a. In A. o approaches the sound of u,
and it actually becomes u when followed by i in the next syllable.
The diphthongs di (in tatsamas, i.e. the Skr. di) and ai (in tadbhavas)
are sounded like oi in " oil " in Bg. and O., while in A. they have the
sound of oi in " going." Similarly, in Bg. and O. the diphthongs
au and au are sounded like the au in the German Haus, but in A.
like au in the French jaune, or the second o in " promote." In
colloquial Bg. the two syllables ai often have the sound of e, as in
khdile (khete), to eat.
In Eastern Bengal k has often the sound of ch in " loch." In A.
the consonants c and ch ara both pronounced like s, and 7' and jh
become zh (i.e. the s in " pleasure ') or (when final) z. The same
tendency is observable in Bg., though it is usually considered vulgar.
In parts of Eastern Bengal c is pronounced like ts. O. as a rule has
the proper sound of these letters, but towards the south c and ch
become ts and tsh when not followed by a palatal letter. The letters
4 and dh, when medial, are pronounced as a strongly burred r, and
are then transliterated r. and r.h respectively. In A. and Eastern Bg.
there is a strong tendency to pronounce both dentals and cerebrals
as semi-cerebrals, as is done by the neighbouring Tibeto-Burmans.
In A. r. and rh become r and rh respectively. In Bg. and A. n has
universally become n, but is properly pronounced in O. Y is usually
pronounced as j, unless it is a merely euphonic bridge to avoid a
hiatus between two vowels, as in kanya for kari-d. In A. the re-
sultant j has the usual z-sound. When y is the final element of a
conjunct consonant, in Bg. (except in the south-east) it is very
faintly pronounced. In compensation the preceding member of the
conjunct is doubled and the preceding vowel is shortened if possible,
thus vakya becomes bdkk'o. In A., while the y is usually preserved,
an i is inserted before the conjunct, so that we have bdikyo. M and
when similarly situated are altogether elided in Bg., and this is also
the case with in A., in which language m under these circumstances
becomes w; thus, smarana becomes Bg. ssoron, A. sworon, and dvdrd
becomes Bg. and A. dddrd. R is generally pronounced correctly,
except that when a member of a compound it is often not pronounced
in colloquial Bg. ; thus karma (kommo). In North-eastern Bengali
and in A. a medial r is commonly dropped; thus, Bg. karildm
(kailam), A. kari (kai). 1 The vulgar commonly confound n and /.
O. has retained the old cerebral ( of Pr., which has disappeared in
Bg. and A. The semi- vowel v(w) becomes b in Bg. and O., but retains
its proper sound when medial in A. When Bg. wishes to represent
a w, it lias to write oyd; thus, for chdwd it writes chdoya. Similarly
baro, twelve, +ydri, friendship, when compounded together to mean
" a collection of twelve friends," is pronounced bdrwdri. Bg. pro-
nounces aH uncompounded sibilants as if they were $, like the
English sh in " shin." This was already the case in Mg. Pr. (see
PRAKRIT). O., on the contrary, pronounces all three like the dental
s in " sin," while A. sounds them like a rough h, almost like the ch
in " loch." In Eastern Bg. j becomes frankly h, and is then often
1 In Mg. Pr. every r becomes /. For an explanation of the apparent
non-observance of this rule in languages of the Eastern Group, see
BtHARI.
Oriya.
Bengali.
Assamese.
Nom. .
Acc.-Dat. .
Instr. . .
Abl. . .
Gen. .
Loc.
ghor.d
ghordku
ghordre
ghordru
ghor.dra
ghordre
ghor.d
ghor.dke
ghordte
ghor.d-haite
ghor.dr
ghorate or ghordy
ghdrd
ghordk
ghordre
ghordyi
ghordr
ghordt
dropped. The compound k} is everywhere treated as if it were khy,
In colloquial Be. there is a tendency to disaspiration ; thus dekha
is pronounced ddko and the Pr. hattha-, a hand, becomes hat, not
hath. In Eastern Bg. there is a cockney tendency to drop h, so that
we have 'at, a hand, and kailam for kahtiam, I said.
The above remarks show that O. has, on the whole, preserved
the original sounds of the various letters better than Bg. or A.
Declension. The distinction of gender has disappeared from all
three languages. Sex is distinguished either by the use of qualify-
ing terms, such as " male" or " female," or by the employment of
different words, as in the case of our " bull and " cow." The
plural number is almost always denoted by the addition of some
word meaning " many " or " collection " to the singular, although
we sometimes find a true plural used in the case of nouns denoting
human beings. Case was originally indicated by postpositions (see
INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES), but in many instances these have been
joined to the noun, so that they form one word with it. The following
is the full declension of the singular of the word ghor.d, a horse, in
the three languages :
In Bg. and A. a noun often takes e (e) in the nominative singular,
when it is the subject of a transitive verb; thus Bg. bede (from bed)
bale, the Veda says. In Bg. the nominative plural may, in the case
of human beings, be formed by adding a to the genitive singular;
thus, santan, a son; gen. sing., santdner; no_m. plur., santanera.
The same is the case with the pronouns; thus dtndr, of me; dmard,
we; tdhdr, his; tahard, they. In Bihari (q.v.) the pronouns follow
the same rule, and, as is explained under that head, the nominative
plural is really an oblique form of the genitive. With this exception,
the plural in all our three languages is either the same as the singular,
or (when the idea of plurality has to be emphasized) is formed by the
addition of nouns of multitude, such as gan in Bg., mdna in O., or
bildk in A.
We shall see that pronominal suffixes are freely used in all three
languages in the conjugation of verbs. In the Outer languages of
the north-west of India (for the list of these, see INDO-ARYAN
LANGUAGES) pronominal suffixes are also commonly added to nouns
to signify possession. In most of the languages of the Eastern
Group such pronominal suffixes added to nouns have fallen into
disuse, but in A. they are still commonly employed with nouns of
relationship; thus, bdp, a father; bopdi, my father; bdper, your
father; bdpek, his father. Their retention in A. is no doubt due
to the example of the neighbouring Tibeto-Burman languages, in
which such pronominal prefixes are a common feature.
In all three languages the adjective does not change for gender,
for number or for case.
The personal pronouns have at the present day lost their old
nominatives, and have new nominatives formed from the oblique
base. In the first and second persons the singulars have fallen into
disuse in polite conversation, and the plurals are used honorifically
for the singular, as in the case of the English " you " for " thou."
For the plural, new plurals, are formed from the new singular (old
plural) bases. In A., however, the old singular of the first person is
retained, and the old plural plays its proper function. The Bg.
pronouns are, mui (old), I; ami (modern), I; tui (old), thou; tumi
(modern), thou; si, tint, he; e, ini, this; 5, uni, that; je, jini,
who; he, who?; hi, what?; kon, what (adjective)?; keha, anyone;
kichu, anything; kona, a-ny. Most of the forms in the other lan-
guages closely follow these. The words in O. for " I " and " thou "
are ambhe and tumbhe respectively. All these pronouns have plurals
and oblique forms to which the case suffixes are added. These must
be learnt from the grammars.
Conjugation. It is in the conjugation of the verb that colloquial
Bg. differs most from the literary dialect. There is no distinction
in any of the three languages between singular and plural. Most
of the old singular forms have survived in a non-honorific sense, but
they are rarely employed in polite language except in the third
person. The old plural forms are generally employed for the singular
also. The usual base for the verb substantive, when employed as an
auxiliary, is ach, be, derived from the Skr. r,cchati. O., however,
forms its past from the base (ha (Skr. sthita-), and in South-western
Bengal the base (ha, derived from the sameoriginal, is used for both
present and past time. Only two of the old Skr.-Pr. tenses have
survived in the finite verb, the simple present and the imperative.
Thus, Bg. kari, I do; kar, do thou. The past is formed by adding
pronominal suffixes to the old past participle in il (Skr. -ilia-, a
pleonastic suffix, see PRAKRIT), and the future by adding them to
the old future participle in 6 (Skr. -tavya-, Pr. -ama-). Thus, Bg.
karil-dm, done + by-me, I did; karib-a, it-is-to-be-done+by-me, I
shall do. In Bg. there are two modern participles, a present (kar-rte)
BENGALI
735
and a past (knr-iyd), and from these there are formed periphrastic
tenses by suffixing auxiliary verbs. Thus, karite-chi (colloquial,
korcior kdcci), 1 am doing; karite-childm (co\\.,korcilum or koccilum),
I was doing; kariyd-chi (coll., korsi), I have done; kariyd-childm (coll.,
korsilum), I had done. A past conditional is formed by adding pro-
nominal suffixes to the present participle; thus, karitdm (coll., kortum
or kottum), (if) I had done. Similar tenses are formed in O. and A.,
but the periphrastic tenses are formed with verbal nouns and not
with participles. Thus, O. karu-ackf, A. kari-chB, I am a-doing,
I am doing. O. and A. have each a very complete series of gerunds
or verbal nouns which are fully declined. In Bg. only one gerund,
that of the genitive, is in common use.
In order to illustrate the conjugation of the verb, we here give
that of the root kar, do, in its present, past and future tenses.
Oriya.
Literary
Bengali.
Colloquial
Bengali.
Assam-
ese.
I do .
karH
kari
kori
kard
Thou doest
kara
kara
kdrd
kara
He (non-honor-
ific) does
kare
kare
kori
kare
He (honorific)
does
karanti
karen
koren
kare
I did . .
karilii
karttdm
kollum, korlum
k&rilS
Thou didst
karila
karile
kolle, korle
karila
He (non-hon.)
did .
karild
karila
kollo, korlo
karile
He (hon.) did .
karile
karilen
kollen, korlen
karile
I shall do .
karibu
kariba
korbo
karim
Thou wilt do .
kariba
karibe
korbe
kariba
He (non-hon.)
will do .
kariba
karibe
korbe
kariba
He (hon.) will do
karibe
kariben
korben
kariba
All the three languages have negative* forms of the verb substan-
tive, and A. has a complete negative conjugation for all verbs,
made by prefixing the negative syllable na under certain euphonic
rules.
Bengali Literature. The oldest recognized writer in Bengali
is the Vaishnava poet Cancji Das, who flourished about the
Literature en< * ^ tne I4t ^ or tne beginning of the 1 5th cen-
tury. His language does not differ much from the
Bengali of to-day. He founded a school of poets who wrote
hymns in honour of Krishna, many of whom, in later times,
became connected with the religious revival instituted by
Caitanya in the early part of the i6th century. In the isth
century Kasi Ram translated the Mahdbhdrato. and Krttibas
Ojha the Rdmdyana into the vernacular. The principal figure
of the i yth century was Mukunda Ram who has left us two
really admirable poems entitled Candi and Srimanta Sauddgar.
Parts of the former have been translated by Professor Cowell
into English verse, and both well deserve putting into an English
dress. ' With Bharat Candra, whose much admired but artificial
Bidya Sundar appeared in the i8th century, the list of old
Bengali authors may be considered as closed. They wrote in
genuine nervous Bengali, and the conspicuous success of many
of them shows how baseless is the contention of some native
writers of the present day that modern literary Bengali needs
the help of its huge imported Sanskrit vocabulary to express
anything but the simplest ideas. This modern literary Bengali
arose early in the igth century, as a child of the revival of
Sanskrit learning in Calcutta, under the influence of the college
founded by the English in Fort William. Each decade it has
become more and more the slave of Sanskrit. It has had some
excellent writers, notably the late Bankim Candra, whose novels
have received the honour of being translated into several
languages, including English. Even he, however, sometimes
laboured under the fetters imposed upon him by a strange
vocabulary, and all competent European scholars are agreed
that no work of first-class originality has much chance of arising
in Bengal till some great genius purges the language of its
pseudo-classical element.
Oriya Literature does not go back beyond the i6th century,
though examples of the language are found in inscriptions of the
I3th century. Nearly all the works are connected with the
history of Krishna, and the translation of the Bhdgavata Purdna
into Oriya in the first half of the i6th century still exercises
great influence on the masses. Dlna Kr$na Das (iyth century)
was the author of another popular work entitled Rasa, Kallola,
or " The Waves of Sentiment," which deals with the early life
of Krishna. Every verse in it begins with the letter k. It is not
always decent, but is immensely popular. Upendra Bhanja, Raja
of Gumsur, a petty hill state, is the most famous of Oriya poets,
and was the most prolific. His work is insipid to a European
taste, and when not unintelligible is often obscene. Oriya
poetry, from first to last, has been an artificial production, the
work of pandits, who clung to the rules of Sanskrit rhetoric,
and loaded their verses with so many ideas and words borrowed
from that language that it is rarely understood, except by the
learned. The whole literature is, in fact, overshadowed by the
great temple of Jagannath (a name of Krishna) at Puri in
Orissa.
Assamese Literature. The Assamese are justly proud of their
national literature. It has an independent growth, and its
strength lies in history, a branch of letters in which other Indian
languages are almost entirely wanting. They have chronicles
going back for the past 600 years, and a knowledge of their
contents is a necessary part of the education of the upper
classes of the country. In poetry, the Vaishnava reformer,
Sankar Deb, who flourished some 450 years ago, was a volu-
minous writer. His best known work is a translation of the
Bhdgavata, Purdna. About the same time Ananta Kandali
translated the MahabMrata, and the Rdmdyana into his native
tongue. Medicine was a science much studied, and there are
translations of all the principal Sanskrit works on the subject.
Forty or fifty dramatic works in the vernacular are known and are
still acted. Some of them date back to the time of Sankar Deb.
AUTHORITIES. There is no work dealing with the three languages
as a group. Both the Comparative Grammars of Beames and Hoernle
(see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES) are silent about Assamese. The
fullest details concerning them all will be found in vol. v. of the
Linguistic Survey of India, parts i. and ii. (Calcutta, 1903). In this
each dialect and subdialect is treated with great minuteness and with
copious examples.
The first Bengali grammar and dictionary in a European language
was the Vocabtuario em Idioma Bengalla e Portuguez of Manoel da
Assumpcam (Lisbon, 1743). N. B. Halhed wrote the first Bengali
grammar in the_ English language (Hooghly, 1778), but the real
father of Bengali philology was the great missionary, William Carey
(Grammar, Serampore, 1801; Dictionary, ib., 1825). W. Yates s
Grammar, as edited and improved by T. Wenger (Calcutta, 1847)
and others, is still on sale. It is entirely confined to the literary
Bengali of the pandits. Its great rival has been Syuma Caraq
Sarkar's Grammar (Calcutta, 1850), of which there have been
numerous reprints. In 1894 J- Beames published his Grammar
(Oxford), now the standard work on the subject. It is largely based
on Syama Carap's work, but with much new material, especially
that dealing with the colloquial side of the language. G. F. N icholl s
Grammar (London, 1885) is an independent study of the language,
in which the vernacular works of the best native grammarians have
been freely utilized. There is no good Bengali dictionary. G. C.
Haughton's Dictionary (London, 1833) is perhaps still the best, but
J. Mendies* (Calcutta, about 1870) is also well known, and is the
parent of countless others which have issued from the Calcutta
presses. A Small Dictionary of Colloquial Bengali Words, by J. M. C.
and G. A. C. (Calcutta, 1904), may also be studied with advantage.
Cf. also Syama-caran Gagguli, Bengali Spoken and Written (Calcutta,
1906). For Bengali literature, see R. C. Dutt, The Literature of
Bengal (Calcutta and London, 1895), and Kara Prasad Sastri, The
Vernacular Literature of Bengal before the Introduction of English
Education (Calcutta, n.d.). The most complete work is Bangabhasd
o Sahitya by Dines Candra Sen (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1901) in the
Bengali language.
For Oriya there are E. Hallam's (Calcutta, 1874), T. Maltby's
(Calcutta, 1874) and J. Browne's (London, 1882) Grammars. The
last two are in the Roman character. They are all mere sketches of
the language. Sutton's (Cuttack, 1841) is still the only Dictionary
which the present writer has found of any practical use. For Oriya
literature, see App. IX. of Hunter's Onssa (London, 1872), and
Monmohan Chakravarti's " Notes on the Language and Literature
of Orissa " in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. Ixvi.
(1897), part i. pp. 317 ff., and vol. Ixvii. (1808), part i. pp. 332 ff.
The first Assamese Grammar was Nathan Brown's (Sibsagar, 1848.
3rd ed. 1893), and it is still the one usually studied. G. _F. Nicholl
gives an Assamese grammar as a supplement to his Bengali Grammar
already quoted. Like that work, it is quite independent, and is not
a revised edition of Brown. M. Bronson's Dictionary (Sibsagar,
1867) was for long the only vocabulary available, and a very useful
and practical work it was. It is now superseded by Hem Candra
Barua's Hema-kosa (Shillong, 1900). For Assamese literature, see
Ananda Ram Dhekial Phukan's A Few Remarks on the Assamese
736
BENGAZI BENGEL
Language (Sibsagar, 1855), partly reprinted in the Indian Antiquary,
vol. xxv. (1896), pp. 57 ff- (G. A. GR.)
BENGAZI (anc. Hesperides-Berenice), a seaport on the north
coast of Africa, capital of the sanjak of Bengazi or Barca,
formerly in the vilayet of Tripoli, but, since 1875, dependent
directly on the ministry of the interior at Constantinople. It
is situated on a narrow strip of land between the Gulf of Sidra
and a salt marsh, in 30 7' N. lat. and 20 3' E. long. Though
for the most part poorly built, it has one or two buildings of
some pretension an ancient castle, a mosque, a Franciscan
monastery, government buildings and barracks. Senussi
influence is strong and there is a large zawia (convent). The
harbour is half silted up with sand and the ruins of fortifications,
and is accessible only to vessels of light draught. A lighthouse
has been erected at the entrance, but reefs render approach
difficult, and the outer anchorage is fully exposed to west and
north and not good holding. The export trade is largely in
barley, shipped to British and other maltsters. The Sudan
produce (ivory, ostrich feathers, &c.) formerly brought to
Bengazi by caravan, has now been almost wholly diverted to
Tripoli, the eastern tracks from Wadai and Borku by way of
Kufra to Aujila having become so unsafe that their natural
difficulties are no longer worth braving. Consular vigilance has
also killed the once considerable slave trade. Trade in other
commodities, however, is on the increase, exports now amounting
to nearly half a million sterling and imports to half that figure.
The neighbouring coast is frequented by Greek and Italian
sponge-fishers, the industry being a valuable one. The province
of Bengazi, being still without telegraphs or roads, is one of
the most backward in the Ottoman empire.
Founded by the Greeks of Cyrenaica under the name Hes-
perides, the town received from Ptolemy III. the name of
Berenice in compliment to his wife. The ruins of the ancient
town, which superseded Cyrene and Barca as chief place in the
province after the 3rd century A.D., are now nearly buried in
the sand. The modern town lies south-west of the original
site. Certain large natural pits which are found in the plain
behind, and have luxuriant gardens at the bottom, are supposed
to have originated the myth of the Gardens of the Hesperides.
Ancient tombs are found, which in 1882 yielded fine Greek
vases to G. Dennis, then British vice-consul. The present name
is derived from that of a Moslem saint whose tomb, near the
sea-coast, is an object of veneration. The population, amounting
to about 25,000, is greatly mixed. Levantines, Maltese, Greeks
and Jews form the trading community, but since 1895, when a
branch of the Agenzia Italiana Commerciale was established
at Bengazi, Italians have exercised an increasing influence on
Cyrenaic commerce. Turks, Arabs and Berbers are the ruling
castes, and negroes act as labourers and domestics. Many of
these found their way to Crete, and becoming porters, &c. in
Canea and Candia, were notorious for turbulence and fanaticism.
In 1897 and 1898 the European admirals forcibly deported
consignments of the worst characters back to Bengazi. In 1858
and again in 1874 the town was devastated by plague (see also
TRIPOLI and CYRENAICA). (D. G. H.)
BENGEL, JOHANN ALBRECHT (1687-1752), Lutheran
divine and scholar, was born at Winnenden in Wiirttemberg,
on the 24th of June 1687. His father died in 1693, and Bengel
was educated by a friend, who became a master in the gymnasium
at Stuttgart. In 1703 Bengel left Stuttgart and entered the
university of Tubingen, where, in his spare time, he devoted
himself specially to the works of Aristotle and Spinoza, and in
theology to those of Philipp Spener, Johann Arndt and August
Franke. His knowledge of the metaphysics of Spinoza was such
that he was selected by one of the professors to prepare materials
for a treatise De Spinosismo, which was afterwards published.
After taking his degree, Bengel devoted himself to theology.
Even at this time he had religious doubts; it is interesting in
view of his later work that one cause of his perplexities was the
difficulty of ascertaining the true reading of certain passages
in the Greek New Testament. In 1707 Bengel entered the
ministry and was appointed to the parochial charge of Metzingen-
unter-Urach. In the following year he was recalled to Tubingen
to undertake the office of Repetent or theological tutor. Here he
remained till 1713, when he was appointed head of a seminary
recently established at Denkendorf as a preparatory school of
theology. Before entering on his new duties he travelled
through the greater part of Germany, studying the systems of
education which were in use, and visiting the seminaries of the
Jesuits as well as those of the Lutheran and Reformed churches.
Among other places he went to Heidelberg and Halle, and had
his attention directed at Heidelberg to the canons of scripture
criticism published by Gerhard von Mastricht, and at Halle
to C. Vitringa's Anacrisis ad Apocalypsin. The influence exerted
by these upon his theological studies is manifest in some of his
works. For twenty-eight years from 1713 to 1741 he was
master (Klosterprdceplor) of the Klosterschule at Denkendorf,
a seminary for candidates for the ministry established in a former
monastery of the canons of the Holy Sepulchre. To these years,
the period of his greatest intellectual activity, belong many of
his chief works. In 1741 he was appointed prelate (i.e. General
Superintendent) at Herbrechtingen, where he remained till 1749,
when he was raised to the dignity of consistorial counsellor and
prelate of Alpirspach, with a residence in Stuttgart. He now
devoted himself to the discharge of his duties as a member of
the consistory. A question of considerable difficulty was at that
time occupying the attention of the church courts, viz. the
manner in which those who separated themselves from the church
were to be dealt with, and the amount of toleration which
should be accorded to meetings held in private houses for the
purpose of religious edification. The civil power (the duke of
Wiirttemberg was a Roman Catholic) was disposed to have
recourse to measures of repression, while the members of the
consistory, recognizing the good effects of such meetings, were
inclined to concede considerable liberty. Bengel exerted himself
on the side of the members of the consistory. In 1751 the uni-
versity of Tubingen conferred upon him the degree of doctor of
divinity. He died after a short illness, in 1752.
The works on which Bengel's reputation rests as a Biblical scholar
and critic are his edition of the Greek New Testament, and his
Gnomon or Exegetical Commentary on the same.
(A.) His edition of the Greek Testament was published at Tubingen
in 1734, and at Stuttgart in the same year, but without the critical
apparatus. So early as 1725, in an addition to his edition of Chry-
sostom's De Sacerdotio, he had given an account in his Prodromus
Novi Testamenti Graeci recte cauteque adornandi of the principles on
which his intended edition was to be based. In preparation for his
work Bengel was able to avail himself of the collations of upwards of
twenty MSS., none of them, however, of great importance, twelve
of which had been collated by himself. In constituting the' text, he
imposed upon himself the singular restriction of not inserting any
various reading which had not already been printed in some preced-
ing edition of the Greek text. From this rule, however, he deviated
in the case of the Apocalypse, where, owing to the corrupt state of
the text, he felt himself at' liberty to introduce certain readings on
manuscript authority. In the lower margin of the page he inserted
a selection of various readings, the relative importance of which he
denoted by the first five letters of the Greek alphabet in the following
manner: a was employed to denote the reading which in his judg-
ment was the true one, although he did not venture to place it in the
text ; (3, a reading better than that in the text ; y, one equal to the
textual reading; d and t, readings inferior to those in the text.
R. fitienne's division into verses was retained in the inner margin,
but the text was divided into paragraphs. The text was followed
by a critical apparatus, the first part of which consisted of an intro-
duction to the criticism of the New Testament, in the thirty-fourth
section of which he laid down and explained his celebrated canon,
" Proclivi scriptioni praestat ardua " (The difficult reading is to be
preferred to that which is easy "), the soundness of which, as a
general principle, has been recognized by succeeding critics. The
second part of the critical apparatus was devoted to a consideration
of the various readings, and here Bengel adopted the plan of stating
the evidence both against and in favour of a particular reading, thus
placing before the reader the materials for forming a judgment.
Bengel was the first definitely to propound the theory of families or
recensions of MSS. His investigations had led him to see that a
certain affinity or resemblance existed amongst many of the authori-
ties for the Greek text MSS., versions, and ecclesiastical writers;
that if a peculiar reading, e.g., was found in one of these, it was gener-
ally found also in the other members of the same class; and this
general relationship seemed to point ultimately to a common origin
For all the authorities which presented such peculiarities. Although
BENGUELLA BENIN
737
disposed at first to divide the various documents into three classes,
he finally adopted a classification into two the African or older
family of documents, and the Asiatic, or more recent class, to which
he attached only a subordinate value. The theory was afterwards
adopted by J. S. Semler and J. J. Griesbach, and worked up into an
elaborate system by the latter critic. Bengel's labours on the text
of the Greek Testament were received with great disfavour in many
quarters. Like Brian Walton and John Mill before him, he had to
encounter the opposition of those who believed that the certainty
of the word of God was endangered by the importance attached to
the various readings. J. J. Wetstein, on the other hand, accused
him of excessive caution in not making freer use of his critical
materials. In answer to these strictures, Bengal published a Defence
of the Creek Text of His New Testament, which he prefixed to his
Harmony of the Four Gospels, published in 1736, and which contained
a sufficient answer to the complaints, especially of Wetstein, which
had been made against him from so many different quarters.
The text of Bengel long enjoyed a high reputation among scholars,
and was frequently reprinted. An enlarged edition of the critical
apparatus was published by Philip David Burk in 1763.
(B.) The other great work of Bengei, and that on which his re-
putation as an exegete is mainly based, is his Gnomon Novi Tesla-
menti, or Exegetical Annotations on the New Testament, published in
1742. It was the fruit of twenty years' labour, and exhibits with a
brevity of expression, which, it has been said, " condenses more
matter into a line than can be extracted from pages of other writers,"
the results of his study. He modestly entitled his work a Gnomon
or index, his object being rather to guide the reader to ascertain
the meaning for himself, than to save him from the trouble of personal
investigation. The principles of interpretation on which he pro-
ceeded were, to import nothing into Scripture, but to draw out of it
everything that it really contained, in conformity with grammatico-
historical rules: not to be hampered by dogmatical considerations;
and not to be influenced by the symbolical books. Bengel's hope
that the Gnomon would help to rekindle a fresh interest in the study
of the New Testament was fully realized. It has passed through
many editions, has been translated into German and into English,
and is still one of the books most valued by expositors of the New
Testament. John Wesley made great use of it in compiling his
Expository Notes upon the New Testament (1755).
Besides the two works already described, Bengel was the editor
or author of many others, classical, patristic, ecclesiastical and
expository. The more important are: Ordo Temporum, a treatise
on the chronology of Scripture, in which he enters upon speculations
regarding the end of the world, and an Exposition of the Apocalypse
which enjoyed for a time great popularity in Germany, and was
translated into several languages.
AUTHORITIES. For full details regarding Bengel the reader is
referred to Oskar Wachter's J. A. Bengels Lebensabriss and to the
Memoir of. His Life and Writings (J. A. Bengels Leben und Wirken),
by J. C. F. Burk, translated into English by Rev. R. F. Walker
(London, 1837) ; see also Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, and
E. Nestle, Bengel als Gelehrter (1893).
BENGUELLA (Sao Felipe de Benguella), a town of Portuguese
West Africa, capital of Benguella district, on a bay of the same
name, in 12 33' S., 13 25' E. Benguella was founded in 1617 by
the Portuguese under Manoel Cerveira Pereira. It was long the
centre of an important trade, especially in slaves to Brazil and
Cuba, but has now greatly declined. The anchorage, about a mile
from the town, in 4 to 6 fathoms, is nothing but an open road-
stead. Besides the churches of S. Felipe and S. Antonio, the
hospital, and the fortress, there are only a few stone-built houses.
The white population numbers about 1 500. A short way beyond
Benguella is Bahia Tarta, where salt is manufactured and sulphur
excavated.
About 20 m. north of Benguella is Lobito Bay, a natural
harbour chosen (1903) as the starting-point of a railway to
Katanga. At Lobito steamers can come close inshore and
discharge cargo direct. Lobito is connected with Benguella by
a railway which passes about midway through Katumbella, a
town at the mouth of the river of the same name, and the sea
terminus of an ancient route from the heart of Central Africa
through Bihe. Old Benguella is a small town about 120 m. north
of Lobito Bay.
BENf, a river of Bolivia, a tributary of the Madeira, rising in
the elevated Cordilleras near the city of La Paz and at first known
as the Rio de La Paz, and flowing east, and north-east, to a
junction with the Mamore at 10 20' S. lat. to form the Madeira.
Fully one-half of its length is through the mountainous districts
of central Bolivia, where it is fed by a large number of rivers and
streams from the snowclad peaks, and may be described as a
raging torrent. Below Reyes its course is through the forest-
in. 24
covered hills and open plains of northern Bolivia, where some of
the old Indian missions were located. The lower river is navig-
able for 217 m. from Reyes to the Esperanza rapids, 18 m. above
its confluence with the Mamore, where a fall of 20 ft. in a distance
of 330 yds. obstructs free navigation. Its principal affluent is
the Madre de Dins, or Mayu-tata, which rises in the eastern
Cordilleras about 35 m. east of Cuzco, and flows in an east and
north-east direction through northern Bolivia to a junction with
the Beni 120 m. above its mouth. The principal tributaries of
the Madre deDios are the Inambari and Paucartambo, both large
rivers, and the Chandless, Marcapata, and Tambopata. In
length and size of its tributaries the Madre de Dios is a more
important river than the Beni itself, and is navigable during the
wet season to the foot of the Andes, 180 m. from Cuzco.
BENf (EL BEN!), a department of north-eastern Bolivia,
bounded N. and E. by Brazil, S. by the departments of
Santa Cruz and Cochabamba, and W. by La Paz and the
national territory contiguous to Peru and Brazil. Pop. (est.,
1900) 32,180, including 6000 wild Indians; area (est., probably
too high) 102,111 sq. m. The " Llanos de Mojos," famous for
their flourishing Jesuit mission settlements of the I7th and i8th
centuries, occupy the eastern part of this department and are still
inhabited by an industrious peaceful native population, devoted
to cattle raising and primitive methods of agriculture. Cattle
and forest products, including rubber and coca, are exported to a
limited extent. The capital, Trinidad (pop. 2536), is situated on
the Mamore river in an open fertile country, and was once a
flourishing Jesuit mission.
BENI-AMER (AMIR), a tribe of African " Arabs " of Hamitic
stock, ethnologically intermediate between Abyssinians and
Nubians. They are of the Beja family, and occupy the coast of
the Red Sea south of Suakin and portions of the adjacent
coast-country of Eritrea, north of Abyssinia. They are of very
mixed Beja and Abyssinian blood, and speak a dialect half Beja
and half Tigre, locally known as Hassa. They marry the women
of the Bogos and other mountain tribes; but are too proud to let
their daughters marry Abyssinians.
See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, ed. Count Gleichen (London, 1905);
A. H. Keane, Ethnology of Egyptian Sudan (1884); G. Sergi, Africa:
Antropologia della Stirpe Camitica (Turin, 1897).
BENI-ISRAEL (" Sons of Israel "), a colony of Jews settled on
the Malabar coast in Kolaba district, Bombay presidency,
chiefly centring in the native state of Janjira. With the Jews
of Cochin, they represent a very ancient Judaic invasion of India,
and are to be entirely distinguished from those Jews who have
come to India in modern days for purposes of trade. Some
authorities believe that the Beni-Israel settled in Kolaba in the
1 5th century, but they themselves have traditions which indicate
a far longer connexion with India (see JEWS : 3).
BENIN, the name of a country, city and river of British West
Africa, west of the main channel of the Niger, forming part of the
protectorate of Southern Nigeria. The name was formerly applied
to the coast from the Volta, in o 40' E., to the Rio del Rey, in 8
40' E., and included the Slave Coast, the whole delta of the Niger
and a small portion of the country to the eastward. Some trace
of this earlier application remains in the name " Bight of Benin,"
still given to that part of the sea which washes the Slave Coast,
whilst up to 1894 " Benin " was used to designate the French
possessions on the coast now included in Dahomey.
In its restricted sense Benin is the country formerly ruled by
the king of Benin city. This area, at one time very extensive,
gradually contracted as subject tribes and towns acquired
independence. It may be described as bounded W. by Lagos,
S. by the territory of the Jakri and other tribes of the Niger
delta, E. by the Niger river, and N. by Yorubaland. The
coast-line held by Benin had passed out of its sovereignty by the
middle of the igth century. In physical characteristics, climate,
flora and fauna, Benin in no way differs from the rest of the
southern portion of Nigeria (?..). The coast is low, intersected
by creeks, and forms one huge mangrove swamp; on the rising
ground inland are dense forests in which the cotton and mahogany
trees are conspicuous.
738 BENIN
Benin river (known also as the Jakri outlet), though linked to
the Niger system by a network of creeks, is an independent stream.
It is formed by the junction of two rivers, the Ethiope and the
Jamieson, which rise (north of 6 N.) on the western side of the
hills which slope east to the Niger river. They unite about 50 m.
above the sea. The general course of the Benin is westerly. It
enters the Atlantic in about 5 46' N., 5 3' E., and at its mouth
is 2 m. wide. It is here obstructed by a sand-bar over which there
is 1 2-14 ft. of water at high tide. The river is navigable by small
steamers up to Sapele, a town on the south bank immediately
below the junction of the head streams. The Ologi and Gwato
creeks enter the Benin on the right or north bank, and on the
same side (8 m. above the mouth of the river) a channel, the Lagos
creek, 170 m. long, branches off to the north-west, affording a
waterway to Lagos. From the south or left bank of the Benin
the Forcados mouth of the Niger can be reached by the Nana
creek.
The Beni are a pure negro tribe, speaking a distinct language,
but having many characteristics common to those of the Yoruba-
and Ewe-speaking tribes. Like the Ashanti and Dahomeyans
the Beni had a well-organized and powerful government and
possessed a culture rare among negro races (see below, History).
Benin city is situated in a clearing of the forest; about 25 m.
from the river-port of Gwato, on Gwato creek. The principal
building is the British residency, which is constructed of brick
and timber. A primary school, supported by the native chiefs,
was opened in 1901, and a meteorological station was established
in 1902. In 1904 the town was placed in telegraphic communica-
tion with the rest of the protectorate and with Europe. Of the
ancient city, whose buildings excited the admiration of travellers
in the iyth and i8th centuries, scarcely a trace remains. The
houses are neatly built of clay, coloured with red ochre, and
frequently ornamented with rudely carved pillars. The port of
Gwato, which lies about 30 m. north-north-east of the mouth of
the Benin river, has a special interest as the place where Giovanni
Belzoni, the explorer of Egyptian antiquities, died in 1823 when
starting on an expedition to Timbuktu. No trace of his grave can
now be found. Wari (formerly known also as Owari, Oywhere,
&c.) is a much-frequented port on a branch of the Niger of the
same name reached from the Forcados mouth, and is 55 m. south
of Benin city.
Since the abolition of the slave trade the chief export of the
country is palm-oil. Other trade products were from time to
time with the desire to preserve the isolation and independence
of the country placed under fetish, i.e. their export was for-
bidden, so that in 1897 the only article in which trade was allowed
by the king was palm-oil. After the British occupation, an
extensive trade developed in oil, kernels, timber, ivory, rubber,
&c. In the rubber and timber industries great strides have been
made. The chiefs and people have shown considerable aptitude
in adapting themselves to the new order of things. Among the
articles prized by the Beni is coral, of which the chiefs wear great
quantities as ornaments.
History. Benin was discovered by the Portuguese about the
year 1485, and they carried on a brisk trade in slaves, who were
taken to Elmina and sold to the natives of the Gold Coast. At
that time and for more than two centuries afterwards, Benin
seems to have been one of the most powerful states of West
Africa. It was known to Europeans in the i7th century as the
Great Benin. The towns of Lagos and Badagry were both
founded by Benin colonists. Benin city was the seat of a
theocracy of priests, in whose hands the oba or king, nominally
supreme, appears to have often been a puppet. He was revered
by his subjects as a species of divinity, and seldom left the
enclosure surrounding the royal palace. The religion and
mythology of the Beni, like those of the Yorubas, are based on
spirit- and ancestor-worship (see NEGRO and AFRICA : Ethnology) ;
the chief spirit or juju was worshipped with human sacrifices to
an appalling extent, the Benin fetish being considered the most
powerful in all West Africa. The usual form of sacrifice was
crucifixion. Many chiefs, in no way politically dependent on
Benin, used to send annual presents to the juju. The Benin
people do not appear to have indulged in wanton cruelty, and it is
stated that they usually stupefied the victims before putting them
to death. The people were skilled in brass work; their carving
and design were alike excellent. Carved ivory objects abound,
and there are many evidences of the skill attained by native
artists, who perhaps owed something to their contact with the
Portuguese. The weaving of cloth was also carried on. The Beni
remained politically and socially almost unaffected by European
influence until the occupation of their country by the British in
1897, their connexion with the white men having previously been
almost confined to matters of trade. The Portuguese withdrew
from the coast in the i8th century, but one of the most striking
proofs of their commercial influence is the fact that a corrupt
Lusitanian dialect was spoken by the older natives up to the last '
quarter of the igth century. The first English expedition to
Benin was in 1553; after that time a considerable trade grew up
between England and that country, ivory, palm-oil and pepper
being the chief commodities exported from Benin. The Dutch
afterwards established factories and maintained them for a
considerable time, chiefly with a view to the slave trade. In
1788 Captain Landolphe founded a factory called Barodo, near
the native village of Obobi for the French Compagnie d'Oy where;
and it lasted till 1792, when it was destroyed by the English. In
1863 Sir Richard Burton, then British consul at Fernando Po,
went to Benin to try and put a stop to human sacrifices, an
attempt in which he did not succeed. At that time the decline
in power of the kingdom of Benin was obvious, and the city was
in a decaying condition. In 1885 the coast-line of Benin was
placed under British protection, and steps were taken to enter
into friendly relations with the king. Consul G. F. N. B.
Annesley 1 saw the king in 1890, with the hope of making a treaty,
but failed in his object. In March 1892 Captain H. L. Gall wey,
British vice-consul, succeeded in concluding a treaty with the
king Overami. The treaty, however, proved of no avail, and
the king kept as aloof as of old from any outside interference.
In January 1897 J. R. Phillips, acting consul-general, and eight
Europeans were brutally massacred on the road from Gwato to
Benin city, whilst on a mission to the king. Phillips had persisted
in starting for Benin despite the repeated request of the king
that he should delay his visit until he (the king) had finished the
celebration of the annual " customs." Two Europeans, Captain
Alan Boisragon and R. F. Locke, alone escaped. A punitive
expedition was organized under the command of Admiral Sir
Harry Rawson, the success of which was a remarkable example
of good organization hastily improvised. The news of the
massacre of Phillips's party reached Rear-Admiral Rawson, the
commander-in-chief on the Cape station, on the 4th of January
1897. The flagship was at Simons Town. The small craft were
dispersed. Two ships at Malta had been ordered to join the Cape
command. A transport 'was chartered in the Thames for the
purposes of the expedition. In twenty-nine days a force of 1 200
men, coming from three places between 3000 and 4500 m. from
the Benin river, was landed, organized, equipped and provided
with transport. Five days later the city of Benin was taken, and
in twelve days more the men were re-embarked, and the ships
coaled and ready for any further service. On the 1 7th of February
Benin was occupied after considerable fighting. The town, which
was found to be reeking of human sacrifices, was partly burned,
and on the 22nd the expedition started on its return. The king
and chiefs responsible for the massacre were placed on their trial
by Sir Ralph Moor, high commissioner for Southern Nigeria;
the king was deposed and deported to Calabar, and the chiefs, six
in all, were executed. The chief offender was not brought to
justice until a second punitive expedition in 1899 completed the
pacification of the country. After the removal of the king in
September 1897 a council of chiefs was appointed. This council
carries on the government of the whole Beni country, and is
presided over by a British resident.
1 Mr Annesley (b. 1851), after having served in the Prussian army,
and in the Turkish army during the war of 1877, was in the British
consular service from 1879 to 1892. In 1888 he became consul to
the Congo Free State.
BENITOITE BENJAMIN
739
AUTHORITIES. H. L. Roth, Great Benin, its Customs, Art and
Horrors (Halifax, 1903), a comprehensive and profusely illustrated
work, with an annotated bibliography ; C. H. Read and O. M. Dalton,
Antiquities from Benin . . . tn the British Museum (1899); Pitt
Rivers, Works of Art from Benin (1900); R. E. Dennett, At the Back
of the Black Man's Mind (London, 1906) ; Sir R. Burton, Wanderings
in West Africa (London, 1863); H. L. Gallwey, " Journeys in the
Benin Country," Ceoe. Jnl., vol. i., London, 1893; A. Boisragon,
The Benin Massacre (London, 1897); R. H. Bacon, Benin, the City
of Blood (London, 1898), by a member of the punitive expedition
of 1897; the annual Reports on Southern Nigeria, issued by the
Colonial Office, London.
BENITOITE, a mineral discovered in 1907 near the head-
waters of the San Benito river, San Benito Co., California, and
described by Prof. G. D. Louderback. It is a titano-silicate of
barium (BaTiSiA), crystallizing in the hexagonal system,
with a hardness of 6-5, and specific gravity 3-65. It may be
colourless or blue, the colour varying sometimes in different
parts, and passing to a deep sapphire blue. The blue variety is
cut as a gem stone, and often resembles blue spinel, though its
softness distinguishes it from spinel and sapphire. It is a
brilliant stone, with high refractive index, and is strongly
dithroic, being pale when viewed parallel to the principal axis
and dark when viewed transversely.
BENJAMIN, a tribe of Israel, named after the youngest son of
Jacob and Rachel. As distinct from the others Benjamin was
born not beyond the Jordan but in Palestine, between Bethel and
Ephrath. His mother, dying in childbed, gave him the name
Ben-om, " Son of my sorrow," which was changed by his father
to Ben-jamln, meaning probably " Son of the right hand " (i.e.
" of prosperity," or, perhaps, " son of the south "; Gen. xxxv.
16-18). Of his personal history little is recorded. He was the
favourite of his father and brothers (with which contrast the
spirit of the stories in Judg. xix.-xxi.), and the reputation of
fierceness ascribed to him in the blessing of Jacob (" Benjamin
is a wolf that teareth," Gen. xlix. 27) agrees with what is told of
the tribe's warriors (see EHUD, SAUL, JONATHAN). It is a curious
feature that its noted slingers were said to be left-handed (Judg.
xx. 16, cf. iii. 15) and even ambidextrous (i Chron. xii. 2). The
late references to this tribe in the Israelite wanderings in the
wilderness are of little value. On entering Palestine it is allotted
a portion encompassed by the districts of Ephraim, Dan and
Judah. In the time of the " judges " the tribe of Benjamin was
almost exterminated (see JUDGES, BOOK OF), 600 men alone
escaping (Judges xix. sqq.). The tribe was built up again by the
rape of the maidens of Shiloh at one of their annual festivals (for
which cf. Judges ix. 27), but a later narrative gives currency to
a tradition that 400 virgins were also brought to Shiloh, the
survivors of a massacre of the inhabitants of Jabesh-Gilead. At
all events, Benjamin claimed the honour of providing the great
king of Israel whose heroic deliverance of Jabesh-Gilead is
referred to elsewhere (see SAUL), and it is noteworthy that the
tribe only now attain historical importance. If the genealogies
associated it with Joseph the father of Ephraim and Manasseh,
its fortunes were for a time bound up with the northern kingdom
(see DAVID). Although its territory lies open on the west and
east, its physical features unite it to Judah, and what is known of
its mixed population ' makes it difficult to determine how far the
youngest of the tribes of Israel enjoyed any independent position
previous to the monarchy. Its neutral position between Judah
and Ephraim gave it an importance which was religious as well as
political. Anathoth the home of Abiathar and Jeremiah, Gibeon
the old Canaanite sanctuary, the royal sanctuary at Bethel, its
associations with Samuel and the prophetic gilds of the times
of Elijah and Elisha, and finally Jerusalem itself, the centre of
worship, give " the least of all the tribes " a unique value in the
history of Old Testament religion.
See H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib., col. 534 sqq. (S. A. C.)
BENJAMIN OF TUDELA (in Navarre), a Jewish rabbi of the
1 2th century. He visited Constantinople, Egypt, Assyria and
1 Jerusalem and its district was Jebusite until its capture by David
(so 2 Sam. v.) ; for Beeroth and Gibeon, see 2 Sam. iv. 2 seq.,
xxi. 2, and note the Benjamite and Judahite names which find
analogies in the Edomite genealogies. See, on these points, S. A.
Cook, Jew. Quarterly Review (1906), pp. 528 sqq.
Persia, and penetrated to the frontiers of China. His journeys
occupied him for about thirteen years. He was credulous, but
lis Itinerary^ or Massa'otk, contains some curious notices of the
countries he visited and of the condition of the Jews. Thus his
work is of much value for the Jewish history of the 1 2th century.
It is from Benjamin that we know that the Jews of Palestine and
other parts of the East were noted for the arts of dyeing and
glass-making.
His Itinerary was translated from the Hebrew into Latin by Arias
Montanus in 1575, and appeared in a French version by Baratier
in 1734. There have been various English translations. One was
published by Asher in 1840; another (with critical Hebrew text) by
M. N. Adler (Jewish Quarterly Review, vols. xvi.-xviii. ; also re-
printed as a separate volume, 1907).
BENJAMIN, JUDAH PHILIP (1811-1884), Anglo-American
lawyer, of Jewish descent, was bom a British subject at St Thomas
in the West Indies on the nth of August 1811, and was succes-
sively an American lawyer, a leading Confederate politician and
a distinguished English barrister. He eventually died in Paris a
domiciled Frenchman. After 1818 his parents lived in Charleston,
South Carolina, and he went to Yale hi 1825 for his education, but
left without taking a degree, and entered an attorney's office in
New Orleans. He was admitted to the New Orleans bar in 1832.
He compiled with his friend John Slidell a valuable digest of
decisions of the superior courts of New Orleans and Louisiana;
and as a partner in the firm of Slidell, Benjamin & Conrad, he
enjoyed a good practice. In 1848 he was admitted a councillor
of the supreme court, and in 1852 he was elected a senator for
Louisiana, and thereafter he took an active part in politics,
declining to accept a judgeship of the supreme court. In 1861 he
withdrew from the Senate, left Washington and actively espoused
the Confederate cause. He joined Jefferson Davis's provisional
government as attorney-general, becoming afterwards his
secretary for war (1861-1862), and chief secretary of state
(1862-1865). Although at times subject to fierce criticism with
regard to matters of administration and finance, he was recog-
nized as one of the ablest men on the Confederate side, and he
remained with Jefferson Davis to the last, sharing his flight after
the surrender at Appomattox, and only leaving him shortly before
his capture, because he found himself unable to go farther on
horseback. He escaped from the coast of Florida in an open boat,
and after many vicissitudes reached England, an exile. In 1866
his remaining property was lost in the banking failure of Overend
& Gurney.
In London Benjamin was able to earn a little money by
journalism, and on the I3th of January 1866 he entered Lincoln's
Inn. He received a hospitable welcome from the legal profession.
The influence of English judges who knew his abilities and his
circumstances enabled him to be called to the bar on the 6th of
June 1866, dispensing with the usual three years as a student,
and he acquired his first knowledge of the practice and methods
of English courts as the pupil of Mr C. E. (afterwards Baron)
Pollock. Pollock fully recognized his abilities and they became
and remained firm friends. Benjamin was naturally an apt and
useful pupil; for instance, an opinion of Mr Pollock, which for
long guided the London police in the exercise of their right to
search prisoners, is mentioned by him as having been really
composed by Benjamin while he was still his pupil. Benjamin
joined the northern circuit, and a large proportion of his early
practice came from solicitors at Liverpool who had correspondents
in New Orleans. His business gradually increased, and having
received a patent of precedence, he was on the 2nd of November
1872 called within the bar as a queen's counsel. In addition to
his knowledge of law and of commercial matters he had consider-
able eloquence, and a power of marshalling facts and arguments
that rendered him extremely effective, particularly before judges.
He was less successful in addressing juries, and towards the close
of his career did not take Nisi prius work, but in the court of
appeal and House of Lords and before the judicial committee of
the privy council he enjoyed a very large practice, making for
some time fully i 5,000 a year. The question of raising him to
the bench was seriously considered by Lord Cairns, who, however,
seems to have thought that the ungrudging hospitality and
74
goodwill with which Benjamin had been received by the English
legal profession had gone far enough. Towards the close of his
career he was in ill health, and he suffered from the results of a fall
from a tramcar. He retired in 1882 to a house in Paris which he
had built and where he had been in the habit of passing his vaca-
tions with his wife, who was a Frenchwoman. He never returned
to practice, but came back to London to be entertained by the
bench and bar of England at a banquet in the Inner Temple Hall
on the 30th of June 1883. He died at Paris on the 6th of May
1884.
Benjamin was thick-set and stout, with an expression of great
shrewdness. An early portrait of him is to be found in Jefferson
Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. His political
history may be traced in that work, and in John W. Draper's
American Civil War and von Hoist's Constitutional History of
the United States. Many allusions to his English career will be
found in works describing English lawyers of his period, and there
are some interesting reminiscences of him by Baron Pollock in the
Fortnightly Review for March 1898. His Treatise on the Law of
Sale of Personal Property with References to the American Decisions
and to the French Code and Civil Law a bulky volume known to
practitioners as Benjamin on Sales is the principal text-book
on its subject, and a fitting monument of the author's career at
the English bar, of his industry and learning. Many of his
American speeches have been published.
See Judah P. Benjamin, by Pierce Butler (Philadelphia, 1907, with
a good bibliography).
BEN LEDI (Gaelic, " the hill of God "), a mountain of
Perthshire, Scotland, 2875 ft. high, 5 m. by road N.W. of
Callander. It is situated close to some of the most romantic
scenery in the Highlands, and is particularly well known through
Scott's Lady of the Lake. Its name is supposed to point to the
time when Beltane rites were observed on its summit. A cairn
was built on the top in 1887 to commemorate Queen Victoria's
jubilee. On one of the sides of the mountain is a tarn which
bears the name of Lochan nan Corp, " the little loch of the dead,"
from an accident to a funeral party by which 200 lives were lost.
BENLLIURE Y GIL, JOSE (1858- ), Spanish painter, was
born at Valencia, studied painting under Domingo, and showed
from the first such marked talent that he was sent to the Spanish
school in Rome. He was one of the select circle pensioned by
the Spanish government for residence in Italy and executed
several state orders for the decoration of public buildings; but
he owes his chief fame to his large historical paintings, notably
the " Vision in the Coliseum." He became the leader of the
Spanish art colony in Rome, where he practised as painter and
sculptor.
BEN LOMOND, a mountain in the north-west of Stirlingshire,
Scotland. It is situated near the eastern bank of Loch Lomond,
about 9 m. from the head and about 15 from the foot. It is
3192 ft. high, and the prevailing rocks are granite, mica schist,
diorite, porphyry and quarlzite, the last, where it crops out on
the surface, gleaming in the distance like snow. Duchray Water,
a head-stream of the Forth, rises in the north-east shoulder. The
hill, which is covered with grass to the top, is a favourite climb,
being ascended from Rowardennan (the easiest) or Inversnaid
on the lake, or Aberfoyle 10 m. inland due east. The view from
the summit extends northward as far as the Grampians, with
occasional glimpses of Ben Nevis; westward to Jura in the
Atlantic; south-westward to Arran in the Firth of Clyde;
southward to Tinto Hill, the Lowthers and Cairnsmore; and
eastward to Edinburgh Castle and Arthur's Seat.
BENLOWES, EDWARD (1603 ?-i676), English poet, son of
Andrew Benlowes of Brent Hall, Essex, was born about 1603.
He matriculated at St John's College, Cambridge, in 1620, and
on leaving the university he made a prolonged tour on the
continent of Europe. He was a Roman Catholic in middle life,
but became a convert to Protestantism in his later years. He
dissipated his fortune by openhanded generosity to his friends
and relations, and possibly by serving in the Civil War; so that
he was in great poverty at the time of his death, which occurred
on the 1 8th of December 1676. The last eight years of his life
BEN LEDI BENNETT, J. G.
were passed at Oxford. Many of his writings are in Latin. His
most important work is Theophila, or Love's Sacrifice, a Divine
Poem (1652). The poem deals with mystical religion, telling
how the soul, represented by Theophila, ascends by humility,
zeal and contemplation, and triumphs over the sins of the senses.
It is written in a curious stanza of three lines of unequal length
rhyming together. Until recent times justice has hardly been
done to Benlowes' poetical merits and indisputable piety. Samuel
Butler, who satirized him in his " Character of a Small Poet,"
found abundant matter for ridicule in his eccentricities; and
Pope and Warburton noted him as a patron of bad poets.
His Theophila was reprinted by S. W. Singer; and in Minor Poets
of the Caroline Period, vol. i. (1905), Mr Saintsbury reprints Theophila
and two other poems by Benlowes, " The Summary of Wisedome,"
and " A Poetic Descant upon a Private Music-Meeting."
BEN MACDHUI, more correctly BEN MUICHDHUI (Gaelic for
" the mountain of the black pig," in allusion to its shape), the
second highest mountain (4296 ft.) in Great Britain, one of the
Cairngorm group, on the confines of south-western Aberdeenshire
and south-western Banffshire, not far from the eastern boundary
of Inverness-shire. It is about 1 1 m. from Castleton of Braemar
and about 10 from Aviemore. The ascent is usually made from
Castleton of Braemar, by way of the Linn of Dee. Glen Lui and
Glen Derry. From the head of Glen Derry, with its blasted
trees, the picture of desolation, it becomes more toilsome, but is
partly repaid by the view of the remarkable columnar cliffs of
Corrie Etchachan. The summit is flat and quite bare of vegeta-
tion, but the panorama in every direction is extremely grand.
At the foot of a vast gully, 2500 ft. above the sea, lies Loch Avon
(or A'an), a narrow lake about 13 m. long, with water of the
deepest blue and a margin of bright yellow sand. At the western
end of the lake is the Shelter Stone, an enormous block of granite
resting upon two other blocks, which can accommodate a dozen
persons. Beautiful rock crystals occur in veins in the corries.
The summit of Cairngorm, 3^ m. north of that of Ben Macdhui,
may be reached from the latter with scarcely any descent, by
following the rugged ridge flanking the western side of Loch Avon.
The other great peaks of the group are Braeriach (4248 ft.) and
Cairntoul (4241 ft.), and 6 m. to the east are the twin masses of
BenaBourd, the northern top of which is 3924 ft. and the southern
3860 ft. high. Ben A'an, an adjoining hill, is 3843 ft. high.
BENNETT, CHARLES EDWIN (1858- ), American
classical scholar, was born on the 6th of April 1858, in
Providence, Rhode Island. He graduated from Brown Uni-
versity in 1878 and also studied at Harvard (1881-1882) and in
Germany (1882-1884). He taught in secondary schools in
Florida (1878-1879), New York (1870-1881), and Nebraska
(1885-1889), and became professor of Latin in the University
of Wisconsin in 1889, of classical philology at Brown University
in 1891, and of Latin at-Cornell University in 1892. His syn-
tactical studies, notably various papers on the subjunctive, are
based on a statistical examination of Latin texts and are marked
by a fresh system of nomenclature; he ranks as one of the leaders
of the " New American School " of syntacticians, who insist
on a preliminary re-examination of all available data. Of great
importance are his advocacy of " quantitative " reading of Latin
verse and his Critique of Some Recent Subjunctive Theories in
vol. ix. (1898) of Cornell Studies in Classical Philology, of which
he was an editor. Bennett's Latin Grammar (1893) is the first
successful attempt in America to adopt the method of the brief,
scholarly Schulgrammalik. Besides the Latin classics commonly
read in secondary courses and other text-books in " Bennett's
Latin Series," he edited Tacitus's Dialogus de Oratoribus (1894),
and Cicero's De Senectute (1897) and De Amicitia (1897). He
wrote, with George P. Bristol, The Teaching of Greek and Latin
in Secondary Schools (1900), and The Latin Language (1907),
and with William Alexander Hammond translated The Char-
acters of Theophrastus (1902).
BENNETT, JAMES GORDON (1794-1872), American journa-
list, founder and editor of the New York Herald, was born at
Newmillsin Banffshire, Scotland, in 1794 (not in 1800, as has been
stated). He was educated for the Roman Catholic priesthood
BENNETT, J. BENNETT, SIR W. S.
in a seminary at Aberdeen, but in the spring of 1819, giving up
the career which had been chosen for him, he emigrated to
America. Landing at Halifax, Nova Scotia, he earned a poor
living there for a short time by giving lessons in French, Spanish
and bookkeeping; he passed next to Boston, where starvation
threatened him until he got employment in a printing-office;
and in 1822 he went to New York. An engagement as translator
of Spanish for the Courier of Charleston, South Carolina, took
him there for a few months in 1823. On his return to New York
he projected a school, gave lectures on political economy and did
subordinate work for the journals. During the next ten years
he was employed on various papers, was the Washington corre-
spondent first of the New York Enquirer, and later of the Courier
and Enquirer in 1827-1832, his letters attracting much attention;
he founded the short-lived Globe in New York in 1832; and in
1833-1834 was the chief editor and one of the proprietors of the
Pennsylvanian at Philadelphia. On the 6th of May 1835 he
published the first number of a small one-cent paper, bearing
the title of New York Herald, and issuing from a cellar, in which
the proprietor and editor played also the part of salesman.
" He started with a disclaimer of all principle, as it is called, all
party, all politics "; and to this he consistently adhered. By
his industry, sagacity and unscrupulousness, and by the variety
of his news, the " spicy " correspondence, and the supply of
personal gossip and scandal, he made the paper a great commercial
success. He devoted his attention particularly to the gathering
of news, and was the first to introduce many of the methods
of the modern American reporter. He published on the I3th
of June 1835, the first Wall Street financial article to appear in
any American newspaper; printed a vivid and detailed account
of the great fire of December 1835, in New York; was the first,
in 1846, to obtain the report in full by telegraph of a long political
speech; and during the Civil War maintained a staff of sixty-
three war correspondents. Bennett continued to edit the
Herald almost till his death, at New York, on the ist of
June 1872.
His son, JAMES GORDON BENNETT (1841- ), took over the
management of the paper during the last year of its founder's
life, and succeeded him in its control. It was he who sent
Henry M. Stanley on his mission to find Livingstone in Central
Africa, and he fitted out the "Jeannette" Polar Expedition, and
in 1883 established (with John W. Mackay) the Commercial
Cable Company.
BENNETT, JOHN, one of the finest English madrigalists,
whose first set of madrigals appeared in 1599. In 1614 Ravens-
croft, in a collection including five of his madrigals, writes a
eulogy which reads like an obituary notice. The first set of
madrigals was reprinted in 1845 by the Musical Antiquarian
Society. Bennett's works consist of this set and several con-
tributions to such collections as the Triumphs of Oriana, and to
various collections of church music.
BENNETT, JOHN HUGHES (1812-1875), English physician
and pathologist, was born in London on the 3ist of August 1812.
He was educated at Exeter, and being destined for the medical
profession was articled to a surgeon in Maidstone. In 1833 he
began his studies at Edinburgh, and in 1837 graduated with the
highest honours. During the next four years he studied in Paris
and Germany, and on his return to Edinburgh in 1841 published
a Treatise on Cod-liver Oil as a Therapeutic Agent. In the same
year he began to lecture as an extra-academical teacher on
histology, drawing attention to the importance of the microscope
in the investigation of disease; and as physician to the Royal
Dispensary he instituted courses of " polyclinical medicine."
In 1843 he was appointed professor of the institutes of medicine
at Edinburgh, and performed the duties of that chair with great
energy till incapacitated by failing health. He resigned in 1874.
In August 1875 he was able to be present at the meeting of the
British Medical Association in Edinburgh, on which occasion he
received the degree of LL.D., but the fatigue he then underwent
brought on a relapse, and he was compelled to have the operation
of lithotomy performed. He sank rapidly and died on the 25th
of September at Norwich. His publications were very numerous
including Lectures on Clinical Medicine (1850-1856), which in
second and subsequent editions were called Clinical Lectures
on the Principles and Practice of Medicine, and were translated
into various languages, including Russian and Hindu; Leuco-
cythaemia (1852), the first recorded cure of which was published
by him in 1845; Outlines of Physiology (1858), reprinted from
the 8th edition of the Encyclopaedia Brilannica; Pathology and
Treatment of Pulmonary Tuberculosis (1853); Textbook of
Physiology (1871-1872).
BENNETT, SIR WILLIAM STERNDALE (1816-1875), English
musical composer, the son of Robert Bennett, an organist, was
born at Sheffield on the I3th of April 1816. Having lost his
father at an early age, he was brought up at Cambridge by his
grandfather, from whom he received his first musical education.
He entered the choir of King's College chapel in 1824. In 1826
he entered the Royal Academy of Music, and remained a pupil of
that institution for the next ten years, studying pianoforte under
W. H. Holmes and Cipriani Potter, and composition under Lucas
and Dr Crotch. It was during this time that he wrote several of
his most appreciated works, in which may be traced influences
of the contemporary movement of music in Germany, which
country he frequently visited during the years 1836-1842. At
one of the Rhenish musical festivals in Diisseldorf he made the
personal acquaintance of Mendelssohn, and soon afterwards
renewed it at Leipzig, where the talented young Englishman was
welcomed by the leading musicians of the rising generation. At
one of the celebrated Gewandhaus concerts he played his third
pianoforte concerto, which was received enthusiastically. An en-
thusiastic account of the event was written by Robert Schumann,
who pronounced Bennett to be the most " musikalisch " of all
Englishmen, and " an angel of a musician " (copying Gregory's
pun on AnglinndAngeli). But it was Mendelssohn's influence
that dominated Bennett's mode of utterance. A good example
of this may be studied in Bennett's Capriccio in D minor. His
great success on the continent established his position on his
return to England. In 1834 he was elected organist of St Anne's
chapel (now church), Wandsworth. In this year he composed
his Overture to Parisina, and his Concerto in C minor, modelled
on Mozart. An unpublished concerto in F minor, and the
overture to the Naiads, impressed the firm of Broadwood so
favourably in 1836 that they offered the composer a year in
Leipzig, where the Naiads overture was performed at a Gewand-
haus concert on the i3th of February 1837. Bennett visited
Leipzig a second time in 1840-1841, when he composed his
Caprice in E for pianoforte and orchestra and his overture The
Wood Nymphs. He settled in London, devoting himself chiefly
to practical teaching. In 1844 he married Mary Anne, daughter
of Captain James Wood, R.N. He was made musical professor
at Cambridge in 1856, the year in which he was engaged as
permanent conductor of the Philharmonic Society. This latter
post he held until 1866, when he became principal of the Royal
Academy of Music. Owing to his professional duties his latter
years were not fertile, and what he then wrote was scarcely equal
to the productions of his youth. The principal charm of Bennett's
compositions (not to mention his absolute mastery of the musical
form) consists in the tenderness of their conception, rising
occasionally to sweetest lyrical intensity. Except the opera,
Bennett tried his hand at almost all the different forms of vocal
and instrumental writing. As his best works in various branches
of art, we may mention, for pianoforte solo, and with accompani-
ment of the orchestra, his three sketches, The Lake, The Mill-
stream and The Fountain, and his 3rd pianoforte concerto; for
the orchestra, his Symphony in G minor, and his overture The
Naiads; and for voices, his cantata The May Queen, written for
the Leeds Festival in 1858. For the jubilee of the Philharmonic
Society he wrote the overture Paradise and the Peri in 1862. He
also wrote a sacred cantata, The Woman of Samaria, first per-
formed at the Birmingham Musical Festival in 1867. In 1870
the university of Oxford conferred upon him the honorary degree
of D.C.L. A year later he was knighted, and in 1872 he received
a public testimonial before a large audience at St James's Hall, the
moneysubscribed being devoted tothefoundation of a scholarship
742
BEN NEVIS BENNIGSEN
at the Royal Academy of Music. Shortly before his death he
produced a sonata called the M aid of Orleans, an elaborate piece
of programme music based on Schiller's tragedy. He died at his
house in St John's Wood, London, on the isth of February 1875.
See the Life, by his son (1908).
BEN NEVIS, the highest mountain in the British Isles, in
Inverness-shire, Scotland. It is 4406 ft. above the level of the sea,
and is situated 45 m. E.S.E. of Fort William, the meridian of 5 W.
passing through it. As viewed from Banavie on the Caledonian
Canal, it has the appearance of two great masses, one higher
than the other, and though its bulk is impressive, its outline is
much less striking than that of many other Highland hills. Its
summit consists of a plateau 100 acres in area, with a slight slope
to the south, terminating on its north-eastern side in a sheer fall
of more than 1 500 ft. Snow lies in some of the gorges all the year
round. The rocks of its lower half are mainly granite and gneiss ;
its upper half is composed of porphyritic greenstone, and a variety
of minerals occur. Its circumference at the base is about 30 m.
It may be described as flanked on the west and south by the Glen
and Water of Nevis, on the east by the river and Glen of Treig,
and on the north by the river and Glen of Spean. .From 1881 till
1904 meteorological observations were taken from the summit of
Ben Nevis, the observers at first making the ascent daily for the
purpose. In 188,3, however, an observatory, equipped at a cost
of 4000 (raised by public subscription), was opened by Mrs
Cameron Campbell of Monzie, who provided the site. The
observatory, which was connected by wire with the post office at
Fort William, was provisioned by the Scottish Meteorological
Society, to whom it belonged. The burden of maintaining it,
however, proving too great for the society's means, appeal was
made in vain to government for national support, and the station
was closed in 1904. The bridle road up the mountain leaves Glen
Nevis at Achintee; it has a gradient nowhere exceeding i in 5,
and the ascent is commonly effected in two to three hours.
There is a small hotel on the summit for the convenience of
tourists, especially of those anxious to witness sunrise. From
the summit every considerable peak in Scotland is visible.
Observations conducted during several months have shown that,
whilst the mean temperature at Fort William was 57 F., at the
summit of Ben Nevis it was 41 F., and that though the rainfall
at the fort amounted to 24 in., it was as much as 43 in. on the top
of the Ben.
BENNIGSEN, LEVIN AUGUST, COUNT VON (1745-1826),
Russian general, of Hanoverian family, was born on the loth of
February 1745 in Brunswick, and served successively as a page
at the Hanoverian court and as an officer of foot-guards. He
retired from the Hanoverian army in 1764, and in 1773 entered
the Russian service as a field officer. He fought against the
Turks in 1774 and in 1778, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the
latter year. In 1 787 his conduct at the storming of Oczakov won
him promotion to the rank of brigadier, and he distinguished
himself repeatedly in the Polish War of 1793-1794 and in the
Persian War of 1 796. The part played by Bennigsen in the actual
assassination of the tsar Paul I. is not fully known, but he took a
most active share in the formation and conduct of the conspiracy.
Alexander I. made him governor-general of Lithuania in 1801,
and in 1802 a general of cavalry. In 1806 he was in command of
one of the Russian armies operating against Napoleon, when he
fought the battle of Pultusk and met the emperor in person in
the sanguinary battle of Eylau (8th of February 1807). Here he
could claim to have inflicted the first reverse suffered by Napoleon,
but six months later Bennigsen met with the crushing defeat of
Friedland (i4th of June 1807) the direct consequence of which
was the treaty of Tilsit. Bennigsen now retired for some years,
but in the campaign of 1812 be reappeared in the army in various
responsible positions. He was present at Borodino, and defeated
Murat in the engagement of Tarutino, but on account of a quarrel
with Marshal Kutusov, the Russian commander-in-chief, he
was compelled to retire from active military employment. After
the death of Kutusov he was recalled and placed at the head of an
army. Bennigsen led one of the columns which made the decisive
attack on the last day of the battle of Leipzig (i6th-i()th of
October 1813). On the same evening he was made a count by
the emperor Alexander I., and he afterwards commanded the
forces which operated against Marshal Davout in North Germany.
After the general peace he held a command from 1815 to 1818,
when he retired from active service and settled on his Hanoverian
estate of Banteln near Hildesheim. Count Bennigsen died on the
3rd of December 1826. His son, ALEXANDER LEVIN, count von
Bennigsen( 1809-1 893) ,was a distinguishedHanoverian statesman.
BENNIGSEN, RUDOLF VON (1824-1902), German politician,
was born at Luneburg on the loth of July 1824. He was
descended from an old Hanoverian family, his father, Karl von
Bennigsen, being an officer in the Hanoverian army, who rose
to the rank of general and also held diplomatic appointments.
Bennigsen, having studied at the university of Gottingen,
entered the Hanoverian civil service. In 1855 he was elected a
member of the second chamber; and as the government refused
to allow him leave of absence from his official duties he resigned
his post in the public service. He at once became the recognized
leader of the Liberal opposition to the reactionary government,
but must be distinguished from Count Bennigsen, a member of
the same family, and son of the distinguished Russian general,
who was also one of the parliamentary leaders at the time.
What gave Bennigsen his importance not only in Hanover, but
throughout the whole of Germany, was the foundation of the
National Verein, which was due to him, and of which he was
president. This society, which arose out of the public excite-
ment created by the war between France and Austria, had for
its object the -formation of a national party which should strive
for the unity and the constitutional liberty of the whole Father-
land. It united the moderate Liberals throughout Germany, and
at once became a great political power, notwithstanding all the
efforts of the governments, and especially of the king of Hanover
to suppress it. In 1866 Bennigsen used all his influence to keep
Hanover neutral in the conflict between Prussia and Austria, but
in vain. He took no part in the war, but his brother, who was
an officer in the Prussian army, was killed in Bohemia. In May
of this year he had an important interview with Bismarck, who
wished to secure his support for the reform of the confederation,
and after the war was over at once accepted the position of a
Prussian subject, and took his seat in the diet of the North
German Confederation and in the Prussian parliament. He
used his influence to procure as much autonomy as possible for
the province of Hanover, but was a strong opponent of the
Guelph party. He was one of the three Hanoverians, Wind-
thorst and Miquel being the other two, who at once won for the
representatives of the conquered province the lead in both the
Prussian and German parliaments. The National Verein, its
work being done, was now dissolved; but Bennigsen was chiefly
instrumental in founding a new political party the National
Liberals, who, while they supported Bismarck's national policy,
hoped to secure the constitutional development of the country.
For the next thirty years he -was president of the party, and was
the most influential of the parliamentary leaders. It was chiefly
owing to him that the building up of the internal institutions of
the empire was carried on without the open breach between
Bismarck and the parliament, which was often imminent. Many
amendments suggested by him were introduced in the debates
on the constitution; in 1870 he undertook a mission to South
Germany to strengthen the national party there, and was con-
sulted by Bismarck while at Versailles. It was he who brought
about the compromise on the military bill in 1874. In 1877 he
was offered the post'of vice-chancellor with a seat in the Prussian
ministry, but refused it because Bismarck or the king would not
agree to his conditions. From this time his relations with the
government were less friendly, and in 1878 he brought about
the rejection of the first Socialist Bill. In 1883 he resigned his
seat in parliament owing to the reactionary measures of the
government, which made it impossible for him to continue his
former co-operation with Bismarck, but returned in 1887 to
support the coalition of national parties. One of the first acts
of the emperor William II. was to appoint him president of the
province of Hanover. In 1897 he resigned this post and
BENNINGTON BENOIT DE SAINTE-MORE
743
retired from public life. He died on the 7th of August
1902.
See biographical notices by A. Kiepert (2nd ed., Hanover, 1902),
and E. Schreck (Hanover, 1894).
BENNINGTON, a village and one of the county-seats of
Bennington county, Vermont, U.S.A., situated in the S.W.
part of the state, about 30 m. E.N.E. of Troy, New York. Pop.
(1890) 3971; (1900) 5656 (965 foreign-born); (1910) 6211.
The township of the same name, in which it is situated, had in
1910 a population of 8698, living chiefly in the villages of
Bennington, North Bennington and Bennington Centre, the
last a summer resort. The village of Bennington is served by
the Rutland railway, and is connected by electric railway with
North Adams and Pittsfield, Mass., and Hoosick Falls, N.Y.
It is picturesquely situated at the foot of the Green Mountains,
and the summit of the neighbouring Mt. Anthony (2345 ft.)
commands a magnificent view. The village has woollen mills,
knitting mills, stereoscope, box, and collar and cuff factories
and machine shops. There are white clay and yellow ochre
works in different parts of the township. Bennington is the seat
of the Vermont state soldiers' home. The Bennington Battle
Monument, a shaft 301 ft. high, is said to be the highest battle
monument in the world. It commemorates the success gained
on the i6th of August 1777 by a force of nearly 2000 " Green
Mountain Boys " and New Hampshire and Massachusetts
militia under General John Stark over two detachments of
General Burgoyne's army, totalling about 1200 men, under
Col. Friedrich Baum and Col. Breyman. These came up one
after the other in search of provisions and were practically
annihilated, Col. Baum being mortally wounded and 700 men
taken prisoners. I The scene of the battle is about 5 m. from the
village. The victory had an important influence on Burgoyne's
campaign (see AMERICAN WAR OF INDEPENDENCE), weakening
Burgoyne and encouraging the American militia to take the
field against him. Bennington was settled in 1761 and was
named in honour of Governor Benning Wentworth of New
Hampshire. The township was organized in 1762. It was one
of the " New Hampshire Grant " towns, both New York and
New Hampshire claiming jurisdiction over it, and, being the
home of Ethan Allen and Seth Warner, it became the centre
of activities of the " Green Mountain Boys," of whom they were
leaders. During the fifteen years in which Vermont was an
independent commonwealth, Bennington was the headquarters
of the council of safety. In 1828-1829 W. L. Garrison edited
here a paper called The Journal of the Times. The village of
Bennington was incorporated in 1849.
See Merrill and Merrill, Sketches of Historic Bennington (Cam-
bridge, Mass., 1898).
BENNO (1010-1106), bishop of Meissen, was the son of Werner,
count of Woldenburg, was educated at Gosslar, and in 1066 was
nominated by the emperor Henry IV. to the see of Meissen. In
the troubles between empire and papacy that followed Benno
took part against the emperor. In 1085 he was deposed by the
synod of Mainz, but after the death of Pope Gregory VII. he
submitted, and on the recommendation of the imperialist Pope
Clement III. was restored to his see, which he held till his death.
He did much for his diocese, both by ecclesiastical reforms on
the Hildebrandine model and by material developments. He
was long reverenced in his own diocese as a saint before, in 1523,
he was canonized by Pope Adrian VI. His canonization drew
from Luther a violent brochure " against the new false god and
old devil, who is to be lifted up at Meissen."
For bibliography, see Ulysse Chevalier, Repertoire des sources hist.:
Bio-bibliographte, s.v. " Bennon."
BENOIT, PETER LEONARD LEOPOLD (1834-1001), Flemish
composer, was born on the i7th of August 1834 at Harlebeke
in Flanders. His father and a local village organist were his
first teachers. In 1851 Benoit entered the Brussels Conserva-
toire, where he remained till 1855, studying chiefly under F. J.
F6tis. During this period he composed music to many melo-
dramas, and to an opera Le Village dans les montagnes for the
Park theatre, of which in 1856 he became conductor. He won
a government prize and a money grant in 1857 by his cantata
Le Meitrlre d'Abel, and this enabled him to travel through
Germany. In course of his journeyings he found time to write
a considerable amount of music, as well as an essay L'cole de
mitsique flamande el son avenir. F6tis loudly praised his
Messe solennelle, which Benoit produced at Brussels on his
return from Germany. In 1861 he visited Paris for the produc-
tion of his opera Le Roi des Aulnes (" Erlkonig "), which, though
accepted by the Th64tre Lyrique, was never mounted; while
there he conducted at the Bouffes-Parisiens. Again returning
home, he astonished a section of the musical world by the pro-
duction at Antwerp of a sacred tetralogy, consisting of his
Cantate de Noel, the above-mentioned Mass, a Te Deum and a
Requiem, in which were embodied to a large extent his theories
of Flemish music. It was in consequence of his passion for the
founding of an entirely separate Flemish school that Benoit
changed his name from Pierre to Peter. By prodigious efforts
he succeeded in gathering round him a small band of enthusiasts,
who affected to see with him possibilities in the foundation of
a school whose music should differ completely from that of the
French and German schools. In its main features this school
failed, for its faith was pinned to Benoit's music, which is hardly
more Flemish than French or German. Benoit's more important
compositions include the Flemish oratorios De Scheldt and
Lucifer, the latter of which met with complete failure on its
production in London in 1888; the operas Het Dorp int Gebirgte
and Isa, the Drama Christi; an enormous mass of songs, choruses,,
small cantatas and motets. Benoit also wrote a great number
of essays on musical matters. He died at Antwerp on the 8th
of March 1901.
BENOIT DE SAINTE-MORE, or SAINTE MAURE, izth century
French trouvere, is supposed to have been a native of Sainte-
Maure in Touraine. Very little is known of his personal history.
The maitre prefixed to his name implies that he had graduated
at the university, but there is nothing to show whether he was
a simple trouvere by profession or belonged to the clergy. He
was a loyal subject of Henry II. of England, to whose court he
was attached, and when he speaks of the French, it is as " they."
Wace had begun a history of the dukes of Normandy in his
Roman du Rou. This he brought down to the reign of Henry I.,
but here Henry II. seems to have withdrawn his patronage, and
at the end of his poem Wace refers to a maislre Beneeit who had
received a similar commission. There is no other contemporary
poem extant dealing with the subject except the Chronique des
dues de Normandie, and it would seem reasonable to assume the
identity of Wace's rival with Benoit de Sainte-More, whose
authorship of the chronicle has, nevertheless, been often disputed.
But a comparison of the Roman de Troie, which is certainly
Benoit's work, with the Chronique, confirms the supposition that
they are by the same author. The poem contains over forty
thousand lines, and relates the history of the Norman dukes
from Rollo to Henry I., with a preliminary sketch of the Danish
invasions and the adventures of Hastings and his companions.
It has no claims to be considered an original authority. Benoit
drew his information from the De moribus et actis primorum
Normanniae ducum of Dudon de Saint Quentin as far as 1002,
following his model very closely. From that time he avails
himself of the chronicle of William of Jumieges, also of Ordericus
Vitalis and others. The Chronique probably dates from about
1172 to 1176. In the Roman de Troie, written about n6o,
Benoit expressly asserts his authorship. He mentions " Omers "
with great respect as li clers meneittos, but his authority for the
story is naturally not Homer, of whom he could have no first-
hand knowledge. He follows the apocryphal Historia de excidio
Trojae of Dares the Phrygian and the Ephemerides belli Trojani
of Dictys of Crete. The poem runs to about 30,000 lines. The
personages of the classical story are converted into heroes of
romance. They have their castles and their abbeys, and act
in accordance with feudal custom. The supernatural machinery
of Homer is missing both in Benott's original and his own
narrative. The story begins with the capture of the Golden
Fleece and comes down to the return of the Greek princes after
744
BENSERADE BENSON, E. W.
the fall of Troy. Benoit diverges very widely from the classical
tradition, and M. Leopold Constans sees reason to suppose that
the trouvere founded his poem on an amplified version of the
Dares narrative that has not come down to us. In. the Roman
de Troie first appeared the episode of Tro'ilus and Briscida, that
was to be developed later in the Filostrato of Boccaccio, which
in its turn formed the basis of Chaucer's Troilus and Creseide.
The Shakespearian play of Troilus and Cressida is also indirectly
derived from Benoit's story.
On the strength of a certain similarity of treatment Benoit has
sometimes been credited with the authorship of the anonymous
Roman d' Eneas and of the Roman de Thebes, a romance derived
indirectly from the Thebais of Statius. M. Constans is inclined
to negative both these attributions. It is not even certain that
the Benoit who chronicled the deeds of the Norman dukes for
Henry II. between 1172 and 1176 was the Benoit de Sainte-More
of the Roman de Troie.
The Chronique des dues de Normandie was edited by Francisque
Michel in 1836-1844; the Roman de Troie by A. Joly in 1870-1871 ;
the neas, by J. J. Salverda de Grave in H. Suchier's Bibliolheca
Normannica in 1891 ; the Roman de Thebes for the Societe des anciens
textes fransais, by M. L. Constans in 1890. See E. D. Grand in
La Grande Encyclopedie; L. Constans in Petit de Julleville's Hist,
de la langue et de la lilt, franf aise (vol. i. pp. 171-225). where the three
romances are analysed at length. The prefaces to the editions just
mentioned discuss the authorship of the romances.
BENSERADE, ISAAC DE (1613-1691), French poet, was born
in Paris, and baptized on the $th of November 1613. His family
appears to have been connected with Richelieu, who bestowed on
him a pension of 600 livres. He began his literary career with the
tragedy of Cleop&tre (1635), which was followed by four other in-
different pieces. On Richelieu's death Benserade lost his pension,
but became more and more a favourite at court, especially
with Anne of Austria. He provided the words for the court
ballets, and was, in 1674, admitted to the Academy, where he
wielded an influence quite out of proportion to the merit of his
work. In 1676 the failure of his Metamorphoses d'Ovide in the
form of rondeaux gave a blow to his reputation, but by no means
destroyed his vogue with his contemporaries. Benserade would
probably be forgotten but for his sonnet on Job (1651). This
sonnet, which he sent to a young lady with his paraphrase on Job,
having been placed in competition with the Urania of Voiture, a
dispute on their relative merits long divided the whole court and
the wits into two parties, styled respectively the Jobelins and the
Uranists. The partisans of Benserade were headed by the prince
de Conti and Mile de Scudery, while Mme de Montausier and
J. G. de Balzac took the side of Voiture.
Some years before his death, on the igth of October 1691,
Benserade retired to Chantilly, and devoted himself to a transla-
tion of the Psalms, which he nearly completed.
BENSLEY, ROBERT, an iSth-century English actor, of whom
Charles Lamb in the Essays of Elia speaks with special praise.
His early life is obscure, and he is said to have served in America
as a lieutenant of marines; but he appeared at Drury Lane in
1765, and at that house and at Covent Garden, and later at the
Haymarket, he played important parts up to 1796, when he
retired from the stage. He appears then to have been given
a small post under the government, a paymastership, which he
resigned in 1798. He is stated in various quarters to have died
in 1817, but Mr Joseph Knight shows in his article in the Diet.
Nat. Biog. that this is due to a confusion with another man
name'd William Bensley, who possibly belonged to the family
of printers of whom Thomas Bensley (d. 1833) was the chief
representative. On the stage he was simply " Mr Bensley,"
but though he is named William and even Richard in some
accounts, Mr Knight shows that his name was certainly Robert.
The actual date of his death is unknown, though it was probably
later than 1809, when he is said to have inherited a fortune. His
great character was Malvolio, but Charles Lamb's fervent
admiration of his acting seems to have outrun the general
opinion.
BENSON, EDWARD WHITE (1829-1896), archbishop of
Canterbury, was born on the i4th of July 1829, at Birmingham.
He came of a family of Yorkshire dalesmen, his father, whose
name was also Edward White Benson, being a manufacturing
chemist of some note. He was educated at King Edward VI. 's
school, Birmingham, under James Prince Lee, afterwards bishop
of Manchester, and amongst his school-fellows were B.F. Westcott
and J. B. Lightfoot, both of whom preceded him to Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he was elected a sub-sizar in 1848,
becoming subsequently sizar and scholar. The death of his
widowed mother in 1850 left him almost without resources, with
a family of younger brothers and sisters dependent upon him.
Relations came to his aid, and presently his anxieties were
relieved by Francis Martin, bursar of Trinity, who gave him
liberal help. Benson took his degree in 1852 as a senior op time,
eighth classic and senior chancellor's medallist, and was elected
fellow of Trinity in the following year. He became a master at
Rugby, first under E. M. Goulburn, and then (1857) under
Frederick Temple, who became his lifelong friend; he was also
ordained deacon in 1854 and priest in 1856. From Rugby he
went to be first headmaster of Wellington College, which was
opened in January 1859; and in the course of the same year he
married his cousin, Mary Sidgwick. The school flourished under
his management and also developed his administrative abilities,
but gradually his thoughts began to turn towards other work.
In 1868 he became prebendary of Lincoln and examining chaplain
to Bishop Christopher Wordsworth, an office which he also held
for a short time in 1870 for Dr Temple, just appointed to the see
of Exeter. In 1872 his acceptance of the chancellorship of
Lincoln opened a new period of his life. As chancellor, the
statutes directed him to study theology, to train others in that
study and to oversee the educational work of the diocese. To
such work Benson at once devoted himself; and did more
perhaps than any other man to reinvigorate cathedral life in
England. He started a theological college (the Scholae Cancel-
larii), founded night schools, delivered courses of lectures on
church history, held Bible classes, and was instrumental in
founding a society of mission preachers for the diocese, the
" Novate Novale." Early in 1877 he was consecrated first
bishop of Truro, and threw himself with characteristic vigour into
the work of organizing the new diodese. His knowledge, his
sympathy, his enthusiasm soon made themselves felt every where ;
the ruridecanal conferences of clergy became a real force, and the
church in Cornwall was inspired with a vitality that had never
been possible when it was part of the unwieldy diocese of Exeter.
A chapter was constituted, the bishop being dean; amongst its
members was a canon missioner (the first to be appointed in
England), and the Scholae Cancettarii were founded after the
Lincoln pattern. Moreover, the bishop at once set to work to
build a cathedral. The foundation-stone was laid on the 2oth of
May 1880, and on the 3rd of November 1887 the building, so
far as then completed, was consecrated. On the death of Dr
Tail, Benson was nominated to the see of Canterbury and was
enthroned on the 29th of March 1883. His primacy was one of
almost unprecedented activity.
Frequent communications passed between him and the heads
of the Eastern Churches. With their approval a bishop was again
consecrated, after six years' interval (1881-1887), for the Anglican
congregations in Jerusalem and the East; and the features which
had made the plan objectionable to many English churchmen
were now abolished. In 1886, after much careful investiga-
tion, he founded the " Archbishop's Mission to the Assyrian Chris-
tians," having for its object the instruction and the strengthening
from within of the " Nestorian " churches of the East (see
NESTORIANS) . An interchange of courtesies with the Metropolitan
of Kiev on the occasion of the gooth anniversary of the conversion
of Russia (1888), led to further intercourse, which has tended to a
friendlier feeling between the English and Russian churches. On
the other hand, with the efforts towards a rapprochement with
the Church of Rome, to which the visit of the French Abbe
Portal in 1894 gave some stimulus, the archbishop would have
nothing to do.
With the other churches of the Anglican Communion the
archbishop's relations were cordial in the extreme and grew
BENSON, F. R. BENSON, F. W.
closer as time went on. Particular questions of importance, the
Jerusalem bishopric, the healing of the Colenso schism in the
diocese of Natal, the organization of native ministries and the
like, occupied much of his time; and he did all in his power to
foster the growth of local churches. But it was the work at home
which occupied most of his energies. That he in no way slighted
diocesan work had been shown at Truro. He complained now
that the bishops were " bishops of their dioceses but not bishops
of England," and did all he could to make the Church a greater
religious force in English life. He sat on the ecclesiastical courts
commission (1881-1883) and the sweating commission (1888-
1890). He brought bills into parliament to reform Church
patronage and Church discipline, and worked unremittingly for
years in their behalf. The latter became law in 1892, and the
former was merged in the Benefices Bill, which passed in 1898,
after his death. He wrote and spoke vigorously against Welsh
disestablishment (1893); and in the following year, under his
guidance, the existing agencies for Church defence were consoli-
dated. He was largely instrumental in the inauguration of the
House of Laymen in the province of Canterbury (1886) ; he made
diligent inquiries as to the internal order of the sisterhoods of
which he was visitor; from 1884 onwards he gave regular Bible
readings for ladies in Lambeth Palace chapel. But the most
important ecclesiastical event of his primacy was the judgment
in the case of the bishop of Lincoln (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT), in
which the law of the prayer-book is investigated, as it had never
been before, from the standpoint of the whole history of the
English Church. In 1896 the archbishop went to Ireland to see the
working of the sister Church. He was received with enthusiasm,
but the work which his tour entailed 1 over-fatigued him. On
Sunday morning the i ith of October, just after his return, whilst
on a visit to Mr Gladstone, he died in Ha warden parish church of
heart failure.
Archbishop Benson left numerous writings, including a
valuable essay on The Cathedral (London, 1878), and various
charges and volumes of sermons and addresses. But his two
chief works, posthumously published, are his Cyprian (London,
1897), a work of great learning, which had occupied him at
intervals since early manhood; and The Apocalypse, an Intro-
ductory Study (London, 1900), interesting and beautiful, but
limited by the fact that the method of study is that of a Greek
play, not of a Hebrew apocalypse. The archbishop's knowledge
of the past was both wide and minute, but it was that of an
antiquary rather than of a historian. " I think," writes his
son, "he was more interested in modern movements for their
resemblance to ancient than vice versa." His sermons are very
noble though written in a style which is over-compressed and
often obscure. He wrote some good hymns, including " O
Throned, O Crowned " and a beautiful version of Urbs Beata.
His "grandeur in social function" was unequalled and his
interests were very wide. But above all else he was a great
ecclesiastic. He paid less attention to secular politics than
Archbishop Tait; but if a man is to be judged by the effect of
his work, it is Benson and not Tait who should be described as a
great statesman. His biography, by his son, reveals him as a
man of devout and holy life, impulsive indeed and masterful,
but one who learned self-restraint by strenuous endeavour.
His eldest son, ARTHUR CHRISTOPHER BENSON (b. 1862), was
educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge. He became
fellow of Magdalene College, Cambridge, and was a master at
Eton College from 1885 to 1903. His literary capacity was
early shown in the remarkable fiction of his Memoirs of Arthur
Hamilton (1886) under the pseudonym of " Christopher Carr,"
and his Poems (1893) and Lyrics (1895) established his reputation
as a writer of verse. Among his works are Fasti Etonenses (i 899) ;
his father's Life (1899); The Schoolmaster (1002), a commentary
on the aims and methods of an assistant schoolmaster in a
public school; a study of Archbishop Laud (1887); mono-
graphs on D. G. Rossetti (1904), Edward FitzGerald (1905) and
Walter Pater (1906), in the "English Men of Letters" series;
Lord Vyet and other Poems (1897), Peace and other Poems
(1905); The Upton Letters (1905), From a College Window
745
(1906), Beside Still Waters (1907). He also collaborated with
Lord Esher in editing the Correspondence of Queen Victoria
(1907).
The third son, EDWARD FREDERICK BENSON (b. 1867), was
educated at Marlborough College and King's College, Cambridge.
He worked at Athens for the British Archaeological Society
from 1892 to 1895, and subsequently in Egypt for the Hellenic
Society. In 1893 his society novel, Dodo, brought him to the
front among the writers of clever fiction; and this was followed
by other novels, notably The Vintage (1808) and The Capsina
(1899).
The fourth son, ROBERT HUGH BENSON (b. 1871), was educated
at Eton and Trinity College, Cambridge. After reading with
Dean Vaughan at Llandaff he took orders, and in 1808 became
a member of the Community of the Resurrection at Mirfield.
In 1903 he became a Roman Catholic, was ordained priest at
Rome in the following year, and returned to Cambridge as
assistant priest of the Roman Catholic church there. Among
his numerous publications are The Light Invisible, By What
Authority?, The King's Achievement, Richard Raynal, Solitary,
The Queen's Tragedy, The Sentimentalists, Lord oj the World.
See A. C. Benson, Life of Archbishop Benson (2 vols.. London,
I 8 99); J- H. Bernard, Archbishop Benson in Ireland (1897);
Sir L. T. Dibdin in The Quarterly Review, October 1897.
BENSON, FRANCIS ROBERT (1858- ), English actor, son
of William Benson of Alresford, Hants, was born at Tunbridge
Wells on the 4th of November 1858. He came of a talented
family, his elder brother, W. A. S. Benson (b. 1854), becoming
well known in the world of art as one of the pioneers in the
revival of English industrial craftsmanship, especially in the
field of the metallic arts; and his younger brother, Godfrey
Benson, being an active Liberal politician. He was educated
at Winchester and New College, Oxford, and at the university
was distinguished both as an athlete (winning the Inter-university
three miles) and as an amateur actor. In the latter respect he
was notable for producing at Oxford the first performance of a
Greek play, the Agamemnon, in which many Oxford men who
afterwards became famous in other fields took part. Mr Benson,
on leaving Oxford, took to the professional stage, and made
his first appearance at the Lyceum, under Irving, in Romeo and
Juliet, as Paris, in 1882. In the next year he went into manager-
ship with a company of his own, taken over from Walter Bentley,
and from this time he became gradually more and more promine nt ,
both as an actor of leading parts himself and as the organizer
of practically the only modern "stock company" touring
through the provinces. In 1886 he married Gertrude Constance
Cockburn (Featherstonhaugh), who acted in his company and
continued to play leading parts with him. Mr Benson's chief
successes were gained out of London for some years, but in 1800
he had a season in London at the Globe and in 1900 at the
Lyceum, and in later years he was seen with his rlpertoire at the
Coronet. His company included from time to time many actors
and actresses who, having been trained under him, became
prominent on their own account, and both by his organization
of this regular company and by his foundation of a dramatic
school of acting in 1901, Mr Benson exercised a most important
influence on the contemporary stage. From the first he devoted
himself largely to the production of Shakespeare's plays, reviving
many which had not been acted for generations, and his services
to the cause of Shakespeare can hardly be overestimated. From
1888 onwards he managed the Stratford-on-Avon Shakespearian
Festival. His romantic and intellectual powers as an actor,
combined with his athletic and picturesque bearing and fine
elocution, were conspicuously shown in his own impersonations,
most remarkable among which were his Hamlet (in 1000 he
sroduced this play without cuts in London), his Coriolanus, his
Rjchard II., his Lear and his Petruchio.
BENSON, FRANK WESTON (1862- ), American painter,
was born in Salem, Massachusetts, on the 24th of March 1862.
rle was a pupil of Boulanger and of Lefebvre in Paris; won
many distinctions in American exhibitions, and a silver medal
at the Paris Exhibition of 1900; and became a member of
746
BENSON, G. BENTHAM, G.
the " Ten Americans," and of the National Academy of Design,
New York. Besides portraits, he painted landscape and still life ;
and he was one of the decorators of the Congressional library,
Washington, B.C.
BENSON, GEORGE (1699-1762), English dissenting minister,
was born at Great Salkeld, in Cumberland, on the ist of Sep-
tember 1699, of a family which had distinguished itself in church
and state. He studied at a school at Whitehaven and later at the
university of Glasgow. In 1722, on Calamy's recommendation,
he was chosen pastor of a congregation of dissenters at Abing-
don, in Berkshire, where he continued till 1729, when, having em-
braced Arminian views, he became the choice of a congregation
in Southwark; and in 1740 he was appointed by the congregation
of Crutched Friars colleague to the learned Dr Nathaniel Lardner,
whom he succeeded in 1 749. His Defence of the Reasonableness of
Prayer appeared in 1731, and he afterwards published para-
phrases and notes on the epistles to the Thessalonians, Timothy,
Titus and Philemon, adding dissertations on several important
subjects, particularly (as an appendix to i Timothy) on inspira-
tion. In 1 738 he published his History of the First Planting of the
Christian Religion, in 3 vols. 4to, a work of great learning and
ability. He also wrote the Reasonableness of the Christian
Religion (1743), the History of the Life of Jesus Christ, post-
humously published in 1764, a paraphrase and notes on the
seven Cathoh'c epistles, and several other works, which gained him
great reputation as a scholar and theologian even outside his
own communion and his own country. Owing to his undoubted
Socinianism his works suffered neglect after his death, which
occurred on the 6th of April 1762.
BENT, JAMES THEODORE (1852-1897), English traveller,
was the son of James Bent of Baildon House, near Leeds, York-
shire, where he was born on the 3oth of March 1852. He was
educated at Repton school and Wadham College, Oxford, where
he graduated in 1875. In 1877 he married Mabel, daughter of
R. W. Hall-Dare of Newtownbarry, Co. Wexford, and she became
his companion in all his travels. He went abroad every year and
became thoroughly acquainted with Italy and Greece. In 1879
he published a book on the republic of San Marino, entitled A
Freak of Freedom, and was made a citizen of San Marino; in the
following year appeared Genoa: How the Republic Rose and
Fell, and in 1881 a Life of Giuseppe Garibaldi. He spent con-
siderable time in the Aegean archipelago, of which he wrote in
The Cyclades: or Life among the Insular Greeks (1885). From
this period Bent devoted himself particularly to archaeological
research. The years 1885-1888 were given up to investigations
in Asia Minor, his discoveries and conclusions being communi-
cated to the Journal of Hellenic Studies and other magazines
and reviews. In 1889 he undertook excavations in the Bahrein
Islands of the Persian Gulf, and found evidence that they had
been a primitive home of the Phoenician race. After an expedition
in 1890 to Cilicia Trachea, where he obtained a valuable collection
of inscriptions, Bent spent a year in South Africa, with the object,
by investigation of some of the ruins in Mashonaland, of throwing
light on the vexed question of their origin and on the early history
of East Africa. He made the first detailed examination of the
Great Zimbabwe. Bent described his work in The Ruined Cities
of Mashonaland (1892). In 1893 he investigated the ruins of
Axum and other places in the north of Abyssinia, partially made
known before by the researches of Henry Salt and others, and The
Sacred City of the Ethiopians (1893) gave an account of this
expedition. Bent now visited at considerable risk the almost
unknown Hadramut country (1893-1894), and during this and
later journeys in southern Arabia he studied the ancient history
of the country, its physical features and actual condition. On
the Dhafar coast in 1894-1895 he visited ruins which he identified
with the Abyssapolis of the frankincense merchants. In 1895-
1896 he examined part of the African coast of the Red Sea,
finding there the ruins of a very ancient gold-mine and traces of
what he considered Sabean influence. While on another journey
in South Arabia (1896-1897), Bent was seized with malarial fever,
and died in London on the sth of May 1897, a few days after his
return. Mrs Bent, who had contributed by her skill as a photo-
grapher and in other ways to the success of her husband's
journeys, published in 1900 Southern Arabia, Soudan and Sakotra,
in which were given the results of their last expedition into that
region. The conclusions at which Bent arrived as to the Semitic
origin of the ruins in Mashonaland have not been accepted by
archaeologists, but the value of his pioneer work is undeniable
(see ZIMBABWE).
BENT. i. (From " to bend "), primarily the result of bending;
hence any inclination from the straight, as in curved objects like
a hook or a bow; this survives in the modern phrase " to follow
one's own bent," i.e. to pursue a certain course in a direction
deviating from the normal, as also in such phrases as Chaucer's
" Downward on a hill under a bent," indicating a hollow or
declivity in the general configuration of the land. From the
bending of a bow comes the idea of tension, as in Hamlet, " they
fool me to the top of my bent," i.e. to the utmost of my capacity.
2. (From the O. Eng. beonet, a coarse, rushy grass growing in wet
places; cf. the Ger. Binse, a reed), the name (" bent " or
"bennet ") popularly applied to several kinds of grass and
surviving in the form " bent-grass."
BENTHAM, GEORGE (1800-1884), English botanist, was
born at Stoke near Portsmouth on the 22nd of September 1800.
His father, Sir Samuel Bentham (1757-1831), was the only
brother of Jeremy Bentham, the publicist, and of scarcely
inferior ability though in a different direction. Devoting himself
in early life to the study of naval architecture, Sir Samuel went
to Russia to visit the naval establishments in the Baltic and
Black Seas. He was induced to enter the service of the empress
Catherine II., built a flotilla of gunboats and defeated the Turkish
fleet. For this he was made, in addition to other honours,
colonel of a cavalry regiment. On the death of the empress he
returned to England to be employed by the admiralty, and was
sent (1805-1807) again to Russia to superintend the building
of some ships for the British navy. He attained the rank, under
the admiralty, of inspector-general of naval works. He intro-
duced a multitude of improvements in naval organization, and
it was largely through his recommendation that M. I. Brunei's
block-making machinery was installed at Portsmouth.
George Bentham had neither a school nor a college education,
but early acquired the power of giving sustained and concentrated
attention to any subject that occupied him one essential
condition of the success he attained as perhaps the greatest
systematic botanist of the igth century. Another was his
remarkable linguistic aptitude. At the age of six to seven he
could converse in French, German and Russian, and he learnt
Swedish during a short residence in Sweden when little older.
At the close of the war with France, the Benthams made a long
tour through that country, staying two years at Montauban,
where Bentham studied Hebrew and mathematics in the
Protestant Theological School. They eventually settled in the
neighbourhood of Montpellier where Sir Samuel purchased a
large estate.
The mode in which George Bentham was attracted to the
botanical studies which became the occupation of his life is
noteworthy; it was through the applicability to them of the
logical methods which he had imbibed from his uncle's writings,
and not from any special attraction to natural history pursuits.
While studying at Angouleme a copy of A. P. de Candolle's
Flore franqaise fell into his hands and he was struck with the
analytical tables for identifying plants. He immediately pro-
ceeded to test their use on the first that presented itself. The
result was successful and he continued to apply it to every plant
he came across. A visit to London in 1823 brought him into con-
tact with the brilliant circle of English botanists. In 1826, at the
pressing invitation of his uncle, he agreed to act as his secretary,
at the same time entering at Lincoln's Inn and reading for the
bar. He was called in due time and in 1832 held his first and
last brief. The same year Jeremy Bentham died, leaving his
property to his nephew. His father's inheritance had fallen to
him the previous year. He was now in a position of modest
independence, and able to pursue undistractedly his favourite
studies. For a time these were divided between botany,
BENTHAM, JEREMY
jurisprudence and logic, in addition to editing his father's profes-
sional papers. Bentham's first publication was his Catalogue des
plantes indigenes des Pyrtntes et du Bos Languedoc (Paris, 1826),
the result of a careful exploration of the Pyrenees in company
with G. A. Walker Arnott (1799-1868), afterwards professor of
botany in the university of Glasgow. It is interesting to notice
that in it Bentham adopted the principle from which he never
deviated, of citing nothing at second-hand. This was followed
by articles on various legal subjects: on codification, in which
he disagreed with his uncle, on the laws affecting larceny and
on the law of real property. But the most remarkable production
of this period was the Outline of a New System of Logic, with a
Critical Examination of Dr Whately's Elements of Logic (1827).
In this the principle of the quantification of the predicate was
first explicitly stated. This Stanley Jevons declared to be
" undoubtedly the most fruitful discovery made in abstract
logical science since the time of Aristotle." Before sixty copies
had been sold the publisher became bankrupt and the stock
went for wastepaper. The book passed into oblivion, and it was
not till 1873 that Bentham's claims to priority were finally
vindicated against those of Sir William Hamilton by Herbert
Spencer. In 1836 he published his Labialarum genera et species.
In preparing this work he visited, between 1830-1834, every
European herbarium, several more than once. The following
winter was passed in Vienna, where he produced his Commenta-
tiones de Leguminosarum generibus, published in the annals of
the Vienna Museum. In 1842 he removed to Pontrilas in Here-
fordshire. His chief occupation for some succeeding years was
his contributions to the Prodromus Systematic Naturalis Regni
Vegetabilis, which was being carried on by his friend, A. P.
deCandolle. In all these dealt with some 4730 species.
In 1854 he found the maintenance of a herbarium and library
too great a tax on his means. He therefore offered them to the
government on the understanding that they should form the
foundation of such necessary aids to research in the Royal
Botanic Gardens at Kew. At the same time he contemplated
the abandonment of botanical work. Fortunately, he yielded
to the persuasion of Sir William Hooker, John Lindley and other
scientific friends. In 1855 he took up his residence in London,
and worked at Kew for five days a week, with a brief summer
holiday, from this time onwards till the end of his life. As his
friend Asa Gray wrote: " With such methodical habits, with
freedom from professional or administrative functions, which
consume the time of most botanists, with steady devotion to his
chosen work, and with nearly all authentic material and needful
appliances at hand or within reach, it is not so surprising that
he should have undertaken and have so well accomplished such
a vast amount of work, and he has the crowning merit and happy
fortune of having completed all that he undertook." The
government, in 1857, sanctioned a scheme for the preparation
of a series of Floras or descriptions in the English language
of the indigenous plants of British colonies and possessions.
Bentham began with the Flora Hongkongensis in 1861, which
was the first comprehensive work on any part of the little-known
flora of China. This was followed by the Flora Australiensis,
in seven volumes (1863-1878), the first flora of any large con-
tinental area that had ever been finished. His greatest work
was the Genera Plantarum, begun in 1862, and concluded in
1883 in collaboration with Sir Joseph Hooker, " the greater
portion being," as Sir Joseph Hooker tells us, "'the product of
Bentham's indefatigable industry." As age gradually impaired
his bodily powers, he seemed at last only to live for the completion
of this monumental work.
When the last revise of the last sheet was returned to the
printer, the stimulus was withdrawn, and his powers seemed
suddenly to fail him. He began a brief autobiography, but the
pen with which he had written his two greatest works broke in
his hand in the middle of a page. He accepted the omen, laid
aside the unfinished manuscript and patiently awaited the not
distant end. He died on the loth of September 1884, within a
fortnight of his 84th birthday.
The scientific world received the Genera Plantarum with as
747
unanimous an assent as was accorded to the Species Plantarum
of Linnaeus. Bentham possessed, as Professor Daniel Oliver
remarked, " an insight of so special a character as to deserve the
name of genius, into the relative value of characters for practical
systematic work, and as a consequence of this, a sure sifting of
essentials from non-essentials in each respective grade." His
preparation for his crowning work had been practically lifelong.
There are few parts of the world upon the botany of which he
did not touch. In the sequence and arrangement of the great
families of flowering plants, different views from those of
Bentham may be adopted. But Bentham paved the way by an
intimate and exact statement of the structural facts and their
accurate relationship, which is not likely to be improved.
In method and style, in descriptive work, Bentham was a
supreme master. This, to quote Professor Oliver again, is
" manifest not only in its terseness, aptness and precision, but
especially in the judicious selection of diagnostic marks, and
in the instinctive estimate of probable range in variation,
which long experience and innate genius for such work could
alone inspire." (W. T. T.-D.)
BENTHAM, JEREMY (1748-1832), English philosopher and
jurist, was born on the i sth of February 1 748 in Red Lion Street,
Houndsditch, London, in which neighbourhood his grandfather
and father successively carried on business as attorneys. His
father, who was a wealthy man and possessed at any rate a
smattering of Greek, Latin and French, was thought to have
demeaned himself by marrying the daughter of an Andover
tradesman, who afterwards retired to a country house near
Reading, where young Jeremy spent many happy days. The
boy's talents justified the ambitious hopes which his parents
entertained of his future. When three years old he read eagerly
such works as Rapin's History and began the study of Latin.
A year or two later he learnt to play the violin and to speak
French. At Westminster school he obtained a reputation for
Greek and Latin verse writing; and he was only thirteen when
he was matriculated at Queen's College, Oxford, where his most
important acquisition seems to have been a thorough acquaint-
ance with Sanderson's logic. He became a B.A. in 1763, and in
the same year entered at Lincoln's Inn, and took his seat as a
student in the queen's bench, where he listened with rapture to
the judgments of Lord Mansfield. He managed also to hear
Blackstone's lectures at Oxford, but says that he immediately
detected the fallacies which underlay the rounded periods of the
future judge.
Bentham's family connexions would naturally have given him
a fair start at the bar, but this was not the career for which he
was preparing himself. He spent his time in making chemical
experiments and in speculating upon legal abuses, rather than in
reading Coke upon Littleton and the Reports. On being called
to the bar he " found a cause or two at nurse for him, which he
did his best to put to death," to the bitter disappointment of his
father, who had confidently looked forward to seeing him upon
the woolsack. The first fruits of Bentham's studies, the Fragment
on Government, appeared in 1776. This masterly attack upon
Blackstone's praises of the English constitution was variously
attributed to Lord Mansfield, Lord Camden and Lord Ashburton.
One important result of its publication was that, in 1781, Lord
Shelburne (afterwards first marquess of Lansdowne) called upon
its author in his chambers at Lincoln's Inn. Henceforth
Bentham was a frequent guest at Bowood, where he saw the best
society and where he met Miss Caroline Fox (daughter of the
second Lord Holland), to whom he afterwards made a proposal
of marriage. In 1785 Bentham started, by way of Italy and
Constantinople, on a visit to his brother, Samuel Bentham, a
naval engineer, holding the rank of colonel in the Russian
service; and it was in Russia that he wrote his Defence of Usury.
Disappointed after his return to England in 1788 in the hope
which he had entertained, through a misapprehension of some-
thing said by Lord Lansdowne, of taking a personal part in the
legislation of his country, he settled down to the yet higher task
of discovering and teaching the principles upon which all sound
legislation must proceed. The great work, upon which he had
BENTHAM, JEREMY
been engaged for many years, the Principles of Morals and
Legislation, was published in 1789. His fame spread widely and
rapidly. He was made a French citizen in 1792; and his advice
was respectfully received in most of the states of Europe and
America, with many of the leading men of which he maintained an
active correspondence. In 1817 he became a bencher of Lincoln's
Inn. His ambition was to be allowed to prepare a code of laws
for his own or some foreign country. During nearly a quarter
of a century he was engaged in negotiations with the govern-
ment for the erection of a " Panopticon," for the central inspection
of convicts; a plan suggested to him by a building designed by
his brother Samuel, for the better supervision of his Russian
shipwrights. This scheme, which it was alleged would render
transportation unnecessary, was eventually abandoned, and
Bentham received in 1813, in pursuance of an act of parliament,
23,000 by way of compensation. It was at a later period of his
life that he propounded schemes for cutting canals through the
isthmus of Suez and the isthmus of Panama. In 1823 he estab-
lished the Westminster Review. Emboldened perhaps by the
windfall of 1813, Bentham in the following year took a lease of
Ford Abbey, a fine mansion with a deer-park, in Dorsetshire;
but in 1818 returned to the house in Queen's Square Place which
he had occupied since the death of his father in 1792. It was
there that he died on the 6th of June 1832 in his eighty-fifth year.
In accordance with his directions, his body was dissected in the
presence of his friends, and the skeleton is still preserved in
University College, London.
Bentham's life was a happy one of its kind. His constitution,
weakly in childhood, strengthened with advancing years so as
to allow him to get through an incredible amount of sedentary
labour, while he retained to the last the fresh and cheerful
temperament of a boy. An ample inherited fortune permitted
him to pursue his studies undistracted by the necessity for
earning a livelihood, and to maximize the results of his time and
labour by the employment of amanuenses and secretaries. He
was able to gather around him a group of congenial friends and
pupils, such as the Mills, the Austins and Bowring, with whom
he could discuss the problems upon which he was engaged, and
by whom several of his books were practically rewritten from
the mass of rough though orderly memoranda which the master
had himself prepared. Thus, for instance, was the Rationale of
Judicial Evidence written out by J. S. Mill and the Book of
Fallacies by Bingham. The services which Dumont rendered in
recasting as well as translating the works of Bentham were still
more important.
The popular notion that Bentham was a morose visionary is
far removed from fact. It is true that he looked upon general
society as a waste of time and that he disliked poetry as " mis-
representation "; but he intensely enjoyed conversation, gave
good dinners and delighted in music, in country sights and in
making others happy. These features of Bentham's character
are illustrated in the graphic account given by the American
minister, Richard Rush, of an evening spent at his London house
in the summer of the year 1818. " If Mr Bentham's character
is peculiar," he says, " so is his place of residence. It was a
kind of blind-alley, the end of which widened into a small,
neat courtyard. There by itself stands Mr Bentham's house.
Shrubbery graced its area and flowers its window-sills. It was
like an oasis in the desert. Its name is the Hermitage. Mr
Bentham received me with the simplicity of a philosopher. I
should have taken him for seventy or upwards. Everything
inside the house was orderly. The furniture seemed to have
been unmoved since the days of his fathers, for I learned that it
was a patrimony. A parlour, library and dining-room made up
the suite of apartments. In each was a piano, the eccentric
master of the whole being fond of music as the recreation of his
literary hours. It is a unique, romantic-like homestead. Walk-
ing with him into the garden, I found it dark with the shade of
ancient trees. They formed a barrier against all intrusion.
The company was small but choice. Mr Brougham; Sir
Samuel Romilly; Mr Mill, author of the well-known work on
India; M. Dumont, the learned Genevan, once the associate of
Mirabeau, were all who sat down to table. Mr Bentham did not
talk much. He had a benevolence of manner suited to the
philanthropy of his mind. He seemed to be thinking only of
the convenience and pleasure of his guests, not as a rule of
artificial breeding as from Chesterfield or Madame Genlis, but
from innate feeling. Bold as are his opinions in his works, here
he was wholly unobtrusive of theories that might not have
commended the assent of. all present. When he did converse
it was in simple language, a contrast to his later writings, where
an involved style and the use of new or universal words are
drawbacks upon the speculations of a genius original and pro-
found, but with the faults of solitude. Yet some of his earlier
productions are distinguished by classical terseness." (Residence
at the Court of London, p. 286.) Bentham's love of flowers and
music, of green foliage and shaded walks, comes clearly out in
this pleasant picture of his home life and social surroundings.
Whether or no he can be said to have founded a school, his
doctrines have become so far part of the common thought of the
time, that there is hardly an educated man who does not accept
as too clear for argument truths which were invisible till Bentham
pointed them out. His sensitively honourable nature, which
in early life had caused him to shrink from asserting his belief
in Thirty-nine articles of faith which he had not examined, was
shocked by the enormous abuses which confronted him on
commencing the study of the law. He rebelled at hearing the
system under which they flourished described as the perfection
of human reason. But he was no merely destructive critic. He
was determined to find a solid foundation for both morality and
law, and to raise upon it an edifice, no stone of which should be
laid except in accordance with the deductions of the severest
logic. This foundation is " the greatest happiness of the greatest
number," a formula adopted from Priestly or perhaps first from
Beccaria. The phrase may, however, be found in writers of an
earlier date than these, e.g. in Hutcheson's Enquiry, published
in 1725. The pursuit of such happiness is taught by the " utili-
tarian " philosophy, an expression used by Bentham himself
in 1802, and therefore not invented by J. S. Mill, as he supposed,
in 1823. In order to ascertain what modes of action are most
conducive to the end in view, and what motives are best fitted
to produce them, Bentham was led to construct marvellously
exhaustive, though somewhat mechanical, tables of motives.
With all their elaboration, these tables are, however, defective,
as omitting some of the highest and most influential springs of
action. But most of Bentham's conclusions may be accepted
without any formal profession of the utilitarian theory of morals.
They are, indeed, merely the application of a rigorous common
sense to the facts of society. That the proximate ends at which
Bentham aimed are desirable hardly any one would deny,
though the feasibility of -the means by which he proposes to
attain them may often be questioned, and much of the new
nomenclature in which he thought fit to clothe his doctrines
may be rejected as unnecessary. To be judged fairly, Bentham
must be judged as a teacher of the principles of legislation. With
the principles of private morals he really deals only so far as is
necessary to enable the reader to appreciate the impulses which
have to be controlled by law.
As a teacher of legislation he inquires of all institutions whether
their utility justifies their existence. If not, he is prepared to
suggest a new form of institution by which the needful service
may be rendered. While thus engaged no topic is too large for
his mental grasp, none too small for his notice; and, what is still
rarer, every topic is seen in its due relation to the rest. English
institutions had never before been thus comprehensively and
dispassionately surveyed. Such improvements as had been
necessitated were mere makeshifts, often made by stealth. The
rude symmetry of the feudal system had been long ago destroyed
by partial and unskilful adaptations to modern commercial life,
effected at various dates and in accordance with various theories.
The time had come for deliberate reconstruction, for inquiring
whether the existence of many admitted evils was, as it was said
to be, unavoidable; for proving that the needs of society may be
classified and provided for by contrivances which shall not clash
BENTINCK, LORD W. BENTIVOGLIO
with one another because all shall be parts of a consistent whole.
This task Bentham undertook, and he brought to it a mind abso-
lutely free from professional or class feeling, or any other species
of prejudice. He mapped out the whole subject, dividing and
subdividing it in accordance with the principle of " dichotomy."
Having reached his ultimate subdivisions he subjects each to the
most thorough and ingenious discussion. His earlier writings
exhibit a lively and easy style, which gives place in his later
treatises to sentences which are awkward from their effort after
unattainable accuracy, and from the newly-invented technical
nomenclature in which they are expressed. Many of Bentham's
phrases, such as " international," "utilitarian," " codification,"
are valuable additions to our language; but the majority of them,
especially those of Greek derivation, have taken no root in it.
His neology is one among many instances of his contempt for the
past and his wish to be clear of all association with it. His was,
indeed, a typically logical, as opposed to a historical, mind.
For the history of institutions which, thanks largely to the
writings of Sir Henry Maine, has become a new and interesting
branch of science, Bentham cared nothing. Had he possessed
such a knowledge of Roman law as is now not uncommon in
England, he must doubtless have taken a different view of many
subjects. The logical and historical methods can, however,
seldom be combined without confusion; and it is perhaps
fortunate that Bentham devoted his long life to showing how
much may be done by pursuing the former method exclusively.
His writings have been and remain a storehouse of instruction
for statesmen, an armoury for legal reformers. " Pille par tout
le monde," as Talleyrand said of him, " il est toujours riche."
To trace the results of his teaching in England alone would be to
write a history of the legislation of half a century. Upon the
whole administrative machinery of government, upon criminal
law and upon procedure, both criminal and civil, his influence
has been most salutary; and the great legal revolution which in
J873 purported'to accomplish the fusion of law and equity is not
obscurely traceable to the same source. Those of Bentham's
suggestions which have hitherto been carried out have affected
the matter or contents of the law. The hopes which have been
from time to time entertained, that his suggestions for the
improvement of its form and expression were about to receive
the attention which they deserved, have hitherto been dis-
appointed. The services rendered by Bentham to the world
would not, however, be exhausted even by the practical adoption
of every one of his recommendations. There are no limits to the
good results of his introduction of a true method of reasoning into
the moral and political sciences.
Bentham's Works, together with an Introduction by J. Hill
Burton, selections from his correspondence and a biography, were
published by Dr Bowring, in eleven closely printed volumes (1838-
I8 43.)- This edition does not include the Deontology, which, much
rewritten, had been published by Bowring in 1834. Translations
of the Works or of separate treatises have appeared in most Euro-
pean languages. Large masses of Bentham s MSS., mostly un-
published, are preserved at University College, London (see T.
Whittaker's Report, 1892, on these MSS., as newly catalogued and
reclassified bv him in 155 parcels); also in the British Museum
(see E. Nys, Etudes de droit international el de droit politique, 1901,
PP- 291-333). See farther on the life and writings of Bentham:
J. H. Burton, Benthamiana (1843); R. von Mohl, Ceschichte und
Literatur der Staaiswissenschaften, bk. iii. (1858), pp. 595-635;
R. K. Wilson, History of Modern English Law (1875), pp. 133-170;
J. S. Mill, Dissertations (1859), vol. i. pp. 330-392; L. Stephen, The
English Utilitarians (1900), vol. i. ; A Fragment on Government,
edited by F. C. Montague (1891); The Law Quarterly Review (1895),
two articles on Bentham's influence in Spain; A. V. Dicey, Law
and Opinion in England (1905), pp. 125-209; C. M. Atkinson,
Jeremy Bentham (1905). (T. E. H.)
BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM (1774-1839), governor-general
of India, was the second son of the 3rd duke of Portland and was
born on the i4th of September 1774. He entered the army, rose
to the rank of lieutenant-colonel and was present at Marengo.
In 1803 he was nominated governor of Madras, where he
quarrelled with the chief justice, Sir Henry Gwillim, and several
members of his council. The sepoy mutiny at Vellore in 1807 led
to his recall. His name was considered at this time for the
post of governor-general, but Lord Minto was selected instead;
749
and it was not until twenty years later that he succeeded Lord
Amherst in that office. His governor-generalship (1827-1835)
was notable for! many reforms, chief among which were the
suppression of the Thugs (q.v.); the abolition of suttee, and the
making of the English language the basis of education in India.
It was on this last subject that Lord Macaulay's famous minute
was written. Lord William's administration was essentially
peaceful, but progressive and successful. He died at Paris on
the i yth of June 1839.
See Demetrius C. Boulger, Lord William Bentincb, in the " Rulers
of India series (1892).
BENTINCK, LORD WILLIAM GEORGE FREDERICK
CAVENDISH, better known as LORD GEORGE BENTINCK (1X02-
1848), British politician, was the second surviving son of the
fourth duke of Portland, by Henrietta, sister of Viscountess
Canning, and was born on the 2 7th of February 1802. He was
educated at home until he obtained his commission as cornet in
the loth hussars at the age of seventeen. He practically retired
from the army in 1822 and acted for some time as private
secretary to his uncle George Canning. In 1828 he succeeded
his uncle Lord William Bentinck as member for Lynn- Regis, and
continued to represent that constituency during the remaining
twenty years of his life. His failures as a speaker in parliament
seem to have discouraged him from the attempt to acquire
reputation as a politician, and till within three years of his death
he was little known out of the sporting world. As one of the
leaders on '' the turf," however, he was distinguished by that
integrity, judgment and indomitable determination which,
when brought to bear upon weightier matters, quickly gave him
a position of first-rate importance in the political world. On his
first entrance into parliament he belonged to the moderate Whig
party, and voted in favour of Catholic emancipation, as also for
the Reform Bill, though he opposed some of its principal details.
Soon after, however, he joined the ranks of the opposition, with
whom he sided up to the important era of 1846. When, in that
year, Sir Robert Peel openly declared in favour of free trade, the
advocates of the corn-laws, then without a leader, after several
ineffectual attempts at organization, discovered that Lord George
Bentinck was the only man of position and family (for Disraeli's
time was not yet come) around whom the several sections of the
opposition could be brought to rally. His sudden elevation took
the public by surprise; but he soon gave convincing evidence of
powers so formidable that the Protectionist party under his
leadership was at once stiffened into real importance. Towards
Peel, in particular, his hostility was uncompromising. Believing.
as he himself expressed it, that that statesman and his colleagues
had "hounded to the death his illustrious relative " Canning, he
combined with his political opposition a degree of personal
animosity that gave additional force to his invective. On
entering on his new position, he at once abandoned his connexion
with the turf, disposed of his magnificent stud and devoted his
whole energies to the laborious duties of a parliamentary leader.
Apart from the question of the corn-laws, however, his politics
were decidedly independent. In opposition to the rest of hi<
party, he supported the bill for removing the Jewish disabilities,
and was favourable to the scheme for the payment of the Roman
Catholic clergy in Ireland by the landowners. The result was
that on December 23rd, 1847, he wrote a letter resigning the
Protectionist leadership, though he still remained active in politics.
But his positive abilities as a constructive statesman were not to
be tested, for he died suddenly at Welbeck on the 2ist of Sep-
tember 1848. It was to be left to Disraeli to bring the Conserva-
tive party into power, with Protection outside its programme.
See Lord George Bentinck: a Political Biography (1851), by
B. Disraeli (Lord Beaconsfield).
BENTIVOGLIO, GIOVANNI (1443-1508), tyrant of Bologna,
descended from a powerful family which exercised great influence
in Bologna during the isth century, was born after the murder
of his father, then chief magistrate of the commune. In 1462
Giovanni contrived to make himself master of the city, although
it was nominally a fief of the church under a papal legate. He
ruled with a stern sway for nearly half a century, but the
brilliance of his court, his encouragement of the fine arts and his
750
BENTIVOGLIO BENTLEY, R.
decoration of the city with sumptuous edifices, to some extent
compensated the Bolognese for the loss of their liberty. Cesare
Borgia (q.v.) contemplated the subjugation of Bologna in 1 500,
when he was crushing the various despots of Romagna, but
Bentivoglio was saved for the moment by French intervention.
In 1502 he took part in the conspiracy against Cesare, but, when
the latter obtained French assistance, he abandoned his fellow-
conspirators and helped Borgia to overcome them. During
the brief pontificate of Pius III., who succeeded Alexander VI.
in 1503, Bentivoglio enjoyed a respite, but the new pope,
Julius II., was determined to reduce all the former papal states
to obedience. Having won Louis XII. of France to his side,
he led an army against Bologna, excommunicated Bentivoglio
and forced him to abandon the city (November 1506). The
deposed tyrant took refuge with the French, whom he trusted
more than the pope, and died at Milan in 1508.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. P. Litta, Le Famiglie cdebri Italiane, vol. iii.
(Milan, 1834); P. Villari, Machiavelli- (Eng. trans., London, 1892);
M. Creighton, History of the Papacy (London, 1897); A. von Reu
mont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom, vol. iii. (Berlin, 1868). (L. V.*)
BENTIVOGLIO, GUIDO (1579-1644), Italian cardinal, states-
man and historian, was born at Ferrara in 1579. After studying
at Padua, he went to reside at Rome, and was received with
great favour by Pope Clement VIII., who made him his private
chamberlain. The next pope, Paul V., created him archbishop
of Rhodes in 1607, and appointed him as nuncio to Flanders and
afterwards to France; on his return to Rome in 1621 he was
created cardinal and entrusted by Louis XIII. with the manage-
ment of French affairs at the papal court. He became the
intimate friend of Pope Urban VIII., who appointed him to the
suburban see of Palestrina in 1691. An able writer and skilful
diplomatist, Bentivoglio was marked out as Urban's successor,
but he died suddenly on the 7th of September 1644 at the opening
of the conclave. Bentivoglio 's principal works are: Delia
Guerra di Fiandria (best edition, Cologne, 1633-1639), translated
into English by Henry, earl of Monmouth (London, 1654);
Relazioni di G. Bentivoglio in tempo delle sue Nunziature di
Fiandria e di Francia (Cologne, 1630); Leltere diplomatiche di
Guido Bentivoglio (Brussels, 1631, frequently reprinted, best
edition by L. Scarabelli, 2 vols., Turin, 1852). The complete
edition of his works was published at Venice in 1668 in 410. A
selection of his letters has been adopted as a classic in the Italian
schools.
BENTLEY, RICHARD (1662-1742), English scholar and
critic, was born at Oulton near Wakefield, Yorkshire, on the
27th of January 1662. His grandfather had suffered in person
and estate in the royalist cause, and the family were in con-
sequence in reduced circumstances. Bentley's mother, the
daughter of a stonemason in Oulton, was a woman of excellent
understanding and some education, as she was able to give her
son his first lessons in Latin. From the grammar school of
Wakefield Richard Bentley passed to St John's College, Cam-
bridge, being admitted subsizar in 1 676. He afterwards obtained
a scholarship and took the degree of B.A. in 1680 (M.A. 1683).
He never succeeded to a fellowship, being appointed by his
college, before he was twenty-one, headmaster of Spalding
grammar school. In this post he did not remain long, being
selected by Dr Edward Stillingfleet, dean of St Paul's, to be
domestic tutor to his son. This appointment introduced Bentley
at once to the society of the most eminent men of the day,
threw open to him the best private library in England, and
brought him into familiar intercourse with Dean Stillingfleet,
a man of sound understanding, who had not shrunk from explor-
ing some of the more solid and abstruse parts of ancient learning.
The six years which he passed in Stillingfleet's family were
employed, with the restless energy characteristic of the man, in
exhausting the remains of the Greek and Latin writers, and
laying up those stores of knowledge upon which he afterwards
drew as circumstances required.
In 1689 Stillingfleet became bishop of Worcester, and Bentley's
pupil went to' reside at Oxford in Wadham College, accompanied
by his tutor. Bentley's introductions and his own merits
placed him at once on a footing of intimacy with the most
distinguished scholars in the university, Dr John Mill, Humphrey
Hody, Edward Bernard. Here he revelled in the MS. treasures
of the Bodleian, Corpus and other college libraries. He pro-
jected and occupied himself with collections for vast literary
schemes. Among these are specially mentioned a corpus of the
fragments of the Greek poets and an edition of the Greek
lexicographers. But his first publication was in connexion with
a writer of much inferior note. The Oxford (Sheldonian) press
was about to bring out an edition (the editio princeps) from the
unique MS. in the Bodleian of the Greek Chronicle (a universal
history down to A.D. 560) of John of Antioch (date uncertain,
between 600 and 1000), called John Malalas or " John the
Rhetor "; and the editor, Dr John Mill, principal of St Edmund
Hall, had requested Bentley to look through the sheets and
make any remarks on the text. This originated Bentley's
Epistola ad Millium, which occupies less than one hundred pages
at the end of the Oxford Malalas (1691). This short tractate at
once placed Bentley at the head of all living English scholars.
The ease with which, by a stroke of the pen, he restores passages
which had been left in hopeless corruption by the editors of the
Chronicle, the certainty of the emendation and the command
over the relevant material, are in a style totally different from
the careful and laborious learning of Hody, Mill or E. Chilmead.
To the small circle of classical students (lacking the great critical
dictionaries of modern times) it was at once apparent that there
had arisen in England a critic whose attainments were not to be
measured by the ordinary academical standard, but whom these
few pages had sufficed to place by the side of the great Grecians
of a former age. Unfortunately this mastery over critical
science was accompanied by a tone of self-assertion and pre-
sumptuous confidence which not only checked admiration, but
was calculated to rouse enmity. Dr Monk, indeed, Bentley's
biographer, charged him (in his first edition, 1830) with an
indecorum of which he was not guilty. " In one place," writes
Dr Monk, " he accosts Dr Mill as J> 'Idiavvidiov (Johnny), an
indecorum which neither the familiarity of friendship, nor the
licence of a dead language, can justify towards the dignified head
of a house." But the object of Bentley's apostrophe was not his
correspondent Dr Mill, but his author John Malalas, whom in
another place he playfully appeals to as " Syrisce." From this
publication, however, dates the origin of those mixed feelings
of admiration and repugnance which Bentley throughout his
career continued to excite among his contemporaries.
In 1690 Bentley had taken deacon's orders in the Church. In
1692 he was nominated first Boyle lecturer, a nomination which
was repeated in 1694. He was offered the appointment a third
time in 1695 but declined it, being by that time involved in too
many other undertakings. In the first series of lectures (" A
Confutation of Atheism ") he endeavours to present the New-
tonian physics in a popular form, and to frame them (especially
in opposition to Hobbes) into a proof of the existence of an
intelligent Creator. He had some correspondence with Newton,
then living in Trinity College, on the subject. The second series,
preached in 1694, has not been published and is believed to be
lost. Andrew Kippis, the editor of the Biographia Brilannica,
mentions MS. copies of them as in existence. Scarcely was
Bentley in priest's orders before he was preferred to a prebendal
stall in Worcester cathedral. In 1693 the keepership of the
royal library becoming vacant, great efforts were made by his
friends to obtain the place for Bentley, but through court
interest the post was given to Mr Thynne. An arrangement,
however, was made, by which the new librarian resigned in favour
of Bentley, on condition that he received an annuity of 130
for life out of the salary, which only amounted to 200. To
these preferments were added in 1695 a royal chaplaincy and
the living of Hartlebury. In the same year Bentley was elected
a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1696 proceeded to the
degree of D.D. The recognition of continental scholars came
in the shape of a dedication, by Graevius, prefixed to a disserta-
tion of Albert Rubens, De Vita Flavii Mallii Theodori, pub-
lished at Utrecht in 1694.
BENTLEY, RICHARD
While these distinctions were being accumulated upon Bentley,
his energy was making itself felt in many and various directions.
He had official apartments in St James's Palace, and his first care
was the royal library. He made great efforts to retrieve this
collection from the dilapidated condition into which it had been
allowed to fall. He employed the mediation of the earl of
Marlborough to beg the grant of some additional rooms in the
palace for the books. The rooms were granted, but Marlborough
characteristically kept them for himself. Bentley enforced the
law against the publishers, and thus added to the library nearly
1000 volumes which they had neglected to deliver. He was
commissioned by the university of Cambridge to obtain Greek
and Latin founts for their classical books, and accordingly he
had cast in Holland those beautiful types which appear in the
Cambridge books of that date. He assisted Evelyn in his
Numismata. All Bentley's literary appearances at this time were
of this accidental character. We do not find him settling down
to the steady execution of any of the great projects with which
he had started. He designed, indeed, in 1694 an edition of
Philostratus, but readily abandoned it to G. Olearius,
(Ohlschlager), " to the joy," says F. A. Wolf, " of Olearius and of
no one else." He supplied Graevius with collations of Cicero,
and Joshua Barnes with a warning as to the spuriousness of the
Epistles of Euripides, which was thrown away upon that blunderer,
who printed the epistles and declared that no one could doubt
their genuineness but a man perfrictae frontis autjudicii imminuti.
Bentley supplied to Graevius's CaHimachus a masterly collection
of the fragments with notes, published at Utrecht in 1697.
The Dissertation on the Epistles of Phalaris, the work on which
Bentley's fame in great part rests, originated in the same casual
way. William Wotton, being about to bring out in 1697 a second
edition of his book on Ancient and Modern Learning, claimed of
Bentley the fulfilment of an old promise to write a paper exposing
the spuriousness of the Epistles of Phalaris. This paper was
resented as an insult by the Christ Church editor of Phalaris,
Charles Boyle, afterwards earl of Orrery, who in getting the MS. in
the royal library collated for his edition (1695) had had a little
quarrel with Bentley. Assisted by his college friends, particularly
Atterbury, Boyle wrote a reply, " a tissue," says Dr Alexander
Dyce ( in his edition of Bentley's Works, 1836-1838), " of super-
ficial learning, ingenious sophistry, dexterous malice and happy
raillery." The reply was hailed by the public as crushing and
went immediately into a second edition. It was incumbent on
Bentley to rejoin. This he did ( 1699) in what Person styles" that
immortal dissertation," to which no answer was or could be
given, although the truth of its conclusions was jiot immediately
recognized. (See PHALARIS.)
In the year 1700 Bentley received that main preferment which,
says De Quincey, " was at once his reward and his scourge for the
rest of his life." The six commissioners of ecclesiastical patronage
unanimously recommended Bentley to the crown for the master-
ship of Trinity College, Cambridge. This college, the most
splendid foundation in the university of Cambridge, and in the
scientific and literary reputation of its fellows the most eminent
society in either university, had in 1700 greatly fallen from its
high estate. It was not that it was more degraded than the other
colleges, but its former lustre made the abuse of endowments in
its case more conspicuous. The eclipse had taken place during
the reaction which followed 1660, and was owing to causes which
were not peculiar to Trinity, but which influenced the nation at
large. The names of John Pearson and Isaac Barrow, and,
greater than either, that of Newton, adorn the college annals of
this period. But these were quite exceptional men. They had
not inspired the rank and file of fellows of Trinity with any of their
own love for learning or science. Indolent and easy-going clerics,
without duties, without a pursuit or any consciousness of the
obligation of endowments, they haunted the college for the
pleasant life and the good things they found there, creating
sinecure offices in each other's favour, jobbing the scholarships
and making the audits mutually pleasant. Any excuse served
for a banquet at the cost of " the house," and the celibacy
imposed by the statutes was made as tolerable as the decorum
of a respectable position permitted. To such a society Bentley
came, obnoxious as a St John's man and an intruder, unwelcome
as a man of learning whose interests lay outside the walls of the
college. Bentley replied to their concealed dislike with open
contempt, and proceeded to ride roughshod over their little
arrangements. He inaugurated many beneficial reforms in
college usages and discipline, executed extensive improvements
in the buildings, and generally used his eminent station for the
promotion of the interests of learning both in the college and in
the university. But this energy was accompanied by a domineer-
ing temper, an overweening contempt for the feelings and even
for the rights of others, and an unscrupulous use of means when
a good end could be obtained. Bentley, at the summit of classical
learning, disdained to associate with men whom he regarded as
illiterate priests. He treated them with contumely, while he was
diverting their income to public purposes. The continued drain
upon their purses on one occasion the whole dividend of the year
was absorbed by the rebuilding of the chapel was the grievance
which at last roused the fellows to make a resolute stand. After
ten years of stubborn but ineffectual resistance within the college,
they had recourse in 1710 to the last remedy an appeal to the
visitor, the bishop of Ely (Dr Moore). Their petition is an
ill-drawn invective, full of general complaints and not alleging
any special delinquency. Bentley's reply (The Present State of
Trinity College, &c., 1710) is in his most crushing style. The
fellows amended their petition and put in a fresh charge, in which
they articled fifty-four separate breaches of the statutes as having
been committed by the master. Bentley, called upon to answer,
demurred to the bishop of Ely's jurisdiction, alleging that the
crown was visitor. He backed his application by a dedication of
his Horace to the lord treasurer (Harley). The crown lawyers
decided the point against him; the case was heard (1714) and a
sentence of ejection from the mastership ordered to be drawn up,
but before it was executed the bishop of Ely died and the process
lapsed. The feud, however, still went on in various forms. In
1718 Bentley was deprived by the university of his degrees, as a
punishment for failing to appear in the vice-chancellor's court in
a civil suit; and it was not till 1724 that the law compelled the
university to restore them. In 1733 he was again brought to trial
before the bishop of Ely (Dr Greene) by the fellows of Trinity
and was sentenced to deprivation, but the college statutes
required the sentence to be exercised by the vice-master (Dr
Walker), who was Bentley's friend and refused to act. In vain
were attempts made to compel the execution of the sentence,
and though the feud was kept up till 1738 or 1740 (about thirty
years in all) Bentley remained undisturbed.
During the period of his mastership, with the exception of the
first two years, Bentley pursued his studies uninterruptedly,
although the results in the shape of published works seem
incommensurable. In 1709 he contributed a critical appendix
to John Davies's edition of Cicero's Tusculan Disputations. In
the following year he published his emendations on the I'lutus
and Nubes-oi Aristophanes, and on the fragments of Menander
and Philemon. The last came out under the name of " Phil-
eleutherus Lipsiensis," which he made use of two years later in his
Remarks on a late Discourse of Freethinking, a reply to Anthony
Collins the deist. For this he received the thanks of the univer-
sity, in recognition of the service thereby rendered to the church
and clergy. His Horace, long contemplated and in the end
written in very great haste and brought out to propitiate public
opinion at a critical period of the Trinity quarrel, appeared in
1711. In the preface he declared his intention of confining his
attention to criticism and correction of the text, and ignoring
exegesis. Some of his 700 or 800 emendations have been accepted,
but the majority of them are now rejected as unnecessary and
prosaic, although the learning and ingenuity shown in their
support are remarkable. In 1716, in a letter to Dr Wake,
archbishop of Canterbury, he announced his design of preparing
a critical edition of the New Testament. During the next four
years, assisted by J. J. Wetstein, an eminent biblical critic,
who claimed to have been the first to suggest the idea to Bentley,
he collected materials for the work, and in 1720 published
752
BENTLEY, R.
Proposals for a New Edition of the Greek Testament, with
specimens of the manner in which he intended to carry it out.
He proposed, by comparing the text of the Vulgate with that of
the oldest Greek MSS., to restore the Greek text as received by
the church at the time of the council of Nice. A large number
of subscribers to the work was obtained, but it was never com-
pleted. His Terence (1726) is more important than his Horace,
and it is upon this, next to the Phalaris, that his reputation
mainly rests. Its chief value consists in the novel treatment
of the metrical questions and their bearing on the emendation
of the text. To the same year belong the Fables of Phaedrus
and the Sententiae of Publius Syrus. The Paradise Lost (1732),
undertaken at the suggestion of Queen Caroline, is generally
regarded as the most unsatisfactory of all his writings. It is
marred by the same rashness in emendation and lack of poetical
feeling as his Horace; but there is less excuse for him in this
case, since the English text could not offer the same field for
conjecture. He put forward the idea that Milton employed both
an amanuensis and an editor, who were to be held responsible
for the clerical errors, alterations and interpolations which
Bentley professed to detect. It is uncertain whether this was
a device on the part of Bentley to excuse his own numerous
corrections, or whether he really believed in the existence of this
editor. Of the contemplated edition of Homer nothing was
published; all that remains of it consists of some manuscript and
marginal notes in the possession of Trinity College. Their chief
importance lies in the attempt to restore the metre by the inser-
tion of the lost digamma. Among his minor works may be
mentioned: the Astronomica of Manilius (1739), for which he had
been collecting materials since 1691; a letter on the Sigean
inscription on a marble slab found in the Troad, now in the
British Museum; notes on the Theriaca of Nicander and on Lucan,
published after his death by Cumberland; emendations of
Plautus (in his copies of the editions by Pareus, Camerarius and
Gronovius, edited by Schroder, 1880, and Sonnenschein, 1883).
BentleiiCritica Sacra (1862), edited by A. A. Ellis, contains the
epistle to the Galatians (and excerpts), printed from an inter-
leaved folio copy of the Greek and Latin Vulgate in Trinity
College. A collection of his Opuscula Philologica was published
atLeipzigin 1781. The edition of his works by Dyce (1836-1838)
is incomplete.
He had married in 1701 Joanna, daughter of Sir John
Bernard of Brampton in Huntingdonshire. Their union lasted
forty years. Mrs Bentley died in 1740, leaving a son, Richard,
and two daughters, one of whom married in 1728 Mr Denison
Cumberland, grandson of Richard Cumberland, bishop of Peter-
borough. Their son was Richard Cumberland, the dramatist.
Surrounded by his grandchildren, Dr Bentley experienced the
joint pressure of age and infirmity as lightly as is consistent with
the lot of humanity. He continued to amuse himself with read-
ing; and though nearly confined to his arm-chair, was able to
enjoy the society of his friends and several rising scholars,
J. Markland, John Taylor, his nephews Richard and Thomas
Bentley, with whom he discussed classical subjects. He was
accustomed to say that he should live to be eighty, adding that a
life of that duration was long enough to read everything worth
reading. He fulfilled his own prediction, dying of pleurisy on
the 1 4th of July 1 742. Though accused by his enemies of being
grasping, he left not more than 5000 behind him. A few Greek
MSS., brought from Mount Athos, he left to the college library;
his books and papers to his nephew, Richard Bentley. Richard,
who was a fellow of Trinity, at his death in 1786 left the papers
to the college library. The books, containing in many cases
valuable manuscript notes, were purchased by the British
Museum.
Of his personal habits some anecdotes are related by his
grandson, Richard Cumberland, in vol. i. of his Memoirs (1807).
The hat of formidable dimensions, which he always wore during
reading to shade his eyes, and his preference of port to claret
(which he said " would be port if it could ") are traits embodied
in Pope's caricature (Dunciad, b. 4), which bears in other respects
little resemblance to the original. He did not take up the habit
of smoking till he was seventy. He held the archdeaconry of
Ely with two livings, but never obtained higher preference in
the church. He was offered the (then poor) bishopric of Bristol
but refused it, and being asked what preferment he would con-
sider worth his acceptance, replied, " That which would leave
him no reason to wish for a removal."
Bentley was the first, perhaps the only, Englishman who can
be ranked with the great heroes of classical learning, although
perhaps not a great classical scholar. Before him there were only
John Selden, and, in a more restricted field, Thomas Gataker and
Pearson. But Selden, a man of stupendous learning, wanted the
freshness of original genius and confident mastery over the whole
region of his knowledge. " Bentley inaugurated a new era of the
art of criticism. He opened a new path. With him criticism
attained its majority. Where scholars had hitherto offered
suggestions and conjectures, Bentley, with unlimited control over
the whole material of learning, gave decisions " (Mahly). The
modern German school of philology does ungrudging homage to
his genius. Bentley, says Bunsen, " was the founder of historical
philology." And Jakob Bernays says of his corrections of the
Trislia, " corruptions which had hitherto defied every attempt
even of the mightiest, were removed by a touch of the fingers of
this British Samson." The English school of Hellenists, by which
the i8th century was distinguished, and which contains the names
of R. Dawes, J. Markland, J. Taylor, J. Toup, T. Tyrwhitt,
Richard Person, P. P. Dobree, Thomas Kidd and J. H. Monk,
was the creation of Bentley. And even the Dutch school of the
same period, though the outcome of a native tradition, was in no
small degree stimulated and directed by the example of Bentley,
whose letters to the young Hemsterhuis on his edition of Julius
Pollux produced so powerful an effect on him, that he became one
of Bentley's most devoted admirers.
Bentley was a source of inspiration to a following generation of
scholars. Himself, he sprang from the earth without forerunners,
without antecedents. Self-taught, he created his own science.
It was his misfortune that there was no contemporary gild of
learning in England by which his power could be measured, and
his eccentricities checked. In the Phalaris controversy his
academical adversaries had not sufficient knowledge to know how
absolute their defeat was. Garth's couplet
" So diamonds take a lustre from their foil,
And to a Bentley 'tis we owe a Boyle "-
expressed the belief of the wits or literary world of the time.
The attacks upon him by Pope, John Arbuthnot and others are
evidence of their inability to appreciate his work. To them,
textual criticism seemed mere pedantry and useless labour. It
was not only that he had to live with inferiors, and to waste his
energy in a struggle forced upon him by the necessities of his
official position, but the wjiolesome stimulus of competition and
the encouragement of a sympathetic circle were wanting. In a
university where the instruction of youth or the religious
controversy of the day were the only lyiown occupations,
Bentley was an isolated phenomenon, and we can hardly wonder
that he should have flagged in his literary exertions after his
appointment to the mastership of Trinity. All his vast acquisi-
tions and all his original views seem to have been obtained before
1700. After this period he acquired little and made only spas-
modic efforts the Horace, the Terence and the Milton. The
prolonged mental concentration and mature meditation, which
alone can produce a great work, were wanting to him.
F. A. Wolf, Litemrische Analekten, i. (1816); Monk, Life of
Bentley (1830); J. Mahly, Richard Bentley, eine Biographic (1868);
R. C. Jebb, Bentley (" English Men of Letters " series, 1882), where
a list of authorities bearing on Bentley's life and work is given. For
his letters see Bentlei et dpcterum virorum ad eunt Epistolae (1807) ;
The Correspondence of Richard Bentley, edited by C. Wordsworth
(1842). See also J. E. Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, ii.
401-410 (1908); and the Bibliography of Bentley, by A. T. Bartholo-
mew and J. W. Clark (Cambridge, 1908).
BENTLEY, RICHARD (1794-1871), British publisher, was born
in London in 1794. His father owned the General Evening Post
in conjunction with John Nichols, to whom Richard Bentley, on
leaving St Paul's school, was apprenticed to learn the printing
BENTON, T. H.
753
trade. With his brother SAMUEL (1785-1868), an antiquarian of
some repute, he set up a printing establishment, but in 1829 he
' began business as a publisher in partnership with Henry Colburn
in New Burlington Street. Colburn retired in 1832 and Bentley
continued business on his own account. In 1837 he began
Bentley's Miscellany, edited for the first three years of its exist-
ence by Charles Dickens, whose Oliver Twist, with Cruikshank's
illustrations, appeared in its pages. Bentley and his son GEORGE
(1828-1895), as Richard Bentley & Son, published works by R. H.
Barham, Theodore Hook, Isaac D'Israeli, Judge Haliburton
and others; also 1 the " Library of Standard Novels " and the
" Favourite Novel Library." In the latter series Mrs Henry
Wood's East Lynne appeared. In 1866 the firm took over the
publication of Temple Bar, with which Bentley's Miscellany was
afterwards incorporated. Richard Bentley died on the loth of
September 1871. His son, George Bentley, and his grandson,
Richard Bentley, junior, continued the business until it was
absorbed (1898) by Macmillan & Co.
See also R. Bentley & Son (Edinburgh, 1886), a history of the
firm reprinted from Le Livre (October, 1885).
BENTON, THOMAS HART (1782-1858), American statesman,
was born at Hillsborough, Orange county, North Carolina, on the
i4th of March 1782. His father, an Englishman of refinement
and scholarship, died in 1 790, leaving the boy under the influence
of a very superior mother, from whom he received lessons in book
learning, piety and temperance quite unusual in the frontier
country. His home studies, facilitated by his father's fine
library, were supplemented by a brief stay at the university of
North Carolina (Chapel Hill) in 1799. The family removed,
probably in this year, to a large tract of land which had been
acquired by the father on the outskirts of the Indian country (at
Benton Town, now Leipers Fork) near Franklin, Tennessee.
The following years, during which Benton was at various times
school teacher, farmer, lawyer and politician, were the distinct-
ively formative period of his life. His intense democracy and
many features of his boldly cast personality were perfectly
representative of the border people among whom he lived; al-
though his education, social standing and force of character
placed him above his fellows. In 1809 he served a term as state
senator. Between 1815 and 1817 he transferred his interests to
St Louis, Missouri, and in 1820 was elected United States senator
from the new state. His senatorial career of thirty years (1821-
1851) was one of extreme prominence. A friendship early formed
in Tennessee for Andrew Jackson was broken in 1813 by an armed
fracas between the principals and their friends, but after the
presidential election of 1824 Benton became a Jacksonian
Democrat and Jackson's close friend, and as such was long the
Democratic leader in the Senate, his power being greatest during
Jackson's second term. He continued to be the administration's
right-hand man under Van Buren, but gradually lost influence
under Polk, with whom he finally broke both personally and
politically.
The events of Benton's political life are associated primarily
with three things: the second United States Bank, westward
expansion and slavery. In the long struggles over the bank,
the deposits and the "expunging resolution" (i.e. the resolution
to expunge from the records of the Senate the vote of censure
of President Jackson for his removal of the government deposits
from the bank) , Benton led the Jackson Democrats. His opposi-
tion to a national bank and insistence on the peculiar virtues of
" hard money," whence his sobriquet of " Old Bullion," went
back to his Tennessee days. In all that concerned the expansion
of the country and the fortunes of the West no public man was
more consistent or more influential than Benton, and none so clear
of vision. Reared on the border, and representing a state long
the farthermost outpost across the Mississippi in the Indian
country, he held the ultra-American views of his section as
regarded foreign relations generally, and the " manifest destiny "
of expansion westward especially. It was quite natural that he
should advocate the removal westward of the Indian tribes,
should urge the encouragement of trade with Sante F6 (New
Mexico), and should oppose the abandonment in the Spanish
treaty of 1819 of American claims to Texas. He once thought
the Rocky Mountains the proper western limit of the United
States (1824), but this view he soon outgrew. He was the
originator of the policy of homestead laws by which the public
lands were used to promote the settlement of the west by home-
seekers. No other man was so early and so long active for
transcontinental railways. But Benton was not a land-grabber,
whether in' the interest of slavery or of mere jingoism. In the
case of Oregon, for instance, he was firmly .against joint occupa-
tion with Great Britain, but he was always for the boundary of
49 and never joined in the campaign-jingo cry of " Fifty-four
Forty or Fight." It was he who chiefly aided Polk in with-
drawing from that untenable position. He despised pretexts
and intrigues. Both in the case of Oregon and in that of Texas,
though one of the earliest and most insistent of those who
favoured their acquisition, yet in the face of southern and
western sentiment he denounced the sordid and devious intrigues
and politics connected with their acquisition, and kept clear of
these. For the same reason he opposed the Mexican War, though
not its prosecution once begun. In the Texas question slavery
was prominent. Toward slavery Benton held a peculiarly
creditable attitude. A southerner, he was a slaveholder; but
he seems to have gradually learned that slavery was a curse to
the South, for in 1844 he declared that he would not introduce
it into Texas lands " where it was never known," and in 1849
proclaimed that his personal sentiments were " against the
institution of slavery." In the long struggle over slavery in the
territories, following 1845, he was for the extreme demands of
neither section; not because he was timorous or a compromiser,
no man .was less of either, but because he stood unwaveringly
for justice to both sections, never adopting exaggerated views
that must or even could be compromised. The truth is that he
was always a westerner before he was a southerner and a union
man before all things else; he was no whit less national than
Webster. Hence his distrust and finally hatred of Calhoun,
dating from the nullification episode of 1 83 2- 1 833 . As the South
under Calhoun's lead became increasingly sectional and
aggressive, Benton increasingly lost sympathy with her. Though
he despised political inaction Abolitionists, and hated their
propaganda as inimical to the Union, he would not therefore
close the national mails to Abolition literature, nor abridge the
right of petition. No statesman was more prescient of the
disunion tendencies of Calhoun's policies, and as early as 1844
he prophetically denounced the treason to the 'Union toward
which the South was drifting. He would not drift with her for
the sake of slavery, and this was his political undoing. In 1851
Missouri rejected him in his sixth candidacy for the Senate, after
he had been an autocrat in her politics for thirty years. In 1852
he was elected to the House of Representatives, but his opposi-
tion to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise caused his defeat
in 1854. An unsuccessful campaign for the governorship of
Missouri in 1856 ended his political career. He died at
Washington on the loth of April 1858.
Benton's entire career was eminently creditable, and he is,
besides, one of the most picturesque figures in American political
history. His political principles whether as regarded lobbying,
congressional jobbing, civil service or great issues of legislation
and foreign affairs were of the highest. He was so independent
that he had great dislike for caucuses, and despised party plat-
forms although he never voted any but the Democratic ticket,
even when his son-in-law, J. C. Fremont, was the Republican
presidential candidate in 1856; nor would he accept instructions
from the Missouri legislature. His career shows no truckling
to self-interest, and on large issues he outgrew partisanship.
Although palpably inferior to each of his great senatorial col-
leagues, Webster, Clay and Calhoun, in some gifts, yet if character,
qualities and career be taken in the whole his were possibly the
most creditable of all. Benton was austere, aggressive and vain ;
besides, he had a fatal deficiency of humour. Nevertheless he
had great influence, which was a deserved tribute to his ability
and high character. An indefatigable student, he treated all
subjects capably, and especially in questions of his country's
754
BENTON HARBOR BENZALDEHYDE
history and the exploration of the West had few equals in the
latter none. He acted always with uncalculating boldness, and
defended his acts with extraordinary courage and persistence.
Benton wrote a Thirty Years' View . . . of the American
Government (2 vols., 1854-1856), characteristic of the author's
personality; it is of great value for the history of his time. He
also compiled an Abridgment of the Debates of Congress, 1780-1850
(16 vols., 1857-1861), likewise of great usefulness; and published
a bitter review of the Dred Scott decision full of extremely
valuable historical details Historical and Legal Examination
of . . . the Dred Scott Case (1857). All were written in the last
eight years of his life and mostly in the last three.
The best biography is that by W. M. Meigs, Life of Thomas Hart
Benton (Philadelphia and London, 1904). See also Theodore
Roosevelt's Thomas Hart Benton (Boston, 1887), in the " American
Statesmen " series, which admirably brings out Benton's significance
as a western man; and Joseph M. Rogers's Thomas Hart Benton
(Philadelphia, 1905) in the " American Crisis " series.
BENTON HARBOR, a city of Berrien county, Michigan,
U.S.A., on the Saint Joseph river, about i m. from Lake Michigan
(with which it is connected by a ship canal), near the S.W. corner
of the state, and i m. N.E. of St Joseph. Pop. (1890) 3692;
(1900) 6562, of whom 795 were foreign-born; (1904) 6702;
(1910) 9185. It is served by the Pere Marquette, the Michigan
Central, and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis
railways, by electric railways to St Joseph and Niles. Mich.,
and South Bend, Indiana, and for a part of the year by steamboat
lines to Chicago and Milwaukee. One mile south-east of the city
are a sanitarium and the Eastman mineral springs; within the
city also there are springs and bath-houses. Near the city is a
communistic religious community, the Israelite House of David,
founded in 1903; the members believe that they are a part of the
144,000 elect (Revelation, vii, xiv) ultimately to be redeemed.
Benton Harbor has a large trade in fruit (peaches, grapes, pears,
cherries, strawberries, raspberries and apples) and other market
garden produce raised in the vicinity. The city's manufactures
include fruit baskets, preserved fruits, cider, vinegar, pickles,
furniture, lumber and stationers' supplies, particularly material
for the " loose-leaf ledger " system of accounting. Benton
Harbor, which was known as Bronson Harbor until 1865, was
incorporated as a village in 1869, was chartered as a city in 1891,
and in 1903 received a new charter.
BENUE, a river of West Africa, the largest and most important
affluent of the Niger (q.v.), which it joins after a course of over
800 m. in a general east to west direction from its source in the
mountains of Adamawa. Through the Tuburi marshes there is a
water connexion between theBenue (Niger) and Shari (LakeChad)
systems.
BEN VENUE, a mountain in south-west Perthshire, Scotland,
10 m. W. of Callander. Its principal peaks are 2393 and 2386 ft.
high, and, owing to its position near the south-eastern shore of
Loch Katrine, its imposing contour is one of the most familiar
features in the scenery of the Trossachs, the mountain itself
figuring prominently in The Lady of the Lake. On its northern
base, close to the lake, Sir Walter Scott placed the Coir-nan-
Uriskin, or " Goblin's Cave." Immediately to the south of the
cave is the dell called Beal(ach)-nam-Bo, or " Cattle Pass,"
through which were driven to the refuge of the Trossachs the herds
lifted by the Highland marauders in their excursions to the lands
south of Loch Lomond. The pass, though comparatively
unvisited, offers the grandest scenery in the district.
BENZALDEHYDE (oil of bitter almonds), C 8 H 6 CHO, the
simplest representative of the aromatic aldehydes. It was first
isolated in 1803 and was the subject of an important investigation
byJ.v.Liebigini837(^4nwaiew,i837,22,p.i). It occurs naturally
in the form of the glucoside amygdalin (CaiHnNOn), which is
present in bitter almonds, cherries, peaches and the leaves of the
cherry laurel; and is obtained from this substance by hydrolysis
with dilute acids:
CH n NOu +2H 2 = HCN +2C,H, 2 0, +C,H S CHO.
It occurs free in bitter almonds, being formed by an enzyme
decomposition of amygdalin (q.v.). It may also be prepared
by oxidizing benzyl alcohol with concentrated nitric acid; by
distilling a mixture of calcium benzoate and calcium formate; by
the condensation of chlor-oxalic ester with benzene in the pres-
ence of aluminium chloride, the ester of the ketonic acid formed
being then hydrolysed and the resulting acid distilled:
C,H,+Cl-CO-COOC 2 H5 = C,HsCO-COOC 2 H 6 -t-HCl,
CeH 6 CO-COOH =C 6 H 6 CHO+CO 2 ;
by the action of anhydrous hydrocyanic acid and hydrochloric
acid on benzene, an aldime being formed as an intermediate
product:
CeH 6 +HCN+HCl= C 6 H S CH:NH-HC1,
Benzaldine hydrochloride
and by the action of chromium oxychloride on toluene dissolved
in carbon bisulphide (A. Etard, Berichte, 1884, 17, pp. 1462, 1700).
Technically it is prepared from toluene, by converting it into
benzyl chloride, which is then heated with lead nitrate:
C 6 H 6 CH 2 Cl+Pb(NO3) 2 = 2NO 2 -|-Pbq-OH+CeH 6 CHO,
or, by conversion into benzal chloride, which is heated with milk
of lime under pressure:
C 6 H 5 CHC1 2 +CaO = CaCl 2 +C,H 6 CHO.
E. Jacobsen has also obtained benzaldehyde by heating benzal
chloride with glacial acetic acid:
C,H 5 CHC1 2 +CH3COOH=CH3COC1+HC1+C,H 6 CHO.
Benzaldehyde is a colourless liquid smelling of bitter almonds.
Its specific gravity is 1-0636 (jj- C.), and it boils at 179-1 C.
(75i-3mm). It is only slightly soluble in water, but is readily
volatile in steam. It possesses all the characteristic properties of
an aldehyde; being readily oxidized to benzoic acid; reducing
solutions of silver salts; forming addition products with
hydrogen, hydrocyanic acid and sodium bisulphite; and giving
an oxime and a hydrazone. On the other hand, it differs from
the aliphatic aldehydes in many respects; it does not form an
addition product with ammonia but condenses to hydrobenzamide
(CeHsCH^Nj; on shaking with alcoholic potash it undergoes
simultaneous oxidation and reduction, giving benzoic acid and
benzyl alcohol (S. Cannizzaro); and on warming with alcoholic
potassium cyanide it condenses to benzoin (q.v.).
The oxidation of benzaldehyde to benzoic acid when exposed
to air is not one of ordinary oxidation, for it has been observed in
the case of many compounds that during such oxidation, as much
oxygen is rendered " active " as is used up by the substance
undergoing oxidation; thus if benzaldehyde is left for some time
in contact with air, water and indigosulphonic acid, just as much
oxygen is used up in oxidizing the indigo compound as in oxidiz-
ing the aldehyde. A. v. Baeyer and V. Villiger (Berichte, 1900,
33, pp. 858, 2480) have shown that benzoyl hydrogen peroxide
CeHs-CO-O-OH is formed as an intermediate product and that
this oxidizes the indigo compound, being itself reduced to benzoic
acid; they have also shown that this peroxide is soluble in
benzaldehyde with production of benzoic acid, and it must be
assumed that the oxidation of benzaldehyde proceeds as shown
in the equations:
C,H 6 CHO+O 2 = CeH 4 CO-O-OH,
C 6 H 6 CO-O-OH +C,H 6 CHO = 2C 6 H 5 COOH.
Further see G. Bodlander, Ahrens Sammlung, 1899, iii. 470;
W. P. Jorissen, Zeit. fur phys. Chem., 1897, 22, p. 56; C. Engler and
W. Wild, Berichte, 1897, 30, p. 1669.
The oxime of benzaldehyde (C 6 H 6 CH:N-OH), formed by the
addition of hydroxylamine to the aldehyde, exhibits a character-
istic behaviour when hydrochloric acid gas is passed into its
ethereal solution, a second modification being produced. The
former (known as the a or benz-anti-aldoxime) melts at 34-35 C. ;
the latter (/3 or benz-syn-aldoxime) melts at 130 C. and is slowly
transformed into the a form. The difference between the two
forms has been explained by A. Hantzsch and A. Werner
(Berichte, 1890,23, p. 1 1) by the assumption of the different spatial
arrangement of the atoms (see STEREO-!SOMERISM). On account
of the readiness with which it condenses with various compounds,
benzaldehyde is an important synthetic reagent. With aniline
it forms benzylidine aniline CeHsC^N-CeHs, and with acetone,
benzal acetone C 8 H 5 CH: CH-CO-CH 3 . Heated with anhydrous
sodium acetate and acetic anhydride it gives cinnamic acid (q.v.);
with ethyl bromide and sodium it forms triphenyl-carbinol
BENZENE BENZIDINE
755
(CHt)jC-OH; with dimethylaniline and anhydrous zinc chloride
it forms leuco-malachite green CH 6 CH[CH < N(CHj)2] 2 ; and
with dimethylaniline and concentrated hydrochloric acid it gives
dimethylaminobenzhydrol, C 6 HsCH(OH)C 6 H4N(CH,),. Heated
with sulphur it forms benzoic acid and stilbene:
2C,H,O+S = C,H,COOH+C,H,CHS,
2C,H 4 CHS=2S+C U H 12 .
Its addition compound with hydrocyanic acid gives mandelic
acid CH S CH(OH)-COOH on hydrolysis; when heated with
sodium succinate and acetic anhydride, phenyl-iso-crotonic acid
CH 6 CH : CH-CH 2 COOH is produced, which on boiling is
converted into a-naphthol CioH?OH. It can also be used for the
synthesis ot pyridine derivatives, since A. Hantzsch has shown
that aldehydes condense with aceto-acetic ester and ammonia to
produce the homologues of pyridine, thus:
R R
ROOC-CH, CHO CH.-COOR ROOC-C-CH-C-COOR
I + + I = I I +3H.O.
H.C-CO NH, CO-CH, H,C-C-NH-C-CH,
On nitration it yields chiefly meta-nitro-benzaldehyde, crystalliz-
ing in needles which melt at 58 C. The ortho-compound may be
obtained by oxidizing ortho-nitrocinnamic acid with alkaline
potassium permanganate in the presence of benzene; or from
ortho - nitrobenzyl chloride by condensing it with aniline,
oxidizing the product so obtained to ortho-nitrobenzylidine
aniline, and then hydrolysing this compound with an acid
(Farben fabrik d. Meister, Lucius und Bruning). It crystallizes
in yellowish needles, which are volatile in steam and melt at 46 C.
It is used in the artificial production of indigo (see German
Patent 10768).
Para-nitrobenzaldehyde crystallizes in prisms melting at
107 C. and is prepared by the action of chromium oxychloride on
para-nitrotoluene, or by oxidizing para-nitrocinnamic acid. By
the reduction of ortho-nitrobenzaldehyde with ferrous sulphate
and ammonia, ortho-aminobenzaldehyde is obtained. This
compound condenses in alkaline solution with compounds
containing the grouping CH 2 CO to form quinoline (q.v.)
or its derivatives; thus, with acetaldehyde it forms quinoline,
and with acetone, a-methyl quinoline. With urea it gives
quinazolone
, and with mandelic nitrile and its
homologues it forms oxazole derivatives (S. S. Minovici, Berichte,
1896, 29, p. 2097).
BENZENE, C 6 H 6 , a hydrocarbon discovered in 1825 by
Faraday in the liquid produced in the compression of the
illuminating gas obtained by distilling certain oils and fats.
E. Mitscherlich prepared it in 1834 by distilling benzoic acid
with lime; and in 1845 Hofmann discovered it in coal-tar. It
was named "benzin" or "benzine" by Mitscherlich in 1833,
but in the following year Liebig proposed "benzol" (the ter-
mination ol being suggested by the Lat. oleum, oil); the form
"benzene" was due to A. W. Hofmann. The word "benzine"
is sometimes used in commerce for the coal-tar product, but also
for the light petroleum better known as petroleum-benzine;
a similar ambiguity is presented by the word "benzoline,"
which is applied to the same substances as the word " benzine."
"Benzene" is the term used by English chemists, "benzol"
is used in Germany, and "benzole" in France.
Benzene is manufactured from the low-boiling fractions of
the coal-tar distillate (see COAL-TAR). The first successful
fractionation of coal-tar naphtha was devised by C. B. Mansfield
(1810-1855), who separated a benzol distilling below 100 from
a less volatile naphtha by using a simple dephlegmator. At first,
the oil was manufactured principally for combustion in the
Read-Holliday lamp and for dissolving rubber, but the develop-
ment of the coal-tar colour industry occasioned a demand for
benzols of definite purity. In the earlier stages 30 %, 50 % and
QO % benzols were required, the 30 % being mainly used for the
manufacture of "aniline for red," and the 90 *'b f < r "aniline for
blue." (The term " 30 % benzol " means that 30 % by volume
distils below ioo.) A purer benzol was subsequently required
for the manufacture of aniline black and other dye-stuffs. The
process originally suggested by Mansfield is generally followed,
the success of the operation being principally conditioned by the
efficiency of the dephlegmator, in which various improvements
have been made. The light oil fraction of the coal-tar distillate,
which comes over below 140 and consists principally of benzene,
toluene and the xylenes, yields on fractionation (i) various
volatile impurities such as carbon disulphidc, (2) the benzene
fraction boiling at about 80 C., (3) the toluene fraction boiling
at 100, (4) the xylene fraction boiling at 140. The fractions are
agitated with strong sulphuric acid, and then washed with a
caustic soda solution. The washed products are then refrac-
tionated. The toluene fraction requires a more thorough
washing with sulphuric acid in order to eliminate the thiotolenc,
which is sulphonated much less readily than thiophene.
Benzene is a colourless, limpid, highly refracting liquid, having
a pleasing and characteristic odour. It may be solidified to
rhombic crystals which melt at 5-4 C. (Mansfield obtained
perfectly pure benzene by freezing a carefully fractionated
sample.) It boils a t 80-4, and the vapour is highly inflammable,
the flame being extremely smoky. Its specific gravity is 0-899
at o C. It is very slightly soluble in water, more soluble in
alcohol, and completely miscible with ether, acetic acid and
carbon disulphide. It is an excellent solvent for gums, resins,
fats, &c.; sulphur, phosphorus and iodine also dissolve in it.
It sometimes separates with crystals of a solute as "benzene
of crystallization," as for example with triphenylraethane,
thio-p-tolyl urea, tropine, &c.
Benzene is of exceptional importance commercially on account
of the many compounds derivable from it, which are exceedingly
valuable in the arts. Chemically it is one of the most interesting
substances known, since it is the parent of the enormous number
of compounds styled the " aromatic " or " benzenoid " com-
pounds. The constitution of the benzene ring, the isomerism
of its derivatives, and their syntheses from aliphatic or open-
chain compounds, are treated in the article CHEMISTRY. A
summary of its chemical transformations may be given here,
and reference should be made to the articles on the separate
compounds for further details.
Passed through a red-hot tube, benzene vapour yields hydrogen,
diphenyl, diphenylbenzenes and acetylene; the formation of
the last compound is an instance of a reversible reaction, since
Berthelot found that acetylene passed through a red-hot tube
gave some benzene. Benzene is very stable to oxidants, in fact
resistance to oxidation is a strong characteristic of the benzene
ring. Manganese dioxide and sulphuric acid oxidize it to benzoic
and o-phthalic acid; potassium chlorate and sulphuric acid
breaks the ring; and ozone oxidizes it to the highly explosive
white solid named ozo-benzene, CsHeOs. Hydriodic acid reduces
it to hexamethylene (cyclo-hexane or hexa-hydro-benzene) ;
chlorine and bromine form substitution and addition products,
but the action is slow unless some carrier such as iodine, molyb-
denum chloride or ferric chloride for chlorine, and aluminium
bromide for bromine, be present. It is readily nitrated to nitro-
benzene, two, and even three nitro groups being introduced if
some dehydrator such as concentrated sulphuric acid be present.
Sulphuric acid gives a benzene sulphonic acid.
BENZIDINE(DlPARA-DIAMINO-DIPHENYL),NH,-CH<-C.H < -NH:,
a chemical base which may be prepared by the reduction of the
corresponding dinitro-diphenyl, or by the reduction of azo-
benzene with tin and hydrochloric acid. In this latter case
hydrazo-benzene CsHeNH-NH-QHs is first formed and then
undergoes a peculiar re-arrangement into benzidine (see H.
Schmidt and G. Schultz, Annalen, 1881, 207, p. 320; O. N. Witt
and Hans v. Helmont, Berichte, 1894, 27, p. 2352; P. Jacobson,
Berichte, 1892, 25, p. 994). Benzidine crystallizes in plates (from
water) which melt at 1 22 C., and boil above 360 C., and is charac-
terized by the great insolubility of its sulphate. It is a di-acid
base and forms salts with the mineral acids. It is readily
75 6
BENZOIC ACID
brominated and nitrated; when the nitration is carried out in
the presence of sulphuric acid, the nitro-groups take up the
meta position with regard to the amino-groups. Benzidine finds
commercial application since its tetrazo compound couples
readily with amino-sulphonic acids, phenol carboxylic acids,
and phenol and naphthol-sulphonic acids to produce substantive
cotton dyes (see DYEING). Among such dyestuffs are chrysa-
mine or flavophenine, obtained from salicylic acid and dia-
zotized benzidine, and congo red obtained from sodium
naphthionate and diazotized benzidine. On the constitution
of benzidine see G. Schultz (Annalen, 1874, 174, p. 227).
The Benzidine and Semidine Change. Aromatic hydrazo
compounds which contain free para positions are readily con-
verted by the action of acids, acid chlorides and anhydrides into
diphenyl derivatives; thus, as mentioned above, hydrazo-
benzene is converted into benzidine, a small quantity of
diphenylin being formed at the same time. The two products
are separated by the different solubilities of their sulphates.
This reaction is known as the benzidine transformation. If,
however, one of the para positions in the hydrazo compound
is substituted, then either diphenyl derivatives or azo compounds
are formed, or what is known as the semidine change takes place
(P. Jacobson, Berichte, 1892, 25, p. 992; 1893, 26, p. 681; 1896,
29, p. 2680; Annalen, 1895, 287, p. 97; 1898, 303, p. 290).
A para mono substituted hydrazo compound in the presence
of a hydrochloric acid solution of stannous chloride gives either
a para diphenyl derivative (the substituent group being elimi-
nated), an ortho-semidine, a para-semidine, or a diphenyl base,
whilst a decomposition with the formation of amines may also
take place. The nature of the substituent exerts a specific
influence on the reaction; thus with chlorine or bromine,
ortho-semidines and the diphenyl bases are the chief products;
the dimethylamino, -N(CHa) 2 , and acetamino, -NHCOCHs,
groups give the diphenyl base and the para-semidine respectively.
With a methyl group, the chief product is an ortho-semidine,
whilst with a carboxyl group, the diphenyl derivative is the
chief product. The ortho- and para- semidines can be readily
distinguished by their behaviour with different reagents; thus
with nitrous acid the ortho-semidines give azimido compounds,
whilst the para-semidines give complex diazo derivatives;
with formic or acetic acids the ortho-semidines give anhydro
compounds of a basic character, the para-semidines give acyl
products possessing no basic character. The carbon disulphide
and salicylic aldehyde products have also been used as means
of distinction, as has also the formation of the stilbazonium bases
obtained by condensing ortho-semidines with benzil (O. N. Witt,
Berichte, 1892, 25, p. 1017).
Structurally we have:
Hydrazohenzene.
-NH-NH-
Benzidine.
Diphenylin.
NH 2
-N-H-
Ortho-semidine.
or R
NH 2
-NH-
Para-seraidine.
NH 2
R
BENZOIC ACID. C 7 H,O 2 or C,H 5 COOH, the simplest repre-
sentative of the aromatic acids. It occurs naturally in some
resins, especially in gum benzoin (from Styrax benzoin), in
dragon's blood, and as a benzyl ester in Peru and Tolu balsams.
It can be prepared by the oxidation of toluene, benzyl alcohol,
benzaldehyde and cinnamic acid; by the oxidation of benzene
with manganese dioxide and concentrated sulphuric acid in the
cold (L. Carius, Ann. 1868, 148, p. 51); by hydrolysis of benzoni-
trile or of hippuric acid; by the action of carbon dioxide on
benzene in the presence of aluminium chloride (C. Friedel and
J. M. Crafts, Ann. chim. phys. 1888 [6], 14, p. 441); by the action
of carbon dioxide on monobrombenzene in the presence of
sodium; by condensing benzene and carbonyl chloride in
presence of aluminium chloride, the benzoyl chloride formed
being subsequently hydrolysed; and similarly from benzene
and chlorformamide :
C 6 H, -r-Cl-CONH 2 = HC1 -r-C,H 6 CONH 2 ,
the benzarnide being then hydrolysed. It may also be prepared
by boiling benzyl chloride with dilute nitric acid (G. Lunge,
Berichte, 1877, to, p. 1275); by fusing sodium benzene sulphonate
with sodium formate: C 6 H6SO 3 Na+HCO 2 Na=C6H5COONa+
NaHSOs; by heating calcium phthalate with calcium hydroxide
to 330 -350 C.; by heating benzotrichloride with water in a
sealed tube, and from the hippuric acid which is found in the
urine of the herbivorae. For this purpose the urine is concen-
trated and the hippuric acid precipitated by the addition of
hydrochloric acid; it is then filtered and boiled for some time
with concentrated hydrochloric acid, when it is hydrolysed into
benzoic and amido-acetic acid. It is made commercially by
boiling benzotrichloride (obtained from toluene) with milk of
lime, the calcium benzoate so obtained being then decomposed
by hydrochloric acid
2C,HjCCl 3 +4C a (OH), = (C e H 4 COO) 2 Ca+3CaCI 2 +4H 2 0.
Benzoic acid crystallizes in glistening leaflets (from water)
which melt at 121-4 C. and boil at 249-2 C. (H. Kopp). Its
specific heat is 0-1946. It sublimes readily and is volatile in
steam. It is readily soluble in hot water and the ordinary organic
solvents, but is only slightly soluble in cold water. When heated
with lime, it is decomposed, benzene being formed; if its vapours
are passed over heated zinc dust, it is converted into benzalde-
hyde (A. Baeyer, Ann. 1866, 140, p. 296). Distillation of its
calcium salt gives benzophenone (q.v.) with small quantities of
other substances, but if the calcium salt be mixed with calcium
formate and the mixture distilled, benzaldehyde is produced.
By the action of sodium amalgam on an aqueous solution of the
acid, benzyl alcohol, tetrahydrobenzoic acid and hexahydro-
benzoic acid are formed. The salts of benzoic acid are known
as the benzoates and are mostly soluble in water. They are
readily decomposed by mineral acids with the production of
benzoic acid, and on addition of ferric chloride to their neutral
solutions give a reddish-brown precipitate of ferric benzoate.
Benzoic anhydride, (C 6 H 6 CO)2O, is prepared by the action of
benzoyl chloride on sodium benzoate, or by heating benzoyl
chloride with anhydrous oxalic acid (R. Anschutz, Ann. 1884,
226, p. 15). Itcrystallizesinneedles,meltingat42C.,andboiling
at 36oC. It is insoluble in water but readily soluble in alcohol
and ether.
Benzoyl chloride, CeHsCOCl, is formed by distilling a mixture
of phosphorus pentachloride and benzoic acid; by the action of
chlorine on benzaldehyde, or by passing a stream of hydrochloric
acid gas over a mixture of benzoic acid and phosphorus pentoxide
heated to 2ooC. (C. Friedel, Ber. 1869, 2, p. 80). It is a colourless
liquid of very unpleasant smell, which boils at 198 C., and
solidifies in a freezing mixture, the crystals obtained melting at
-i C. It shows all the characteristic properties of an acid
chloride.
Ethyl benzoate, C 6 H 6 COOC 2 H B , is best prepared by boiling
benzoic acid and alcohol with a small quantity of sulphuric
acid for some hours (E. Fischer and A. Speier, Berichte, 1896,
28, p. 3252). It is a colourless liquid of boiling point 213 C.
Benzamide, CeHsCONHu, is prepared by the action of benzoyl
chloride on ammonia or ammonium carbonate, or from ethyl
benzoate and ammonia. It crystallizes (from water) in glistening
leaflets which melt at 130 C. and boil at 288 C. Its silver salt
behaves as if it were the salt of an imido benzoic acid, since it
yields benzimido ethyl ether C 6 H 6 -C(:NH)-OC 2 H5 with ethyl
iodide (J. Tafel and C. Enoch, Berichte, 1890, 23, p. 1550).
Chlor-, brom-, iodo- and fluor-benzoic acids are known and can
be obtained by oxidizing the corresponding halogen toluenes,
or fiom the amido acids, or by substitution. Nitration of benzoic
acid gives chiefly meta-nitro-benzoic acid. The ortho- and
para-nitro-benzoic acids can be obtained by oxidizing ortho-
and para-nitro-cinnamic acids. Ortho-amino-benzoic acid,
C 6 H4-NH 2 -COOH (anthranilic acid), is closely related to indigo
BENZOIN BEOTHY
757
Gum benzoin, which contains from 12 to 20 % of benzoic acid,
is used in medicine as the essential constituent of benzoated lard,
Adeps benzoalus, which owes its antiseptic properties to benzoic
acid; and in friar's balsam, Tinctura benzoini composita, which
is an ancient and valuable medicament, still largely used for
inhalation in cases of laryngitis, bronchitis and other inflamma-
tory or actually septic conditions of the respiratory tract. It
owes its value to the benzoic acid which it contains. A fluid
drachm of friar's balsam may be added to a pint of water at a
temperature of about 140 F., and the resultant vapour may be
inhaled from the spout of a kettle or from a special inhaler.
Benzoic acid itself, ammonium benzoate and sodium benzoate
are all administered internally in doses of from five to thirty
grains. The ammonium salt is most often employed, owing to
the stimulant character of the ammonium base. The acid itself
is a powerful antiseptic. When administered internally, it
causes the appearance of hippuric acid in the urine. This is due
to its combination in the body with glycocoll. The combination
probably occurs in the kidney. The hippuric acid in the urine
acts as a stimulant and disinfectant to the urinary mucous
membrane. Benzoic acid is also excreted by the bronchi and
tends to disinfect and stimulate the bronchial mucous membrane.
Hence the value of friar's balsam. The acid and its salts are
antipyretic and were used in Germany instead of salicylates in
rheumatic fever. But the most important fact is that ammonium
benzoate is largely used often in combination with urinary
anodynes such as tincture of hyoscyamus as a urinary antiseptic
in cases of cystitis (inflammation of the bladder) and pyelitis
(inflammation of the pelvis of the kidney).
BENZOIN, C,H s CHOH-CO-CH5,a ketone-alcohol, which may
be prepared by boiling an alcoholic solution of benzaldehyde
with potassium cyanide; by reducing benzil (CeHjCO-CO-CsHs)
with zinc and acetic acid; or by the oxidation of hydrobenzoin
(C,Hj-CHOH-CHOH-C 6 H 6 ). It is a colourless, crystalline solid,
readily soluble in alcohol and ether, melting at 137 C. and boiling
at 343-344^. On passing the vapour of benzoin over heated lead
oxide, it is converted into benzil and benzophenone. Owing to
the readiness with" which, it is oxidized, it acts as a reducing
agent, giving a red precipitate of cuprous oxide with Fehling's
solution in the cold. Chlorine and nitric acid oxidize it to benzil;
chromic acid mixture and potassium permanganate, to benzoic
acid and benzaldehyde. On heating with zinc dust, desoxy-
benzoin (CVHsCO-CHj-CeHj) is obtained; sodium amalgam
converts it into hydrobenzoin; and fuming hydriodic acid at
130 C. gives dibenzyl (CeHsC^-CHj-CeHs). By fusion with
alkali it is converted into benzil; and with an alcoholic solution
of benzaldehyde in presence of ammonia it forms amarine (tri-
phenyl dihydro-glyoxaline). In the presence of sulphuric acid
it condenses with nitriles to oxazoles (q.v.).
BENZOIN, or GUM BENJAMIN (supposed to be from Arab.
luban, frankincense, the first syllable being dropped in Romanic
as if it were the article), a balsamic resin obtained from Styrax
benzoin, a tree of considerable size, native to Sumatra and Java,
and from other species of Slyrax. It is obtained by making
incisions in the bark of the trees, and appears to be formed as
the result of the wound, not to be secreted normally. There are
several varieties of benzoin in commerce: (i) Siam benzoin,
which apparently does not come from Styrax benzoin, is the
finest and most aromatic, and occurs in the form of small " tears, "
rarely exceeding 2 in. in length by \ in. in thickness, and of
" blocks " made up of these tears agglomerated by a clear
reddish-brown resin. The odour of Siam benzoin is partly due
to the presence of vanillin, and the substance contains as much
as 38 % of benzoic acid but no cinnamic acid. (2) Sumatra
benzoin occurs only in masses formed of duH red resin enclosing
white tears. It contains about 20 % of cinnamic acid in addition
to 18 or even more of benzoic. (3) Palembang benzoin, an inferior
variety, said to be obtained from Styrax benzoin in Sumatra,
consists of greyish translucent resinous masses, containing small
white opaque tears. It does not appear to contain cinnamic
acid. Large quantities of benzoin are used as incense. Its
medicinal uses depend on the contained benzoic acid (q.v.).
BENZOPHENONE (DiPHENVL KETONE), C,H CO G.H., the
simplest representative of the true aromatic ketones. It may be
prepared by distilling calcium benzoate; by condensing benzene
with benzoyl chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium
chloride; by the action of mercury diphenyl on benzoyl chloride,
or by oxidizing diphenylmethane with chromic acid. It is a
dimorphous substance existing in two enantiotropic forms, one
melting at 26 C. and the other at 48 C. (Th. Zincke, Berichte, 187 1 ,
4.P-576). It boils at 306- iC., under a pressure of 760-32 mm. It
is reduced by sodium amalgam to benzhydrol or diphenyl earbinol
CeHj-CHOH-CHj; a stronger reducing agent, such as hydriodic
acid in the presence of amorphous phosphorus converts it into
diphenylmethane (CH*)rCHt. Potash fusion converts it into
benzene and benzoic acid. With phenylhydrazine it forms a
hydrazone, and with hydroxylamine an oxime, which exists in
one form only; if, however, one of the phenyl groups in the oxime
be substituted in any way then two stereo-isomeric oximes are
produced (cf. STKREO-!SOMERISM); thus parachlorbenzophenone
oxime exists in two different forms (V. Meyer and K. F. Auwers,
Berichte, 1890, 23, p. 2403). Many derivatives are known, thus
ortho-amino-benzophenone, melting at 106 C., can be obtained
by reduction of the corresponding nitro compound; it condenses
under the influence of heated lead monoxide to an acridine
derivative and with acetone in presence of caustic soda it gives
a quinoline. Tetramethyl-diamido-benzophenone or Michler't
ketone, CO[CH 4 N-(CH,)2] 2 , melting at 173, is of technical
importance, as by condensation with various substances it can be
made to yield dye-stuffs. It is prepared by the action of carbonyl
chloride on dimethyl aniline in the presence of aluminium
chloride: COCl 2 +2C,H i N(CH,), = 2HCl+CO[CH 4 N(CH,),],.
BENZYL ALCOHOL (PHENYL CARBiNOL.),CH 6 CH2OH, occurs
as a benzoic ester in Peru balsam, as cinnamic ester in Tolu balsam,
as acetic ester in essential oil of jasmine, and also in storax. It
may be synthetically prepared by the reduction of benzoyl
chloride; by the action of nitrous acid on benzylamine; by
boiling benzyl chloride with an aqueous solution of potassium
carbonate, or by the so-called " Cannizzaro " reaction, in which
benzaldehyde is shaken up with caustic potash, one half of the
aldehyde being oxidized to benzoic acid, and the other half
reduced to the alcohol. (Berichte, 1881, 14, p. 2394).
2C,H,CHO+KOH = C,H S COOK+CH,CH,OH.
It is a colourless liquid, with a faint aromatic smell, and boils at
206 C. On oxidation with nitric acid it is converted into
benzaldehyde, whilst chromic acid oxidizes it to benzoic acid.
Reduction by means of hydriodic acid and phosphorus at 140 C.
gives toluene, whilst on distillation with alcoholic potash, toluene
and benzoic acid are formed.
BEOTHUK, a tribe of North American Indians formerly
dwelling in the interior of Newfoundland. A certain mystery
attaches to them, since investigation of the few words of their
language which have survived suggests that they were of distinct
stock. The name (of Micmac origin) is said to mean simply " red
men." They were bitterly hostile to the French settlers, and
were hunted down and killed off until 1820, when a few survivors
made their escape into Labrador. The last of them is believed
to have died in 1829.
BEOTHY, ODON (1796-1854), Hungarian deputy and orator,
was born at Grosswardein, his father being a retired officer and
deputy lord-lieutenant of the county of Bihar. At the age of
sixteen he served in the war against Napoleon, and was present
at the great battle of Leipzig. Like so many others of his com-
patriots, he picked up Liberal ideas abroad. He was sent to
parliament by his county in 1826 and again in 1830, but did not
become generally known till the session of 1832-183*; when along
with Deak he, as a liberal Catholic, defended the Protestant point
of view in " the mixed marriages question." He was also an
energetic advocate of freedom of speech. After parliament rose
he carried his principles to their logical conclusion by marrying
a Protestant lady and, being denied a blessing on the occasion by
an indignant bishop, publicly declared that he could very well
dispense with such blessings. In 1841 he was elected deputy
lord-lieutenant of his county to counteract the influence of the
758
BEOWULF
lord-lieutenant, Lajos Tisza, and powerfully promoted the
popular cause by his eloquence and agitation. After 1843 the
conservatives succeeded in excluding him both from parliament
and from his official position in the county; but during the
famous " March Days " (1848) he regained all his authority,
becoming at the same time a commander of militia, a deputy
and lord-lieutenant. At the first session of the Upper House
(Sth of July 1848), he moved that it should be radically reformed,
and during the war of Independence he energetically served the
Hungarian government as a civil commissioner and lord justice.
Towards the end of the war he reappeared as a deputy at the
Szeged diet, and on the flight of the government took refuge first
with Richard Cobden in London and subsequently in Jersey,
where he made the acquaintance of Victor Hugo. Thence he
went to Hamburg, to meet his wife, and died there on the 7th of
December 1854. Beothy was a man of extraordinary ability
and character, and an excellent debater. He also exercised as
much influence socially over his contemporaries as politically,
owing to his unfailing tact and pleasant wit.
See Antal Csengery, Hungarian Orators and Statesmen (Hung.,
Budapest, 1851). (R. N. B.)
BEOWULF. The epic of Beowulf, the most precious relic of
Old English, and, indeed, of all early Germanic literature, has
come down to us in a single MS., written about A.D. 1000, which
contains also the Old English poem of Judith, and is bound up
with other MSS. in a volume in the Cottonian collection now at
the British Museum. The subject of the poem is the exploits
of Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow and nephew of Hygelac, king of the
" Geatas," i.e. the people, called in Scandinavian records Gautar,
from whom a part of southern Sweden has received its present
name Gotland.
The Story. The following is a brief outline of the story, which
naturally divides itself into five parts.
1. Beowulf, with fourteen companions, sails to Denmark, to
offer his help to Hrothgar, king of the Danes, whose hall (called
" Heorot ") has for twelve years been rendered uninhabitable
by the ravages of a devouring monster (apparently in gigantic
human shape) called Grendel, a dweller in the waste, who used
nightly to force an entrance and slaughter some of the inmates.
Beowulf and his friends are feasted in the long-deserted Heorot.
At night the Danes withdraw, leaving the strangers alone.
When all but Beowulf are asleep, Grendel enters, the iron-barred
doors having yielded in a moment to his hand. One of Beowulf's
friends is killed; but Beowulf, unarmed, wrestles with the
monster, and tears his arm from the shoulder. Grendel, though
mortally wounded, breaks from the conqueror's grasp, and
escapes from the hall. On the morrow, his bloodstained track
is followed until it ends in a distant mere.
2. All fear being now removed, the Danish king and his
followers pass the night in Heorot, Beowulf and his comrades
being lodged elsewhere. The hall is invaded by Grendel's
mother, who kills and carries off one of the Danish nobles.
Beowulf proceeds to the mere, and, armed with sword and
corslet, plunges into the water. In a vaulted chamber under the
waves, he fights with Grendel's mother, and kills her. In the
vault he finds the corpse of Grendel; he cuts off the head, and
brings it back in triumph.
3. Richly rewarded by Hrothgar, Beowulf returns to his
native land. He is welcomed by Hygelac, and relates to him
the story of his adventures, with some details not contained in
the former narrative. The king bestows on him lands and
honours, and during the reigns of Hygelac and his son Heardred
he is the greatest man in the kingdom. When Heardred is killed
in battle with the Swedes, Beowulf becomes king in his stead.
4. After Beowulf has reigned prosperously for fifty years,
his country is ravaged by a fiery dragon, which inhabits an
ancient burial-mound, full of costly treasure. The royal hall
itself is burned to the ground. The aged king resolves to fight,
unaided, with the dragon. Accompanied by eleven chosen
warriors, he journeys to the barrow. Bidding his companions
retire to a distance, he takes up his position near the entrance
to the mound an arched opening whence issues a boiling stream.
The dragon hears Beowulf's shout of defiance, and rushes forth,
breathing flames. The fight begins; Beowulf is all but over-
powered, and the sight is so terrible that his men, all but one,
seek safety in flight. The young Wiglaf, son of Weohstan,
though yet untried in battle, cannot, even in obedience to his
lord's prohibition, refrain from going to his help. With Wiglaf's
aid, Beowulf slays the dragon, but not before he has received
his own death-wound. Wiglaf enters the barrow, and returns
to show the dying king the treasures that he has found there.
With his last breath Beowulf names Wiglaf his successor, and
ordains that his ashes shall be enshrined in a great mound,
placed on a lofty cliff, so that it may be a mark for sailors far
out at sea.
5. The news of Beowulf's dear-bought victory is carried to
the army. Amid great lamentation, the hero's body is laid on
the funeral pile and consumed. The treasures of the dragon's
hoard are buried with his ashes; and when the great mound is
finished, twelve of Beowulf's most famous warriors ride around
it, celebrating the praises of the bravest, gentlest and most
generous of kings.
The Hero. Those portions of the poem that are summarized
above that is to say, those which relate the career of the hero
in progressive order contain a lucid and well-constructed story,
told with a vividness of imagination and a degree of narrative
skill that may with little exaggeration be called Homeric. And
yet it is probable that there are few readers of Beowulf who have
not felt and there are many who after repeated perusal continue
to feel that the general impression produced by it is that of
a bewildering chaos. This effect is due to the multitude and the
character of the episodes. In the first place, a very great part
of what the poem tells about Beowulf himself is not presented
in regular sequence, but by way of retrospective mention or
narration. The extent of the material thus introduced out of
course may be seen from the following abstract.
When seven years old the orphaned Beowulf was adopted by
his grandfather king Hrethel, the father of Hygelac, and was
regarded by him with as much affection as any of his own sons.
In youth, although famed for his wonderful strength of grip,
he was generally despised as sluggish and unwarlike. Yet even
before his encounter with Grendel, he had won renown by his
swimming contest with another youth named Breca, when after
battling for seven days and nights with the waves, and slaying
many sea-monsters, he came to land in the country of the Finns.
In the disastrous invasion of the land of the Hetware, in which
Hygelac was killed, Beowulf killed many of the enemy, amongst
them a chieftain of the Hugas, named Dxghrefn, apparently
the slayer of Hygelac. In the retreat he once more displayed
his powers as a swimmer, carrying to his ship the armour of
thirty slain enemies. When he reached his native land, the
widowed queen offered him the kingdom, her son Heardred being
too young to rule. Beowulf, out of loyalty, refused to be made
king, and acted as the guardian of Heardred during his minority,
and as his counsellor after he came to man's estate. By giving
shelter to the fugitive Eadgils, a rebel against his uncle the king
of the " Sweon " (the Swedes, dwelling to the north of the
Gautar), Heardred brought on himself an invasion, in which he
lost his life. When Beowulf became king, he supported the cause
of Eadgils by force of arms; the king of the Swedes was killed,
and his nephew placed on the throne.
Historical Value. Now, with one brilliant exception the
story of the swimming-match, which is felicitously introduced
and finely told these retrospective passages are brought in
more or less awkwardly, interrupt inconveniently the course of
the narrative, and, are too condensed and allusive in style to
make any strong poetic impression. Still, they do serve to
complete the portraiture of the hero's character. There are,
however, many other episodes that have nothing to do with
Beowulf himself, but seem to have been inserted with a deliberate
intention of making the poem into a sort of cyclopaedia of
Germanic tradition. They include many particulars of what
purports to be the history of the royal houses, not only of the
Gautar and the Danes, but also of the Swedes, the continental
BEOWULF
Angles, the Ostrogoths, the Frisians and the Heathobeards,
besides references to matters of unlocalized heroic story such
as the exploits of Sigismund. The Saxons are not named, and
the Franks appear only as a dreaded hostile power. Of Britain
there is no mention; and though there are some distinctly
Christian passages, they are so incongruous in tone with the
rest of the poem that they must be regarded as interpolations.
In general the extraneous episodes have no great appropriateness
to their context, and have the appearance of being abridged
versions of stories that had been related at length in poetry.
Their confusing effect, for modern readers, is increased by a
curiously irrelevant prologue. It begins by celebrating the
ancient glories of the Danes, tells in allusive style the story of
Scyld, the founder of the " Scylding " dynasty of Denmark, and
praises the virtues of his son Beowulf. If this Danish Beowulf
had been the hero of the poem, the opening would have
been appropriate; but it seems strangely out of place as an
introduction to the story of his namesake.
However detrimental these redundancies may be to the poetic
beauty of the epic, they add enormously to its interest for
students of Germanic history or legend. If the mass of traditions
which it purports to contain be genuine, the poem is of unique
importance as a source of knowledge respecting the early history
of the peoples of northern Germany and Scandinavia. But the
value to be assigned to Beowulf in this respect can be determined
only by ascertaining its probable date, origin and manner of
composition. The criticism of the Old English epic has therefore
for nearly a century been justly regarded as indispensable to the
investigation of Germanic antiquities.
The starting-point of all Beowulf criticism is the fact (dis-
covered by N. F. S. Grundtvig in 1815) that one of the episodes
of the poem belongs to authentic history. Gregory of Tours,
who died in 594, relates that in the reign of Theodoric of Metz
(5U-534) the Danes invaded the kingdom, and carried off many
captives and much plunder to their ships. Their king, whose
name appears in the best MSS. as Chlochilaicus (other copies
read Chrochilaicus, Hrodolaicus, &c.), remained on shore intend-
ing to follow afterwards, but was attacked by the Franks under
Theodobert, son of Theodoric, and killed. The Franks then
defeated the Danes in a naval battle, and recovered the booty.
The date of these events is ascertained to have been between
512 and 520. An anonymous history written early in the eighth
century (Liber Hist. Francorum, cap. 19) gives the name of the
Danish king as Chochilaicus, and says that he was killed in the
land of the Attoarii. Now it is related in Beowulf that Hygelac
met his death in fighting against the Franks and the Hetware
(the Old English form of Attoarii). The forms of the Danish
king's name given by the Prankish historians are corruptions of
the name of which the primitive Germanic form was Hugilaikaz,
and which by regular phonetic change became in Old English
Hygelac, and in Old Norse Hugleikr. It is true that the invading
king is said in the histories to have been a Dane, whereas the
Hygelac of Beowulf belonged to the " Geatas " or Gautar. But
a work called Liber Monstrorum, 1 preserved in two MSS. of the
loth century, cites as an example of extraordinary stature a
certain " Huiglaucus, king of the Getae," who was killed by the
Franks, and whose bones were preserved on an island at the
mouth of the Rhine, and exhibited as a marvel. It is therefore
evident that the personality of Hygelac, and the expedition in
which, according to Beowulf, he died, belong not to the region of
legend or poetic invention, but to that of historic fact.
This noteworthy result suggests the possibility that what the
poem tells of Hygelac's near relatives, and of the events of his
reign and that of his successor, is based on historic fact. There
is really nothing to forbid the supposition; nor is there any
unlikelihood in the view that the persons mentioned as belonging
to the royal houses of the Danes and Swedes had a real existence.
It can be proved, at any rate, that several of the names are
1 Printed in Berger de Xivrey, Traditions Teratoloeiques (1836),
from a MS. in private hands. Another MS., now at WolfenbUttel,
reads" Hunglacus'TorHuiglaucus, and (ungrammatically) "gentes"
for Cells.
759
derived from the native traditions of these two peoples. The
Danish king Hrothgar and his brother Halga, the sons of Hcalf-
dene, appear in the Hislorla Danica of Saxo as Roe (the founder
of Roskilde) and Helgo, the sons of Haldanus. The Swedish
princes Eadgils, son of Ohthere, and Onela, who are mentioned
in Beowulf, are in the Icelandic Heimskringla called Adils son of
Ottarr, and Ali; the correspondence of the names, according to
the phonetic laws of Old English and Old Norse, being strictly
normal. There are other points of contact between Beowulf on
the one hand and the Scandinavian records on the other, confirm-
ing the conclusion that the Old English poem contains much of
the historical tradition of the Gautar, the Danes and the Swedes,
in its purest accessible form.
Of the hero of the poem no mention has been found elsewhere.
But the name (the Icelandic form of which is BjOlfr) is genuinely
Scandinavian. It was borne by one of the early settlers in
Iceland, and a monk named Biuulf is commemorated in the
Liber Vitae of the church of Durham. As the historical character
of Hygelac has been proved, it is not unreasonable to accept the
authority of the poem for the statement that his nephew Beowulf
succeeded Heardred on the throne of the Gautar, and interfered
in the dynastic quarrels of the Swedes. His swimming exploit
among the Hetware, allowance being made for poetic exaggera-
tion, fits remarkably well into the circumstances of the story told
by Gregory of Tours; and perhaps his contest with Breca may
have been an exaggeration of a real incident in his career; and
even if it was originally related of some other hero, its attribu-
tion to the historical Beowulf may have been occasioned by his
renown as a swimmer.
On the other hand, it would be absurd to imagine that the
combats with Grendel and his mother and with the fiery dragon
can be exaggerated representations of actual occurrences. These
exploits belong to the domain of pure mythology. That they
have been attributed to Beowulf in particular might seem to be
adequately accounted for by the general tendency to connect
mythical achievements with the name of any famous hero.
There are, however, some facts that seem to point to a more
definite explanation. The Danish king " Scyld Scefing," whose
story is told in the opening lines of the poem, and his son Beowulf,
are plainly identical with Sceldwea, son of Sceaf , and his son Beaw,
who appear among the ancestors of Woden in the genealogy of
the kings of Wessex given in the Old English Chronicle. The story
of Scyld is related, with some details not found in Beowulf, by
William of Malmesbury, and, less fully, by the loth-century
English historian Ethelwerd, though it is told not of Scyld
himself, but of his father Sceaf. According to William's version,
Sceaf was found, as an infant, alone in a boat without oars, which
had drifted to the island of " Scandza." The child was asleep
with his head on a sheaf, and from this circumstance he obtained
his name. When he grew up he reigned over the Angles at
" Slaswic." In Beowulf the same story is told of Scyld, with the
addition that when he died his body was placed in a ship, laden
with rich treasure, which was sent out to sea unguided. It is
clear that in the original form of the tradition the name of the
foundling was Scyld or Sceldwea, and that his cognomen Scefing
(derived from sceaf, a sheaf) was misinterpreted as a patronymic.
Sceaf, therefore, is no genuine personage of tradition, but merely
an etymological figment.
The position of Sceldwea and Beaw (in Malmestftiry's Latin
called Sceldius and Beowius) in the genealogy as anterior to
Woden would not of itself prove that they belong to divine
mythology and not to heroic legend. But there are independent
reasons for believing that they were originally gods or dcmi-gods.
It is a reasonable conjecture that the tales of victories over
Grendel and the fiery dragon belong properly to the myth of
Beaw. If Beowulf, the champion of the Gautar, had already
become a theme of epic song, the resemblance of name might
easily suggest the idea of enriching his story by adding to it the
achievements of Beaw. At the same time, the tradition that the
hero of these adventures was a son of Scyld, who was identified
(whether rightly or wrongly) with the eponymus of the Danish
dynasty of the Scyldings, may well have prompted the
760
BEOWULF
supposition that they took place in Denmark. There is, as we
shall see afterwards, some ground for believing that there were
circulated in England two rival poetic versions of the story of the
encounters with supernatural beings: the one referring them to
Beowulf the Dane, while the other (represented by the existing
poem) attached them to the legend of the son of Ecgtheow, but
ingeniously contrived to do some justice to the alternative
tradition by laying the scene of the Grendel incident at the court
of a Scylding king.
As the name of Beaw appears in the genealogies of English
kings, it seems likely that the traditions of his exploits may have
been brought over by the Angles from their continental home.
This supposition is confirmed by evidence that seems to show
that the Grendel legend was popularly current in this country.
In the schedules of boundaries appended to two Old English
charters there occurs mention of pools called " Grendel's mere,"
one in Wiltshire and the other in Staffordshire. The charter that
mentions the Wiltshire " Grendel's mere " speaks also of a place
called Beowan ham (" Beowa's home "), and another Wiltshire
charter has a " Scyld's tree " among the landmarks enumerated.
The notion that ancient burial mounds were liable to be inhabited
by dragons was common in the Germanic world: there is
perhaps a trace of it in the Derbyshire place-name Drakelow,
which means " dragon's barrow."
While, however, it thus appears that the mythic part of the
Beowulf story is a portion of primeval Angle tradition, there is
no proof that it was originally peculiar to the Angles; and even if
it was so, it may easily have passed from them into the poetic
cycles of the related peoples. There are, indeed, some reasons
for suspecting that the blending of the stories of the mythic Beaw
and the historical Beowulf may have been the work of Scandi-
navian and not of English poets. Prof. G. Sarrazin has pointed
out the striking resemblance between the Scandinavian legend of
Bodvarr Biarki and that of the Beowulf of the poem. In each, a
hero from Gautland slays a destructive monster at the court of a
Danish king, and afterwards is found fighting on the side of
Eadgils (Adils) in Sweden. This coincidence cannot well be due
to mere chance; but its exact significance is doubtful. On the
one hand, it is possible that the English epic, which unquestion-
ably derived its historical elements from Scandinavian song, may
be indebted to the same source for its general plan, including the
blending of history and myth. On the other hand, considering
the late date of the authority for the Scandinavian traditions, we
cannot be sure that the latter may not owe some of their material
to English minstrels. There are similar alternative possibilities
with regard to the explanation of the striking resemblances
which certain incidents of the adventures with Grendel and the
dragon bear to incidents in the narratives of Saxo and the
Icelandic sagas.
Date and Origin. It is now time to speak of the probable date
and origin of the poem. The conjecture that most naturally pre-
sents itself to those who have made no special s^udy of the ques-
tion, is that an English epic treating of the deeds of aScandinavian
hero on Scandinavian ground must have been composed in the
days of Norse or Danish dominion in England. This, however, is
impossible. The forms under which Scandinavian names appear
in the poem show clearly that these names must have entered Eng-
lish tradition not later than the beginning of the 7th century. It
does not indeed follow that the extant poem is of so early a date ;
but its syntax is remarkably archaic in comparision with that of
the Old English poetry of the 8th century. The hypothesis that
Beowulf is in whole or in part a translation from a Scandinavian
original, although still maintained by some scholars, introduces
more difficulties than it solves, and must be dismissed as unten-
able. The limits of this article do not permit us to state and
criticize the many elaborate theories that have been proposed
respecting the origin of the poem. All that can be done is to set
forth the view that appears to us to be most free from objection.
It may be premised that although the existing MS. is written in
the West-Saxon dialect, the phenomena of the language indicate
transcription from an Anglian (i.e. a Northumbrian or Mercian)
original; and this conclusion is supported by the fact that while
the poem contains one important episode relating to the Angles,
the name of the Saxons does not occur in it at all.
In its original form, Beowulf was a product of the time when
poetry was composed not to be read, but to be recited in the halls
of kings and nobles. Of course an entire epic could not be recited
on a single occasion; nor can we suppose that it would be thought
out from beginning to end before any part of it was presented to
an audience. A singer who had pleased his hearers with a tale of
adventure would be called on to tell them of earlier or later events
in the career of the hero; and so the story would grow, until it
included all that the poet knew from tradition, or could invent in
harmony with it. That Beowulf is concerned with the deeds of a
foreign hero is less surprising than it seems at first sight. The
minstrel of early Germanic times was required to be learned not
only in the traditions of his own people, but also in those of the
other peoples with whom they felt their kinship. He had a
double task to perform. It was not enough that his songs should
give pleasure; his patrons demanded that he should recount
faithfully the history and genealogy both of their own line and of
those other royal houses who shared with them the same divine
ancestry, and who might be connected with them by ties of
marriage or warlike alliance. Probably the singer was always
himself an original poet; he might often be content to reproduce
the songs that he had learned, but he was doubtless free to
improve or expand them as he chose, provided that his inventions
did not conflict with what was supposed to be historic truth. For
all we know, the intercourse of the Angles with Scandinavia,
which enabled their poets to obtain new knowledge of the legends
of Danes, Gautar and Swedes, may not have ceased until their
conversion to Christianity in the 7th century. And even after
this event, whatever may have been the attitude of churchmen
towards the old heathen poetry, the kings and warriors would be
slow to lose their interest in the heroic tales that had delighted
their ancestors. It is probable that down to the end of the 7th
century, if not still later, the court poets of Northumbria and
Mercia continued to celebrate the deeds of Beowulf and of many
another hero of ancient days.
Although the heathen Angles had their own runic alphabet,
it is unlikely that any poetry was written down until a generation
had grown up trained in the use of the Latin letters learned from
Christian missionaries. We cannot determine the date at which
some book-learned man, interested in poetry, took down from
the lips of a minstrel one of the stories that he had been accus-
tomed to sing. It may have been before 700; much later it
can hardly have been, for the old heathen poetry, though its
existence might be threatened by the influence of the church,
was still in vigorous life. The epic of Beowulf was not the only
one that was reduced to writing: a fragment of the song about
Finn, king of the Frisians-, still survives, and possibly several
other heroic poems were written down about the same time.
As originally dictated, Beowulf probably contained the story
outlined at the beginning of this article, with the addition of one
or two of the episodes relating to the hero himself among them
the legend of the swimmiug-match. This story had doubtless
been told at greater length in verse, but its insertion in its
present place is the work of a poet, not of a mere redactor. The
other episodes were introduced by some later writer, who had
heard recited, or perhaps had read, a multitude of the old heathen
songs, the substance of which he piously, sought to preserve
from oblivion by weaving it in an abridged form, into the texture
of the one great poem which he was transcribing. The Christian
passages, which are poetically of no value, are evidently of
literary origin, and may be of any date down to that of the
extant MS. The curious passage which says that the subjects
of Hrothgar sought deliverance from Grendel in prayer at the
temple of the Devil, " because they knew not the true God,"
must surely have been substituted for a passage referring sym-
pathetically to the worship of the ancient gods.
An interesting light on the history of the written text seems
to be afforded by the phenomena of the existing MS. The poem
is divided into numbered sections, the length of which was
probably determined by the size of the pieces of parchment of
BEQUEST BERANGER
761
which an earlier exemplar consisted. Now the first fifty-two
lines, which are concerned with Scyld and his son Beowulf,
stand outside this numbering. It may reasonably be inferred
that there once existed a written text of the poem that did not
include these lines. Their substance, however, is clearly ancient.
Many difficulties will be obviated if we may suppose that this
passage is the beginning of a different poem, the hero of which
was not Beowulf the son of Ecgtheow, but his Danish namesake.
It is true that Beowulf the Scylding is mentioned at the beginning
of the first numbered section; but probably the opening lines
of this section have undergone alteration in order to bring them
into connexion with the prefixed matter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The volume containing the Beowulf MS. (then,
as now, belonging to the Cottonian collection, and numbered
" Vitellius A. xv. ) waa first described by Humphrey Wanley in
1705, in his catalogue of MSS., published as vol. lii. of G. Hickes's
Thesaurus Veterum Linguarum Septentrionalium. In 1786 G. J.
Thorkelin, an Icelander, made or procured two transcripts of the
poem, which are still preserved in the Royal Library at Copenhagen,
and are valuable for the criticism of the text, the MS. having subse-
quently become in places less legible. Thprkelin's edition (1815) is
of merely historic interest. The first edition showing competent
knowledge of the language was produced in 1833 by J. M. Kemble.
Since then editions have been very numerous. The text of the poem
was edited by C. W. M. Grein in his Bibliothek der angelsdchstschen
Poesie (1857), and again separately in 1867. Autotypes of the MS.
with transliteration by Julius Zupitza, were issued by the Early
English Text Society in 1882. The new edition of Grein s Bibliothek,
by R. P. Wulker, vol. i. (1883), contains a revised text with critical
notes. The most serviceable separate editions are those of M. Heyne
(7th ed., revised by A. Socin, 1903), A. J. Wyatt (with English notes
and glossary, 1898), and F. Holthausen (vol. i., 1905).
Eleven English translations of the poem have been published
(see C. B. Tinker, The Translations of Beowulf, 1903). Among these
may be mentioned those of J. M. Garnett (6th ed., 1900), a literal
rendering in a metre imitating that of the original; J. Earle (1892)
in prose; W. Morris (1895) in imitative metre, and almost unin-
telligibly archaistic in diction; and C. B. Tinker (1902) in prose.
For the bibliography of the earlier literature on Beowulf, and a
detailed exposition of the theories therein advocated, see R. P.
Will ker, Grundriss der angelsdchsischen Litteratur (1882). The views
of Karl Mullenhoff, which, though no longer tenable as a whole,
have formed the basis of most of the subsequent criticism, may be
best studied in his posthumous work, Beovulf, Untersuchungen tiber
das angelsdchsische Epos (1889). Much valuable matter may be
found in B. ten Brink, Beowulf, Untersuchungen (1888). The work
of G. Sarrazin, Beowulf-studien (1888), which advocates the strange
theory that Beowulf is a translation by Cynewulf of a poem by the
Danish singer Starkadr, contains, amid much that is fanciful, not
a little that deserves careful consideration. The many articles by
E. Sievers and S. Bugge, in Beitrdge zur Geschichte der deutschen
Sprache und Litteratur and other periodicals, are of the utmost
importance for the textual criticism and interpretation of the
poem. (H. BR.)
BEQUEST (from O. Eng. becwethan, to declare or express in
words; cf. " quoth "), the disposition of property by will.
Strictly, " bequest " is used of personal, and " devise " of real
property. (See LEGACY; WILL OR TESTAMENT.)
BBRAIN, JEAN (1638-1711), known as " the Elder," Belgian
draughtsman and designer, painter and engraver of ornament,
was born in 1638 or 1639 at Saint Mihiel (Meuse) and died in
Paris on the 24th of January 1711. In 1674 he was appointed
dessinaieur de la chambre et du cabinet de Roi, in succession to
Gissey, whose pupil he is believed to have been. From 1677
onward he had apartments, near to those of Andr6 Charles
Boulle (q.v.), for whom he made many designs, in the Louvre,
where he died. After the death of Le Brun he was commissioned
to compose and supervise the whole of the exterior decoration
of the king's ships. Without possessing great originality he was
inventive and industrious, and knew so well how to assimilate
the work of those who had preceded him (especially Raffaelle's
arabesques) and to adapt it to thetaste of the time that his
designs became the rage. He furnished designs for the decora-
tions and costumes used in the opera performances, for court
festivals, and for public solemnities such as funeral processions,
and inspired the ornamentations of rooms and of furniture to
such an extent that a French writer says that nothing was done
during his later years which he had not designed, or at least which
was not in his manner. He was, in fact, the oracle of taste and
the supreme pontiff whose fiat was law in all matters of decora-
tion. His numerous designs were for the most part engraved
under his own superintendence, and a collection of them was
published in Paris in 1711 by his son-in-law, Thuret, clockmaker
to the king. There are three books, (Euvre de J. Strain, Orne-
ments inventts par J. Bfrain and (Euvres de J. Strain conlenant
des ornements d" architecture. His earliest known works show him
as engraver twelve plates in the collection of Diverses pieces
de serrurerie inventees par Hughes Brisville et gravies par Jean
Bfrain (Paris, 1663), and in 1667 ten plates of designs for the use
of gunsmiths. M. Guilmard in Les Maltres ornemanistes, gives
a complete list of his published works.
His son JEAN BKKAIN, " the Younger " (1678-1726), was bom
in Paris, where he also died. He was his father's pupil, and
exercised the same official functions after his death. Thus he
planned the funeral ceremonies at St Denis on the death of the
dauphin, and afterwards made the designs for the obsequies
of Louis XIV. He is perhaps best known as an engraver. He
engraved eleven plates of the collection Ornements de peinlure et
de sculpture qui sont dans la galer'ie d' A potion au chasteau du
Louvre, et dans le grand appartement du roy au Palais des Tuileries
(Paris, 1710), which have been wrongly attributed to his father,
the Mnusolei du due de Bourgogne, and that of Marie-Louise
Gabrielle de Savoie, reine d'Espagne (1714), &c. His work is
exceedingly difficult to distinguish from his father's, the similarity
of style being remarkable.
CLAUDE BERAIN, brother of the elder Jean, was still living
in 1726. He was engraver to the king, and executed a good
number of plates of ornament and arabesque of various kinds,
some of which are included in his more distinguished brother's
works. (J. P.-B.)
BERANGER, PIERRE JEAN DE (1780-1857), French song-
writer, was born in Paris on the igth of August 1780. The
aristocratic de was a piece of groundless vanity on the part
of his father, who had assumed the name of Beranger de Mersix.
He was descended in truth from a country innkeeper on the one
side, and, on the other, from a tailor in the rue Montorgueil.
Of education, in the narrower sense, he had but little. From
the roof of his first school he beheld the capture of the Bastille,
and this stirring memory was all that he acquired. Later on
he passed some time in a school at Peronne, founded by one
Bellenglise on the principles of Rousseau, where the boys were
formed into clubs and regiments, and taught to play solemnly
at politics and war. Beranger was president of the club, made
speeches before such members of Convention as passed through
Peronne, and drew up addresses to Tallien or Robespierre at
Paris. In the meanwhile he learned neither Greek nor Latin
not even French, it would appear; for it was after he left
school, from the printer Laisney, that he acquired the elements
of grammar. His true education was of another sort. In his
childhood, shy, sickly and skilful with his hands, as he sat at
home alone to carve cherry stones, he was already forming for
himself those habits of retirement and patient elaboration which
influenced the whole tenor of his life and the character of all that
he wrote. At Peronne he learned of his good aunt to be a stout
republican; and from the doorstep of her inn, on quiet evenings,
he would listen to the thunder of the guns before Valenciennes,
and fortify himself in his passionate love of France and distaste
for all things foreign. Although he could never read Horace
save in a translation, he had been educated on Ttltmaque, Racine
and the dramas of Voltaire, and taught, from a child, in the
tradition of all that is highest and most correct in French.
After serving his aunt for some time in the capacity of waiter,
and passing some time also in the printing-office of one Laisney,
he was taken to Paris by his father. Here he saw much low
speculation, and many low royalist intrigues. In 1802, in
consequence of a distressing quarrel, he left his father and began
life for himself in the garret of his ever memorable song. For
two years he did literary hackwork, when he could get it, and
wrote pastorals, epics and all manner of ambitious failures.
At the end of that period (1804) he wrote to Lucien Bonaparte,
enclosing some of these attempts. He was then in bad health,
and in the last state of misery. His watch was pledged. His
762
BERANGER
wardrobe consisted of one pair of boots, one greatcoat, one pair
of trousers with a hole in the knee, and " three bad shirts which
a friendly hand wearied itself in endeavouring to mend." The
friendly hand was that of Judith Frere, with whom he had been
already more or less acquainted since 1796, and who continued
to be his faithful companion until her death, three months before
his own, in 1857. She must not be confounded with the Lisette
of the songs; the pieces addressed to her (La Bonne Vieille,
Maudit printemps, &c.) are in a very different vein. Lucien
Bonaparte interested himself in the young poet, transferred to
him his own pension of 1000 francs from the Institute, and set
him to work on a Death of Nero. Five years later, through the
same patronage, although indirectly, Beranger became a clerk
in the university at a salary of another thousand.
Meanwhile he had written many songs for convivial occasions,
and " to console himself under all misfortunes "; some, according
to M. Boiteau, had been already published by his father, but
he set no great store on them himself; and it was only in 1812,
while watching by the sick-bed of a friend, that it occurred to
him to write down the best he could remember. Next year he
was elected to the Caveau Moderne, and his reputation as a
song- writer began to spread. Manuscript copies of Les Gueux, Le
Stnateur, above all, of Le Roi d' Yvetot, a satire against Napoleon,
whom he was to magnify so much in the sequel, passed from
hand to hand with acclamation. It was thus that all his best
works went abroad; one man sang them to another over all the
land of France. He was the only poet of modern times who
could altogether have dispensed with printing.
His first collection escaped censure. " We must pardon
many things to the author of Le Roi d' Yvetot," said Louis XVIII.
The second (1821) was more daring. The apathy of the Liberal
camp, he says, had convinced him of the need for some bugle
call of awakening. This publication lost him his situation in the
university, and subjected him to a trial, a fine of 500 francs and
an imprisonment of three months. Imprisonment was a small
affair for Beranger. At Sainte Pelagic he occupied a room (it
had just been quitted by Paul Louis Courier), warm, well
furnished, and preferable in every way to his own poor lodging,
where the water froze on winter nights. He adds, on the occasion
of his second imprisonment, that he found a certain charm in
this quiet, claustral existence, with its regular hours and long
evenings alone over the fire. This second imprisonment of nine
months, together with a fine and expenses amounting to noo
francs, followed on the appearance of his fourth collection.
The government proposed through Laffitte that, if he would sub-
mit to judgment without appearing or making defences, he should
only be condemned in the smallest penalty. But his public
spirit made him refuse the proposal; and he would not even ask
permission to pass his term of imprisonment in a Maison de sanlt,
although his health was more than usually feeble at the time.
" When you have taken your stand in a contest with govern-
ment, it seems to me," he wrote, " ridiculous to complain of the
blows it inflicts on you, and impolitic to furnish it with any
occasion of generosity." His first thought in La Force was to
alleviate the condition of the other prisoners.
In the revolution of July he took no inconsiderable part.
Copies of his song, Le Vieux Draptau, were served out to the
insurgent crowd. He had been for long the intimate friend and
adviser of the leading men; and during the decisive week his
counsels went a good way towards shaping the ultimate result.
" As- for the republic, that dream of my whole life," he wrote in
1831, "I did not wish it should be given to us a second time
unripe." Louis Philippe, hearing how much the song-writer
had done towards his elevation, expressed a wish to see and speak
with him; but Beranger refused to present himself at court,
and used his favour only to ask a place for a friend, and a pension
for Rouget de 1'Isle, author of the famous Marseillaise, who was
now old and poor, and whom he had been already succouring
for five years.
In 1848, in spite of every possible expression of his reluctance,
he was elected to the Constituent Assembly, and that by so large
a number of votes (204,471) that he felt himself obliged to
accept the seat. Not long afterwards, and with great difficulty,
he obtained leave to resign. This was the last public event of
Beranger's life. He continued to polish his songs in retirement,
visited by nearly all the famous men of France. He numbered
among his friends Chateaubriand, Thiers, Jacques Laffitte,
Michelet, Lamennais, Mignet. Nothing could exceed the
amiability of his private character; so poor a man has rarely
been so rich in good actions; he was always ready to receive
help from his friends when he was in need, and always forward
to help others. His correspondence is full of wisdom and kind-
ness, with a smack of Montaigne, and now and then a vein of
pleasantry that will remind the English reader of Charles Lamb.
He occupied some of his leisure in preparing his own memoirs,
and a certain treatise on Social and Political Morality, intended
for the people, a work he had much at heart, but judged at last
to be beyond his strength. He died on the i6th July 1857.
It was feared that his funeral would be the signal for some
political disturbance; but the government took immediate
measures, and all went quietly. The streets of Paris were lined
with soldiers and full of townsfolk, silent and uncovered. From
time to time cries arose: " Honneur, honneur a Beranger! "
The songs of Beranger would scarcely be called songs in
England. They are elaborate, written in a clear and sparkling
style, full of wit and incision. It is not so much for any lyrical
flow as for the happy turn of the phrase that they claim superi-
ority. Whether the subject be gay or serious, light or passionate,
the medium remains untroubled. The special merits of the
songs are merits to be looked for rather in English prose than
in English verse. He worked deliberately, never wrote more
than fifteen songs a year and often less, and was so fastidious
that he has not preserved a quarter of what he finished. " I
am a good little bit of a poet," he says himself, " clever in the
craft, and a conscientious worker to whom old airs and a modest
choice of subjects (le coin ouje me suis confine) have brought some
success." Nevertheless, he makes a figure of importance in
literary history. When he first began to cultivate the chanson,
this minor form lay under some contempt, and was restricted
to slight subjects and a humorous guise of treatment. Gradually
he filled these little chiselled toys of verbal perfection with ever
more and more of sentiment. From a date comparatively early
he had determined to sing for the people. It was for this reason
that he fled, as far as possible, the houses of his influential friends
and came back gladly to the garret and the street corner. Thus
it was, also, that he came to acknowledge obligations to Emile
Debraux, who had often stood between him and the masses as
interpreter, and given him the key-note of the popular humour.
Now, he had observed in the songs of sailors, and all who labour,
a prevailing tone of sadness; and so, as he grew more masterful
in this sort of expression, he sought more and more after what
is deep, serious and constant in the thoughts of common men.
The evolution was slow; and we can see in his own works ex-
amples of every stage, from that of witty indifference in fifty
pieces of the first collection, to that of grave and even tragic
feeling in Les Souvenirs du peuple or Le Vieux Vagabond. And
this innovation involved another, which was as a sort of prelude
to the great romantic movement. For the chanson, as he says
himself, opened up to him a path in which his genius could
develop itself at ease; he escaped, by this literary postern,
from strict academical requirements, and had at his disposal
the whole dictionary, four-fifths of which, according to La Harpe,
were forbidden to the use of more regular and pretentious poetry.
If he still kept some of the old vocabulary, some of the old
imagery, he was yet accustoming people to hear moving subjects
treated in a manner more free and simple than heretofore;
so that his was a sort of conservative reform, preceding the
violent revolution of Victor Hugo and his army of uncompromis-
ing romantics. He seems himself to have had glimmerings of
some such idea; but he withheld his full approval from the
new movement on two grounds: first, because the romantic
school misused somewhat brutally the delicate organism of the
French language; and second, as he wrote to Sainte-Beuve
in 1832, because they adopted the motto of "Art for art," and
BERAR BERARD
763
set no object of public usefulness before them as they wrote.
For himself (and this is the third point of importance) he had a
strong sense of political responsibility. Public interest took
a far higher place in his estimation than any private passion
or favour. He had little toleration for those erotic poets who
sing their own loves and not the common sorrows of mankind,
" who forget," to quote his own words, " forget beside their
mistress those who labour before the Lord." Hence it is that
so many of his pieces are political, and so many, in the later
times at least, inspired with a socialistic spirit of indignation
and revolt. It is by this socialism that he becomes truly modern
and touches hands with Burns.
AUTHORITIES. Ma biographie (his own memoirs) (1858); Vie
de Stronger, by Paul Boiteau (1861); Carres pondance de Beranger,
edited by Paul Boiteau (4 vols., 1860); Beranger et Lamennais, by
Napoleon Peyrat (1857); Ouarante-cinq lettres de Beranger publiees
par Madame Louise Colet (almost worthless) (1857); Beranger, ses
amis, ses ennemis et ses critiques, by A. Arnould (2 vols., 1864); I.
Janin, Beranger et son temps (2 vols., 1866) ; also Sainte-Beuve s
Portraits contemporains, vol. i.; J. Garson, Beranger et la legende
napoleonienne (1897). A bibliography of Beranger's works was
published by Jules Envois in 1876. (R. L. S.)
BERAR, known also as the HYDERABAD ASSIGNED DISTRICTS,
formerly a province administered on behalf of the nizam of
Hyderabad by the British government, but since the ist of
October 1903 under the administration of the commissioner-
general for the Central Provinces (q.v.). The origin of the name
Berar is not known, but mfey perhaps be a corruption of Vidarbha,
the name of a kingdom in the Deccan of which, in the period of
the Mahabharata, Berar probably formed part. The history
of Berar belongs generally to that of the Deccan, the country
falling in turn under the sway of the various dynasties which
successively ruled in southern India, the first authentic records
showing it to have been part of the Andhra or Satavahana
empire. On the final fall of the Chalukyas in the 1 2th century,
Berar came under the sway of the Yadavas of Deogiri, and
remained in their possession till the Mussulman invasions at the
end of the I3th century. On the establishment of the Bahmani
dynasty in the Deccan (1348) Berar was constituted one of the
four provinces into which their kingdom was divided, being
governed by great nobles, with a separate army. The perils
of this system becoming apparent, the province was divided
(1478 or 1479) into two separate governments, named after
their capitals Gawil and Mahur. The Bahmani dynasty
was, however, already tottering to its fall; and in 1490
Imad-ul-Mulk, governor of Gawil, who had formerly held all
Berar, proclaimed his independence and proceeded to annex
Mahur to his new kingdom. Imad-ul-Mulk was by birth a
Kanarese Hindu, but had been captured as a boy in one of
the expeditions against Vijayanagar and reared as a Mussulman.
He died in 1504 and his direct descendants held the sultanate
of Berar until 1561, when Burhan Imad Shah was deposed by
his minister Tufal Khan, who assumed the kingship. This
gave a pretext for the intervention of Murtaza Nizam Shah of
Ahmednagar, who in 1572 invaded Berar, imprisoned and put
to death Tufal Khan, his son Shams-ul-Mulk, and the ex-king
Burhan, and annexed Berar to his own dominions. In 1595
Sultan Murad, son of the emperor Akbar, besieged Ahmednagar,
and was bought off by the formal cession of Berar.
Murad, founding the city of Shahpur, fixed his seat at' Berar,
and after his death in 1598, and the conquest of the Deccan by
Akbar, the province was united with Ahmednagar and Khandcsh
under the emperor's fifth son, Daniyal (d. 1605), as governor.
After Akbar's death (1605) Berar once more became independent
under the Abyssinian Malik Ambar (d. 1626), but in the first
year of Shah Jahan's reign it was again brought under the sway
of the Mogul empire. Towards the close of the I7th century
the province began to be overrun by the Mahrattas, and in 1718
the Delhi government formally recognized their right to levy
blackmail (chautlt) on the unhappy population. In 1724 the
Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah established the independent line of
the nizams of Hyderabad, and thenceforth the latter claimed
to be de jure sovereigns of Berar, with exception of certain
districts (Mehkar, Umarkhed, &c.) ceded to the peshwa in 1760
and 1795. The claim was contested by the Bhonsla rajas, and
for more than half a century the miserable country was ground
between the upper and the nether millstone.
This condition of things was ended by Wellesley's victories
at Assayc and Argaon (1803), which forced the Bhonsla raja to
cede his territories west of the Wardha, Gawilgarh and Narnala.
By the partition treity of Hyderabad ( 1 804) these ceded territories
in Berar were transferred to the nizam, together with some
tracts about Sindkhed and Jalna which had been held by Sindhia.
By a treaty of 1822, which extinguished the Mahratta right
to levy chauth, the Wardha river was fixed as the eastern
'boundary of Berar, the Melghat and adjoining districts in the
plains being assigned to the nizam in exchange for the districts
cast of the Wardha held by the peshwa.
Though Berar was no longer oppressed by its Mahratta task- '
masters nor harried by Pindiri and Bhil raiders, it remained
long a prey to the turbulent elements let loose by the sudden
cessation of the wars. From time to time bands of soldiery,
whom the government was powerless to control, scoured the
country, and rebellion succeeded rebellion till 1859, when the last
fight against open rebels took place at Chichamba near Risod.
Meanwhile the misery of the country was increased by the
reckless raising of loans by the nizam's government and the
pledging of the revenues to a succession of great farmers-general.
At last the British government had to intervene effectively,
and in 1853 a new treaty was signed with the nizam, under
which the Hyderabad contingent was to be maintained by the
British government, while for the pay of this force and in satis-
faction of other claims, certain districts were " assigned " to
the East India Company. It was these " Hyderabad Assigned
Districts " which were popularly supposed to form the province
of Berar, though they coincided in extent neither with the
Berar of the nizams nor with the old Mogul province. In 1860,
by a new treaty which modified in the nizam's favour that of
1853, it was agreed that Berar should be held in trust by the
British government for the purposes specified in the treaty of
1853-
Under British control Berar rapidly recovered its prosperity.
Thousands of cultivators who had emigrated across the Wardha
to the peshwa's dominions, in order to escape the ruinous fiscal
system of the nizam's government, now returned; the American
Civil War gave an immense stimulus to the cotton trade; the
laying of a line of railway across the province provided yet
further employment, and the people rapidly became prosperous
and contented.
See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), and authorities
there quoted.
BfiRARD, JOSEPH FRfiolJRIC (1780-1828), French physi-
cian and philosopher, was born at Montpellier. Educated at
the medical school of that town, he afterwards went to Paris,
where he was employed in connexion with the Diclionnaire des
sciences mtdicales. He returned in 1816, and published a work,
Doctrine medicate de I' f cole de Montpellier (1819), which is indis-
pensable to a proper understanding of the principles of the
Vitalistic school. In 1823 he was called to a chair of medicine
at Paris, which he held for three years; he was then nominated
professor of hygiene at Montpellier. His health gave way under
his labours, and he died in 1828. His most important book is his
Doctrines des rapports du physique et du moral (Paris, 1823). He
held that consciousness or internal perception reveals to us the
existence of an immaterial, thinking, feeling and willing subject,
the self or soul. Alongside of this there is the vital force, the
nutritive power, which uses the physical frame as its organ.
The soul and the principle of life are in constant reciprocal action,
and the first owes to the second, not the formation of its faculties,
but the conditions under which they are evolved. He showed
himself unable to understand the points of view of those whom
he criticized, and yet his own theories, midway between vitalism
and animism, are entirely destitute of originality.
To the Esprit des doctrines mfdicales de Montpellier, published
posthumously (Paris, 1830), the editor, H. Petiot, prefixed an account
of his life and works; see also Damiron, Phil, en France au XIX'
siecle (Paris, 1834); C. J. Tissot, Anthropologie gtntraU (1843).
7 6 4
BERAT BERBERS
BERAT (Slav. Byelgorod; Turk. Arnattt-Beligradi), the
capital of a sanjak in the vilayet of lannina, southern Albania,
Turkey; on the river Ergene, Ergeni or Osum, a left-hand
tributary of the Semeni. Pop. (1900) about 15,000. Berat is
a fortified town, situated in a fertile valley, which produces
wine, olive-oil, fruit and grain. It is the see of an Orthodox
metropolitan, and the inhabitants, of whom two-thirds are
Albanian and the remainder principally Greek, are equally
divided in religion between Christianity and Islam.
BERAUN (Czech Beroun), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
27 m. S.W. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 9693, mostly Czech.
It is situated at the confluence of the Beraun with the Litawa
river, and is the seat of important textile industry, sugar-refining,
corn-milling and brewing. Lime-kilns and the manufacture of
cement, and smelting and iron works are carried on in the
environs. Beraun is a place of immemorial antiquity. It was
originally called na Erode (by the ford), and received the name
of Bern, Benin or Verona in the I3th century, when it obtained
the privileges of a city from the emperor Charles IV., who was
specially attached to the place, calling it " Verona mea." Under
his patronage the town rapidly prospered. In 1421 2izka
stormed the town, which later on was retaken and devastated
by the troops of Duke Leopold, bishop of Passau. During the
Thirty Years' War it was sacked by the Imperialists, the
Saxons and the Swedes in turn; and in the first Silesian war the
same fate befell it at the hands of the French and Bavarians.
BERBER, a town and mudiria (province) of the Anglo-
Egyptian Sudan. The town is on the right bank of the Nile,
1140 ft. above sea-level, in 18 i' N., 33 59' E., and 214 m. by
rail N.W. of Khartum. Pop. about 6000. Berber derived its
importance from being the starting-point of the caravan route,
242 m. long, across the Nubian desert to the Red Sea at Suakin,
a distance covered in seven to twelve days. It was also one of
the principal stopping-places between Cairo and Khartum. The
caravan route to the Red Sea was superseded in 1906 by a railway,
which leaves the Wadi Haifa- Khartum line at the mouth of the
Atbara. Berber thus lost the Red Sea trade. It remains the
centre and market-place for the produce of the Nile valley for a
considerable distance. East of the town is an immense plain,
which, if irrigated, would yield abundant crops.
Berber, or El Mekerif, is a town of considerable antiquity.
Before its conquest by the Egyptians in 1820 its ruler owed
allegiance to the kings of Sennar. It was captured by the
Mahdists on the 26th of May 1884, and was re-occupied by the
Anglo-Egyptian army on the 6th of September 1897. It was
the capital of the mudiria until 1905, in which year the head-
quarters of the province were transferred to Ed Darner, a town
near the confluence of the Nile and Atbara. At the northern
end of the mudiria is Abu Hamed (?..), important as a railway
junction for Dongola mudiria. The best-known of the tribes
inhabiting the province are the Hassania, Jaalin, Bisharin and
Kimilab. During the Mahdia most of these tribes suffered
severely at the hands of the dervishes. In 1904 the total popula-
tion of the province was estimated at 83,000. It has since
considerably increased. The riverain population is largely
engaged in agriculture, the chief crops cultivated being durra,
barley, wheat and cotton.
BERBERA, chief town and principal port of the British
Somaliland protectorate, North-East Africa, 155 m. S. of Aden,
in 10 26' N., 45 4' E. Berbera stands at the head of a deep
inlet which forms the only completely sheltered haven on the
south side of the Gulf of Aden. It is the residence of the com-
missioner of the protectorate and the headquarters of the
Somaliland battalion of the King's African Rifles. The harbour
is eleven to thirteen fathoms deep at the entrance (indicated by
a lighthouse), decreasing to five fathoms near the shore. Ocean-
going steamers find ample accommodation. There are two piers
and numerous warehouses. The town is built in two divisions
the native town to the east, the new town, laid out by the
Egyptians (1875-1877), to the west. The majority of the
better-class houses are of rubble, one-storeyed and flat-roofed.
The public buildings include the fort, hospital and barracks.
There are a Roman Catholic mission-house and convent and a
government school. The affairs of the town are administered by
a municipality. The water-supply is brought to the town by an
aqueduct from the hills some 8 m. distant. The bulk of the
inhabitants are Somali, who have abandoned a nomadic life and
adopted largely the ways of the Arab and Indian traders. The
permanent population is under 10,000; but from October to
April the population rises to 30,000 or more by the arrival of
caravans from Ogaden and Dolbahanta. The traders bring
with them tents on the backs of camels and these are pitched near
the native town. Their merchandise consists of sheep and goats,
gum and resin, skins and ostrich feathers. The trade is almost
entirely with Aden, of which Berbera may be considered a com-
mercial dependency. The value of the goods brought in yearly
by caravan exceeds on the average 100,000. The total trade
of the port for the five years 1901-1902 to 1905-1906 averaged
over 200,000 a year. The chief articles of import are cotton
goods (European white longcloth and American grey shirting),
rice and jowari, flour, dates, sugar and tobacco (the last from
Rotterdam). Berbera is said to have been founded by the
Ptolemies among the Barbari of the adjacent coast lands. It
fell subsequently into the possession of Arabs and was included
in the Mahommedan state of Adel. At the time of the visit to
the town of R. F. Burton and J. H. Speke (1854) it was governed
by its own sheiks. In 1870 it was claimed by the khedive
Ismail, but was not permanently occupied by Egypt until 1875.
In 1884 it passed into the possession of Great Britain (see
SOMALILAND, 2, History).
BERBERINE, C^H^NO.!, an alkaloid occurring together with
the alkaloids oxyacanthine CisHuNOs, berbamine CigHigNOs,
hydrastine C 2 iH 2 iNO(>, and canadine C2oH 2 iNO 4 , in Berberis
vulgaris; it also occurs in other plants, Berberis aristata, B.
aquifolium, Hydrastis canadensis, &c. It is a yellow, crystalline
solid, insoluble in ether and chloroform, soluble in 45 parts of
water at 21, and moderately soluble in alcohol. It is a monacid
base; the hydrochloride, CmHnNOa-HCl, is insoluble in cold
alcohol, ether and chloroform, and soluble in 500 parts of water;
the acid sulphate, C2oHi7NQ4-H 2 SO.i, dissolves in about 100 parts
of water. Canadine is a tetrahydroberberine.
Its constitution was worked out by W. H. Perkin (J.C.S.,
1889, 55, p. 63; 1890, 57, p. 991). This followed from
a study of the decomposition products, there being obtained
hemipinic acid (CHsO) 2 C6H 2 (COOH)2, and a substance which
proved to be <a - amino - ethyl - piperonyl carboxylic acid,
CH 2 02:C6H 2 -COOH-CH2-CH 2 NH2. His formula was modified
by Gadamer (Abs. J.C.S., 1902, i, p. 555), who made the free
base an aldehyde, but the salts of an wo-quinolinium type.
This formula, which necessitates the presence of two asymmetric
carbon atoms in an alkyl tetrahydroberberine, has been accepted
by M. Freund and F. Mayer (Abs. J.C.S., 1907, i, p. 632), who
showed that two racemic propyl tetrahydroberberines are
produced when propyl dihydroberberine is reduced.
BERBERS, the name under which are included the various
branches of the indigenous " Libyan " race of North Africa.
Since the dawn of history the Berbers have occu- Ethnology
pied the tract between the Mediterranean and the
Sahara from Egypt to the Atlantic. The origin of the name
is doubtful. Some believe it to be derived from the word
/3ap/3apoi (barbarians), employed first by the Greeks and later by
the Romans. Others attribute the first use of the term to the
Arab conquerors. However this may be, tribal titles, Barabara
and Beraberata, appear in Egyptian inscriptions of 1700 and 1300
B.C., and the Berbers were probably intimately related with the
Egyptians in very early times. Thus the true ethnical name may
have become confused with Barbari, the designation naturally
used by classical conquerors. To the Egyptians they were
known as " Lebu," " Mashuasha," " Tamahu," " Tehennu "
and " Kahaka "; a long list of names is found in Herodotus, and
the Romans called them Numidae, Gaetuli and Mauri, terms
which have been derived respectively from the Greek vo/idSes
(nomads), the name Gued'oula, of a great Berber tribe, and the
Hebrew mahur (western). To speak of more modern times
BERBERS
765
""
there can be enumerated the Zouaoua and Jebalia (Tripoli and
Tunisia); the Chauwia, Kabyles and Beni-Mzab (Algeria); the
Shluh (Chlouah), Amazigh and Berbers (Morocco); the Tuareg,
Am6shagh, Sorgu, &c. (Sahara). These tribes have many sub-
tribes, each with a distinctive name. Among the Azgar, an
important division of the Tuareg, one of the noble or free tribes,
styled Aouraghen, is said to descend from a tribe named Avrigha.
The Avrigha, or Afrigha, in ancient times occupied the coast
lands near Carthage, and some scholars derive the word Africa
from their name (see AFRICA, ROMAN). In regard to the ethnic
relations of the Berbers there has been much dispute. The
antiquity of their type is evidenced by the monuments of Egypt,
where their ancestors are pictured with the same comparatively
blond features which many of them still display. The aborigines
of the Canary Islands, the Guanches, would seem almost certainly,
from the remains of their language, to have been Berbers. But
the problem of the actual origin of the Berber race has not yet
been solved. Perhaps the most satisfactory theory is that of
Sergi, who includes the Berbers in the " Mediterranean Race."
General L. L. C. Faidherbe regards them as indigenous Libyans
mingled with a fair-skinned people of European origin. Dr Franz
Pruner-Bey, Henri Duveyrier and Prof. Flinders Petrie maintain
that they are closely related to the ancient Egyptians. Con-
nexion has been traced between the early Libyan race and the
Cro-Magnon and other early European races and, later, the
Basque peoples, Iberians, Picts, Celts and Gauls. The mega-
lithic monuments of Iberia and Celtic Europe have their counter-
parts in northern Africa, and it is suggested that these were all
erected by the same race, by whatever name they be known,
Berbers and Libyans in Africa, Iberians in Spain, Celts, Gauls
and Picts in France and Britain.
In spite of a history of foreign conquest Phoenician, Greek,
Roman, Vandal, Arab and French the Berber physical type
and the Berber temperament and nationality have
persisted since the stone age. The numerous invasions
have naturally introduced a certain amount of foreign
blood among the tribes fringing the Mediterranean, but those
farther inland have preserved their racial purity to a surprising
degree. Though considerable individual differences of type
may be found in every village, the Berbers are distinctively a
" white " race, and the majority would, if clad in European
costume, pass unchallenged as Europeans. Dark hair and
brown or hazel eyes are the rule; blue-eyed blonds are found,
but their frequency has been considerably overstated. The in-
vaders who have most affected the Berber race are the Arabs,
but the two races, with a common religion, often a common
government, with the same tribal groupings, have failed to
amalgamate to any great extent. This fact has been emphasized
by Dr R. G. Latham, who writes: " All that is not Arabic in the
kingdom of Morocco, all that is not Arabic in the French pro-
vinces of Algeria, and all that is not Arabic in Tunis, Tripoli
and Fezzan, is Berber." The explanation lies in a profound
distinction of character. The Arab is a herdsman and a nomad;
the Berber is an agriculturist and a townsman. The Arab has
built his social structure on the Koran, which inculcates absolut-
ism, aristocracy, theocracy; the Berber, despite his nominal
Mahommedanism, is a democrat, with his Jemda or " Witan-
gemot " and his Kanum or unwritten code, the Magna Carta
of the individual's liberty as opposed to the community's good.
The Kanum forbids no sort of exercise of individual will, so long
as it is not inimical to the right or rights of other individuals.
The Arabizing of the Berbers is indeed limited to little beyond
the conversion of the latter to Islam. The Arab, transported
to a soil which does not always suit him, so far from thriving,
tends to disappear, whereas the Berber becomes more and more
aggressive, and yearly increases in numbers. At present he
forms at least three-fifths of the population in Algeria, and in
Morocco the proportion is greater. The difference between the
Berber and the Arab of the Barbary States is summed up by
Dr Randall-Mad ver in the following words: " The Berber gives
the impression of being, as he is, the descendant of men who have
lived in sturdy independence, self-governing and self-reliant.
OOYt
meat.
The Arab is the degenerate offspring of a race which only from
its history and past records can claim any title to respect.
Cringing, venal, avaricious, dishonest, the Arab combines all
the faults of a vicious nature with those which a degraded
religion inculcates or encourages. The Berber, on the other
hand, is straightforward, honest, by no means averse to
money-making, but not unscrupulous in the methods which
he employs to this end, intelligent in a degree to which the
ordinary Arab never approaches, and trustworthy as no Arab
can be."
The Berber's village is his state, and the government is vested
in an assembly, the Jcm&a, formed of all males old enough to
observe the fast of Ramadan. By them are deter-
mined all matters of peace or war, legislation, taxation
and justice. The executive officer is the Amin, a kind
of mayor, elected from some influential family in which the
dignity is often in practice hereditary. He owes his position
to the good-will of his fellows, receives no remuneration, and
resigns as soon as he loses the confidence of the people. By
him are appointed certain Temman (sing. Tamen) who act as over-
seers, though without executive powers, in the various quarters
of the village. The poorest Berber has as great a voice in affairs
as the richest. The undue power of the JemAa is checked by
vendetta and a sort of lynch law, and by the formation of parties
(soft), within or without the assembly, for trade, political and
other purposes. The Berbers are a warlike people who have
never been completely subjugated. Every boy as soon as he
reaches sixteen is brought into the JemAa and given weapons
which he carries till he is sixty. Though each village is absol-
utely independent as far as its internal affairs are concerned,
two or more are often connected by administrative ties to form
an Arsh or tribe. A number of these tribes form a Thakcbill
or confederation, which is an extremely loose organization. An
exception to this form of government is constituted by the
Tuareg, whose organization, owing to their peculiar circum-
stances of life, is monarchical. Wars are declared by special
messengers; the exchange of sticks or guns renders an armistice
inviolable. In some tribes a tablet, on which is inscribed the
name of every man fit to bear arms, is placed in the mosque.
The Berbers, though Mahommedans, do not often observe the
prescribed ablutions; they break their fast at Ramadan; and
eat wild boar's flesh and drink fig brandy. On the other hand,
saints, both male and female, are paid more reverence by Berbers
than by Arabs. Around their tombs their descendants settle,
and thus sacred villages, often of considerable size, spring up.
Almost every village, too, has its saint or prophet, and disputes
as to their relative sanctity and powers cause fierce feuds.
The hereditary caste known as Marabouts are frequently in open
opposition to the absolute authority of the JemAa. They are
possessed of certain privileges, such as exemption from the
chief taxes and the duty of bearing arms. They, however, often
take a foremost part in tribal administration, and are frequently
called upon to perform the office of arbitrators in questions of
disputed policy, &c. In the JemAa, too, the Marabout at times
takes the place of honour and keeps order. The Berbers, if
irreligious, are very superstitious, never leaving their homes
without exorcizing evil spirits, and have a good and evil inter-
pretation for every day of the week. Many Berbers still retain
certain Christian and Jewish usages, relics of the pre-Islamitic
days in North Africa, but of their primitive religion there is no
trace. They are seldom good scholars, but those under French
rule take all the advantage they can of the schools instituted
by the government. Their social tendencies are distinctly
communistic; property is often owned by the family in common,
and a man can call upon the services of his fellow villagers for
certain purposes, as the building of a house. Provision for the
poor is often made by the community.
The dress of the Berbers was formerly made of home-woven
cloth, and the manufacture of woollen stuffs has always been
one of the chief occupations of their women. The men
wear a tunic reaching to the knees, the women a longer
garment. For work the men use a leather apron, and in the cold
y66
BERBERS
season and in travelling a burnous, usually a family heirloom, old
and ragged; the women, in winter, throw a coloured cloth over
their shoulders. The men's hair is cut short but their beards
are allowed to grow. In some districts there are peculiar cus-
toms, such as the wearing of small silver nose-rings, seen in
El-Jofra. The Berbers' weapons are those of the Arab: the
long straight sword, the slightly curved and highly ornamented
dagger, and the long gun. Berbers are not great town-builders.
Their villages, however, are often of substantial appearance:
with houses of untrimmed stones, occasionally with two storeys,
built on hills, and invariably defended by a bank, a stone wall
or a hedge. Sometimes their homes are mere huts of turf, or of
clay tiles, with mortar made from lime and clay or cow-dung.
The sloping roof is covered with reeds, straw or stones. The
living room is on the right, the cattle-stall on the left. The
dwelling is surrounded by a garden or small field of grain. The
second storey is not added till a son marries. In the villages of
the western Atlas the greater part of the upper storey consists
of a sort of rough verandah. In this mountain district the natives
spend the winter in vaults beneath the houses, and, for the sake
of warmth, the tenements are built very close. Agriculture,
which is carried on even in the mountain districts by means of
laboriously constructed terraces, is antiquated in its methods.
The plough, often replaced on the steeper slopes by the hoe,
is similar to that depicted in ancient Egyptian drawings, and
hand irrigation is usual. A sickle, toothed like a saw, is used
for reaping. Corn is trodden by oxen, and kept in osier baskets
narrowing to the top, or clay granaries. The staple crop is
barley, but wheat, lentils, vetches, flax and gourds are also
cultivated. Tobacco, maize and potatoes have been introduced;
and the aloe and prickly pear, called in Morocco the Christian
fig, are also found. The Kabyles understand grafting, have
fine orchards and grow vines. The Beni-Abbas tribe in the
Algerian Atlas is famed for its walnuts, and many tribes keep
bees, chiefly for the commercial value of the wax. The Berber
diet largely consists of cucumbers, gourds, water-melons and
onions, and a small artichoke (Cynara humilis) which grows
wild. At the beginning and end of their meal they drink a
strongly sweetened liquid made from green tea and mint. Tea-
drinking probably became a habit in Morocco about the begin-
ning of the ipth century; coffee came by way of Algiers. At
feasts the food is served on large earthenware dishes with high
basket-work covers, like bee-skeps but twice as high.
The Berbers have many industries. They mine and work
iron, lead and copper. They have olive presses and flour mills,
and their own millstone quarries, even travelling into
/rfe". S Arab districts to build mills for the Arabs. They
make lime, tiles, woodwork for the houses, domestic
utensils and agricultural implements. They weave and dye
several kinds of cloth, tan and dress leather and manufacture
oil and soap. Without the assistance of the wheel the women
produce a variety of pottery utensils, often of very graceful
design, and decorated with patterns in red and black. Whole
tribes, such as the Beni-Sliman, are occupied in the iron trade;
the Beni-Abbas made firearms before the French conquest, and
even cannon are said to have been made by boring. Before it
was proscribed by the French, the manufacture of gunpowder
was general. The native jewellers make excellent ornaments
in silver, coral and enamel. In some places wood-carving has
been brought to considerable perfection; and native artists
know how to engrave on metal both by etching and the burin.
In its collective industry the Berber race is far superior to the
Arab. The Berbers are keen traders too, and, after the harvest,
hawk small goods, travelling great distances.
A Berber woman has in many ways a better position than her
Arab sister. True, her birth is regarded as an event of no
Women moment, while that of a boy is celebrated by great
rejoicings, and his mother acquires the right to wear
on her forehead the tafzint, a mark which only the women who
have borne an heir can assume. Her husband buys and can
dismiss her at will. She has most of the hard work to do, and
is little better than a servant. When she is old and past work,
especially if she has not been the mother of a male child,
she is often abandoned. But she has a voice in public affairs;
she has laws to protect her, manages the household and goes
unveiled; she has a right to the money she earns; she can
inherit under wills, and bequeath property, though to avoid
the alienation of real property, succession to it is denied her.
But most characteristic of her social position is the Berber
woman's right to enter into a sacred bond or agreement, repre-
sented by the giving of the anaya. This is some symbolic object,
stick or what not, which passes between the parties to a contract,
the obligations under which, if not fulfilled by the contracting
parties during their lives, become hereditary. Female saints,
too, are held in high honour; and the Berber pays his wife the
compliment of monogamy. The Kabyle women have stood side
by side with their husbands in battle. Among many Berber
tribes the law of inheritance is such that the eldest daughter's
son succeeds. South of Morocco proper, Gerhard Rohlfs, who
travelled extensively in the region (c. 1861-1867), states that
a Berber religious corporation, the Savia Kartas, was ruled over
by a woman, the chief's wife. The Berbers consult their women
in many matters, and only one woman is really held in low
esteem. She, curiously, is the kuata or " go-between," even
though her services are only employed in the respectable task
of arranging marriages. Berber women are intelligent and
hard-working, and, when young, very pretty and graceful.
The Berbers, unlike the Arabs, do not admire fat women.
Among the Kabyles the adulteress is put to death, as are those
women who have illegitimate children, the latter suffering with
their mothers.
Though Arabic has to a considerable extent displaced the
Berber language, the latter is still spoken by millions of people
from Egypt to the Atlantic and from the Mediterranean La
to the Sudan. It is spoken nowhere else, though, as
has been said, place-names in the Canary Islands and other
remains of the aboriginal language there prove it to have been
the native tongue. Although the Berber tongue shows a certain
affinity with Semitic in the construction both of its words and
sentences Berber is quite distinct from the Semitic languages;
and a remarkable fact is that in spite of the enormous space
over which the dialects are spread and the thousands of years
that some of the Berber peoples have been isolated from the rest,
these dialects show but slight differences from the long-extinct
Hamitic speech from which all are derived. Whatever these
dialects be called, the Kabyle, the Shilha, the Zenati, the Tuareg
or Tamashek, the Berber language is still essentially one, and
the similarity between the forms current in Morocco, Algeria,
the Sahara and the far-distant oasis of Siwa is much more marked
than between the Norse and English in the sub-Aryan Teutonic
group. The Berbers have, moreover, a writing of their own,
peculiar and little used or known, the antiquity of which is
proved by monuments and inscriptions ranging over the whole
of North Africa.
The various spoken dialects, though apparently very unlike
each other, are not more dissimilar than are Portuguese, Spanish,
French and Italian, and their differences are doubtless attribut-
able to the lack of a literary standard. Even where different
words are used, there is evidence of a common stem from which
the various branches have sprung. The great difficulty of
satisfactory comparison arises from the fact that few of the
Beber dialects possess any writings. The Tawahhid (The Unity
of God), said to have been written in Moroccan Berber and be-
lieved to be the oldest African work in existence, except Egyptian
and Ethiopic, was the work of the Muwahhadi leader, Ibn
Tumart the Mahdi, at a time when the officials of the Kairawan
mosque were dismissed because they could not speak Berber.
Most of the writings found, however, have been in the form of
inscriptions, chiefly on ornaments. A collection of the various
signs of the alphabet has shown thirty-two letters, four more
than Arabic. De Slane, in his notes on the Berber historian
Ibn Khaldun, shows the following points of similarity to the
Semitic class: its tri-literal roots, the inflections of the verb,
the formation of derived verbs, the genders of the second and
BERCEUSE BEREKHIAH NAQDAN
767
third persons, the pronominal affixes, the aoristic style of tense,
the whole and broken plurals and the construction of the phrase.
Among the peculiar grammatical features of Berber may be
mentioned two numbers (no dual), two genders and six cases,
and verbs with one, two, three and four radicals, and imperative
and aorist tense only. As might be expected the Berber tongue
is most common in Morocco and the western Sahara the regions
where Arab dominion was least exercised. When Arabic is
mentioned as the language of Morocco it is seldom realized how
small a proportion of its inhabitants use it as their mother tongue.
Berber is the real language of Morocco, Arabic that of its creed
and government.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. General A. Hanoteau and A. Letourneux, La
Kabylie et Us coulumes kabyles (3 vols., Paris, 1872-1873); D.
Randall-Maclver and Antony Wilkin, Libyan Notes (London, 1901) ;
Antony Wilkin, Among the Berbers of Algeria (London, 1900);
G. Sergi, The Mediterranean Race (London, 1901), and Africa,
Antropologia della Stirpe Comitica (Turin, 1897); Henri Duveyrier,
Exploration du Sahara (1864), Les Progres de la geographic en
Algerie (1867-1871), Bull, de la Soc. Khediviale de Geog. (1876);
E. Kenan, " LaSocieteBerb&re," Revue des deux mondes, vol. for 1873;
M. G. Olivier, " Recherches sur 1'origine des Berberes," Bull, de
I'Acad. d'Hippone (1867-1868); F. G. Rohlfs, Reise durch Marokko
(1869); Quer durch Afrika (1874-1875); General Faidherbe,
Collection complete des inscriptions numidiques (lybiques) (1870), and
Les Dolmens d Afrique (1873) H. M. Flinders Petrie in The Academy,
20th of April 1895; Jules Lionel, Races berberes (1894); Sir H. H.
Johnston, " A Journey through the Tunisian Sahara,' Geog. Journal,
vol. xi., 1898; De Slane's translation of Ibn Khaldun, Hist, des
Berberes (Algiers, 1852) ; W. Z. Ripley, Races of Europe (London,
1900) ; Dr Malbot, " Les Chaouias " in L'Anthropologie, 1897 (p. 14) ;
General Faidherbe and Dr Paul Topinard, Instructions sur I'anthro-
pologie de I' Algerie (Paris, 1874) ; E. T. Hamy, La Necropole berbere
d'Henchir el-'Assel (Paris, 1896), and Cites et necropoles berberes
de VEnfida (Tunisie moyenne) (ib. 1904).
Berber dictionaries: Venture de Paradis (Paris, 1844); Brosse-
lard (ib. 1844); Delaporte (ib. 1844, by order of minister of war);
J. B. Creusat, Essai de dictionnaire franfais-kabyle (Algiers, 1873);
A. Hanoteau, Essai de grammaire de la langue tamachek, &c. (Paris,
1860); Minutoli, Siwah Dialect (Berlin, 1827).
Folklore, &c. : J. Riviere, Recueil de conies populaires de la
Kabylie (1882); R. Basset, Conies populaires berberes (1887); P. le
Blanc de Prebois, Essai de contes kabyles, avec traduction en franc,ais
(Batna, 1897) ; H. Stumine, Mdrchen der Berbern von Tamazratt in
Sudlunisien (Leipzig, 1900).
BERCEUSE (Fr. for a " lullaby," from berceau, a cradle), a
cradle-song, the German Wiegenlied, a musical composition with
a quiet rocking accompaniment.
BERCHEM (or BERGHEM), NICOLAAS (1620-1683), Dutch
painter, was born at Haarlem. He received instruction from
his father (Pieter Claasz van Haarlem) and from the painters
Van Goyen, Jan Wils and Weenix. It is not known why he
called himself Berchem (or Berighem, and other variants).
His pictures, of which he produced an immense number,
were in great demand, as were also his etchings and drawings.
His landscapes are highly esteemed; and many of them
have been finely engraved by John Visscher. His finest
pictures are at the Amsterdam Museum and at the Hermitage,
St Petersburg.
BERCHTA (English Bertha), a fairy in South German mytho-
logy. She was at first a benevolent spirit, the counterpart
of Hulda in North German myth. Later her character changed
and she came to be regarded as a witch. In Pagan times Berchta
had the rank of a minor deity.
BERCHTESGADEN, a town of Germany, beautifully situated
on the south-eastern confines of the kingdom of Bavaria, 1700 ft.
above the sea on the southern declivity of the Untersberg, 6 m.
S.S.E. from Reichenhall by rail. Pop. (1900) 10,046. It is
celebrated for its extensive mines of rock-salt, which were
worked as early as 1174. The town contains three old churches,
of which the early Gothic abbey church with its Romanesque
cloister is most notable, and some good houses. Apart from the
salt-mines, its industries include toys and other small articles
of wood, horn and ivory, for which the place has long been
famous. The district of Berchtesgaden was formerly an inde-
pendent spiritual principality, founded in noo and secularized
in 1803. The abbey is now a royal castle, and in the neighbour-
hood a hunting-lodge was built by King Maximilian II. in 1852.
BERCK, a bathing resort of northern France, in the depart-
ment of Pas-de-Calais, 25 m. S. of Boulogne by rail. Pop. (1906)
7638. It comprises two parts Berck-Ville, ij m. from the
shore, and Berck-Plage, the latter with a fine sandy beach.
There are two children's hospitals, the climate proving peculiarly
beneficial in the treatment of scrofulous affections. About
150 boats are employed in the fisheries, and herrings form the
staple of an active trade. Boat-building and fish-curing are
carried on.
BERDICHEV, a town of W. Russia, in the government of
Kiev, 116 m. S.W. of Kiev by rail and not far from the borders
of Volhynia. The cathedral of the Assumption, finished in
1832, is the principal place of worship. The fortified Carmelite
monastery, founded in 1627, was captured and plundered by
Chmielnicki, chief of the Zaporogian Cossacks, in 1647, and
disestablished in 1864. An extensive trade is carried on in
peltry, silk goods, iron and wooden wares, salt fish, grain, cattle
and horses. Four fairs are held yearly, the most important
being on the 1 2th of June and the i $th of August. The numerous
minor industries include the manufacture of tobacco, soap,
candles, oil, bricks and leather. Pop. (1867) 52,563; (1897)
S3>7 2 8, Jews forming about 80%. In the treaty of demarcation
between the Lithuanians and the Poles in 1546 Berdichev was
assigned to the former. In 1768 Pulaski, leader of the con-
federacy of Bar, fled, after the capture of that city, to Berdichev,
and there maintained himself during a siege of twenty-five days.
The town belongs to the Radziwill family.
BERDYANSK, a seaport town of Russia, in the government
of Taurida, on the north coast of the Sea of Azov, in 46 45'
N. lat. and 36 40' E. long. The principal industries are in
bricks and tiles, tallow and macaroni. The roads are protected
from every wind except the south, which occasions a heavy
surf; but against this a mole was constructed in 1863. The
chief articles of export are cereals, flour, wool, hemp, skins
and fish; and the imports include hardwares, fruits, oil and
petroleum. In the immediate neighbourhood are salt-lagoons.
Pop. (1867) 12,223; (1900) 29,168.
BEREA, a town of Madison county, Kentucky, U.S.A., 131 m.
by rail S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1900) 762. Berea is served by
the Louisville & Nashville railway. It is pleasantly situated
on the border between the Blue Grass and the Mountain regions.
The town is widely known as the seat of Berea College, which
has done an important work among the mountaineers of
Kentucky and of Tennessee. The college has about 70 acres
of ground (and about 4000 acres of mountain land for forestry
study), with a large recitation hall, a library, a chapel (seating
1400 persons), a science hall, an industrial hall, a brick-making
plant, a woodwork building, a printing building, a tabernacle
for commencement exercises and other buildings. In 1908
Berea had 65 instructors and 1150 students; and it paid the
tuition of 141 negro students in Fisk University (Nashville,
Tennessee) and in other institutions. The school out of which
Berea College has developed was founded in the anti-slavery
interests in 1855. An attempt was made to procure for it a
college charter in 1859, but the slavery interests caused it to be
closed before the end of that year and it was not reopened until
1865, the charter having then been obtained, as Berea College.
Negroes as well as whites were admitted until 1904, when educa-
tion of the two races at the same institution was prohibited by
an act of the state legislature (upheld by the U.S. Supreme
Court in 1908). This act did not, however, prohibit an in-
stitution from maintaining separate schools for the two races,
provided these schools were at least 25 m. apart, and a separate
school for the negroes was at once projected by Berea.
BEREKHIAH NAQDAN, Jewish fabulist, author of a collection
of Fox Fables, written in Hebrew. As his title implies (Naqdan
= punctuator of the Biblical text), Berekhiah was also a gram-
marian. He further wrote an ethical treatise and was the
author of various translations. His date is disputed. Most
authorities place him in the I3th century, but J. Jacobs has
identified him with Benedictus le Puncteur, an English Jew of
the 1 2th century.
7 68
BERENGARIUS
BERENGARIUS [BERENGAR] (d. 1088), medieval theologian,
was born at Tours early in the nth century; he was educated in
the famous school of Fulbert of Chartres, but even in early life
seems to have exhibited great independence of judgment.
Appointed superintendent of the cathedral school of his native
city, he taught with such success as to attract pupils from all
parts of France, and powerfully contributed to diffuse an interest
in the study of logic and metaphysics, and to introduce that
dialectic development of theology which is designated the
scholastic. The earliest of his writings of which we have any
record is an Exhortatory Discourse to the hermits of his district,
written at their own request and for their spiritual edification.
It shows a clear discernment of the dangers of the ascetic life,
and a deep insight into the significance of the Augustinian
doctrine of grace. Sometime before 1040 Berengar was made
archdeacon of Angers. It was shortly after this that rumours
began to spread of his holding heretical views regarding the
sacrament of the eucharist. He had submitted the doctrine of
transubstantiation (already generally received both by priests
and people, although in the west it had been first unequivocally
taught and reduced to a regular theory by Paschasius Radbert
in 831) to an independent examination, and had come to the
conclusion that it was contrary to reason, unwarranted by
Scripture, and inconsistent with the teaching of men like
Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine. He did not conceal this
conviction from his scholars and friends, and through them the
report spread widely that he denied the common doctrine
respecting the eucharist. His early friend and school companion,
Adelmann, archdeacon of Liege, wrote to him letters of expostu-
lation on the subject of this report in 1046 and 1048; and a
bishop, Hugo of Langres, wrote (about 1049) a refutation of the
views which he had himself heard Berengar express in conversa-
tion. Berengar's belief was not shaken by their arguments and
exhortations, and hearing that Lanfranc, the most celebrated
theologian of that age, strongly approved the doctrine of
Paschasius and condemned that of " Scotus " (really Ratramnus),
he wrote to him a letter expressing his surprise and urging him
to reconsider the question. The letter, arriving at Bee when
Lanfranc was absent at Rome (1050), was sent after him, but was
opened before it reached him, and Lanfranc, fearing the scandal,
brought it under the notice of Pope Leo IX. Because of it
Berengar was condemned as a heretic without being heard, by
a synod at Rome and another at Vercelli, both held in 1050.
His enemies in France cast him into prison; but the bishop of
Angers and other powerful friends, of whom he had a considerable
number, had sufficient influence to procure his release. At the
council of Tours (1054) he found a protector in the papal legate,
the famous Hildebrand, who, satisfied himself with the fact that
Berengar did not deny the real presence of Christ in the sacra-
mental elements, succeeded in persuading the assembly to be con-
tent with a general confession from him that the bread and wine,
after consecration, were the body and blood of the Lord, without
requiring him to define how. Trusting in Hildebrand's support,
and in the justice of his own cause, he presented himself at the
synod of Rome in 1059, but found himself surrounded by zealots,
who forced him by the fear of death to signify his acceptance of
the doctrine " that the bread and wine, after consecration, are
not merely a sacrament, but the true body and the true blood
of Christ, and that this body is touched and broken by the hands
of the priests, and ground by the teeth of the faithful, not merely
in a sacramental but in a real manner." He had no sooner done
so than he bitterly repented his weakness; and acting, as he
himself says, on the principle that " to take an oath which never
ought to have been taken is to estrange one's self from God, but
to retract what one has wrongfully sworn to, is to return back to
God," when he got safe again into France he attacked the
transubstantiation theory more vehemently than ever. He
continued for about sixteen years to disseminate his views by
writing and teaching, without being directly interfered with by
either his civil or ecclesiastical superiors, greatly to the scandal
of the multitude and of the zealots, in whose eyes Berengar was
" ille apostolus Satanae," and the academy of Tours the " Babylon
nostri temporis." An attempt was made at the council of
Poitiers in 1076 to allay the agitation caused by the controversy,
but it failed, and Berengar narrowly escaped death in a tumult.
Hildebrand, now pope as Gregory VII., next summoned him to
Rome, and, in a synod held there in 1078, tried once more to
obtain a declaration of his orthodoxy by means of a confession
of faith drawn up in general terms; but even this strong-minded
and strong-willed pontiff was at length forced to yield to the
demands of the multitude and its leaders; and in another synod
at Rome (1079), finding that he was only endangering his own
position and reputation, he turned unexpectedly upon Berengar
and commanded him to confess that he had erred in not teaching
a change as to substantial reality of the sacramental bread and
wine into the body and blood of Christ. " Then," says Berengar,
" confounded by the sudden madness of the pope, and because
God in punishment for my sins did not give me a steadfast
heart, I threw myself on the ground, and confessed with impious
voice that I had erred, fearing the pope would instantly pro-
nounce against me the sentence of condemnation, and, as a
necessary consequence, that the populace would hurry me to
the worst of deaths." He was kindly dismissed by the pope not
long after, with a letter recommending him to the protection of
the bishops of Tours and Angers, and another pronouncing
anathema on all who should do him any injury or call him a
heretic. He returned home overwhelmed with shame and bowed
down with sorrow for having a second time been guilty of a
great impiety. He immediately recalled his forced confession,
and besought all Christian men " to pray for him, so that his
tears might secure the pity of the Almighty." He now saw',
however, that the spirit of the age was against him, and hope-
lessly given over to the belief of what he had combated as a
delusion. He withdrew, therefore, into solitude, and passed the
rest of his life in retirement and prayer on the island of St C6me
near Tours. He died there in 1088.
Berengar left behind him a considerable number of followers.
All those who in the middle ages denied the substantial presence
of the body and blood of Christ in the eucharist were commonly
designated Berengarians. They differed, of course, in many
respects, even in regard to the nature of the supper. Berengar's
own views on the subject may be thus summed up: i. That
bread and wine should become flesh and blood and yet not lose
the properties of bread and wine was, he held, contradictory to
reason, and therefore irreconcilable with the truthfulness of God.
2. He admitted a change (conversio) of the bread and wine into
the body of Christ, in the sense that to those who receive them
they are transformed by grace into higher powers and influences
into the true, the intellectual or spiritual body of Christ. The
unbelieving receive the external sign or sacramentum; but the
believing receive in addition, although invisibly, the reality re-
presented by the sign, the res sacramenti. 3. He rejected the
notion that the sacrament of the altar was a constantly renewed
sacrifice, and held it to be merely a commemoration of the one
sacrifice of Christ. 4. He dwelt strongly on the importance of
men looking away from the externals of the sacrament to the
spirit of love and piety. The transubstantiation doctrine seemed
to him full of evil, from its tendency to lead men to overvalue
what was sensuous and transitory. 5. He rejected with in-
dignation the miraculous stories told to confirm the doctrine of
transubstantiation. 6. Reason and Scripture seeded to him
the only grounds on which a true doctrine of the Lord's supper
could be rested. He attached little importance to mere ecclesi-
astical tradition or authority, and none to the voice of majorities,
even when sanctioned by the decree of a pope. In this, as in
other respects, he was a precursor of Protestantism.
The opinions of Berengar are to be ascertained from the works
written in refutation of them by Adelmann, Lanfranc, Guitmund,
&c. ; from the fragments of the De sacr. coena adv. Lanfr. liber, edited
by Staudlin (1820-1829); and from the Liber posterior, edited by
A. F. and F. T. Vischer (1834). Se fi the collection of texts by
Sudendorf (1850); the Church Histories of Gieseler, ii. 396-411
(Eng. trans.), and Neander, vi. 221-260 (Eng. trans.); A. Harnack's
History of Dogma', Haureau's Histoire de la philosophic scolastique, i.
225-238; Hermann Reuter, Geschichte der religibsen Aufklarung des
BERENGER BERENICE
Mittelallers, vol. i. (Berlin, 1875) : L- Schwabe, Studien zur Geschichte
del Zweittn Abcndmahlstreits (1887); and W. Broecking, " Bruno
von Angers und Berengar von Tours," in Deutsche Zeitschrift fur
Ceschichtswissenschaft (vol. xii., 1895).
BfiRENGER, ALPHONSE MARIE MARCELLIN THOMAS
(1785-1866), known as Berenger de la Dr6me, French lawyer
and politician, son of a deputy of the third estate of Dauphine
to the Constituent Assembly, was born at Valence on the 3ist of
May 1785. He entered the magistracy and became procureur
general at Grenoble, but resigned this office on the restoration
of the Bourbons. He now devoted himself mainly to the study
of criminal law, and in 1818 published La Justice crimineile en
France, in which with great courage he attacked the special
tribunals, provosts' courts or military commissions which were
the main instruments of the Reaction, and advocated a return
to the old common law and trial by jury. The book had a
considerable effect in discrediting the reactionary policy of the
government; but it was not until 1828, when Berenger was
elected to the chamber, that he had an opportunity of exercising
a personal influence on affairs as a member of the group known
as that of constitutional opposition. His courage, as well as his
moderation, was again displayed during the revolution of 1830,
when, as president of the parliamentary commission for the trial
of the ministers of Charles X., he braved the fury of the mob and
secured a sentence of imprisonment in place of the death penalty
for which they clamoured.
His position in the chamber was now one of much influence,
and he had a large share in the modelling of the new constitution,
though his effort to secure a hereditary peerage failed. Above
all he was instrumental in framing the new criminal code, based
on more humanitarian principles, which was issued in 1835.
It was due to him that, in 1832, the right, so important in actual
French practice, was given to juries to find " extenuating
circumstances " in cases when guilt involved the death penalty.
In 1831 he had been made a member of the court of appeal (cour
de cassation), and the same year was nominated a member of the
academy of moral and political sciences. He was raised to the
peerage in 1839. This dignity he lost owing to the revolution of
1848; and as a politician his career now ended. As a judge,
however, his activity continued. He was president of the high
courts of Bourges and Versailles in 1849. Having been appointed
president of one of the chambers of the court of cassation, he
devoted himself entirely to judicial work until his retirement,
under the age limit, on the 3ist of May 1860. He now withdrew
to his native town, and occupied himself with his favourite work
of reform of criminal law. In 1833 he had shared in the founda-
tion of a society for the reclamation of young criminals, in which
he continued to be actively interested to the end. In 1851 and
1852, on the commission of the academy of moral sciences, he
had travelled in France and England for the purpose of examining
and comparing the penal systems in the two countries. The
result was published in 1855 under the title La Repression penale,
comparaison du systeme penUentiaire en France et en Angleterrc.
He died on the isth of May 1866.
His son, RENE BERENGER (1830- ), continued the work of
his father, and at the outbreak of the revolution of 1870 was
avocal general of Lyons. He served as a volunteer in the Franco-
German War, being wounded at Nuits on the z8th of December.
Returned to the National Assembly by the department of Dr6me,
he was for a few days in 1873 minister of public works under
Thiers. He then entered the senate, of which he was vice-
president from 1894 to 1897. He founded in 1871 a society for
the reclamation of discharged prisoners, and presided over
various bodies formed to secure improvement of the public
morals. He succeeded Charles Lucas in 1890 at the Academy
of Moral and Political Science.
BERENICE, or BERNICE, the Macedonian forms of the Greek
Pherenice, the name of (A) five Egyptian and (B) two Jewish
princesses.
(A) i. BERENICE, daughter of Lagus, wife of an obscure
Macedonian soldier and subsequently of Ptolemy Soter, with
whose bride Eurydice she came to Egypt as a lady-in-waiting.
Her son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, was recognized as heir over the
in. 25
769
heads of Eurydicc's children. So great was her ability and her
influence that Pyrrhus of Epirus gave the name Berenicis to a
new city. Her son Philadelphus decreed divine honours to her
on her death. (See Theocritus, Idylls xv. and xvii.)
2. BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus, wife of
Antiochus Theos of Syria, who, according to agreement with
Ptolemy (249), had divorced his wife Laodice and transferred
the succession to Berenice's children. On Ptolemy's death,
Antiochus repudiated Berenice and took back Laodice, who,
however, at once poisoned him and murdered Berenice and
her son. The prophecy in Daniel xi. 6 seq. refers to these
events.
3- BERENICE, the daughter of Magas, king of Cyrene, and
the wife of Ptolemy III. Eucrgetes. During her husband's
absence on an expedition to Syria, she dedicated her hair to
Venus for his safe return, and placed it in the temple of the
goddess at Zephyrium. The hair having by some unknown
means disappeared, Conon of Samos, the mathematician and
astronomer, explained the phenomenon in courtly phrase, by
saying that it had been carried to the heavens and placed among
the stars. The name Coma Berenices, applied to a constellation,
commemorates this incident. Callimachus celebrated the
transformation in a poem, of which only a few lines remain,
but there is a fine translation of it by Catullus. Soon after her
husband's death (221 B.C.) she was murdered at the instigation
of her son Ptolemy IV., with whom she was probably associated
in the government.
4- BERENICE, also called CLEOPATRA, daughter of Ptolemy X.,
married as her second husband Alexander II., grandson of
Ptolemy VII. He murdered her three weeks afterwards.
5. BERENICE, daughter of Ptolemy Auletes, eldest sister of
the great Cleopatra. The Alexandrines placed her on the throne
in succession to her father (58 B.C.). She married Seleucus
Cybiosactes, but soon caused him to be slain, and married
Archelaus, who had been made king of Comana in Pf>ntus (or in
Cappadocia) by Pompey. Auletes was restored and put both
Berenice and Archelaus to death in 55 B.C.
(B) i. BERENICE, daughter of Salome, sister of Herod I., and
wife of her cousin Aristobulus, who was assassinated in 6 B.C.
Their relations had been unhappy and she was accused of com-
plicity in his murder. By Aristobulus she was the mother of
Herod Agrippa I. Her second husband, Theudion, uncle on the
mother's side of Antipater, son of Herod I., having been put to
death for conspiring against Herod, she married Archelaus.
Subsequently she went to Rome and enjoyed the favour of the
imperial household.
2. BERENICE, daughter of Agrippa I., king of Judaea, and
born probably about A.D. 28. She was first married to Marcus,
son of the alabarch 1 Alexander of Alexandria. On his early
death she was married to her father's brother, Herod of Chalcis,
after whose death (A.D. 48) she lived for some years with her
brother, Agrippa II. Her third husband was Polemon, king of
Cilicia, but she soon deserted him, and returned to Agrippa,
with whom she was living in 60 when Paul appeared before him
at Caesarea (Acts xxvi.). During the devastation of Judaea by
the Romans, she fascinated Titus, whom along with Agrippa she
followed to Rome as his promised wife (A.D. 75). When he
became emperor (A.D. 79) he dismissed her finally, though
reluctantly, to her own country. Her influence had been exer-
cised vainly on behalf of the Jews in A.D. 66, but the burning
of her palace alienated her sympathies. For her influence sec
Juvenal, Satires, vi., and Tacitus, Hist. ii. a.
BERENICE, an ancient seaport of Egypt, on the west coast of
the Red Sea, in 23 56' N., 35 34' E. Built at the head of a gulf,
the Sinus Immundus, or Foul Bay, of Strabo, it was sheltered on
the north by Ras Benas (Lepte Exlrema). The port is now
nearly filled up, has a sand-bar at its entrance and can be reached
only by small craft. Most important of the ruins is a temple;
the remnants of its sculptures and inscriptions preserve the name
of Tiberius and the figures of many deities, including a goddess
1 Alabarch or Arabarch (Gr. &Xo0&px'P. or 4pa/34pxn). the name of
the head magistrate of the Jews in Alexandria under the Ptolemaic
and Roman rules.
BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES BERESFORD, J.
77
of the emerald mines. Berenice was founded by Ptolemy II.
(285-247 B.C.) in order to shorten the dangerous Red Sea
voyages, and was named in honour of his mother. For four or
five centuries it became the entrep6t of trade between India,
Arabia and Upper Egypt. From it a road, provided with
watering stations, leads north-west across the desert to the Nile
at Coptos. In the neighbourhood of Berenice are the emerald
mines of Zabara and Saket.
BERESFORD, LORD CHARLES WILLIAM DE LA POER
(1846- ), British admiral, second son of the 4th marquess
of Waterford, was born in Ireland, and entered the " Britannia "
as a naval cadet in 1859. He became lieutenant in 1868, and
commander in 1875. In 1874 he was returned to parliament as
Conservative M.P. for Waterford, retaining his seat till 1880, and
he was already known in this period as a gallant officer, with a
special interest in naval administration. In 1875-1876 he accom-
panied the then prince of Wales on his visit to India as naval
A.D.C.; from 1878 to 1881 he was commander of the royal yacht
" Osborne." He was in command of the gunboat " Condor "
in the Mediterranean when the Egyptian crisis of 1882 occurred;
and he became a popular hero in England in connexion with
the bombardment of Alexandria (July n), when he took his
ship close in to the forts and engaged them with such conspicuous
gallantry that the admiral ordered a special signal " Well done,
Condor! " He was promoted captain for his services, and, after
taking an active part in the re-establishment of order in Alex-
andria, he served again in Egypt on Lord Wolseley's staff in
the expedition of 1884-85, commanding the naval brigade at
Abu Klea, Abu Kru and Metemmeh, and, with the river steamer
" Safieh," rescuing Sir C. Wilson and his party, who had been
wrecked on returning from Khartum (Feb. 4, 1885). In
November 1885 he was again returned to parliament as member
for East Marylebone (re-elected 1886), and in Lord Salisbury's
ministry of 1886 he was appointed a lord of the admiralty. The
press agitatian in favour of a stronger navy was now in full swing,
and it was well known that in Lord Charles Beresford it had an
active supporter; but very little impression was made on the
government, and in 1888 he resigned his office on this question,
a dramatic step which had considerable effect. In the House of
Commons he advocated an expenditure of twenty millions sterling
on the fleet, and the passing of the Naval Defence Act in 1889
was largely due to his action. At the end of 1889 he became
captain of the cruiser " Undaunted " in the Mediterranean, and
when this ship was paid off in 1893 he was appointed in command
of the steam reserve at Chatham, a post he held for three years.
In 1897 he became rear-admiral, and again entered parliament,
winning a by-election at York; he retained his seat till 1900,
but was mainly occupied during these years by a mission to
China on behalf of the Associated Chambers of Commerce; he
published his book The Break-up of China in 1899. In 1002 he
was returned to parliament for Woolwich, but resigned on his
appointment to command the Channel squadron (1903-1905);
in 1905 he was given the command of the Mediterranean fleet,
and from 1906 to 1909 was commander-in-chief of the Channel
fleet; in 1906 he became a full admiral. At sea he had always
shown himself a remarkable disciplinarian, possessed of great
influence over his men, and his reputation as one who would,
if necessary, prove a great fighting commander was second to
none; and, even when serving afloat and therefore unable to
speak direct to the public, he was in the forefront of the campaign
for increased naval efficiency. During the administration (1903-
1910) of Sir John Fisher (see FISHER, BARON) as first sea lord of
the admiralty it was notorious that considerable friction existed
between them, and both in the navy and in public a great deal
of party-spirit was engendered in the discussion of their
opposing views. When Lord Charles Beresford's term expired
as commander-in-chief in March 1909 he was finally "unmuzzled,"
and the attack which for some years his supporters had made
against Sir J. Fisher's administration came to a head at a moment
coinciding with the new shipbuilding crisis occasioned by the
revelations as to the increase of the German fleet. He himself
came forward with proposals for a large increase in the navy
and a reorganization of the administrative system, his first step
being a demand for an inquiry, to which the government
promptly assented (May) in the shape of a small Committee
under the prime minister. Its report (August), however, gave
him no satisfaction, and he proceeded with his public campaign,
bitterly attacking the ministerial policy. In January 1910, at
the general election, he was returned as Conservative M.P. for
Portsmouth; but meanwhile Sir John Fisher's term of office
came to an end, and in his successor, Admiral Sir Arthur Knyvet
Wilson (b. 1842), the navy obtained a first sea lord who com-
manded universal confidence.
BERESFORD, JOHN (1738-1805), Irish statesman, was a
younger son of Sir Marcus Beresford, who, having married
Catherine, sole heiress of Jame.s Power, 3rd earl of Tyrone, was
created earl of Tyrone in 1746. After the death of the earl in
1763, Beresford's mother successfully asserted her claim suo jure
to the barony of La Poer. John Beresford, born on the I4th of
March 1738, thus inherited powerful family connexions. He
was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, was called to the Irish
bar, and entered the Irish parliament as member for Waterford
in 1760. His industry, added to the influence of his family,
procured his admission to the privy council in 1768, and his
appointment as one of the commissioners of revenue two years
later. In 1780 he became first commissioner of revenue, a
position which gave him powerful influence in the Irish adminis-
tration. He introduced some useful reforms in the machinery
of taxation ; and he was the author of many improvements in the
architecture of the public buildings and streets of Dublin. He
was first brought into conflict with Grattan and the popular
party, in 1784, by his support of the proposal that the Irish
parliament in return for the removal of restrictions on Irish
trade should be bound to adopt the English navigation laws.
In 1786 he was sworn a member of the English privy council,
and the power which he wielded in Ireland through his numerous
dependants and connexions grew to be so extensive that a few
years later he was spoken of as the " king of Ireland." He was a
vehement opponent of the increasing demand for relief of the
Roman Catholics; and when it became known that Lord Fitz-
william was to succeed Lord Westmorland as lord lieutenant
in 1795 for the purpose of carrying out a conciliatory policy,
Beresford expressed strong hostility to the appointment. One
of Fitzwilliam's first acts was to dismiss Beresford from his
employment but with permission to retain his entire official
salary for life, and with the assurance that no other member of
his family would be removed. Beresford immediately exerted
all his influence with his friends in England, to whom he described
himself as an injured and persecuted man; he appealed to Pitt,
and went in person to London to lay his complaint before the
English ministers. There is little doubt that the recall of Lord
Fitzwilliam (q.v.), which was followed by such momentous
consequences in the history of Ireland, was, as the viceroy himself
believed, mainly due to Beresford's dismissal. There had been
a misunderstanding on the point between Pitt and Fitzwilliam.
The latter, whose veracity was unimpeachable, asserted that
previous to his coming to Ireland he had informed the prime
minister of his intention to dismiss Beresford, and that Pitt had
raised no objection. Pitt denied all recollection of any such
communication, and on the contrary described the dismissal as
" an open breach of the most solemn promise." 1 In a letter to
Lord Carlisle, justifying his action, Fitzwilliam mentioned that
malversation had been imputed to Beresford. Beresford sent a
challenge to Fitzwilliam, but the combatants were interrupted
on the field and Fitzwilliam then made an apology.
When Lord Camden replaced Fitzwilliam in the viceroyalty
in March 1795, Beresford resumed his former position. On the
eve of the rebellion in 1 798 his letters to Lord Auckland gave an
alarming description of the condition of Ireland, and he counselled
strong measures of repression. When first consulted by Pitt on
the question of the union Beresford appears to have disliked the
idea; but he soon became reconciled to the policy and warmly
supported it. After the union Beresford continued to represent
1 Stanhope, Life of Pitt, ii. 301.
BERESFORD BERG
771
Waterford in the imperial parliament, and he remained in office
till 1802, taking an active part in settling the financial relations
between Ireland and Great Britain. He died near Londonderry
on the sth of November 1805. John Beresford was twice
married: in 1760 to a foreign lady, Constantia Ligondes, who
died in 1772; and, secondly, in 1774 to Barbara Montgomery, a
celebrated beauty who figures in Sir Joshua Reynolds's picture
of " The Graces." He had large families by both marriages.
His son, John Claudius, kept a riding school in Dublin, which
acquired an evil reputation as the chief scene of the floggings
by which evidence was extorted of the conspiracy which came
to a head in 1798. He took a prominent part in the Irish House
of Commons, where he unsuccessfully moved the reduction of
the proposed Irish contribution to the imperial exchequer in
the debates on the Act of Union, of which, unlike his father, he
-vvas to the last an ardent opponent.
See Correspondence of the Right Hon. John Beresford, edited by
\V. Beresford (2 vols., London, 1854); Edward Wakefield, An
Account of Ireland (2 vols., London, 1812); Earl Stanhope, Life of
William Pitt (4 vols., London, 1861); W. E. H. Lecky, History of
Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, vols. iii., iv., v. (5 vols., London,
1892). (R. J. M.)
BERESFORD, WILLIAM CARR BERESFORD, VISCOUNT
(1768-1854), British general and Portuguese marshal, illegitimate
son of the first marquess of Waterford, was born on the 2nd of
October 1768. He entered the British army in 1785, and while
in Nova Scotia with his regiment in the following year lost the
sight of one eye by a shooting accident. He first distinguished
himself at Toulon in 1793, receiving two years later the command
of the 88th regiment (Connaught Rangers). In 1799 his regiment
was ordered to India, and a few months later Beresford left with
Sir David Baird's expedition for Egypt, and was placed in
command of the first brigade which led the march from Kosseir
across the desert. When, on the evacuation of Egypt in 1803,
he returned home, his reputation was established. In 1805 he
accompanied Sir David Baird to South Africa, and was present
at the capture of Cape Town and the surrender of the colony.
From South Africa he was despatched to South America. He
had little difficulty in capturing Buenos Aires with only a couple
of regiments. But this force was wholly insufficient to hold the
colony. Under the leadership of a French tmigre, the chevalier
de Tiniers, the colonists attacked Beresford, and at the end of
three days' hard fighting he was compelled to capitulate. After
six months' imprisonment he escaped, and reached England in
1807, and at the end of that year he was sent to Madeira, occupy-
ing the island in the name of the king of Portugal. After six
months in Madeira as governor and commander-in-chief, during
which he learnt Portuguese and obtained an insight into the
Portuguese character, he was ordered to join Sir Arthur
Wellesley's army in Portugal. He was first employed as com-
mandant in Lisbon, but accompanied Sir John Moore on the
advance into Spain, and took a conspicuous part in the battle of
Corunna (see PENINSULAR WAR). In February 1809 Beresford
was given the task of reorganizing the Portuguese army. In
this task, by systematic weeding-out of inefficient officers and.
men, he succeeded beyond expectation. By the summer of 1810
he had so far improved the moral and discipline of the force
that Wellington brigaded some of the Portuguese regiments
with English ones, and at Busaco Portuguese and English fought
side by side. Beresford's services in this battle were rewarded
by the British government with a knighthood of the Bath and
by the Portuguese with a peerage.
In the spring of 1811 Wellington was compelled to detach
Beresford from the Portuguese service. The latter was next
in seniority to General (Lord) Hill who had gone home on sick
leave, and on him, therefore, the command of Hill's corps now
devolved. Unfortunately Beresford never really gained the
confidence of his new troops. At Campo Mayor his light cavalry
brigade got out of hand, and a regiment of dragoons was practic-
ally annihilated. He invested Badajoz with insufficient forces,
and on the advance of Soult he was compelled to raise the siege
and offer battle at Albuera. His personal courage was even
more than usually conspicuous, but to the initiative of a junior
staff officer, Colonel (afterwards Viscount) Hardinge, rather than
to Beresford's own generalship, was the hardly-won victory to
be attributed. Beresford then went back to his work of
reorganizing the Portuguese army. He was present at the
siege of Badajoz and at the battle of Salamanca, where he was
severely wounded (1812). In 1813 he was present at the battle
of Vittoria, and at the battles of the Pyrenees, while at the battle
of the Nivelle, the Nive and Orthez he commanded the British
centre, and later he led a corps at the battle of Toulouse. At
the close of the Peninsular War he was created Baron Beresford
of Albuera and Cappoquin, with a pension of 2000 a year, to be
continued to his two successors.
In 1819 the revolution in Portugal led to the dismissal of the
British officers in the Portuguese service. Beresford therefore
left Portugal and placed the question of the arrears of pay of his
army before the king at Rio Janeiro. On his return the new
Portuguese government refused to allow him to land, and he
accordingly left for home. On arriving in England he turned
his attention to politics, and strongly supported the duke of
Wellington in the House of Lords. In 1823 his barony was made
a viscounty, and when the duke of Wellington formed his first
cabinet in 1828 he gave Beresford the office of master-general
of the ordnance. In 1830 Beresford retired from politics, and
for some time subsequently he was occupied in a heated con-
troversy with William Napier, the historian of the Peninsular
War, who had severely criticised his tactics at Albuera. On this
subject Wellington's opinion of Beresford is to the point. The
duke had no illusions as to his being a great general, but he
thought very highly of his powers of organization, and he went
so far as to declare, during the Peninsular War, that, in the event
of his own death, he would on this ground recommend Beresford
to succeed him. The last years of Beresford's life were spent at
Bedgebury, Kent, where he had purchased a country estate.
He died on the Sth of January 1854.
BEREZINA, a river of Russia, in the government of Minsk,
forming a tributary of the Dnieper. It rises in the marshes of
Borizov and flows south, inclining to east, for 350 m. (250 m.
navigable) , for the most part through low-lying but well-wooded
country. As a navigable river, and forming a portion of the
canal system which unites the Black Sea with the Baltic, it is of
importance for commerce, but is subject to severe floods. It was
just above Borizov that Napoleon's army forced the passage
of the Berezina, with enormous losses, on the 26th-28th of
November 1812, during the retreat from Moscow.
BEREZOV, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the government of
Tobolsk, 700 m. N. of the city of that name, situated on three
hills on the left bank of the Sosva, 26 m. above its mouth in the
Ob, in 63 55' N. lat. and 65 7' E. long. It has more than once
suffered from conflagrations for example, in 1719 and 1808.
Prince Menshikov, the favourite of Peter the Great and Catherine
I., died here an exile, in 1729. In 1730 his enemy and rival,
Prince Dolgoruki, was interned here with his family; and in
1742 General Ostermann was sent to Berezov with his wife and
died there in 1747. The yearly mean temperature is 25 Fahr.,
the maximum cold being 4-7. It has a cathedral, near which
lie buried Mary Menshikov, once betrothed to the tsar Peter II.,
and some of the Dolgorukis. There is some trade in furs,
mammoth bones, dried and salted fish. Pop. (1897) 1073.
BEREZOVSK, a village of east Russia, in the government of
Perm, on the eastern slope of the Urals, 8 m. N.E. of Ekaterin-
burg. It is the centre of an important gold-mining region
(5 m. by zj) of the same name. The mines have been known
since 1747. The inhabitants also manufacture boots, cut stone
and carry on cabinet-making.
BERG (Ducatus Montensis), a former duchy of Germany, on
the right bank of the Rhine, bounded N. by the duchy of Cleves,
E. by the countship of La Marck and the duchy of Westphalia,
and S. and W. by the bishopric of Cologne. Its area was about
1 1 20 sq. m. The district was raised in 1108 to the rank of a
countship, but did not become a duchy till 1380, after it had
passed into the possession of the Jillich family. In 1423 the
duchy of Jttlich fell to Adolf of Berg, and in 1437 the countship
772
BERGAMASK BERGEN
of Ravensberg was united to the duchies. The male line of the
dukes of Julich-Berg-Ravensberg became extinct in 1511, and
the duchy passed by marriage to John III. (d. 1539), duke of
Cleves and count of La Marck, whose male line became extinct
with the death of John William, bishop of Miinster, in 1609.
Of the latter's four sisters, the eldest (Marie Eleonore) was
married to Albert Frederick, duke of Prussia, the second (Anna)
to Philip Louis, count palatine of Neuburg, the third (Magdalena)
to John, count palatine of Zweibriicken, and the fourth (Sybille)
to Charles of Habsburg, margrave of Burgau. The question of
the succession led to a prolonged contest, which was one of the
causes of the Thirty Years' War. It was settled in 1614 by a
partition, under which Berg, with Jiilich, was assigned to the
count palatine of Neuburg, in whose line it remained till 1742,
when it passed to the Sultzbach branch of the house of Wittels-
bach. On the death of Charles Theodore, the last of this line, in
1799, Jiilich and Berg fell to Maximilian Joseph of Zweibriicken
(Maximilian I. of Bavaria), who ceded the duchies in 1806 to
Napoleon. Berg was bestowed by Napoleon, along with the
duchy of Cleves and other possessions, on Joachim Murat, who
bore the title of grand-duke of Berg; and after Murat 's elevation
to the throne of Naples, it was transferred to Louis, the son of
the king of Holland. By the congress of Vienna in 1815 it was
made over to Prussia.
See B. Schonneshofer, Geschichte des Bergischen Landes (Elberfeld,
1895); Stokvis, Manuel d'histoire, &c. vol. iii. (Leiden, 1890-1893);
and R. Gocke, Das Grossherzogtum Berg unler Joachim Murat,
Napoleon I" und Louis Napoleon, 1806-1813 (Cologne, 1877).
BERGAMASK, or BERGOMASK (from the town of Bergamo in
North Italy), a clumsy rustic dance (cf. Shakespeare, Midsummer
Night's Dream, v. 360) copied from the natives of Bergamo,
reputed to be very awkward in their manners.
BERGAMO (anc. Bergomum), a city and episcopal see of
Lombardy, Italy, capital of the province of Bergamo, situated
at the foot of the Alps, at the junction of the Brembo and Serio,
33^ m. N.E. of Milan by rail, and 26 m. direct. Pop. (1901)-
town, 25,425; commune, 46,861. The town consists of two
distinct parts, the older Citta Alta, upon a hill 1200 ft. above
sea-level, strongly fortified by the Venetians, and the new town
(Citta Bassa) below, the two being connected by a funicular
railway. The most interesting building of the former is the fine
Romanesque church of S. Maria Maggiore, founded in 1137 and
completed in 1355, with a baroque interior and some interesting
works of art. Adjoining it to the north is the Cappella Colleoni,
with a richly sculptured polychrome facade, and a modernized
interior, containing the fine tombs of Bartolommeo Colleoni
(c. 1400-1475), a native of Bergamo, and his daughter Medea.
The work was executed in 1470-1476 by Giovanni Antonio
Amadeo, who was also employed at the Certosa di Pavia. The
market-place (now Piazza Garibaldi) contains the Gothic Palazzo
Vecchio or Broletto; close by are the cathedral (1614) and a
small baptistery of 1340, rebuilt in 1898. The lower town
contains an important picture-gallery, consisting of three collec-
tions of works of north Italian masters, one of which was
bequeathed in 1891 by the art critic Giovanni Morelli. Bergamo
has fine modern buildings and numerous silk and cotton factories.
It also has a considerable cattle market, though its yearly Fiera
di S. Alessandro (the patron saint) has lost some of its importance.
Railways radiate from it to Lecco, Ponte della Selva, Usmate
(for Monza or Seregno), Treyiglio (on the main line from Milan
to Verona and Venice) and (via Rovato) to Brescia, and steam
tramways to Treviglio, Sarnico and Soncino.
The ancient Bergomum was the centre of the tribe of the
Orobii; it became, after their subjection to Rome, a Roman
municipality with a considerable territory, and after its destruc-
tion by Attila, became the capital of a Lombard duchy. From
1264 to 1428 it was under Milan, but then became Venetian, and
remained so until 1797. Remains of the Roman city are not
visible above ground, but various discoveries made are recorded
by G. Mantovani in Not. Scav., 1890, 25. (T. As.)
BERGAMOT, OIL OF, an essential oil obtained from the rind
of the fruit of the Citrus bergamia. The bergamot is a small
tree with leaves and flowers like the bitter orange, and a rpund
fruit nearly 3 in. in diameter, having a thin lemon-yellow smooth
rind. The tree is cultivated in southern Calabria, whence the
entire supply of bergamot oil is drawn. Machinery is mostly
used to express the oil from the fruit, which is gathered in
November and December. The oil, which on standing deposits
a stearoptene, bergamot camphor or bergaptene, is a limpid
greenish-yellow fluid of a specific gravity of 0-882 to 0-886, and
its powerful but pleasant odour is mainly due to the presence of
linalyl acetate, or bergamiol, which can be artificially prepared
by heating linalol with acetic anhydride. The chief use of
bergamot oil is in perfumery. The word apparently is derived
from the Italian town Bergamo. The name Bergamot, for a
variety of pear, is an entirely different word, supposed to be a
corruption of the Turkish beg-armudi ( = prince's pear; cf.
Ger. Fiirstenbirn) .
BERGEDORF, a town of Germany, in the territory of Hamburg,
on the river Bille, 10 m. by rail E. by S. from the city. Pop.
( 1 900) 23 , 7 28. It produces vegetables and fruit for the Hamburg
markets, and carries on tanning, glass manufacture, brewing
and brick-making. It received civic rights in 1275, belonged to
Liibeck and Hamburg conjointly from 1420 to 1868, and in the
latter year was purchased by Hamburg. The surrounding dis-
trict, exceptionally fertile marshland, is known as Die Vierlande,
being divided into four parishes, whence the name is derived.
BERGEN, a city and seaport of Norway, forming a separate
county (amt), on the west coast, in lat. 60 23' N. (about that of
the Shetland Islands). Pop. (1900) 72,179. It lies at the head
of the broad Byf jord, and partly on a rocky promontory (Nord-
naes) between the fine harbour (Vaagen) and the Puddefjord.
Its situation is very beautiful, the moist climate (mean annual
rainfall, 74 in.) fostering on the steep surrounding hills a vegeta-
tion unusually luxuriant for the latitude. Behind the town lie
the greater and lesser Lungegaard Lakes, so that the site is in
effect a peninsula. The harbour is crowded with picturesque
timber-ships and fishing-smacks, and is bordered by quays.
The principal street is Strandgaden, on the Nordnaes, parallel
with the harbour, communicating inland with the ton or market-
place, which fronts the harbour and contains the fish and fruit
market. The portion of the city on the mainland rises in an
amphitheatre. The houses, of wood or stucco, are painted in
warm reds and yellows. On the banks of the lesser Lungegaard
Lake is the small town park, and above the greater lake the
pleasant Nygaards park, with an aquarium adjoining. Among
the principal buildings are the cathedral (rebuilt in the i6th
century), and several other churches, among which the Mariae
Kirke with its Romanesque nave is the earliest; a hospital,
diocesan college, naval academy, school of design and a theatre.
An observatory and biological station are maintained. The
museums are of great interest. The Vestlandske fishery and
industrial museum also contains a picture gallery, and exhibition
of the Bergen Art Union (Kunstforening). The Bergen museum
contains antiquities and a natural history collection. The
Hanseatic museum is housed in a carefully-preserved gtard, or
store-house and offices of the Hanseatic League of German
merchants, who inhabited the German quarter (Tydskenbryggen)
and were established here in great strength from 1445 to 1558
(when the Norwegians began to find their presence irksome),
and brought much prosperity to the city in that period. The
Bergenhus and Fredriksberg forts defend the north and south
entries of the harbour respectively. The first was originally
built in the I3th century by King Haakon Haakonsson, and
subsequently enlarged; and still bears marks of an English
attack when a Dutch fleet was driven to shelter here in 1665.
Near it are remains of another old fort, the Sverresborg. Electric
trams ply in the principal streets.
Bergen is the birthplace of the poets Ludvig Holberg (1684-
1754) and Johan Welhaven (1807-1873), of Johan Dahl the
painter (1788-1857), of Ole Bull (1810-1880) and Edvard Grieg
the musicians. There are statues to Holberg and Bull, and also
to Christie, president of the Storthing (parliament) in 1815 and
1818.
BERGEN-OP-ZOOM BERGK
773
Bergen ranks first of the Norwegian ship-owning centres,
having risen to this position from fifth in 1879. The trade,
however, is exceeded by that of Christiania. The staple export
trade is in fish and their products: other exports are
butter, copper ore and hides. The principal imports are coal,
machinery, salt, grain and provisions. The manufactures are
not extensive, but the preparation of fish products, shipbuilding,
weaving and distillery, with manufactures of paper, pottery,
tobacco and ropes are carried on. Bergen is an important centre
of the extensive tourist traffic of Norway. Regular steamers
serve the port from Hull and Newcastle (about 40 hours), from
Hamburg, and from all the Norwegian coast towns. Many
local steamers penetrate the fjords, touching at every village and
guard. Bergen is the nearest port to the famous Hardanger
Fjord, and is the starting-point of a remarkable railway which
runs through many tunnels and fine scenery towards Vosse-
vangen or Voss. In 1896 a beginning was made with the con-
tinuation of this line through the mountains to connect with
Christiania. In the first 50 m. from Voss the line ascends 4080 f t. ,
passing through a tunnel 5796 yds. long.
Bergen (formerly Bjorgvin) was founded by King Olaf
Kyrre in 1070-1075, and rapidly grew to importance, the
Byfjord becoming the scene of several important engage-
ments in the civil wars of subsequent centuries. The famous
Hansa merchants maintained a failing position here till 1764.
The town suffered frequently from fire, as in 1702 and 1855,
and the broad open spaces (Almenninge) which interrupt
the streets are intended as a safeguard against the spread of
flames.
See Y. Nielsen, Bergen fra die dldste tider indtil nutiden (Christiania,
1877); H. Jager, Bergen og Bergenserne (Bergen, 1889).
BERGEN-OP-ZOOM, a town in the province of North Brabant,
Holland, situated on both sides of the small river Zoom, near
its confluence with the East Scheldt, 38^ m. by rail E. by N. of
Flushing. It is connected by steam tramway with Antwerp
(20 m. S.) and with the islands of Tholen and Duiveland to the
north-west. Pop. (1900) 13,663. The houses are well built, the
market-places and squares handsome and spacious. It possesses
a port and an arsenal, and contains a fine town hall, with portraits
of the ancient margraves of Bergen-op-Zoom, a Latin school,
and an academy of design and architecture. The remains of
the old castle of the margraves have been converted into barracks.
The tower is still standing and is remarkable for its increase in
size as it rises, which causes it to rock in a strong wind. The
church contains a monument to Lord Edward Bruce, killed in a
duel with Sir Edward Sackville, afterwards earl of Dorset, in
1613. There are numerous tile-works and potteries of fine ware;
and a considerable trade is carried on in anchovies and oysters
caught in the Scheldt. A large sugar-beet industry has also
sprung up here in modern times.
Bergen-op-Zoom is a very old town, but little is known of its
early history beyond the fact that it was taken by the Normans
in 880. In the i3th century it became the seat of Count Gerhard
of Wesemael, who surrounded it with walls and built a castle.
By the end of the isth century it had become one of the most
prosperous towns of Holland, on account of its fisheries and its
cloth-trade. In 1576 the town joined the United Netherlands,
and was shortly afterwards fortified. In 1588 it was successfully
defended against the duke of Parma by an English and Dutch
garrison commanded by Colonel Morgan, and in 1605 it was
suddenly attacked by Du Terail. In 1622 the Spaniards, under
Spinola, made another attempt to take the town, but were
forced to abandon the enterprise after a siege of ten weeks and
the loss of 1 200 men. Towards the end of the i7th century the
fortifications were greatly strengthened by Coehoorn, and in
1725 they were further extended. In 1747, however, the town
was taken by the French, under Marshal Lowendahl, who
sut prised it by means of a subterranean passage. Restored at
the end of the war, it was again taken by the French under
Pichegru in 1795. The English, under Sir Thomas Graham,
afterwards Lord Lynedoch, in March 1814 made an attempt to
take it by a coup de main, but were driven back with great loss
by the French, who surrendered the place, however, by the
treaty of peace in the following May.
The lordship of Bergcn-op-Zoom appears, after the definite
union of the Low Countries with the Empire in 924, as an
hereditary fief of the Empire, and the succession of its lords may
be traced from Henry (1098-1125), who also held Breda. In
'S33 it w * s raised to a margraviate by the emperor Charles V.,
and was held by various families until in 1799 it passed, through
the Suit /.bach branch of the Wittelsbachs, to the royal house of
Bavaria, by whom it was renounced in favour of the Batavian
republic in 1801.
BERGERAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Dordognc, on the right bank
of the Dordogne, 60 m. E. of Bordeaux on the railway to Cahors.
Pop. (1006) town, 10,545; commune, 15,623. The river is
rendered navigable by a large dam and crossed by a fine bridge
which leads to the suburb of La Madeleine. Apart from a few
old houses in the older quarter by the river, the town contains
no monuments of antiquarian interest. There is a handsome
modern church built in the middle of the igth century. Bcrgerac
is the seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce and a communal college. Wine of fine quality
is grown in the district and is the chief source of the commerce
of the town, which is mainly carried on with Libourne and
Bordeaux. There is trade in grain, truffles, chestnuts, brandy
and in the salmon of the Dordogne. The town has flour-mills,
iron-works, tanneries, distilleries and nursery-gardens, and it
has manufactures of casks and of vinegar. There are quarries
of millstone in the vicinity. In the i6th century Bergerac was a
very flourishing and populous place, but most of its inhabitants
having embraced Calvinism it suffered greatly during the
religious wars and by the revocation of the edict of Nantes (1685).
It was in 1577 the scene of the signing of the sixth peace between
the Catholics and Protestants. Its fortifications and citadel
were demolished by Louis XIII. in 1621.
BERGHAUS, HEINRICH (1797-1884), German geographer,
was born at Kleve on the 3rd of May 1797. He was trained as a
surveyor, and after volunteering for active service under General
Tauenzien in 1813, joined the staff of the Prussian trigono-
metrical survey in 1816. He carried on a geographical school at
Potsdam in company with Heinrich Lange, August Petennann,
and others, and long held the professorship of applied mathe-
matics at the Bauakademie. But he is most famous in connexion
with his cartographical work. His greatest achievement was the
Physikalischer Atlas (Gotha, 1838-1848), in which work, as in
others, his nephew HERMANN BERGHAUS (1828-1890) was
associated with him. He had also a share in the re-issue of the
great Stieler Handatlas (originally produced by Adolf Stieler in
1817-1823), and in the production of other atlases. His written
works were numerous and important, including Allgemeine
Lander- und Volkerkunde (Stuttgart, 1837-1840), Grundriss der
Geographic in jiinj Biichern (Berlin, 1842), Die V Biker des Erdballs
(Leipzig, 1845-1847), Was man von der Erde weiss (Berlin, 1856-
1860), and various large works on Germany. In 1863 he pub-
lished Briefwechsel mit Alexander von Humboldt (Leipzig). He
died at Stettin on the I7th of February 1884.
BERGK, THEODOR (1812-1881), German philologist, was
born at Leipzig on the 22nd of May 1812. After studying at the
university of his native town, where he profited by the instruc-
tion of G. Hermann, he was appointed in 1835 to the lectureship
in Latin at the orphan school at Halle. After holding posts
at Neustrelitz, Berlin and Cassel, he succeeded (1842) K. F.
Hermann as professor of classical literature at Marburg. In
1852 he went to Freiburg, and in 1857 returned to Halle. In
1868 he resigned his professorship, and settled down to study and
literary work in Bonn. He died on the 2oth of July 1881, at
Ragatz in Switzerland, where he had gone for the benefit of his
health. Bergk's literary activity was very great, but his reputa-
tion mainly rests upon his work in connexion with Greek literature
and the Greek lyric poets. His Poetae Lyrici Graeci (1843, 5th
ed. 1900, &c.), and Gritchische Litleralurgesckichte (1872-1887,
completed by G. Hinrichs and R. PeppmUllcr) are standard
774
BERGLER BERI-BERI
works. He also edited Anacreon (1834), the fragments of
Aristophanes (1840), Aristophanes (3rded., 1872), Sophocles (2nd
ed., 1868), a lyric anthology (4th ed., 1890). Among his other
works may be mentioned: Angus ti Rerum a se gestarum Index
(1873); Inschriften romischer Schleudergeschosse (1876); Zur
Geschichte ttnd Topographic der Rheinlande in romischer Zeit
(1882); Beitriige zur romischen Chronologic (1884).
His Kleine philologische Schriften have been edited by Peppmiiller
(1884-1886), and contain, in addition to a complete list of his writings,
a sketch of his life. See Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol iii. 146 (1908).
BERGLER, STEPHAN, German classical scholar, was born
about 1680 at Kronstadt in Transylvania. The date of his death
is uncertain. After studying at Leipzig, he went to Amsterdam,
where he edited Homer and the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux
for Wetzstein the publisher. Subsequently, at Hamburg, he
assisted the great bibliographer J. A. Fabricius in the production
of his Bibliotheca Graeca and his edition of Sextus Empiricus.
He finally found a permanent post in Bucharest as secretary to
the prince of Walachia, Alexander Mavrocordato, whose work
Ilepi ruv KaOriKovruv (De Officiis) he had previously translated
for Fritzsch, the Leipzig bookseller, by whom he had been
employed as proof-reader and literary hack. In the prince's
library Bergler discovered the introduction and the first three
chapters of Eusebius's Demonstratio Evangelica. He died in
Bucharest, and was buried at his patron's expense. According
to another account, Bergler, finding himself without means,
drifted to Constantinople, where he came to an untoward end
(c. 1740). He is said to have become a convert to Islam; this
report was probably a mistake for the undisputed fact that he
embraced Roman Catholicism. Bergler led a wild and irregular
life, and offended his friends and made many enemies by his
dissipated habits and cynical disposition. In addition to writing
numerous articles for the Leipzig Acta Erudilorum, Bergler
edited the editio princeps of the Byzantine historiographer
Genesius (1733), and the,letters of Alciphron (1715), in which
seventy-five hitherto unpublished letters were for the first time
included.
BERGMAN, TORBERN OLOF (1735-1784), Swedish chemist
and naturalist, was born at Katrineberg, Vestergotland, Sweden,
on the 20th of March 1735. At the age of seventeen he entered
the university of Upsala. His father wished him to read either
law or divinity, while he himself was anxious to study mathe-
matics'and natural science; in the effort to please both himself
and his father he overworked himself and injured his health.
During a period of enforced abstinence from study, he amused
himself with field botany and entomology, to such good purpose
that he was able to send Linnaeus specimens of several new kinds
of insects, and in 1756 he succeeded in proving that, contrary to
the opinion of that naturalist, Coccus aquaticus was really the
ovum of a kind of leech. In 1758, having returned to Upsala,
he graduated there, and soon afterwards began to teach mathe-
matics and physics at the university, publishing papers on the
rainbow, the aurora, the pyroelectric phenomena of tourmaline,
&c. In 1767 Johann Gottschalck Wallerius (1709-1785) having
resigned the chair of chemistry and mineralogy, Bergman deter-
mined to become a candidate, though he had paid no particular
attention to chemistry. As evidence of his attainments he
produced a memoir on the manufacture of alum, but his pre-
tensions were strongly opposed, and it was only through the
influence of Gustavus III., then crown prince and chancellor
of the university, that he gained the appointment, which he
held till the end of his life. He died at Medevi on Lake Vetter
on the 8th of July 1784. Bergman's most important chemical
paper is his Essay on Elective Attractions (1775), a study of
chemical affinity. In methods of chemical analysis, both by the
blowpipe and in the wet way, he effected many improvements,
and he made considerable contributions to mineralogical and
geological chemistry, and to crystallography. He also made
observations of the transit of Venus in 1761, and published a
Physical Description of the Earth in 1 766.
His works were collected and printed in 6 vols. as Opuscula
Physica el Chemica in 1779-1790, and were translated into French,
German and English.
BERGSCHRUND (Ger. Berg, mountain; Schrund, cleft or
crevice), a gaping crack in the upper part of a snowfield or
glacier, near the rock wall, caused by the glacier moving bodily
away from the mountain -side as the mass settles downwards.
The crack is roughly parallel to the rock-face of the upper edge
of the glacier basin, and extends downwards to the solid rock
beneath the glacier where at the bottom of this huge crevasse
there are blocks of ice, and large pieces of rock torn off
by the lower portion of the glacier from the rock wall and
floor.
BERGUES, a town of northern France, in the department of
Nord, at the junction of the canal of the Colme with canals to
Dunkirk and Furnes (in Belgium), 5 m. S.S.E. of Dunkirk by
rail. Pop. (1906) 4499. The town has a belfry, the finest in
French Flanders, dating from the middle of the i6th century
and restored in the igth century. The church of St Martin is
a brick building of the I7th century in the Gothic style with a
modern facade. The town hall, dating from the latter half of
the i gth century, contains a municipal library and an interesting
collection of pictures. The industries of the town include
brewing and malting, and the manufacture of brushes and
oil.
BERHAMPUR, a town of British India, the headquarters
of Murshidabad district, in Bengal, situated on the left bank of
the river Bhagirathi, 5 m. below Murshidabad city. Pop. (1901)
24,397. Berhampur was fixed upon after the battle of Plassey
as the site of the chief military station for Bengal; and a huge
square of brick barracks was erected in 1 767 , at a cost of 300,000.
Here was committed the first overt act of the mutiny, on the
25th of February 1857. No troops are now stationed here, and
the barracks have been utilized for a jail, a lunatic asylum and
other civic buildings. A college, founded by government in
1853, was made over in 1888 to a local committee, being mainly
supported by the munificence of the rani Svarnamayi. In
the municipality of Berhampur is included the remnant of
the once important, but now utterly decayed city of Cossim-
bazar (q.v.).
BERHAMPUR, a town of British India, in the presidency of
Madras. Pop. (1901) 25,729. It is the headquarters of Ganjam
district, and is situated about 9 m. from the sea. It is a station
on the East Coast railway, which connects Calcutta with
Madras. Berhampur had a military cantonment, sometimes
distinguished as Baupur, containing a wing of a native regiment;
but the troops have been transferred elsewhere. There is some
weaving of silk cloth, and export trade in sugar. The college,
originally founded by government, is now maintained by the
raja of Kallikota. Silk-weaving and sugar-manufacture are
carried on.
BERI-BERI, a tropical disease of the greatest antiquity, and
known to the Chinese from an extremely remote period. It
gradually dropped out of sight of European practice, until an
epidemic in Brazil in 1863, and the opening up of Japan, where
it prevailed extensively, and the investigations into the disease
in Borneo, brought it again into notice. The researches of
Scheube and Balz in Japan, and of Pekelharing and Winkler
in the Dutch Indies, led to its description as a form of peripheral
neuritis (see also NEUROPATHOLOGY). The geographical dis-
tribution of beri-beri is between 45 N. and 35 S. It occurs in
Japan, Korea and on the Chinese coast south of Shanghai; in
Manila, Tongking, Cochin China, Burma, Singapore, Malacca,
Java and the neighbouring islands; also in Ceylon, Mauritius,
Madagascar and the east coast of Africa. In the Western
hemisphere it is found in Cuba, Panama, Venezuela and South
America. It has been carried in ships to Australia and to
England. Sir P. Manson has " known it originate in the port of
London in the crews of ships which had been in harbour for
several months," and he suggests that when peripheral neuritis
occurs in epidemic form it is probably beri-beric.
The cause is believed by many authorities to be an infective
agent of a parasitic nature, but attempts to identify it have not
been entirely successful. It is " not obviously communicable
from person to person " (Manson), but may be carried from
BERING BERING ISLAND
775
place to place. It clings to particular localities, buildings and
ships, in which it has a great tendency to occur; for instance,
it is apt to break out again and again on certain vessels trading
to the East. It haunts low-lying districts along the coast, and
the banks of rivers. Moisture and high temperature arc required
to develop its activity, which is further favoured by bad ven-
tilation, overcrowding and underfeeding. Another strongly
supported hypothesis is that it is caused by unwholesome diet.
The experience of the Japanese navy points strongly in this
direction. Beri-beri was constantly prevalent among the sailors
until 1884, when the dietary was changed. A striking and pro-
gressive diminution at once set in, and continued until the disease
wholly disappeared. Major Ronald Ross suggested that beri-
beri was really arsenical poisoning. A natural surmise is that
it is due to some fungoid growth affecting grain, such as rice,
maize or some other food stuff commonly used in the localities
where beri-beri is prevalent, and among sailors. The conditions
under which their food is kept on board certain ships might
explain the tendency of the disease to haunt particular vessels.
Dr Charles Hose is the principal advocate of this theory. Having
had much experience of beri-beri in Sarawak, he associates it
with the eating of mouldy rice, a germ in the fungus constitut-
ing the poison. But Dr Hose's views as to rice have been strongly
opposed by Dr Hamilton Wright and others.
The most susceptible age is from 15 to 40. Children under
1 5 and persons over 50 or 60 are rarely attacked. Men are more
liable than women. Race has no influence. Previous attacks
powerfully predispose.
The symptoms are mainly those of peripheral neuritis with
special implication of the phrenic and the pneumogastric
nerves. There is usually a premonitory stage, in which the
patient is languid, easily tired, depressed, and complains of
numbness, stiffness and cramps in the legs; the ankles are
oedematous and the face is puffy. After this, pronounced
symptoms set in rapidly, the patient suddenly loses power
in the legs and is hardly able to walk or stand; this paresis is
accompanied by partial anaesthesia, and by burning or tingling
sensations in the feet, legs and arms; the finger-tips are numb,
the calf muscles tender. These symptoms increase; the oedema
becomes general, the paralysis more marked; breathlessness
and palpitation come on in paroxysms; the urine is greatly
diminished. There is no fever, unless it is of an incidental char-
acter, and no brain symptoms arise. The patient may remain
in this condition for several days or weeks, when the symptoms
begin to subside. On the disappearance of the oedema the
muscles of the leg are found to be atrophied. Recovery is very
slow, but appears to be certain when once begun. When death
occurs it is usually from syncope through over-distension of the
heart. The mortality varies greatly, from 2 to 50% of the cases.
The disease is said to be extremely fatal among the Malays.
After death there is found to be serious infiltration into all the
tissues, and often haemorrhages into the muscles and nerves, but
the most important lesion is degeneration of the peripheral
nerves. The cerebrospinal centres are not affected, and the
degeneration of the nerve-fibres is more marked the farther they
are from the point of origin. The implication of the phrenic
and pneumogastric nerves, and of the cardiac plexus, accounts
for the breathlessness, palpitation and heart failure; that of
the vaso-motor system for the oedema and diminution of urine,
and that of the spinal nerves for the loss of power, the impair-
ment and perversion of sensation. According as these nerves
are variously affected the symptoms will be modified, some
being more prominent in one case and some in another.
AUTHORITIES. See Sir Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases (new
ed., 1907); for a critical discussion of the subject, see The Times of
28th October 1905; a full bibliography is given by Manson in
Allbutt and Rolleston's System of Medicine (1907).
BERING (BEHRING), VITUS (1680-1741), Danish navigator,
was born in 1680 at Horsens. In 1703 he entered the Russian
navy, and served in the Swedish war. A series of explorations
of the north coast of Asia, the outcome of a far-reaching plan
devised by Peter the Great, led up to Bering's first voyage to
Kamchatka. In 1725, under the auspices of the Russian govern-
ment, he went overland to Okhotsk, crossed to Kamchatka, and
built the ship " Gabriel." In her he pushed northward in 1728,
until he could no longer observe any extension of the land to the
north, or its appearance to the east. In the following year he
made an abortive search for land eastward, and in 1730 returned
to St Petersburg. He was subsequently commissioned to a
further expedition, and in 1740 established the settlement of
Petropavlosk in Kamchatka; and built two vessels, the " St
Peter " and " St Paul," in which in 1741 he led an expedition
towards America. A storm separated the ships, but Bering
sighted the southern coast of Alaska, and a landing was made at
Kayak Island or in the vicinity. Bering was forced by adverse
conditions to return quickly, and discovered some of the Aleutian
Islands on his way back. He was afflicted with scurvy, and
became too ill to command his ships, which were at last driven
to refuge on an uninhabited island in the south-west of Bering
Sea, where Bering himself and many of his company died. This
island bears his name. Bering died on the ipth of December
1741. It was long before the value of his work was recognized;
but Captain Cook was able to prove his accuracy as an observer.
See G. F. Mtiller, Sammlung russischer Ceschicklen, vol. iii. (St
Petersburg, 1758); P. Lauridsen, Bering og de Russiske Opdagel-
sesrejser (Copenhagen, 1885).
BERING ISLAND. SEA and STRAIT. These take their
name from the explorer Vitus Bering. The island (also called
Avatcha), which was the scene of his death, lies in the south-
western part of the sea, off the coast of Kamchatka, being one
of the Commander or Komandor group, belonging to Russia.
Scale, 1:32,000,000
English Miles
O t 100 300 300 400
It is 69 m. long and 28 m. in extreme breadth; the area is 615
sq. m. The extreme elevation is about 300 ft. The smaller
Copper Island lies near. The islands are treeless, and the climate
is severe, but there is a population of about 650. Bering Sea is
the northward continuation of the Pacific Ocean, from which
it is demarcated by the long chain of the Aleutian Islands. It
is bounded on the east by Alaska, and on the west by the Siberian
and Kamchatkan coast. Its area is estimated at 870,000 sq. m.
In the north and east it has numerous islands (St Lawrence,
St Matthew, Nunivak and the Pribiloff group) and. is shallow;
in the south-west it reaches depths over 2000 fathoms. The
seal-fisheries are important (see BERING SEA ARBITRATION).
The sea is connected with the Arctic Ocean northward by Bering
Strait, at the narrowest part of which East Cape (Deshnev) in
Asia approaches within about 56 m. of Cape Prince of Wales on
the American shore. North and south of these points the coasts
on both sides rapidly diverge. They are steep and rocky, and
considerably indented. The extreme depth of the strait
approaches 50 fathoms, and it contains two small islands known
as the Diomede Islands. These granite domes, lacking a harbour,
lie about a mile apart, and the boundary line between the
possessions of Russia and the United States passes between them.
They are occupied by a small tribe of about 80 Eskimo, who have
776
BERING SEA ARBITRATION
from early times plied the trade of middlemen between Asia and
America. They call the western island Nunarbook and the
eastern Ignalook. Haze and fogs greatly prevail in 'the strait,
which is never free of ice.
The earliest names associated with the exploration of Bering
Strait are those of Russians seeking to extend their trading
facilities. Isai Ignatiev made a voyage eastward from the
Kolyma river in 1646, and Simon Dezhnev in 1648 followed
his route and prolonged it, rounding the East or Dezhnev Cape,
and entering the strait. The post of Anadyrsk was founded on
the river Anadyr, and overland communications were gradually
opened up. A Russian named Popov first learnt a rumour of the
existence of islands east of Cape Dezhnev, and of the proximity
of America, and presently there followed the explorations of
Vitus Bering. In 1731 the navigator Michael Gvosdev was
driven by storm from a point north of Cape Dezhnev to within
sight of the Alaskan coast, which he followed for two days.
Under Bering on his last voyage (i 741) was Commander Chirikov
of the " St Paul," and after being separated from his leader
during foggy weather this officer reached the Alaskan coast and
explored a considerable stretch of it. Lieutenant Waxel and
William Steller, a naturalist, left at the head of Bering's party
after his death, by their researches laid the foundation of the
important fur trade of these waters. The Aleutian Islands
gradually became known in the pursuit of this trade, through
Michael Novidiskov (1745) and his successors, and it was not
until Captain James Cook, working from the south, explored
the sea and strait in 1778 that the tide of discovery set farther
northward.
BERING SEA ARBITRATION. The important fishery
dispute between Great Britain and the United States, which
was closed by this arbitration, arose in the following circum-
stances.
In the year 1867 the United States government had purchased
from Russia all her territorial rights in Alaska and the adjacent
islands. The boundary between the two powers, as laid down
by the treaty for purchase, was a line drawn from the middle of
Bering Strait south-west to a point midway between the
Aleutian and Komandorski Islands dividing Bering Sea into two
parts, of which the larger was on the American side of this line.
This portion included the Pribiloff Islands, which are the prin-
cipal breeding-grounds of the seals frequenting those seas. By
certain acts of congress, passed between 1868 and 1873, the
killing of seals was prohibited upon the islands of the Pribiloff
group and in " the waters adjacent thereto " except upon certain
specified conditions. No definition of the meaning of the words
" adjacent waters " was given in the act. In 1870 the exclusive
rights of killing seals upon these islands was leased by the United
States to the Alaska Commercial Company, upon conditions
limiting the numbers to be taken annually, and otherwise pro-'
viding for their protection. As early as 1872 the operations of
foreign sealers attracted the attention of the United States
government, but any precautions then taken seem to have been
directed against the capture of seals on their way through the
passages between the Aleutian Islands, and no claim to juris-
diction beyond the three-mile limit appears to have been put
forward. On the iath of March 1881, however, the acting
secretary of the United States treasury, in answer to a letter
asking for an interpretation of the words " waters adjacent
thereto " in the acts of 1868 and 1873, stated that all the waters
east of the boundary line were considered to be within the waters
of Alaska territory. In March 1886 this letter was communi-
cated to the San Francisco customs by Mr Daniel Manning,
secretary of the treasury, for publication. In the same summer
three British sealers, the " Carolena," " Onward " and
" Thornton," were captured by an American revenue cutter
60 m. from land. They were condemned by the district
judge on the express ground that they had been sealing within
the limits of Alaska territory. Diplomatic representations
followed, and an order for release was issued, but in 1887 further
captures were made and were judicially supported upon the same
grounds. The respective positions taken up by the two govern-
ments in the controversy which ensued may be thus indicated.
The United States claimed as a matter of right an exclusive
jurisdiction over the sealing industry in Bering Sea; they also
contended that the protection of the fur seal was, upon grounds
both of morality and interest, an international duty, and should
be secured by international arrangement. The British govern-
ment repudiated the claim of right, but were willing to negotiate
upon the question of international regulation. Between 1887
and 1890 negotiations were carried on between Russia, Great
Britain and the United States with a view to a joint convention.
Unfortunately the parties were unable to agree as to the prin-
ciples upon which regulation should be based. The negotiations
were wrecked upon the question of pelagic sealing. The only
seal nurseries were upon the Pribiloff Islands, which belonged
to the United States, and the Komandorski group, which be-
longed to Russia. Consequently to prohibit pelagic sealing
would have been to exclude Canada from the industry. The
United States, nevertheless, insisted that such prohibition was
indispensable on the grounds (i) that pelagic sealing involved
the destruction of breeding stock, because it was practically im-
possible to distinguish between the male and female seal when
in the water; (2) that it was unnecessarily wasteful, inasmuch
as a large proportion of the seals so killed were lost. On the other
hand, it was contended by Great Britain that in all known cases
the extermination of seals had been the result of operations upon
land, and had never been caused by sealing exclusively pelagic.
The negotiations came to nothing, and the United States fell
back upon their claim of right. In June 1890 it was reported
that certain American revenue cutters had been ordered to
proceed to Bering Sea. Sir Julian Pauncefote, the British
ambassador at Washington, having failed to obtain an assurance
that British vessels would not be interfered with, laid a formal
protest before the United States government.
Thereupon followed a diplomatic controversy, in the course
of which the United States developed the contentions which
were afterwards laid before the tribunal of arbitration. The
claim that Bering Sea was mare clausum was abandoned, but it
was asserted that Russia had formerly exercised therein rights
of exclusive jurisdiction which had passed to the United States,
and they relied inter alia upon the ukase of 1821, by which foreign
vessels had been forbidden to approach within 100 Italian miles
of the coasts of Russian America. It was pointed out by Great
Britain that this ukase had been the subject of protest both by
Great Britain and the United States, and that by treaties similar
in their terms, made between Russia and each of the protesting
powers, Russia had agreed that their subjects, should not be
troubled or molested in navigating or fishing in any part of the
Pacific Ocean. The American answer was that the Pacific Ocean
did not include Bering Sea. They also claimed an interest in
the fur seals, involving the right to protect them outside the
three-mile limit. In August 1890 Lord Salisbury proposed that
the question at issue should be submitted to arbitration. This
was ultimately assented to by the secretary of state, James
Gillespie Blaine, on the understanding that certain specific
points, which he indicated, should be laid before the arbitrators.
On the 20th of February 1892 a definitive treaty was signed at
Washington. Each power was to name two arbitrators, and
the president of the French Republic, the king of Italy, the king
of Norway and Sweden were each to name one. The points
submitted were as follows: (i) What exclusive jurisdiction
in the sea now known as Bering Sea, and what exclusive rights
in the seal fisheries therein, did Russia assert and exercise prior to
and up to the time of the cession of Alaska to the United States?
(2) How far were her claims of jurisdiction as to the seal fisheries
recognized and conceded by Great Britain? (3) Was the body
of water now known as Bering Sea included in the phrase
" Pacific Ocean," as used in the treaty of 1825 between Great
Britain and Russia, and what rights, if any, in Bering Sea were
held exclusively exercised by Russia after the said treaty?
(4) Did not all the rights of Russia as to jurisdiction and as to
the seal fisheries in Bering Sea east of the water boundary, in the
treaty between the United States and Russia of the 3oth of
BERIOT BERKELEY FAMILY
777
March 1867, pass unimpaired to the United States under that
treaty? (5) Had the United States any and what right of pro-
tection over, or property in, the fur seals frequenting the islands
of Bering Sea when such seals are found outside the three-mile
limit? In the event of a determination in favour of Great
Britain the arbitrators were to determine what concurrent
regulations were necessary for the preservation of the seals,
and a joint commission was to be appointed by the two powers
to assist them in the investigation of the facts of seal life. The
question of damages was reserved for further discussion, but
either party was to be at liberty to submit any question of fact
to the arbitrators, and to ask for a finding thereon. The tribunal
was to sit at Paris. The treaty was approved by the Senate
on the 29th of March 1892, and ratified by the president on the
22nd of April.
The United States appointed as arbitrator Mr John M. Harlan,
a justice of the Supreme Court, and Mr John T. Morgan, a
member of the Senate. The British arbitrators were Lord
Hannen and Sir John Thompson. The neutral arbitrators were
the baron de Courcel, the marquis Visconti Venosta, and Mr
Gregers Gram, appointed respectively by the president of the
French Republic, the king of Italy, and the king of Norway and
Sweden. The sittings of the tribunal began in February and
ended in August 1893. The main interest of the proceedings
lies in the second of the two claims put forward on behalf of the
United States. This claim cannot easily be stated in language
of precision; it is indicated rather than formulated in the last
of the five points specially submitted by the treaty. But its
general character may be gathered from the arguments addressed
to the tribunal. It was suggested that the seals had some of the
characteristics of the domestic animals, and could therefore be
the subject of something in the nature of a right of property.
They were so far amenable to human control that it was possible
to take their increase without destroying the stock. Scaling
upon land was legitimate sealing; the United States being the
owners of the land, the industry was a trust vested in them for
the benefit of mankind. On the other hand, pelagic sealing,
being a method of promiscuous slaughter, was illegitimate; it
was contra bonos mores and analogous to piracy. Consequently
the United States claimed a right to restrain such practices,
both as proprietors of the seals and as proprietors and trustees
of the legitimate industry. It is obvious that such a right was
a novelty hitherto unrecognized by any system of law. Mr J. C.
Carter, therefore, as counsel for the United States, submitted
a theory of international jurisprudence which was equally novel.
He argued that the determination of the tribunal must be
grounded upon " the principles of right," that " by the rule or
principle of right was meant a moral rule dictated by the general
standard of justice upon which civilized nations are agreed, that
this international standard of justice is but another name for
international law, .that the particular recognized rules were but
cases of the application of a more general rule, and that where
the particular rules were silent the general rule applied." The
practical result of giving effect to this contention would be that
an international tribunal could make new law and apply it
retrospectively. Mr Carter's contention was successfully com-
bated by Sir Charles Russell, the leading counsel for Great
Britain.
The award, which was signed and published on the isth of
August 1893, was in favour of Great Britain on all points. The
question of damages, which had been reserved, was ultimately
settled by a mixed commission appointed by the two powers in
February 1896, the total amount awarded to the British sealers
being $473,151.26. (M. H. C.)
BERIOT, CHARLES AUQUSTE DE (1802-1870), Belgian
violinist and composer. Although not definitely a pupil of
Viotti or Baillot he was much influenced by both. He was very
successful in his concert tours, and held appointments at the
courts of Belgium and France. From 1843 to 1852 he was violin
professor at the Brussels conservatoire. Then his eyesight began
to fail, and in 1858 he became blind. His compositions are still
often played, and are good, clean displays of technique.
BERJA, a town of southern Spain, in the province of Almeria;
on the south-eastern slope of the Sierra de G&dor, 10 m. N.E. of
Adra by road. Pop. (1900) 13,224. Despite the lack of a rail-
way Berja has a considerable trade. Lead is obtained among
the mountains, and the more sheltered valleys produce grain,
wine, oil, fruit and esparto grass. These, with the paper, linen
and cotton goods manufactured locally in small quantities, are
exported from Adra.
BERKA, a town and watering-place of Germany, in the grand-
duchy of Saxe-Weimar, on the llm and the Weimar-Kranichfeld
railway, 8 m. S. of Weimar. Pop. 2300. It has sulphur baths,
which are largely frequented in the summer. Berka was once
celebrated for its Cistercian nunnery, founded in 1251. Two
m. down the llm is the curious castle of Burgfarth. partly
hewn out of the solid rock.
BERKELEY, the name of an ancient English family remark-
able for its long tenure of the feudal castle built by the water
of Severn upon the lands from which the family takes its name.
It traces an undoubted descent from Robert (d. 1170) son of
Harding. Old pedigree-makers from the I4th century onward
have made of Harding a younger son of a king of Denmark and
a companion of the Conqueror, while modem historians assert
his identity with one Harding who, although an English thane,
is recorded by Domesday Book in 1086 as a great landowner in
Somerset. This Harding the thane was son of Elnod or Alnod,
who is recognized as Eadnoth the Staller, slain in beating off
the sons of Harold when they attacked his county. But if Hard-
ing the Berkeley ancestor be the Harding who, as the queen's
butler, witnesses King Edward's Waltham charter of 1062, his
dates seem strangely apart from those of Robert his son, dead
a hundred and eight years later. Of Robert fitz Harding we
know that he was a Bristol man whose wealth and importance
were probably increased by the trade of the port. A partisan
of Henry, son of the empress, that prince before his accession
to the throne granted him, by his charter at Bristol in the earlier
half of 1153, the Gloucestershire manor of Bitton, and a hundred
librates of land in the manor of Berkeley, Henry agreeing to
strengthen the castle of Berkeley, which was evidently already
in Robert's hands. In his rhymed chronicle Robert of Glou-
cester tells how
" A bourgois at Bristowe Robert Harding
Vor gret tresour and richesse so wel was mid the king
That he gat hjm and is eirs he noble baronie
That so nche is of Berkele mid al the seignorie."
Later in the same year the duke of Normandy granted to Robert
fitz Harding Berkeley manor and the appurtenant district called
" Berkelaihernesse," to hold in fee by the service of one knight
or at a rent of 100 s. Being at Berkeley, the duke confirmed
to Robert a grant of Bedminster made by Robert, earl of
Gloucester, and in the first year of his reign as king of England
he confirmed his own earlier grant of the Berkeley manor. About
this time Robert, who had founded St Augustine's Priory in
Bristol, gave to the Black Canons there the five churches in
Berkeley and Berkeley Herness. In their priory church he was
buried in 1170, Berkeley descending to his son and heir Maurice.
Berkeley had already given a surname to an earlier family
sprung from Roger, its Domesday tenant, whose descendants
seem to have been ousted by the partisan of the Angevin. But
if there had been a feud between the families it was ended by a
double alliance, a covenant having been made at Bristol about
November 1153 in the presence of Henry, duke of Normandy,
whereby Maurice, son of Robert fitz Harding, was to marry the
daughter of Roger of Berkeley, Roger's own son Roger marrying
the daughter of Robert. In his certificate of 1166 Robert tells
the king that, although he owes the service of five knights for
Berkeley, Roger of Berkeley still holds certain lands of the
honour for which he does no service to Robert. This elder line
of Berkeley survived for more than two centuries on their lands
of Dursley and Cubberley, but after his father's death Maurice,
son of Robert, is styled Maurice of Berkeley. Robert of Berkeley,
the eldest son of Maurice, paid in 1190 the vast sum of 1000
for livery of his great inheritance, but, rising with the rebellious
77 8
BERKELEY FAMILY
barons against King John, his castle was taken into the king's
hands. Seizin, however, was granted in 1220 to Thomas his
brother and heir, but the estate was again forfeit in the next
generation for a new defection, although the wind of the royal
displeasure was tempered by the fact that Isabel de Creoun,
wife of Maurice, lord of Berkeley, was the king's near kins-
woman. Thomas, son of Maurice, was allowed to succeed his
father in the lands, and, having a writ of summons to parlia-
ment in 1295, he is reckoned the first hereditary baron of the
line.
Even in the age of chivalry the lords of Berkeley were notable
warriors. Thomas, who as a lad had ridden on the barons'
side at Evesham, followed the king's wars for half a century of
his long life, flying his banner at Falkirk and at Bannockburn,
in which fight he was taken by the Scots. His seal of arms is
among those attached to the famous letter of remonstrance
addressed by the barons of England to Pope Boniface VIII.
Maurice, his son, joined the confederation against the two
Despensers, and lay in prison at Wallingford until his death in
1326, the queen's party gaining the upper hand too late to release
him. But as the queen passed by Berkeley on her way to seize
Bristol, she gave back the castle, which had been kept by the
younger Despenser, to Thomas, the prisoner's heir, who, with
Sir John Mautravers, soon received in his hold the deposed king
brought thither secretly. The chroniclers agree that Thomas
of Berkeley had no part in the murder of the king, whom he
treated kindly. It was when Thomas was away from the castle that
Mautravers and Gournay made an end of their charge. Through
the providence of this Thomas the Berkeley estates were saved
to the male line of his house, a fine levied in the twenty-third
year of Edward III. so settling them. Thomas of Berkeley
fought at Crecy and Calais, bringing six knights and thirty-two
squires to the siege in his train, with thirty mounted archers
and two hundred men on foot. His son and heir-apparent,
Maurice of Berkeley, was the hero of a misadventure recorded
by Froissart, who tells how a young English knight, displaying
his banner for the first time on the day of Poitiers, rode after
a flying Picard squire, by whom he was grievously wounded
and held to ransom. Froissart errs in describing this knight
as Thomas, lord of Berkeley, for the covenant made in 1360
for the release of Maurice is still among the Berkeley muniments,
the ransom being stated at 1080.
Being by his mother a nephew of Roger Mortimer, earl of
March, the paramour of Queen Isabel, Maurice Berkeley married
Elizabeth, daughter of Hugh Despenser, the younger of
Edward II. 's favourites and the intruder in Berkeley Castle.
With his son and heir Thomas of Berkeley, one of the com-
missioners of parliament for the deposing of Richard II. and
a warden of the Welsh marches who harried Owen of Glendower,
the direct male line of Robert fitz Harding failed, and but for
the settlement of the estates Berkeley would have passed from
the family. On this Thomas's death in 1417 Elizabeth, his
daughter and heir, and her husband, Richard Beauchamp,
earl of Warwick, the famous traveller, statesman and jouster,
seized Berkeley Castle. Earl and countess only withdrew after
James Berkeley, the nephew and heir male, had livery of his
lands by the purchased aid of Humphrey of Gloucester. But
the Beauchamps returned more than once to vain attacks on
the stout walls of Berkeley, and a quarrel of two generations
ended with the pitched battle of Nibley Green. Fought between
the retainers of William, Lord Berkeley, son of James, and
those who followed Thomas Talbot, Viscount Lisle, grandson
of the illustrious Talbot and great-grandson of the countess of
Warwick, this was the last private battle on English ground
between two feudal lords. Young Lisle was shot under the
beaver by an arrow, and the feud ended with his death, all
claims of his widow being settled with an annuity of 100. Bitter
as was the long quarrel, it kept the Berkeleys from casting their
interest into the Wars of the Roses, in which most of their
fellows of the ancient baronage sank and disappeared.
The victorious Lord Berkeley, whose children died young, was
on ill terms with his next brother, and made havoc of the great
Berkeley estates by grants to the Crown and the royal house,
for which he was rewarded with certain empty titles. Edward
IV. gave him a viscount's patent in 1481, and Richard III.
created him earl of Nottingham in 1483. His complacence
extending to the new dynasty, Henry VII, made him earl marshal
in 1485 and marquess of Berkeley in 1487. For this last patent
he, by a settlement following a recovery suffered, gave the king
and his heirs male Berkeley Castle and all that remained to him
of his ancestors' lands, enjoying for his two remaining years a
bare life interest. At his death in 1491 the king took possession,
bringing his queen with him on a visit to Berkeley.
Here follows a curious chapter of the history of the Berkeley
peerage. When Thomas, Lord Berkeley, died in 1417, it might
have been presumed that his dignity would descend to his heir,
the countess of Warwick. Nevertheless, his nephew and heir
male was summoned as a baron from 1421, apparently by reason
of his tenure of the castle and its lands. When the marquess of
Berkeley was dead without surviving issue, the castle having
passed to the crown, Maurice, the brother and heir, had no
summons. Yet this Maurice's son, another Maurice, had a
summons as a baron, although not " with the room in the
parliament chamber that the lords of Berkeley had of old time."
The old precedence was restored when Thomas, brother and heir
of this baron, was summoned. This Thomas, who had a com-
mand at Flodden, held his ancestors' castle as constable for
the king. A final remainder under the marquess's settlement
brought back castle and lands on the failure in 1553 of the heirs
male of the body of Henry VII., and Henry, Lord Berkeley, had
special livery of them in his minority. Yet although seized of
the castle he took a lower seat in the parliament house than did
his grandfather who was not so seized, being given place after
Abergavenny, Audley and Strange.
By these things we may see that peerage law in old time
rested upon the pleasure of the sovereign and upon no ascertained
and unvarying custom. Of the power behind that pleasure this
Henry. Lord Berkeley, had one sharp reminder. He was, like
most of his line, a keen sportsman, and, returning to Berkeley
to find that a royal visit had made great slaughter among his
deer, he showed his resentment by disparking Berkeley Park.
Thereat Queen Elizabeth sent him a warning in round Tudor
fashion. Let him beware, she wrote, for the earl of Leicester
coveted the castle by the Severn.
At the Restoration, George, Lord Berkeley, who had been one
of the commissioners to invite Charles II. 's return from the
Hague, petitioned for a higher place in parliament, claiming a
barony by right of tenure before 1295, but his claim was silenced
by his advancement on September n, 1679, to be viscount of
Dursley and earl of Berkeley. James, the 3rd earl, an active
sea captain who was all but lost in company with Sir Cloudesley
Shovel, became knight of the Garter and lord high admiral and
commander-in-chief in the Channel, he and his house being loyal
supporters of the Hanoverian dynasty.
The last and most curious chapter of the history of the Berkeley
honours was opened by Frederick Augustus, the sth earl of
Berkeley (1745-1810). This peer married at Lambeth, on the
i6th of May 1796, one Mary Cole, the daughter of a small
tradesman at Wotton-under-Edge, with whom he had already
lived for several years, several children having been born to them.
In order to legitimatize the issue born before the marriage, the
earl in 1801 made declaration of an earlier marriage contracted
privately at Berkeley in 1785. On his death in 1811 the validity
of this alleged marriage was tested by the committee of privileges
of the House of Lords, and it was shown without doubt that the
evidence for it, a parish register entry, was a forgery.
Under the will of his father, Colonel William Berkeley, the
eldest illegitimate son, had the castle and estates, and on the
failure of his claim to the earldom he demanded a writ of summons
as a baron by reason of his tenure of the castle. No judgment
was given in the matter, the king in council having declared in
1669 that baronies by tenure were " not in being and so not fit
to be revived." But Colonel Berkeley's political influence
afterwards procured him (1831) a peerage as Lord Segrave of
BERKELEY, BISHOP
779
Berkeley, and ten years later an earldom with the title of Fitz-
hardinge. He died without issue in 1857. His brother, Sir
Maurice Fitzhardinge Berkeley, who succeeded to Berkeley
under the terms of the 5th earl's will, revived the claims, and
was likewise given a new barony (1861) as Lord Fitzhardinge,
a title in which he was succeeded by two of his sons, the 3rd
baron (b. 1830) being in 1909 owner of the Berkeley and Cranford
estates. The earldom of Berkeley was never assumed by the
eldest legitimate son of the sth earl, and was in 1009 enjoyed by
Randal Thomas Mowbray Berkeley, 8th earl, grandson of admiral
Sir George Cranfield Berkeley, second son of the 4th earl. In
1 893 Mrs Milman (d. 1 899) , daughter and heir of Thomas Moreton
Fitzhardinge Berkeley, 6th earl de jure, was declared by letters
patent under the great seal to have succeeded to the ancient
barony of Berkeley created by the writ of 1421; and she was
succeeded by her daughter.
Many branches have been thrown out by this family during
its many centuries of existence. Of these the most important
descended from Maurice of Berkeley, the baron who died in
Wallingford hold in 1326. His second son Maurice was ancestor
of the Berkeleys of Stoke Giffard, whose descendant, Norborne
Berkeley, claimed the barony of Botetourt and had a summons
in 1764, dying without issue in. 1770. Sir Maurice Berkeley of
Bruton, a cadet of Stoke Giffard, was forefather of the Viscounts
Fitzhardinge, the Lords Berkeley of Stratton (1658-1773) and
the earls of Falmouth, all extinct, the Berkeleys of Stratton
bequeathing their great London estate, including Berkeley
Square and Stratton Street, to the main line. Edward Berkeley
of Pylle in Somerset, head of a cadet line of the Bruton family,
married Philippa Speke, whose mother was Joan, daughter of
Sir John Portman of Orchard Portman, baronet. His grandson
William, on succeeding to the Orchard Portman and Bryanston
estates, took the additional name of Portman, and from him
come the Viscounts Portman of Bryanston (1873). From James,
Lord Berkeley, who died in 1463, descended Rowland Berkeley,
a clothier of Worcester, who bought the estates of Spetchley.
Rowland's second son, Sir Robert Berkeley, the king's bench
justice who supported the imposition of ship-money, was ancestor
of the Berkeleys of Spetchley, now the only branch of the house
among untitled squires.
See John Smyth's Lives of the Berkeleys, compiled c. 1618, edited
by Sir John Maclean (1883-1885); J. H. Round's introduction
to the Somerset Domesday, V.C.H. series; G. E. C(okayne)'s
Complete Peerage; Jeayes's Descriptive Catalogue of the Charters
and Muniments at Berkeley Castle (1892); Dictionary of National
Biography; Transactions of Bristol and Gloucestershire Archaeological
Society, 3 vols., viii., xlv., et passim; The Red Book of the Exchequer,
Chronicles of Roger of Wendover, Matthew Paris, Adam of Muri-
muth, Robert of Gloucester, Henry of Huntingdon, &c. (Rolls
Series); British Museum Charters, &c. (O. BA.)
BERKELEY, GEORGE (1685-1753), Irish bishop and philo-
sopher, the eldest son of William Berkeley (an officer of customs
who had, it seems, come to Ireland in the suite of Lord Berkeley
of Stratton, lord lieutenant, 1670-1672, to whom he was related),
was born on the I2th of March 1685, in a cottage near Dysert
Castle, Thomastown, Ireland. He passed from the school at
Kilkenny to Trinity College, Dublin (1700), where, owing to the
peculiar subtlety of his mind and his determination to accept no
doctrine on the evidence of authority or convention, he left the
beaten track of study and was regarded by some as a dunce, by
others as a genius. During his career at Dublin the works of
Descartes and Newton were superseding the older text-books,
and the doctrines of Locke's Essay were eagerly discussed. Thus
he " entered on an atmosphere which was beginning to be
charged with the elements of reaction against traditional
scholasticism in physics and in metaphysics " (A. C. Fraser).
He became a fellow in 1707. His interest in philosophy led him
to take a prominent share in the foundation of a society for
discussing the new doctrines, and is further shown by his Common
Place Book, one of the most valuable autobiographical records
in existence, which throws much light on the growth of his ideas,
and enables us to understand the significance of his early writings.
We find here the consciousness of creative thought focused in a
new principle which is to revolutionize speculative science.
There is no sign of any intimate knowledge of ancient or scholastic
thought; to the doctrines of Spinoza, Leibnitz, Malebranche,
Norris, the attitude is one of indifference or lack of appreciation,
but the influence of Descartes and specially of Locke is evident
throughout. The new principle (nowhere in the Common Place
Book explicitly stated) may be expressed in the proposition that
no existence is conceivable and therefore possible which is
not either conscious spirit or the ideas (i.e. objects) of which such
spirit is conscious. In the language of a later period this principle
may be expressed as the absolute synthesis of subject and object;
no object exists apart from Mind. Mind is, therefore, prior both
in thought and in existence, if for the moment we assume the
popular distinction. Berkeley thus diverted philosophy from its
beaten track of discussion as to the meaning of matter, substance,
cause, and preferred to ask first whether these have any signifi-
cance apart from the conscious spirit. In the pursuit of this
inquiry he rashly invaded other departments of science, and
much of the Common Place Book is occupied with a polemic, as
vigorous as it is ignorant, against the fundamental conceptions
of the infinitesimal calculus.
In 1707 Berkeley published two short mathematical tracts;
in 1709, in his New Tlieory of Vision, he applied his new prin-
ciple for the first time, and in the following year stated it fully
in the Principles of Human Knowledge. In these works he
attacked the existing theories of externality which to the un-
philosophical mind is proved by visual evidence. He maintained
that visual consciousness is merely a system of arbitrary signs
which symbolize for us certain actual or possible tactual experi-
ence in other words a purely conventional language.
The contents of the visual and the tactual consciousness
have no element in common. The visible and visual signs are
definitely connected with tactual experiences, and the associa-
tion between them, which has grown up in our minds through
custom or habit, rests upon, or is guaranteed by, the constant
conjunction of the two by the will of the Universal Mind. But
this synthesis is not brought forward prominently by Berkeley.
It was evident that a similar analysis might have been applied
to tactual consciousness which does not give externality in its
deepest significance any more than the visual; but with de-
liberate purpose Berkeley at first drew out only one side of his
argument. In the Principles of Human Knowledge, externality
in its ultimate sense as independence of all mind is considered.
Matter, as an abstract, unperceived substance or cause, is shown
to be impossible, an unreal conception; true substance is
affirmed to be conscious spirit, true causality the free activity of
such a spirit, while physical substantiality and causality are
held to be merely arbitrary, though constant, relations among
phenomena connected subjectively by suggestion or association,
objectively in the Universal Mind. In ultimate analysis, then,
nature is conscious experience, and forms the sign or symbol
of a divine, universal intelligence and will.
In 1711 Berkeley delivered his Discourse on Passive Obedience,
in which he deduces moral rules from the intention of God to
promote the general happiness, thus working out a theological
utilitarianism, which may be compared with the later exposi-
tions of Austin and J. S. Mill. From 1707 he had been engaged
as college tutor; in 1712 he paid a short visit to England, and
in April 1713 he was presented by Swift at court. His abilities,
his courtesy and his upright character made him a universal
favourite. While in London he published his Dialogues (1713).
a more popular exposition of his new theory; for exquisite
facility of style these are among the finest philosophical writings
in the English language. In November he became chaplain to
Lord Peterborough, whom he accompanied on the continent,
returning in August 1714. He travelled again in 1715-1720 as
tutor to the only son of Dr St George Ashe (?i6s8-i7i8, bishop
successively of Cloyne, Clogher and Derry) . In 1 7 2 1 , during the
disturbed state of social relations consequent on the bursting of
the South Sea bubble, he published an Essay towards preventing
the Ruin of Great Britain, which shows the intense interest he
took in practical affairs. In the same year he returned to
Ireland as chaplain to the duke of Grafton.. and was made
780
BERKELEY, BISHOP
divinity lecturer and university preacher. In 1722 he was
appointed to the deanery of Dromore, a post which seems to
have entailed no duties, as we find him holding the offices of
Hebrew lecturer and senior proctor at the university. The
following year Miss Vanhomrigh, Swift's Vanessa, left him half
her property. It would appear that he had only met her once
at dinner. In 1724 he was nominated to the rich deanery of
Derry, but had hardly been appointed before he was using every
effort to resign it in order to devote himself to his scheme of
founding a college in the Bermudas, and extending its benefits
to the Americans. With infinite exertion he succeeded in obtain-
ing from government a promise of 20,000, and after four years
spent in preparation, sailed hi September 1728, accompanied
by some friends and by his wife, daughter of Judge Forster, whom
he had married in the preceding month. Three years of quiet
retirement and study were spent in Rhode Island, but it gradu-
ally became apparent that government would never hand over
the promised grant, and Berkeley was compelled to give up his
cherished plan. Soon after his return he published the fruits of
his studies hi Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher (1733), a finely
written work in the form of dialogue, critically examining the
various forms of free-thinking in the age, and bringing forward
in antithesis to them his own theory, which shows all nature to
be the language of God. In 1734 he was raised to the bishopric
of Cloyne. The same year, in his A nalyst, he attacked the higher
mathematics as leading to freethinking; this involved him in
a hot controversy. The Querist, a practical work in the form
of questions on what would now be called social or economical
philosophy, appeared in three parts, 1735, 1736, 1737. In 1744
was published the Siris, partly occasioned by the controversy
as to the efficacy of tar-water in cases of small-pox, but rising
far above the circumstance from which it took its rise, and
revealing hidden depths in the Berkeleian metaphysics. In
1751 his eldest son died, and in 1752 he removed with his family
to Oxford for the sake of his son George, who was studying
there. He died suddenly in the midst of his family on the
I4th of January 1753, and was buried in Christ Church, Oxford.
In the philosophies of Descartes and Locke a large share of atten-
tion had been directed to the idea of matter, which was held to be
the abstract, unperceived background of real experience, and was
supposed to give rise to our ideas of external things through its
action on the sentient mind. Knowledge being limited to the ideas
produced could never extend to the unperceived matter, or substance,
or cause which produced them, and it became a problem for specu-
lative science to determine the grounds for the very belief in its
existence. Philosophy seemed about to end in scepticism or in
materialism. Now Berkeley put this whole problem in a new light
by pointing out a preliminary question. Before we deduce results
from such abstract ideas as cause, substance, matter, we must ask
what in reality do these mean what is the actual content of con-
sciousness which corresponds to these words? Do not all these
ideas, when held to represent something which exists absolutely
apart from all knowledge of it, involve a contradiction? In putting
this question, not less than in answering it, consists Berkeley's
originality as a philosopher. The essence of the answer is that the
universe is inconceivable apart from mind that existence, as such,
denotes conscious spirits and the objects of consciousness. Matter
and external things, in so far as they are thought to have an exist-
ence beyond the circle of consciousness, are impossible, inconceiv-
able. External things are things known to us in immediate per-
ception. To this conclusion Berkeley seems, in the first place, to
have been led by the train of reflection that naturally conducts to
subjective or egoistic idealism. It is impossible to overstep the
limits of self-consciousness; whatever words I use, whatever
notions I have, must refer to and find their meaning in facts of con-
sciousness. But this is by no means_the whole or even the principal
part of Berkeley's philosophy; it is essentially a theory of causality,
and this is brought out gradually under the pressure of difficulties
in the first solution of the early problem. To merely -subjective
idealism, sense percepts differ from ideas of imagination in degree,
not in kind ; 'both belong to the individual riiind. To Berkeley,
however, the difference is fundamental; sense- ideas are not due to,
our own activity; they must therefore be -produced by some other
will by the divine intelligence. Sense experience is thus the con-
stant action upon our minds of supreme active intellect, and is not
the consequence of dead inert matter. It might appear, therefore,
that sensible things had an objective existence in the mind of* God;
that an idea so soon as it passes out of our consciousness passes into
that of God. This is an interpretation, frequently and not without
some justice, put upon Berkeley's own expression. But it is not a
satisfactory account of his theory. Berkeley is compelled to see that
an immediate perception is not a thing, and that what we consider
permanent or substantial is not a sensation but a group of qualities,
which in ultimate analysis means sensations either immediately felt
or such as our experience has taught us would be felt in conjunction
with these. Our belief in the reality of a thing may therefore be said
to mean assurance that this association in our minds between actual
and possible sensations is somehow guaranteed. Further, Berkeley's
own theory would never permit him to speak of possible sensations,
meaning by that the ideas of sensations called up to our minds by
present experience. He could never have held that these afforded
any explanation of the permanent existence of real objects. His
theory is quite distinct from this, which really amounts to nothing
more than subjective idealism. External things are produced by
the will of the divine intelligence ; they are caused, and caused in a
regular order; there exists in the divine mind archetypes, of which
sense experience may be said to be the realization in our finite minds.
Our belief in the permanence of something which corresponds to the
association in our minds of actual and possible sensations means
belief in the orderliness of nature ; and that is merely assurance that
the universe is pervaded and regulated by mind. Physical science
is occupied in endeavouring to decipher the divine ideas which find
realization in our limited experience, in trying to interpret the divine
language of which natural things are the words and letters, and in
striving to bring human conceptions into harmony with the divine
thoughts. Instead, therefore, of fate or necessity, or matter, or the
unknown, a living, active mind is looked upon as the centre and
spring of the universe, and this is the essence of the Berkeleian
metaphysics.
The deeper aspects of Berkeley's new thought have been almost
universally neglected or misunderstood. Of his spiritual empiri-
cism one side only has been accepted by later thinkers, and looked
upon as the whole. The subjective mechanism of association which
with Berkeley is but part of the true explanation, and is dependent
on the objective realization in the divine mind, has been received
as in itself a satisfactory theory. Sunt Cogitationes has been regarded
by thinkers who profess themselves Berkeleians as the one
proposition warranted by consciousness; the empiricism 'of his philo-
sophy has been eagerly welcomed, while the spiritual intuition,
without which the whole is to Berkeley meaningless, has been cast
aside. For this he is himself in no small measure to blame. The
deeper spiritual intuition, present from the first, was only brought
into clear relief in order to meet difficulties in the earlier statements,
and the extension of the intuition itself beyond the limits of our
own consciousness, which completely removes his position from
mere subjectivism, rests on foundations uncritically assumed, and
at first sight irreconcilable with certain positions of his system.
The necessity and universality of the judgments of causality and
substantiality are taken for granted; and there is no investigation
of the place held by these notions in the mental constitution. The
relation between the divine mind and finite intelligence, at first
thought as that of agent and recipient, is complicated and obscure
when the necessity for explaining the. permanence of real things
comes forward. . The divine archetypes, according to which sensible
experience is regulated and in- which it finds its real objectivity, are
different in kind from mere sense ideas, and the question then arises
whether in these we have not again the " things as they are," which
Berkeley at first so contemptuously dismissed. He leaves it un-
determined whether or not pur knowledge of sense things, which is
never entirely presentative, involves some reference to this objective
course of nature or thought; of the divine mind. And if so, what
is the nature of the notions necessarily implied in the simplest know-
ledge of a thing, as distinct from mere sense feeling? That in know-
ing objects certain thoughts 'are implied which are not presentations
or their copies' is at times dimly seen by Berkeley himself; but he
was content to propound a question with regard to those notions,
and to look upon them as merely Locke's ideas of relation. Such
ideas of relation are in truth the stumbling-block in Locke's philo-
sophy, and Berkeley's empiricism is equally far from accounting for
them.
With all these defects, however, Berkeley's new conception marks
a distinct stage of progress in human thought. His true place in
the history of speculation may be seen from the simple observation
that the difficulties or obscurities in his scheme are really the points
on which later philosophy has turned. He once for all lifted the
problem of metaphysics to a higher level, and, in conjunction with
his successor, Hume, determined the form into which later meta-
physical questions have been thrown.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The standard edition of Berkeley's works is that
of A. Campbell Fraser in 4 vols. (i.-iii. Works; iv. Life, Letters and
Dissertation) published by the Clarendon Press (1871); this edition,
revised throughout and largely re-written, was re-published by the
same author (1901). Another complete edition edited by G. Sampson,
with a biographical sketch by A. J. Balfour, and a useful biblio-
graphical summary, appeared in 1897-1898. Prof. Fraser also pub-
fished an excellent volume of selections (sth ed., 1899), and a
short general account in a volume on Berkeley in the Blackwood
Philos. Class. For Berkeley's theory of vision see manuals of
psychology (e.g. G. F. Stout, Wm. James) ; for his ethical views
H. Sidgwick, Hist, of Ethics (5th ed., 1902); A. Bain, Mental and
BERKELEY, M. J. BERKELEY
781
Moral Science (1872). See also Sir L. Stephen, English Thought in
the i8th Century (3rd ed., 1902); J. S. Mill's Dissertations,
vols. ii. and iv. ; T. Huxley, Critiques and Addresses, pp. 320 sea.;
G. S. Fullerton, System of Metaphysics (New York, 1904); John
Watson, Outline oj Philos. (New York, 1898); I. McCosh, Locke's
Theory of Knowledge (1884); T. Lorenz, Ein Beitrag zur Lebens-
geschichte G. Berkeley! (1900) and Weitere Beitrage z. Leb. G. B.'i
(1901) ; histories of modern philosophy generally.
(R. AD.; J. M. M.)
BERKELEY, MILES JOSEPH (1803-1889), English botanist,
was born on the ist of April 1803, at Biggin Hall, Northampton-
shire, and educated at Rugby and Christ's College, Cambridge,
of which he became an honorary fellow. Taking holy orders, he
became incumbent of Apethorpe in 1837, and vicar of Sibber-
toft, near Market Harborough, in 1868. He acquired an
enthusiastic love of cryptogamic botany in his early years, and
soon was recognized as the leading British authority on fungi
and plant pathology. He was especially famous as a systematist
in mycology, some 6000 species of fungi being credited to him,
but his Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany, published in 1857,
and his papers on " Vegetable Pathology " in the Gardener's
Chronicle in 1854 and onwards, show that he had a very broad
grasp of the whole domain of physiology and morphology as
understood in those days. Moreover, it should be pointed out
that Berkeley began his work as a field "naturalist and collector,
his earliest objects of study having been the mollusca and other
branches of zoology, as testified by his papers in the Zoological
Journal and the Magazine of Natural History, between 1828
and 1836. As a microscopist he was an assiduous and accurate
worker, as is shown by his numerous drawings of the smaller
algae and fungi, and his admirable dissections of mosses and
hepaticae. His investigations on the potato murrain, caused by
Phytophthora infestans, on the grape mildew, to which he gave
the name Oidium Tuckeri, and on the pathogenic fungi of wheat
rust, hop mildew, and various diseases of cabbage, pears, coffee,
onions, tomatoes, &c., were important in results bearing on the
life-history of these pests, at a time when very little was known
of such matters, and must always be considered in any his-
torical account of the remarkable advances in the biology of
these organisms which were made between 1850 and 1880;
and when it is remembered that this work was done without
any of the modern appliances or training of a properly equipped
laboratory, the real significance of Berkeley's pioneer work
becomes apparent. It is as the founder of British mycology,
however, that his name will live in the history of botany, and
his most important work is contained in the account of native
British fungi in Sir W. Hooker's British Flora (1836), in his
Introduction to Cryplogamic Botany (1857), and in his Outlines
of British Fungology (1860). His magnificent herbarium at
Kew, which contains over 9000 specimens, and is enriched by
numerous notes and sketches, forms one of the most important
type series in the world. Berkeley died at Sibbertoft on the
3oth of July 1889. He was a man of refined and courteous
bearing, an accomplished classical student, with the simple
and modest habits that befit a man of true learning.
A list of his publications will be found in the Catalogue of Scien-
tific Papers of the Royal Society, and sketches of his life in Proc.
Roy. Soc., 1890, 47, 9, by Sir Joseph Hooker, and Annals of Botany,
1897, II, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer. (H. M. W.)
BERKELEY, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1608-1677), British colonial
governor in America, was born in or near London, England,
about 1608, the youngest son of Sir Maurice Berkeley, an original
member of the London Company of 1606, and brother of John,
first Lord Berkeley of Stratton, one of the proprietors of the
Carolinas. He graduated at Oxford in 1629, and in 1632 was
appointed one of the royal commissioners for Canada, in which
office he won the personal favour of Charles L, who appointed
him a gentleman of the privy chamber. During this period he
tried his hand at literary work, producing among other things
a tragi-comedy entitled The Lost Lady (1638). In August 1641
he was appointed governor of Virginia, but did not take up his
duties until the following year. His first term as governor,
during which he seems to have been extremely popular with
the majority of the colonists, was notable principally for his
religious intolerance and his erpulson of the Puritans, who
were in a great minority. During the Civil War in England
he remained loyal to the king, and offered an asylum in Virginia
to Charles II. and the loyalists. On the arrival of a parliamen-
tary fleet in 1652, however, he retired from office and spent the
following years quietly on his plantation. On the death, in
1660, of Samuel Matthews, the last parliamentary governor,
he was chosen governor by the Virginia assembly, and was
soon recommissioned by Charles II. His natural arrogance
and tyranny seems to have increased with years, and the second
period of his governorship was a stormy one. Serious frontier
warfare with the Indians was followed (1676) by Bacon's Re-
bellion (see VIRGINIA), brought on by Berkeley's misrule, and
during its course all his worst traits became evident. His cruelty
and barbarity in punishing the rebels did not meet with the
approval of Charles II., who is said to have remarked that " the
old fool has put to death more people in that naked country
than I did here for the murder of my father." Berkeley was
called to England in 1677 ostensibly to report on the condition
of affairs in the colony, and a lieutenant-governor (Herbert
Jeffreys) was put in his place. Berkeley sailed in May, but died
soon after his arrival, at Twickenham, and was buried there on
the i3th of July 1677. In addition to the play mentioned
he wrote A Discourse and View of Virginia (London,
1663).
BERKELEY, a city of Alameda county, California, U.S.A.,
on the E. shore of San Francisco Bay, named after Bishop
Berkeley on account of his line " Westward the course of empire
takes its way." Pop. (1890) 5101; (1000) 13,214, of whom
3216 were foreign-bora; (1910) 40,434. It is served by
the Southern Pacific and the Santa Fe railway systems, both
transcontinental; and is connected by electric lines (and ferry)
with San Francisco, and by five electric lines with Oakland. Its
attractive situation and pleasant outlooks have made it a
favourite residential suburb of San Francisco, which lies at a
distance of 7 m. across the bay. Berkeley is the seat of the
California state university (see CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY 07),
opened in 1873; the inter-related Berkeley Bible Seminary
(1896, Disciples of Christ); Pacific Theological Seminary
(established in 1866 at Oakland, in 1901 at Berkeley, Con-
gregational); Seminary of the Pacific Coast Baptist Theo-
logical Union, and Unitarian Theological School all associated
with the University of California; and the state institution for
the deaf, dumb and blind. The site of Berkeley was a farming
region until its selection for the home of the university. Berke-
ley was incorporated as a town in 1878.
BERKELEY, a market town of Gloucestershire, England, near
the river Severn, in that portion of its valley known as the Vale
of Berkeley, on a branch from the Midland railway. Pop. (1901)
774. It is pleasantly situated on a gentle eminence, in a rich
pastoral vale to which it gives name, celebrated for its dairies,
producing the famous cheese known as " double Gloucester."
The town has a handsome church (Early English and Decorated) ,
a grammar school, and some trade in coal, timber, malt and
cheese. Berkeley was the birthplace of Dr Edward Jenner ( 1 749),
who is buried in the church. Berkeley Castle, on an eminence
south-east of the town, is one of the noblest baronial castles
existing in England, and one of the few inhabited. The Berkeley
Ship Canal connects Gloucester with docks at Sharpness, avoiding
the difficult navigation of the upper part of the Severn estuary.
The manor of Berkeley gives its name to the noble family of
Berkeley (q.v.). According to tradition, a nunnery to which the
manor belonged existed here before the Conquest, and Earl
Godwin, by bringing about its dissolution, obtained the manor.
All that is certainly known, however, is that in Domesday the
manor is assigned to one Roger, who took his surname from it.
His descendants seem to have been ousted from their possessions
during the i2th century by Robert fitz Harding, an Angevin
partisan, who already held the castle when, in 1153, Henry, duke
of Normandy (who became King Henry II. in the following year),
granted him the manor. Under an agreement made in the same
year, Maurice, son of Robert fitz Harding, married a daughter
782
BERKHAMPSTEAD BERKSHIRE
of Roger of Berkeley. Their descendants styled themselves of
Berkeley, and in 1200 the town was confirmed to Robert of
Berkeley with toll, soc, sac, &c., and a market on whatever
day of the week he chose to hold it. This charter was con-
firmed to Thomas, Lord Berkeley, in 1330, and in 1395-1396
Lord Berkeley received a grant of another fair on the vigil and
day of Holyrood. The descendants of the Berkeley family still
hold the manor and town. Berkeley Castle was the scene of the
death of Edward II. The king was at first entrusted to the care
of Lord Berkeley, who, being considered too lenient, was obliged
to give up his prisoner and castle to Sir John Mautravers and
Thomas Gournay. The town has no charter, but is mentioned
as a borough in 1284-1285. It was governed by a mayor and
twelve aldermen, but by 1864 their privileges had become merely
nominal, and the corporation was dissolved in 1885 under the
Municipal Corporations Act. Berkeley was formerly noted for
the manufacture of clothing, but the trade had decreased by
the i6th century, for Leland, writing about 1520, says " the
town of Berkeley is no great thing. ... It hath very much
occupied and yet somewhat doth clothing."
See John Fisher, History of Berkeley (1864).
BERKHAMPSTEAD (GREAT BERKHAMPSTEAD), a market
town in the Watford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire,
England, 28 m. N.W. from London by the London & North-
Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 5140. It lies
pleasantly in the narrow well-wooded valley of the Bulbourne,
and is close to the Grand Junction canal. The church of St
Peter, a large cruciform structure, exhibits all the Gothic styles,
and earlier fragments are traceable. There are several brasses
of interest. The poet William Cowper was born in the rectory
in 1731. The large grammar school is a foundation of 1541.
Straw-plaiting and the manufacture of small wooden wares are
the principal industries, and there are large chemical works. Of the
castle earthworks and fragments of walls remain. The name of
the town is Great Berkhampstead (or Berkhamsted) , in distinction
from Little Berkhampstead near Hatfield in this county.
Berkhampstead (Beorhhamstede, Berchehamstede) was un-
doubtedly of some importance in Saxon times since there were
fifty-two burgesses there at the time of the Conquest. In 1156
Henry II. granted the men and merchants of the town the same
laws and customs as they had in the time of Edward the Con-
fessor, and that they should be quit of toll throughout England,
Normandy, Aquitaine and Anjou. Berkhampstead rose to
importance with its castle, which is said to have been built by
Robert, count of Mortain, and when the castle fell into ruin after
1496 the town also began to decay. In 1618, however, the
burgesses received an incorporation charter; but after the civil
wars the corporate body began to fail through poverty, and in the
i8th century had ceased to exist. The burgesses returned two
members to parliament in 1320 and again in 1338 and 1341, but
were never represented again. Before the I3th century the
burgesses held a weekly market on Sunday and a yearly fair on
St James's day, but in 1218 Henry III. altered the market day
to Monday. Roofing tiles were manufactured in Berkhampstead
as early as the i3th century, and in Elizabeth's reign the making
of malt was the chief industry.
BERKSHIRE, THOMAS HOWARD, IST EARL or (1587-1669),
2nd son of Thomas Howard, ist earl of Suffolk and of Catherine,
daughter of Sir Henry Knevet, Kt, widow of Richard Rich,
was baptized on the 8th bf October 1587. He succeeded to his
mother's estate of Charlton in Wiltshire, was created K.B. in
1605, became master of the horse to Prince Charles, and was
created Lord Howard of Charlton and Viscount Andover in 1622,
K.G. in 1625, and earl of Berkshire in 1626. In 1634 he was
chosen high steward of the university of Oxford. He was a
commissioner for negotiating the treaty of Ripon in 1640, and
accompanied the king to York in 1642. While attempting to
execute the king's commission of array in Oxfordshire in August
he was taken prisoner by Hampden at Watlington and imprisoned
in the Tower, but after being censured by the Lords was liberated
in September. In 1643 he was made governor of the prince of
Wales, a post for which he was in no way fitted, and in which
he showed himself factious and obstructive. He accompanied
the prince to Scilly and to Jersey, but on the latter's departure
for France went to Holland. At the Restoration he was made a
privy councillor and received rewards. He died on the i6th of
July 1669, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. According
to Clarendon " his affection for the crown was good; his interest
and reputation less than anything but his understanding." He
married Elizabeth, daughter and co-heir of William, earl of
Exeter, by whom he had nine sons and four daughters. Of these
Charles succeeded him as 2nd earl of Berkshire; Thomas suc-
ceeded the latter: and Philip was ancestor of John, isth earl
of Suffolk and 8th earl of Berkshire, and so of the later earls of
Suffolk and Berkshire.
BERKSHIRE [abbreviated Berks, pronounced Barkshire], a
southern county of England, bounded N. by Oxfordshire and
Buckinghamshire, E. by Surrey, S. by Hampshire, W. by Wilt-
shire, and N.W. for a short distance by Gloucestershire. Its area
is 721-9 sq. m. Its entire northern boundary is formed by the
river Thames, in the basin of which practically the whole county
is included. In the north-west a narrow and broken line of hills,
pierced in the west by the Cole stream, which here forms the
county boundary, extends past Faringdon and culminates in a
height over 500 ft. at Cumnor Hurst, which, with Wytham Hill,
fills a deep northward bend of the Thames, and overlooks the
city of Oxford from the west. The range separates the Thames
valley from the Vale of White Horse which is traversed by the
small river Ock, and bounded on the south by a line of hills
known as the White Horse Hills or Berkshire Downs, richly
wooded along their base, and rising sharply to bare rounded
summits. In White Horse Hill on the western confines of the
county a height of 856 ft. is reached. The line of these hills is
continued north-eastward by the Chiltern Hills in Oxfordshire,
but a division between the two is made by the Thames in a
narrow valley or gap at Goring. Southward the Downs are
scored with deep narrow valleys, the chief of which are those of
the Lambourn and the Pang. The last stream runs eastward
directly to the Thames; but the Lambourn and others join the
Rennet, which drains a beautiful sylvan valley to the Thames at
Reading. Another line of downs closely confines the vale of
Kennet on the south from Newbury upwards, and although the
greater part of these does not fall within the county, their highest
point, Inkpen Beacon (ion ft.), does so. The Enborne stream,
rising here, and flowing parallel to the Kennet until turning
north to join it, is for a considerable distance the county
boundary. Between Reading and Windsor the Thames makes
a northward bend, past Henley and Marlow, in the form of three
sides of a square. Within the bend slight hills border the river,
but south of these, and in the Loddon valley south of Reading,
the county is low and flat. In the south-east of the county,
however, there is a high sandy plateau, forming part of Bagshot
Heath, over 400 ft! in elevation, and extending into Surrey.
Fir-woods are characteristic of this district, and northward
towards the Thames extends the royal park of Windsor, which
is magnificently timbered. The proportion to the total area of
the county which is under woods is, however, by no means so
great as in the adjacent counties of Surrey and Hampshire.
There is fine trout-fishing in the Kennet and some of its feeders.
Geology. The dominant feature of the county, the Chiltern
and White Horse Hills, owes its form to the Chalk, which spreads
from Ashbury and Hungerford on the west to Henley and
Maidenhead on the east. In the northern face of the escarpment
we find the Lower Chalk with a hard bed, the Totternhoe Stone;
on the southern slope lies the Chalk-with-Flints. At Kintbury
it is quarried for the manufacture of whiting. At the foot of the
Chalk escarpment is the Upper Greensand with a narrow crop
towards the west which is broken up into patches eastwards.
Looking northward from the Chalk hills, the low-lying ground
is occupied successively by the Gault Clay, the Kimmeridge Clay,
and finally by the Oxford Clay, which extends beyond the
Thames into Oxfordshire. This low-lying tract is relieved by an
elevated ridge of Corallian beds, between the Kimmeridge Clay
and the Gault. It extends from near Faringdon past Abingdon
BERKSHIRE
783
to Cumnor and Wytham Hill. At Faringdon there are some
interesting gravels of Lower Greensand age, full of the fossil
remains of sponges. South of the Chalk, the county is occupied
by Eocene rocks, mottled clays, well exposed in the brickfields
about Reading, and hence called the Reading beds. At Finch-
ampstead, Sunninghill and Ascot, these deposits are overlaid
by the more sandy beds of the Bagshot series. Between the two
last named formations is a broad outcrop of London Clay.
Numerous outliers of Eocene rest on the Chalk beyond the main
line of boundary. The Chalk of Inkpen Beacon is brought up
to the south side of the Tertiary rocks by a synclinal fold;
similarly, an anticline has brought up the small patch of Chalk
in Windsor Park. Clay-with-Flints lies in patches and holes on
the chalk, and flint gravels occur high up on either side of the
Thames. Fairly thick beds of peat are found in the alluvium of
the Kennet at Newbury.
Industries. About seven-ninths of the total area is under
cultivation; a large proportion of this being in permanent
pasture, as much attention is paid to dairy-farming. Butter and
cheese are largely produced, and the making of condensed milk
is a branch of the industry. Many sheep are pastured on the
Downs, important sheep-markets being held at the small town
of East or Market Ilsley; and an excellent breed of pigs is
named after the county. The parts about Faringdon are specially
noted for them. Oats are the principal grain crop; although a
considerable acreage is under wheat. Turnips and swedes are
largely cultivated, and apples and cherries are grown. Besides
the royal castle of Windsor, fine county seats are especially
numerous.
The only manufacturing centre of first importance is Reading,
which is principally famous for its biscuit factories. The manu-
facture of clothing and carpets is carried on at Abingdon; but
a woollen industry introduced into the county as early as the
Tudor period is long extinct. Engineering works and paper mills
are established at various places; and boat-building is carried
on at Reading and other riverside stations. There are extensive
seed warehouses and testing grounds near Reading; and the
Kennet and Windsor ales are in high repute. Whiting is manu-
factured from chalk at Kintbury on the Kennet.
Communications. Communications are provided principally
by the Great Western railway, the main line of which crosses the
county from east to west by Maidenhead, Reading and Didcot.
A branch line serves the Kennet valley from Reading; and
the northern line of the company leaves the main line at Didcot,
a branch from it serving Abingdon. The Basingstoke branch
runs south from Reading, and lines serve Wallingford from
Cholsey, and Faringdon from Uffington. Communication with
the south of England is maintained by a joint line of the South
Western and South Eastern & Chatham companies terminating
at Reading, and there are branches of the Great Western and
South Western systems to Windsor. The Lambourn valley
light railway runs north-west to Lambourn from Newbury.
Wide water-communications are afforded by the Thames, and
the Kennet is in part canalized, to form the eastern portion of
the Kennet and Avon canal system, connecting with the Bristol
Avon above Bath.
Population and Administration. The area of the ancient
county is 462,208 acres; with a population in 1891 of 239,138,
and in 1901 of 256,509. The area of the administrative county
is 462,367 acres. The county contains twenty hundreds. The
municipal boroughs are Abingdon (pop. 6480), Maidenhead
(12,980), Newbury (11,061), Reading, the county town and a
county borough (72,217), Wallingford (2808), Windsor or New
Windsor (14,130), Wokingham (3551). Wantage (3766) is an
urban district. Among lesser towns may be mentioned Faring-
don in the north-west (2900), Hungerford on the Kennet (2906),
and Lambourn in the valley of that name (2071), the villages
of Bray (2978), Cookham (3874) and Tilehurst (2545), which,
like others on the banks of the Thames, have grown into resi-
dential towns; and Sandhurst (2386). The county is in the
Oxford circuit, and assizes are held at Reading. It has one
court of quarter sessions, and is divided into twelve petty
sessional divisions. The boroughs of Abingdon, Newbury,
Maidenhead, Reading, Wallingford and Windsor have separate
commissions of the peace, and Abingdon, Newbury, Reading
and Windsor have separate courts of quarter sessions. There-
are 198 civil parishes. Berkshire forms an archdeaconry in
the diocese of Oxford; a small portion, however, falls within
the diocese of Salisbury. There arc 202 ecclesiastical parishes
or districts, wholly or in part within the county. There arc
three parliamentary divisions, Northern or Abingdon, Southern
or Newbury, and Eastern or Wokingham, each returning one
member; while the parliamentary borough of Reading returns
one member, and parts of the borough of Oxford and Windsor
are included in the county. There are several important edu-
cational establishments in the county. Radley College near
Abingdon, Wellington College near Sandhurst, and Bradfield
College, at the village of that name, 8 m. west of Reading, are
among the more important modern public schools for boys.
Bradfield College was founded in 1850, and is well known for
the realistic performances of classical Greek plays presented
by the scholars in an open theatre designed for the purpose.
Abingdon and Reading schools rank among the lesser public
schools. At Reading is a university extension college, and in
the south-east of the county is the Sandhurst Royal Military
College.
History. During the Heptarchy Berkshire formed part of
the kingdom of Wessex, and interesting relics of Saxon occupa-
tion have been discovered in various parts of the county. Of
these the most remarkable arc the burial grounds at Long
Wittenham and Frilford, and there is evidence that the Lam-
bourn valley was occupied in early Saxon times. The cinerary
urns found in Berkshire undoubtedly contain the ashes of the
Anglians who came south under Penda in the 7th century.
The fortification called Cherbury Castle, not far from Dench-
worth, is said to have been first made up by Canute.
At the time of the Norman invasion Berkshire formed part
of the^arldom of Harold, and supported him stanchly at the
battle of Hastings. This loyalty was punished by very sweep-
ing confiscations, and at the time of the Domesday survey no
estates of any importance were in the hands of Englishmen.
When Alfred divided the country into shires, this county re-
ceived the name of Berrocscir, as Asser says, " from the wood
of Berroc, where the box-tree grows most plentifully." ' At
the time of the survey it comprised twenty-two hundreds; at
the present day there are only twenty, of which eleven retain
their ancient names. Many parishes have been transferred
from one hundred to another, but the actual boundary of the
county is practically unchanged. Part of the parishes of Shilton
and Langford formed detached portions of the shire, until
included in Oxfordshire in the reign of William IV. Portions
of Combe and Shalbourne parishes have also been restored
to Hampshire and Wiltshire respectively, while the Wiltshire
portion of Hungerford has been transferred to Berkshire. The
county was originally included in the see of Winchester, but in
A.D. 909 it was removed to the newly-formed see of " Wiltshire,"
afterwards united with Sherborne. In 1075 the seat of the
bishopric was removed to Salisbury, and in 1836 by an order
in council Berkshire was transferred to the diocese of Oxford.
The archdeaconry is of very early origin and is co-extensive with
the county. Formerly it comprised four rural deaneries, but
the number has lately been increased to nine. Much of the early
history of the county is recorded in the Chronicles of the abbey
of Abingdon, which at the time of the survey was second only
to the crown in the extent and number of its possessions. The
abbot also exercised considerable judicial and administrative
powers, and his court was endowed with the privileges of the
hundred court and was freed from liability to interference by
the sheriff. Berkshire and Oxfordshire had a common sheriff
until the reign of Elizabeth, and the shire court was held at
Grauntpont. The assizes were formerly held at Reading,
* The derivation from Bibroci, a British tribe in the time of Caesar,
which probably inhabited Surrey or Middlesex, seems philologically
impossible.
7 8 4
BERLAD BERLICHINGEN
Abingdon and Newbury, but are now held entirely at
Reading.
At the time of the Domesday survey the chief lay-proprietor
was Henry de Ferrers, ancestor of the earls of Derby, but it is re-
markable that none of the great Berkshire estates has remained
with the same family long. Thomas Fuller quaintly observes
that " the lands of Berkshire are very skittish and apt to cast
their owners." The De la Poles succeeded to large estates by
a marriage with the heiress of Thomas Chaucer, son of the poet,
but the family became extinct in the male line, and the estates
were alienated. The same fate befell the estates of the Achards,
the Fitzwarrens and later the families of Norris and Befils.
The natural advantages of this county have always encouraged
agricultural rather than commercial pursuits. The soil is
especially adapted for sheep-farming, and numerous documents
testify to the importance and prosperity of the wool-trade in
the 1 2th century. At first this trade was confined to the export
of the raw material, but the reign of Edward III. saw the intro-
duction of the clothing industry, for which the county afterwards
became famous. This trade began to decline in the 1 7th century,
and in 1641 the Berkshire clothiers complained of the deadness
of their trade and the difficulty of getting ready money, attri-
buting the same to delay in the execution of justice. The malt-
ing industry and the timber trade also flourished in the county
until the igth century. Agriculturally considered, the Vale of
the White Horse is especially productive, and Camden speaks
of the great crops of barley grown in the district.
Owing to its proximity to London, Berkshire has from early
times been the scene of frequent military operations. The
earliest recorded historical fact relating to the county is the
occupation of the district between Wallingford and Ashbury
by Offa in 758. In the gth and toth centuries the county was
greatly impoverished by the ravages of the Danes, and in 871
the invaders were defeated by ^thelwulf at Englefield and again
at Reading. During the disorders of Stephen's reign Walling-
ford was garrisoned for Matilda and was the scene of the final
treaty in 1153- Meetings took place between John and his
barons in 1213 at Wallingford and at Reading, and in 1216
Windsor was besieged by the barons. At the opening of the
civil war of the i7th century, the sheriff, on behalf of the in-
habitants of Berkshire, petitioned that the county might be put
in a posture of defence, and here the royalists had some of their
strongest garrisons. Reading endured a ten days' siege by the
parliamentary forces in 1643, and Wallingford did not surrender
until 1646. Newbury was the site of two battles in 1643 an d
1644.
In 1295, Berkshire returned two members to parliament for
the county and two for the borough of Reading. Later the
boroughs of Newbury, Wallingford, Windsor and Abingdon
secured representation, and from 1557 until the Reform Act of
1832 the county was represented by a total of ten members. By
this act Abingdon and Wallingford were each deprived of a
member, but the county returned three members instead of
two. Since the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885 the county
has returned three members for three divisions, and Windsor
and Reading return one member each, the remaining boroughs
having lost representation.
Antiquities. The remains of two great Benedictine monas-
teries at Abingdon and Reading are scanty. The ecclesiastical
architecture of the county is not remarkable, excepting a few
individual churches. Thus for Norman work the churches of
Shellingford and Cholsey may be noted, together with the very
small chapel, of early date, at Upton near Didcot. The church
of Blewbury in the same locality is in the main transitional
Norman, and retains some of its original vaulting. Of Early
English churches there are several good examples, notably at
Uffington, with its unusual angular-headed windows, Buckland
near Faringdon, and Wantage. The tower of St Helen's,
Abingdon, well illustrates this period. The cruciform church
of Shottesbrooke, with its central spire, is a beautiful and almost
unaltered Decorated building; and St George's chapel in
Windsor Castle is a superb specimen of Perpendicular work.
Apart from Windsor, Berkshire retains no remarkable medieval
castles or mansions.
AUTHORITIES. Chief of the older works are: Elias Ashmole,
Antiquities of Berkshire (3 vols., 1719, and ed., London, 1723; 3rd
ed., Reading, 1736); D. and S. Lysons, Magna Britannia, vol. i.
Other works are: Marshall, Topographical and Statistical Details
of the County of Berkshire (London, 1830); Earl of Carnarvon,
Archaeology of Berkshire (London, 1859); C. King, History of Berk-
shire (London, 1887); Lowsley, Glossary of Berkshire Words (London,
1888), and Index to Wills in the Court of the Archdeacon of Berkshire,
15 08-1652 (Oxford, 1893); Victoria County History, Berkshire.
See also The Berks Archaeological Society's Quarterly Journal, and
Berkshire Notes and Queries.
BERLAD, the capital of the department of Tutova, Rumania,
on the river Berlad, which waters the high plains of Eastern
Moldavia. Pop. (1900) 24,484, about one-fourth of whom are
Jews. At Berlad the railway from Jassy diverges, one branch
skirting the river Sereth, the other skirting the Pruth;' both
reunite at Galatz. Among a maze of narrow and winding streets
Berlad possesses a few good modern buildings, including a fine
hospital, administered by the St Spiridion Foundation of Jassy.
Berlad has manufactures of soap and candles, and some trade
in timber and farm-produce, while the annual horse-fairs are
visited by dealers from all parts of the country. In the vicinity
are traces of a Roman camp.
BERLICHINGEN, GOETZ or GOTTFRIED VON (1480-1562),
German knight, was born at the castle of Jagsthausen now in
Wiirttemberg. In 1497 he entered the service of Frederick IV.,
margrave of Brandenburg-Ansbach, and in 1498 fought for the
emperor Maximilian I. in Burgundy, Lorraine and Brabant, and
next year in Switzerland. About 1500 he raised a company of
freelances, and at their head took part in various private wars.
In 1505, whilst assisting Albert IV., duke of Bavaria, at the siege
of Landshut, his right hand was shot away, and an iron one was
substituted which is still shown at Jagsthausen. In spite of this
" Goetz with the iron hand " continued his feuds, their motive
being mainly booty and ransom. In 1512 an attack near
Forchheim on some merchants returning from the great fair at
Leipzig, caused him to be put under the ban of the empire by
Maximilian, and he was only released from this in 1514 upon a
promise to pay 14,000 gulden. In 1516 he made a raid into
Hesse and captured Philip IV., count of Waldeck, whom he
compelled to pay a ransom of 8400 gold gulden, and in 1518 was
again placed under the ban. He fought for Ulrich I., duke of
Wiirttemberg, when he was attacked by the Swabian League in
1519, and after a spirited resistance was compelled, through
want of ammunition and provisions, to surrender the town of
Mockmuhl. In violation of the terms of the capitulation he was
held prisoner, and handed over to the citizens of Heilbronn, but
owing to the efforts of Sickingen and Georg von Frundsberg was
released in 1522, upon paying 2000 gulden, and swearing not to
take vengeance on the League. When the Peasants' War broke
out in 1525 Goetz was compelled by the rebels of the Odenwald
district to act as their leader. He accepted the position, accord-
ing to his own account, partly because he had no choice, partly
in the hope of curbing the excesses of the insurgents; but,
finding himself in this respect powerless, after a month of nominal
leadership, he took the first opportunity of escaping to his castle.
For his part in the rebellion he was called to account before the
diet of Speier, and on the I7th of October 1526 was acquitted by
the imperial chamber. In spite of this the Swabian League
seized the opportunity of paying off old scores against him.
Lured to Augsburg, under promise of safe conduct, to clear
himself of the charges made against him on behalf of the League,
he was there treacherously seized on the 28th of November 1528,
and kept a close prisoner for two years. In 1 530 he was liberated
on repeating his oath of 1522, and undertaking not to leave the
neighbourhood of his castle of Hornberg on the Neckar. He
appears to have remained there quietly until 1540 when the
emperor Charles V. released him from his oath. In 1542 he
fought against the Turks in Hungary, and in 1544 accompanied
Charles when he invaded France. He returned to Hornberg,
where he passed his time until his death on the 23rd of July
1 562. He was twice married and left three daughters and seven
BERLIN, I. BERLIN
sons. The counts von Berlichingen-Rossach, of Helmstadt
near Heidelberg, one of the two surviving branches of the family,
are his descendants. The other branch, that of the Freiherrn von
Berlichingen-Jagsthausen, is descended from Goetz's brother
Hans. " Goetz von Berlichingen " is the title of Goethe's play,
which, published in 1773, marked an epoch in the history of
German drama (see GOETHE).
See R. Pallmann, Der historische Goetz von Berlichingen (Berlin,
1894); F. W. G. Graf yon Berlichingen-Rossach, Ceschichte des
Ritters Goetz von Berlichingen und seiner Familie (Leipzig, 1861).
Goetz's Autobiography, valuable as a record of his times, was first
published by Pistorius at Nuremberg (1731), and again at Halle
(1886).
BERLIN, ISAIAH (1725-1799), an eminent rabbi of Breslau;
he was the author of acute notes on the Talmud which had their
influence in advancing the critical study of that work.
BERLIN, the largest city of the German empire, the capital
of the kingdom of Prussia. It is the principal residence of the
German emperor and king of Prussia, the seat of the imperial
parliament (Reichstag) and the Prussian diet (Landtag) and of
the state offices of the empire, except of the supreme court of
justice (Reichsgericht), which is fixed at Leipzig. It lies in a flat,
sandy plain, no ft. above sea-level, on both banks of the navig-
able Spree, which intersects it from S.E. to N.W. The highest
elevation in the immediate neighbourhood is the Kreuzberg
(200 ft.), a hill in the southern suburb of Schoneberg,' which
commands a fine view of the city. The situation of Berlin,
midway between the Elbe and the Oder, with which rivers it
is connected by a web of waterways, at the crossing of the main
roads from Silesia and Poland to the North Sea ports and from
Saxony, Bohemia and Thuringia to the Baltic, made it in
medieval days a place of considerable commercial importance.
In modern times the great network of railways, of which it is
the centre and which mainly follow the lines of the old roads,
further established its position. Almost equidistant from the
remotest frontiers of Prussia, from north to south, and from
east to west, 180 m. from Hamburg and 84 from Stettin, its
situation, so far from being prejudicial to its growth and pros-
perity, as was formerly often asserted, has been, in fact, the
principal determining factor in its rapid rise to the position
of the greatest industrial and commercial city on the continent
of Europe. In point of wealth and population it ranks im-
mediately after London and Paris.
The boundaries of the city have not been essentially extended
since 1860, and though large and important suburbs have crept
up and practically merged with it, its administrative area
remains unchanged. It occupies about 29 sq. m., and has a
length from E. to W. of 6 and a breadth from N. to S. of 5^ m.,
contains nearly 1000 streets, has 87 squares and open spaces,
73 bridges and a population (1905) of 2,033,900 (including a
garrison of about 22,000). If, however, the outer police district,
known as " Greater Berlin," embracing an area of about 10 m.
radius from the centre, be included, the population amounts to
about 3^ millions.
Berlin is essentially a modern city, the quaint two-storied
houses, which formerly characterized it, having given place to
palatial business blocks, which somewhat dwarf the streets
and squares, which once had an air of stately spaciousness.
The bustle of the modern commercial city has superseded the
austere dignity of the old Prussian capital. Thus the stranger
entering it for the first time will find little to remind him of its
past history. The oldest part of Berlin, the city and Alt-K6lln,
built along the arms of the Spree, is, together with that portion
of the town lying immediately west, the centre of business
activity. The west end and the south-west are the residential
quarters, the north-west is largely occupied by academic,
scientific and military institutions, the north is the seat of
machinery works, the north-east of the woollen manufactures,
the east and south-east of the dyeing, furniture and metal in-
dustries, while in the south are great barracks and railway works.
In 1870 Berlin was practically bounded on the south by the
Landwehr Canal, but it has since extended far beyond, and
the Tempclhofer Feld, where military reviews are held, then
practically in the country, is now surrounded by a dense
belt of houses. The Landwehr Canal, leaving the Spree
near the Schlesische Tor (gate), and rejoining it at Chariot ten
burg, after a course of 6 m., adds not a little to the charm of
the southern and western districts, being flanked by fine boule-
vards and crossed by many handsome bridges. The object of
this canal was to relieve the congestion of the water traffic in
the heart of Berlin. It was superseded, however, in its turn by
a new broad and deep canal opened in 1906, lying from 3 to 4 m.
farther south. This, the Teltow Canal, leaves the Spree above
Berlin at Kopenick, and running south of RJxdorf, SUdende
and Gross-Lichterfelde, enters the Havel at Teltow. This
important engineering work was planned not only to afford a
more convenient waterway between the upper Spree and the
Havel (and thus to the Elbe), but was to remove from the city
to its banks and vicinity those factories of which the noxious
gases and other poisonous emanations were regarded as dan-
gerous to the health of the community. A dislocation of the
manufacturing factors has therefore been in progress, which
with the creation of a " trans Tiberim " (as in ancient Rome)
is, in many respects, altering the character and aspect of the
metropolis.
The effect upon Berlin of the successful issue of the Franco-
Prussian War of 1870-71 was electrical. The old Prussian
capital girded itself at once to fulfil its new r61e. The concen-
tration upon the city of a large garrison flushed with victory,
and eager to emulate the vanquished foe in works of peace,
and vie with them in luxury, was an incentive to Berliners to
put forth all their energy. Besides the military, a tremendous
immigration of civilian officials took place as the result of the
new conditions, and, as accommodation was not readily avail-
able, rents rose to an enormous figure. Doubts were often
expressed whether the capital would be able to bear the burden
of empire, so enormous was the influx of new citizens. It is due
to the magnificent services of the municipal council that the city
was enabled to assimilate the hosts of newcomers, and it is to
its indefatigable exertions that Berlin has in point of organiza-
tion become the model city of Europe. In no other has public
money been expended with such enlightened discretion, and
in no other has the municipal system kept pace with such rapid
growth and displayed greater resource in emergencies. In
1870 the sanitary conditions of Berlin were the worst of any
city of Europe. It needed a Virchow to open the eyes of the
municipality to the terrible waste of life such a state of things
entailed. But open sewers, public pumps, cobble-paved roads,
open market-places and overcrowded subterranean dwellings
are now abolished. The city is excellently drained, well-paved,
well-lighted and furnished with an abundant supply of filtered
water, while the cellar dwellings have given place to light and
airy tenements, and Berlin justly claims to rank among the
cleanest and healthiest capitals in Europe. The year 1878
marks a fresh starting-point in the development of the city.
In that year Berlin was the meeting-place of the congress which
bears its name. The recognition of Germany as a leading factor
in the world's counsels had been given, and the people of Berlin
could indulge in the task of embellishing the capital in a manner
befitting its position. From this time forward, state, municipal
and private enterprise have worked hand in hand to make the
capital cosmopolitan. The position it has at length attained
is due not alone to the enterprise of its citizens and the munici-
pality. The brilliancy of the court and the triumph of the
sense of unity in the German nation over the particularism of
the smaller German states have conduced more than all else
to bring about this result. It has become the chief pleasure town
of Germany; and though the standard of morality, owing
to the enormous influx of people bent on amusement, has become
lower, yet there is so much healthy, strenuous activity in in-
tellectual life and commercial rivalry as to entitle it, despite
many moral deficiencies, to be regarded as the centre of life
and learning in Germany. Dr A. Shadwell (Industrial Efficient \\
London, 1906) describes it as representing " the most complete
application of science, order and method of public life," adding
y86
BERLIN
" it is a marvel of civic administration, the most modern and
most perfectly organized city that there is."
Streets. The social and official life of the capital centres
round Unter den Linden, which runs from the royal palace to
the Brandenburger Tor. This street, one of the finest and
most spacious in Europe, nearly a mile in length, its double
avenue divided by a favourite promenade, planted with lime
trees, presents Berlin life in all its varying aspects. Many
historical events have taken place in this famous boulevard,
notably the entry of the troops in 1871, and the funeral pageant
of the emperor Willaim I. South of Unter den Linden lies the
Friedrichstadt, with its parallel lines of straight streets, includ-
ing the Behren-strasse (the seat of finance) the Wilhelm-
strasse, with the palace of the imperial chancellor, the British
embassy, and many government offices the official quarter of
the capital and the busy Leipziger-strasse, running from the
Potsdamer-platz to the Donhoff-platz. This great artery and
Unter den Linden are crossed at right angles by the Friedrich-
strasse, 2 m. long, flanked by attractive shops and restaur-
ants, among them the beer palaces of the great breweries. In
the city proper, the Konig-strasse and the Kaiser-Wilhelm-
strasse, the latter a continuation of Unter den Linden, are the
chief streets; while in the fashionable south-west quarter
Viktoria - strasse, Bellevue - strasse, Potsdamer - strasse and
Kurfiirsten-strasse and the Kurfiirstendamm are the most
imposing. Among the most important public squares are the
Opern-platz, around or near which stand the opera house, the
royal library, the university and the armoury; the -Gendarmen-
markt, with the royal theatre in its centre, the Schloss-platz;
the Lustgarten, between the north side of the royal palace, the
cathedral and the old and new museums; the Pariser-platz
with the French embassy, at the Brandenburg Gate; the
Konigs-platz, with the column of Victory, the Reichstagsgebaude
and the Bismarck and Moltke monuments; the Wilhelms-platz;
the circular Belle-AUiance-platz, with a column commemorating
the battle of Waterloo; and, in the western district, the spacious
Liitzow-platz.
Bridges. Of the numerous bridges, the most remarkable are
the Schloss-briicke, built after designs by Schinkel in 1822-1824,
with eight colossal figures of white marble, representing ideal
stages in a warrior's life, the work of Drake, Albert Wolff and
other eminent sculptors; the Kurfiirsten- or Lange-briicke ;
built 1692-1695, and restored in 1895, with an equestrian statue
of the great elector, and the Kaiser- Wilhelm-briicke (1886-1889)
connecting the Lustgarten with the Kaiser- Wilhelm-strasse in
the inner town. In the modern residential quarter are the
Potsdamer- Viktoria-briicke, which carries the traffic from two
converging streets into the outer Potsdamer-strasse, and the
Herkules-briicke connecting the Liitzow-platz with the Tier-
garten. The first three cross the Spree and the last two the
Landwehr Canal.
Churches. Berlin, until the last half of the igth century, was
in respect of its churches probably the poorest of the capitals
of Christendom, and the number of worshippers on an average
Sunday was then less than 2 % of the population. The city now
contains over a hundred places of worship, of which ten are
Roman Catholic, and nine Jewish synagogues. Of the older
Evangelical churches but four date from medieval days, and of
them only the Marien-kirche, with a tomb of Field marshal
O. C. von Sparr (1605-1665), and the Nikolai-kirche are particu-
larly noteworthy. Of a later date, though of no great pretensions
to architectural merit, are the Petri-kirche with a lofty spire,
the Franzosische-kirche and the Neue-kirche with dome-capped
towers, on the Gendarmen-markt, and the round, Roman Catholic
St Hedwigs - kirche behind the Opera-house. The Garrison
church in the centre of the city, which was erected in 1722 and
contained numerous historical trophies, was destroyed by fire
in 1908. Of modern erections the new cathedral (Dom), on the
Spree, which replaces the old building pulled down in 1893,
stands first. It is a clumsy, though somewhat imposing edifice
of sandstone in Italian Renaissance style, and has a dome rising,
with the lantern, to a height of 380 ft. The Kaiser-Wilhelm-
Gedachtnis-kirche (in the suburb Charlottenburg) with a lofty
spire, the Dankes-kirche (in commemoration of the emperor
William I.'s escape from the hand of the assassin, Nobiling, in
1878) in Wedding, and the Kaiser-Friedrich-Gedachtnis-kirche
on a grassy knoll in the north of the Tiergarten are also worthy
of notice. In the Monbijou Park, on the north bank of the Spree,
is the pretty English church of St George. The main Jewish
synagogue, a fine building in oriental style, erected in 1866,
stands in a commanding position in the Oranienburger-strasse
and is remarkable for its stained glass. Berlin was a walled city
until 1867-1868. Of the former nineteen city gates only one
remains, the Brandenburg Gate (1789-1793), an imitation of the
Propylaea at Athens. It is 201 ft. broad and nearly 65 ft. high,
and is supported by twelve Doric columns, each 44 ft. in height,
and surmounted by a car of victory (Auriga), which, taken by
Napoleon to Paris in 1807, was brought back by the Prussians
in 1814. The gate has been enlarged by two lateral colonnades,
each supported by sixteen columns.
Public Buildings. In secular buildings Berlin is very rich.
Entering the city at the Potsdam Gate, traversing a few hundred
yards of the Leipziger-strasse, turning into Wilhelm-strasse, and
following it to Unter den Linden, then beginning at the Branden-
burg Gate and proceeding down Unter den Linden to its end, one
passes, among other buildings, the following, many of them of
great architectural merit the admiralty, the ministry of
commerce, the ministry of war, the ministry of public works,
the palace of Prince Frederick Leopold, the palace of the imperial
chancellor, the foreign office, the ministry of justice, the
residences of the ministers of the interfor and of public worship,
the French and the Russian embassies, the arcade, the palace
of the emperor William I., the university, the royal library, the
opera, the armoury, the palace of the emperor Frederick III.,
the Schloss-briicke, the royal palace, the old and new museums
and the national gallery. At a short distance from this line are the
new town-hall, the mint, the imperial bank and the royal theatre.
Berlin differs from all other great capitals in this respect that
with the exception of the royal palace, which dates from the
i6th century, all its public buildings are modern. This palace,
standing in the very heart of the city, is a huge quadrangular
building, with four courts, and is surmounted by a dome 220 ft.
high. It contains more than 600 rooms and halls; among the
latter the Weisse-saal used for great court pageants, the halls
of the chapters of the Black and the Red Eagle orders, a picture
gallery and a chapel. The first floor overlooking the Schloss-
platz is the Berlin residence of the emperor, and that square is
embellished by a huge fountain (Neptuns-brunnen) by R. Begas.
Facing the west portal is the monument to the emperor William I.,
and before the north gate, opening upon the Lustgarten, are
the famous bronze groups, the " horse-tamers " by Clodt, the
gift of the emperor Nicholas I. of Russia. The establishment
of the imperial government in Berlin naturally brought with it
the erection of a large number of public buildings, and
the great prosperity of the country, as well as the enhanced
national feeling, has enabled them to be built on a scale of
splendour befitting the capital of an empire. First in importance
is the Reichstagsgebaude (see ARCHITECTURE, plate ix. fig. 47),
in which the federal council (Bundesrat) and the imperial
parliament (Reichstag) hold their sittings. A special feature
is the library, which is exceedingly rich in works on con-
stitutional law. A new house has also been built for the
Prussian parliament (Landtag) in the Albrecht-strasse. Other
new official buildings are the patent office on the site of
the old ministry of the interior; the new ministry of posts
(with post museum) at the corner of the Mauer-strasse and
Leipziger-strasse; the central criminal court in Moabit; the
courts of first instance on the Alexander-platz; the ministry
of police, and the Reichsversicherungsamt, the centre for the
great system of state insurance. In addition to these, many
buildings have been restored and enlarged, chief among them
being the armoury (Zeughaus), the war office and the ministry
of public works, while the royal mews (Marstall) has been
entirely rebuilt with an imposing facade.
BERLIN
787
Among the public monuments comes first, in excellence,
Rauch's celebrated statue of Frederick the Great, which stands
in Unte^den Linden opposite the palace of the emperor
William I.; and in size the monument to the emperor William
I. (by R. Begas), erected opposite the west portal of the royal
palace. The space for the site was gained by pulling down the
old houses composing the Schlossfreiheit and damming the
Spree. The monument, which cost 200,000, is surmounted by
an equestrian statue of the emperor in a martial cloak, his right
hand resting on a field marshal's baton, reining in his charger,
which is led by a female genius of peace. The high pedestal on
which these figures stand is surrounded by an Ionic colonnade.
The equestrian statue of the great elector on the Lange-briicke
has been already mentioned. In the Lustgarten is a statue of
Frederick William III., by Wolff; in the Tiergarten, Drake's
marble monument to the same ruler; and in the mausoleum
in the park in Charlottenburg he and his queen, Louisa, are
sculptured in marble by Rauch. Here also lie the emperor
William I. and the empress Augusta under marble effigies by
Encke. A second group of monuments on the Wilhelms-platz
commemorates the generals of the Seven Years' War; and a
third in the neighbourhood of the opera-house the generals who
fought against Napoleon I. On the Kreuzberg a Gothic monu-
ment in bronze was erected by Frederick William III. to com-
memorate the victories of 1813-1815; and in the centre of the
Konigs-platz stands a lofty column in honour of the triumphs
of 1864, 1866 and 1870-1871, surmounted by a gilded figure of
Victory. Literature, science and art are represented in different
parts of the city by statues and busts of Rauch, Schinkel, Thaer,
Beuth, Schadow, Winckelmann, Schiller, Hegel and Jahn.
On the Konigs-platz between the column of Victory and the
Reichstagsgebaude, and immediately facing the western facade
of the latter, is the bronze statue of Bismarck, unveiled in 1901,
a figure 20 ft. in height standing on a granite base. From the
south side of the Konigs-platz crossing the Tiergarten and
intersecting the avenue from the Brandenburg Gate to Charlot-
tenburg runs the broad Sieges-allee adorned by thirty-two
groups of marble statuary representing famous rulers of the
house of Hohenzollern, the gift of the emperor William II. to
the city. The Tiergarten, the beautiful west-end park with its
thickets of dense undergrowth and winding lanes and lakes has
lost somewhat of its sylvan character owing to building encroach-
ments on the north side and the laying out of new rides and
drives. It has, in addition to those above enumerated, statues
of Queen Louisa, Goethe and Lessing.
Communications. Berlin is the centre of the North German
network of railways. No fewer than twelve main lines concen-
trate upon it. Internal communication is provided for by the
Ringbahn, or outer circle, which was opened in 1871, and by a
well-devised system connects the termini of the various main
lines. The through traffic coming from east and west is carried
by the Stadtbahn, or city railway, which also connects with and
forms an integral part of the outer circle. This line runs through
the heart of the city, and was originally a private enterprise.
Owing, however, to the failure of the company, the work was
taken in hand by the state, and the line opened in 1878. It has
four tracks two for the main-line through traffic, and two for
local and suburban service, and is carried at a height of about
20 ft. above the streets. Its length is 12 m., the total cost
3$ millions sterling. The chief stations are Zoologischer Garten,
Friedrich-strasse, Alexander-platz and Schlesischer Bahnhof.
Lying apart from the system are the Lehrter Bahnhof for
Hamburg and Bremen, the Stettiner for Baltic ports, and the
Gorlitzer, Anhalter and Potsdamer termini for traffic to the
south, of which the last two are fine specimens of railway archi-
tecture. Internal communication is also provided for by an
excellent system of electric tram-lines, by an overhead electric
railway running from the Zoologischer Garten to the Schlesische
Tor with a branch to the Potsdam railway station, and by an
underground railway laid at a shallow depth under the Leipziger-
strasse. Most of the cabs (victorias and broughams) have fare-
indicators. Steamboats ply above and below the city.
Industry, Trade and Commerce. It is in respect of its manu-
facture and trade that Berlin has attained its present high pitch
of economic prosperity. More than 50 % of its working popu-
lation are engaged in industry, which embraces almost all
branches, of which new ones have lately sprung into existence,
whilst most of the older have taken a new lease of life. The old
wool industry, for example, has become much extended, and
now embraces products such as shawls, carpets, hosiery, &c.
Its silk manufactures, formerly so important, have, however,
gradually gone back. It is particularly in the working of iron,
steel and cloth, and in the by-products of these, that Berlin
excels. The manufacture of machinery and steam-engines
shows an enormous development. No fewer than 100 large
firms, many of them of world-wide reputation, are engaged in
this branch alone. Among the chief articles of manufacture
and production arc railway plant, sewing machines, bicycles,
steel pens, chronometers, electric and electric-telegraph plant,
bronze, chemicals, soap, lamps, linoleum, china, pianofortes,
furniture, gloves, buttons, artificial flowers and ladies' mantles,
the last of an annual value exceeding 5,000,000. It has exten-
sive breweries and vies in the amount of the output of this pro-
duction with Munich. Berlin is also the great centre and the
chief market for speculation in corn and other cereals which reach
it by water from Poland, Austria and South Russia, while in com-
merce in spirits it rivals Hamburg. It is also a large publishing
centre, and has become a serious rival to Leipzig in this regard.
The Borse, where 4000 persons daily do business, is the chief
market in Germany for stocks and shares, and its dealings are
of great influence upon the gold market of the world. Numerous
banks of world-wide reputation, doing an extensive international
business, have their seats in Berlin, chief among them, in addition
to the Reichs-bank,beingtheBerlinerKassen-Verein,theDiskonto-
Gesellschaft, the Deutsche Bank, and the Boden-Kredit Bank.
Learning and Art. Berlin is becoming the centre of the in-
tellectual life of the nation. The Friedrich Wilhelm University,
although young in point of foundation, has long outstripped its
great rival Leipzig in numbers, and can point with pride to the
fact that its teaching staff has yielded to none in the number
of illustrious names. It was founded in 1810, when Prussia had
lost her celebrated university of Halle, which Napoleon had
included in his newly created kingdom of Westphalia. It was
as a weapon of war, as well as a nursery of learning, that
Frederick William III. and the great men who are associated
with its origin, called it into existence. Wilhelm von Humboldt
was at that time at the head of the educational department
of the kingdom, and men like Fichte and Schleiermacher worked
on the popular mind. Within the first ten years of its existence
it counted among its professors such names as Neander, Savigny,
Eichhorn, Bockh, Bekker, Hegel, Raumer, Niebuhr and Butt-
mann. Later followed men like Hengstenberg, Homeyer,
Bethmann-Hollweg, Puchta, Stahl and Heffter; Schelling,
Trendelenburg, Bopp, the brothers Grimm, Zumpt, Carl Richter;
later still, Twesten and Dorner, Gneist and Hinschius; Langen-
beck, Bardeleben, Virchow, Du-Bois Reymond; von Ranke,
Curtius, Lipsius, Hofmann the chemist, Kiepert the geographer;
Helmholtz, van't Hoff, Koch, E. Fischer, Waldeyer and von
Bergmann among scientists and surgeons; Mommsen, Trcitschke
and Sybel among historians, Harnack among theologians,
Brunner among jurists. Taking ordinary, honorary, extra-
ordinary professors and licensed lecturers (Privat-docenten)
together, its professorial strength consisted, in 1904-1905, of
23 teachers in the faculty of theology, 32 in that of law, 175 in
that of medicine and 227 in that of philosophy altogether 457.
The number of matriculated students during the same period
was 7154, as against 5488 in the preceding summer term. The
number of matriculated students is usually greater in winter
than in summer; the reason of the disproportion being that in
the summer university towns having pleasant surroundings,
such as Bonn, Heidelberg, Kiel and Jena, are more frequented.
Berlin is essentially a Prussian university of students from
non-German states, Russia sends most, then the United States
of America, while Great Britain is credited with comparatively
788
BERLIN
few. It is, however, in the ugly palace of Prince Henry of
Prussia, which was given for the purpose in the days of Prussian
poverty and distress, that the university is still housed, and
although some internal rearrangement has been effected, no
substantial alterations have been made to meet the ever-increas-
ing demand for lecture-room accommodation. The garden
towards Unter den Linden is adorned by a bronze statue of
Helmholtz; the marble statues of Wilhelm and Alexander von
Humboldt, which were formerly placed on either side of the gate,
have been removed to the adjacent garden. Technical education
is provided in the magnificent buildings erected at a cost of
100,000 in Charlottenburg, which are equipped with all the
apparatus for the teaching of science. Among other institutions
of university rank and affiliated to it are the school of mines,
the agricultural college, the veterinary college, the new seminary
for oriental languages, and the high school for music. The
geodetic institute has been removed to Potsdam. The univer-
sity is, moreover, rich in institutions for the promotion of
medical and chemical science, for the most part housed in build-
ings belonging to the governing body. There should also be
mentioned the Royal Academy of Sciences, founded in 1700.
The name of Leibnitz is associated with its foundation, and it
was raised to the rank of a royal academy by Frederick the
Great in 1743. The Royal Academy of Arts is under the imme-
diate protection of the king, and is governed by a director and
senate. There is also an academy of vocal music.
Schools. Berlin possesses fifteen Gymnasia (classical schools,
for the highest branches of the learned professions), of which
four are under the direct supervision of the provincial authori-
ties and have the prefix koniglich (royal), while the remain-
ing eleven are municipal and under the control of the civic
authorities. They arc attended by about 7000 scholars, of
whom a fourth are Jews. There are also eight Real-gymnasia
(or " modern " schools), numerous Real-schulen (commercial
schools), public high schools for girls, and commodious and
excellently organized elementary schools.
Museums. The buildings of the royal museum are divided into
the old and new museums. The former is an imposing edifice
situated on the north-east side of the Lustgarten, facing the
royal palace. It was built in the reign of Frederick William III.
from designs by Schinkel. Its portico supported by eighteen
colossal Ionic columns is reached by a wide flight of steps.
The back and side walls of the portico are covered with frescoes,
from designs by Schinkel, representing the world's progress from
chaos to organic and developed life. The sides of the flight of
steps support equestrian bronze groups of the Amazon by Kiss,
and the Lion-slayer by Albert Wolff. Under the portico are
monuments of the sculptors Rauch and Schadow, the architect
Schinkel, and the art critic Winckelmann. The interior consists
of a souterrain, and of a first floor, entered from the portico
through bronze doors, after designs by Stiller, weighing 75 tons,
and executed at a cost of 3600. This floor consists of a rotunda,
and of halls and cabinets of sculpture. The second floor, which
formerly contained the national gallery of paintings, is occupied
by a collection of northern antiquities and by the Schliemann
treasures.
The new museum, connected with the old museum by a
covered corridor, is, in its internal arrangements and decorations,
one of the finest structures in the capital. The lowest of its
three floors contains the Egyptian museum; on the first floor
plaster casts of ancient, medieval and modern sculpture are
found, while the second contains a cabinet of engravings. On
the walls of the grand marble staircase, which rises to the full
height of the building, Kaulbach's cyclus of stereochromic
pictures is painted, representing the six great epochs of human
progress, from the confusion of tongues at the Tower of Babel
and the dispersion of the nations to the Reformation.
The national gallery, a fine building surrounded by a Cor-
inthian colonnade and lying between the royal museums and
the Spree, contains a number of modern German paintings.
Behind these buildings, again, is the Pergamum museum, which
houses a unique collection, the result of the excavations at
Pergamum. Still farther away, on a triangular plot of land
enclosed by the two arms of the Spree and the metropolitan
railway, stands the Kaiser Friedrich museum (1904). This
edifice, in the Italian baroque style, surmounted by a dome,
possesses but little architectural merit, and its position is so
confined that great ingenuity had to be employed in its internal
arrangements to meet the demands of space, but its collection
of pictures is one of the finest in Europe. Hither were removed,
from the old and new museums, the national gallery of pictures,
the statuary of the Christian epoch and the numismatic collec-
tion. The gallery of paintings, on the first floor, is distributed
into the separate schools of Germany, Italy, Flanders and
Holland, while another of the central rooms embraces those of
Spain, France and England. The collection, which in 1874
contained 1300 paintings, was then enriched by the purchase
by the Prussian government for 51,000 of the Suermondt col-
lection which, rich in pictures of the Dutch and Flemish schools,
contained also a few by Spanish, Italian and French masters.
The gallery as a whole has been happily arranged, and there are
few great painters of whom it does not contain one or more
examples. The Kunst-gewerbe museum, at the corner of the
Koniggratzer-strasse and Albrecht-strasse, contains valuable
specimens of applied art.
Tlteatres. In nothing has the importance of Berlin become
more conspicuous than in theatrical affairs. In addition to the
old-established Opernhaus and Schauspielhaus, which are sup-
ported by the state, numerous private playhouses have been
erected, notably the Lessing and the Deutsches theatres, and it
is in these that the modern works by Wildenbruch, Sudermann,
and Hauptmann have been produced, and it may be said that
it is in Berlin that the modern school of German drama has its
home. In music Berlin is not able to vie with Leipzig, Dresden
or Munich, yet it is well represented by the Conservatorium,
with which the name of Joachim is connected, while the more
modern school is represented by Xaver Scharwenka.
Government, Administration and Politics. On the ist of April
1 88 1 Berlin was divided off from the province of Brandenburg
and since forms a separate administrative district. But the chief
presidency (Ober presidium) , the Consistory, the provincial school-
board, and the board of health of the province of Brandenburg
remain tribunals of last instance to which appeals lie from Berlin.
The government is partly semi-military (police) and partly
municipal. The ministry of police (a branch of the home office)
consists of six departments: (i) general; (2) trade; (3) building;
(4) criminal; (5) passports; (6) markets. It controls the fire
brigade, has the general inspection over all strangers, and is
responsible for public order. The civil authority (Magistral)
consists of a chief mayor (Obcrbiir germeister), a mayor (Burger-
meister), and a city council (Stadtral). The Obe bur germeister,
who is ex officio a member of the Prussian Upper House, and
the Burgermeisler are elected by the common council (Stadtver-
ordnetemersammlung) of 144 members, i.e. three delegates
chosen by manhood suffrage for each ward of the city; but
the election is subject to the veto of the king without reason
given. The Stadtrat consists of 32 members, of whom 15 are
paid officials (including 2 syndics, 2 councillors for building,
and 2 for education), while 17 serve gratuitously. For general
work the Magistral and the Stadtverordnetenversammlung
coalesce, and committees are appointed for various purposes
out of the whole body, these being usually presided over by
members of the Magistral. Their jurisdiction extends to water-
supply, the drainage, lighting and cleaning of the streets, the
care of the poor, hospitals and schools. Politically the city is
divided into six Reichstag and four Landtag constituencies,
returning six and nine members respectively, and it must be
noted that in the case of the Landtag the allocation of seats
dated from 1860, so that the city, in proportion to its population,
was in 1908 much under-represented. It should have had
twenty-five members instead of nine.
Population. The stupendous growth of the population of
Berlin during the last century is best illustrated by the following
figures. In 1816 it contained 197,717 inhabitants; in 1849,
BERLIN
789
431,566; in 1871, 826,341; in 1880, 1,122,330; 1890, i, 578,794,
and in 1905, 2,033,900. The birth-rate is about 30, and the
death-rate 20 per 1000 inhabitants a year. Illegitimate births
amount to about 15% of the whole. According to religion,
about 84 % are Protestants, 10 % Roman Catholics and 5 %
Jews, but owing to the great number of Jews who for social and
other reasons ostensibly embrace the Christian faith, these last
figures do not actually represent the number of Jews by descent
living in the city.
Environs. Marvellous as has been the transformation in the
city itself, no less surprising results have been effected since
1875 in the surroundings of Berlin. On the east, north and west,
the city is surrounded at a distance of some 5 m. from its centre
by a thick belt of pine woods, the Jungfernheide, the Spandaucr
Forst, and the Grunewald, the last named stretching away in
'a south-westerly direction as far as Potsdam, and fringing the
beautiful chain of Havel lakes. These forests enjoyed until
quite recent times an unenviable notoriety as the camping-
ground and lurking-place of footpads and other disorderly
characters. After the opening of the circular railway in 1871,
private enterprise set to work to develop these districts, and a
' villa colony " was built at the edge of the Grunewald between
the .station West-end and the Spandauer Bock. From these
beginnings, owing mainly to the expansion of the important
suburb of Charlottenburg, has resulted a complete transformation
of the eastern part of the Grunewald into a picturesque and
delightful villa suburb, which is connected by railway, steam-
tramway and a magnificent boulevard the Kurfiirstendamm
with the city. Nowadays the little fishing villages on the shores
of the lakes, notably the Wannsee, cater for the recreation of the
Berliners, while palatial summer residences of wealthy merchants
occupy the most prominent sites. Suburban Berlin may be said
to extend practically to Potsdam.
Traffic. The public streets have a total length of about 350 m.,
and a large staff of workmen is regularly employed in maintaining
and cleaning the public roads and parks. The force is well
controlled, and the work of cleaning and removing snow after a
heavy fall is thoroughly and efficiently carried out. The less
important thoroughfares are mostly paved with the so-called
Vienna paving, granite bricks of medium size, while the principal
streets, and especially those upon which the traffic is heavy,
have either asphalt or wood paving.
Water-Supply and Drainage. The water-supply is mainly
derived from works on the Miiggel and Tegeler lakes, the river
water being carefully filtered through sand. The drainage
system is elaborate, and has stood the test of time. The city is
divided into twelve radial systems, each with a pumping station,
and the drainage is forced through five mains to eighteen sewage
farms, each of which is under careful sanitary supervision, in
respect both of the persons employed thereon, and the products,
mainly milk, passing thence to the city for human consumption.
Only in a few isolated cases has any contamination been traced
to fever or other zymotic germs. In this connexion it is worth
noting that the infectious diseases hospital has a separate system
of drainage which is carefully disinfected, and not allowed to be
employed for the purposes of manure.
Hospitals. In no other city of the world is the hospital
organization so well appointed as in Berlin, or are the sick poor
tended with greater solicitude. State, municipal and private
charity here again join hands in the prompt relief of sickness
and cases of urgency. The municipal hospitals are six in number,
the largest of which is the Virchow hospital, situate in Moabit
and opened in 1906. It is arranged on the pavilion system,
contains 2000 beds, and is one of the most splendidly equipped
hospitals in the world. The cost amounted to 900,000. Next
comes that of Friedrichshain, also built on the pavilion system,
while the state controls six (not including the prison infirmaries)
of which the world-renowned Charite in the Luisen-strasse is
the principal. The hospitals of the nursing sisters (Diakonissen
Anstalten) number 8, while there are 60 registered private
hospitals under the superintendence of responsible doctors and
under the inspection of government.
Charities. Berlin is also very richly endowed with charitable
institutions for the relief of pauperism and distress. In addition
to the municipal support of the poor-houses there arc large funds
derived from bequests for the relief of the necessitous and deserv-
ing poor; while night shelters and people's kitchens have been
organized on an extensive scale for the temporary relief of the
indigent unemployed. For the former several of the arches of
the city railway have been utilized, and correspond in internal
arrangement to like shelters instituted by the Salvation Army
in London and various other cities.
Markets. Open market-places in Berlin are things of the past,
and their place has been taken by airy and commodious market
halls. Of these, 14 in number, the central market, close to
the Alexander-platz station of the city railway with which it is
connected by an admirable service of lifts for the rapid unloading
of goods, is the finest. It has a ground area of about 17,000
sq. yds., and is fitted with more than 2000 stalls. The other
markets are conveniently situated at various accessible places
within the city, and the careful police supervision to which they
arc subjected, both in the matter of general cleanliness, and in
the careful examination of all articles of food exposed for sale,
has tended to the general health and comfort of the population.
The central cattle market and slaughter-houses for the inspec-
tion and supply of the fresh meat consumed in the metropolis
occupy an extensive area in the north-east of the city on the
Ringbahn, upon which a station has been erected for the accom-
modation of meat trains and passengers attending the market.
The inspection is rigorously carried out, and only carcases which
have been stamped as having been certified good are permitted
to be taken away for human consumption.
History. The etymology of the word " Berlin " is doubtful.
Some derive it from Celtic roots her, small, short, and lyn, a
lake; others regard it as a Wend word, meaning a free, open
place; others, again, refer it to the word werl, a river island.
Another authority derives it from the German word Briihl, a
marshy district, and the Slavonic termination in; thus Briihl,
by the regular transmutation Biihrl (compare Ger. bren-aea
and Eng. burn), Biirhlin. More recent research, however, seems
to have established the derivation from Wehr, dam.
Similar obscurity rests on the origin of the city. The hypo-
theses which carried it back to the early years of the Christian
era have been wholly abandoned. Even the margrave Albert
the Bear (d. 1170) is no longer unquestionably regarded as its
founder, and the tendency of opinion now is to date its origin
from the time of his great-grandsons, Otto III. and John I.
When first alluded to, what is now Berlin was spoken of as two
towns, Kolln and Berlin. The first authentic document con-
cerning the former is from the year 1237, concerning the latter
from the year 1 244, and it is with these dates that the trustworthy
history of the city begins. In 1307 the first attempt was made
to combine the councils of Kolln and Berlin, but the experiment
was abandoned four years later, and the two towns continued
their separate existence till 1432, when the establishment of a
common council for both led to disturbances of which the out-
come was that Frederick II. the Iron in 1442 abolished this
arrangement, seriously curtailed the privileges of both towns,
and began the building of a castle at Kolln. A feud between the
elector and the Berliners ended in the defeat of the latter, who
in 1448 were forced to accept the constitution of 1442. From
this time Berlin became and continued to be the residence of the
Hohenzollerns, the elector John Cicero (1486-1499) being the
first to establish a permanent court inside the walls. It was not,
however, until the time of King Frederick William I. that the
sovereigns ceased to date their official acts from Kolln. In 1 539,
under the elector Joachim II., Berlin embraced the Lutheran
religion. Henceforth the history of Berlin was intimately bound
up with the house of Hohenzollern. The conversion of the
elector John Sigismund in 1613 to the Reformed (Calvinist) faith
was hotly resented by the Berliners and led to bloody riots in
the city. The Thirty Years' War all but ruined the city, the
population of which sank from some 14,000 in 1600 to less than
8000 in 1650. It was restored and the foundations of its modern
79
BERLIN
splendour were laid by the Great Elector, by the time of whose
death (1688) the population had risen to some 20,000. During
this period several suburbs had begun to grow up, Friedrichs-
werder in 1667 and the Dorotheenstadt, so named in 1676 after
the electress Dorothea its founder. In 1688 Frederick III.
(afterwards King Frederick I.) began the Friedrichstadt, com-
pleted by Frederick William I. Under Frederick I., who did
much to embellish the city as the royal Residenzstadt, the
separate administrations of the quarters of Berlin, Kolln,
Friedrichstadt, Friedrichswerder and Dorotheenstadt were com-
bined, and the separate names were absorbed in that of Berlin.
The fortifications begun in 1658 were finally demolished under
Frederick the Great in 1745, and the Neue Friedrichstrasse, the
Alexander-strasse and the Wall-strasse were laid out on their
site.
Twice during' the Seven Years' War Berlin was attacked by
the enemy: in 1757 by the Austrians, who penetrated into the
suburbs and levied a heavy contribution, and in 1760 by the
Russians, who bombarded the city, penetrated into it, and only
retired on payment of a ransom of 1,500,000 thalers (225,000).
After the disastrous campaign of Jena, Berlin suffered much
during the French occupation (24th October 1806 to ist December
1808). In spite of these misfortunes, however, the progress of
the city was steady. In 1809 the present municipal government
was instituted. In 1810 the university was founded. After
the alliance of Prussia and Russia in 1812 Berlin was again
occupied by the French, but in March 1813 they were finally
driven out. The period following the close of the war saw great
activity in building, especially in the erection of many noble
monuments and public buildings, e.g. those by the architect
Karl Friedrich Schinkel. The most notable event in the history
of Berlin during the igth century, prior to the Franco-German
War, was the March revolution of 1848 (see GERMANY: History,
and FREDERICK WILLIAM IV., king of Prussia). The effect of
the war of 1870-71 on the growth of Berlin has been sufficiently
indicated already.
AUTHORITIES. For the history of Berlin see the publications of
the " Verein fiir die Geschichte Berlins " ; the Berlinische Chronik nebst
Urkundenbuch, and the periodicals Der Bar (1875, &c.) and Mit-
teilungen (1884, &c.). Of histories may be mentioned A. Streckfuss,
500 Jahre Berliner Geschichte (new ed. by Fernbach, 1900) ;
Berlin im Ipten Jahrhundert (4 vols., 1867-1869), and Statistisches
Jahrbuch der Stadt Berlin (1904-1905); Fidicin, Historisch-diplo-
matische Beitrdge zur Geschichte der Stadt Berlin (5 vols., 1837-1842) ;
Brockhaus, Konversations-Lexikon (1904) ; Meyer, Konversations-
Lexikon (1904); Baedeker, Fiihrer durch Berlin; Woerl, Fiihrer
durch Berlin; J. Pollard, The Corporation of Berlin (Edinburgh,
1893) ; A. Shadwell, Industrial Efficiency (London, .1906) ; Berliner
Jahrbuch fiir Handel und Industrie (1905); and 0. Schwebel, Ge-
schifhte der Stadt Berlin (Berlin, 1888). (P. A. A.)
BERLIN, CONGRESS AND TREATY OF. The events that led
up to the assembling of the congress of Berlin, the outcome of
which was the treaty of the I3th of July 1878, are described else-
where (see EUROPE: History; TURKEY: History; Russo-TuRKiSH
WAR) . Here it must suffice to say that the terms of the treaty
of San Stefano (3rd March i878),by which the Russo-Turkish War
had been brought to a conclusion, seemed to those of the other
powers who were most interested scarcely less fatal to the Ottoman
dominion than that Russian occupation of Constantinople which
Great Britain had risked a war to prevent. By this instrument
Bulgaria was to become a practically independent state, under
the nominal suzerainty of the sultan, bounded by the Danube,
the Black Sea, the Aegean and Albania, and cutting off the latter
from the remnant of Rumelia which, with Constantinople, was
to be left to the Turks. At the same time the other Christian
principalities, Servia and Montenegro, were largely increased
in size and their independence definitively recognized; and the
proposals of the powers with regard to Bosnia and Herzegovina,
communicated to the Ottoman plenipotentiaries at the first
sitting of the conference of Constantinople (23rd December 1876) ,
were to be immediately executed. These provisions seemed to
make Russia permanently arbiter of the fate of the Balkan
peninsula, the more so since the vast war indemnity of
1,400,000,000 roubles exacted in the treaty promised to cripple
the resources of the Ottoman government for years to>
come.
The two powers whose interests were most immediately
threatened by the terms of the peace were Austria and Great
Britain. The former especially, refusing to be bribed by the
Russian offer of Bosnia and Herzegovina, saw herself cut off
from all chance of expansion in the Balkan peninsula and
threatened with the establishment there of the paramount power
of Russia, a peril it had been her traditional policy to avert.
On the 5th of February, accordingly, Count Andrassy issued a
circular note, addressed to the signatory powers of the treaty of
Paris of 1856 and the London protocol of 1871, suggesting a
congress for the purpose of establishing " the agreement of
Europe on the modifications which it may become necessary to
introduce into the above-mentioned treaties " in view of the
preliminaries of peace signed by Russia and Turkey. This
appeal to the sanctity of international engagements, traditional
in the diplomatic armoury of Austria, and strengthened by so
recent a precedent as that of 1871, met with an immediate
response. On the ist of April Lord Salisbury had already
addressed a circular note to the British embassies refusing on
behalf of the British government to recognize any arrangements
made in the peace preliminaries, calculated to modify European
treaties, " unless they were made the subject of a formal agree-
ment among the parties to the treaty of Paris," and quoting the
" essential principle of the law of nations " promulgated in the
London protocol. By Great Britain therefore the Austrian
proposal was at once accepted. Germany was very willing to
fall in with the views of her Austrian ally and share in a council
in which, having no immediate interests of her own, Bismarck
could win new laurels in his role of " honest broker." In these
circumstances Russia could not but accept the principle of a
congress. She tried, however, to limit the scope of its powers
by suggesting the exclusion of certain clauses of the treaty from
its reference, and pointed out (circular of Prince Gorchakov,
April pth) that Russia had not been the first nor the only Power
to violate the treaties in question. The answer of Lord Beacons-
field was to mobilize the militia and bring Indian troops to the
Mediterranean; and finally Russia, finding that the diplomatic
support which she had expected from Bismarck failed her,
consented to submit the whole treaty without reserve to the
congress.
On the 3rd of June Count Munster, in the name of the German
government, issued the formal invitation to the congress.
The congress met, under the presidency of Prince Bismarck, at
Berlin on the i3th of June. Great Britain was represented by
Lord Beaconsfield, Lord Salisbury and Lord Odo Russell, am-
bassador at Berlin; Germany by Prince Bismarck, Baron Ernst
von Billow and Prince Chlodwig von Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst,
ambassador at Paris; Austria by Count Andrassy, Count Louis
Karolyi and Baron Heinrich Karl von Haymerle, ambassador
at Rome; France by William H. Waddington, the Comte de
Saint- Vallier, ambassador at Berlin, and Felix Hippolyte
Desprez, director of political affairs in the department for foreign
affairs; Russia by the chancellor, Prince Gorchakov, Count
Peter Shuvalov, ambassador to the court of St James's, and
Paul d'Oubril, ambassador at Berlin; Turkey by Alexander
Catheodory Pasha, minister of public works, Ali Pasha, mushir
of the Ottoman armies, and Sadullah Bey, ambassador at Berlin.
The bases of the conferences had, of course, been settled before-
hand, and the final act of the congress was signed by the pleni-
potentiaries mentioned above exactly a month after the opening
of the congress, on the I3th of July.
The treaty of Berlin consists in all of sixty-four articles, of
which it will be sufficient to note those which have had a special
bearing on subsequent international developments. So far as
they affect the territorial boundaries fixed by the treaties of
Paris and San Stefano it will be sufficient to refer to the sketch
map in the article EUROPE: History. By Art. I. Bulgaria was
" constituted an autonomous and tributary principality under
the suzerainty of H.I.M. the Sultan "; it was to have " a
Christian government and a national militia." Art. II. fixed
BERLIN BERLIOZ
791
the boundaries of the new state and provided for their delimita-
tion by a European commission, which was " to take into con-
sideration the necessity for H.I.M. the Sultan to be able to defend
the Balkan frontiers of Eastern Rumelia." Arts. III. to XII.
provide for the election of a prince for Bulgaria, the machinery
for settling the new constitution, the adjustment of the relations
of the new Bulgarian government to the Ottoman empire and
its subjects (including the question of tribute, the amount of
which was, according to Art. XII., to be settled by agreement
of the signatory powers " at the close of the first year of the
working of the new organization ") By Art. X. Bulgaria, so
far as it was concerned, was to take the place of the Sublime
Porte in the engagements which the latter had contracted, as
well towards Austria-Hungary as towards the Rustchuck-
Varna Railway Company, for working the railway of European
Turkey in respect to the completion and connexion, as well as
the working of the railways situated in its territory.
By Art. XIII. a province was formed" south of the Balkans
which was to take the name of " Eastern Rumelia," and was
to remain " under the direct military and political control of
H.I.M.the Sultan,under conditions of administrative autonomy."
It was to have a Christian governor-general. Arts. XIV. to
XXIII. define the frontiers and organization of the new pro-
vince, questions arising out of the Russian occupation, and the
rights of the sultan. Of the latter it is to be noted that the sultan
retained the right of fortifying and occupying the Balkan passes
(Art. XV.) and all his rights and obligations over the railways
(Art. XXI.).
Art. XXV., which the events of 1908 afterwards brought into
special prominence, runs as follows: " The provinces of Bosnia
and Herzegovina shall be occupied and administered by Austria-
Hungary. The government of Austria-Hungary, not desiring
to undertake the administration of the sanjak of Novi-Bazar,
. . . the Ottoman administration will continue to exercise its
functions there. Nevertheless, in order to assure the mainten-
ance of the new political state of affairs, as well as freedom and
security of communications, Austria-Hungary reserves the
right of keeping garrisons and having military and commercial
roads in the whole of this part of the ancient vilayet of Bosnia."
By Art. XXVI. the independence of Montenegro was defini-
tively recognized, and by Art. XVIII. she received certain
accessions of territory, including a strip of coast on the Adriatic,
but under conditions which tended to place her under the tute-
lage of Austria-Hungary. Thus, by Art. XXIX. she was to have
neither ships of war nor a war flag, the port of Antivari and all
Montenegrin waters were to be closed to the war-ships of all
nations; the fortifications between the lake and the coast were
to be razed; the administration of the maritime and sanitary
police at Antivari and along the Montenegrin littoral was to be
carried on by Austria-Hungary "by means of light coast-guard
boats "; Montenegro was to adopt the maritime code in force
in Dalmatia, while the Montenegrin merchant flag was to be under
Austro-Hungarian consular protection. Finally, Montenegro
was to " come to an understanding with Austria-Hungary on
the right to construct and keep up across the new Montenegrin
territory a road and a railway."
By Art. XXXIV. the independence of Servia was recognized,
subject to conditions (as to religious liberty, &c.) set forth in
Art. XXXV. Art. XXXVI. defined the new boundaries.
By_Art. XLIII. the independence of Rumania, already'pro-
/May 22 \
claimed by the prince 1 j u ^ e . 1877 1 , was recognized. Subse-
quent articles define the conditions and the boundaries.
Arts. LII. to LVII. deal with the question of the free navi-
gation of the Danube. All fortifications between the mouths
and the Iron Gates were to be razed, and no vessels of war, save
those of light tonnage in the service of the river police and the
customs, were to navigate the river below the Iron Gates (Art.
LII.). The Danube commission, on which Rumania was to be
represented, was maintained in its functions (Art. LIII.) and
provision made for the further prolongation of its powers
(Art. LIV.). .
Art. LVIII. cedes to Russia the territories of Ardahan, Kara
and Batoum, in Asiatic Turkey. By Art. LIX. " H.M. the
emperor of Russia declares that it is his intention to constitute
Batoum a free port, essentially commercial."
By Art. LXI. " the Sublime Porte undertakes to carry out,
without further delay, the improvements and reforms de-
manded by local requirements in the provinces inhabited by the
Armenians, and to guarantee their security against the Cir-
cassians and Kurds." It was to keep the powers informed
periodically of " the steps taken to this effect"
Art. LXI 1. made provision for the securing religious liberty
in the Ottoman dominions.
Finally, Art. LXIII. declares that " the treaty of Paris of
30th March 1856, as well as the treaty of London of ijth March
1871, are maintained in all such of their provisions as are not
abrogated or modified by the preceding stipulations."
For the full text of the treaty in the English translation see
E. Hertslet, Map of Europe by Treaty, vol. iv. p. 2759 (No. 530) ; for
the French original see State Papers, vol. Ixix. p. 749. (W. A. P.)
BERLIN, a city of Coos county, New Hampshire, U.S.A.,
on the Androscoggin river, in the N. part of the state, about
98 m. N.W. of Portland, Maine. Pop. (1800) 3729; (1900)
8886, of whom 4643 were foreign-born; (1910 census) 11,780.
The area of the city in 1906 was 57-81 sq. m. Berlin is served
by the Grand Trunk and Boston & Maine railways. It is situated
in the heart of the White Mountains and 16 m. from the base of
Mt. Washington. Berlin Falls, on the picturesque Androscoggin
river, furnishes an immense water-power, the development of
which for manufacturing purposes accounts for the rapid growth
of the city. The forests of northern New England and of the
province of Quebec supply the raw material for the extensive
saw-mills and planing-mills, the pulp- and paper-mills, and the
sulphite fibre mills, said to be the largest in existence. In 1905
the city's factory products were valued at $5,989,119, of which
78-5 % was the value of the paper and wood pulp manufactured.
Berlin was first settled in 1821, was incorporated as a township
in 1829, and was chartered as a city in 1897.
BERLIN, a city and port of entry, Ontario, Canada, and capital
of Waterloo county, 58 m. W. of Toronto, on the Grand Trunk
railway. It is the centre of a prosperous farming and manu-
facturing district, inhabited chiefly by German immigrants and
their descendants. An electric railway connects it with the
town of Waterloo (pop. 4100) 2 m. to the north, which has
important flour and woollen mills and distilleries. Berlin is
a flourishing manufacturing town, and contains a beet sugar
refinery, automobile, leather, furniture, shirt and collar, felt,
glove, button and rubber factories. Pop. (1881) 4054; (1901)
9747-
BERLIN, a four-wheeled carriage with a separate hooded seat
behind, detached from the body of the vehicle; so called from
having been first used in Berlin. It was designed about 1670,
by a Piedmontese architect in the service of the elector of
Brandenburg. It was used as a travelling carriage, and Swift
refers to it in his advice to authors " who scribble in a berlin."
As an adjective, the word is used to indicate a special kind of
goods, originally made in Berlin, of which the best known is
Berlin wool. A Berlin warehouse is a shop for the sale of wools
and fancy goods (cf. Italian warehouse). The spelling " berlin "
is also used by Sir Walter Scott for the " birlinn," a large Gaelic
rowing-boat.
BERLIOZ, HECTOR (1803-1869), French musical composer,
was born on the nth of December 1803 at C6te-Saint-Andrf,
a small town near Grenoble, in the department of Isere. His
father, Louis Berlioz, was a physician of repute, and by hb desire
Hector for some time devoted himself to the study of medicine.
At the same time he had music lessons, and, in secret, perused
numerous theoretical works on counterpoint and harmony, with
little profit it seems, till the hearing and subsequent careful
analysis of one of Haydn's quartets opened a new vista to his
unguided aspirations. A similar work written by Berlioz in
imitation of Haydn's masterpiece was favorably received by his
friends. From Paris, where he had been sent to complete his
792
BERLIOZ
medical studies, he at last made known to his father the unalter-
able decision of devoting himself entirely to art, the answer to
which confession was the withdrawal of all further pecuniary
assistance. In order to support life Berlioz had to accept the
humble engagement of a singer in the chorus of the Gymnase
theatre. Soon, however, he became reconciled to his father and
entered the Conservatoire, where he studied composition under
Reicha and Lesueur. His first important composition was an
opera called Les Francs- Juges, of which, however, only the
overture remains extant. In 1825 he left the Conservatoire,
and began a course of self-education, founded chiefly on the
works of Beethoven, Gluck, Weber and other German masters.
About this period Berlioz saw for the first time the talented Irish
actress Henrietta Smithson, who was then charming Paris by
her impersonations of Ophelia, Juliet and other Shakespearean
characters. The enthusiastic young composer became deeply
enamoured of her at first sight, and tried, for a long time in vain,
to gain the love or even the attention of his idol. To an incident
of this wild and persevering courtship Berlioz's first symphonic
work, Episode de la vie d'un artiste, owes its origin. By the
advice of his friends Berlioz once more entered the Conservatoire,
where, after several unsuccessful attempts, his cantata Sardana-
palus gained him the first prize for foreign travel (1830), in spite
of the strong personal antagonism of one of the umpires. During
a stay in Italy Berlioz composed an overture to King Lear, and
Le Retour a la vie a sort of symphony, with intervening
poetical declamation between the single movements, called by
the composer a melologue, and written in continuation of the
Episode de la vie d'un artiste, along with which work it was
performed at the Paris Conservatoire in 1832. Paganini on that
occasion spoke to Berlioz the memorable words: " Vous com-
mencez par ou les autres ont fini." Miss Smithson, who also was
present on the occasion, consented to become the wife of her
ardent lover in 1833. The marriage was a tempestuous mistake.
In 1840 he separated from his wife, who died in 1854. Six
months later Berlioz married Mademoiselle R6cio. His second
wife did not live very long, nor was there much that was edifying
in this marriage. Between the date of his first marriage and
1840 came out his dramatic symphonies H arold en Italie, Funebre
et triomphale, and Romeo et Juliette; his opera Benvenuto Cellini
(1837); his Requiem, and other works. In the course of time
Berlioz won his due share of the distinctions generally awarded
to artistic merit, such as the ribbon of the Legion of Honour
and the membership of the Institute. But these distinctions
he owed, perhaps, less to a genuine admiration of his compositions
than to his successes abroad and his influential position as the
musical critic of the Journal des Debats (a position which he held
from 1838 to 1864, and which he never used or abused to push his
own works). In 184 2 Berlioz went for the first time to Germany,
where he was hailed with welcome by the leading musicians of
the younger generation, Robert Schumann foremost amongst
them. The latter paved the way for the French composer's
success by a comprehensive analysis of the Episode in his
musical journal, the Neue Zeitschrift fur Musik. In 1846 he
produced his magnificent cantata La Damnation de Faust.
Berlioz gave successful concerts at Leipzig and other German
cities, and repeated his visit on various later occasions in 1852
by invitation of Liszt, to conduct his opera, Benvenuto Cellini
(hissed off the stage in Paris), at Weimar; and in 1855 to
produce his oratorio-trilogy, L'Enfance du Christ, in the same
city. This latter work had been previously performed at Paris,
where Berlioz mystified the critics by pretending to have found
the last chorus amongst the manuscript scores of a composer of
the iyth century, Pierre Ducre by name. In 1855 his Te Deum
was written for the opening of the Paris exhibition. Berlioz also
made journeys to Vienna (1866) and St Petersburg (1867),
where his works were received with great enthusiasm. In 1861
he produced his work Beatrice et Benedict, and in 1863 Les
Troyens. He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1869.
It is not only as a composer that the life of Berlioz is full of
interest, although in this respect his achievement is singularly
significant for the comprehension of the modern spirit in music.
But it is as the symbol of 'French romanticism in the whole
domain of aesthetic perception that his pre-eminence has come
to be recognized. His Mtmoires (begun in London in 1848 and
finished in 1865) illustrate this romantic spirit at its highest
elevation as well as at its lowest depths. Victor Hugo was a
romantic, Musset was a romantic, but Berlioz was romanticism
itself. As a boy he is in despair over the despair of Dido, and
his breath is taken away at Virgil's " Quaesivit coelo lucem
ingemuitque reperta." At the age of twelve he is in love with
" Estelle," whom he meets fifty years afterwards. The scene
is described by himself (1865) with minute fidelity a scene
which Flaubert must have known by heart when he wrote its
parallel in the novel L' Education sentimentale. The romance of
this meeting between the man old, isolated, unspeakably sad,
with the halo of public fame burning round him and the
woman old also, a mother, a widow, whose beauty he had
worshipped when she was eighteen is striking. In a frame of
chastened melancholy and joy at the sight of Estelle, Berlioz
goes to dine with Patti and her family. Patti, on the threshold
of her career, pets Berlioz with such uncontrollable affection,
that as the composer wrote a description of his feelings he was
overwhelmed at the bitterness of fate. What would he not
have given for Estelle to show him such affection ! Patti seemed
to him like a marvellous bird with diamond wings flitting round
his head, resting on his shoulder, plucking his hair and singing
her most joyous songs to the accompaniment of beating wings.
" I was enchanted but not moved. The fact is that the young,
beautiful, dazzling, famous virtuoso who at the age of twenty-two
has already seen musical Europe and America at her feet, does
not win the power of love in me; and the aged woman, sad,
obscure, ignorant of art, possesses my soul as she did in the days
gone by, as she will do until my last day." If this episode
touches the sublime, it may be urged with almost equal truth
that his description of the exhumation of his two wives and their
reburial in a single tomb touches the ridiculous. And yet the
scene is described with a perception of all the detail which would
call for the highest praise in a novelist. Perhaps some parallel
between the splendid and the ridiculous in this singular figure
may be seen in the comparison of Nadar's caricature with
Charpentier's portrait of the composer.
The profound admiration of Berlioz for Shakespeare, which rose
at moments to such a pitch of folly that he set Shakespeare in the
place of God and worshipped him, cannot be explained simply
on the ground that Henrietta Smithson was a great Shakespearean
actress. Unquestionably the great figures in English literature
had a profound attraction for him, and while the romantic spirit
is obvious in his selections from Byron and Scott, it can also be
traced in the quality of his enthusiasm for Shakespeare. It is in
his music more than in his literary attitude, however, that is
disclosed something in addition to the pure romance of Schumann
something that places him nearer in kind to Wagner, who
recognized in him a composer from whose works he might learn
something useful for the cultivation of his own ideals. As a
youth the power of Beethoven's symphonies made a deep
impression on Berlioz, and what has been described as the
" poetical idea " in Beethoven's creations ran riot in the young
medical student's mind. He thus became one of the most
ardent and enlightened originators of what is now known as
" programme music." Technically he was a brilliant musical
colourist, often extravagant, but with the extravagant emotional-
ism of genius. He was a master of the orchestra; indeed, his
treatment of the orchestra and his invention of unprecedented
effects of timbre give him a solitary position in musical history;
he had an extraordinary gift for the use of the various instru-
ments, and himself propounded a new ideal for the force to be
employed, on an enormous scale.
His literary works include the Traite d' instrumentation
(1844); Voyage musical en Allemagne et en Italie (1845); Les
Soirees d'orchestre (1853); Les Grotesques de la musique (1859);
A trovers chant (1862); Mtmoires (1870); Lettres intimcs (1882).
For a full list of his musical works, Grove's Dictionary should be
consulted.
BERM BERMUDAS
793
The new critical edition of the complete musical works (published
by Breitkopf and Hartcl) is in ten series. I. Symphonies: Fantas-
tique. Op. 14; Funtbre et triomphale. Op. 15, for military band and
chorus; Harold en Italic, Op. 1 6, with viola solo; Romeo et Juliette,
with chorus and soli. II. Overtures (ten, including the five belong-
ing to larger works). III. Smaller instrumental works, of which
only the Funeral March for Hamlet is important. IV. Sacred
music: the Grande Messe des marts, Op. 5; the Te Deum, Op. 22;
L'Enfance du Christ, Op. 25, and four smaller pieces. V. Secular
cantatas, including Huit scenes de Faust, Op. I ; Lelio, ou le retour
a la vie, Op. 146 (sequel to Symphoniefantastique), and La Damnation
de Faust, Op. 24. VI. Songs and lyric choruses with orchestra, two
vols. VII. Songs and lyric choruses with pianoforte, 2 vols. in-
cluding arrangements of the orchestral songs. VIII. Operas:
Benvenuto Cellini; Les Troyens (five acts in two parts, La Prise de
Troie and Les Troyens d Carthage) ; Recitatives for the dialogue in
Weber's Freischiitz. IX. Arrangements, including the well-known
orchestral version of Weber's Invitation a la danse. X. Fragments
and new discoveries.
Adolphe Julien's biography of Berlioz (1888) first gave a careful
account of the details of his life. See also the books by R. Pohl
(1884), P. Galibert (1890), E. Hippeau (1890), G. Noufflard (1885),
L. Mesnard (1888), Louise Pohl (1900), and D. Bernard (trans, by
H. M. Dunstan, 1882). An illuminating essay on Berlioz is in
Filson Young's Mastersingers (1902). See also the essay in W. H.
Hadow's Studies in Modern Music (ist series, 1908). Berlioz's
Traite d'instrumentation has been translated into German and brought
up to date by Richard Strauss (Peters' edition [1906]).
BERM (probably a variant of " brim "), a narrow ledge of
ground, generally the level banks of a river. In parts of Egypt
the whole area reached by the Nile is included in the berm.
Thus of the lands near Berber, Mr C. Dupuis writes (in Sir
William Garstm's Report on the Upper Nile, 1904), " In most
places there is a well-defined alluvial berm of recent formation
and varying width, up to perhaps a couple of kilometres." In
military phraseology the berm is the space of ground between
the base of a rampart and the ditch.
BERMONDSEY, a south-eastern metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded N. and E. by the Thames, S.E. by
Deptford, S.W. by Camberwell, and W. by Southwark. Pop.
(1901) 130,760. It is a district of poor streets, inhabited by a
labouring population employed in leather and other factories,
and in the Surrey Commercial Docks and the wharves bordering
the river. The parish of Rotherhithe or Redriff has long been
associated with a seafaring population. A tunnel connecting
it with the opposite shore of the river was opened in June 1908.
The neighbouring Thames Tunnel was opened in 1843, but, as
the tolls were insufficient to maintain it, was sold to the East
London Railway Company in 1865. The Herold Institute, a
branch of the Borough Polytechnic, Southwark, is devoted to
instruction in connexion with the leather trade. Southwark
Park in the centre of the borough is 63 acres in extent. Ber-
mondsey is in the parliamentary borough of Southwark, including
the whole of Rotherhithe and part of the Bermondsey division.
The borough council consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 54
councillors. Area 1499-6 acres.
The name appears in Domesday, the suffix designating the
former insular, marshy character of the district; while the
prefix is generally taken to indicate the name of a Saxon over-
lord, Beormund. Bermondsey was in favour with the Norman
kings as a place of residence, and there was a palace here, perhaps
from pre-Norman times. A Cluniac monastery was founded in
1082, and Bermondsey Cross became a favoured place of pilgrim-
age. The foundation was erected into an abbey in 1399, and
Abbey Road recalls its site. Similarly, Spa Road points to the
existence of a popular spring and pleasure grounds, maintained
for some years at the close of the i8th century. Jacob Street
marks Jacob's Island, the scene of the death of Bill Sikes in
Dickens's Oliver Twist. Tooley Street, leading east from South-
wark by London Bridge railway station, is well known in con-
nexion with the story of three tailors of Tooley Street, who
addressed a petition to parliament opening with the compre-
hensive expression " We, the people of England." The name
is a corruption of StOlave, or Olaf, the Christian king of Norway,
who in 994 attacked London by way of the river, and broke down
London Bridge.
See E. T. Clarke, Bermondsey, its Historic Memories (1901)
BERMUDAS, a group of islands in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
a British colony, in 32" 15' N. and 64 50' W., about 580 m.
E. by S. from Cape Hattcras on the American coast. The group,
consisting of small islands and reefs (which mark the extreme
northern range of the coral-building polyps), is of oval form,
measuring 22 m. from N.E. to S.W., the area being 20 sq. m.
The largest of the islands is Great Bermuda, or the Main Island,
14 m. long and about a mile in average width, enclosing on the
east Harrington or Little Sound, and on the west the Great
Sound, which is thickly studded with islets, and protected on
the north by the islands of Watford, Boaz, Ireland and Somerset.
The remaining members of the group, St George, Pagct, Smith,
St David, Cooper, Nonsuch, &c., lie N.E. of the Main Island, and
form a semicircle round Castle Harbour. The fringing islands
which encircle the islands, especially on the north and west, leave
a few deep passages wide enough to admit the largest vessels.
Geology. The Bermudas consist of acolian limestones (cf.
BAHAMAS) which in some of the larger islands form irregular
hills attaining a height of some 200-250 ft. These limestones
are composed chiefly of comminuted shells drifted and deposited
by the wind, and they are very irregularly stratified, as is usually
the case with wind-blown deposits. Where fresh the rock is
soft, but where it has been exposed to the action of the sea it is
covered by a hard crust and often loses all trace of stratification.
The surface is frequently irregularly honeycombed. Even the reefs
are not wholly formed of coral. They are ridges of acolian lime-
stone plastered over by a thin layer of corals and other calcareous
organisms. The very remarkable " serpuline atolls " are covered
by a solid crust made of the convoluted tubes of serpulae and
Vermetus, together with barnacles, mussels, nullipores, corallines
and some true incrusting corals. They probably rest upon a
foundation of aeolian rock. The Bermudas were formerly much
more extensive than at present, and they may possibly stand
upon the summit of a hidden volcano. There are evidences of
small oscillations of levels, but no proofs of great elevation or
depression.
Soil, Climate, ffc. The surface soil is a curious kind of red
earth, which is also found in ochre-like strata throughout the
limestone. It is generally mixed with vegetable matter and
coral sand. There is a total want of streams and wells of fresh
water, and the' inhabitants are dependent on the rain, which
they collect and preserve in tanks. The climate is mild and
healthy, although serious epidemics of yellow fever and typhus
have occurred. The maximum reading of the thermometer is
about 87 F. and its minimum 49, the mean annual temperature
being 70. The islands attract a large number of visitors annually
from America. Vegetation is very rapid, and the soil is clad in a
mantle of almost perpetual green. The principal kind of tree is
the so-called " Bermudas cedar," really a species of juniper,
which furnishes timber for small vessels. The shores are fringed
with the mangrove; the prickly pear grows luxuriantly in the
most barren districts; and wherever the ground is left to itself
the sage bush springs up profusely. The citron, sour orange,
lemon and lime grow wild; but the apple and peach do not
come to perfection. The loquat, an introduction from China,
thrives admirably. The mild climate assists the growth of
esculent plants and roots; and a considerable trade is carried on
with New York, principally in onions, early potatoes, tomatoes,
and beetroot, together with lily bulbs, cut flowers and some
arrowroot. Medicinal plants, as the castor-oil plant and aloe,
come to perfection without culture; and coffee, indigo, cotton
and tobacco are also of spontaneous growth. Few oxen or sheep
are reared in the colony, meat, as well as bread and most vege-
tables, being imported from America. The indigenous mammals
are very few, and the only reptiles are a small lizard and the green
turtle. Birds, however, especially aquatic species, are very
numerous. Insects are comparatively few, but ants swarm
destructively in the heat of the year. Fish are plentiful round
the coasts, and the whale-fishery was once an important industry,
but the fisheries as a whole have not been developed.
Towns, and Administration. There are two towns in the
Bermudas: St George, on the island of that name, founded in
794
BERMUDEZ BERN
1 794 and incorporated in 1 797 ; and Hamilton, on the Main Island,
founded in 1790 and incorporated in 1793. St George was the
capital till the senate and courts of justice were removed by
Sir James Cockburn to Hamilton, which being centrally situated,
is more convenient. Hamilton, which is situated on the inner
part of the Great Sound, had a population in 1901 of 2246, that
of St George being 985. In Ireland Island is situated the royal
dockyard and naval establishment. The harbour of St George's
has space enough to accommodate a vast fleet; yet, till deepened
by blasting, the entrance was so narrow as to render it almost
useless. The Bermudas became an important naval and coaling
station in 1869, when a large iron dry dock was towed across the
Atlantic and placed in a secure position in St George, while,
owing to their important strategic position in mid-Atlantic, the
British government maintains a strong garrison. The Bermudas
are a British crown colony, with a governor resident at Hamilton,
who is assisted by an executive council of 6 members appointed
by the crown, a legislative council of 9 similarly appointed,
and a representative assembly of 36 members, of whom four
are returned by each of nine parishes. The currency of the
colony, which had formerly twelve shillings to the pound sterling,
was assimilated to that of England in 1842. The English
language is universal. The colony is ecclesiastically attached
to the bishopric of Newfoundland. In 1847 an educational
board was established, and there are numerous schools; attend-
ance is compulsory, but none of the schools is free. Government
scholarships enable youths to be educated for competition in the
Rhodes scholarships to Oxford University. The revenue of the
islands shows a fairly regular increase during the last years of the
igth century and the first of the 2oth, as from 37,830 in 1895
to 63,457 in 1904; expenditure is normally rather less than
revenue. In the year last named imports were valued at
589,979 and exports at 130,305, the annual averages since
1895 being about 426,300 and 112,500 respectively. The
population shows a steady increase, as from 13,948 in 1881 to
17,535 in 1901; 6383 were whites and 11,152 coloured in the
latter year.
History. The discovery of the Bermudas resulted from the
shipwreck of Juan Bermudez, a Spaniard (whose name they now
bear), when on a voyage from Spain to Cuba with a cargo of hogs,
early in the i6th century. Henry May, an Englishman, suffered
the same fate in 1593; and lastly, Sir George Somers shared the
destiny of the two preceding navigators in 1609. Sir George,
from whom the islands took the alternative name of Somers,
was the first who established a settlement upon them, but he
died before he had fully accomplished his design. In 1612 the
Bermudas were granted to an offshoot of the Virginia Company,
which consisted of 120 persons, 60 of whom, under the command
of Henry More, proceeded to the islands. The first source of
colonial wealth was the growing of tobacco, but the curing
industry ceased early in the i8th century. In 1726 Bishop
George Berkeley chose the Bermudas as the seat of his projected
missionary establishment. The first newspaper, the Bermuda
Gazette, was published in 1784.
See Godet, Bermuda, its History, Geology, Climate, &c. (London,
1860); Lefroy, Discovery and Settlement of the Bermudas (London,
1877-1879); A. Heilprin, Bermuda Islands (Philadelphia, 1889);
Stark, Bermuda Guide (London, 1898) ; Cole, Bermuda . . . Biblio-
graphy (Boston, 1907) ; and for geology see also A. Agassiz, " Visit
to the Bermudas in March 1894," Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. Harvard,,
vol. xxvi. No. 2, 1895; A. E. Verrill, " Notes on the Geology of the
Bermudas," Amer. Journ. Sci. ser. 4, vol. ix. (1900), pp. 313-340;
" The Bermuda Islands; Their Scenery, &c.," Trans. Conn. Acad.
Arts and Sci. vol. xi. pt. 2 (1901-1902).
BERMUDEZ, a N.E. state of Venezuela, between the Carib-
bean Sea and the Orinoco river, bounded E. by the gulf of Paria
and the Delta-Amacuro territory, and W. by the states of
Guarico and Miranda. Pop. (est. 1905) 364,158. It was created
in 1881 by the union of the states of Barcelona, Cumana and
Maturin, dissolved in 1901 into its three original states, and
reorganized in 1904 with a slight modification of territory. The
state includes the oldest settlements in Venezuela, and was once
very prosperous, producing cattle and exporting hides, but wars
and political disorders have partly destroyed its industries and
impeded their development. Its principal productions are
coffee, sugar, and cacao, and less important cotton, tobacco,
cocoanuts, timber, indigo and dyewoods. Its more important
towns are the capital, Barcelona, Maturin (pop. 14,473), capital
of a district of the same name, and CumanS. (10,000), on the gulf
of Cariaco, founded in 1520 and one of the oldest towns of the
continent.
BERN (Fr. Berne), after the Grisons, the largest of the Swiss
cantons, but by far the most populous, though politically Bern
ranks after that of Zurich. It extends right across Switzerland
from beyond the Jura to the snow-clad ranges that separate
Bern from the Valais. Its total area is 2641-9 sq. m., of which
2081 sq. m. are classed as " productive " (including 591 sq. m.
of forests, and 2-1 m. of vineyards), while of the remainder
111-3 S Q- m - are occupied by glaciers (the Valais and the Grisons
alone surpass it in this respect). It is mainly watered by the
river Aar (q.v.), with its affluents, the Kander (left), the Saane
or Sarine (left) and the Emme (right) ; the Aar forms the two
lakes of Brienz and Thun (q.v.). The great extent of this canton
accounts for the different character of the regions therein com-
prised. Three are usually distinguished: (i) The Oberland or
Highlands, which is that best known to travellers, for it includes
the snowy Alps of the Bernese Oberland (culminating in the
Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 ft., and the Jungfrau, 13,669 ft.), as well
as the famous summer resorts of Grindelwald, Miirren, Lauter-
brunnen, Interlaken, Meiringen, Kandersteg, Adelboden, Thun
and the fine pastoral valley of the Simme. (2) The Mitlelland
or Midlands, comprising the valley of the Aar below Thun, and
that of the Emme, thus taking in the outliers of the high Alps
and the open country on every side of the town of Bern. (3)
The Seeland (Lakeland) and the Jura, extending from Bienne
and its lake across the Jura to Porrentruy in the plains and to
the upper course of the Birs. The Oberland and Mittelland form
the " old " canton, .the Jura having only been acquired in 1815,
and differing from the rest of the canton by reason of its French-
speaking and Romanist inhabitants.
In 1900 the total population of the canton was 589,433, of
whom 483,388 were German-speaking, 97,789 French-speaking,
and 7167 Italian-speaking; while there were 506,699 Protestants,
80,489 Romanists (including the Old Catholics), and 1543 Jews.
The capital is Bern (q.v.), while the other important towns are
Bienne (q.v.), Burgdorf (q.v.), Delemont or Delsberg (5053
inhabitants), Porrentruy or Pruntrut (6959 inhabitants), Thun
(q.v.), and Langenthal (4799 inhabitants). There is a university
(founded in 1834) in the town of Bern, as well as institutions
for higher education in the principal towns. The canton is
divided into 30 administrative districts, and contains 507
communes (the highest number in Switzerland). From 1803 to
1814 the canton was one of the six " Directorial " cantons of the
Confederation. The existing cantonal constitution dates from
'1893, but in 1906 the direct popular election of the executive
of 9 members (hitherto named by the legislature) was introduced.
The legislature or Grossrath is elected for four years (like the
executive), in the proportion of I member to every 2500 (or
fraction over 1250) of the resident population. The obligatory
Referendum obtains in the case of all laws, and of decrees relating
to an expenditure of over half a million francs, while 12,000
citizens nave the right of initiative in the case of legislative
projects, and 15,000 may demand the revision of the cantonal
constitution. The 2 members sent by the canton to the federal
Sldnderath are elected by the Grossrath, while the 29 members
sent to the federal Nationalrath are chosen by a popular vote.
In the Alpine portions of the canton the breeding of cattle (those
of the Simme valley are particularly famous) is the chief industry;
next come the elaborate arrangements for summer travellers
(the Fremdenindustrie) . It is reckoned that there are 2430
" Alps " or mountain pastures in the canton, of which 1474 are
in the Oberland, 627 in the Jura, and 280 in the Emme valley;
they can maintain 95,478 cows and are of the estimated value
of 46! million francs. The cheese of the Emme valley is locally
much esteemed. Other industries in the Alpine region are
wood-carving (at Brienz) and wine manufacture (on the shores
BERN
795
of the lakes of Bienne and of Thun). The Mittelland is the
agricultural portion of the canton. Watchmaking is the principal
industry of the Jura, Bienne and St Imier being the chief centres
of this industry. Iron mines are also worked in the Jura, while
the Heimberg potteries, near Thun, produce a locally famous
ware, and there are both quarries of building stone and tile
factories. The canton is well supplied with railway lines, the
broad gauge lines being 228 m. in length, and the narrow gauge
lines isyj m. in all 385^ m. Among these are many funicular
cog-wheel lines, climbing up to considerable heights, so up to
Miirren (5368 ft.), over the Wengern Alp (6772 ft.), up to the
Schynige Platte (6463 ft.), and many others still in the state of
projects. All these are in the Oberland where, too, is the
so-called Jungfrau railway, which in 1906 attained a point (the
Eismeer station) in the south wall of the Eiger (13,042 ft.)
that was 10,371 ft. in height, the loftiest railway station in
Switzerland.
The canton of Bern is composed Of the various districts which
the town of Bern acquired by conquest or by purchase in the
course of time. The more important, with dates of acquisition,
are the following: Laupen (1324), Hasli and Meiringen (1334),
Thun and Burgdorf (1384), Unterseen and the Upper Simmc
valley (1386), Frutigen, &c. (1400), Lower Simme valley (1439-
1449), Interlaken, with Grindelwald, Lauterbrunnen and Brienz
(1528, on the suppression of the Austin Canons of Interlaken),
Saanen or Gessenay (1555), Koniz (1729), and the Bernese Jura
with Bienne (1815, from the bishopric of Basel). But certain
regions previously won were lost in 1798 Aargau (1415), Aigle
and Grandson (1475), Vaud (1536), and the Pays d'En-Haut
or Chateau d'Oex (1555). From 1798 to 1802 the Oberland
formed a separate canton (capital, Thun) of the Helvetic
Republic. (W. A. B. C.)
BERN (Fr. Berne), the capital of the Swiss canton of the same
name, and, by a Federal law of 1848, the political capital of the
Swiss confederation. It is most picturesquely situated on a high
bluff or peninsula, round the base of which flows the river Aar,
thus completely cutting off the old town, save to the west. Five
lofty bridges have been thrown over the Aar, the two most
modern being the Kirchfeld and Kornhaus bridges which have
greatly contributed to create new residential quarters near the
old town. Within the town the arcades (or Lauben) on either
side of the main street, and the numerous elaborately ornamented
fountains attract the eye, as well as the two remaining towers
that formerly stood on the old walls but are now in the centre of
the town; the Zeitglockenthurm (famous for its singular 16th-
century clock, with its mechanical contrivances, set in motion
when the hour strikes) and the K&fichthurm. The principal
medieval building in Bern is the (now Protestant) Mttnster, begun
in 1421 though not completed till 1573. The tower, rising
conspicuously above the town, has recently been well restored,
but the church was never a cathedral church (as is often stated),
for there has never yet been a bishop of Bern. The federal
Houses of Parliament (Bundeshaus) were much enlarged in
1888-1892, the older portions dating from 1852-1857, and also
contain the offices of the federal executive and administration.
The town-hall dates from 1406, while some of the houses belonging
to the old gilds contain much of interest. The town library
(with which that of the university was incorporated in 1905)
contains a vast store of MSS. and rare printed books, but should
be carefully distinguished from the national Swiss library,
which, with the building for the federal archives, is built in the
new Kirchfeld quarter. There are a number of museums; the
historical (archaeological and medieval), the natural history (in
which the skin of Barry, the famous St Bernard dog, is preserved),
the art (mainly modern Swiss pictures), and the Alpine (in which
are collections of all kinds relating to the Swiss Alps). Bern
possesses a university (founded in 1834) and two admirably
organized hospitals. The old fortifications (Schanzen) have been
converted into promenades, which command wonderful views
of the snowy Alps of the Bernese Oberland. Just across the
Nydeck bridge is the famous bear pit in which live bears are kept,
as they are supposed to have given the name to the town;
certainly a bear is shown on the earliest known town seal (1224),
while live bears have been maintained at the charges of the
townsince 1313- There is comparatively little industrial activity
in the town, the importance of which is mainly political, though
of late years it has been selected as the seat of various inter-
national associations (postal, telegraph, railway, copyright, &c.).
The climate is severe, as the town is much exposed to cold winds
blowing from the snowy Alps. In point of population it is
exceeded in Switzerland by Zurich, Basel and Geneva, though
the number of inhabitants has risen from 27,558 in 1850 and
43,197 in 1880 to 64,227 in 1900. In 1900, 59,698 inhabitants
were German-speaking; while 57,144 were Protestants, 6087
Romanists (including Old Catholics) and 655 Jews. The height
of the town above the sea-level is 1788 ft.
The ancient castle of Nydeck, at the eastern end of the penin-
sula, guarded the passage over the Aar, and it was probably
its existence that induced Berchtold V., duke of Zaringen, to
found Bern in 1191 as a military post on the frontier between
the Alamannians (German-speaking) and the Burgundians
(French-speaking). Thrice tie walls which protected the town
were moved westwards, about 1250, in 1346 and in 1622, though
even at the last-named date the town only stretched a little way
to the west of (or beyond) the present railway station. After
the extinction of the Zaringen dynasty (1218) Bern became a
free imperial city, but it had to fight hard for its independence,
which was finally secured by the victories of DornbUhl (1298)
over Fribourg and the Habsburgs, and of Laupen (1339) over
the neighbouring Burgundian nobles. In the second battle Bern
received help from the three forest cantons with which it had
become allied in 1323, while in 1353 it entered the Swiss confedera-
tion as its eighth member. It soon took the lead in the confedera-
tion, though always aiming at enlarging its own borders, even at
great risks (see the article on the can ton). In 1528 Bern accepted
the religious reformation, and henceforth became one of its
chief champions in Switzerland. In the 1 7th century the number
of families by which high offices of state could be held was
diminished, so that in 1605 there were 152 thus qualified, but in
1691 only 104, while towards the end of the i8th century there
were only 69 such families. Meanwhile the rule of the town was
extending over more and more territory, so that finally it
governed 52 bailiwicks (acquired between 1324 and 1729), the
Bernese patricians being thus extremely powerful and forming
an oligarchy that administered affairs like a benevolent and
well-ordered despotism. Ini723Major Davel, at Lausanne, and
in 1749 Henzi, in Bern itself, tried to break down this monopoly,
but in each case paid the penalty of failure on the scaffold.
The whole system was swept away by the French iri 1798, and
though partially revived in 1815, came to an end in 1831, since
which time Bern has been in the van of political progress. From
1815 to 1848 it shared with Zurich and Lucerne the supreme
rule (which shifted from one to the other every two years) in
the Swiss confederation, while in 1848 a federal law made Bern
the sole political capital, where the federal government is
permanently fixed and where the ministers of foreign powers
reside.
AUTHORITIES. Die Alp- -und Weidewirthschaft im Kant. Bern
(Bern, 1903); Archiv d. hist. Vereins d. Kant. Bern, from 1848,
and Blatter fiir bernische Geschichte, from 1905 ; Bernische Biographien
(Bern, 1898-1906); E. Friedli, Bdrndutsch als Spiegel berntschen
Volkstums, vol. i. (LUtzelfliih, Bern, 1905), and vol. ii. (Grindelwald.
Bern, 1908); Festschrift zur jlen Sdkularfeier d. Griindung Bems,
1191 (Bern, 1891); Fontes Rerum Bernensium (to 1378), (o vols.,
Bern, 1883-1908); K. Geiser, Geschichte d. bernischen Verfassung,
1191-1471 (Bern, 1888); B. Haller, Bern in seinen Ralhsmanualen,
1465-1565 (3 vols., Bern, 1900-1902); E. F. and W. F. von Mulinen,
Beitrdge zur Heimathskunde d. Kantons Bern, deutschen Thetis
(3 vols., Bern, 1879-1894); W. F. von MUlinen, Berns Geschichte,
1191-1891 (Bern, 1891); E. vcn Rodt, Bernische Stadtgeschichte
(Bern, 1888), and 6 finely illustrated vols. on Bern in the nth to
igth centuries (Bern, 1898-1907); L. S. von Tscharner, Rechts-
eeschichte des Obersimmenthales bis sum Jahre 1798 (Bern, 1908);
E von Wattcnwyl, Geschichte d. Stadt a. Landschaft Bern (to 1400),
(2 vols.) ; Schaffhausen and Bern (1867-1872) ; F. E. Wclti. Die Rrchls-
quellen d. Kant. Bern, vol. i. (Aarau, 1902) ; Gertrud Zilrichcr, Kinder-
spiel u. Kinderlied im Kant. Bern (Zurich. 1902). (W. A. B. C.)
796
BERNARD, SAINT
BERNARD, SAINT (1090-1153), abbot of Clairvaux one of the
most illustrious preachers and monks of the middle ages, was
born at Fontaines, near Dijon, in France. His father, a knight
named Tecelin, perished on crusade; and his mother Aleth, a
daughter of the noble house of Mon-Bar, and a woman distin-
guished for her piety, died while Bernard was yet a boy. The
lad was constitutionally unfitted for the career of arms, and his
own disposition, as well as his mother's early influence, directed
him to the church. His desire to enter a monastery was opposed
by his relations, who sent him to study at Chalons in order to
qualify for high ecclesiastical preferment. Bernard's resolution
to become a monk was not, however, shaken, and when he at
last definitely decided to join the community which Robert of
Molesmes had founded at Citeaux in 1198, he carried with him
his brothers and many of his relations and friends. The little
community of reformed Benedictines, which was to produce so
profound an influence on Western monachism (see CISTERCIANS
and MONASTICISM) and had seemed on the point of extinction
for lack of novices, gained a sudden new life through this accession
of some thirty young men of the best families of the neighbour-
hood. Others followed their example ; and the community grew
so rapidly that it was soon able to send off offshoots. One of
these daughter monasteries, Clairvaux, was founded in 1115,
in a wild valley branching from that of the Aube, on land given by
Count Hugh of Troyes, and of this Bernard was appointed abbot.
By the new constitution of the Cistercians Clairvaux became
the chief monastery of the five branches into which the order
was divided under the supreme direction of the abbot of Citeaux.
Though nominally subject to Citeaux, however, Clairvaux soon
became the most important Cistercian house, owing to the fame
and influence of Bernard. 1 His saintly character, his self-
mortification of so severe a character that his friend, William
of Champeaux, bishop of Chalons, thought it right to remonstrate
with him and above all, his marvellous power as a preacher,
soon made him famous, and drew crowds of pilgrims to Clairvaux.
His miracles were noised abroad, and sick folk were brought
from near and far to be healed by his touch. Before long the
abbot, who had intended to devote his life to the work of his
monastery, was drawn into the affairs of the great world. When
in 1124 Pope Honorius II. mounted the chair of St Peter, Bernard
was already reckoned among the greatest of French churchmen ;
he now shared in the most important ecclesiastical discussions,
and papal legates sought his counsel. Thus in 1128 he was
invited by Cardinal Matthew of Albano to the synod of Troyes,
where he was instrumental in obtaining the recognition of the
new order of Knights Templars, the rules of which he is said to
have drawn up ; and in the following year, at the synod of Chalons-
sur-Marne, he ended the crisis arising out of certain charges
brought against Henry, bishop of Verdun, by persuading the
bishop to resign. The European importance of Bernard, however,
began with the death of Pope Honorius II. (1130) and the
disputed election that followed. In the synod convoked by
Louis the Fat at Etampes in April 1130 Bernard successfully
asserted the claims of Innocent II. against those of Anacletus II.,
and from this moment became the most influential supporter
of his cause. He threw himself into the contest with character-
istic ardour. While Rome itself was held by Anacletus, France,
England, Spain and Germany declared for Innocent, who,
though banished from Rome, was in Bernard's phrase
"accepted by the world." The pope travelled from place to
place, with the powerful abbot of Clairvaux at his side; he
stayed at Clairvaux itself, humble still, so far as its buildings
were concerned; and he went with Bernard to parley with the
emperor Lothair III. at Liege.
In 1133, the year of the emperor's first expedition to Rome,
Bernard was in Italy persuading the Genoese to make peace with
the men of Pisa, since the' pope had need of both. He accom-
panied Innocent to Rome, successfully resisting the proposal to
reopen negotiations with Anacletus, who held the castle of Sant'
Angelo and, with the support of Roger of Sicily, was too strong
1 The Cistercians of this branch of the order were commonly known
as Bernardines.
to be subdued by force. Lothair, though crowned by Innocent
in St Peter's, could do nothing to establish him in the Holy See
so long as his own power was sapped by his quarrel with the
house of Hohenstaufen. Again Bernard came to the rescue;
in the spring of 1135 he was at Bamberg successfully persuading
Frederick of Hohenstaufen to submit to the emperor. In June
he was back in Italy, taking a leading part in the council of Pisa,
by which Anacletus was excommunicated. In northern Italy the
effect of his personality and of his preaching was immense;
Milan itself, of all the Lombard cities most jealous of the imperial
claims, surrendered to his eloquence, submitted to Lothair and
to Innocent, and tried to force Bernard against his will into the
vacant see of St Ambrose. In 1137, the year of Lothair's last
journey to Rome, Bernard was back in Italy again; at Monte
Cassino, setting the affairs of the monastery in order, at Salerno,
trying in vain to induce Roger of Sicily to declare against
Anacletus, in Rome itself, agitating with success against the
antipope. Anacletus died on the 25th of January 1138; on the
i3th of March the cardinal Gregory was elected his successor,
assuming the name of Victor. Bernard's crowning triumph in
the long contest was the abdication of the new antipope, the
result of his personal influence. The schism of the church was
healed, and the abbot of Clairvaux was free to return to the
peace of his monastery.
Clairvaux itself had meanwhile (1135-1136) been transformed
outwardly in spite of the reluctance of Bernard, who preferred
the rough simplicity of the original buildings into a more
suitable seat for an influence that overshadowed that of Rome
itself. How great this influence was is shown by the outcome
of Bernard's contest with Abelard (g.v.). In intellectual and
dialectical power the abbot was no match for the great schoolman ;
yet at Sens in 1141 Abelard feared to face him, and when he
appealed to Rome Bernard's word was enough to secure his
condemnation.
One result of Bernard's fame was the marvellous growth of the
Cistercian order. Between 1130 and 1145 no less than ninety-
three monasteries in connexion with Clairvaux were either
founded or affiliated from other rules, three being established in
England and one in Ireland. In 1145 a Cistercian monk, once
a member of the community of Clairvaux another Bernard,
abbot of Aquae Silviae near Rome, was elected pope as Eugenius
III. This was a triumph for the order; to the world it was a
triumph for Bernard, who complained that all who had suits to
press at Rome applied to him, as though he himself had mounted
the chair of St Peter (Ep. 239).
Having healed the schism within the church, Bernard was
next called upon to attack the enemy without. Languedoc
especially had become a hotbed of heresy, and at this time the
preaching of Henry of Lausanne (<?..) was drawing thousands
from the orthodox faith. In June 1145, at the invitation of
Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard travelled in the south, and by
his preaching did something to stem the flood of heresy for a
while. Far more important, however, was his activity in the
following year, when, in obedience to the pope's command, he
preached a crusade. The effect of his eloquence was extra-
ordinary. At the great meeting at Vezelay, on the 2 ist of March,
as the result of his sermon, King Louis VII. of France and his
queen, Eleanor of Guienne, took the cross, together with a host
of all classes, so numerous that the stock of crosses was soon
exhausted; Bernard next travelled through northern France,
Flanders and the Rhine provinces, everywhere rousing the
wildest enthusiasm; and at Spires on Christmas day he succeeded
in persuading Conrad, king of the Romans, to join the crusade.
The lamentable outcome of the movement (see CRUSADES)
was a hard blow to Bernard, who found it difficult to understand
this manifestation of the hidden counsels of God, but ascribed
it to the sins of the crusaders (Ep. 288; de Consid. ii. i). The
news of the disasters to the crusading host first reached Bernard
at Clairvaux, where Pope Eugenius, driven from Rome by the
revolution associated with the name of Arnold of Brescia, was
his guest. Bernard had in March and April ri48 accompanied
the pope to the council of Reims, where he led the attack on
BERNARD, SAINT
797
certain propositions of the scholastic theologian Gilbert de la
Porr6e (q.v.). From whatever cause whether the growing
jealousy of the cardinals, or the loss of prestige owing to the
rumoured failure of the crusade, the success of which he had so
confidently predicted Bernard's influence, hitherto so ruinous
to those suspected of heterodoxy, on this occasion failed of its
full effect. On the news of the full extent of the disaster that
had overtaken the crusaders, an effort was made to retrieve it
by organizing another expedition. At the invitation of Suger,
abbot of St Denis, now the virtual ruler of France, Bernard
attended the meeting of Chartres convened for this purpose,
where he himself was elected to conduct the new crusade, the
choice being confirmed by the pope. He was saved from this
task, for which he was physically and constitutionally unfit, by
the intervention of the Cistercian abbots, who forbade him to
undertake it.
Bernard was now ageing, broken by his austerities and by
ceaseless work, and saddened by the loss of several of his early
friends. But his intellectual energy remained undimmed.
He continued to take an active interest in ecclesiastical affairs,
and his last work, the De Consider -alione, shows no sign of failing
power. He died on the zoth of August 1153.
The greatness of St Bernard lay not in the qualities of his
intellect, but of his character. Intellectually he was the child
of his age, inferior to those subtle minds whom the world, fired
by his contagious zeal, conspired to crush. Morally he was their
superior; and in this moral superiority lay the secret of his
power. The age recognized in him the embodiment of its ideal:
that of medieval monasticism at its highest development. The
world had no meaning for him save as a place of banishment and
trial, in which men are but " strangers and pilgrims " (Serm.
i., Epiph. n. i; Serm. vii., Lent. n. i); the way of grace, back
to the lost inheritance, had been marked out once for all, and the
function of theology was but to maintain the landmarks inherited
from the past. With the subtleties of the schools he had no
sympathy, and the dialectics of the schoolmen quavered into
silence before his terrible invective. Yet, within the limits of
his mental horizon, Bernard's vision was clear enough. His very
life proves with what merciless logic he followed out the principles
of the Christian faith as he conceived it; and it is impossible to
say that he conceived it amiss. For all his overmastering zeal
he was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor. Even when
he was preaching the crusade he interfered at Mainz to stop the
persecution of the Jews, stirred up by the monk Radulf. As for
heretics, " the little foxes that spoil the vines," these " should be
taken, not by force of arms, but by force of argument," though,
if any heretic refused to be thus taken, he considered " that he
should be driven away, or even a restraint put upon his liberty,
rather than that he should be allowed to spoil the vines " (Serm.
Ixiv.). He was evidently troubled by the mob violence which
made the heretics " martyrs to their unbelief." He approved
the zeal of the people, but could not advise the imitation of their
action, " because faith is to be produced by persuasion, not
imposed by force "; adding, however, in the true spirit of his
age and of his church, " it would without doubt be better that
they should be coerced by the sword than that they should be
allowed to draw away many other persons into their error."
Finally, oblivious of the precedent of the Pharisees, he ascribes
the steadfastness of these " dogs " in facing death to the power
of the devil (Serm. Ixvi. on Canticles ii. 15).
This is Bernard at his worst. At his best and, fortunately,
this is what is mainly characteristic of the man and his writings
he displays a nobility of nature, a wise charity and tenderness
in his dealings with others, and a genuine humility, with no
touch of servility, that make him one of the most complete
exponents of the Christian life. His broadly Christian character
is, indeed, witnessed to by the enduring quality of his influence.
The author of the Imitutio drew inspiration from his writings;
the reformers saw in him a medieval champion of their favourite
doctrine of the supremacy of the divine grace; his works, down
to the present day, have been reprinted in countless editions.
This is perhaps due to the fact that the chief fountain of his own
inspiration was the Bible. He was saturated in its language
and in its spirit; and though he read it, as might be expected,
uncritically, and interpreted its plain meanings allegorically
as the fashion of the day was it saved him from the grosser
aberrations of medieval Catholicism. He accepted the teaching
of the church as to the reverence due to our Lady and the saints,
and on feast-days and festivals those receive their due meed in
his sermons; but in his letters and sermons their names are at
other times seldom invoked. They were overshadowed com-
pletely in his mind by his idea of the grace of God and the moral
splendour of Christ; " from Him do the Saints derive the
odour of sanctity; from Him also do they shine as lights "
(Ep. 464).
The cause of Bernard's extraordinary popular success as a
preacher can only imperfectly be judged by the sermons that
survive. These were all delivered in Latin, evidently to congrega-
tions more or less on his own intellectual level. Like his letters,
they arc full of quotations from and reference to the Bible, and
they have all the qualities likely to appeal to men of culture at
all times. " Bernard," wrote Erasmus in his Art of Preaching,
" is an eloquent preacher, much more by nature than by art;
he is full of charm and vivacity and knows how to reach and
move the affections." The same is true of the letters and to an
even more striking degree. They are written on a large variety
of subjects, great and small, to people of the most diverse stations
and types; and they help us to understand the adaptable nature
of the man, which enabled him to appeal as successfully to the
unlearned as to the learned.
Bernard's works fall into three categories: (i) Letters, of
which over five hundred have been preserved, of great interest
and value for the history of the period. (2) Treatises: (a)
dogmatic and polemical, De gratia et libero arbitrio, written about
1127, and following closely the lines laid down by St Augustine;
DC ha pt is mo aliisque quaeslionibus ad mag. Hugonem de S. Viclore;
Contra quaedant capitala errorum Abaelardi ad Innocentem II.
(in justification of the action of the synod of Sens); (b) ascetic
and mystical, De gradibus humilitatis et superbiae, his first work,
written perhaps about 1121; De diligcndo Deo (about 1126);
De cornerstone ad dericos, an address to candidates for the priest-
hood; De Consideralione, Bernard's last work, written about
1148 at the pope's request for the edification and guidance of
Eugenius III.; (c) about monasticism, Apologia ad Guilelmum,
written about 1127 to William, abbot of St Thierry; De laude
novae militiae ad mililes templi (c. 1132-1136); De precepto et
dispensations, an answer to various questions on monastic
conduct and discipline addressed to him by the monks of St
Peter at Chartres (some time before 1 143) ; (</) on ecclesiastical
government, De moribus et officio episcoporum, written about
1126 for Henry, bishop of Sens; the De Consideration mentioned
above; (e) a biography, De vita el rebus gestis S. ifalachiae.
Hiberniae episcopi, written at the request of the Irish abbot
Congan and with the aid of materials supplied by him; it is of
importance for the ecclesiastical history of Ireland in the i2th
century; (/) sermons divided into Sermones de tempore; de
sanctis; de diversis; and eighty-six sermons, in Contica Canti-
corum, an allegorical and mystical exposition of the Song of
Solomon; (g) hymns. Many hymns ascribed to Bernard
survive, e.g. Jesu dulcis memoria, Jesus rex admirabUis, Jestt
decus angelicum, Salve caput cruentatum. Of these the three first
are included in the Roman breviary. Many have been translated
and are used in Protestant churches.
St Bernard's works were first published in anything like a
complete edition at Paris in 1508, under the title Seraphica
mellijlui devotique doctoris S. Bcrnardi scripta, edited by Andrf
Bocard; the first really critical and complete edition is that of
Dom J. Mabillon Sancti Brrnardi opp. &c. (Paris, 1667, improved
and enlarged in 1600, and again, by Massuet and Texier, in 1719).
reprinted by J. P. Migne, Patrolog. lot. (Paris, 1859). Thorr N
an English translation of Mabillon's edition, including, how-
ever, only the letters and the sermons on the Song of Songs,
with the biographical and other prefaces, by Samuel J. Eales
(4 vols., London, 1880-1895). See further Leopold Janauschck,
798
BERNARD OF CHARTRES BERNARD, J.
Bibliographia. Bernardino, (Vienna, 1891), which includes 2761
entries, including 120 works wrongly ascribed to Bernard.
AUTHORITIES. The principal source for the life of St Bernard is
the Vita Prima, compiled, in six books, by various contemporary
writers: book i. by William, abbot of St Thierry near Reims;
book ii. by Ernald, or Arnald, abbot of Bonnevalle; books iii., iv. and
v. by Geoffrey (Gaufrid), monk of Clairvaux and Bernard's secretary ;
book vi., on Bernard's miracles, by Geoffrey and Philip, another
monk of Clairvaux, &c. A MS. is preserved, int. al., in the library
of Lambeth Palace ( xiv. No. 163). The Vita was first published
in Bernardi op. omn. by Mabillon (Paris, 1690), ii. pp. 1061 ff. ; it
was included in Migne, Patrolog. lat. clxxxv. pp. 225-416, which also
contains the abridgments or amplifications, by later hands, of the
Vita Prima, known as the Vita Secunda, Tertia and Quarta. For
a critical study of these sources see G. Hiiffer, Der heilige Bernhard
von Clairvaux (2 vols., Miinster, 1886), and E. Vacandard, Vie de
Saint Bernard (2 vols., Paris, 1895).
Among the numerous modern works on St Bernard may be men-
tioned, besides the above, J. C. Morison, The Life and Times of
St Bernard (London, 1863) ; G. Chevallier, Histoire de Saint Bernard
(2 vols., Lille, 1888) ; S. J. Bales, St Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux
(London, 1890, " Fathers for English Readers " series) ; ib. Life
end Works of St Bernard (London, 1889) ; R. S. Storrs, Bernard of
Clairvaux: the Times, the Man and His Work (New York, 1893);
Comte d'Haussonville, Saint Bernard (Paris, 1906). See also the
article by Vacandart in A. Vacant's Dictiannaire de theologie (with
full -bibliography), and that by S. M. Deutsch in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopddie (3rd ed.), vol. ii. (bibliography). Further works,
monographs, &c., are given s. " Vita S. Bernardi " in Potthast.
Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi (Berlin, 1896). (W. A. P.)
BERNARD OF CHARTRES (io8o?-n67), surnamed
SYLVESTRIS, scholastic philosopher, described by John of
Salisbury as perfectissimus inter Platonicos nostri saeculi. He
and his brother Theodore were among the chief members of the
school of Chartres (France), founded in the early part of the
nth century by Fulbert, the great disciple of Gerbert. This
school flourished at a time when medieval thought was directed
to the ancient philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and had per-
versely come to regard Aristotle as merely the founder of abstract
logic and formal intellectualism, as opposed to Plato whose
doctrine of Ideas seemed to tend in a naturalistic direction.
Thus Bernard is a Platonist and yet the representative of a
" return to Nature " which curiously anticipates the humanism
of the early Renaissance. John of Salisbury (Metalogicus, iv. 35)
attributes to him two treatises, of which one contrasts the eternity
of ideas with the finite nature of things, and the other is an
attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. The only extant
fragments of Bernard's writings are from a treatise Megacosmus
and Microcosmus (edited by C. S. Barach at Innsbruck, 1876).
The source of Bernard's inspiration was Plato's Timaeus. He
maintained that ideas are really existent and are laid up for ever
in the mind of God. He further attempted to build up a sym-
bolism of numbers with the view of elaborating the doctrine of
the Trinity, and explaining the meaning of unity, plurality and
likeness.
See SCHOLASTICISM; also V. Cousin, (Euvres inedites of Abelard
(Paris, 1836); Haureau, Philosophie scolastique, i. 396 foil.
BERNARD, CHARLES DE, whose full name was PIERRE
MARIE CHARLES DE BERNARD DU GRAIL DE LA VILLETTE (1804-
1850), French writer, was born at Besanfon on the 25th of
February 1804. After studying for the law, and then taking
to journalism, he was encouraged by Balzac (whose Peau de
chagrin he had reviewed) to settle in Paris and devote himself
to authorship; and the result was a series of volumes of fiction,
remarkable for their picture of provincial society and the Parisian
bourgeoisie. The best of these are Le Nceud gordien (1838),
containing among other short stories Une Aventure de magistral,
from which Sardou drew his comedy of the Pomntes du voisin;
Gerfaut (1838), considered his masterpiece; Les Ailes d'Icare
(1840), La Peau du lion (1841) and Le Gentilhomme campagnard
(1847)-
His (Euvres completes (12 vols.), which appeared after his death
on the 6th of March 1850, include also his poetry and two comedies
written in collaboration with " Leonce " (C. H. L. Laurengot, 1805-
1862). A nattering appreciation by Armand de Pontmartin is
prefixed to Un Beau-pere in this collection. In W. M. Thackeray's
Paris Sketch-book (" On some fashionable French novels ") there
is an admirable criticism of Bernard. See also an essay by Henry
James in French Poets and Novelists (1884).
BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878), French physiologist, was
born on the I2th of July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien near
Villefranche. He received his early education in the Jesuit
school of that town, and then proceeded to the college at Lyons,
which, however, he soon left to become assistant in a druggist's
shop. His leisure hours were devoted to the composition of a
vaudeville comedy, La Rose du Rhdne, and the success it achieved
moved him to attempt a prose drama in five acts, Arthur de
Bretagne. At the age of twenty-one he went to Paris, armed
with this play and an introduction to Saint- Marc Girardin, but
the critic dissuaded him from adopting literature as a profession,
and urged him rather to take up the study of medicine. This
advice he followed, and in due course became interne at the
Hotel Dieu. In this way he was brought into contact with the
great physiologist, F. Magendie, who was physician to the
hospital, and whose official preparateur at the College de France
he became in 1841. Six years afterwards he was appointed his
deputy-professor at the college, and in 1855 he succeeded him
as full professor. Some time previously he had been chosen the
first occupant of the newly-instituted chair of physiology at the
Sorbonne. There no laboratory was provided for his use, but
Louis Napoleon, after an interview with him in 1864, supplied
the deficiency, at the same time building a laboratory at the
natural history museum in the Jardin des Plantes, and estab-
lishing a professorship, which Bernard left the Sorbonne to accept
in 1868 the year in which he was admitted a member of the
Institute. He died in Paris on the loth of February 1878 and
was accorded a public funeral an honour which had never
before been bestowed by France on a man of science.
Claude Bernard's first important work was on the functions of
the pancreas gland, the juice of which he proved to be of great
significance in the process of digestion; this achievement won
him the prize for experimental physiology from the Academy of
Sciences. A second investigation perhaps his most famous
was on the glycogenic function of the liver; in the course of this
he was led to the conclusion, which throws light on the causation
of diabetes, that the liver, in addition to secreting bile, is the
seat of an " internal secretion, " by which it prepares sugar at
the expense of the elements of the blood passing through it. A
third research resulted in the discovery of the vaso-motor system.
While engaged, about 1851, in examining the effects produced
in the temperature of various parts of the body by section of
the nerve or nerves belonging to them, he noticed that division
of the cervical sympathetic gave rise to more active circulation
and more forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of
the head, and a few months afterwards he observed that electrical
excitation of the upper portion of the divided nerve had the
contrary effect. In this way he established the existence of
vaso-motor nerves both vaso-dilatator and vaso-constrictor.
The study of the physiological action of poisons was also a
favourite one with him, his attention being devoted in particular
to curare and carbon monoxide gas. The earliest announcements
of his results, the most striking of which were obtained in the
ten years from about 1850 to 1860, were generally made in the
recognized scientific publications; but the full exposition of his
views, and even the statement of some of the original facts,
can only be found in his published lectures. The various series
of these Lemons fill seventeen octavo volumes. He also published
Introduction a la medecine experimentale (1865), and Physiologic
generale (1872).
An English Life of Bernard, by Sir Michael Foster, was published
in London in 1899.
BERNARD, JACQUES (1658-1718), French theologian and
publicist, was born at Nions in Dauphine on the ist of September
1658. Having studied at Geneva, he returned to France in 1679,
and was chosen minister of Venterol in Dauphine, whence he
afterwards removed to the church of Vinsobres. As he continued
to preach the reformed doctrines in opposition to the royal
ordinance, he was obliged to leave the country and retired to
Holland, where he was well received and appointed one of the
pensionary ministers of Gouda. In July 1686 he commenced
his Histoire abregee de I' Europe, which he continued monthly till
BERNARD, M. BERNAY
799
December 1688. In 1692 he began his Lettres historiques, con-
taining an account of the most important transactions in Europe;
he carried on this work till the end of 1698, after which it was
continued by others. When Le Clerc discontinued his Biblio-
theque universelle in 1691, Bernard wrote the greater part of the
twentieth volume and the five following volumes. In 1698 he
collected and published Actes et ntgociations de la paix de Ryswic,
in four volumes izmo. In 1699 he began a continuation of
Bayle's Nouvelles de la rtpublique des letlres, which continued till
December 1710. In 1705 he was unanimously elected one of the
ministers of the Walloon church at Leiden; and about the same
time he succeeded M. de Valder in the chair of philosophy and
mathematics at Leiden. In 1716 he published a supplement
to Moreri's dictionary, in two volumes folio. The same year he
resumed his Nouvelles de la rtpublique des letlres, and continued
it till his death, on the 27th of April 1718. Besides the works
above mentioned, he was the author of two practical treatises,
one on late repentance (1712), the other on the excellence of
religion (1714).
BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1820-1882), English international
lawyer, the third son of Charles Bernard of Jamaica, the de-
scendant of a Huguenot family, was born at Tibberton Court,
Gloucestershire, on the 28th of January 1820. He was educated
at Sherborne school, and Trinity College, Oxford. Graduating
B.A. in i84'2, he took his B.C.L., was elected Vinerian scholar
and fellow, and having read in chambers with Roundell Palmer
(afterwards Lord Selborne) , was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn
in 1846. He was specially interested in legal history and in
church questions, and was one of the founders of the Guardian.
In 1852 he was elected to the new professorship of international
law and diplomacy at Oxford, attached to All Souls' College,
of which he afterwards was made a fellow. But besides his
duties at Oxford he undertook a good deal of non-collegiate
work; he was a member of several royal commissions; in 1871
he went as one of the high commissioners to the United States,
and signed the treaty of Washington, and in 1872 he assisted
Sir Roundell Palmer before the tribunal of arbitration at Geneva.
In 1874 he resigned his professorship at Oxford, but as member
of the university of Oxford commission of 1876 he was mainly
responsible for bringing about the compromise ultimately
adopted between the university and the colleges. Bernard's
reputation as an international lawyer was widespread, and he
was an original member of the Institut de Droit International
(1873). His published works include An Historical Account of
the Neutrality of Great Britain during the American Civil War
(London, 1870), and many lectures on international law and
diplomacy.
BERNARD, SIMON (1770-1839), French general of engineers,
was born at Dole, educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and
entered the army in the corps of engineers. He rose rapidly,
and served (1805-1812) as aide-de-camp to Napoleon. He was
wounded in the retreat after Leipzig, and distinguished himself
the same year (1813) in the gallant defence of Torgau against
the allies. After the emperor's fall he emigrated to the United
States, where, being made a brigadier-general of engineers,
he executed a number of extensive military works for the govern-
ment, notably at Fortress Monroe, Va., and around New York,
and did a large amount of the civil engineering connected with
the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal and the Delaware Breakwater.
He returned to France after the revolution of 1830, was made
a lieutenant-general by Louis Philippe, and in 1836 served as
minister of war.
BERNARD, SIR THOMAS, BART. (1750-1818), English social
reformer, was born at Lincoln on the 2 7th of April 1750, the
younger son of Sir Francis Bernard, ist bart. (1711-1779), who
as governor of Massachusetts Bay (1760-1770) played a re-
sponsible part in directing the British policy which led to the
revolt of the American colonies. On the death of his elder
brother in 1810, Bernard succeeded to the baronetcy conferred
on his father in 1769. His early education was obtained in
America, partly at Harvard, in whicl) college his father took
a great-interest. He then acted as confidential secretary to his
father during the troubles which led (1769) to the governor's
recall, and accompanied Sir Francis to England, where he was
called to the bar, and practised as a conveyancer. He married
a rich wife, and acquired a considerable fortune, and then
devoted most of his time to social work for the benefit of the
poor. He was treasurer of the Foundling Hospital, in the con-
cerns of which he took an important part. He helped to establish
in 1706 the " Society for Bettering the Condition and Increasing
the Comforts of the Poor," in 1800 a school for indigent blind,
and in 1801 a fever institution. He was active in promoting
vaccination, improving the conditions of child labour, advocating
rural allotments, and agitating against the salt duties. He took
great interest in education, and with Count Rumford he was an
originator of the Royal Institution in London. He died without
issue on the ist of July 1818.
BERNARDIN OF SIENA, ST (1380-1444), Franciscan friar
and preacher, was born of a noble family in 1380. His parents
died in his childhood, and on the completion of his education
he spent some years in the service of the sick in the hospitals,
and thus caught the plague, of which he nearly died. In 1402
he entered the Franciscan order in the strict branch called
Observant, of which he became one of the chief promoters (see
FRANCISCANS) . Shortly after his profession the work of preaching
was laid upon him, and for more than thirty years he preached
with wonderful effect all over Italy, and played a great part
in the religious revival of the beginning of the isth century.
In 1437 he became vicar-general of the Observant branch of the
Franciscans. He refused three bishoprics. He died in 1444
at Aquila in the Abruzzi, and was canonized in 1450.
The first edition of his works, for the most part elaborate sermons,
was printed at Lyons in 1501; later ones in 1636, 1650 and 1745.
His Life will be found in the Bollandists and in Lives of the Saints
on the 2Oth of May; a good modern biography has been written
by Paul Thureau-Dangin (1896), and translated into English by
Gertrude von Hugel (1906). (E. C. B.)
BERNAUER, AGNES (d. 1435), daughter of an Augsburg
baker, was secretly married about 1432 to Albert (1401-1460),
son of Ernest, duke of Bavaria-Munich. Ignorant of the fact
that this union was a lawful one, Ernest urged his son to marry,
and reproached him with his connexion with Agnes. Albert
then declared she was his lawful wife; and subsequently, during
his absence, she was seized by order of Duke Ernest and con-
demned to death for witchcraft. On the I2th of October 1435
she was drowned in the Danube near Straubing, in which town
her remains were afterwards buried by Albert. This story lived
long in the memory of the people, and its chief interest lies in
its literary associations. It has afforded material for several
dramas, and Adolf Bottger, Friedrich Hebbel and Otto Ludwig
have each written one entitled Agnes Bcrnauer.
BERNAY, a town of north-western France, capital of an
arrondissement in the department of Eure, on the left bank of
the Charentonne, 31 m. W.N.W. of Evreux, on the Western
railway between that town and Lisieux. Pop. (1906) 5973.
It is beautifully situated in the midst of green wooded hills, and
still justifies Madame de Stael's description of it as " a basket
of flowers." Of great antiquity, it possesses numerous quaint
wooden houses and ancient ecclesiastical buildings of considerable
interest. The abbey church is now used as a market, and the
abbey, which was founded by Judith of Brittany early in the
nth century, and underwent a restoration in the i7th century,
serves for municipal and legal purposes. The church of Ste
Croix, which has a remarkable marble figure of the infant Jesus,
dates from the I4th and isth centuries, that of Notre- Dame de
la Couture, which preserves some good stained glass, from the
I4th, isth and i6th centuries. Bernay has a sub-prefecture,
a communal college, tribunals of commerce and of first instance,
and a board of trade-arbitrators. Among the industrial estab-
lishments of the place are manufactories of cotton and woollen
goods, bleacheries and dye-works. Large numbers of Norman
horses are sold in Lent, at the fair known as the Foirc flcurir,
and there is also a trade in grain. Bernay grew up round
the Benedictine abbey mentioned above, and early in the I3th
century was the seat of a viscount. The town, formerly fortified .
8oo
BERNAYS BERNERS
was besieged by Bertrand du Guesclin, constable of France, in
1378; it was taken several times by the English during the first
half of the isth century, and by Admiral de Coligny in 1563.
The fortress was razed in 1589.
BERNAYS, JAKOB (1824-1881), German philologist and
philosophical writer, was born at Hamburg of Jewish parents
on the nth of September 1824. His father, Isaac Bernays
(1792-1849), a man of wide culture, was the first orthodox
German rabbi to preach in the vernacular. Jakob studied from
1844 to 1848 at the university of Bonn, the philological school
of which, under Welcker and Ritschl (whose favourite pupil
Bernays became), was the best in Germany. In 1853 he accepted
the chair of classical philology at the newly founded Jewish
theological college (the Frankel seminary) at Breslau, where he
formed a close friendship with Mommsen. In 1866, when
Ritschl left Bonn for Leipzig, Bernays returned to his old uni-
versity as extraordinary professor and chief librarian. He
remained at Bonn until his death on the 26th of May 1881. His
chief woiks, which deal mainly with the Greek philosophers,
are: Die Lebensbeschreibung des J. J. Scaliger (1853); Vber
das Pkokylidische Gedicht (1856); Die Chronik des Sulpicius
Severus (1861); Die Dialoge des Aristoteles im Verhaltniss zu
seinen iibrigen Werken (1863); Theophrastos' Schrift iiber
Frommigkeit (1866); Die Heraklitischen Brief e (1869); Lucian
und die Cyniker (1879); Zwei Abhandlungen iiber die Aristole-
lische Theorie des Dramas (1880). The last of these was a
republication of his Grundziige der verlorenen Abhandlungen des
Aristoteles iiber die Wirkung der Tragodie (1857), which aroused
considerable controversy.
See notices in Biographisches Jahrbuchfur Alterthumskunde (1881),
and Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xlvi. (1902) ; art. in Jewish
Encyclopaedia; also Sandys, Hist, of Class. Schol. iii. 176 (1908).
His brother, MICHAEL BERNAYS (1834-1897), was born in
Hamburg on the 27th of November 1834. He studied first law
and then literature at Bonn and Heidelberg, and obtained a
considerable reputation by his lectures on Shakespeare at
Leipzig and an explanatory text to Beethoven's music to
Egmont. Having refused an invitation to take part in the editor-
ship of the Preussichc Jahrbiichcr, in the same year (1866) he
published his celebrated Zur Kritik und Geschichte des Goethe-
schen-Textes. He confirmed his reputation by his lectures at the
university of Leipzig, and in 1873 accepted the post of extra-
ordinary professorof German literature atMunich specially created
for him by Louis II. of Bavaria. In 1874 he became an ordinary
professor, a position which he only resigned in 1889 when he
settled at Carlsruhe. He died at Carlsruhe on the zsth of
February 1897. At an early age he had embraced Christianity,
whereas his brother Jakob remained a Jew. Among his other
publications were: Brief e Goethes an F. A. Wolf (1868); Zur
Enslehungsgeschichte des Schlegelschen Shakespeare (1872) ; an
introduction to Hirzel's collection entitled Der junge Goethe
(1875); and he edited a revised edition of Voss's trans-
lation of the Odyssey. From his literary remains were
published Schriften zur Kritik und Litteraturgeschichte (1895-
1899).
BERNBUR6, a town in the duchy of Anhalt, Germany, on
the Saale, 29 m. N. by W. from Halle by rail, formerly the
capital of the now incorporated duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg.
Pop. (1900) 34,427; (1905) 34,929. It consists of four parts,
the Altstadt or old town, the Bergstadt or hill town, the Neustadt
or new town, and the suburb of Waldau the Bergstadt on the
right and the other three on the left of the river Saale, which is
crossed by a massive stone bridge. It is a well-built city, the
principal public buildings being the government house, the church
of St Mary, the gymnasium and the house of correction. The
castle, formerly the ducal residence, is in the Bergstadt, defended
by moats, and surrounded by beautiful gardens. Bernburg is
the seat of considerable industry, manufacturing machinery
and boilers, sugar, pottery and chemicals, and has lead and
zinc smelting. Market-gardening is also extensively carried
on, and there is a large river traffic in grain and agricultural
produce.
Bernburg is of great antiquity. The Bergstadt was fortified
by Otto III. in the loth century, and the new town was founded
in the i3th. For a long period the different parts were under
separate municipalities, the new town uniting with the old in
1560, and the Bergstadt with both in 1824. Prince Frederick
removed the ducal residence to Ballenstedt in 1765.
BERNERS, JOHN BOURCHIER, 2ND BARON (1469-1533),
English translator, was born probably at Tharfield, Hertford-
shire, about 1469. His father was killed at Barnet in 1471,
and he inherited his title in 1474 from his grandfather, John
Bourchier, who was a descendant of Edward III. It is supposed
that he was educated at Oxford, perhaps at Balliol. His political
life began early, for in 1484 he was implicated in a premature
attempt to place Henry, duke of Richmond (afterwards
Henry VII.), on the throne, and fled in consequence to Brittany.
In 1497 he helped to put down an insurrection in Cornwall
and Devonshire, raised by Michael Joseph, a blacksmith, and
from this time was in high favour at court. He accompanied
Henry VIII. to Calais in 1513, and was a captain of pioneers
at the siege of Therouanne. In the next year he was again sent
to France as chamberlain to the king's sister Mary on her marriage
with Louis XII., but he soon returned to England. He had
been given the reversion of the office of lord chancellor,
and in 1516 he received the actual appointment. In 1518 he
was sent to Madrid to negotiate an alliance with Charles of
Spain. He sent letters to Henry chronicling the bull-fights and
other doings of the Spanish court, and to Wolsey complaining
of the expense to which he was put in his position as ambassador.
In the next year he returned to England, and with his wife
Catherine Howard, daughter of the duke of Norfolk, was present
in 1520 at the Field of the Cloth of Gold. But his affairs were
greatly embarrassed. He was harassed by lawsuits about his
Hertfordshire property and owed the king sums he was unable
to repay. Perhaps in the hope of repairing his fortune, he
accepted the office of deputy of Calais, where he spent the rest
of his life in comparative leisure, though still harassed by his
debts, and died on the i6th of March 1533.
His translation of Syr Johan Froyssart of the Cronycles of
England, France, Spayne, Portyngale, Scotland, Bretayne,
Flaunders : and other places adjoynynge, was undertaken at the
request of Henry VIII., and was printed by Richard Pynson in
two volumes dated 1523 and 1525. It was the most considerable
historical work that had yet appeared in English, and exercised
great influence on 16th-century chroniclers. Berners tells us in
his prefaces of his own love of histories of all kinds, and in the
introduction to his story of Arthur of Little Britain he excuses
its " fayned mater " and " many unpossybylytees " on the
ground that other well reputed histories are equally incredible.
He goes on to excuse his deficiencies by saying that he knew
himself to be unskilled in the " facundyous arte of retoryke,"
and that he was but a " lerner of the language of Frensshe."
The want of rhetoric is not to be deplored. The style of his
translation is clear and simple, and he rarely introduces French
words or idioms. Two romances from the French followed:
The Boke of Duke Huon of Burdeux (printed 1534? by Wynkyn
de Worde), and The Hy story of the Moost noble and valyaunt
knight Arthur of lytell brytayne. His other two translations,
The Castell of Love (printed 1540), from the Car eel de Amor of
Diego de San Pedro, and The Golden Boke of Marcus Aurelius
(completed six days before his death, printed 1534), from a
French version of Antonio Guevara's book, are in a different
manner. The Golden Boke gives Berners a claim to be a pioneer
of Euphuism, although Lyly was probably acquainted with
Guevara not through his version, but through Sir Thomas
North's Dial of Princes. Berners is also credited with a book
on the duties of the inhabitants of Calais, which Mr Sidney Lee
thinks may be identical with the ordinance for watch and ward
of Calais preserved in the Cotton MSS. and with a lost comedy,
He in vineam meant, which used to be acted at Calais after
vespers.
A biographical account of Berners is to be found in Mr Sidney
Lee's introduction to Huon of Bourdeaux (Early English Text Society,
BERNERS BERNHARDT
801
1882-1883). Among the many editions of his translation of Froissart
may be mentioned that in the " Tudor Translations " (1901), with
an introductory critical note by Professor W. P. Ker.
BERNERS, BARNES or BERNES, JULIANA (b. 1388 ?),
English writer on hawking and hunting, is said to have been
prioress of Sopwell nunnery near St Albans, and daughter of
Sir James Berners, who was beheaded in 1388. She was probably
brought up at court, and when she adopted the religious life,
she still retained her love of hawking, hunting and fishing, and
her passion for field sports. The only documentary evidence
regarding her, however, is the statement at the end of her
treatise on hunting in the Boke of St Albans, " Explicit Dam
Julyans Barnes in her boke of huntyng " (edition of 1486), and
the name is changed by Wynkyn de Worde to " dame Julyans
Bernes." There is no such person to be found in the pedigree
of the Berners family, and there is a gap in the records of the
priory of Sopwell between 1430 and 1480. Juliana Berners is
the supposed author of the work generally known as the Boke
of Si Albans. The first and rarest edition was printed in 1486 by
an unknown schoolmaster at St Albans. It has no title-page.
Wynkyn de Worde 's edition (fol. 1496), also without a title-page,
begins: " This present boke shewyth the manere of hawkynge
and huntynge: and also of diuysynge of Cote armours. It
shewyth also a good matere belongynge to horses: wyth other
comendable treatyses. And ferdermore of the blasynge of
armys: as hereafter it maye appere." This edition was adorned
by three woodcuts, and included a " Treatyse of fysshynge wyth
an Angle," not contained in the St Albans edition. J. Haslewood,
who published a facsimile of that of Wynkyn de Worde (London,
1811, folio), with a biographical and bibliographical notice,
examined with the greatest care the author's claims to figure
as the earliest woman author in the English language. He
assigned to her little else in the Boke except part of the treatise
on hawking and the section on hunting. It is expressly stated
at the end of the " Blasynge of Armys " that the section was
" translatyd and compylyt," and it is likely that the other
treatises are translations, probably from the French. An older
form of the treatise on fishing was edited in 1883 by Mr T.
Satchell from a MS. in possession of Mr A. Denison. This treatise
probably dates from about 1450, and formed the foundation of
that section in the book of 1496. Only three perfect copies of
the first edition are known to exist. A facsimile, entitled The
Book of St Albans, with an introduction by William Blades,
appeared in 1881. During the i6th century the work was very
popular, and was many times reprinted. It was edited by
Gervase Markham in i$9S as The Gentleman's Academic.
BERNHARD OF SAXE-WEIMAR, DUKE (1604-1639), a
celebrated general in the Thirty Years' War, was the eleventh
son of John, duke of Saxe- Weimar. He received an unusually
good education, and studied at Jena, but soon went to the court
of the Saxon elector to engage in knightly exercises. At the
outbreak of the Thirty Years' War he took the field on the
Protestant side, and served under Mansfeld at Wiesloch (1622),
under the margrave of Baden at Wimpfen (1622), and with his
brother William at Stadtlohn (1623). Undismayed by these
defeats, he took part in the campaigns of the king of Denmark;
and when Christian withdrew from the struggle Bernhard went
to Holland and was present at the famous siege of Hertogenbosch
(Bois-le-Duc) in 1629. When Gustavus Adolphus landed in
Germany Bernhard quickly joined him, and for a short time he
was colonel of the Swedish life guards. After the battle of
Breitenfeld he accompanied Gustavus in his march to the Rhine
and, between this event and the battle of the Alte Veste, Bern-
hard commanded numerous expeditions in almost every district
from the Moselle to Tirol. At the Alte Veste he displayed the
greatest courage, and at Ltitzen, when Gustavus was killed,
Bernhard immediately assumed the command, killed a colonel
who refused to lead his men to the charge, and finally by his
furious energy won the victory at sundown. At first as a sub-
ordinate to his brother William, who as a Swedish lieutenant-
general succeeded to the command, but later as an independent
commander, Bernhard continued to push his forays over southern
m. 26
Germany; and with the Swedish General Horn he made in 1633
a successful invasion into Bavaria, which was defended by the
imperialist general Arldinger. In this year he acquired the duchy
of Wiirzburg, installing one of his brothers as Stadthalttr, and
returning to the wars. A stern Protestant, he exacted heavy
contributions from the Catholic cities which he took, and his
repeated victories caused him to be regarded by German Pro-
testants as the saviour of their religion. But in 1634 Bernhard
suffered the great defeat of Nordlingen, in which the flower of
the Swedish army perished. In 1635 he entered the service of
France, which had now intervened'in the war. He was now at
the same time gencral-in-chicf of the forces maintained by the
Heilbronn union of Protestant princes, and a general officer in
the pay of France. This double position was very difficult; in
the following campaigns, ably and resolutely conducted as they
were, Bernhard sometimes pursued a purely French policy,
whilst at other times he used the French mercenaries to forward
the cause of the princes. From a military point of view his most
notable achievements were on the common ground of the upper
Rhine, in the Brcisgau. In his great campaign of 1638 he won
the battles. of Rheinfelden, Wittenweiher and Thann, and
captured successively Rheinfelden, Freiburg and Breisach, the
last reputed one of the strongest fortresses in Europe. Bernhard
had in the first instance received definite assurances from France
that he should be given Alsace and Hagenau, Wurzburg having
been lost in the debacle of 1634; he now hoped to make Breisach
the capital of his new duchy. But his health was now broken.
He died on the 8/i8th of July 1639 at the beginning of the cam-
paign, and the governor of Breisach was bribed to transfer the
fortress to France. The duke was buried at Breisach, his remains
being subsequently removed to Weimar.
See J. A. C. Hellfeld, Geschichtt Bernhards des Grossen, Henogt
v. Saxe-Weimar (Jena, 1747); B. Rose, Herzog Bernhard d. Grosse
von Saxe-Weimar (Weimar, 1828-1829); Droysen, Bernhard v.
Weimar (Leipzig, 1885).
BERNHARDT, SARAH (ROSINE BERNARD)
French actress, was born in Paris on the 22nd of October 1845,
of mixed French and Dutch parentage, and of Jewish descent.
She was, however, baptized at the age of twelve and brought up
in a convent. At thirteen she entered the Conservatoire, where
she gained the second prize for tragedy in 1861 and for comedy
in 1862. Her dibut was made at the Com6die Francaise on the
nth of August 1862, in a minor part in Racine's Iphiginie en
Aulide, without any marked success, nor did she do much better
in burlesque at the Porte St-Martin and Gymnase. In 1867 she
became a member of the company at the Oddon, where she made
her first definite successes as Cordelia in a French translation
of King Lear, as the queen in Victor Hugo's Ruy Bias, and,
above all, as Zanetto in Francois Coppee's Le Passant (1869).
When peace was restored after the Franco-German War she left
the Od6on for the Comfidie Francaise, thereby incurring a con-
siderable monetary forfeit. From that time she steadily
increased her reputation, two of the most definite steps in her
progress being her performances of Phedre in Racine's play
(1874) and of Dona Sol in Victor Hugo's Hernani (1877). In 1879
she had a famous season at the Gaiety in London. By this time
her position as the greatest actress of her day was securely
established. Her amazing power of emotional acting, the
extraordinary realism and pathos of her death-scenes, the
magnetism of her personality, and the beauty of her "voix d'or,"
made the public tolerant of her occasional caprices. She had
developed some skill as a sculptor, and exhibited at the Salon at
various times between 1876 (honourable mention) and 1881.
She also exhibited a painting there in 1880. In 1878 she pub-
lished a prose sketch, Dans les nuagcs; les impressions d'une
chaise. Her comedy L'.ln-u was produced in 1888 at the Odcon
without much success. Her relations with the other sociilatres
of the Com6die Francaise having become somewhat strained, a
crisis arrived'in 1880, when, enraged by an unfavourable criticism
of her acting, she threw up her position on the day following
the first performance of Emile Augier's L'Avenluriere. This
obliged her to pay a forfeit of 4000 for breach of contract.
802
BERNHARDY BERNICIAN SERIES
Immediately after the rupture she gave a series of performances
in London, relying chiefly upon Scribe and Legouve's Adrienne
Lecouvreur and Meilhac and Halevy's Frou Frou. These were
followed by tours in Denmark, America and Russia, during 1880
and 1881, with La Dame aux Camillas as the principal attraction.
In 1882 she married Jacques Damala, a Greek, in London, but
separated from him at the end of the following year. After a
fresh triumph in Paris with Sardou's Ftdora at the Vaudeville
she became proprietress of the Porte St-Martin. Jean Richepin's
Nana Sahib (1883), Sardou's Theodora (1884) and La Tosca
(1887), Jules Barbier's Jeanne d' Arc (1890) and Sardou and
Moreau's CUopdtre (1890) were among her most conspicuous
successes here, where she remained till she became proprietress
of the Renaissance theatre in 1893. During those ten years she
made several extended tours, including visits to America in
1886-1887 and 1888-1889. Between 1891 and 1893 she again
visited America (North and South), Australia, and the chief
European capitals. In November 1893 she opened the Renais-
sance with Les Rois by Jules Lemaitre, which was followed by
Sylvestre and Morand's Izeyl (1894), Sardou's Gismonda (1894)
and Edmond Rostand's La Princesse lointaine (1895). In 1895
she also appeared with conspicuous success as Magda in a French
translation of Sudermann's Heimat. For the next few years
she visited London almost annually, and America in 1896. In
that year she made a success with an adaptation of Alfred de
Mussel's Lorenzaccio. In Easter week of 1897 she played in a
religious drama, La Samaritaine, by Rostand. In December 1 896
an elaborate fete was organized in Paris in her honour; and the
value of this public recognition of her position at the head of her
profession was enhanced by cordial greetings from all parts of
the world. By this time she had played one hundred and twelve
parts, thirty-eight of which she had created. Early in 1899 she
removed from the Renaissance to the Theatre des Nations, a
larger house, which she opened with a revival of La Tosca. In the
same year she made the bold experiment of a French production
of Hamlet, in which she played the title part. She repeated
the impersonation in London not long afterwards, where she
also appeared (1901) as the fate-ridden son of Napoleon I., in
Rostand's L'Aiglon, which had been produced in Paris the year
before. Of the successful productions of her later years perhaps
none was more remarkable than her impersonation of La Tisbe
in Victor Hugo's romantic drama Angela (1905).
See Jules Huret, Sarah Bernhardt (1889); and her own volume of
autobiography (1907).
BERNHARDY, GOTTFRIED (1800-1875), German philologist
and literary historian, was born on the 2oth of March 1800, at
Landsberg on the Wartia, in Brandenburg. He was the son of
Jewish parents in reduced circumstances. Two well-to-do
uncles provided the means for his education, and in 1811 he
entered the Joachimsthal gymnasium at Berlin. In 1817 he
went to Berlin University to study philology, where he had the
advantage of hearing F. A Wolf (then advanced in years),
August Bockh and P. Buttmann. In 1822 he took the degree
of doctor of philosophy at Berlin, and in 1825 became extra-
ordinary professor. In 1829 he succeeded C. Reisig as ordinary
professor and director of the philological seminary at Halle, and
in 1844 was appointed chief librarian of the university. He died
suddenly on the i4th of May 1875. The most important of
Bernhardy's works were his histories (or sketches) of Greek and
Roman literature; Grundriss der rb'mischcn Litleratur (sth ed.,
1872); Grundriss der griechischen Litleratur (pt. i., Introduction
and General View, 1836; pt. ii., Greek Poetry, 1845; pt. iii.,
Greek Prose Literature, was never published). A fifth edition of
pts. i. and ii., by R. Volkmann, began in 1892. Other works
by Bernhardy are: Eratosthenica (1822); Wissenschajlliche
Syntax der griechischen Sprache (1829, suppts. 1854, 1862);
Grundlinien zur Encydopadie der Philologie (1832); the monu-
mental edition of the Lexicon of Suidas (1834-1853); and an
edition of F. A. Wolf's Kleine Schriften (1869).
See Volkmann, G. Bernhardy (1887).
BERNI, FRANCESCO (1497-1536), Italian poet, was born
about 1497 at Lamporecchio, in Bibbiena, a district lying along
the Upper Arno. His family was of good descent, but excessively
poor. At an early age he was sent to Florence, where he remained
till his 1 9th year. He then set out for Rome, trusting to obtain
some assistance from his uncle, the Cardinal Bibbiena. The
cardinal, however, did nothing for him, and he was obliged to
accept a situation as clerk or secretary to Ghiberti, datary to
Clement VII. The duties of his office, for which Berni was in
every way unfit, were exceedingly irksome to the poet, who,
however, made himself celebrated at Rome as the most witty and
inventive of a certain club of literary men, who devoted them-
selves to light and sparkling effusions. So strong was the
admiration for Berni's verses, that mocking or burlesque poems
have since been called poesie berncsca. About the year 1530 he
was relieved from his servitude by obtaining a canonry in the
cathedral of Florence. In that city he died in 1536, according
to tradition poisoned by Duke Alessandro de' Medici, for having
refused to poison the duke's cousin, Ippolito de' Medici; but
considerable obscurity rests over this story. Berni stands at the
head of Italian comic or burlesque poets. For lightness, sparkling
wit, variety of form and fluent diction, his verses are unsur-
passed. Perhaps, however, he owes his greatest fame to the
recasting (Rifacimento) of Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato. The
enormous success of Ariosto's Orlando Furioso had directed fresh
attention to the older poem, from which it took its characters,
and of which it is the continuation. But Boiardo's work, though
good in plan, could never have achieved wide popularity on
account of the extreme ruggedness of its style. Berni undertook
the revision of the whole poem, avowedly altering no sentiment,
removing or adding no incident, but simply giving to each line
and stanza due gracefulness and polish. His task he completed
with marvellous success; scarcely a line remains as it was, and
the general opinion has pronounced decisively in favour of the
revision over the original. To each canto he prefixed a few
stanzas of reflective verse in the manner of Ariosto, and in one
of these introductions he gives us the only certain information we
have concerning his own life. Berni appears to have been favour-
ably disposed towards the Reformation principles at that time
introduced into Italy, and this may explain the bitterness of some
remarks of his upon the church. The first edition of the Rifaci-
mento was printed posthumously in 1 541 , and it has been supposed
that a few passages either did not receive the author's final
revision, or have been retouched by another hand.
A partial translation of Berni's Orlando was published by W. S.
Rose (1823).
BERNICIA, the northern of the two English kingdoms which
were eventually united in the kingdom of Northumbria. Its
territory is said to have stretched from the Tyne northwards,
ultimately reaching the Forth, while its western frontier was
gradually extended at the expense of the Welsh. The chief
royal residence was Hamburgh, and near it was the island of
Lindisfarne, afterwards the see of a bishop. The first king of
whom we have any record is Ida, who is said to have obtained
the throne about 547. ^Ethelfrith, king of Bernicia, united
Deira to his own kingdom, probably about 605, and the union
continued under his successor Edwin, son of Ella or jElle, king
of Deira. Bernicia was again separate from Deira under Eanfrith,
son of ^Ethelfrith (633-634), after which date the kings of
Bernicia were supreme in Northumbria, though for a short time
under Oswio Deira had a king of its own.
See Bede, Hist. Eccles. ii. 14, iii. i, 14; Nennius, 63; Simeon
of Durham, i. 339. (F. G. M. B.)
BERNICIAN SERIES, in geology, a term proposed by S. P.
Woodward in 1856 (Manual of Mollusca, p. 409) for the lower
portionof the CarboniferousSystem,below the Millstone Grit. The
name was suggested by that of the ancient province of Bernicia
on the Anglo-Scottish borderland. It is practically equivalent
to the " Dinantien " of A. de Lapparent and Munier-Chalmas
(1893). In 1875 G. Tate's "Calcareous and Carbonaceous"
groups of the Carboniferous Limestone series of Northumberland
were united by Professor Lebour into a single series, to which he
applied the name " Bernician "; but later he speaks of the
whole of the Carboniferous rocks of Northumberland and its
BERNINI BERNOULLI
803
borders as of the " Bernician type," which is the most satisfactory
way in which the term may now be used (Report of the Brit.
Sub-committee on Classification and Nomenclature, 2nd ed.,
Cambridge, 1888). " Demetian " was the corresponding designa-
tion proposed by Woodward for the Upper Carboniferous
rocks.
BERNINI, GIOVANNI LORENZO (1598-1680), Italian anist,
was born at Naples. He was more celebrated as an architect and
a sculptor than as a painter. At a very early age his great skill
in modelling introduced him to court favour at Rome, and he
was specially patronized by Maffeo Barberini, afterwards Pope
Urban VIII., whose palace he designed. None of his sculptured
groups at all come up to the promised excellence of his first effort,
the Apollo and Daphne, nor are any of his paintings of particular
merit. His busts were in so much request that Charles I. of
England, being unable to have a personal interview with Bernini,
sent him three portraits by Vandyck, from which the artist was
enabled to complete his model. His architectural designs,
including the great colonnade of St Peter's, brought him perhaps
his greatest celebrity. Louis XIV., when he contemplated the
restoration of the Louvre, sent for Bernini, but did not adopt his
designs. The artist's progress through France was a triumphal
procession, and he was most liberally rewarded by the great
monarch. He left a fortune of over 100,000,
BERNIS, FRANCOIS JOACHIM DE PIERRE DE (1715-1794),
French cardinal and statesman, was born at St Marcel-d'Ardeche
on the 22nd-of May 1715. He was of a noble but impoverished
family, and, being a younger son, was intended for the church.
He was educated at the Louis-le-Grand college and the seminary
of Saint-Sulpice, Paris, but did not take orders till 1755. He
became known as one of the most expert epigrammatists in the
gay society of Louis XV. 's court, and by his verses won the
friendship of Madame de Pompadour, the royal mistress, who
obtained for him an apartment, furnished at her expense, in the
Tuileries, and a yearly pension of 1500 livres (about 60). In
1751 he was appointed to the French embassy at Venice, where
he acted, to the satisfaction of both parties, as mediator between
the republic and Pope Benedict XIV. During his stay in Venice
he received subdeacon's orders, and on his return to France in
1755 was made a papal councillor of state. He took an important
part in the delicate negotiations between France and Austria
which preceded the Seven Years' War. He regarded the alliance
purely as a temporary expedient, and did not propose to employ
the whole forces of France in a general war. But he was over-
ruled by his colleagues. He became secretary for foreign affairs
on the 27th of June 1757, but owing to his attempts to counteract
the spendthrift policy of the marquise de Pompadour and her
creatures, he fell into disgrace and was in December 1758 banished
to Soissons by Louis XV., where he remained in retirement for
six years. In the previous November he had been created
cardinal by Clement XIII. On the death of the royal mistress
in 1764, Bernis was recalled and once more offered the seals of
office, but declined them, and was appointed archbishop of Albi.
His occupancy of the see was not of long duration. In 1769 he
went to Rome to assist at the conclave which resulted in the
election of Clement XIV., and the talent which he dispkyed on
that occasion procured him the appointment of ambassador in
Rome, where he spent the remainder of his life. He was partly
instrumental in bringing about the suppression of the Jesuits,
and acted with greater moderation than is generally allowed.
He lost his influence under Pius VI., who was friendly to the
Jesuits, and the French Revolution, to which he was hostile,
reduced him almost to penury; the court of Spain, however,
mindful of the support he had given to their ambassador in
obtaining the condemnation of the Jesuits, came to his relief
with a handsome pension. He died at Rome on the 3rd of
November 1794, and was buried in the church of S. Luigi de'
Frances!. In 1803 his remains were transferred to the cathedral
at N!mes. His poems, the longest of which is La Religion vengte
(Parma, 1794), have no merit; they were collected and published
after his death (Paris, 1797, &c.); his Mtmoires et lettres 1715-58
(2 vols., Paris, 1878) are still interesting to the historian.
See Frdric Masson's prefaces to the Memoires et ItUret, and
Le Cardinal de Bernis depuii son ministere (Paris, 1884); E. et J. de
Goncourt, Mme de Pompadour (Paris, 1888), and Sainte-Beuve,
Causcries du lundi, t. viii.
BERNKASTEL, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, on the Mosel, in a deep and romantic valley, connected
by a branch to Wengerohr with the main Trier-Coblcnz railway.
Pop. 2300. It has some unimportant manufactures; the chief
industry is in wine, of which Berncastlcr Doctor enjoys great
repute. Above the town lie the ruins of the castle Landshut.
Bernkastel originally belonged to the chapter of Trier, and
received its name from one of the provosts of the cathedral,
Adalbero of Luxemburg (hence Adalbertmis castellum\
BERNOULLI, or BERNOUILLI, the name of an illustrious
family in the annals of science, who came originally from
Antwerp. Driven from their country during the oppressive
government of Spain for their attachment to the Reformed
religion, the Bernoullis sought first an asylum at Frankfort
(1583), and afterwards at Basel, where they ultimately obtained
the highest distinctions. In the course of a century eight of its
members successfully cultivated various branches of mathe-
matics, and contributed powerfully to the advance of science.
The most celebrated were Jacques (James), Jean (John) and
Daniel, the first, second and fourth as dealt with below; but,
for the sake of perspicuity they may be considered as nearly as
possible in the order of family succession. A complete summary
of the great developments of mathematical learning, which the
members of this family effected, lies outside the scope of this
notice. More detailed accounts are to be found in the various
mathematical articles.
I. JACQUES BERNOULLI (1654-1705), mathematician, was born
at Basel on the 27th of December 1654. He was educated at
the public school of Basel, and also received private instruction
from the learned Hoffmann, then professor of Greek. At the
conclusion of his philosophical studies at the university, some
geometrical figures, which fell in his way, excited in him a passion
for mathematical pursuits, and in spite of the opposition of his
father, who wished him to be a clergyman, he applied himself
in secret to his favourite science. In 1676 he visited Geneva on
his way to France, and subsequently travelled to England and
Holland. While at Geneva he taught a blind girl several branches
of science, and also how to write; and this led him to publish
A Method of Teaching Mathematics to the Blind. At Bordeaux
his Universal Tables on Dialling were constructed; and in
London he was admitted to the meetings of Robert Boyle,
Robert Hooke and other learned and scientific men. On his
final return to Basel in 1682, he devoted himself to physical and
mathematical investigations, and opened a public seminary for
experimental physics. In the same year he published his essay
on comets, Conamen Novi Systematis Cometarum, which was
occasioned by the appearance of the comet of 1680. This essay,
and his next publication, entitled De Gravitate Aelkeris, were
deeply tinged with the philosophy of Ren6 Descartes, but they
contain truths not unworthy of the philosophy of Sir Isaac
Newton's Principia.
Jacques Bernoulli cannot be strictly called an independent
discoverer; but, from his extensive and successful application
of the calculus and other mathematical methods, he is deserving
of a place by the side of Newton and Leibnitz. As an additional
claim to remembrance, he was the first to solve Leibnitz's
problem of the isochronous curve (Acta Eruditorum, 1690). He
proposed the problem of the catenary (q.v.) or curve formed by
a chain suspended by its two extremities, accepted Leibnitz's
construction of the curve and solved more complicated problems
relating to it. He determined the " elastic curve," which is
formed by an elastic plate or rod fixed at one end and bent by a
weight applied to the other, and which he showed to be the same
as die curvature of an impervious sail filled with a liquid (lin-
tearia). In his investigations respecting cycloidal lines and
various spiral curves, his attention was directed to the loxo-
dromic and logarithmic spirals, in the last of which he took
particular interest from its remarkable property of reproducing
itself under a variety of conditions.
8 04
BERNOULLI
In 1696 he proposed the famous problem of isoperimetrical
figures, and offered a reward for its solution. This problem
engaged the attention of British as well as continental mathe-
maticians; and its proposal gave rise to a painful quarrel
with his brother Jean. Jean offered a solution of the problem;
his brother pronounced it to be wrong. Jean then amended his
solution, and again offered it, and claimed the reward. Jacques
still declared it to be no solution, and soon after published his
own. In 1701 he published also the demonstration of his solu-
tion, which was accepted by the marquis de 1'Hopital and
Leibnitz. Jean, however, held his peace for several years, and
then dishonestly published, after the death of Jacques, another
incorrect solution; and not until 1718 did he admit that he had
been in error. Even then he set forth as his own his brother's
solution;purposely disguised.
In 1687 the mathematical chair of the university of Basel was
conferred upon Jacques. He was once made rector of his
university, and had other distinctions bestowed on him. He
and his brother Jean were the first two foreign associates of the
Academy of Sciences of Paris; and, at the request of Leibnitz,
they were both received as members of the academy of Berlin.
In 1684 he had been offered a professorship at Heidelberg; but
his marriage with a lady of his native city led him to decline the
invitation. Intense application brought on infirmities and a
slow fever, of which he died on the i6th of August 1705. Like
another Archimedes, he requested that the logarithmic spiral
should be engraven on his tombstone, with these words, Eadem
mutata resurgo.
Jacques Bernoulli wrote elegant verses in Latin, German and
French ; but although these were held in high estimation in his own
time, it is on his mathematical works that his fame now rests. These
are: Jacobi Bernoulli Basiliensis Opera (Genevae, 1744), 2 torn.
4to; Ars Conjectandi, opus posthumum: accedunl tractatus de Serie-
bus Infinitis, et epistola (Gallice scripta) de Ludo Pttae Reticularis
(Basiliae, 1713), I torn. 4to.
II. JEAN BERNOULLI (1667-1748), brother of the preceding,
was born at Basel on the 27th of July 1667. After finishing his
literary studies he was sent to Neuchatel to learn commerce and
acquire the French language. But at the end of a year he
renounced the pursuits of commerce, returned to the university
of Basel, and was admitted to the degree of bachelor in philosophy,
and a year later, at the age ofi8, to that of master of arts. In
his studies he was aided by his elder brother Jacques. Chemistry,
as well as mathematics, seems to have been the object of his early
attention; and in the year 1690 he published a dissertation on
effervescence and fermentation. The same year he went to
Geneva, where he gave instruction in the differential calculus to
Nicolas Fatio de Duillier, and afterwards proceeded to Paris,
where he enjoyed the society of N. Malebranche, J. D. Cassini,
Philip de Lahire and Pierre Varignon. With the marquis de
1'Hopital he spent four months studying higher geometry and
the resources of the new calculus. His independent discoveries
in mathematics are numerous and important. Among these
were the exponential calculus, and the curve called by him the
linea brachistochrona, or line of swiftest descent, which he was
the first to determine, pointing out at the same time the relation
which this curve bears to the path described by a ray of light
passing through strata of variable density. On his return to his
native city he studied medicine, and in 1694 took the degree of
M.D. Although he had declined a professorship in Germany, he
now accepted an invitation to the chair of mathematics at
Groningen (Commercium Philosophicum, epist. xi. and xii.).
There, in addition to the learned lectures by which he endeavoured
to revive mathematical science in the university, he gave a public
course of experimental physics. During a residence of ten years
in Groningen, his controversies were almost as numerous as his
discoveries. His dissertation on the " barometric light," first
observed by Jean Picard, and discussed by Jean Bernoulli under
the name of mercurial phosphorus, or mercury shining in vacuo
(Diss. physica de mercurio lucente in vacuo), procured him the
notice of royalty, and engaged him in controversy. Through the
influence of Leibnitz he received from the king of Prussia a gold
medal for his supposed discoveries; but Nicolaus Hartsoeker
and some of the French academicians disputed the fact. The
family quarrel about the problem of isoperimetrical figures above
mentioned began about this time. In his dispute with his
brother, in his controversies with the English and Scottish mathe-
maticians, and in his harsh and jealous bearing to his son Daniel,
he showed a mean, unfair and violent temper. He had declined,
during his residence at Groningen, an invitation to Utrecht, but
accepted in 1705 the mathematical chair in the university of his
native city, vacant by the death of his brother Jacques; and
here he remained till his death. His inaugural discourse was
on the " new analysis," which he so successfully applied in
investigating various problems both in pure and applied
mathematics.
He was several times a successful competitor for the prizes
given by the Academy of Sciences of Paris; the subjects of
his essays being: the laws of motion (Discours sur les lois de la
communication du mouvement, 1727), the elliptical orbits of the
planets, and the inclinations of the planetary orbits (Essai d'une
nouvelle physique celeste, 1735). In the last case his son Daniel
divided the prize with him. Some years after his return to Basel
he published an essay, entitled Nouvelle Theorie de la manoeuvre
des vaisseaux. It is, however, his works in pure mathematics that
are the permanent monuments of his fame. Jean le Rond
d'Alembert acknowledges with gratitude, that] "whatever 'he
knew of mathematics he owed to the works of Jean Bernoulli."
He was a member of almost every learned society in Europe, and
one of the first mathematicians of a mathematical age. He was
as keen in his resentments as he was ardent in his friendships;
fondly attached to his family, he yet disliked a deserving son;
he gave full praise to Leibnitz and Leonhard Euler, yet was blind
to the excellence of Sir Isaac Newton. Such was the vigour of his
constitution that he continued to pursue his usual mathematical
studies till the age of eighty. He was then attacked by a com-
plaint at first apparently trifling; but his strength daily and
rapidly declined till the ist of January 1748, when he died
peacefully in his sleep.
His writings were collected under his own eye by Gabriel Cramer,
professor of mathematics at Geneva, and published under the title
of Johannis Bernoulli Operi Omnia (Lausan. et Genev.), 4 torn.
4to; his interesting correspondence with Leibnitz appeared under
the title of Gul. Leibnitii et Johannis Bernoulli Commercium Philoso-
phicum et Mathematicum (Lausan. et Genev. 1745), 2 torn. 4to.
III. NICOLAS BERNOULLI (1695-1726), the eldest of the three
sons of Jean Bernoulli, .was born on the 27th of January 1695.
At the age of eight he could speak German, Dutch, French and
Latin. When his father returned to Basel he went to the univer-
sity of that city, where, at the age of sixteen, he took the degree
of doctor in philosophy, and four years later the highest degree
in law. Meanwhile the study of mathematics was not neglected,
as appears not only from his giving instruction in geometry to
his younger brother Daniel, but from his writings on the differ-
ential, integral, and exponential calculus, and from his father
considering him, at the age of twenty-one, worthy of receiving
the torch of science from his own hands. (" Lampada nunc
tradam filio meo natu maximo, juveni xxi. annorum, ingenio
mathematico aliisque dotibus satis instructo," Com. Phil. ep.
223.) With his father's permission he visited Italy and France,
and during his travels formed friendship with Pierre Varignon
and Count Riccati. The invitation of a Venetian nobleman
induced him again to visit Italy, where he resided two years, till
his return to be a candidate for the chair of jurisprudence at
Basel. He was unsuccessful, but was soon afterwards appointed
to a similar office in the university of Bern. Here he resided
three years, his happiness only marred by regret on account of
his separation from his brother Daniel. Both were appointed at
the same time professors of mathematics in the academy of
St Petersburg; but this office Nicolas enjoyed for little more
then eight months. He died on the 26th of July 1726 of a
lingering fever. Sensible of the loss which the nation had
sustained by his death, the empress Catherine ordered him a
funeral at the public expense.
Some of his papers are published in his father's works, and others
in the Ada Eruditorum and the Comment. Acad. Petropol.
BERNSTEIN
805
IV. DANIEL BERNOULLI (1700-1782), the second son of Jean
Bernoulli, was born on the zpth of January 1700, at Groningen.
He studied medicine and became a physician, but his attention
was early directed also to geometrical studies. The severity of
his father's manner was ill-calculated to encourage the first
efforts of one so sensitive; but fortunately, at the age of eleven,
he became the pupil of his brother Nicolas. He afterwards
studied in Italy under Francesco Domenico Michelotti and
Giambattista Morgagni. After his'return, though only twenty-four
years of age, he was invited to become president of an academy
then projected at Genoa; but, declining this honour, he was, in
the following year, appointed professor of mathematics at St
Petersburg. In consequence of the state of his health, however,
he returned to Basel in 1733, where he was appointed professor
of anatomy and botany, and afterwards of experimental and
speculative philosophy. In the labours of this office he spent
the remaining years of his life. He had previously published
some medical and botanical dissertations, besides his Exercita-
tiones quaedam Malhematicae, containing a solution of the differ-
ential equation proposed by Riccati and now known by his name.
In 1 738 appeared his H ydrodynamica, in which the equilibrium,
the pressure, the reaction and varied velocities of fluids are
considered both theoretically and practically. One of these
problems, illustrated by experiment, deals with an ingenious
mode of propelling vessels by the reaction of water ejected from
the stern. Some of his experiments on this subject were per-
formed before Pierre Louis M. de Maupertuis and Alexis Claude
Clairaut, whom the fame of the Bernoulli's had attracted to
Basel. With a success equalled only by Leonhard Euler, Daniel
Bernoulli gained or shared no less than ten prizes of the Academy
of Sciences of Paris. The first, for a memoir on the construction
of a clepsydra for measuring time exactly at sea, he gained at
the age of twenty-four; the second, for one on the physical
cause of the inclination of the planetary orbits, he divided with
his father; and the third, for a communication on the tides, he
shared with Euler, Colin Maclaurin and another competitor.
The problem of vibrating cords, which had been some time before
resolved by Brook Taylor (1685-1731) and d'Alembert, became
the subject of a long discussion conducted in a generous spirit
between Bernoulli and his friend Euler. In one of his early
investigations he gave an ingenious though indirect demonstra-
tion of the problem of the parallelogram of forces. His labours
in the decline of life were chiefly directed to the doctrine of
probabilities in reference to practical purposes, and in particular
to economical subjects, as, for example, to inoculation, and to
the duration of married life in the two sexes, as well as to the
relative proportion of male and female births. He retained his
usual vigour of understanding till near the age of eighty, when
his nephew Jacques relieved him of his public duties. He was
afflicted with asthma, and his retirement was relieved only by
the society of a few chosen friends. He died on the 1 7th of March
1782 at Basel. Excluded by his professional character from the
councils of the republic, he nevertheless received all the deference
and honour due to a first magistrate. He was wont to mention
the following as the two incidents in his life which had afforded
him the greatest pleasure, that a stranger, whom he had met as
a travelling companion in his youth, made to his declaration
" I am Daniel Bernoulli " the incredulous and mocking reply,
" And I am Isaac Newton "; and that, while entertaining
Konig and other guests, he solved without rising from table a
problem which that mathematician had submitted as difficult
and lengthy. Like his father, he was a member of almost every
learned society of Europe, and he succeeded him as foreign
associate of the Academy of Paris.
Several of his investigations are contained in the earlier volumes
of the Comment. Acad. Petropol.; and his separately published works
are: Dissertatio Inaugur. Phys. Med. de Respiratione (Basil. 1721),
4to; Positiones Anatomico-Botanicae (Basil. 1721), 410; Exercita-
tiones quaedam Mathematicae (Venetiis, 1724), 410; Hydrodynamica
(Argentorati, 1738), 410.
V. JEAN BERNOULLI (1710-1790), the youngest of the three
sons of Jean Bernoulli, was born at Basel on the i8th of May
1710. He studied law and mathematics, and, after travelling in
France.was for five years professor of eloquence in the university
of his native city. On the death of his father he succeeded him
as professor of mathematics. He was thrice a successful com-
petitor for the prizes of the Academy of Sciences of Paris. His
prize subjects were, the capstan, the propagation of light, and the
magnet. He enjoyed the friendship of P. L. M. de Maupertuis,
who died under his roof while on his way to Berlin. He himself
died in 1790. His two sons, Jean and Jacques, are the last
noted mathematicians of the family.
VI. NICOLAS BERNOULLI (1687-1759), cousin of the three
preceding, and son of Nicolas Bernoulli, one of the senators of
Basel, was born in that city on the loth of October 1687. He
visited England, where he was kindly received by Sir Isaac
Newton and Edmund Halley (Com. Phil. ep. 199), held for a
time the mathematical chair at Padua, and was successively
professor of logic and of law at Basel, where he died on the 29th
of November 1759. He was editor of the Art Conjectandi '
of his uncle Jacques. His own works are contained in the Ada
Eruditorum, the Giornale de' letterati d' Italia, and the Com-
mercium PhUosophicum.
VII. JEAN BERNOULLI (1744-1807), grandson of the first
Jean Bernoulli, and son of the second of that name, was born
at Basel on the 4th of November 1744. He studied at Basel
and at Neuchatel, and when thirteen years of age took the
degree of doctor in philosophy. At nineteen he was appointed
astronomer royal of Berlin. Some years after, he visited
Germany, France and England, and subsequently Italy,
Russia and Poland. On his return to Berlin he was appointed
director of the mathematical department of the academy.
Here he died on the i3th of July 1807. His writings consist of
travels and astronomical, geographical and mathematical
works. In 1774 he published a French translation of Leonhard
Euler's Elements of Algebfa. He contributed several papers to
the Academy of Berlin.
VIII. JACQUES BERNOULLI (1759-1789), younger brother of
the preceding, and the second of this name, was born at Basel
on the I7th of October 1759. Having finished his literary
studies, he was, according to custom, sent to Neuchatel to learn
French. On his return he graduated in law. This study,
however, did not check his hereditary taste for geometry. The
early lessons which he had received from his father were con-
tinued by his uncle Daniel, and such was his progress that at
the age of twenty-one he was called to undertake the duties
of the chair of experimental physics, which his uncle's advanced
years rendered him unable to discharge. He afterwards accepted
the situation of secretary to count de Brenner, which afforded
him an opportunity of seeing Germany and Italy. In Italy
he formed a friendship with Lorgna, professor of mathematics
at Verona, and one of the founders of the Societa Italiana for the
encouragement of the sciences. He was also made correspond-
ing member of the royal society of Turin; and, while residing
at Venice, he was, through the friendly representation of Nicolaus
von Fuss, admitted into the academy of St Petersburg. In
1 788 he was named one of its mathematical professors.
He was tragically drowned while bathing in the Neva in
July 1789, a few months after his marriage with a daughter
of Albert Euler, son of Leonhard Euler.
Several of his papers are contained in the first six volumes of
Nova Acta Acad. Scien. Imper. Petrppol., in the Acta Helvetica, in the
Memoirs of the Academies of Berlin arid Turin, and in his brother
John's publications. He also published separately some juridical
and physical theses, and a German translation of Memoires du
philosophe de Merian. See generally M. Cantor, Geschichle der
Malhematik; J. C. Poggendorff, Biographisch-literarisches Hand-
worterbuch (1863-1904).
BERNSTEIN, AARON (1812-1884), Jewish scientist, author
and reformer. In the middle of the igth century Bernstein took
an active share in the movement for synagogue reform in Ger-
many. He was the author of two delightful Ghetto stories,
Vdgele der Maggid and Mendel Gibbor, being one of the originators
of this genre of modern fiction. He was also a publicist, and his
History of Revolution and Reaction in Germany (3 vols., 1883-
1884) was a collection of important political essays.
8o6
BERNSTORFF, A. P. BERNSTORFF, C. G.
BERNSTORFF, ANDREAS PETER, COUNT VON (1735-1797),
Danish statesman, was born at Hanover on the 2&th of August
1735. His career was determined by his uncle, Johann Hartwig
Ernst Bernstorff, who early discerned the talents of his nephew
and induced him to study in the German and Swiss universities
and travel for some years in Italy, France, England and Holland,
to prepare himself for a statesman's career. During these
Wander jahre he made the acquaintance of the poets Gellert and
Jacobi, the learned Jean- Jacques Barthelemy, the due de
Choiseul, and Gottfried Achenwall, the statistician. At his
uncle's desire he rejected the Hanoverian for the Danish service,
and in 1759 took his seat in the German chancery at Copenhagen.
In 1767, at the same time as his uncle, he was created a count,
and in 1769 was made a privy-councillor. He is described at
this period as intellectual, upright and absolutely trustworthy,
but obstinate and self-opinionated to the highest degree, arguing
with antiquaries about coins, with equerries about horses, and
with foreigners about their own countries, always certain that
he was right and they wrong, whatever the discussion might
be. He shared the disgrace of his uncle when Struensee came
into power, but re-entered the Danish service after Struen-
see's fall at the end of 1772, working at first in the financial and
economical departments, and taking an especial interest in
agriculture. The improvements he introduced in the tenures
of his peasantry anticipated in some respects the agricultural
reforms of the next generation.
In April 1773 Bernstorff was transferred to the position for
which he was especially fitted, the ministry of foreign affairs,
with which he combined the presidency of the German chancery
(for Schleswig-Holstein) . His predecessor, Adolf Siegfried Osten,
had been dismissed because he was not persona grata at St
Petersburg, and Bernstorff 's first official act was to conclude the
negotiations which had long been pending with the grand-duke
Paul as duke of Holstein-Gottorp. The result was the exchange-
treaty of the ist of June (May 21 O.S.) 1773, confirming the
previous treaty of 1767 (see BERNSTORFF, J. H. E.). This was
followed by the treaty of alliance between Denmark and Russia
of the 1 2th of August 1 7 73 , which was partly a mutually defensive
league, and partly an engagement between the two states to
upset the new constitution recently established in Sweden by
Gustavus III., when the right moment for doing so should arrive.
For this mischievous and immoral alliance, which bound
Denmark to the wheels of the Russian empress's chariot and
sought to interfere in the internal affairs of a neighbouring state,
Bernstorff was scarcely responsible, for the preliminaries had
been definitely settled in his uncle's time and he merely concluded
them. But there can be no doubt that he regarded this anti-
Swedish policy as the correct one for Denmark, especially with
a monarch like Gustavus III. on the Swedish throne. It is
also pretty certain that the anti-Swedish alliance was Russia's
price for compounding the Gottorp difficulty.
Starting from the hypothesis that Sweden was " Denmark-
Norway's most active and irreconcilable enemy," Bernstorff
logically included France, the secular ally of Sweden, among the
hostile powers with whom an alliance was to be avoided, and
drew near to Great Britain as the natural foe of France, especially
during the American War of Independence, and this too despite
the irritation occasioned in Denmark-Norway by Great Britain's
masterful interpretation of the expression " contraband."
Bernstorff's sympathy with England grew stronger still when in
1779 Spain joined her enemies; and he was much inclined, the
same winter, to join a triple alliance between Great Britain,
Russia and Denmark-Norway, proposed by England for the
purpose of compelling the Bourbon powers to accept reasonable
terms of peace. But he was overruled by the crown prince
Frederick, who thought such a policy too hazardous, when
Russia declined to have anything to do with it. Instead of this
the Russian chancellor Nikita Panin proposed an armed league
to embrace all the neutral powers, for the purpose of protecting
neutral shipping in time of war. This league was very similar
to one proposed by Bernstorff himself in September 1778 for
enforcing the principle " a free ship makes the cargo free ";
but as now presented by Russia, he rightly regarded it as directed
exclusively against England. He acceded to it indeed (gth of
July 1780) because he could not help doing so; but he had
previously, by a separate treaty with England, on the 4th of July,
come to an understanding with that power as to the meaning of
the expression " contraband of war. " This independence
caused great wrath at St Petersburg, where Bernstorff was
accused of disloyalty, and ultimately sacrificed to the resentment
of the Russian government (i3th of November 1780), the more
readily as he already disagreed on many important points of
domestic administration with the prime minister Hoegh Guldberg.
He retired to his Mecklenburg estates, but on the fall of Guldberg
four years later, was recalled to office (April 1784). The ensuing
thirteen years were perhaps the best days of the old Danish
absolutism. The government, under the direction of such
enlightened ministers as Bernstorff, Reventlow and others, held
the mean between Struensee's extravagant cosmopolitanism and
Guldberg's stiff conservatism. In such noble projects of reform
as the emancipation of the serfs (see REVENTLOW) Bernstorff
took a leading part, and so closely did he associate himself with
everything Danish, so popular did he become in the Danish
capital, that a Swedish diplomatist expressed the opinion that
henceforth Bernstorff could not be removed without danger.
Liberal-minded as he was, he held that " the will of the nation
should be a law to the king," and he boldly upheld the freedom
of the press as the surest of safety-valves.
Meanwhile foreign complications were again endangering the
position of Denmark-Norway. As Bernstorff had predicted,
Panin's neutrality project had resulted in a breach between
Great Britain and Russia. Then came Gustavus III.'s sudden
war with Russia in 1788. Bernstorff was bound by treaty to
assist Russia in such a contingency, but he took care that the
assistance so rendered should be as trifling as possible, to avoid
offending Great Britain and Prussia. Still more menacing
became the political situation on the outbreak of the French
Revolution. Ill-disposed as Bernstorff was towards the Jacobins,
he now condemned on principle any interference in the domestic
affairs of France, and he was persuaded that Denmark's safest
policy was to keep clear of every anti-French coalition. From
this unassailable standpoint he never swerved, despite the
promises and even the menaces both of the eastern and the
western powers. He was rewarded with complete success and
the respect of all the diplomatists in Europe. His neutrality
treaty with Sweden (i7th of March 1794), for protecting their
merchantmen by combined squadrons, was also extremely
beneficial to the Scandinavian powers, both commercially and
politically. Taught by the lesson of Poland, he had, in fact,
long since abandoned his former policy of weakening Sweden.
Bernstorff's great faculties appeared, indeed, to mature and
increase with age, and his death, on the 2ist of June 1797, was
regarded in Denmark as a national calamity.
Count Bernstorff was twice married, his wives being the two
sisters of the writers Counts Christian and Friedrich Leopold
zu Stolberg. He left seven sons and three daughters. Of his
sons the best known is Christian Giinther, count von Bernstorff.
Another, Count Joachim, was attached to his brother's fortunes
so long as he remained in the Danish service, was associated
with him in representing Denmark at the congress of Vienna,
and in 1815 was appointed ambassador at that court.
See Rasmus Nyerup, Bcrnstorffs Eftermaele (Kjobenhayn, 1799);
Peter Edward Holm, Danmark-Norges udenrigske Historic (Copen-
hagen, 1875); Danmarks Riges Historic V. (Copenhagen, 1897-
1905); Christian Ulrich Detlev von Eggers, Denkwiirdigskeiten aus
dem Leben des Graf en A. P. Bernstorff (Copenhagen, 1800); Aage
Friis, A. P. Bernstorff og O. Hoegh-Guldberg (Copenhagen, 1899);
and Bernstorfferne og Danmark (Copenhagen, 1903). (R. N. B.)
BERNSTORFF, CHRISTIAN GtiNTHER, COUNT VON (1760-
1835), Danish and Prussian statesman and diplomatist, son of
Count Andreas Peter von Bernstorff, was born at Copenhagen
on the 3rd of April 1769. Educated for the diplomatic service
under his father's direction, he began his career in 1787, as
attache to the representative of Denmark at the opening of the
Swedish diet. In 1789 he went as secretary of legation to Berlin,
BERNSTORFF, J. H. E.
807
where his maternal uncle, Count Leopold Friedrich zu Stolberg,
was Danish ambassador. His uncle's influence, as well as his
own social qualities, obtained him rapid promotion; he was
soon chargS d'affaires, and in 1791 minister plenipotentiary.
In 1794 he exchanged this post for the important one of ambas-
sador at Stockholm, where he remained until May 1797, when
he was summoned to Copenhagen to act as substitute for his
father during his illness. On the death of the latter (zist June),
he succeeded him as secretary of state for foreign affairs and
privy councillor. In 1800 he became head of the ministry.
He remained responsible for the foreign policy of Denmark
until May 1810, a fateful period which saw the battle of Copen-
hagen (2nd of April 1801), the bombardment of Copenhagen
and capture of the Danish fleet in 1807. After his retirement
he remained without office until his appointment in 1811 as
Danish ambassador at Vienna. He remained here, in spite of
the fact that for a while Denmark was nominally at war with
Austria, until, in January 1814, on the accession of Denmark
to the coalition against Napoleon, he publicly resumed his
functions as ambassador. He accompanied the emperor Francis
to Paris, and was present at the signature of the first peace of
Paris. With his brother Joachim, he represented Denmark at
the congress of Vienna and, as a member for the commission
for the regulation of the affairs of Germany, was responsible
for some of that confusion of Danish and German interests which
was to bear bitter fruit later in the Schleswig-Holstein question
(g.v.). He again accompanied the allied sovereigns to Paris in
1815, returning to Copenhagen the same year. In 1817 he
was appointed Danish ambassador at Berlin, his brother Joachim
going at the same time to Vienna. In the following year Prince
Hardenberg made him the formal proposition that he should
transfer his services to Prussia, which, with the consent of his
sovereign, he did.
It was, therefore, as a Prussian diplomat that Bernstorff
attended the congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (October 1818), at
the close of which he returned to Berlin as minister of state and
head of the department for foreign affairs. Bernstorff's manage-
ment of Prussian policy during the many years that he remained
in office has been variously judged. He was by training and
temperament opposed to the Revolution, and he was initiated
into his new duties as a Prussian minister by the reactionary
Ancillon. He is accused of having subordinated the particular
interests of Prussia to the European policy of Metternich and
the " Holy Alliance." Whether any other policy would in the
long run have served Prussia better is a matter for speculation.
It is true that Bernstorff supported the Carlsbad decrees, and
the Vienna Final Act; he was also the faithful henchman of
Metternich at the congresses of Laibach, Troppau and Verona.
On the other hand, he took a considerable share in laying the
foundations of the customs union (Zolherein) , which was destined
to be the foundation of the Prussian hegemony in Germany.
In his support of Russia's action against Turkey in 1828 also
he showed that he was no blind follower of Metternich's views.
In the crisis of 1830 his moderation in face of the warlike clamour
of the military party at Berlin did much to prevent the troubles
in Belgium and Poland from ending in a universal European
conflagration.
From 1824 onward Bernstorff had been a constant sufferer
from hereditary gout, intensified and complicated by the results
of overwork. In the spring of 1832 the state of his health
compelled him to resign the ministry of foreign affairs to Ancillon,
who had already acted as his deputy for a year. He died on the
i8th of March 1835.
See J. Caro in Allgem. Deutsch. Biog. a. \. ; also H. von Treitschke,
Deutsclie Geschichte (Leipzig, 1874-1894). (R. N. B.)
BERNSTORFF, JOHANN HARTWIG ERNST, COUNT VON
(1712-1772), Danish statesman, who came of a very ancient
Mecklenburg family, was the son of Joachim Engelke, Freiherr
von Bernstorff, chamberlain to the elector of Hanover, and
was born on the I3th of May 1712. His maternal grandfather,
Andreas Gottlieb Bernstorff (1640-1726), had been one of the
ablest ministers of George I., and under his guidance Johann
was very carefully educated, acquiring amongst other things
that intimate knowledge of the leading European languages,
especially French, which ever afterwards distinguished him.
He was introduced into the Danish service by his relations, the
brothers Plessen, who were ministers of state under Christian
VI. In 1732 he was sent on a diplomatic mission to the court
of Dresden; and from 1738 he represented Holstein at the diet
of Regcnsburg, from 1744 to 1750 he represented Denmark at
Paris, whence he returned in 1754 to Denmark as minister of
foreign affairs. Supported by the powerful favourite A. G.
Moltke, and highly respected by Frederick V., he occupied for
twenty-one years the highest position in t hegovcrnmen t ,and in the
council of state his opinion was decisive. But his chief concern
was with foreign affairs. Ever since the conclusion of the
Great Northern War, Danish statesmen had been occupied
in harvesting its fruits, namely, the Gottorp portions of Schleswig
definitely annexed to Denmark in 1721 by the treaty of Nystad,
and endeavouring to bring about a definitive general under-
standing with the house of Gottorp as to their remaining pos-
sessions in Holstein. With the head of the Swedish branch of
the Gottorps, the crown prince Adolphus Frederick, things had
been arranged by the exchange of 1750; but an attempt to
make a similar arrangement with the chief of the elder Gottorp
line, the cesarevitch Peter Feodorovich, had failed. In intimate
connexion with the Gottorp affair stood the question of the poli-
tical equilibrium of the north. Ever since Russia had become
the dominant Baltic power, as well as the state to which the
Gottorpers looked primarily for help, the necessity for a better
understanding between the two Scandinavian kingdoms had
clearly been recognized by the best statesmen of both, especially
in Denmark from Christian VI. 's time; but unfortunately
this sound and sensible policy was seriously impeded by the
survival of the old national hatred on both sides of the Sound,
still further complicated by Gottorp's hatred of Denmark.
Moreover, it was a diplomatic axiom in Denmark, founded on
experience, that an absolute monarchy in Sweden was incom-
parably more dangerous to herneighbourthan a limited monarchy,
and after the collapse of Swedish absolutism with Charles XII.,
the upholding of the comparatively feeble, and ultimately
anarchical, parliamentary government of Sweden became
a question of principle with Danish statesmen throughout
the i8th century. A friendly alliance with a relatively weak
Sweden was the cardinal point of Bernstorff's policy. But his
plans were traversed again and again by unforeseen complica-
tions, the failure of the most promising presumptions, the per-
petual shifting of apparently stable alliances; and again and
again he had to modify his means to attain his ends. Amidst
all these perplexities Bcrnstorff approved himself a consummate
statesman. It seemed almost as if his wits were sharpened
into a keener edge by his very difficulties; but since he con-
demned on principle every war which was not strictly defensive,
and it had fallen to his lot to guide a comparatively small power,
he always preferred the way of negotiation, even sometimes
where the diplomatic tangle would perhaps best have been
severed boldly by the sword. The first difficult problem he had to
face was the Seven Years' War. He was determined to preserve
the neutrality of Denmark at any cost, and this he succeeded
in doing, despite the existence of a subsidy-treaty with the
king of Prussia, and the suspicions of England and Sweden.
It was through his initiative, too, that the convention of Kloster-
Seven was signed (loth of September 1757), and on the 4th of
May 1 758 he concluded a still more promising treaty with France,
whereby, in consideration of Denmark's holding an army-corps
of 24,000 men in Holstein till the end of the war, to secure
Hamburg, LUbeck and the Gottorp part of Holstein from
invasion, France, and ultimately Austria also, engaged to bring
about an exchange between the king of Denmark and the
cesarevitch, as regards Holstein. But the course of the war
made this compact inoperative. Austria hastened to repudiate
her guarantee to Denmark in order not to offend the new emperor
of Russia, Peter III., and one of Peter's first acts on ascending
the throne was to declare war against Denmark. The coolness
8o8
BEROSSUS BERRY, DUKE OF
and firmness of Bernstorff saved the situation. He protested
that the king of Denmark was bound to defend Schleswig
" so long as there was a sword in Denmark and a drop of blood
in the veins of the Danish people." He rejected the insulting
ultimatum of the Russian emperor. He placed the best French
general of the day at the head of the well-equipped Danish
army. But just as the Russian and Danish armies had come
within striking distance, the tidings reached Copenhagen that
Peter III. had been overthrown by his consort. Bernstorff
was one of the first to recognize the impotence of the French
monarchy after the Seven Years' War, and in 1763 he considered
it expedient to exchange the French for the Russian alliance,
which was cemented by the treaty of the 28th of April (March
n) 1765. This compact engaged Denmark to join with
Russia in upholding the existing Swedish constitution, in return
for which Catherine II. undertook to adjust the Gottorp diffi-
culty by the cession of the Gottorp portion of Holstein in ex-
change for the counties of Oldenburg and Delmenhorst. For
his part in this treaty Bernstorff was created count. On the
accession of Christian VII., in 1766, Bernstorff's position
became very precarious, and he was exposed to all manner of
attacks, being accused, without a shadow of truth, of exploiting
Denmark, and of unduly promoting foreigners. It is remarkable,
however, that though Bernstorff ruled Denmark for twenty years
he never learnt Danish. His last political achievement was to
draw still closer to Russia by the treaty of the i3th of December
1769, the most important paragraph of which stipulated that
any change in the Swedish constitution should be regarded
by Denmark and Russia as a casus belli against Sweden, and
that in the event of such a war Denmark should retain all
the territory conquered from Sweden. This treaty proved to
be a great mistake on Denmark's part, but circumstances
seemed at the time to warrant it. Nine months later, on the
I3th of September 1770, Bernstorff was dismissed as the result
of Struensee's intrigues, and, rejecting the brilliant offers of
Catherine II. if he would enter the Russian service, retired to his
German estates, where he died on the i8th of February 1772.
Bernstorff was not only one of the ablest but one of the noblest
and most conscientious statesmen of his day. The motto he
chose on receiving the order of the Daneborg was " Integritas
et rectum custodiunt me," and throughout a long life he was
never false to it.
See Poul Vedel, Den aeldre Grev Bernstorffs ministerium (Copen-
hagen, 1882); Correspondance ministerielle du Comte J. H. E.
Bernstorff, ed. Vedel (Copenhagen, 1882) ; Aage Friis, Bernstorfferne og
Danmark (Copenhagen, 1899). (R. N. B.)
BEROSSUS, a priest of Bel at Babylon, who translated into
Greek' the standard Babylonian work on astrology and astronomy,
and compiled (in three books) the history of his country from
native documents, which he published in Greek in the reign of
Antiochus II. (250 B.C.). His works have perished, but extracts
from the history have been preserved by Josephus and Euse-
bius, the latter of whom probably derived them not directly
from Berossus, but through the medium of Alexander Polyhistor
and Apollodorus. The extracts containing the Babylonian
cosmology, the list of the antediluvian kings of Babylonia,
and the Chaldaean story of the Deluge, have been shown by
the decipherment of the cuneiform texts to have faithfully
reproduced the native legends; we may, therefore, conclude
that the rest of the History was equally trustworthy. On the
other hand, a list of post-diluvian dynasties, which is quoted
by Eusebius and Georgius Syncellus as having been given by
Berossus, cannot, in its present form, be reconciled with the
monumental facts, though a substratum of historical truth
is discoverable in it. As it stands, it is as follows:
1. 86 Chaldaean kings 34,080 or 33,091 years
2. 8 Median , 224
3. 1 1 other kings , no number.
4. 49 Chaldaean , 458
5. 9 Arabian ,245
6. 45 Assyrian , 526 ,,
After these, according to Eusebius, came the reign of Pul.
By means of an ingenious chronological combination, the several
items of which, however, are very questionable, J. A. Brandis
assigned 258 years to the 3rd dynasty; other summations
have been proposed with equally little assurance of certainty.
If Eusebius can be trusted, the 6th dynasty ended in 729 B.C.,
the year in which Pul or Tiglath-pileser III. was crowned king of
Babylonia. But all attempts to harmonize the scheme of
dynasties thus ascribed to Berossus with the list given us in
the so-called dynastic Tablets discovered by Dr Pinches have
been failures. The numbers, whether of kings or of years,
cannot have been handed down to us correctly by the Greek
writers. All that seems certain is that Berossus arranged his
history so that it should fill the astronomical period of 36,000
years, beginning with the first man and ending with the con-
quest of Babylon by Alexander the Great.
See J. P. Cory, Ancient Fragments (1826, ed. by E. R. Hodges,
1876) ; Fr. Lenormant, Essai de commentaire des fragments cosmo-
goniques de Berose (1872); A. yon Gutschmid in the Rheinisches
Museum (1853); George Smith in T.S.B.A. in., 1874, pp. 361-379;
Th. G. Pinches in P.S.B.A., 1880-1881. (A. H. S.)
BERRY, CHARLES ALBERT (1852-1899), English non-
conformist divine, was born on the i4th of December 1852 at
Bradshawgate, Leigh, Lancashire. At the age of seventeen
he entered Airedale College, Bradford, to train for the Congrega-
tional ministry, and in 1875 became pastor of St George's Road
Congregational church, Bolton. He became widely known
as a man of administrative ability, a vigorous platform speaker
and an eloquent preacher. In July 1883 he undertook the
pastorate of the church at Queen Street, Wolverhampton,
with the supervision of nine dependent churches in the neigh-
bourhood. Here again he exercised a wide influence, due in
part to his evangelical conviction, eloquence, broad views and
powers of organization, but also to the magnetic force of his
personality. In 1887 he went to America in fulfilment of a
promise to Henry Ward Beecher of Brooklyn, and received
a unanimous invitation to succeed Beecher in what was then
the best-known pulpit in the United States. Berry, however,
felt that his work lay in England and declined the invitation.
In 1892 he took part in a conference at Grindelwald on the
question of Christian Reunion, and subsequently, with Hugh
Price Hughes and Alexander Mackennal of Bowdon, conducted
a campaign throughout England, introducing the ideas and
principles of Free Church federation. He was the first president
of the Free Church congress. He played an effective part in
expressing the popular desire for peace between England and
America in reply to President Cleveland's message on the
Venezuelan boundary dispute, and was invited to Washington
to preach in connexion with the endeavour to establish an
international arbitration treaty. In 1896 he was elected chair-
man of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. In
1898 his health began to fail, and he died suddenly on the
3ist of January 1899. His published works consist chiefly of
addresses, and two volumes of sermons, Vision and Duty, and
Mischievous Goodness. (D. MN.)
BERRY, CHARLES FERDINAND, DUKE OF (1778-1820),
younger son of Charles X. of France, was born at Versailles.
At the Revolution he left France with his father, then comte
d'Artois, and served in the army of Conde from 1792 to 1797.
He afterwards joined the Russian army, and in 1801 took up his
residence in England, where he remained for thirteen years.
During that time he married an Englishwoman, Anna Brown,
by whom he had two daughters, afterwards the baronne de
Charette and the comtesse de Lucinge-Faucigny. The marriage
was cancelled for political reasons in 1814, when the duke set
out for France. His frank, open manners gained him some
favour with his countrymen, and Louis XVIII. named him com-
mander-in-chief of the army at Paris on the return of Napoleon
from Elba. He was, however, unable to retain the loyalty of
his troops, and retired to Ghent during the Hundred Days. In
1816 he married the princess Caroline Ferdinande Louise (1798-
1870), eldest daughter of King Francis I. of Naples. On the
i3th of February 1820 he was mortally wounded, when leaving
the opera-house at Paris with his wife, by a saddler named
Louis Pierre Louvel. Seven months after his death the duchess
gave birth to a son, who received the title of duke of Bordeaux,
BERRY, DUKE OF BERRYER
809
but who is known in history as the comte de Chambord.
A daughter, afterwards duchess of Parma, was born in 1819.
The duchess of Berry was compelled to follow Charles X.
to Holyrood after July 1830, but it was with the resolution of
returning speedily and making an attempt to secure the throne
for her son. From England she went to Italy, and in April 1832
she landed near Marseilles, but, receiving no support, was com-
pelled to make her way towards the loyal districts of Vendee
and Brittany. Her followers, however, were defeated, and,
after remaining concealed for five months in a house in Nantes,
she was betrayed to the government and imprisoned in the
castle of Blaye. Here she gave birth to a daughter, the fruit of
a secret marriage contracted with an Italian nobleman, Count
Ettore Lucchesi-Palli (1805-1864). The announcement of this
marriage at once deprived the duchess of the sympathies of her
supporters. She was no longer an object of fear to the French
government, who released her in June 1833. She set sail for
Sicily, and, joining her husband, lived in retirement from that
time till her death, at Brunnensee in Switzerland, in April 1870.
BERRY, JOHN, DUKE OF (1340-1416), third son of John II.,
king of France and Bonne of Luxemburg, was born on the 3Oth
of November 1340 at Vincennes. He was created count of
Poitiers in 1356, and was made the king's lieutenant in southern
France, though the real power rested chiefly with John of
Armagnac, whose daughter Jeanne he married in 1360. The
loss of his southern possessions by the treaty of Bretigny was
compensated by the fiefs of Auvergne and Berry, with the rank
of peer of France. The duke went to England in 1360 as a
hostage for the fulfilment of the treaty of Bretigny, returning
to France in 1367 on the pretext of collecting his ransom. He
took no leading part in the war against the English, his energies
being largely occupied with the satisfaction of his artistic and
luxurious tastes. For this reason perhaps his brother Charles V.
assigned him no share in the government during the minority of
Charles VI. He received, however, the province of Languedoc.
The peasant revolt of the Tuchins and Coquins, as the insurgents
were called, was suppressed with great harshness, and the duke
exacted from the states of Languedoc assembled at Lyons a fine
of 15,000. He fought at Rosebeke in 1382 against the Flemings
and helped to suppress the Parisian revolts. By a series of
delays he caused the failure of the naval expedition prepared at
Sluys against England in 1386, and a second accusation of
military negligence led to disgrace of the royal princes and the
temporary triumph of the marmousels, as the advisers of the late
king were nicknamed. Charles VI. visited Languedoc in 1389-
1390, and enquired into his uncle's government. The duke was
deprived of the government of Languedoc, and his agent, Betizac,
was burnt. When in 1401 he was restored, he delegated his
authority in the province, where he was still hated, to Bernard
d'Armagnac. In 1396 he negotiated a truce with Richard II.
of England, and his marriage with the princess Isabella of France.
He tried to mediate between his brother Philip the Bold of
Burgundy and his nephew Louis, duke of Orleans, and later
between John " sans Peur " of Burgundy and Orleans. He
broke with John after the murder of Orleans, though he tried
to prevent civil war, and only finally joined the Armagnac party
in 1410. In 1413 he resumed his r61e of mediator, and was for
a short time tutor to the dauphin. He died in Paris on the isth
of June 1416, leaving vast treasures of jewelry, objects of art,
and especially of illuminated MSS., many of which have been
preserved. He decorated the Sainte Chapelle at Bourges; he
built the Hotel de Nesle in Paris, and palaces at Poitiers, Bourges,
Mehun-sur-Yevre and elsewhere.
See also L. Raynal, Hisloire du Berry (Bourges, 1845); "Jean,
due de Berry," in S. Luce, La France pendant la guerre de Cent Ans
(1890), vol. i. ; Toulgoet-Treanna, in Mem. de la Soc. des antiqttaires
du centre, vol. xvii. (1890). His beautiful illuminated Livre fheures
was reproduced (Paris, fol. 1904) by P. Durrieu.
BERRY, or BERRI, a former province of France, absorbed
in 1790 in the departments of Cher, corresponding roughly with
Haut-Berry, and Indre, representing Bas-Berry. George Sand,
the most famous of " berrichon " writers, has described the quiet
scenery and rural life of the province in the rustic novels of her
later life. Berry is the civitas or pagus Bituricensis of Gregory
of Tours. The Biturigcs were said by Livy (v. 34) to have been
the dominating tribe in Gaul in the 7th century, one of their
kings, Ambigat, having ruled over all Gaul. In Caesar's time
they were dependent on the Aedui. The tribes inhabiting
the districts of Berry and Bourbonnais were distinguished
as Bituriges Cubi. The numerous menhirs and dolmens to be
found in the district, to which local superstitions still cling, are
probably monuments of still earlier inhabitants. In 52 B.C.
the Biturigcs, at the order of Vercingetorix, set fire to their
towns, but spared Bourges (Avaricum) their capital, which was
taken and sacked by the Romans. The province was amalga-
mated under Augustus with Aquitainc, and Bourges became
the capital of Aquitania Prima. In 475 Berry came into the
possession of the west Goths, from whom it was taken (c. 507)
by Clovis. The first count of Berry, Chunibcrt (d. 763), was
created by Waifer, duke of Aquitaine, from whom the county
was wrested by Pippin the Short, who made it his residence and
left it to his son Carloman, on whose death it fell to his brother
Charlemagne. The countship of Berry was suppressed (926) by
Rudolph, king of the Franks (fl. 923-936). Berry was for some
time a group of lordships dependent directly on the crown, but
the chief authority eventually passed to the viscounts of Bourges,
who, while owning the royal suzerainty, preserved a certain
independence until 1101, when the viscount Odo Arpin de Dun
sold his fief to the crown. Berry was part of the dowry of Eleanor,
wife of Louis VII., and on her divorce and remarriage with
Henry II. of England it passed to the English king. Its posses-
sion remained, however, a matter of dispute until 1200, when
Berry reverted by treaty with John of England to Philip Augustus,
and the various fiefs of Berry were given as a dowry to John's
niece, Blanche of Castile, on her marriage with Philip's son
Louis (afterwards Louis VIII.). Philip Augustus established
an effective control over the administration of the province by
the appointment of a royal bailli. Berry suffered during the
Hundred Years' War, and more severely during the wars of
religion in the i6th century. It had been made a duchy in 1360,
and its first duke, John [Jean] (1340-1416), son of the French
king John II., encouraged the arts and beautified the province
with money wrung from his government of Languedoc. Thence-
forward it was held as an apanage of the French crown, usually
by a member of the royal family closely related to the king.
Charles of France (1447-1472), brother of Louis XI., was duke
of Berry, but was deprived of this province, as subsequently of
the duchies of Normandy and Guienne, for intrigues against
his brother. The duchy was also governed by Jeanne de V'alois
(d. 1505), the repudiated wife of Louis XII. 1 ; by Marguerite
d'Angoulgme, afterwards queen of Navarre; by Marguerite de
Valois, afterwards duchess of Savoy; and by Louise of Lorraine,
widow of Henry III., after whose death (1601) the province was
finally reabsorbed in the royal domain. The title of duke of
Berry, divested of territorial significance, was held by princes
of the royal house. Charles (i686-i7i4),dukeof Berry, grandson
of Louis XIV., and third son of the dauphin Louis (d. 1711),
married Marie Louise Elisabeth (1686-1714), eldest daughter
of the duke of Orleans, whose intrigues made her notorious.
The last to bear the title of duke of Berry was the ill-fated
Charles Ferdinand, grandson and heir of Charles X.
BERRYER, ANTOINE PIERRE (1700-1868), French advocate
and parliamentary orator, was the son of an eminent advocate
and counsellor to the parlement. He was educated at the College
de Juilly, on leaving which he adopted the profession of the law;
he was admitted advocate in 1811, and in the same year he
married. In the great conflict of the period between Napoleon I.
and the Bourbons, Berrycr, like his father, was an ardent
Legitimist; and in the spring of 1815, at the opening of the
campaign of the Hundred Days, he followed Louis XVIII. to
Ghent as a volunteer. After the second restoration he dis-
tinguished himself as a courageous advocate of moderation in
the treatment of the military adherents of the emperor. He
1 See R. Ic Mauldc, Jeanne de France, dachesse f Orleans et it
Berry (Paris, 1883).
8io
BERSERKER BERTAT
assisted his father and Dupin in the unsuccessful defence of
Marshal Ney before the chamber of peers; and he undertook
alone the defence of General Cambronne and General Debelle,
procuring the acquittal of the former and the pardon of the latter.
By this time he had a very large business as advocate, and was
engaged on behalf of journalists in many press prosecutions.
He stood forward with a noble resolution to maintain the freedom
of the press, and severely censured the rigorous measures of
the police department. In 1830, not long before the fall of
Charles X., Berryer was elected a member of the chamber of
deputies. He appeared there as the champion of the king and
encouraged him in his reactionary policy. After the revolution
of July, when the Legitimists withdrew in a body, Berryer alone
retained his seat as deputy. He resisted, but unsuccessfully,
the abolition of the hereditary peerage. He advocated trial
by jury in press prosecutions, the extension of municipal fran-
chises and other liberal measures. In May 1832 he hastened
from Paris to see the duchess of Berry on her landing in the south
of France for the purpose of organizing an insurrection in
favour of her son, the duke of Bordeaux, since known as the
Comte de Chambord. Berryer attempted to turn her from her
purpose; and failing in this he set out for Switzerland. He was,
however, arrested, imprisoned and brought to trial as one of
the insurgents. He was immediately acquitted. In the following
year he pleaded for the liberation of the duchess, made a
memorable speech in defence of Chateaubriand, who was pro-
secuted for his violent attacks on the government of Louis
Philippe, and undertook the defence of several Legitimist
journalists. Among the more noteworthy events of his subse-
quent career were his defence of Louis Napoleon after the
ridiculous affair of Boulogne, in 1840, and a visit to England
in December 1843, for the purpose of formally acknowledging
the pretender, the duke of Bordeaux, then living in London,
as Henry V. and lawful king of France. Berryer was an active
member of the National Assembly convoked after the revolution
of February 1848, again visited the pretender, then at Wiesbaden,
and still fought in the old cause. This long parliamentary
career was closed by a courageous protest against the coup d'etat
of December 2, 1851. After a lapse of twelve years, however,
he appeared once more in his forsaken field as a deputy to the
Corps Legislatif. Berryer was elected member of the French
Academy in 1854. A visit paid by this famous orator to Lord
Brougham in 1865 was made the occasion of a banquet given in
his honour by the benchers of the Temple and of Lincoln's Inn.
In November 1868 he was removed by his own desire from
Paris to his country seat at Augerville, and there he died on the
zpth of the same month.
BERSERKER (from the " sark " or shirt of the " bear," or
other animal-skins worn by them), in Scandinavian mythology,
the name of the twelve sons of the hero Berserk, grandson of
the eight-handed Starkadder and Alfhilde. Berserk was famed
for the reckless fury with which he fought, always going into
battle without armour. By the daughter of King Swafurlam,
whom he had killed, he had the twelve sons who were his equals
in bravery. In Old Norse the term berserker thus became
synonymous with reckless courage, and was later applied to
the bodyguards of several of the Scandinavian heroes.
BERT, PAUL (1833-1886), French physiologist and politician,
was born at Auxerre (Yonne) on the I7th of October 1833.
He entered the Ecole Polytechnique at Paris with the intention
of becoming an engineer; then changing his mind, he studied
law; and finally, under the influence of the zoologist, L. P.
Gratiolet (1815-1865), he took up physiology, becoming one of
Claude Bernard's most brilliant pupils. After graduating at
Paris as doctor of medicine in 1863, and doctor of science in
1866, he was appointed professor of physiology successively
at Bordeaux (1866) and the Sorbonne (1869). After the revolu-
tion of 1870 he began to take part in politics as a supporter of
Gambetta. In 1874 he was elected to the Assembly, where
he sat on the extreme left, and in 1876 to the chamber of deputies.
He was one of the most determined enemies of clericalism, and
an ardent advocate of " liberating national education from
religious sects, while rendering it accessible to every citizen."
In 1 88 1 he was minister of education and worship in Gambetta's
short-lived cabinet, and in the same year he created a great
sensation by a lecture on modern Catholicism, delivered in a
Paris theatre, in which he poured ridicule on the fables and
follies of the chief religious tracts and handbooks that circulated
especially in the south of France. Early in 1 886 he was appointed
resident-general in Annam and Tonkin, and died of dysentery
at Hanoi on the nth of November of that year. But he was
more distinguished as a man of science than as a politician or
administrator. His classical work, La Pression barometrique
(1878), embodies researches that gained him the biennial prize
of 20,000 francs from the Academy of Sciences in 1875, and is
a comprehensive investigation on the physiological effects
of air-pressure, both above and below the normal. His earliest
researches, which provided him with material for his two doctoral
theses, were devoted to animal grafting and the vitality of
animal tissues, and they were followed by studies on the physiolo-
gical action of various poisons, on anaesthetics, on respiration
and asphyxia, on the causes of the change of colour in the
chameleon, &c. He was also interested in vegetable physiology,
and in particular investigated the movements of the sensitive
plant, and the influence of light of different colours on the life
of vegetation. After about 1880 he produced several elementary
text-books of scientific instruction, and also various publications
on educational and allied subjects.
BERTANI, AGOSTINO (1812-1886), Italian revolutionist,
was born at Milan on the igth of October 1812. He took part
in the insurrection of 1848, though opposed to the fusion of
Lombardy with Piedmont. During the Roman republic of
1849, he, as medical officer, organized the ambulance service,
and, after the fall of Rome, withdrew to Genoa, where he worked
with Sir James Hudson for the liberation of the political prisoners
of Naples, but held aloof from the Mazzinian conspiracies. In
1859 he founded a revolutionary journal at Genoa, but, shortly
afterwards, joined as surgeon the Garibaldian corps in the
war of 1859. After Villafranca he became the organizer-in-
chief of the expeditions to Sicily, remaining at Genoa after
Garibaldi's departure for Marsala, and organizing four separate
volunteer corps, two of which were intended for Sicily and two
for the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged all to sail for
Sicily. Upon the arrival of Garibaldi at Naples, Bertani was
appointed secretary-general of the dictator, in which capacity
he reorganized the police, abolished the secret service fund,
founded twelve infant asylums, suppressed the duties upon
Sicilian products, prepared for the suppression of the religious
orders, and planned the sanitary reconstruction of the city.
Entering parliament in 1861, he opposed the Garibaldian
expedition, which ended at Aspromonte, but nevertheless
tended Garibaldi's wound with affectionate devotion. In 1866
he organized the medical service for the 40,000 Garibaldians,
and in 1867 fought at Mentana. His parliamentary career,
though marked by zeal, was less brilliant than his revolutionary
activity. Up to 1870 he remained an agitator, but, after the
liberation of Rome, seceded from the historic left, and
became leader of the extreme left, a position held until his
death on the 3oth of April 1886. His chief work as deputy
was an inquiry into the sanitary conditions of the peasantry,
and the preparation of the sanitary code adopted by the Crispi
administration. (H. W. S.)
BERTAT (Arab. Jebalairi), negroes of the Shangalla group
of tribes, mainly agriculturists. They occupy the valleys of the
Yabus and Tumat, tributaries of the Blue Nile. They are shortish
and very black, with projecting jaws, broad noses and thick
lips. By both sexes the hair is worn short or the head shaved;
on cheeks and temple are tribal marks in the form of scars.
The huts of the Bertat are circular, the floor raised on short poles.
Their weapons are the spear, throwing-club, sword and dagger,
and also the kulbeda orthrowing-knife. Blocks of salt are the
favourite form of currency. Gold washing is practised. Nature
worship still struggles against the spread of Mahommedanism.
The Bertat, estimated to number some 80,000, c. 1880, were
BERTAUT BERTHIER
811
nearly exterminated during the period of Dervish ascendancy
(1884-1898) in the eastern Sudan. Settled among them are
Arab communities governed by their own sheiks, while the
meks or rulers of the Bertat speak Arabic, and show traces of
foreign blood. (See FAZOGLI.)
See Koeltlitz, " The Bertat," Journal of the Anthropological Institute,
xxxiii. 51 ; Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (London,
BERTAUT, JEAN (1552-1611), French poet, was born at
Caen in 1552. He figures with Desportes in the disdainful
couplet of Boileau on Ronsard :
" Ce pote orgueilleux, trebuchfe de si haut,
Rendit plus retenus Desportes et Bertaut."
He wrote light verse to celebrate the incidents of court life
in the manner of Desportes, but his verse is more fantastic and
fuller of conceits than his master's. He early entered the church,
and had a share in the conversion of Henry IV., a circumstance
which assured his career. He was successively councillor of
the parlement of Grenoble, secretary to the king, almoner to
Marie de' Medici, abbot of Aulnay and finally, in 1606, bishop of
Sees. After his elevation to the bishopric he ceased to produce
the light verse in which he excelled, though his scruples did not
prevent him from preparing a new edition of his Recueil de
quelques vers amoureux (1602) in 1606. The serious poems in
which he celebrated the public events of his later years are dull
and lifeless. Bertaut died at Sees on the 8th of June 1611. His
works were edited by M. Ad. Chenevieres in 1891.
BERTH, originally a nautical term, probably connected
with the verb " to bear," first found in literature at the end of
the i6th century, with the alternative spelling " birth." Its
primary meaning is " sea-room," whether on the high seas or at
anchor. Hence the phrase " to give a wide berth to," meaning
" to keep at a safe distance from," both in its literal and its
metaphorical use. From meaning sea-room for a ship at anchor,
" berth " comes to mean also the position of a ship at her moor-
ings (" to berth a ship "). The word further means any place
on a ship allotted for a special purpose, where the men mess or
sleep, or an office or appointment on board, whence the word
has passed into colloquial use with the meaning of a situation
or employment. From the Icelandic byrdi, a board, is also
derived the ship-building term " berth," meaning to board,
put up bulk-heads, etc.
BERTHELOT, MARCELLIN PIERRE EUGENE (1827-1907),
French chemist and politician, was born at Paris on the 29th
of October 1827, being the son of a doctor. After distinguishing
himself at school in history and philosophy, he turned to the'
study of science. In 1851 he became a member of the staff
of the College de France as assistant to A. J. Balard, his former
master, and about the same time he began his life-long friendship
with Ernest Renan. In 1854 he made his reputation by his
doctoral thesis, Sur les combinaisons de la glycerine avec les acides,
which described a series of beautiful researches in continuation
and amplification of M. E. Chevreul's classical work. In 1859
he was appointed professor of organic chemistry at the Ecole
Superieure de Pharmacie, and in 1865 he accepted the new
chair of organic chemistry, which was specially created for his
benefit at the College de France. He became a member of the
Academy of Medicine in 1863, and ten years afterwards entered
the Academy of Sciences, of which he became perpetual secretary
in 1889 in succession to Louis Pasteur. He was appointed
inspector-general of higher education in 1876, and after his
election as life senator in 1881 he continued to take an active
interest in educational questions, especially as affected by
compulsory military service. In the Goblet ministry of
1886-1887 he was minister of public instruction, and in the
Bourgeois cabinet of 1895-1896 he held the portfolio for foreign
affairs. His scientific jubilee was celebrated in Paris in 1901. He
died suddenly, immediately after the death of his wife, on theiSth
of March 1907, at Paris, and with her was buried in the Pantheon.
The fundamental conception that underlay all Berthelot's
chemical work was that all chemical phenomena depend on the
action of physical forces which can be determined and measured.
When he began his active career it was generally believed
that, although some instances of the synthetical production of
organic substances had been observed, on the whole organic
chemistry must remain an analytical science and could not
become a constructive one, because the formation of the sub-
stances with which it deals required the intervention of vital
activity in some shape. To this attitude he offered uncompro-
mising opposition, and by the synthetical production of numerous
hydrocarbons, natural fats, sugars and other bodies he proved
that organic compounds can be formed by ordinary methods
of chemical manipulation and obey the same laws as inorganic
substances, thus exhibiting the " creative character in virtue
of which chemistry actually realizes the abstract conceptions of
its theories and classifications a prerogative so far possessed
neither by the natural nor by the historical sciences." His
investigations on the synthesis of organic compounds were
published in numerous papers and books, including Chimie
organique fondie sur la synthese (1860) and Les Carburet d' hydro-
gene (1001). Again he held that chemical phenomena are not
governed by any peculiar laws special to themselves, but are
explicable in terms of the general laws of mechanics that are in
operation throughout the universe; and this view he developed,
with the aid of thousands of experiments, in his Mtcanique
chimique (1878) and his Thermochimie (1807). This branch
of study naturally conducted him to the investigation of explo-
sives, and on the theoretical side led to the results published in
his work Sur la force de la poudre el des matieres explosives (1872),
while on the practical side it enabled him to render important
services to his country as president of the scientific defence
committee during the siege of Paris in 1870-71 and subse-
quently as chief of the French explosives committee. In the
later years of his life he turned to the study of the earlier phases
of the science which he did so much to advance, and students
of chemical history are greatly indebted to him for his book on
Les Origines de lalchimie (1885) and his Introduction a I'ttude
de la chimie des anciens el du moyen Age (1889), as well as for
publishing translations of various old Greek, Syriac and Arabic
treatises on alchemy and chemistry (Collection des anciens
alchimistes grecs, 1887-1888, and La Chimie au moyen Age,
1893). He was also the author of Science et philosophic (1886),
which contains a well-known letter to Renan on " La Science
ideale et la science positive," of La Revolution chimique, Lavoisier
(1890), of Science et morale (1897), and of numerous articles
in La Grande Encyclopedic, which he helped to establish.
BERTHIER, LOUIS ALEXANDRE, prince of Neuchatel
(1753-1815), marshal of France and chief of the staff under
Napoleon I., was born at Versailles on the aoth of February
1753. As a boy he was instructed in the military art by his
father, an officer of the Corps de genie, and at the age of seventeen
he entered the army, serving successively in the staff, the
engineers and the prince de Lambesq's dragoons. In 1780 he
went to North America with Rochambeau, and on his return,
having attained the rank of colonel, he was employed in various
staff posts and in a military mission to Prussia. During the
Revolution, as chief of staff of the Versailles national guard, he
protected the aunts of Louis XVI. from popular violence, and
aided their escape (1791). In the war of 1792 he was at once
made chief of staff to Marshal LUckncr, and he bore a
distinguished part in the Argonne campaign of Dumouriez and
Kellermann. He served with great credit in the Vendtan War of
1793-95, and was in the next year made a general of division
and chief of staff (Major-General) to the army of Italy, which
Bonaparte had recently been appointed to command. His power
of work, accuracy and quick comprehension, combined with his
long and varied experience and his complete mastery of detail,
made him the ideal chief of staff to a great soldier; and in this
capacity he was Napoleon's most valued assistant for the rest
of his career. He accompanied Napoleon throughout the
brilliant campaign of 1706, and was left in charge of the army
after the peace of Campo Formio. In this post he organized the
Roman republic (1798), after which he joined his chief in Egypt,
serving there until Napoleon's return. He assisted in the coup
d'etat of iSth Brumaire, afterwards becoming minister of war for
8l2
BERTHOLLET BERTILLON
a time. In the campaign of Marengo he was the nominal head
of the Army of Reserve, but the first consul accompanied the
army and Berthier acted in reality, as always, as chief of staff to
Napoleon. At the close of the campaign he was employed in
civil and diplomatic business. When Napoleon became emperor,
Berthier was at once made a marshal of the empire. He took
part in the campaigns of Austerlitz, Jena and Friedland, and was
created duke of Valengin in 1806, sovereign prince of Neuchatel
in the same year and vice-constable of the empire in 1807. In
1808 he served in the Peninsula, and in 1809 in the Austrian War,
after which he was given the title of prince of Wagram. Berthier
married a niece of the king of Bavaria. He was with Napoleon
in Russia in 1812, Germany in 1813, and France in 1814, fulfilling,
till the fall of the empire, the functions of " major-general " of
the Grande Armee. He abandoned Napoleon to make his peace
with Louis XVIII. in 1814, and accompanied the king in his
solemn entry into Paris. During Napoleon's captivity in Elba,
Berthier, whom he informed of his projects, was much perplexed
as to his future course, and, being unwilling to commit himself,
fell under the suspicion both of his old leader and of Louis XVIII.
On Napoleon's return he withdrew to Bamberg, where he died on
the ist of June 1815. The manner of his death is uncertain;
according to some accounts he was assassinated by members of a
secret society, others say that, maddened by the sight of Russian
troops marching to invade France, he threw himself from his
window and was killed. Berthier was not a great commander.
When he was in temporary command in 1809 the French army
in Bavaria underwent a series of reverses. Whatever merit as a
general he may have possessed was completely overshadowed
by the genius of his master. But his title to fame is that he
understood and carried out that master's directions to the
minutest detail.
BERTHOLLET, CLAUDE LOUIS (1748-1822), French chemist,
was born at Talloire, near Annecy in Savoy, on the gth of
December 1748. He studied first at Chambery and afterwards
at Turin, where he graduated in medicine. Settling in Paris in
1772, he became the private physician of Philip, duke of Orleans,
and by his chemical work soon gained so high a reputation that
in 1780 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences. In 1785
be declared himself an adherent of the Lavoisierian school,
though he did not accept Lavoisier's view of oxygen as the only
and universal acidifying principle, and he took part in the
reform in chemical nomenclature carried out by Lavoisier and
his associates in 1787. Among the substances of which he
investigated the composition were ammonia, sulphuretted
hydrogen and prussic acid, and his experiments on chlorine,
which he regarded, not as an element, but as oxygenated muriatic
(oxymuriatic) acid, led him to propose it as a bleaching agent
in 1785. He also prepared potassium chlorate and attempted
to use it in the manufacture of gunpowder as a substitute for
saltpetre. When, at the beginning of the French Revolution,
the deficiency in the supply of saltpetre became a serious matter,
he was placed at the head of the commission entrusted with the
development of its production in French territory, and another
commission on which he served had for its object the improve-
ment of the methods of iron manufacture. He was also a
member in 1794 of the committee on agriculture and the arts,
and technical science was further indebted to him for a systematic
exposition of the principles of dyeing Eltmens de I'art de la
teinture, 1791, of which he published a second edition in 1809, in
association with his son, A. B. Berthollet (1783-1811). After
1794 he was teacher of chemistry in the polytechnic and normal
schools of Paris, and in 1795 he took an active part in remodelling
the Academy as the Institut National. In the following year he
and Gaspard Monge were chosen chiefs of a commission charged
with the task of selecting in Italy the choicest specimens of
ancient and modern art for the national galleries of Paris; and
in 1798 he was one of the band of scientific men who accompanied
Napoleon to Egypt, there forming themselves into the Institute
of Egypt on the plan of the Institut National. On the fall of the
Directory he was made a senator and grand officer of the Legion
of Honour; under the empire he became a count; and after the
restoration of the Bourbons he took his seat as a peer. In the
later years of his life he had at Arcueil, where he died on the 6th
of November 1822, a well-equipped laboratory, which became a
centre frequented by some of the most distinguished scientific
men of the time, their proceedings being published in three
volumes, between 1807 and 1817, as the Memoir es de la socittf
d' Arcueil. Berthollet's most remarkable contribution to
chemistry was his Essai de statique chimique (1803), the first
systematic attempt to grapple with the problems of chemical
physics. His doctrines did not meet with general approval
among his contemporaries, partly perhaps because he pushed
them too far, as for instance in holding that two elements might
combine in constantly varying proportions, a view which gave
rise to a long dispute with L. J. Proust; but his speculations,
in particular his insistence on the influence of the relative masses
of the acting substances in chemical reactions, have exercised
a dominating influence on the modern developments of the
theory of chemical affinity, of which, far more than T. O. Bergman,
whom he controverted, he must be regarded as the founder.
BERTHON, EDWARD LYON (1813-1899), English inventor,
was born in London, on the 2oth of February 1813, the son of an
army contractor and descendant of an old Huguenot family.
He studied for the medical profession in Liverpool and at Dublin,
but after his marriage in 1834 he gave up his intention of
becoming a doctor, and travelled for about six years on the con-
tinent. Keenly interested from boyhood in mechanical science,
he made experiments in the application of the screw propeller
for boats. But his model, with a two-bladed propeller, was only
ridiculed when it was placed before the British admiralty.
Berthon therefore did not complete the patent and the idea was
left for Francis Smith to bring out more successfully in 1838.
In 1841 he entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, in order to
study for the Church. There he produced what is usually known
as " Berthon's log," in which the suction produced by the water
streaming past the end of a pipe projected below a ship is registered
on a mercury column above. In 1845 he was ordained, and after
holding a curacy at Lymington was given a living at Fareham.
Here he was able to carry on experiments with his log, which was
tested on the Southampton to Jersey steamboats; but the British
admiralty gave him no encouragement, and it remained uncom-
pleted. He next designed some instruments to indicate the trim
and rolling of boats at sea; but the idea for which he is chiefly
remembered was that of the "Berthon Folding Boat" in 1849.
This invention was again adversely reported on by the admiralty.
Berthon resigned his living at Fareham, and subsequently
accepted the living of Romsey. In 1873, encouraged by Samuel
Plimsoll, he again applied himself to perfecting his collapsible
boat. Success was at last achieved, and in less than a year he
had received orders from the admiralty for boats to the amount
of 1 5,000. Some were taken by Sir George Nares to the Arctic,
others were sent to General Gordon at Khartum, and others
again were taken to the Zambezi by F. C. Selous. Berthon died
on the 27th of October 1899.
BERTHOUD, FERDINAND (1727-1807), Swiss chronometer-
maker, was born at Plancemont, Neuchatel, in 1727, and settling
in Paris in 1745 gained a great reputation for the excellence
and accuracy of his chronometers. He was a member of the
Institute and a fellow of the Royal Society of London, and
among other works wrote Essais sur I'horlogerie (1763). He
died in 1807 at Montmorency, Seine et Oise. He was succeeded
in business by his nephew, Louis Berthoud (1759-1813).
BERTILLON, LOUIS ADOLPHE (1821-1883), French statis-
tician, was born in Paris on the ist of April 1821. Entering
the medical profession, he practised as a doctor for a number
of years. After the revolution of 1870, he was appointed in-
spector-general of benevolent institutions. He was one of the
founders of the school of anthropology of Paris, and was appointed
a professor there in 1876. His Demographic figuree de la France
(1874) is an able statistical study of the population of France.
He died at Neuilly on the 28th of February 1883.
His son ALPHONSE BERTILLON, the anthropometrist, was
born in Paris in 1853. He published in 1883 a work Ethnographic
BERTIN BERTRAM
moderne des races sauvages, but his chief claim to distinction
lies in the system invented by him for the identification of
criminals, which is described by him in his Photographiejudiciaire,
Paris, 1890 (see ANTHROPOMETRY). He was officially appointed
in 1894 to report on the handwriting of the bordereau in the
Dreyfus case, and was a witness for the prosecution before the
cour de cassation on the i8th of January 1899.
BERTIN, a family of distinction in the history of French
journalism. The most important member of the family, generally
regarded as the father of modern French journalism, Louis
FRANCOIS BERTIN (1766-1841), known as Berlin atne, was born
in Paris on the 1 4th of December 1 766. He began his journalistic
career by writing for the Journal Franfais and other papers
during the French Revolution. After the i8th Brumaire he
founded the paper, with which the name of his family has chiefly
been connected, the Journal des Debals. He was suspected of
royalist tendencies by the consulate and was exiled in 1801.
He returned to Paris in 1804 and resumed the management of
the paper, the title of which had been changed by order of
Napoleon to that of Journal de I' Empire. Berlin had to submit
to a rigorous censorship, and in 1811 the conduct, together with
the profits, was laken over enlirely by the government. In 1814
he regained possession and restored the old tille and continued
his support of the royalist cause during the Hundred Days;
he directed the Moniteur de Gand till 1823, when the Journal
des Dtbats became Ihe recognized organ of the constilulional
opposilion. Berlin's support was, however, given to the July
monarchy after 1830. He died on the I3th of September 1841.
Louis FRANCOIS BERTIN DE VAUX (1771-1842), the younger
brother of Berlin atne, took a leading part in the conducl of Ihe
Journal des Dtbats, lo the success of which his powers of writing
greatly conlribuled. He enlered the chamber of deputies in
1815, was made councillor of state in 1827, and a peer of France
in 1830. The two sons of Berlin atne, EDOUARD FRANCOIS
(1797-1871) and Louis MARIE FRANCOIS (1801-1854), were
directors in succession of the Journal des Debats. Edouard
Berlin was also a painter of some dislinction.
BERTINORO, OBADIAH, Jewish commentator of the Mishnah,
died in Jerusalem about 1500. Bertinoro much improved the
status of the Jews in the Holy Land; before his migralion
Ihither Ihe Jews of Palestine were in a miserable condilion
of poverty and persecution. His commentary on the Mishnah
is Ihe most useful of all helps to the understanding of that
work. It is printed in most Hebrew editions of the Mishnah.
Surenhusius, in his Latin edition of the last-named code (Am-
slerdam 1698-1703), Iranslaled Bertinoro's commentary.
BERTINORO, a town and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in
the province of Forli, 8 m. S.E. direct of Forli and 5! m. N. of
the stalion of Forlimpopoli, and 800 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
(1901) town, 3753; commune, 7786. The town commands a
fine view to the north over the plain of Emilia and the lower
course of Ihe Po, ilself lying on Ihe foolhills of Ihe Apennines.
Il appears to have been first fortified by Frederick Barbarossa,
and ils castle stood frequent sieges in the middle ages. Polenta,
2j m. to the south of it, was the birthplace of Francesca da
Rimini. The castle is almost entirely ruined, but the church of
S. Donalo, of the Lombard period, wilh Byzantine capilals,
is interesting; Giosue" Carducci has wrilten a fine ode on the
subject (La Chiesa di Polenta, Bologna, 1897).
See C. Ricci, " Delia Chiesa e castello di Polenta " in A tti e Memorie
delta Deputazione di Storia patria per le prooniae di Romagna, ser. iii.
vol. ix. (Bologna, 1891), I seq. (T. As.)
BERTOLD (1442-1504), elector and archbishop of Mainz,
son of George, counl of Henneberg, enlered Ihe ecclesiastical
profession, and after passing through its lower stages, was made
archbishop of Mainz in 1484. He appears to have been a firm
supporter of law and order, an enemy of clerical abuses and a
careful adminislralor of his diocese. Immediately after his elec-
tion as archbishop he began to lake a leading part in Ihe business
of Ihe Empire, and in 1486 was very active in securing the election
of Maximilian as Roman king. His chief work, however, was
done as an advocate of administrative reform in Germany.
During the reign of the emperor Frederick III. he had brought
this question before the diet, and after Frederick's death, when
he had become imperial chancellor, he was the leader of the party
which pressed the necessity for reform upon Maximilian at the
diet of Worms in 1495. His proposals came to nothing, but he
continued the struggle at a series of diets, and urged the Germans
to emulate the courage and union of the Swiss cantons. He
gained a temporary victory when the diet of Augsburg in 1500
established a council of regency (Reichsregiment), and in 1502
persuaded the electors to form a union to uphold the reforms
of 1495 and 1500. The elector died on the aist of December
1504. Bertold was a man of great ability and resourcefulness,
and as a statesman who strove for an ordered and united Germany
was far in advance of his age.
See J. Weiss, Btrthold von Ilenneberg, Erzbischof ton Main*
(Freiburg, 1889).
BERTOLD VON REGENSBURG (c. 1220-1272), the greatest
German preacher of the later middle ages, was a native of
Regensburg, and entered the Franciscan monastery there. From
about 1250 onwards his fame as a preacher spread over all the
German-speaking parts of the continent of Europe. He wandered
from village to village and town to town, preaching to enormous
audiences, always in Ihe open air; Ihe earneslness and straight-
forward eloquence with which he insisted th*at true repentance
came from the heart, that pious pilgrimages and the absolution
of the Church were mere outward symbols, appealed to all
classes. He died in Regensburg on the I3th of December 1272.
His German sermons, of which seventy-one have been preserved,
are among the most powerful in the language, and form the chief
monuments of Middle High German prose. His style is dear,
direct and remarkably free from cumbrous Latin constructions;
he employed, whenever he could, the pithy and homely sayings
of the peasants, and is nol reluctant to point his moral with a
rough humour. As a thinker, he shows little sympathy with
that strain of medieval mysticism which is to be observed in
all Ihe poetry of his contemporaries.
The best edition of Bertold s German sermons is that by F. Pfeiffer
and J. Strobl (2 vols., 1862-1880; reprinted, 1906); there is also a
modern German version by F. Gobel (4th ed., 1906). The Latin ser-
mons were edited by G.Jakob ( 1 880). SeeC. W. Strombereer, Bertold
von Regensburg, der grosste Volksredner des deutschen MitieloJters
(1877), K. Unkel, Bertold von Regensburg (1882), and E. Bernhardt,
Bruder Bertold von Regensburg (1905); A. E. Sch6nbach, Studien tur
Geschichte der altdeutschen Predigt (Publications of the Vienna
Academy, 1906).
BERTRAM, CHARLES (1723-1765), English literary impostor,
was born in London, the son of a silk dyer. In 1747, being then
teacher of English al Ihe school for Danish naval cadets at Copen-
hagen, he wrote to Dr William Stukeley, the English antiquarian,
that he had discovered a manuscript written by a monk named
Richard of Westminster, which corrected and supplemented
the Itinerary of Antoninus in Britain. He subsequently sent
to Stukeley a copy of various parts of the work and a facsimile
of a few lines of the manuscript. These were so cleverly executed
thai ihey quile deceived the English palaeographers of the period.
Stukeley, finding that a chronicler of the fourteenth century,
Richard of Cirencester, had also been an inmale of Westminster
Abbey, identified him with Bertram's Richard of Westminster,
and, in 1756, read an analysis of the "discovery" before the
Society of Antiquaries, which was published with a copy of
Richard's map. In 1757 Bertram published at Copenhagen
a volume en tilled Britannicarum Gentium Hisloriae Anliquae
Scriptores Tres. This conlained the works of Gildas and Nennius
and the full text of Bertram's forgery, and though Bertram's
map did not correspond with thai of Richard, Stukeley discarded
the latter and adopted Bertram's concoction in his Itinerarium
Curiosum published in 1776. Although Thomas Reynolds
in his Iter Britanniarum (1799), an edition of the British portion
of Antoninus' Itinerary, was distinctly sceptical as to the value
of Bertram's manuscript, its authenticity was generally accepted
until the middle of the igth century. No original of the manu-
script could Ihen be found al Copenhagen, and B. B. Woodward,
librarian of Windsor Castle, proved conclusively, by a series
of articles in the Gentleman's Magazine in 1866 and 1867, that
BERTRAND BERWICK
the supposed facsimile of calligraphy produced by Bertram
was a blend of the style of various periods, while the greater
portion of the idiomatic Latin in the book was a mere translation
of i8th century English phraseology. Nevertheless, as late as
1872, a translation of Bertram's forgery was included in Bohn's
Antiquarian Library as one of the Six English Chronicles,
and there is no doubt that the work had a wide and mislead-
ing influence upon many antiquarian writers. Bertram died
in 1765.
BERTRAND, HENRI GRATIEN, COMTE (1773-1844), French
general, was born at Chateauroux. At the outbreak of the
Revolution, he had just finished his studies, and he entered the
army as a volunteer. During the expedition to Egypt, Napoleon
named him colonel (1798), then brigadier-general, and after
Austerlitz his aide-de-camp. His life was henceforth closely
bound up with that of Napoleon, who had the fullest confidence
in him, honouring him in 1813 with the title of grand marshal
of the court. It was Bertrand who in 1809 directed the building
of the bridges by which the French army crossed the Danube
at Wagram. In 1813, after the battle of Leipzig, it was due to
his initiative that the French army was not totally destroyed.
He accompanied Napoleon to Elba in 1814, returned with him
in 1815, held a command in the Waterloo campaign, and then,
after the defeat, accompanied Napoleon to St Helena. He
did not return to France until after Napoleon's death, and then
Louis XVIII. allowed him to retain his rank, and he was elected
deputy in 1830. In 1840 he was chosen to go to bring Napoleon's
remains to France. He died at Chateauroux on the 3ist of
January 1844. His touching fidelity has made his name very
popular in France.
BERTRICH, a village and watering place of Germany, in the
Prussian Rhine province, in a narrow valley running down to the
Mosel near Cochem. Its waters are efficacious in cases of gout,
rheumatism and biliary affections. Pop. 500.
BERULLE, PIERRE DE (1575-1629), French cardinal and
statesman, was born at Serilly, near Troyes, on the 4th of February
1575. He was educated by the Jesuits and at the university
of Paris. Soon after his ordmation in 1599, he assisted Cardinal
Duperron in his controversy with the Protestant Philippe de
Mornay, and made numerous converts. He founded the
Congregation of the French Oratory in 1611 and introduced the
Carmelite nuns into France, notwithstanding the opposition
of the friars of that order, who were jealous of his ascendancy.
Berulle also played an important part as a statesman. He
obtained the necessary dispensations from Rome for Henrietta
Maria's marriage to Charles I., and acted as her chaplain during
the first year of her stay in England. In 1626, as French
ambassador to Spain, he concluded the treaty of Monzon. After
the reconciliation of Louis XIII. with his mother, Marie de'
Medici, through his agency, he was appointed a councillor
of state, but had to resign this office, owing to his Austrian
policy, which was opposed by Richelieu. Berulle encouraged
Descartes' philosophical studies, and it was through him that
the Samaritan Pentateuch, recently brought over from Con-
stantinople, was inserted in Lejay's Polyglot Bible. His treatise,
Des Grandeurs de Jesus, was a favourite book with the Jansenists.
He died on the 2nd of October 1629. His works, edited by P.
Bourgoing (2 vols., 1644) were reprinted, by Migne in 1857.
See M. de Berulle el les Carmelites; Le. Pere de Berulle et I'oratoire
de Jesus; Le Cardinal de Berulle et Richelieu (3 vols., 1872-1876),
by the Abbe M. Houssaye; and H. Sidney Lear's Priestly Life in
France in the Seventeenth Century (London, 1873).
BERVIE, or INVERBERVTE, a royal and police burgh of Kin-
cardineshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1207. It is situated at
the mouth of Bervie Water and is the terminus of the North
British railway's branch line from Montrose, which lies 14 m.
S.W. The leading industries include manufactures of woollens,
flax and chemicals, and there is also a brisk trade in live-stock.
Bervie unites with Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar and Montrose
in returning one member (for the " Montrose burghs ") to parlia-
ment. David II., driven by stress of weather, landed here with
his queen Joanna in 1341, and, out of gratitude for the hospitality
of the townsfolk, granted them a charter, which James VI. con-
firmed. Hallgreen Castle, a stronghold of the i4th century, is
maintained in repair. About one m. south is the fishing village
of Gourdon (pop. 1197), where boat-building is carried on.
There is a small but steady export business from the harbour,
which has a pier and breakwater. St Ternan's, the Romanesque
parish church of Arbuthnott, 23 m. north-west, stands on the
banks of the Bervie. In the chapel dedicated to St Mary, which
was afterwards added to it, is the burial-place of the Arbuthnotts,
who took their title from the estate in 1644. John Arbuthnot,
Queen Anne's physician and the friend of Swift and Pope, was a
native of the parish. Kinneff, 2 m. north, on the coast, is of
interest as the place where the Scottish regalia were concealed
during the siege of Dunottar Castle.
BERWICK, JAMES FITZJAMES, DUKE OF (1670-1734),
marshal of France, was the natural son of James, duke of York,
afterwards James II. of England, by Arabella Churchill (1648-
1730), sister of the great duke of Marlborough. He was born
at Moulins (Bourbonnais) on the 2ist of August 1670. He
received his education in France at the hands of the Jesuits,
and at the age of fifteen, his father having succeeded to the throne,
he was sent to learn the business of a soldier under the famous
general of the empire, Charles of Lorraine. He served his first
campaign in Hungary, and was present at the siege of Buda.
He then returned to England, was made a colonel of the 8th
Foot, and in 1687 created duke of Berwick, earl of Teignmouth
and Baron Bosworth. He then went out afresh to Hungary
and was present at the battle of Mohacz. On his return to
England he was made K.G., colonel of the 3rd troop of horse
guards (Royal Horse Guards Blue) and governor of Portsmouth,
but soon afterwards the revolution forced him to flee to France.
He served under James II. in the campaign in Ireland, and
was present at the battle of the Boyne. For a short time he
was left in Ireland as commander-in-chief, but his youth and
inexperience unfitted him for the post, and he was a mere puppet
in stronger hands. He then took service in the French army,
fought under Marshal Luxembourg in Flanders, and took part in
the battles of Steinkirk and Neerwinden, at the latter of which
he was taken prisoner. He was, however, immediately exchanged
for the duke of Ormond, and afterwards he served under Villeroi.
In 1695 he married the widow of Patrick Sarsfield, who died in
1698. His second marriage, with Anne Bulkeley, took place
in 1700. As a lieutenant-general he served in the campaign
of 1702, after which he became naturalized as a French subject
in order to be eligible for the marshalate. In 1704, he first took
command of the French army in Spain. So highly was he
now esteemed for his courage, abilities and integrity, that
all parties were anxious to have him on their side (Eloge, by
Montesquieu). His tenure of the command was, however,
very short, and after one- campaign he was replaced by the
Marshal de Tesse. In 1 705 he commanded against the Camisards
in Languedoc, and when on this expedition he is said to have
carried out his orders with remorseless rigour. His successful
expedition against Nice in 1 706 caused him to be made marshal
of France, and in the same year he returned to Spain as com-
mander-in-chief of the Franco-Spanish armies. On the 25th
of April 1707, the duke won the great and decisive victory of
Almanza, where an Englishman at the head of a French army
defeated Ruvigny, earl of Galway, a Frenchman at the head
of an English army. The victory established Philip V. on the
throne of Spain. Berwick was made a peer of France by Louis
XIV., and duke of Liria and of Xereca and lieutenant of Aragon
by Philip. Thenceforward Berwick was recognized as one of the
greatest generals of his time, and successively commanded in
nearly all the theatres of war. From 1709 to 1712 he defended
the south-east frontier of France in a series of campaigns which,
unmarked by any decisive battle, were yet models of the art
of war as practised at the time. The last great event of the
War of the Spanish Succession was the storming of Barcelona
by Berwick, after a long siege, on the nth of September 1714.
Three years later he was appointed military governor of the
province of Guienne, in which post he became intimate with
BERWICKSHIRE
815
Montesquieu. In 1718 he found himself under the necessity
of once more entering Spain with an army; and this time
he had to fight against Philip V., the king who owed chiefly
to Berwick's courage and skill the safety of his throne. One
of the marshal's sons, known as the duke of Liria, was settled
in Spain, and was counselled by his father not to shrink from
doing his duty and fighting for his sovereign. Many years
of peace followed this campaign, and Marshal Berwick was not
again called to serve in the field til) 1733. He advised and con-
ducted the siege of Philipsburg, and while the siege was going on
was killed by a cannon-shot on the I2th of June 1734. Cool,
self-possessed and cautious as a general, Marshal Berwick was at
the same time not wanting in audacity and swiftness of action.
He was a true general of the i8th century, not less in his care for
the lives of his men than in his punctiliousness and rigidity in
matters of discipline.
The Memoires of Marshal Berwick, revised, annotated and con-
tinued by the Abbe Hooke, were published by the marshal's grand-
son in 1778. Montesquieu made many contributions to this.
BERWICKSHIRE, a county of Scotland, forming its south-
eastern extremity, bounded N. by Haddingtonshire and the
North Sea; E. by the North Sea; S.E. by the county of the
borough and town of Berwick; S. by the Tweed and Roxburgh-
shire, and W. by Mid-Lothian. Its area is 292,577 acres or 457
sq. m., and it has a coast-line of 21 m. The county is naturally
divided into three districts: Lauderdale, or the valley of the
Leader, in the W.; Lammermuir, the upland district occupied
by the hills of that name in the N. ; and the Merse (the March
or Borderland, giving a title to the earls of Wemyss), the largest
district, occupying the S.E. The Lammermuirs are a range of
round-backed hills, whose average height is about 1000 ft.,
while the highest summit, Says Law, reaches 1749 ft. From
these hills the Merse stretches to the S. and E., and is a com-
paratively level tract of country. The coast is lofty, rocky and
precipitous, broken by ravines and not accessible, except at
Eyemouth Harbour, for small vessels, and at Coldingham and
Burnmouth for fishing boats. St Abb's Head, a promontory
with a lighthouse upon it, rises to 310 ft. The Eye is the only
river of any size which falls directly into the sea. The others
the Leader, the Eden, the Leet and the Whiteadder with its
tributaries, the Blackadder and the Dye all flow into the Tweed.
Of these the largest and most important is the Whiteadder, which
has its source in the parish of Whittingehame on the East Lothian
side of the Lammermuirs, and, following a sinuous course of
35 m., joins the Tweed within the bounds or liberties of Berwick.
There are small lochs at Coldingham, Legerwood, Spottiswoode,
the Hirsel, near Coldstream, Hule Moss on Greenlaw Moor, and
tiny sheets of water near Duns and Mersington.
Geology. The north portion of the county embraces that part
of the Silurian tableland of the south of Scotland which stretches
from the Lammermuir Hills east to St Abb's Head. The strata
consist mainly of grits, greywackes, flags and shales, repeated
by innumerable folds, trending north-east and south-west, which
are laid bare in the great cliff section between Fast Castle and
St Abb's Head. This section of the tableland includes sediments,
chiefly of Tarannon age, which form a belt 10 m. across from the
crest of the Lammermuir Hills to a point near Westruther and
Longformacus. In the Earnscleuch Burn north-east of Lauder
representatives of Llandovery, Caradoc and Llandeilo rocks,
together with the Arenig cherts, appear along an anticlinal fold
in the midst of the younger strata. Again in the extreme north-
west of the county near Channelkirk and to the north of
the Tarannon belt radiolarian cherts and black shales with
graptolites of Upper Llandeilo and Caradoc age are met with.
The Lower Old Red Sandstone rocks, which rest unconformably
on the folded and denuded Silurian strata, appear at Eyemouth
and Reston Junction, and at St Abb's Head are associated with
contemporaneous volcanic rocks which are evidently on the same
horizon as the interbedded lavas of Lower Old Red age in the
Cheviots. The intrusive igneous materials of this period are
represented by the granitic mass of Cockburn Law and the
porphyrites of the Dirrington Laws. The Upper Old Red Sand-
stone, consisting of conglomerates and sandstones, rest uncon-
formably alike on the Silurian platform as at Siccar Point and
on the lower division of that system. The age of these beds has
been determined by the occurrence of remains of Uoloptychiui
nabilissimus in the sandstones at Earlston and in the Whiteadder
north of Duns. On the Black Hill of Earlston these strata are
traversed by a sheet of trachyte resembling the type of rock
capping the Eildon Hills (see ROXBURGHSHIRE: Geology).
Overlying the strata just described there is a succession of
volcanic rocks extending from Greenlaw southwards by Stichil
and Kelso to Carham, which, at several localities, are followed
by a band of cornstone resembling that near the top of the Upper
Old Red Sandstone in the midland valley of Scotland. Next in
order comes a great development of the Cementstone group of
the Carboniferous system which spreads over nearly the whole of
the low ground of the Merse and attains a great thickness. At
Marshall Meadows north of Berwick-on-Tweed, thin bands of
marine limestone occur, which probably represent some of
the calcareous beds above the Fell sandstones south of
Spittal.
Climate and Agriculture. Owing to the maritime position,
the winter is seldom severe in the lowland districts, but spring is
a trying season on account of the east winds, which often last
into summer. The mean annual rainfall is 30} in. and the
average temperature for the year is 47 F., for January 37 F.,
and for July 58-5 F. The climate is excellent as regards both
the health of the inhabitants and the growth of vegetation. The
soils vary, sometimes even on the same farm. Along the rivers
is a deep rich loam, resting on gravel or clay, chiefly the former.
The less valuable clay soil of the Merse has been much improved
by drainage. The more sandy and gravelly soils are suitable for
turnips, of which great quantities are grown. Oats and barley are
the principal grain crops, but wheat also is raised. The flocks of
sheep are heavy, and cattle are pastured in considerable numbers.
Large holdings predominate indeed, the average size is the
highest in Scotland and scientific farming is the rule. The
labourers, who are physically well developed, are as a whole
frugal, industrious and intelligent, but somewhat migratory in
their habits. This feature in their character, which they may
have by inheritance as Borderers, has admirably fitted them for
colonial life, to which the scarcity of industrial occupation has
largely driven the surplus population.
Other Industries. Next to agriculture the fisheries are the
most important industry. The Tweed salmon fisheries are
famous, and the lesser rivers of the Merse are held in high esteem
by anglers. Eyemouth, Burnmouth, Coldingham and Cove are
engaged in the sea fisheries. Cod, haddock, herring, ling, lobsters
and crabs are principally taken. The season for herring is from
May to the middle of September and for white fish from October
to the end of May. Coal, copper ore and ironstone exist in too
small quantities to work, and the limestone is so far from a coal
district as to be of little economic value. Earlston sends out
ginghams and woollen cloths. At Cumledge on the Whiteadder,
blankets and plaids are manufactured, and paper is made at
Chirnside. The other manufactures are all connected with agri-
culture, such as distilleries, breweries, tanneries, &c. The trade
is also mainly agricultural. Fairs are held at Duns, Lauder,
Coldstream and Greenlaw; but the sales of cattle and sheep
mostly take place at the auction marts at Reston, Duns and
Earlston. There are grain markets at Duns and Earlston.
Berwick, from which the county derives its name, is still its chief
market. There is, however, no legal or fiscal connexion between
the county and the borough.
The North British railway monopolizes the communications
of the county. The system serves the coast districts from
Berwick to Cockburnspath, and there is a branch from Reston
to St Boswells.
Population and Government. The population of Berwickshire
was 32,290 in 1891 and 30,824 in 1901, in which year the number
of persons speaking Gaelic and English was 74, and one person
spoke Gaelic only. The only considerable towns are Eyemouth
(pop. in 1001. 2436) and Duns (2206). The county returns one
8i6
BERWICK-UPON-TWEED
member to parliament. Lauder is the only royal burgh, and
Duns the county town, a status, however, which was held by
Greenlaw from 1696 to 1853, after which date it was shared by
both towns until conferred on Duns alone. Berwickshire forms
a sheriffdom with Roxburgh and Selkirk shires, and there is a
resident sheriff-substitute at Duns, who sits also at Greenlaw,
Coldstream, Ayton and Lauder. In addition to board and
voluntary schools throughout the county, there is a high school,
which is also a technical school, at Duns, and Coldstream and
Lauder public schools have secondary departments. Duns
school is subsidized by the county council, which pays the
expenses of students attending it from a distance.
History. Traces of Roman occupation and of ancient British
settlement exist in various parts of the Merse. Edin's or Etin's
Hall, on Cockburn Law, 4 m. north of Duns, is still called the
Pech's or Pict's House, and is one of the very few broehs found in
the Lowlands. After the Romans withdrew (409) the country
formed part of the Saxon kingdom of Northumbria, and the
inhabitants were converted to Christianity through the missionary
efforts of Modan in the 6th, and Oswald, Aidan and Cuthbert
(traditionally believed to have been born in the vale of the
Leader) in the 7th centuries. The Northmen invaded the sea-
board, but the rugged coast proved an effectual barrier. The
Danes, however, landed in 886, and destroyed the nunnery at
Coldingham, founded about 650 by Ebba, daughter of .(Ethel-
frith, king of Northumbria, after whom the adjoining promontory
of St Abb's Head was named. After the battle of Carham (1018)
the district, which then constituted part of the division of
Lothian, was annexed to Scotland. Birgham (pron. Birjam),
35 m. west of Coldstream, was the scene of the conference in 1188
between William the Lion and the bishop of Durham, which
discussed the attempt of the English church to assert supremacy
over the Scottish. Here also met in 1 289 a convention of the Scots
estates to consider the projected marriage of Prince Edward of
England to the Maid of Norway; and here was signed in 1290
the treaty of Birgham, assuring the independence of Scotland.
During the long period of international strife the shire was
repeatedly overrun by armies of the English and Scots kings,
who were constantly fighting for the ancient frontier town of
Berwick. It was finally ceded to England in 1482, and the
people afterwards gradually settled down to peaceful pursuits.
The ford at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed near Coldstream
gave access to south-eastern Scotland. Edward I. crossed it
with his army in 1 296, encamping at Hutton the day before the
siege of Berwick, and it was similarly employed as late as 1640,
when the marquess of Montrose led the Covenanters on their
march to Newcastle, although James VI. had already caused a
bridge to be constructed from Berwick to Tweedmouth. There
are several places of historic interest in the county. Upon the
site of the nunnery at Coldingham King Edgar in 1098 founded
a Benedictine priory, which was one of the oldest monastic
institutions in Scotland and grew so wealthy that James III.
annexed its revenues to defray his extravagance, a step that
precipitated the revolt of the nobles (1488). The priory was
seriously damaged in the earl of Hertford's inroad in 1545, and
Cromwell blew up part of the church in 1650. The chancel
(without aisles) was repaired and used as the parish church.
The remains contain some fine architectural features, such as,
on the outside, the Romanesque arcades surmounted by lancet
windows at the east end, and, in the interior, the Early Pointed
triforium. On the coast, about 4 m. north-west of Coldingham,
are the ruins of Fast Castle the " Wolf's Crag " of Scott's Bride
of Lammermoor situated on a precipitous headland. From Sir
Patrick Hume it passed to Sir Robert Logan of Restalrig, who
is alleged to have been one of the Gowrie conspirators, and to
have intended to imprison James VI. within its walls (1600).
Four miles west is the Pease or Peaths bridge, built by Thomas
Telford in 1786 across the deep pass which was of old one of the
strongest natural defences of Scotland. The bridge is 123 ft.
high, 300 ft. long and 16 ft. wide. Near it are the ruins of
Cockburnspath Tower, once a strong fortress and supposed to
be the " Ravenswood " of the Bride of Lammermoor. In the
south-west of the shire besides Dryburgh Abbey (q.v.) there are,
at Earlston, the remains of the castle that was traditionally the
residence of Thomas the Rhymer. Hume Castle, the ancient seat
of the Home family, a picturesque ruin about 3 m. south of Green-
law, is so conspicuously situated as to be visible from nearly every
part of the county. Coldstream and Lamberton, being close to
the Border, were both resorted to (like Gretna Green in the west)
by eloping couples for clandestine marriage. In Lamberton
church was signed in 1502 the contract for the marriage of
James IV. and Margaret Tudor, which led, a century later, to the
union of the crowns of Scotland and England.
See W. S. Crockett, Minstrelsy of the Merse (Paisley, 1893); In
Praise of Tweed (Selkirk, 1889); The Scott Country (London, 1902);
J. Robson, The Churches and Churchyards of Berwickshire (Kelso,
1893); F. H. Groome, A Short Border History (Kelso, 1887); J.
Tait, Two Centuries of Border Church Life (Kelso, 1889) ; Margaret
Warrender, Marchmont and the Humes of Polwarth (Edinburgh,
1894); W. K. Hunter, History of the Priory of Coldingham (Edin-
burgh, 1858).
BERWICK-UPON-TWEED, a market town, seaport, municipal
borough and county in itself, of England, at the mouth of the
Tweed on the north bank, 339 m. N. by W. from London. Pop.
(1901) 13,437. For parliamentary purposes it is in the Berwick-
upon-Tweed division of Northumberland. It is the junction on
the East Coast route from London to Scotland between the North
Eastern and North British railways, a branch of the company
first named running up the Tweed valley by Coldstream and
Kelso. The town lies in a bare district on the slope and flat
summit of an abrupt elevation, higher ground rising to the north
and south across the river. It has the rare feature of a complete
series of ramparts surrounding it. Those to the north and east
are formed of earth faced with stone, with bastions at intervals
and a ditch now dry. They are of Elizabethan date, but there
are also lines of much earlier date, the fortifications of Edward I.
Much of these last has been destroyed, and threatened encroach-
ment upon the remaining relics so far aroused public feeling that
in 1905 it was decided that the Board of Works should take over
these ruins, including the Bell Tower, from the town council, and
enclose them as national relics. The Bell Tower, from which
alarms were given when border raiders were observed, is in fair
preservation. There are slight remains of the castle, which fell
into disrepair after the union of the crowns of England and
Scotland. There are no traces of the churches, monasteries or
other principal buildings of the ancient town. The church of
Holy Trinity is a plain building without steeple, of the time of
Cromwell. Of modern places of worship, the most noteworthy is
Wallace Green United Presbyterian church (1859). The chief
public building is the town hall (1760), a stately classic building
surmounted by a lofty spire. Educational institutions include an
Elizabethan grammar school and a blue-coat school; and there
is a local museum. Two bridges connect the town with the south
side of the Tweed. The older, which is very substantial, was
finished in 1634, having taken twenty-four years in building.
It has fifteen arches, and is 924 ft. long, but only 17 ft. wide.
A unique provision for its upkeep out of Imperial funds dates
from the reign of Charles II. The other, the Royal Border Bridge,
situated a quarter of a mile up the river, is a magnificent
railway viaduct, 126 ft. high, with twenty-eight arches, which
extends from the railway station, a castellated building on part of
the site of the old castle, to a considerable distance beyond the
river. This bridge was designed by Robert Stephenson and
opened by Queen Victoria in 1850.
The reach of the river from the old bridge to the mouth forms
the harbour. The entrance to the harbour is protected by a
stone pier, which stretches half a mile south-east from the north
bank of the river mouth. The depth of water at the bar is 17 ft.
at ordinary tides, 22 ft. at spring tides, but the channel is narrow,
a large rocky portion of the harbour on the north side being dry at
low water. There is a wet dock of 3$ acres. Principal exports
are grain, coal and fish; imports are bones and bone-ash,
manure stuffs, linseed, salt, timber and iron. The herring and
other sea fisheries are of some value, and the salmon fishery, in
the hands of a company, has long been famous. A fair is held
BERYI^BERYLLIUM
817
annually at the end of May. There are iron-works and boat-
building yards.
The custom of specially mentioning Berwick-upon-Tweed after
Wales, though abandoned in acts of parliament, is retained in
certain proclamations. The title of " county in itself " also helps
to recall its ancient history. The liberties of the borough,
commonly called Berwick Bounds, include the towns of Spittal,
at the mouth, and Tweedmouth immediately above it, on the
south bank of the river. The first is a watering-place (pop.
2074), with pleasant sands and a chalybeate spa; the second
(pop. 3086) has iron foundries, engineering works and fish-curing
establishments. Berwick-upon-Tweed is governed by a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 6396 acres.
Very little is known of the history of Berwick before the Conquest.
It was not until the Tweed became the boundary between England
and Scotland in the I2th century that Berwick as the chief town
on that boundary became really important. Until the beginning of
the I4th century Berwick was one of the four royal boroughs of
Scotland, and although it possesses no charter granted before that
time, an inquisition taken in Edward III.'s reign shows that it was
governed by a mayor and bailiffs in the reign of Alexander III.,
who granted the town to the said mayor and the commonalty for
an annual rent. After Edward I. had conquered Berwick in 1302
he gave the burgesses another charter, no longer existing but quoted
in several confirmations, by which the town was made a Tree borough
with a gild merchant. The burgesses were given the right to elect
annually their mayor, who with the commonalty should elect four
bailiffs. They were also to have freedom from toll, pontage, &c.,
two markets every week on Monday and Friday, and a fair lasting
from the feast of Holyrood to that of the Nativity of St John the
Baptist. Five years later, in 1307, the mayor and burgesses received
another charter, granting them their town with all things that
belonged to it in the time of Alexander III., for a fee-farm rent of
500 marks, which was granted back to them in 1313 to help towards
enclosing their town with a wall. While the war with Scotland
dragged on through the early years of the reign of Edward II., the
fortification of Berwick was a matter of importance, and in 1317 the
mayor and bailiffs undertook to defend it for the yearly sum of 6000
marks; but in the following year, " owing to their default," the
Scots entered and occupied it in spite of a truce between the two
kingdoms. After Edward III. had recovered Berwick the inhabitants
petitioned for the recovery of their prison called the Beffroi or
Bell-tower, the symbol of their independence, which their prede-
cessors had built before the time of Alexander III., and which had
been granted to William de Keythorpe when Edward I. took the
town. Edward III. in 1326 and 1356 confirmed the charter of
Edward I., and in 1357, evidently to encourage the growth of the
borough, granted that all who were willing to reside there and
desirous of becoming burgesses should be admitted as such on
payment of a fine. These early charters were confirmed by most of
the succeeding kings, until James I. granted the incorporation charter
in 1604; but on his accession to the English throne, Berwick of
course lost its importance as a frontier town. Berwick was at first
represented in the court of the four boroughs and in 1326 in Robert
Bruce's parliament. After being taken by the'English it remained
unrepresented until it was re-taken by the Scots, when it sent two
members to the parliamentat Edinburgh from 147610 1479. In 1482
the burgesses were allowed to send two members to the English
parliament, and were represented there until 1885, when the town
was included in the Berwick-upon-Tweed division of the county of
Northumberland. No manufactures are mentioned as having been
carried on in Berwick, but its trade, chiefly in the produce of the
surrounding country, was important in the I2th century. It has
been noted for salmon fishery in the Tweed from very early times.
There was a bridge over the Tweed at Berwick in the time of Alex-
ander and John, Icings of Scotland, but it was broken down in the
time of the latter and not rebuilt until the end of the I4th,century.
See Victoria County History, Northumberland; John Fuller,
History of Berwick-upon-Tweed, &c. (1799); John Scott, Berwick-
upon-Tweed: History of the Town and Guild (i~
BERYL, a mineral containing beryllium and aluminium in the
form of a silicate; its formula is Bes A1 2 Sie Ois- The species in-
cludes the emerald (<?.*.), the aquamarine (q.v.) and other trans-
parent varieties known as " precious beryl," with certain coarse
varieties unfit for use as gem-stones. The name comes from the
Gr. /3i7puXXos, a word of uncertain etymology applied to the
beryl and probably several other gems. It is notable that the
relation of the emerald to the beryl, though proved only by
chemical analysis, was conjectured at least as far back as the
time of Pliny.
Beryl crystallizes in the hexagonal system, usually taking the
form of long six-sided prisms, striated vertically and terminated
with the basal plane, sometimes associated with various pyra-
midal faces (sec fig.). It cleaves rather imperfectly parallel to
the base. The colour of beryl may be blue, green, yellow, brown
or rarely pink; while in some cases the mineral is colourless.
The specific gravity is about 2-7, and the hardness 7-5 to 8, so
that for a gem-stone beryl is comparatively soft. Whilst thegem-
varicties are transparent, the coarse beryl
may be opaque. The transparent crystals
are pleochroic a character well marked in
emerald.
Beryl was much prized as a gem-stone
by the ancients, and Greek intaglios of
very fine workmanship are extant. The
Roman jewellers, taking advantage of the
columnar form of the natural crystal, worked
it into long cylinders for ear-pendants.
It was a favourite stone with the artists
of the Renaissance, but in modern times
has lost popularity, except in the form of
Crystal of beryl.
emerald, which remains one of the most valued gem-stones.
It is notable that English lapidaries of the iSth century often
included the sard under the term beryl a practice which has led
to some confusion in the nomenclature of engraved gems.
Beryl occurs as an accessory constituent of many granitic
rocks, especially in veins of pegmatite, whilst it is found also in
gneiss and in mica-schist. Rolled pebbles of beryl occur, with
topaz, in Brazil, especially in the province of Minas Geraes.
Crystals are found in drusy cavities in granite in the Urals, not-
ably near Mursinka; in the Altai Mountains, which have yielded
very long prismatic crystals; and in the mining district of
Nerchinsk in Siberia, principally in the Adun-Chalon range,
where beryl occurs in veins of topaz-rock piercing granite.
Among European localities may be mentioned Elba, good
crystals being occasionally found in the tourmaline-granite of
San Piero. In Ireland excellent crystals of beryl occur in druses
of the granite of the Mourne Mountains in Co. Down, and others
less fine are found in the highlands of Donegal, whilst the mineral
is also known from the Leinster granite. It occurs likewise in
the granite of the Grampians in Scotland, and is not unknown
in Cornwall, specimens having been found, with topaz, apatite,
&c., in joints of the granite of St Michael's Mount.
Many localities in the United States yield beryl, sometimes
sufficiently fine to be cut as a'gem. It is found, for example, at
Hiddenite and elsewhere in Alexander county, N.C.; at
Haddam and Monroe, Conn.; at Stoneham and at Albany, in
Oxford county, Maine; at Royalston, Mass.; and at Mt.
Antero, Colorado, where it occurs with phenacite. Beryl of
beautiful pink colour occurs in San Diego county, California.
Coarse beryl, much rifted, is found in crystals of very large size
at Graf ton and Acworth, N.H.; a crystal from Graf ton weigh-
ing more than 2\ tons. A colourless beryl from Goshen, Mass.,
has been called Goshenite; whilst crystals of coarse yellow
beryl from Rubislaw quarry in Aberdeenshire, Scotland, have
been termed Davidsonite.
Beryl suffers alteration by weathering, and may thus pass into
kaolin and mica. (F. W. R.*)
BERYLLIUM, or GLUCINUM (symbol Be, atomic weight 9-1),
one of the metallic chemical elements, included in the same
sub-group of the periodic classification as magnesium. It was
prepared in the form of its oxide in 1798 by L. N. Vauquelin
(Ann. de chimie, 1798, xxvi. p. 155) from the mineral beryl, and
though somewhat rare, is found in many minerals. It was first
obtained, in an impure condition, in 1828 by A. A. B. Bussy
(1794-1882) and F. W6hler by the reduction of the chloride with
potassium, and in 1855 H. J. Debray prepared it, in a compact
state, by reducing the volatilized chloride with melted sodium,
in an atmosphere of hydrogen. L. F. Nilson and O. Pettersson
(Wied. Ann. 1878, iv. p. 554) have also prepared the metal by
heating beryllium potassium fluoride with sodium; P. M.
Lcbcau (Comptes rendus, 1895-1898, vols. 120-127) has obtained
it in lustrous hexagonal crystals by electrolysing the double
fluoride of beryllium and sodium or potassium with an excess of
8i8
BERYLLONITE BERZELIUS
beryllium fluoride. It is a malleable metal, of specific gravity
1-64 (Nilson and Pettersson) and a specific heat of 0-4079. Its
melting-point is below that of silver. In a fine state of division
it takes fire on heating in air, but is permanent at ordinary
temperatures in oxygen or air; it is readily attacked by hydro-
chloric and sulphuric acids, but scarcely acted on by nitric acid.
It is also soluble in solutions of the caustic alkalis, with evolution
of hydrogen a behaviour similar to that shown by aluminium.
It combines readily with fluorine, chlorine and bromine, and also
with sulphur, selenium, phosphorus, &c.
Considerable discussion has taken place at different times as
to the position which beryllium should occupy in the periodic
classification of the elements, and as to whether its atomic weight
should be 9-1 or 13-65, but the weight of evidence undoubtedly
favours its position in Group II., with an atomic weight 9-1
(O=i6) (see Nilson and Pettersson, Berichte, 1880, 13, p. 1451;
1884, 17, p. 987; B. Brauner, Berichte, 1881, 14, p. 53; T. Car-
nelley, Journ. of Chem. Soc., 1879, xxxv. p. 563; 1880, xxxvii., p.
125, and W. N. Hartley, Journ. of Chem. Soc., 1883, xliii. p. 316).
The specific heat of beryllium has been calculated by L. Meyer
(Berichte, 1880, 13, p. 1780) from the data of L. F. Nilson and
O. Pettersson, and appears to increase rapidly with increasing
temperature, the values obtained being 0-3973 a ^ 20-2 C., 0-4481
at 73-2 C. and 0-5819 at 256-8 C.
Beryllium compounds are almost wholly prepared from beryl.
The mineral is fused with potassium carbonate, and, on cooling,
the product is treated with sulphuric acid, the excess of which is
removed by evaporation; water is then added and the silica is
filtered off. On concentration of the solution, the major portion
of the aluminium present separates as alum, and the mother liquor
remaining contains beryllium and iron sulphates together with a
little alum. This is now treated for some days with a hot con-
centrated solution of ammonium carbonate, which precipitates the
iron and aluminium but keeps the beryllium in solution. The iron
and aluminium precipitates are filtered off, and the filtrate boiled,
when a basic beryllium hydroxide containing a little ferric oxide
is precipitated. To remove the iron, the precipitate is again dis-
solved in ammonium carbonate ' and steam is blown through the
liquid, when beryllium oxide is precipitated. This process is re-
peated several times, and the final precipitate is dissolved in hydro-
chloric acid and precipitated by ammonia, washed and dried. It
has also been obtained by J. Gibson (Journ. of Chem. Soc., 1893,
Ixiii. p. 909) from beryl by conversion of the beryllium into its fluoride.
Beryllium oxide, beryllia or glucina, BeO, is a very hard white
powder which can be melted and distilled in the electric furnace,
when it condenses in the form of minute hexagonal crystals. After
ignition it dissolves with difficulty in'acids. The hydroxide Be(OH) 2
separates as a white bulky precipitate on adding a solution of an
alkaline hydroxide to a soluble beryllium salt; and like those of
aluminium and zinc, this hydroxide is soluble in excess of the
alkaline hydroxide, but is reprecipitated on prolonged boiling.
Beryllium chloride BeClj, like aluminium chloride, may be prepared
by heating a mixture of the oxide and sugar charcoal in a current
of dry chlorine. It is deliquescent, and readily soluble in water,
from which it separates on concentration in crystals of composition
BeClj-4H s O. Its vapour density has been determined by Nilson
and Pettersson, and corresponds to the molecular formula BeCU.
The sulphate is obtained by dissolving the oxide in sulphuric acid ;
if the solution be not acid, it separates in pyramidal crystals of
composition BeSO-4H 2 O, while from an acid solution of this salt,
crystals of composition BeSO4-7H 2 O are obtained. Double sulphates
of beryllium and the alkali metals are known, e.g. BeSO 4 - K 2 SO- 3H 2 O
as are also many basic sulphates. The nitrate Be(NO) 2 -3H 2 O is
prepared by adding barium nitrate to beryllium sulphate solution;
it crystallizes with difficulty and is very deliquescent. It readily
yields basic salts.
The carbide BeC 2 is formed when beryllia and sugar charcoal are
heated together in the electric furnace. Like aluminium carbide
it is slowly decomposed by water with the production of methane.
Several basic carbonates are known, being formed by the addition
of beryllium salts to solutions of the alkaline carbonates; the
normal carbonate is prepared by passing a current of carbon dioxide
through water containing the basic carbonate in suspension, the
solution being filtered and concentrated over sulphuric acid in an
atmosphere of carbon dioxide. The crystals so obtained are very
unstable and decompose rapidly with evolution of carbon dioxide.
Beryllium salts are easily soluble and mostly have a sweetish
taste (hence the name Glucmum (q.v.), from -yXi6j, sweet) ; they are
readily precipitated by alkaline sulphides with formation of the white
hydroxide, and may be distinguished from salts of all other metals
by the solubility of the oxide in ammonium carbonate. Beryllium
is estimated quantitatively by precipitation with ammonia, and
ignition to oxide. Its atomic weight has been determined by L. F.
Nilson and O. Pettersson (Berichte, 1880, 13, p. 1451) by analysis
of the sulphate, from which they found the value 9-08, and by
G. Kriiss and H. Moraht (Berichte, 1890, 23, p. 2556) from the con-
version of the sulphate BeSO4-4H 2 O into the oxide, from which they
obtained the value 9-05. C. L. Parsons (Journ. Amer. Chem Soc.,
1904, xxvi. p. 721) obtained the yalues 9-113 from analyses of beryl-
lium acetonyl-acetate and beryllium basic acetate.
For a bibliography see C. L. Parsons, The Chemistry and Literature
of Beryllium (1909).
BERYLLONITE, a mineral phosphate of beryllium and
sodium, NaBePQi, found as highly complex orthorhombic
crystals and as broken fragments in the disintegrated material
of a granitic vein at Stoneham, Maine, where it is associated
with felspar, smoky quartz, beryl and columbite. It was dis-
covered by Prof. E. S. Dana in 1888, and named beryllonite
because it contains beryllium in large amount. The crystals
vary from colourless to white or pale yellowish, and are trans-
parent with a vitreous lustre; there is a perfect cleavage in one
direction. Hardness si-6; specific gravity 2-845. A few crystals
have been cut and faceted, but, as the refractive index is no higher
than that of quartz, they do not make very brilliant gem-stones.
BERZELIUS, JO'NS JAKOB (1779-1848), Swedish chemist,
was born at Vafversunda Sorgard, near Linkoping, Sweden, on
the 2Oth (or 29th) of August 1779. After attending the gym-
nasium school at Linkoping he went to Upsala University, where
he studied chemistry and medicine, and graduated as M.D. in
1802. Appointed assistant professor of botany and pharmacy
at Stockholm in the same year, he became full professsor in 1807,
and from 1815 to 1832 was professor of chemistry in the Caroline
medico-chirurgical institution of that city. The Stockholm
Academy of Sciences elected him a member in 1808, and in 1818
he became its perpetual secretary. The same year he was
ennobled by Charles XIV., who in 183 5 further made him a baron.
His death occurred at Stockholm on the 7th of August 1848.
During the first few years of his scientific career Berzelius was
mainly engaged on questions of physiological chemistry, but
about 1807 he began to devote himself to what he made the chief
object of his life the elucidation of the composition of chemical
compounds through study of the law of multiple proportions
and the atomic theory. Perceiving the exact determination of
atomic and molecular weights to be of fundamental importance,
he spent ten years in ascertaining that constant for some two
thousand simple and compound bodies, and the results he
published in 1818 attained a remarkable standard of accuracy,
which was still further improved in a second table that appeared
in 1826. He. used oxygen hi his view the pivot round which
the whole of chemistry revolves as the basis of reference for
the atomic weights of other substances, and the data on which
he chiefly relied were the proportions of oxygen in oxygen
compounds, the doctrines-of isomorphism, and Gay Lussac's law
of volumes. When Volta's discovery of the electric cell became
known, Berzelius, with W. Hisinger (1766-1852), began experi-
ments on the electrolysis of salt solutions, ammonia, sulphuric
acid, &c., and later this work led him to his electrochemical
theory, a full exposition of which he gave in his memoir on the
Theory of Chemical Proportions and the Chemical Action of
Electricity (1814). This theory was founded on the supposition
that the atoms of the elements are electrically polarized, the
positive charge predominating in some and the negative in others,
and from it followed his dualistic hypothesis, according to which
compounds are made up of two electrically different components.
At first this hypothesis was confined to inorganic chemistry,
but subsequently he extended it to organic compounds,
which he saw might similarly be regarded as containing a
group or groups of atoms a compound radicle in place of
simple elements. Although his conception of the nature of
compound radicles did not long retain general favour indeed
he himself changed it more than once he is entitled to rank as
one of the chief founders of the radicle theory. Another service
of the utmost importance which he rendered to the study of
chemistry was in continuing and extending the efforts of Lavoisier
and his associates to establish a convenient system of chemical
nomenclature. By using the initial letters of the Latin
BES BESANQON
819
(occasionally Greek) names of the elements as symbols for them,
and adding a small numeral subscript, to show the numberof atoms
of each present in a compound, he introduced the present system
of chemical formulation (see CHEMISTRY). Mention should
also be made of the numerous improvements he effected in
analytical methods and the technique of the blowpipe (Ober
die Anwendung des Lothrohrs, 1820), of his classification of
minerals on a chemical basis, and of many individual researches
such as those on tellurium, selenium, silicon, thorium, titanium,
zirconium and molybdenum, most of which he isolated for the first
time. Apart from his original memoirs, of which he published
over 250, mostly in Swedish in the Transactions of the Stock-
holm Academy, his remarkable literary activity is attested by his
Lehrbuch der Chemie, which went through five editions (first
1803-1818, fifth 1843-1848) and by his J ahresbericht or annual
report on the progress of physics and chemistry, prepared at
the instance of the Stockholm Academy, of which he published
27 vols. (1821-1848).
BES, or HKSAS (Egyp. Bes or Besa), the Egyptian god of re-
creation, represented as a dwarf with large head, goggle eyes,
protruding tongue, shaggy beard, a bushy tail seen between his
bow legs hanging down behind (sometimes clearly as part of a
skin girdle) and usually a large crown of feathers on his head.
A Bes-like mask was found by Petrie amongst remains of the
twelfth dynasty, but the earliest occurrence of the god is in the
temple of the queen Hatshepsut at Deir el Bahri (c. 1500 B.C.),
where he is figured along with the hippopotamus goddess as
present at the queen's birth. His figure is that of a grotesque
mountebank, intended to inspire joy or drive away pain and
sorrow, his hideousness being perhaps supposed actually to scare
away the evil spirits. In his joyous aspect Bes plays the harp
or flute, dances, &c. He is figured on mirrors, ointment vases
and other articles of the toilet. Amulets and ornaments in the
form of the figure or mask of Bes are common after the New
Kingdom; he is often associated with children and with child-
birth and is figured in the " birth-houses " devoted to the cult
of the child-god. Perhaps the earliest known instance of his
prominent appearance of large size in the sculptures of the
temples is under Tahraka, at Jebel Barkal, Nubia, at the begin-
ning of the yth century B.C. As the protector of children and
others he is the enemy of noxious beasts, such as lions, crocodiles,
serpents and scorpions. Large wooden figures of Bes are gener-
ally found to contain the remains of a human foetus. In the
first centuries of our era an oracle of Besas was consulted at
Abydos, where A. H. Sayce has found graffiti concerning him,
and prescriptions exist for consulting Besas in dreams. It
has been held that Bes was of non-Egyptian origin, African, as
Wiedemann, or Arabian or even Babylonian, as W. Max Muller
contends; he is sometimes entitled "coming from the Divine
Land " (i.e. the East or Arabia), or " Lord of Puoni " (Punt), i.e.
the African coast of the Red Sea ; his effigy occurs also on Greek
coins of Arabia. It is remarkable also that, contrary to the usual
rule, he is commonly represented in Egyptian sculptures and
paintings full faced instead of in profile. But the connexion
of the god with Puoni may have grown out of the fact that
dwarf dancers were especially brought to Egypt from Ethiopia
and Puoni.
See K. Sethe in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopadie, s.v.; A.
Wiedemann, Religion of the Ancient Egyptians (London, 1897),
p. 150 ; E. A. W. Budge, Gods of the Egyptians, ii. p. 284 (London) ;
W. Max Muller, Asien u. Europa (Leipzig, 1893), p. 310.
(F. LL. G.)
BESANQON, a city of eastern France, capital of the depart-
ment of Doubs, 76 m. E. of Dijon by the Paris-Lyon railway.
Pop. (1906) town, 41,760; commune, 56,168, It is situated
on the left bank of the river Doubs, 820 ft. above sea-level at
the foot of the western Jura, and is enclosed by hills in every
direction. The Doubs almost surrounds the city proper forming
a peninsula, the neck of which is occupied by a height crowned
by the citadel ; on the right bank lie populous industrial suburbs.
The river is bordered by fine quays, and in places by the shady
promenades which are a feature of Besancon. On the right
bank there is a fine bathing establishment in the Mouillerc quarter,
supplied by the saline springs of Miserey. The cathedral of
St Jean, the chief of the numerous churches of the town, was
founded in the 4th century but has often undergone reconstruc-
tion and restoration; it resembles the Rhenish churches of
Germany in the possession of apses at each of its extremities.
Several styles are represented in its architecture which for the
most part is the work of the nth, uth and i.?th centuries;
the eastern apse and the tower date from the reign of Louis XV.
In the interior there are a " Madonna and Child " of Fra Bartol-
ommeo and a number of other paintings and works of art. The
archiepiscopal palace adjoining the cathedral is a building of
the 1 8th century. The church of Ste. Madeleine belongs to the
1 8th and igth centuries. The Palais de Gran voile, in the heart
of the town, was built from 1534 to 1540 by Nicolas Perrenot
de Granvella, chancellor of Charles V., and is the most interesting
of the secular buildings. It is built round a square interior court
surrounded by arcades, and is occupied by learned societies.
The hotel de ville dates from the i6th century, to which period
many of the old mansions of Besancon also belong. The law-
court, rebuilt in recent times, preserves a Renaissance facade
and a fine audience-hall of the i8th century. Some relics of old
military architecture survive, among them a cylindrical tower
of the 1 5th century near the Porte Notre-Dame, the southern
gate of the city, and the Porte Rivotte, a gate of the i6th century,
flanked by two round towers. The Roman remains at Besancon
are of great archaeological value. Close to the cathedral there
is a triumphal arch decorated with bas-reliefs known as the
Porte Noire, which is generally considered to have been built
in commemoration of the victories of Marcus Aurelius over the
Germans in 167. It is in poor preservation and was partly re-
built in 1820. Remains of a Roman theatre, of an amphitheatre,
of an aqueduct which entered the town by the Porte Taillee, a
gate cut in the rock below the citadel, and an arch of a former
Roman bridge, forming part of the modern bridge, are also to
be seen. Besancon has statues of Victor Hugo and of the
Marquis de Jouffroy d'Abbans (b. 1751), inventor of steam-
navigation.
Besancon is important as the seat of an archbishopric, a court
of appeal and a court of assizes, as centre of an acadtmit (edu-
cational division), as seat of a prefect and as headquarters of the
VHth army corps. It also has tribunals of first instance and of
commerce, a chamber of commerce, a board of trade-arbitrators,
an exchange and a branch of the Bank of France. Its educa-
tional establishments include the university with its faculties
of science and letters and a preparatory school of medicine and
pharmacy, an artillery school, the Iyc6e Victor Hugo for boys,
a lycee for girls, an ecclesiastical seminary, training colleges for
teachers, and schools of watch-making, art, music and dairy-
work. The library contains over 130,000 volumes, and the city
has good collections of pictures, antiquities and natural history.
The chief industry of Besancon is watch- and clock-making,
introduced from the district of Neuchatel at the end of the i8th
century. It employs about 12,000 workpeople, and produces
about three-fourths of the watches sold in France. Subsidiary
industries, such as enamelling, are also important. The metal-
lurgical works of the Socitte de la Franche-Comtt are established
in the city and there are saw-mills, printing-works, paper-
factories, distilleries, and manufactories of boots and shoes,
machinery, hosiery, leather, elastic fabric, confectionery and arti-
ficial silk. There is trade in agricultural produce, wine, metals,
&c. The canal from the Rhone to the Rhine passes under the
citadel by way of a tunnel, and the port of Besancon has con-
siderable trade in coal, sand, &c.
As a fortress Besancon forms one of a group which includes
Dijon, Langres and Belfort ; these are designed to secure Tranche
('<>mte and to cover a field army operating on the left flank of a
German army of invasion. The citadel occupies the neck of the
peninsula upon which the town stands; along the river bank
in a semicircle is the town enceinte, and the suburb of Battant
on the right bank of the Doubs is also "regularly" fortified as
a bridge-head. These works, and Forts Chaudanne and Bregille
820
BESANT BESKOW
overlooking the Doubs at the bend, were constructed prior to
1870. The newer works enclose an area more suited to the needs
of modern warfare: the chain of detached forts along the ridges
of the left bank has a total length of 7$ m., and the centre of this
chain is supported by numerous forts and batteries lying
between it and the citadel. On the other bank Fort Chaudanne
is now the innermost of several forts facing towards the south-
west, and the foremost of these works connects the fortifications
of the left bank with another chain of detached forts on the right
bank. The latter completely encloses a large area of ground in
a semicircle of which Besancon itself is the centre, and the whole
of the newer works taken together form an irregular ellipse of
which the major axis, lying north-east by south-west, is formed
by the Doubs.
Besangon is a place of great antiquity. Under the name of
Vesontio it was, in the time of Julius Caesar, the chief town
of the Sequani, and in 58 B.C. was occupied by that general. It
was a rich and prosperous place under the Roman emperors,
and Marcus Aurelius promoted it to the rank of a colonia as
Colonia Victrix Sequanorum. During the succeeding centuries
it was several times destroyed and rebuilt. The archbishopric
dates from the close of the and century, and the archbishops
gradually acquired considerable temporal power. As the capital
of the free county of Burgundy, or Franche-Comte, it was united
with the German kingdom when Frederick I. married Beatrix,
daughter of Renaud III., count of Upper Burgundy. In 1184
Frederick made it a free imperial city, and about the same time
the archbishop obtained the dignity of a prince of the Empire.
It afterwards became detached from the German kingdom, and
during the i4th century came into the possession of the dukes
of Burgundy, from whom it passed to the emperor Maximilian I.,
and his grandson Charles V. Cardinal Granvella, who was a
native of the city, became archbishop in 1584, and founded a
university which existed until the French Revolution. After
the abdication of Charles V. it came into the possession of Spain,
although it remained formally a portion of the Empire until its
cession at the peace of Westphalia in 1648. During the i7th
century it was attacked several times by the French, to whom
it was definitely ceded by the peace of Nijmwegen in 1678. It
was then fortified by the engineer Vauban. Until 1789 it was
the seat of a parlement. In 1814 it was invested and bom-
barded by the Austrians, and was an important position during
the Franco-German War of 1870-71.
See A. Castan, Besanfon et ses environs (Besangon, 1887) ; A.
Guenard, Besanfon, description historique (Besangon, 1860).
BESANT, SIR WALTER (1836-1901), English author, was
born at Portsmouth, on the I4th of August 1836, third son of
William Besant of that town. He was educated at King's
College, London, and Christ's College, Cambridge, of which he
was a scholar. He graduated in 1859 as i8th wrangler,
and from 1861 to 1867 was senior professor of the Royal College,
Mauritius. From 1 868 to 1 885 he acted as secretary to the Pales-
tine Exploration Fund. In 1884 he was mainly instrumental in
establishing the Society of Authors, a trade-union of writers
designed for the protection of literary property, which has ren-
dered great assistance to inexperienced authors by explaining
the principles of literary profit. Of this society he was chairman
from its foundation in 1 884 till 1 89 2 . He married Mary, daughter
of Mr Eustace Foster-Barham of Bridgwater, and was knighted
in 1895. He died at Hampstead, on the 9th of June 1901.
Sir Walter Besant practised many branches of literary art with
success, but he is most widely known for his long succession of
novels, many of which have enjoyed remarkable popularity.
His first stories were written in collaboration with James Rice
(q.-o.). Two at least of these, The Golden Butterfly (1876) and
Ready-Money Mortiboy (1872), are among the most vigorous
and most characteristic of his works. Though not without
exaggeration and eccentricity, attributable to the influence
of Dickens, they are full of rich humour, shrewd observation
and sound common-sense, and contain characters which have
taken their place in the long gallery of British fiction. After
Rice's death, Sir Walter Besant wrote alone, and in All Sorts
and Conditions of Men (1882) produced a stirring story of East
End life in London, which set on foot the movement that cul-
minated in the establishment of the People's Palace in the Mile
End Road. Though not himself a pioneer in the effort made
by Canon Barnett and others to alleviate the social evils of the
East End by the personal contact of educated men and women
of a superior social class, his books rendered immense service to
the movement by popularizing it. His sympathy with the poor
was shown in another attempt to stir public opinion, this time
against the evils of the sweating system, in The Children of
Gibeon (1886).
Other popular novels by him were Dorothy Forster (1884),
Armor el of Lyonesse (1890), and Beyond the Dreams of Avarice
(1895). He also wrote critical and biographical works, including
The French Humorists (1873), Rabelais (1879), and lives of
Coligny, Whittington, Captain Cook and Richard Jefferies.
Besant undertook a series of important historical and archaeo-
logical volumes, dealing with the associations and development
of the various districts of London of which the most important
was A Survey of London, unfortunately left unfinished, which
was intended to do for modern London what Stow did for
the Elizabethan city. Other books on London (1892), West-
minster (1895) and South London (1899) showed that his mind
was full of his subject. No man of his time evinced a keener
interest in the professional side of literary work, and the improved
conditions of the literary career in England were largely due
to his energetic and capable exposition of the commercial
value of authorship and to the unselfish efforts which Sir
Walter constantly made on behalf of his fellow-workers in the
field of letters.
See also Autobiography of Sir Walter Besant (1902), with a pre-
fatory note by S. S. Sprigge ; the preface to the library edition
(1887) of Ready-Money Mortiboy contains a history of the literary
partnership of Besant and Rice.
BESENVAL DE BRONSTATT, PIERRE VICTOR, BARON DE
(1722-1794), French soldier, was born at Soleure. He was the
son of Jean Victor Besenval, colonel of the regiment of Swiss
guards in the pay of France, who was charged in 1707 by Louis
XIV. with a mission to Sweden, to reconcile Charles XII. with
the tsar Peter the Great, and to unite them in alliance with
France against England. Pierre Victor served at first as aide-
de-camp to Marshal Broglie during the campaign of 1748 in
Bohemia, then as aide-de-camp to the duke of Orleans during
the Seven Years' War. He then became commander of the
Swiss Guards. When the Revolution began Besenval remained
firmly attached to the court, and he was given command of the
troops which the king had concentrated on Paris in July 1789
a movement which led to the taking of the Bastille on the
I4th of July. Besenval showed incompetence in the crisis, and
attempted to flee. He was arrested, tried by the tribunal
of the Chatelet, but acquitted. He then fell into obscurity
and died in Paris in 1794. Besenval de Bronstatt is principally
known as the author of Mfmoires, which were published in
1805-1807 by the vicomte T. A. de Sdgur, in which are reported
many scandalous tales, true or false, of the court of Louis XVI.
and Marie Antoinette. The authenticity of these memoirs is
not absolutely established.
BESKOW, BERNHARD VON, BARON (1796-1868), Swedish
dramatist and historian, son of a Stockholm merchant, was
born on the igth of April 1796. His vocation for literature was
assisted by his tutor, the poet Johan Magnus Stjernstolpe
(1777-1831), whose works he edited. He entered the civil
service in 1814, was ennobled in 1826 and received the title of
baron in 1843. He held high appointments at court, and was,
from 1834 onwards, perpetual secretary of the Swedish academy,
using his great influence with tact and generosity. His poetry
is over-decorated, and his plays are grandiose historical poems
in dramatic form. Among them are " Erik XIV." (2 parts,
1826); and four pieces collected (1836-1838) as Dramatiska
Studier, the most famous of which is the tragedy of " Thorkel
Knutsson." His works include many academical memoirs,
volumes of poems, philosophy and a valuable historical study,
BESNARD BESSARION
821
Om Gustav den Tredje sasom konung och menniska (5 vols.
1860-1869, " Gustavus III. as king and man "), printed in the
transactions of the Swedish Academy (vols. 32, 34, 37, 42, 44).
He died on the tyth of October 1868.
See also a notice by C. D. af Wirsen in his Lefnadsteckningar
(Stockholm, 1901).
BESNARD, PAUL ALBERT (1840- ), French painter,
was born in Paris and studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts,
winning the Prix de Rome in 1874. Until about 1880 he followed
the academic tradition, but then broke away completely, and
devoted himself to the study of colour and light as conceived
by the impressionists. The realism of this group never appealed
to his bold imagination, but he applied their technical method
to ideological and decorative works on a large scale, such as
his frescoes at the Sorbonne, the Ecole de Pharmacie, the Salle
des Sciences at the h6tel de ville, the mairie of the first arrondisse-
ment, and the chapel of Berck hospital, for which he painted
twelve " Stations of the Cross " in an entirely modern spirit.
A great virtuoso, he achieved brilliant successes alike in water-
colour, pastel, oil and etching, both in portraiture, in landscape
and in decoration. A good example of his daring unconvention-
ality is his portrait of Madame Rfijane; and his close analysis
of light can be studied in his picture " Femme qui se chauffe "
at the Luxembourg in Paris.
BESOM (Old Eng. besema, a rod), originally a bundle of rods
or twigs, used for sweeping, &c. ; a stiff broom.
BESSARABIA, a government of south-west Russia, separated
on the W. and S. from Moldavia and Walachia by the Pruth, and
on the E. and N. from the Russian governments of Podolia
and Kherson by the Dniester; on the S.E. it is washed by
the Black Sea. Area, 17,614 sq. m. The northern districts are
invaded by offshoots of the Carpathians, which reach altitudes
of 800 to 1150 ft., and are cut up by numerous ravines and river
valleys. Here, however, agriculture is the prevailing occupation,
the soil being the fertile black earth. The crops principally
raised are wheat and maize, though here, as well as in other parts
of the government, barley, flax, tobacco, water-melons, gourds,
fruit, wine, saffron and madder are grown. The middle of the
government is also hilly (850-10x20 ft.), and is heavily timbered,
chiefly with beech, oak and mountain-ash, and, though to a
smaller extent, with birch. The districts south of the old Roman
earthworks which link the Dniester with the Pruth along the
line of the Botna, just south of Bender, consist of level pasture-
land known as the Budjak steppes. Here stock-breeding is the
predominant calling, the people owning large numbers of sheep,
cattle and horses, also goats, pigs and buffaloes. Lagoons
fringe the lower course of the Pruth and the coast of the Black
Sea, and marshy ground exists beside the Reuth and other
tributaries of the Dniester. The climate is rather subject to
extremes, the mean temperature for the year, at Kishinev,
being 50 Fahr., of January 27, and of July 72. The rainfall
amounts to over 25 in. annually. Salt, saltpetre and marble are
the principal mineral products. Manufacturing industry is only
just beginning, wine-making (17,000,000 gallons annually),
cloth-mills, iron-works, soap-works and tanneries being the
principal branches. Both the Dniester and the Pruth are
important waterways commercially, the former being navigable
up to Mogilev and the latter to Leovo (46 30' N. lat.) . Down the
Dniester come timber and wooden wares from Galicia, and grain
and wool from Bessarabia itself. Three branches of the railway
from Odessa to Poland penetrate the government and proceed
towards the Carpathians. The population numbered 988,431
in 1860 and 1,938,326 in 1897, of whom only 302,852 were urban,
while 942, 1 79 were women. In 1906 it was estimated at 2,262,400.
It consists of various races, nearly one-half (920,919 in 1897)
being Moldavians, the others Little Russians, Jews (37% in the
towns and 12% in the rural districts), Bulgarians (103,225),
Germans (60,206) , with some Gypsies(Zigani) , Greeks, Armenians,
Tatars and Albanians. The Germans, who form some thirty
prosperous colonies in the Budjak steppes west from Akkerman,
have been settled there since about 1814. The government is
divided into eight districts, the chief towns of which are Akker-
man (pop. 32,470 in 1000), Bender (33,741 in 1000), Bycltsi
(18,526 in 1897), Izmail (33,607 in 1000), Khotin (18,126),
Kishinev (125,787 in 1900), Orgeyev (13,356), and Soroki (25,523
in 1900). The capital is Kishinev. Kagul, on the Pruth, and
Reni on the Danube (the place to which Alexander of Bulgaria
was carried when kidnapped by the Russians in 1886), are small,
but lively, river-ports.
The original inhabitants were Cimmerians, and after them
came Scythians. During the early centuries of the Christian era
Bessarabia, being the key to one of the approaches towards the
Byzantine empire, was invaded by many successive races. In
the 2nd century it was occupied by the Getae, a Thracian
tribe, whom the Roman emperor Trajan conquered in 106; he
then incorporated the region in the province of Dacia. In the
following century the Goths poured into this quarter of the
empire, and in the sth century it was overrun one after the other
by the Huns, the Avars and the Bulgarians. Then followed in
the 7th century the Bessi, a Thracian tribe, who gave their name
to the region, and in the 9th the Ugrians, that is to say the
ancestors of the present Magyars of Hungary, the country being
then known as Atel-kuzu. The Ugrians were forced farther west
by the Turkish tribe of the Petchenegs in the loth century, and
these were succeeded in the 1 1 th century by the Kumans (Comani)
or Polovtsians, a kindred Turkish stock or federation. In the
I3th century Bessarabia was overrun by the irresistible Mongols
under the leadership of Batu, grandson of Jenghiz Khan. In this
century also the Genoese founded trading factories on the banks
of the Dniester. In 1367 Bessarabia was subdued and annexed
by the ruling prince of Moldavia. During the i6th century it
was in the possession alternately of the Turks and the Nogais or
Crimean Tatars. From early in the i8th century it was a bone
of contention between the Ottoman Turks and the Russians, the
latter capturing it five times between 1711 and 1812. In the
latter year it was definitely annexed to Russia, and in 1829 its
frontier was pushed southwards so as to include the delta of the
Danube. After the Crimean War, however, Russia ceded to
Moldavia not only this later addition, but also certain districts
in the south of the existing government, amounting altogether
to an area of 4250 sq. m. and a population of 180,000. By the
treaty of Berlin (1878) Russia recovered of this 3580 sq. m., with
a population of 127,000.
See Nakko, History of Bessarabia, in Russian (1873).
(P. A. KiJ.T. BE.)
BESSARION, JOHANNES, or BASILIUS (c. 1395-1472), titular
patriarch of Constantinople, and one of the illustrious Greek
scholars who contributed to the great revival of letters in the
i sth century, was born at Trebizond, the year of his birth being
variously given as 1389, 1395 or 1403. He was educated at
Constantinople, and in 1423 went to the Peloponnese to hear
Gemistus Pletho expound the philosophy of Plato. On entering
the order of St Basil, he adopted the name of an old Egyptian
anchorite Bessarion, whose story he has related. In 1437 he was
made archbishop of Nicaea by John VII. Palaeologus, whom
he accompanied to Italy in order to bring about a union between
the Greek and Latin churches with the object of obtaining help
from the West against the Turks. The Greeks had bitterly
resented his attachment to the party which saw no difficulty in
a reconciliation of the two churches. At the councils held in
Ferrara and Florence Bessarion supported the Roman church,
and gained the favour of Pope Eugenius IV., who invested him
with the rank of cardinal. From that time he resided permanently
in Italy, doing much, by his patronage of learned men, by his
collection of books and manuscripts, and by his own writings,
to spread abroad the new learning. He held in succession the
archbishopric of Siponto and the bishoprics of Sabina and
Frascati. In 1463 he received the title of Latin patriarch of
Constantinople; and it was only on account of his Greek birth
that he was not elevated to the papal chair. For five years
(1450-1455) he was legate at Bologna, and he was engaged on
embassies to many foreign princes, among others to Louis XI.
of France in 1471. Vexation at an insult offered him by Louis
is said to have hastened his death, which took place on the
822
BESSBOROUGH BESSEL FUNCTION
of November 1472, at Ravenna. Bessarion was one of the most
learned scholars of his time. Besides his translations of Aristotle's
Metaphysics and Xenophon's Memorabilia, his most important
work is a treatise directed against George of Trebizond, a violent
Aristotelian, entitled In Calumniatorem Platonis. Bessarion,
though a Platonist, is not so thoroughgoing in his admiratio^ as
Gemistus Pletho, and rather strives after a reconciliation of the
two philosophies. His work, by opening up the relations of
Platonism to the main questions of religion, contributed greatly
to the extension of speculative thought in the department of
theology. His library, which contained a very extensive col-
lection of Greek MSS., was presented by him to the senate
of Venice, and formed the nucleus of the famous library of
St Mark.
See A. M. Bandini, De Vita et Rebus Gestis Bessarionis (1777) ;
H. Vast, Le Cardinal Bessarion (1878); E. Legrand, Bibliographic
Hellenique (1885); G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen
Altertums, ii. (1893) ; on Bessarion at the councils of Ferrara and
Florence, A. Sadov, Bessarion de Nicee (1883) ; on his philosophy,
monograph by A. Kandelos (in Greek: Athens, 1888); most of his
works are in Migne, Patrologia Graeca, clxi.
BESSBOROUGH, EARLS OF. The Ponsonby family, who
have contributed many conspicuous men to Irish and English
public life, trace their descent to Sir John Ponsonby (d. 1678),
of Cumberland, a Commonwealth soldier who obtained land
grants in Ireland. His son William (1657-1724) was created
Baron Bessborough (1721) and Viscount Duncannon (1723),
and the latter's son Brabazon was raised to the earldom of
Bessborough in 1739. He was the father not only of the 2nd earl
(1704-1793), but of John Ponsonby (<?..), speaker of the Irish
House of Commons. The 2nd earl was a well-known Whig
politician, who held various offices of state; and his son the 3rd
earl (1758-1844) was father of the 4th earl (1781-1847), first
commissioner of works in 1831-1834, lord privy seal from 1835 to
1839 and lord-lieutenant of Ireland hi 1846. He was succeeded
by his three sons, the sth earl (d. 1880), 6th earl (1815-1895),
a famous cricketer and chairman of the Bessborough commission
(1881) to inquire into the Irish land system, and 7th earl (d.i9o6),
and the last named by his son the Sth earl.
BESS EG ES, a town of south-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Gard, on the Ceze, 20 m. north of Alais by rail. Pop.
(1906) 7662. The town is important for its coal-mines, blast-
furnaces and iron-works.
BESSEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (1784-1846), German
astronomer, was born at Minden on the 22nd of July 1784.
Placed at the age of fifteen in a counting-house at Bremen, he
was impelled by his desire to obtain a situation as supercargo
on a foreign voyage to study navigation, mathematics and
finally astronomy. In 1804 he calculated the orbit of Halley's
comet from observations made in 1607 by Thomas Harriot,
and communicated his results to H. W. M. Olbers, who procured
their publication (Monatliche Correspondenz, x. 425), and re-
commended the young aspirant in 1805 for the post of assistant
in J. H. Schroter's observatory at Lilienthal. A masterly
investigation of the comet of 1807 (Konigsberg, 1810) enhanced
his reputation, and the king of Prussia summoned him, in 1810,
to superintend the erection of a new observatory at Konigsberg,
of which he acted as director from its completion in 1813 until
his death. In this capacity he inaugurated the modern era
of practical astronomy. For the purpose of improving knowledge
of star-places he reduced James Bradley's Greenwich observa-
tions, and derived from them an invaluable catalogue of 3222
stars, published in the volume rightly named Fundamenla
Astronomiae (1818). In Tabulae Regiomontanae (1830), he
definitively established the uniform system of reduction still
in use. During the years 1821-1833, he observed all stars to
the ninth magnitude in zones extending from-i5 to +45 dec.,
and thus raised the number of those accurately determined to
about 50,000. He corrected the length of the seconds' pendulum
in 1826, hi a discussion re-published by H. Bruns in 1889;
measured an arc of the meridian hi East Prussia in 1831-1832;
and deduced for the earth in 1841 an ellipticity of -$fa. His
ascertainment hi 1838 (Astr. Nach., Nos. 365-366) of a parallax
of o"-3i for 61 Cygni was the first authentic result of the kind
published. He announced hi 1844 the binary character of Sirius
and Procyon from then- disturbed proper motions; and was
preparing to attack the problem solved later by the discovery
of Neptune, when fatal illness intervened. He died at Konigsberg
on the 1 7th of March 1846. Modern astronomy of precision is
essentially Bessel's creation. Apart from the large scope of his
activity, he introduced such important novelties as the effective
use of the heliometer, the correction for personal equation
(in 1823), and the systematic investigation of instrumental
errors. He issued 21 volumes of Astronomische Beobachtungen
auf der Sternwarte zu Konigsberg (1815-1844), and a list of his
writings drawn up by A. L. Busch appeared hi vol. 24 of the
same series. Especial attention should be directed to his
Astronomische Untersuchungen (2 vols. 1841-1842), Populdre
Vorlesungen (1848), edited by H. C. Schumacher, and to the
important collection entitled Abhandlungen (4 vols. 1875-1882),
issued by R. Engelmann at Leipzig. His minor treatises num-
bered over 350. In pure mathematics he enlarged the resources
of analysis by the invention of Bessel's Functions. He made
some preliminary use of these expressions in 1817, in a paper
on Kepler's Problem (Transactions Berlin Academy, 1816-1817,
p. 49), and fully developed them seven years later, for the
purposes of a research into planetary perturbations (Ibid. 1824,
pp. 1-52).
See also H. Durege, Bessels Leben und Wirken (Zurich, 1861);
J. F. Encke, Geddchtnissrede auf Bessel (Berlin, 1846) ; C. T. Anger,
Erinnerung an Bessels Leben und Wirken (Danzig, 1845); Astrono-
mische Nachrichten, xxiv. 49, 331 (1846); Monthly Notices Roy.
Astr. Society, vii. 199 (1847); Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, ii.
558-567.
BESSEL FUNCTION, a certain mathematical relation between
two variables. The Bessel function of order m satisfies the differ-
ential equation ji + - 5^ + i 1 ~^r) u=o > an d ma y De expressed
as the series ^ j i 2 _ 2m + 2 + 2 . 4 . 2m P ' 2 . 2m+ ^ j; the
function of zero order is deduced by making m = o, and is
equivalent to the series i -
O. Schlomilch
defines these functions as the coefficients of the power of t in
the expansion of exp %p(t t" 1 ). The symbol generally
adopted to represent these functions is J m (p) where m denotes
the order of the function. These functions are named after
Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel, who in 1817 introduced them in an
investigation on Kepler's Problem. He discussed their pro-
perties and constructed tables for their evaluation Although
Bessel was the first to systematically treat of these functions, it
is to be noted that in 1732 Daniel Bernoulli obtained the function
of zero order as a solution to the problem of the oscillations of
a chain suspended at one end. This problem has been more
fully discussed by Sir A. G. Greenhill. In 1764 Leonhard Euler
employed the functions of both zero and integral orders in an
analysis into the vibrations of a stretched membrane; an
investigation which has been considerably developed by Lord
Rayleigh, who has also shown (1878) that Bessel's functions are
particular cases of Laplace's functions. There is hardly a branch
of mathematical physics which is independent of these functions.
Of the many applications we may no tice : Joseph Fourier's (1824)
investigation of the motion of heat in a solid cylinder, a problem
which, with the related one of the flow of electricity, has been
developed by W. E. Weber, G. F. Riemann and S. D. Poisson;
the flow of electromagnetic waves along wires (Sir J. J. Thom-
son, H. Hertz, O. Heaviside) ; the diffraction of light (E. Lommel,
Lord Rayleigh, Georg Wilhelm Strove) ; the theory of elasticity
(A. E. Love, H. Lamb, C. Chree, Lord Rayleigh); and to
hydrodynamics (Lord Kelvin, Sir G. Stokes).
The remarkable connexion between Bessel's functions and
spherical harmonics was established in 1868 by F. G. Mehler,
who proved that a simple relation existed between the function
of zero order and the zonal harmonic of order n. Heinrich
Eduard Heine has shown that the functions of higher orders
may be considered as limiting values of the associated functions;
BESSEMER BESSIERES
823
this relation was discussed independently, in 1878, by Lord
Rayleigh.
For the mathematical investigation see SPHERICAL HARMONICS
and for tables see TABLE, MATHEMATICAL.
See A. Gray and G. B. Matthews, Treatise on Bessel's Functions
(1805); Encyclopadie der math. Wisscnschaften; F. W. Bessel, Unter-
suchung des Teils der planetarischen Storungen (1824).
BESSEMER, SIR HENRY (1813-1898), English engineer,
was born on the igth of January 1813, at Charlton, in Hert-
fordshire. Throughout his life he was a prolific inventor, but
his name is chiefly known in connexion with the Bessemer
process for the manufacture of steel, by which it has been rendered
famous throughout the civilized world. Though this process
is now largely supplemented, and even displaced, by various
rivals, at the time it was brought out it was of enormous industrial
importance, since it effected a great cheapening in the price of
steel, and led to that material being widely substituted for others
which were inferior in almost every respect but that of cost.
Bessemer's attention was drawn to the problem of steel manu-
facture in the course of an attempt to improve the construction
of guns. Coming to the conclusion that if any advance was
to be made in artillery better metal must be available, he estab-
lished a small ironworks in St Pancras, and began a series of
experiments. These he carried on for two years before he
evolved the essential idea of his process, which is the decarbon-
ization of cast iron by forcing a blast of air through the mass
of metal when in the molten condition. The first public announce-
ment of the process was made at the Cheltenham meeting of
the British Association in 1856, and immediately attracted
considerable notice. Many metallurgists were sceptical on
theoretical grounds about his results, and only became convinced
when they saw that his process was really able to convert
melted cast iron into malleable iron in a perfectly fluid state.
But though five firms applied without delay for licences to work
under his patents, success did not at once attend his efforts;
indeed, after several ironmasters had put the process to practical
trial and failed to get good results, it was in danger of being
thrust aside and entirely forgotten. Its author, however, instead
of being discouraged by this lack of success, continued his experi-
ments, and in two years was able to turn out a product, the
quality of which was not inferior to that yielded by the older
methods. But when he now tried to induce makers to take
up his improved system, he met with general rebuffs, and finally
was driven to undertake the exploitation of the process himself.
To this end he erected steelworks in Sheffield, on ground pur-
chased with the help of friends, and began to manufacture steel.
At first the output was insignificant, but gradually the mag-
nitude of the operations was enlarged until the competition
became effective, and steel traders generally became aware
that the firm of Henry Bessemer & Co. was underselling them
to the extent of 20 a ton. This argument to the pocket quickly
had its effect, and licences were applied for in such numbers
that, in royalties for the use of his process, Bessemer received
a sum in all considerably exceeding a million sterling.
Of course, patents of such obvious value did not escape
criticism, and invalidity was freely urged against them on
various grounds. But Bessemer was fortunate enough to
maintain them intact without litigation, though he found
it advisable to buy up the rights of one patentee, while in another
case he was freed from anxiety by the patent being allowed to
lapse in 1859 through non-payment of fees. At the outset he
had found great difficulty in making steel by his process in his
first licences to the trade iron alone was mentioned. Experi-
ments he made with South Wales iron were failures because the
product was devoid of malleability; Mr Goransson, a Swedish
ironmaster, using the purer charcoal pig iron of that country,
was the first to make good steel by the process, and even he was
successful only after many attempts. His results prompted
Bessemer to try the purer iron obtained from Cumberland
haematite, but even with this he did not meet with much success,
until Robert Mushet showed that the addition of a certain
quantity of spiegeleisen had the effect of removing the difficulties.
Whether or not Mushet's patents could have been sustained,
the value of his procedure was shown by its general adoption
in conjunction with the Bessemer method of conversion. At the
same time it is only fair to say that whatever may have been the
conveniences of Mushet's plan, it was not absolutely essential;
this Bessemer proved in 1865, by exhibiting a scries of samples
of steel made by his own process alone. The pecuniary rewards
of Bessemer's great invention came to him with comparative
quickness; but it was not till 1879 that the Royal Society
admitted him as a fellow and the government honoured him
with a knighthood. Bessemer died at Denmark Hill, London,
on the isth of March 1898.
Among Bessemer's numerous other inventions, not one of
which attained a tithe of the success or importance of the steel
process, were movable dies for embossed stamps, a gold paint,
sugar machinery, and a ship which was to save her passengers
from the miseries of mat de mer. This last had her saloon
mounted in such a way as to be free to swing relatively to the
boat herself, and the idea was that this saloon should always be
maintained steady and level, no matter how rough the sea.
For this purpose hydraulic mechanism of Bessemer's design was
arranged under the control of an attendant, whose duty it was
to keep watch on a spirit-level, and counteract by proper manipu-
lation of the apparatus any deviation from the horizontal that
might manifest itself on the floor of the saloon owing to the
rolling of the vessel. A boat, called the " Bessemer," was built
on this plan in 1875 and put on the cross-Channel service to
Calais, but the mechanism of the swinging saloon was not found
effective in practice and was ultimately removed.
An Autobiography was published in 1905.
BESSEMER, a town of Jefferson county, Alabama, U.S.A.,
about 12 m. S.W. of Birmingham, a little N. of the centre of.
the state. Pop. (1890) 4544; dooo) 6538, including 3695 ne-
groes; (1910) 10,864. The town is served by the Alabama Great
Southern (Queen & Crescent route), the Louisville & Nash-
ville, the Kansas City, Memphis & Birmingham (St Louis
& San Francisco system), the Birmingham Southern, and the
Atlanta, Birmingham & Atlantic railways. Bessemer is
situated in the midst of the iron ore and limestone district of
Alabama, in the south part of Jones' Valley (about 3 m. wide.) ;
to the east is the Red Ore mountain range, rich in red haematite;
to the north-west are the Warrior coalfields; to the south-west,
south and south-east are immense fossilifcrous iron ore seams
and the Cahaba coalfields; in the immediate vicinity of the city
are limestone quarries, and about 18 m. north-east are the lime-
stone kilns of Gate City. Mining, iron smelting and the manu-
facture of iron and coke are the chief industries of Bessemer;
truck farming is also an important industry. In 1900 Bessemer
was the eighth city of the state in population, second in amount
of capital invested in manufacturing, and fourth in the value
of its manufactured product for the year. Bessemer was laid
out in 1887, and was incorporated in 1889.
BESSIERES, JEAN BAPTISTE, duke of Istria (1768-1813),
French marshal, was born near Cahors in 1768. He served for
a short time in the " Constitutional Guard " of Louis XVI.
and as a non-commissioned officer took part in the war against
Spain. In the Army of the Eastern Pyrenees and in the Army
of the Moselle he repeatedly distinguished himself for valour,
and in 1796, as captain, he served in Bonaparte's Italian cam-
paign. At Roveredo his conduct brought him to his chief's
notice, and after Rivoli he was sent to France to deliver the
captured colours to the Directory. Hastening back to the front,
he accompanied Napoleon in the invasion of Styria in command
of the " Guides," who formed the nucleus of the later Consular
and Imperial Guard. As chef de brigade he next served in the
Egyptian expedition, and won further distinction at Acre and
Aboukir. Returning to Europe with Napoleon, he was present
at Marengo (1800) as second-in-command of the Consular Guard,
and led a brilliant and successful cavalry charge at the dose of
the day, though its effect on the battle was not as decisive as
Napoleon pretended. Promoted general of division in 1802
and marshal of France in 1804, he made the most famous
824
BESSUS BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, A. P.
campaigns of the Grande Armee as colonel-general of the Guard
Cavalry (1805, 1806, 1807). In 1805 he had received the Grand
Eagle of the Legion of Honour, and in 1809 was created duke of
Istria. With the outbreak of the Peninsular War, Marshal
Bessieres had his first opportunity of an independent command,
and his crushing victory over the Spaniards at Medina del Rio
Seco (1808) justified Napoleon's choice. When disaster in other
parts of the theatre of war called Napoleon himself to the Penin-
sula, Bessieres continued to give the emperor the very greatest
assistance in his campaign. In 1809 he was again with the
Grande Armee in the Danube valley. At Essling his repeated
and desperate charges checked the Austrians in the full tide of
their success. At Wagram he had a horse killed under him.
Replacing Bernadotte in the command of the Army of the North,
a little later in the same year, the newly-created duke of Istria
successfully opposed the British Walcheren expedition, and in
1811 he was back again, in a still more important command,
in Spain. As Massena's second-in-command he was present
at the battle of Fuentes d'Onoro, but Napoleon never detached
him for very long, and in 1812 he commanded the Guard Cavalry
at Borodino and in the retreat from Moscow. Wherever engaged
he won further distinction, and at the beginning of the 1813
campaign he was appointed to the command of the whole of
Napoleon's cavalry. Three days after the opening of the cam-
paign, while reconnoitring the defile of Poserna-Rippach,
Bessieres was killed by a musket-ball. Napoleon, who deeply
felt the loss of one of his truest friends and ablest commanders,
protected his children, and his eldest son was made a member
of the Chamber of Peers by Louis XVIII. As a commander,
especially of cavalry, Bessieres left a reputation excelled by
very few of Napoleon's marshals, and his dauntless courage
and cool judgment made him a safe leader in independent com-
mand. He was personally beloved to an extraordinary extent
amongst his soldiers, and (unlike most of the French generals
of the time) amongst his opponents. It is said that masses were
performed for his soul by the priests of insurgent Spain, and the
king of Saxony raised a monument to his memory.
His younger brother, BERTRAND, BARON BESSIERES (1773-
1855), was a distinguished divisional leader under Napoleon.
After serving with a good record in Italy, in Egypt and at
Hohenlinden, he had a command in the Grande Armee, and in
1808 was sent to Spain. He commanded a division in Catalonia
and played a notable part at the action of Molins de Rey near
Barcelona. Disagreements with his superior, General Duhesme,
led to his resignation, but he subsequently served with Napoleon
in all the later campaigns of the empire. Placed on the
retired list by the Bourbons, his last public act was his defence
of the unfortunate Ney. The rest of his long life was spent in
retirement.
BESSUS, satrap of Bactria and Sogdiana under Darius III.
In the battle of Gaugamela (ist of October 331) he commanded
the troops of his satrapy. When Alexander pursued the Persian
king on his flight to the East (summer 330), Bessus with some
of the other conspirators deposed Darius and shortly afterwards
killed him. He then tried to organize a national resistance
against the Macedonian conqueror in the eastern provinces,
proclaimed himself king and adopted the name Artaxerxes.
But he was taken prisoner by treachery in the summer of 329.
Alexander sent him to Ecbatana, where he was condemned to
death. Before his execution his nose and ears were cut off,
according to the Persian custom; we learn from the Behistun
inscription that Darius I. punished the usurpers in the same way.
BEST, WILLIAM THOMAS (1826-1897), English organist, the
son of a solicitor, was born at Carlisle on the i3th of August
1826. Having decided upon a musical career, he received his
first instruction from the cathedral organist. He applied himself
especially to Bach's music, and became a player of great skill.
His successive appointments were to Pembroke chapel, Liver-
pool, 1840; to a church for the blind, 1847, and the Liverpool
Philharmonic Society, 1848. For a short time (1854-1855) he
was in London at the Panopticon in Leicester Square, the church
of St Martin-in-the-Fields, and Lincoln's Inn chapel. In 1855
he returned to Liverpool as organist of St George's Hall, where
his performances rapidly became famous throughout England.
Ill-health compelled him at last to retire in 1894. He was
engaged as solo organist at all the Handel festivals at the Crystal
Palace, and also as organist at the Albert Hall, where he in-
augurated the great organ in 1871. He had been in the receipt
of a civil b'st pension of 100 a year since 1880, and in 1890 went
to Australia to give organ recitals in the town hall of Sydney.
Best died at Liverpool on the loth of May 1897.
His command over all the resources of his own instrument
was masterly; his series of Saturday recitals at St George's Hall,
carried on for many years, included the whole field of organ
music, and of music that could be arranged for the organ,
ancient and modern; and his performances of Bach's organ
works were particularly fine. His own compositions for the
organ, chiefly comprised in the publication entitled Organ
Pieces for Church Use, have a strong and marked individuality.
Best, unlike many soloists, was an all-round musician, and fully
acquainted with every branch of the art. His bust, by Conrad
Dressier, has been placed on the platform in front of the Liver-
pool organ, as a memorial of his long series of performances there.
BESTIA, the name of a family in ancient Rome, of which the
following were the most distinguished.
1. Lucius CALPURNIUS BESTIA, Roman tribune of the
people in 121 B.C., consul in in. Having been appointed
to the command of the operations against Jugurtha, he at
first carried on the campaign energetically, but soon, having
been heavily bribed, concluded a disgraceful peace. On his
return to Rome he was brought to trial for his conduct and con-
demned, in spite of the efforts of Marcus Scaurus who, though
formerly his legate and equally guilty, was one of the judges.
He is probably identical with the Bestia who encouraged the
Italians in their revolt, and went into exile (90) to avoid punish-
ment under the law of Q. Varius, whereby those who had secretly
or openly aided the Italian allies against Rome were to be brought
to trial (Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 37; Val. Max. viii. 6. 4). Both
Cicero and Sallust express a high opinion of Bestia's abilities, but
his love of money demoralized him. He is mentioned in a
Carthaginian inscription as one of a board of three, perhaps an
agricultural commission.
See Sallust, Jueurtha; Cicero, Brutus, xxxiv. 128; for the general
history, A. H. J. Greenidge, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. (1904), pp. 346 foil.
2. Lucius CALPURNIUS BESTIA, one of the Catilinarian con-
spirators, possibly a grandson of the above. He was tribune
elect in 63, and it had been arranged that, after entering upon his
office, he should publicly accuse Cicero of responsibility for the
impending war. This was to be the signal for the outbreak of
revolution. The conspiracy, however, was put down and Bestia
had to content himself with delivering a violent attack upon the
consul on the expiration of his office. This Bestia is probably not
the Lucius Calpurnius Bestia, aedile, and a candidate for the
praetorship in 57. He was accused of bribery during his candi-
dature, and, in spite of Cicero's defence, was condemned. In 43
he attached himself to the party of Antony, apparently in the
hope of obtaining the consulship.
' Sallust, Catiline, xvii. 43; Appian, Bell. Civ. ii. 3; Cicero,
Ad Q. Fr. ii. 3, 6.
BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS PETROVICH, COUNT
(1693-1768), grand chancellor of Russia, the second son of Count
Peter Bestuzhev, the early favourite of the empress Anne, was
born at Moscow on the ist of June 1693. Educated abroad, with
his elder brother Mikhail, at Copenhagen and Berlin, he especially
distinguished himself in languages and the applied sciences.
Peter the Great, in 1712, attached him to Prince Kurakin at the
Utrecht Congress that he might learn diplomacy, and for the
same reason permitted him in 1713 to enter the service of the
elector of Hanover. George I. took him to London in 1714, and
sent him to St Petersburg as his accredited minister with a
notification of his accession. Bestuzhev then returned to
England, where he remained four years. It was the necessary
apprenticeship to his brilliant diplomatic career. His passion for
intrigue is curiously illustrated by his letter to the tsarevich
BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, A. P.
825
Alexius at Vienna, assuring his " future sovereign " of his
devotion, and representing his sojourn in England as a deliberate
seclusion of a zealous but powerless well-wisher. This extra-
ordinary indiscretion might well have cost him his life, but the
tsarevich fortunately destroyed the letter. 1 On his return to
Russia he served for two years without any salary as chief
gentleman of the Bedchamber at the court of Anne of Courland,
and in 1721 succeeded Vasily Dolgoruki as Russian minister at
Copenhagen. Copenhagen was then a whirlpool of diplomatic
intrigue, for George I. was endeavouring to arm the northern
powers against Peter the Great, and this it was Bestuzhev's
mission to counteract. On the occasion of the peace of Nystad,
which terminated the 21 years' war between Russia and Sweden,
Bestuzhev designed and struck a commemorative medal with a
panegyrical Latin inscription, which so delighted Peter (then at
Derbent) that he sent a letter of thanks written with his own
hand and his portrait set in brilliants. It was at this time too
that the many-sided Alexius invented his famous " drops," or
tinctura toniconervina Besiuscheffi, the recipe of which was stolen
by the French brigadier Lamotte, who made his fortune by
introducing it at the French court, where it was known as
Elixir d'Or.
The sudden death of Peter the Great seriously injured Bestu-
zhev's prospects. For more than ten years he remained at Copen-
hagen, looking vainly towards Russia as a sort of promised land
from which he was excluded by enemies or rivals. He rendered
some important services, however, to the empress Anne, for
which he was decorated and made a privy councillor. He also
won the favour of Biren, and on the tragic fall of Artemy Volu-
insky in 1739 was summoned home to take his place in the
council. He assisted Biren to obtain the regency in the last days
of the empress Anne, but when his patron fell three weeks later,
his own position became extremely precarious. His chance
came when the empress Elizabeth, immediately after her acces-
sion, summoned him back to court, and appointed him vice-
chancellor. For the next twenty years, during a period of
exceptional difficulty, he practically controlled the foreign
policy of Russia. Bestuzhev rightly recognized that, at this
time, France was the natural enemy of Russia. The interests of
the two states in Turkey, Poland and Sweden were diametrically
opposed, and Russia could never hope to be safe from the
intrigues of France in these three borderlands. All the enemies of
France were thus necessarily the friends of Russia, and her
friends Russia's enemies. Consequently Great Britain, and still
more Austria, were Russia's natural allies, while the aggressive
and energetic king of Prussia was a danger to be guarded against.
It was, therefore, the policy of Bestuzhev to bring about a quad-
ruple alliance between Russia, Austria, Great Britain and Saxony,
to counterpoise the Franco-Prussian league. But he was on
dangerous ground. The empress herself was averse from an
alliance with Great Britain and Austria, whose representatives
had striven to prevent her accession; and many of her personal
friends, in the pay of France and Prussia, took part in innumer-
able conspiracies to overthrow Bestuzhev. Nevertheless, step by
step, Bestuzhev, aided by his elder brother Mikhail, carried out
his policy. On the nth of December 1742, a defensive alliance
was concluded between Great Britain and Russia. Bestuzhev
had previously rejected with scorn the proposals of the French
government to mediate between Russia and Sweden on the basis
of a territorial surrender on the part of the former; and he
conducted the war so vigorously that by the end of 1742 Sweden
lay at the mercy of the empress. At the peace congress of Abo
(January- August 1743) he insisted that the whole of Finland
should be ceded to Russia, by way of completing the testament of
Peter the Great. But the French party contrived to get better
terms for Sweden, by artfully appealing to the empress's fondness
for the house of Holstein. The Swedes, at the desire of Elizabeth,
accepted Adolphus Frederick, duke of Holstein, as their future
king, and, in return, received back Finland, with the exception of
a small strip of land up to the river Kymmene. Nor could
1 A copy of the letter was taken by way of precaution, beforehand,
by the Austrian ministers, and this copy is still in the Vienna archives.
Bestuzhev prevent the signing of a Russo-Prussian defensive
alliance (March 1743); but he deprived it of all political signifi-
cance by excluding from it the proposed guarantee of Frederick's
Silesian conquests. Moreover, through Bestuzhev's efforts, the
credit of the Prussian king (whom he rightly regarded as more
dangerous than France) at the Russian court fell steadily, and
the vice-chancellor prepared the way for an alliance with Austria
by acceding to the treaty of Breslau (ist of November 1743).
A bogus conspiracy, however, got up by the Holstein faction,
aided by France and Prussia, who persuaded Elizabeth that the
Austrian ambassador was intriguing to replace Ivan VI. on the
throne, alienated the empress from Austria for a time; and
Bestuzhev's ruin was regarded as certain when, in 1743, the
French agent, the marquis de La Chtardie, arrived to reinforce
his other enemies. But he found a friend in need in M. L.
Vorontsov, the empress's confidant, who shared his political
views. Still his position was most delicate, especially when the
betrothal between the grand-duke Peter and Sophia of Anhalt-
Zerbst (afterwards Catharine- II.) was carried through against his
will, and Elizabeth of Holstein, the mother of the bride, arrived
in the Prussian interests to spy upon him. Frederick II.,
conscious of the instability of his French ally, was now eager to
contract an offensive alliance with Russia; and the first step to
its realization was the overthrow of Bestuzhev, " upon whom,"
he wrote to his minister Axel von Mardefeld," the fate of Prussia
and my own house depends." But Bestuzhev succeeded, at last,
in convincing the empress that Chttardie was an impudent
intriguer, and on the 6th of June 1744, that diplomatist was
ordered to quit Russia within twenty-four hours. Five weeks
later Bestuzhev was made grand chancellor (July isth). Before
the end of the year Elizabeth of Holstein was also expelled from
Russia, and Bestuzhev was supreme.
The attention of European diplomacy at this time was con-
centrated upon the king of Prussia, whose insatiable acquisitive-
ness disturbed all his neighbours. Bestuzhev's offer, communi-
cated to the British government at the end of 1745, to attack
Prussia if Great Britain would guarantee subsidies to the amount
of some 6,000,000, was rejected as useless now that Austria and
Prussia were coming to terms. Then he turned to Austria, and
on the 22nd of May 1746, an offensive and defensive alliance
was concluded between the two powers manifestly directed against
Prussia. In 1747, alliances were also concluded with Denmark
and the Porte. At the same time Bestuzhev resisted any
rapprochement with France, and severely rebuked the court of
Saxony for its intrigues with that of Versailles. About this
time he was hampered by the persistent opposition of the vice-
chancellor Mikhail Vorontsov, formerly his friend, now his
jealous rival, who was secretly supported by Frederick the Great.
In 1748, however, he got rid of him by proving to the empress
that Vorontsov was in the pay of Prussia. The hour of
Bestuzhev's triumph coincided with the peace congress of Aix-
la-Chapelle, which altered the whole situation of European
politics and introduced fresh combinations, the breaking away
of Prussia from France and a rapprochement between England
and Prussia, with the inevitable corollary of an alliance between
France and the enemies of Prussia. Bestuzhev's violent political
prejudices at first prevented him from properly recognizing this
change. Passion had always been too large an ingredient
in his diplomacy. His Anglomania also misled him. His
enemies, headed by his elder brother Mikhail and the vice-
chancellor Vorontsov, powerless while his diplomacy was faultless,
quickly took advantage of his mistakes. When, on the i6th of
January 1756, the Anglo- Prussian, and on the 2nd of May the
Franco-Austrian alliances were concluded, Vorontsov advocated
the accession of Russia to the latter league, whereas Bestuzhev
insisted on a subsidy treaty with Great Britain. But his in-
fluence was now on the wane. The totally unexpected Anglo-
Prussian alliance had justified the arguments of his enemies that
England was impossible, while his hatred of France prevented
him from adopting the only alternative of an alliance with her.
To prevent undergound intrigues, Bestuzhev now proposed
the erection of a council of ministers, to settle all important
826 BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, M. P. BET AND BETTING
affairs, and at its first session (i4th~3Oth of March) an alliance
with Austria, France and Poland against Frederick II. was
proposed, though Bestuzhev opposed any composition with
France. He endeavoured to support his failing credit by a
secret alliance with the grand-duchess Catherine, whom he
proposed to raise to the throne instead of her Holsteiri hus-
band, Peter, from whom Bestuzhev expected nothing good either
for himself or for Russia. The negotiations were conducted
through the Pole Stanislaus Poniatowski. The accession of
Russia to the anti-Prussian coalition (1756) was made over his
head, and the cowardice and incapacity of Bestuzhev's friend,
the Russian commander-in-chief, Stephen Apraksin, after the
battle of Gross-Jagersdorf (1757),. was made the pretext for
overthrowing the chancellor. His unwillingness to agree to
the coalition was magnified into a determination to defeat it,
though it is quite obvious that he could only gain by the humilia-
tion of Frederick, and nothing was ever proved against him.
Nevertheless he was deprived of the chancellorship and banished
to his estate at Goretovo (April 1759), where he remained till
the accession of Catharine II., who recalled him to court and
created him a field marshal. But he took no leading part in
affairs and died on the zist of April 1768, the last of his race.
See The Sbornik of the Russian Historical Society, vols. I, 3, 5, 7,
12, 22, 26, 66, 79, 80, 81, 85-86, 91-92, 96, 99, ipo, 103 (St Petersburg,
1870, &c.); Politische Correspondenz Friedrichs des Grossen, vols.
i-2i (Berlin, 1879-1904); R. Nisbet Bain, The Daughter of Peter the
Great (London, 1899). (R. N. B.)
BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, MIKHAIL PETROVICH, COUNT
(1688-1760), Russian diplomatist, elder brother of the foregoing,
was educated at Berlin, and was sent by Peter the Great to
represent Russia at Copenhagen in 1705. In 1720 he was
appointed resident at London at a time when the English court
was greatly inflamed against Peter, who was regarded as a
dangerous rival in the Baltic; and Bestuzhev was summarily
dismissed for protesting against the lately-formed Anglo-Swedish
alliance. On the conclusion of the peace of Nystad in 1721 he
was sent as ambassador to the court of Stockholm. His first
official act was the signing of a defensive alliance between
Russia and Sweden for twelve years, in 1724. He was success-
ively transferred to Warsaw (1726) and to Berlin (1730), but
returned to Stockholm in 1732. How far Bestuzhev was con-
cerned in the murder (June 28th, 1739) of the Swedish diplomatic
agent Sinclair in Silesia on his journey home from Constantinople,
it is difficult to say. It is certain that Bestuzhev sent informa-
tion to his court of Sinclair's mission, which was supposed to
be hostile to Russia, and even supplied the portrait of the envoy
for recognition. The Swedish authorities are unanimous in
describing Bestuzhev as the arch-plotter in this miserable affair;
yet, while the active agents were banished to Siberia, Bestuzhev
was not even censured. The Sinclair murder led ultimately
to the Swedish-Russian War of 1741, when Bestuzhev was
transferred first to Hamburg and subsequently to Hanover,
where he endeavoured to conclude an alliance between Great
Britain and Russia. On his return to Russia in 1743, he was
made grand marshal, and married Anna, the widow of Paul
Yaguzhinsky, Peter the Great's famous pupil. A few months
later his wife was implicated in a bogus conspiracy got up by the
French ambassador, the marquis de La Chetardie, to ruin the
Bestuzhevs (see BESTUZHEV-RYUMIN, ALEXIUS), and after
a public whipping, had her tongue cut out and was banished to
Siberia. Thither Bestuzhev had not the manhood to follow her,
but went abroad, and subsequently resumed his diplomatic
career. His last and most brilliant mission was to Versailles,
shortly after the conclusion of the coalition against Frederick
the Great, where he cut a great figure. He died at Paris on the
26th of February 1760.
See Robert Nisbet Bain, The Daughter of Peter the Great (London,
1899); Mikhail Sergyievich, History of Russia (Rus.), vols. xv.-xxii.
(2nd ed., St Petersburg, 1897). (R. N. B.)
BET and BETTING (probably from 0. Fr. abeter, to instigate,
Eng. " abet," i.e. with money). To " bet " is to stake money
or something valuable on some future contingency. Betting
in some form or other has been in vogue from the earliest days,
commencing in the East with royal and noble gamblers, and
gradually extending itself westwards and throughout all classes.
In all countries where the English tongue is spoken betting is
now largely indulged in; and in the United Kingdom it spread
to such an extent amongst all grades of society, during the ipth
century, that the interference of the legislature was necessary
(see GAMING AND WAGERING). Bets can, of course, be made on
any subject, and are a common method of backing one's opinion
or skill, whether at games of cards or in any other connexion;
but the commonest form of betting is associated with the turf.
In the early days of horse-racing persons who wished to bet
often failed to gratify their inclination because of the difficulty
of finding any one ready to wager. To obviate this difficulty
the professional bookmaker arose. It was perceived that if a
man laid money against a number of horses, conducting his
business on discreet principles, he would in all probability receive
enough to pay the bettor who was successful and to leave a sur-
plus for himself; for the " bookmaker," as the professional
betting man came to be called, had enormous advantages in his
favour. He was presumably shrewd and wary, whereas many
of those with whom he dealt were precisely the opposite, and
benefit arose to him from the mistakes and miscalculations of
owners and trainers of horses, and from the innumerable acci-
dents which occur to prevent anticipated success; moreover,
if he carried out the theory of his calling he would so arrange his
book, by what is called " betting to figures," that the money he
received would be more than he could possibly be called upon to
pay. In practice, of course, this often does not happen, because
" backers " will sometimes support two or three horses in a race
only, and the success of one may result in loss to the bookmaker ;
but in the long run it has been almost invariably found that the
bookmaker grows rich and that the backer of horses loses money.
It is the bookmaker who regulates the odds, and this he does,
sometimes by anticipating, sometimes by noting, the desire of
backers to support certain animals. Such things as stable secrets
can scarcely be said to exist at the present time; the bookmaker
is usually as well able as any one else to estimate the chances of
the various horses engaged in races. Notwithstanding that the
reports of a trial gallop are of comparatively little value to any
except the few persons who know what weights the animals
carried when tried, the bookmaker is extraordinarily keen, and
frequently successful, in his search for information; and on this
the odds depend.
Betting in connexion with horse-racing is of two kinds:
" post," when wagering does not begin until the numbers of the
runners are hoisted on the board; and "ante-post," when
wagering opens weeks or months before the event; though of
this latter there is far less than was formerly the case, doubtless
for the reason that before the introduction of so many new and
valuable stakes attention was generally concentrated on a
comparatively small number of races. Bets on the Derby, the
Oaks and the St Leger were formerly common nearly a year
before the running of the races, and a few handicaps, such as
the Chester Cup, used to occupy attention months beforehand;
the weights, of course, being published at a much longer interval
prior to the contest than is at present the rule. As regards ante-
post betting, bookmakers have their own ideas as to the relative
prospects of the horses entered. A person who wishes to back a
horse asks the price, and accepts or declines, as the case may be.
If the bet is laid it will probably be quoted in the newspapers,
and other persons who propose to wager on the race are so likely
to follow suit that it is shrewdly suspected that in not a few cases
bets are quoted which never have been laid, in order to induce
the backers to speculate. According to the public demand for
a horse the price shortens. If there is little or no demand the
odds increase, the market being almost entirely regulated by the
money; so that if a great many people bet on a certain animal
the odds become shorter and shorter, till in many cases instead
of laying odds against a horse, the bookmaker comes to take
odds, that is, to agree to pay a smaller sum than he would receive
from the backer if the animal lost. Post betting is conducted
on very much the same principles. When the numbers are
BETAlNE
827
hoisted bookmakers proclaim their readiness to lay or take
certain odds, which vary according to the demand for the differ-
ent animals. Backers are influenced by many considerations:
by gossip, by the opinions of writers on racing, and in many
cases, unfortunately, by the advice of " tipsters," who by
advertisements and circulars profess their ability to indicate
winners, a pretence which is obviously absurd, as if these men
possessed the knowledge they claim, they would assuredly keep
it to themselves and utilize it for their own private purposes.
The specious promises of such men do infinite mischief, as
they so often appeal with success to the folly and gullibility
of the ignorant, and in recent years the extent to which betting
has grown has resulted in attempts to check it by organized
means. A society for the purpose was formed in England called
the Anti-Gambling League. A bookmaker named Dunn was
summoned in 1897 for betting in Tattersall's enclosure, which it
was contended contravened the Betting House Act of 1853.
This act had been aimed against what were known as " list
houses," establishments then kept by bookmakers for betting pur-
poses, and associated with many disgraceful scandals. In the
preamble to his bill Lord Cockbura began by remarking that
" Whereas a new form of betting has of late sprung up," and the
Anti-Gambling League sought to argue that this included a form
of betting which had not sprung up of late but had on the con-
trary been carried on without interference for many generations.
The divisional court of the queen's bench (Hawke v. Dunn, 13
T.L.R. 281) held that such betting was an infringement of the
act, and that the enclosure was a " place " within the meaning
of the act, and had been used by the respondent for the
purpose of betting with persons resorting thereto, and that
he was liable to be convicted. The case was remitted to
the justices, who convicted the defendant. A somewhat similar
case was decided on the same day (M'Inany v. Hildreth, 1897,
13 T.L.R. 285), in which it was held that a professional book-
maker who went to a place known as the " pit heap " at Jarrow,
to which the public had access at all times, and made bets with
persons assembled there, was properly convicted, and that the
" pit heap " itself and the place where he stood were " places "
within the meaning of the act. It was afterwards held by the
court of appeal (Powell v. Kempton Park Racecourse Co., Ltd.,
1897, 2 Q.B. 242), in an action brought to restrain a racecourse
company from opening or keeping an enclosure on a racecourse
by allowing it to be used by bookmakers, that the words " other
place " must be construed as meaning a defined place, that the
user of such a place implied some exclusive right in the
user against others, and that the racecourse owners had not
been guilty of permitting the enclosure to be used in the manner
prohibited by the act of 1853. The decision in Hawke v. Dunn
was disapproved of; and the House of Lords afterwards affirmed
the decision of the court of appeal.
The Street Betting Act 1006 enacted that any person frequent-
ing or loitering in streets or public places for the purpose of book-
making, or betting, or wagering, should be liable on summary
conviction, in the case of a first offence, to a fine not exceeding
ten pounds, in the case of a second offence, to a fine not exceeding
twenty pounds, and in the case of a third or subsequent offence,
or in any case where he is proved to have committed the offence
of having a betting transaction with a person under the age of
sixteen years, to a fine, on conviction on indictment, not ex-
ceeding fifty pounds or to imprisonment with or without hard
labour for a term not exceeding six months. On summary
conviction the fine is a sum not exceeding thirty pounds or
imprisonment with or without hard labour for a term not ex-
ceeding three months. A wide definition is given to the words
" street " and " public place," and racecourses are expressly
exempted from the operation of the act.
On all French racecourses (since 1866), as on others nearly
everywhere else on the continent, and likewise in the British
colonies, a system, of betting known as the Pari-Muluel or
Totalizator, is carried on. Rows of offices are established
behind or near the stands, on each of which lists are exhibited
containing the numbers of the horses that are to run in the
coming race. At some of these the minimum wager is five
francs, at others ten, twenty, fifty, one hundred, five hundred and
in some cases a thousand. The person who propose* to bet
goes to the clerk at one of these offices, mentions the number,
as indicated on the card, of the horse he wishes to back, and states
whether he desires to bet on it to win or for a place only. He
receives a voucher for his money. After the race the whole
amount collected at the various offices is put together and divided
after a percentage has been deducted for the administration
and for the poor. As soon as this has been done, the money
is divided and the prices to be paid to winners are exhibited
on boards. These prices are calculated on a unit of ten francs.
Thus, for instance, if the winner is notified as bringing in twenty-
five francs, the meaning is that the backer receives his original
stake of ten and fifteen in addition, the money being paid
immediately by another clerk attached to the office at which
the bet was made. The great French municipalities derive
considerable revenue in relief of rates from the Paris Uutueli.
In Japan this system was made illegal in 1908.
BETAlNE (OXYNEURINE, LYCINE), CHuNO, a substance
discovered in the sugar beet (Beta vulgaris) in 1869 by C. Scheibler
(Ber., 1869, 2, p. 292). It is also found in cotton seed, in the vetch
and in wheat sprouts (E. Schulz and S. Frankfurt, Ber., 1893,
26, p. 2151). It may be synthetically prepared by oxidizing
choline with chromic acid (O. Liebreich, Brr., 1869, 2, 13),
(CH.hNCOHJ-CH.-CH.OH-^CtHuNOi+H.O; by heating
trimethylamine with monochloracetic acid (Liebreich),
(CH,),N-(-CH,Cl-COOH = (CH,)JS'(Cl)-CH,-COOH (betalne
hydrochloride) ; and by heating amino-acetic acid (glycocoll)
with methyl iodide in the presence of an alkali (P. Griess, Ber.,
1875, 8, p. 1406). It crystallizes from alcohol in large deliquescent
crystals; and is readily soluble in water, but insoluble in ether.
It is a weak base. As is shown by the various syntheses of the
base, it is the methyl hydroxide of dimethyl glycocoll. This
free base readily loses water on heating and gives an internal
anhydride of constitution (CHjJiN^^Q *^>CO, which is the
type of the so-called " betaines." These organic betalnes
are internal anhydrides of carboxylic acids, which contain an
ammonium hydroxide group in the a-position. A. Hantzsch
(Ber., 1886, 19, p. 31) prepared the betalnes of nicotinic, picolinic
and collidine carboxylic acids from the potassium salts of the
acids, by treatment with methyl iodide, followed by moist silver
oxide. The reaction may be shown as follows:
The methyl betalne of nicotinic acid is identical with the
alkaloid trigonelline, which was discovered in 1885 by E. Jahns
in the seeds of TrigoneUafaenum-graecum (Ber., 1885, 18, p. 2518).
It has also been obtained from nicotine by A. Pictet by oxidizing
the methyl hydroxide of nicotine with potassium permanganate
(Ber., 1897, 30, p. 2117).
Substances closely related to betalne are choline, neurine
and muscarine. Choline (bilineurine, sincaline), (Gr. xM. bile),
dH.iNO, or HO-CH,-CH,-N(CH,),-OH, first isolated by A.
Strecker in 1862 (Ann. 123, p. 353; 148, p. 76), is found in the
bile, in brain substance, and in yolk of egg in the form of lecithin,
a complex ester of glycerin with phosphoric acid and _ the fatty
acids. It is also found in combination with sinapic acid in sinapin,
the glucoside obtained from white mustard, and can be obtained from
this glucoside by hydrolysis with baryta water,
C,.H,,NO.+2H,O - C,H,,NO, + Ci.HuO..
Sinapin. Choline. Sinapic acid.
It can be synthetically prepared by the action of trimethylamine
on an aqueous solution of ethylcne oxide (A. \Vurtr, Ann. Sttppl..
1868, 6, p. 201). If forms deliquescent crystals of strongly alkaline
reaction, and absorbs carbon dioxide from the air. It is not poison-
ous. By continued boiling of its aqueous solution, it is resolved
into glycol and trimethylamine.
Neurine, trimethyl vinyl ammonium hydroxide (Gr. nvtor.
nerve), CH:CH-N(CH I ) J -OH, is a product of the putrefaction of
albumen. It may be prepared by the action of moist silver oxide on
ethylene dibromide and trimethvlamine.
CH.Br CH,Br->CH,BrCH, N(CH,),Br->CH,:CH-N(CHi),-OH.
828
BETEL NUT BETHESDA
It is a crystalline solid, very soluble in water, and is strongly basic
and very poisonous. Muscarine, CsHuNOj, is an exceedingly poison-
ous substance found in many fungi. It may be obtained synthetic-
ally by oxidizing choline with dilute nitric acid (O. Schmiedeberg,
Jahresb., 1876, p. 804). The exact constitution has not yet been
definitely determined.
BETEL NUT. The name betel is applied to two different
plants, which in the East are .very closely associated in the
purposes to which they are applied. The betel nut is the fruit
of the Areca or betel palm, Areca Catechu, and the betel leaf is
the produce of the betel vine or pan, Chained Betel, a plant allied
to that which yields black pepper. The Areca palm is a native
of the Malay Peninsula and Islands and is extensively cultivated
over a wide area in the East, including southern India, Ceylon,
Siam, the Malay Archipelago and the Philippine Islands. It
is a graceful tree with a straight, slender, unbranched stem reach-
ing 40 or 50 ft. in height and about 15 ft. in circumference, and
bearing a crown of 6-9 very large spreading pinnate fronds.
The fruit is about the size of a small hen's egg, and within its
fibrous rind is the seed or so-called nut, the albumen of which is
very hard and has a prettily mottled grey and brown appearance.
The chief purpose for which betel nuts are cultivated and col-
lected is for use as a masticatory, their use in this form being so
widespread among Oriental nations that it is estimated that one-
tenth of the whole human family indulge in betel chewing.
For this use the fruits are annually gathered between the months
of August and November, before they are quite ripe, and deprived
of their husks. They are prepared by boiling in water, cutting
up into slices, and drying in the sun, by which treatment the
slices assume a dark brown or black colour. When chewed a
small piece is wrapped up in a leaf of the betel vine or pan, with
a pellet of shell lime or chunam; and in some cases a little card-
amom, turmeric or other aromatic is added. The mastication
causes a copious flow of saliva of a brick-red colour, which dyes
the mouth, lips and gums. The habit blackens the teeth, but
it is asserted by those addicted to it that it strengthens the gums,
sweetens the breath and stimulates the digestive organs. Among
the Orientals betel is offered on ceremonial visits in the same
manner as wine is produced on similar occasions by Europeans.
Betel nuts are further used as a source of catechu, which is
procured by boiling the nuts in water. The water of the first
boiling becomes red and thick, and when this is inspissated
after the removal of the nuts it forms a catechu of high astringency
and dark colour called in Bombay " Kossa." The nuts are
again boiled, and the inspissated juice of the second decoction
yields a weaker catechu of a brown or reddish colour. Betel
nuts have been used by turners for ornamental purposes, and
for coat buttons on account of the beauty of their structure. At
one time they were supposed to be useful as a vermifuge. The
nuts of other species of Areca are used by the poorer classes
in the East as substitutes for the genuine betel nut.
The alkaloid arecaidine, CvHnNOj, occurs in areca or betel nuts,
together with three other alkaloids: arecoline, CsHnNOi, guvacine,
CeHjNOj, and arecaine, CrHnNOa. Arecaidine forms white crystals
easily soluble in water, and difficultly soluble in alcohol. Chemically
it is methyl-tetrahydro-nicotinic acid. Dehydration results in the
formation of a " betaine," which is a tetrahydro-trigonelline (see
BETAYNE). Arecoline is an oil, and the physiological action of the
betel nut is alone due to this substance. Chemically it is the methyl
ester of arecaidine. Guvacine, named from " guvaca," an Indian
designation of the betel palm, forms white crystals. It is a secondary
base, but its constitution is uncertain. Arecaine is n-methyl-
guvacine.
BETHANY (mod. el-' Azariyeh) , a village nearly 2 m. E.S.E.
from Jerusalem, on the eastern slope of the Mount of Olives,
2208 ft. above the sea. It is interesting as the residence of
Lazarus and his sisters, and a favourite retreat of Jesus (see
especially John xi., which describes the miracle of the resurrection
of Lazarus at this place). From the 4th century down to the
time of the Mahommedan invasion several ecclesiastical buildings
were erected on the spot, but of these no distinct traces remain.
El-'Azariyeh is a poor village of about thirty families, with few
marks of antiquity; there is no reason to believe that the houses
of Mary and Martha and of Simon the Leper, or the sepulchre
of Lazarus, still shown by the monks, have any claim to the
names they bear. Another Bethany (with the alternative
reading Bethabara) is mentioned in John i. 28, as " beyond
Jordan "; it has not been identified.
BETHEL (Heb. " House of God "), originally called Luz,
an ancient city of Palestine, on the N.W. border of the tribe of
Benjamin, n m. N. of Jerusalem and nearly 2900 ft. above
sea-level. From very early times it was a holy place, a circum-
stance probably due primarily to a very extraordinary group of
boulders and rock-outcrops north of the town. Abraham
recognized its sanctity (Gen. xii. 8); Jacob, in ignorance, slept
in the sacred enclosure and was granted a vision (" Jacob s
ladder," Gen. xxviii). For a while the ark seems to have been
deposited here (Judg. xx. 27), and it was a place for consulting
the oracle (Judg. xx. 18). At the secession of the northern
kingdom under Jeroboam, Bethel became a royal residence
and a national shrine (i Kings xii. 29-31, Amos vii. 13), for
which its position at the junction of main roads from N. to S.
and E. to W. well fitted it. It was taken from Jeroboam by
Abijah, king of Judah (2 Chr. xiii. 19). It seems to have con-
tinued to flourish down into the Christian era; remains of its
ecclesiastical buildings still exist. The present village, which
bears the name of Beitin, occupies about three or four acres,
and has a population of 2000.
BlSTHENCOURT, JEAN DE (c. 1360-1422), French explorer,
belonged to a noble family of Normandy, and held important
offices at the court of Charles VI., king of France. His spirit
was fired by hearing of the deeds of explorers and adventurers,
and having formed a plan to conquer the Canary Islands he
raised some money by pledging his Norman estates, and sailed
from La Rochelle on the ist of May 1402 with two ships, com-
manded by himself and Gadifer de la Salle. He was delayed
by a mutiny off the coast of Spain, but reached the island
of Lanzarote in July. Unable to carry out his project of con-
quest, he left his men at the Canaries and went to seek help at
the court of Castile. He obtained men and provisions from
Henry III. king of Castile, through the good offices of his uncle,
Robert de Braquemont, who had considerable influence with
Henry; he also received the title of king, and did homage to
Henry for his future conquests. Returning to the Canaries in
1404 he found that Gadifer de la Salle had conquered Lanzarote
and Fuerteventura, and explored other islands. La Salle, un-
willing to accept a position of inferiority, left the Canaries and
appealed unsuccessfully for redress at the court of Castile.
B6thencourt was unable to complete his work of conquest and
exploration. In 1405 he visited Normandy, and returned with
fresh colonists who occupied Hierro. In December 1406 he left
the islands to the government of his nephew, Maciot de Bethen-
court, reserving for himself the royal title and a share in any
profits obtained. He returned to Normandy, where he appears
to have spent the remainder of his days. He died in 1422, and
was buried in the church of Grainville-la-Teinturiere. Bethen-
court wrote a very untrustworthy account of his " conquest of
the Canary Islands," Le Canarien, liiire de la conqutte et conversion
ses Canaries, This has been published with introduction and
notes by G. Gravier (Rouen, 1874), and an English translation
was edited by R. H. Major for the Hakluyt Society (London,
1872).
See also CANARY ISLANDS, for the controversy as to the relations
between Bethencourt and La Salle.
BETHESDA (i.e. " House of Mercy," John v. 2), better perhaps
BETHZATHA or BETHSAIDA, a pool or public bath in Jerusalem,
where miraculous cures were believed to be performed. The
following identifications have been suggested: Birket Isra'il,
near St Stephen's gate; a large cistern, near St Anne's church;
the " Twin Pools," north of the Haram (the ancient Temple
area); the Hammam esh-Shifa', or pool of healing, west of the
Haram; the Virgin's fountain, south of the Haram; and the
" Pool of Siloam." Which, if any, of these identifications is
correct, it is impossible to say.
BETHESDA, an urban district of Carnarvonshire, N. Wales,
5 m. from Bangor, by a branch of the London & North-Western
railway. Pop. (1901) 5281. It lies near the lower end of the
BETH-HORON BETHLEN
829
fine Nant Ffrancon (valley of the Ogwen stream). The
scriptural name is due, as often in Wales, to the village or
hamlet taking its title from the Nonconformist church. Here
are extensive slate quarries belonging to Lord Penrhyn. A
narrow-gauge railway connects these with Port Penrhyn, at the
mouth of the stream Cegid (hemlock, " cicuta "), which admits
the entry of vessels of 300 tons to the quay at low water.
BETH-HORON (" the place of the hollow way "), the name
of two neighbouring villages, upper and lower Beth-horon, on
the ascent from the coast plain of Palestine to the high tableland
of Benjamin, which was until the i6th century the high road
from Jerusalem to the sea. The two towns thus played a con-
spicuous part in Israelitish military history (see Josh. x. 10;
i Sam. xiii. 18; i Kings ix. 17; i Mace. Hi. -13-24, vii. 39 ff.,
ix. 50). Josephus (Bell. Jud, ii. 19) tells of the rout of a Roman
army under Cestius Gallus in A.D. 66. The Talmud states that
many rabbis were born in the place. It is now represented by
Beit 'Ur-el-foka and Beit 'Ur-et-tahta.
BETHLEHEM (Heb. " House of Bread," or, according to a
more questionable etymology, " of [the god] Lakhmu "), a small
town in Palestine, situated on a limestone ridge (2550 ft. above
sea-level), 5 m. S. of Jerusalem. The neighbourhood produces
wheat, barley, olives and vines in abundance. It was occupied
in very early times, though the references in Judges xvii., xix.,
and Ruth l are of doubtful date. It was the early home of David
and of Joab (2 Sam. ii. 32). It was fortified by Rehoboam, and
in the neighbouring inn of Chimham the murderers of Gedaliah
took refuge (Jer. xli. 17). Micah (v. 2) and other writers speak
of it as Bethlehem-Ephrathah: perhaps Ephrathah was the
name of the district. Almost complete obscurity, however, was
gathering round it when it became (according to Matt. ii. and
Luke ii.) the birthplace of Jesus. The traditional scene of the
Nativity, a grotto on the eastern part of the ridge, is alleged to
have been desecrated during the reign of Hadrian by a temple
of Adonis. In 330 it was enclosed by a basilica built by the orders
of the emperor Constantine. This basilica (S. Maria a Praesepio) ,
which is still standing, was restored and added to by Justinian,
and was later surrounded by the three convents successively
erected by the Greek, Latin and Armenian Churches (see de
Vogue, Les glises de la Terre Sainte). Captured by the
Crusaders in the nth century, Bethlehem was made an episcopal
see; but the bishopric soon sank to a titular dignity. Beside
the grotto of the Nativity other traditional sites are shown within
the church, such as the Altar of the Magi, the Tomb of Eusebius,
the cave wherein Jerome made his translation of the Bible, &c.
There are several monasteries and convents, and British,
French and German schools. The village is well built and
comparatively clean. The population (8000) has contained few
Moslems since the Moslem quarter was destroyed by Ibrahim
Pasha, in revenge for the murder of one of his favourites, after
the insurrection of 1834. The carving of crucifixes and other
sacred mementoes gives employment to a large proportion
of the population. In 1850 a dispute arose between France and
Russia, in the name of the Latin and Greek Churches respectively,
concerning the possession of the key of the chief door of the
basilica, and concerning the right to place a silver star, with the
arms of France, in the grotto of the Nativity. The Porte,
after much futile temporizing, yielded to France. The dis-
appointment thus inflicted on Russia was a determining cause
of the outbreak of the Crimean War (see Kinglake, Invasion
of the Crimea, chap. iii.). [There is a tiny village of the same
name in Zebulun, 7 m. N.W. of Nazareth (Josh. xv. 19).]
See 'bibliography under PALESTINE. For the modern town see
Palmer, "Das jetzige Bethlehem," in the Zeitschrift of the Deutsche
Palastina-VtTfin, xvii. p. 89. (R.A.S. M.)
BETHLEHEM, a borough of Northampton and Lehigh
counties, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Lehigh
river, opposite South Bethlehem and 55 nr. N. by W. of Phila-
delphia. Pop. (1890) 6762; (1900) 7293 (350 foreign-born);
(1910) 12,837. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the
Lehigh & New England, the Lehigh Valley and the Phila-
1 The country of Moab is clearly visible from around Bethlehem.
delphia & Reading railways, and is connected by two long
bridges with South Bethlehem. The borough lies on a ridge
of ground commanding delightful landscape scenery extending
north up the course of the river to the Blue Mountains 20 m. away.
In Church Street and its vicinity still stand several specimens
of the 17th-century style of architecture of eastern Germany.
The same sect that erected these buildings, the Moravians, or
United Brethren, maintain here the Moravian College and
Theological Seminary, and a well-known school for girls (the
Moravian Seminary), founded as a church boarding school in
1749 and reorganized in 1785, for girU of all denominations.
During the War of Independence, from December 1776 to
April 1777, and from September 1777 to April 1778, the old
Colonial Hall in this seminary (built 1748) was used as a general
hospital of the continental army. From its roof the famous
Moravian trombones were long played on festal or funeral
occasions, and later summoned the people to musical festivals.
The Moravians have given Bethlehem a national reputation as
a musical centre. Only a few years after the city was founded,
Benjamin Franklin was strongly impressed with the fine music
in its church, and towards the close of the I9th century a choir
under the direction of the organist, J. Frederick Wolle, became
widely known by rendering for the first time in America Bach's
Si John Passion (in 1888), followed after short intervals by the
St Matthew Passion, the Christmas Oratorio, the Mass in B
Minor, and finally by an annual Bach festival continuing for
three days, which was discontinued after Wolle's removal to
the university of California in 1905. Bethlehem has often been
called the American Bayreuth. Among the borough's industrial
establishments, the manufactories of iron and steel are the most
important, but it also manufactures brass, zinc, and silk and
knit goods. The municipality owns and operates its water-
works. Bethlehem was founded by the Moravians, led by
Count Nikolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf, shortly before Christmas
in 1741, and the season of the year suggested its name; for the
first century of its existence it was almost exclusively a settle-
ment of that sect, and it is still their American headquarters.
Bethlehem was incorporated as a borough in 1845. In 1904
the borough of (West Bethlehem (pop. in 1900, 3465) was
consolidated with Bethlehem.
See J. M. Levering, A History of Bethlehem, Pennsylvania,(&etMe-
hem, 1903).
BETHLEHEMITES, a name borne at different times by three
orders in the Roman Catholic Church, (i) A community of
friars at Cambridge, in 1257, whose habit was distinguished
from that of the ordinary Dominicans by a five-rayed red star
(in reference to Matt. ii. 9 f). (2) An order of knighthood similar
to the Knights of St John, established by Pius II. in 1459 to resist
the inroads of the Turks. (3) The Bethlehemite Order of Guate-
mala, a nursing community founded in 1630 by Pedro Betan-
court (d. 1667), extended by the brothers Rodrigo and Antonio
of the Cross, and raised to an order by Innocent XI. in 1687.
They wore a dress like that of the Capuchins, and Clement XI.
in 1707 gave them the privileges of the mendicant orders. They
spread throughout Central America and Mexico and as far south
as Lima, and with the order of sisters, founded in 1668 by
Anna Maria del Galdo, were conspicuous for their devotion
during times of plague and other contagious diseases. This
order became extinct about 1850. The name Bethlehcmites has
also sometimes been given to the Hussites of Bohemia because
their leader preached in the Bethlehem church at Prague.
BETHLEN, GABRIEL (GABOR) (1580-1629), prince of Transyl-
vania, the most famous representative of the Iktari branch of a
very ancient Hungarian family, was born at Illy, and educated
at Szarhegy, at the castle of his uncle Andras Laz&r. Thence
he was sent to the court of Prince Zsigmond B&thory, whom
he accompanied on his famous Wallachian campaign in 1600.
Subsequently he assisted Stephen Bocskay to mount the throne
of Transylvania (1605), and remained his chief counsellor.
Bethlen also supported Bocskay's successor Gabriel Bathory
(1608-1613), but the prince became jealous of Bethlen's superior
abilities, and he was obliged to take refuge with the Turks.
8 3 o
BETHNAL GREEN BETHUNE
In 1613 he led a large army against his persecutor, on whose
murder by two of his officers that year Bethlen was placed on
the throne by the Porte, in opposition to the wishes of the
emperor, who preferred a prince who would incline more towards
Vienna than towards Constantinople. On the I3th of October
1613, the diet of Klausenburg confirmed the choice of the sultan.
In 1615 Gabor was also officially recognized by the emperor
Matthias. Bethlen no sooner felt firmly seated on his throne
than he seized the opportunity presented to him by the outbreak
of the Thirty Years' War to take up arms in defence of the
liberties and the constitution of the extra-Transylvanian Hun-
garian provinces, with the view of more effectually assuring his
own position. While Ferdinand was occupied with the Bohemian
rebels, Bethlen led his armies into Hungary (1619), and soon won
over the whole of the northern counties, even securing Pressburg
and the Holy Crown. Nevertheless he was not averse to a
peace, nor to a preliminary suspension of hostilities, and negotia-
tions were opened at Pressburg, Kassa and Beszterczebanya
successively, but came to nothing because Bethlen insisted on
including the Bohemians in the peace, whereupon (aoth of August
1620) the estates of North Hungary elected him king. Bethlen
accepted the title but refused to be crowned, and war was re-
sumed, till the defeat of the Czechs at the battle of the White
Hill gave a new turn to affairs. In Bohemia, Ferdinand II.
took a fearful revenge upon the vanquished; and Bethlen,
regarding a continuation of the war as unprofitable, concluded
the peace of Nikolsburg (3ist of December 1621), renouncing
the royal title on condition that Ferdinand confirmed the peace
of Vienna (which had granted full liberty of worship to the
Protestants) and engaged to summon a general diet within six
months. For himself Bethlen secured the title of prince of
the Empire, the seven counties of the Upper Theiss, and the
fortresses of Tokaj, Munkacs and Ecsed. Subsequently Bethlen
twice (1623 and 1626) took up arms against Ferdinand as the
ally of the anti-Habsburg Protestant powers. The first war
was concluded by the peace of Vienna, the second by the peace
of Pressburg, both confirmatory of the peace of Nikolsburg.
After the second of these insurrections, Bethlen attempted
a rapprochement with the court of Vienna on the basis
of an alliance against the Turks and his own marriage with
one of the Austrian archduchesses; but Ferdinand had no con-
fidence in him and rejected his overtures. Bethlen was obliged
to renounce his anti-Turkish projects, which he had hitherto
cherished as the great aim and object of his life, and continue
in the old beaten paths. Accordingly, on his return from Vienna
he wedded Catherine, the daughter of the elector of Brandenburg,
and still more closely allied himself with the Protestant powers,
especially with Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, who, he hoped,
would assist him to obtain the Polish crown. He died before he
could accomplish any of his great designs (isth of November
1629), having previously secured the election of his wife Catherine
as princess. His first wife, Susannah Karolyi, died in 1622.
Gabriel Bethlen was certainly one of the most striking and
original personages of his century. A zealous Calvinist, whose
boast it was that he had read the Bible twenty-five times, he
was nevertheless no persecutor, and even helped the Jesuit
Kaldy to translate and print his version of the Scriptures. He
was in communication all his life with the leading contemporary
statesmen, so that his correspondence is one of the most interest-
ing and important of historical documents. He also composed
hymns.
The best editions of his correspondence are those by Sandor
Szilagyi, both published at Buda (1866 and 1879). The best life of
him is that by the Bohemian historian Anton Gindely, Acta et docu-
menta historiam Gabrielis Bethleni Ulustrantia (Budapest, 1890). This
work has been largely utilized by Ign4e-Acs4dy in his excellent Gabriel
Bethlen and his Court (Hung., Budapest, 1890). (R. N. B.)
BETHNAL GREEN, an eastern metropolitan borough of
London, England, bounded N. by Hackney, E. by Poplar,
S. by Stepney and W. by Shoreditch. Pop. (1901) 129,680.
It is a district of poor houses, forming part of the area commonly
known as the " East End." The working population is employed
in the making of match-boxes, boot-making, cabinet-making
and other industries; but was formerly largely devoted to silk-
weaving, which spread over the district from its centre in
Spitalfields (see STEPNEY). This industry is still maintained.
The Bethnal Green museum was opened in 1872. It contains ex-
hibits of food and animal products, formerly at South Kensington,
entomological collections, &c.; and various loan exhibitions
are held from time to time. The Museum also housed the Wallace
collection until the opening of Hertford House, and the pictures
now in the National Portrait Gallery. It stands in public gar-
dens; there are several other small open spaces; and some 70
out of the 217 acres of Victoria Park are within the borough.
Close by the park there stood, until the igth century, a house
believed to have belonged to the notorious Bishop Bonner, the
persecutor of Protestants in the reign of Mary; his name is
still attached to a street here. Among institutions are the
missionary settlement of the Oxford House, founded in 1884,
with its women's branch, St Margaret's House; the North-
Eastern hospital for children, the Craft school and the Leather
Trade school. The parliamentary borough of Bethnal Green
has two divisions, each returning one member. The borough
council consists of a mayor, 5 aldermen and 30 councillors.
Area. 759-3 acres.
BETHUNE (FAMILY). The seigneurs of Bdthune, avaues
(advocati) of the great abbey of Saint- Vaast at Arras from the
nth century, were the ancestors of a great French house whence
sprang the dukes of Sully, Charost, Orval, and Ancenis; the
marquises of Rosny, Courville and Chabris; the counts of Selles
and the princes of Boisbelle and Henrichemont. Conon de
Bethune (q.v.), the crusader and poet, was an early forebear.
The most illustrious member of the Bethune family was Maxi-
milien, baron of Rosny, and afterwards duke of Sully (q.v.),
minister of Henry IV. His brother Philip, count of Selles and
of Charost, was ambassador to Scotland, Rome, Savoy and
Germany, and died in 1649. Hippolyte de Bethune, count of
Selles and marquis of Chabris, who died in 1665, bequeathed to
the king a magnificent collection of historical documents and
works of art. The Charost branch of the family gave France
a number of generals during the I7th and i8th centuries.
The last duke of Charost, Armand Joseph de Bethune (1738-
1800), French economist and philanthropist, served in the
army during the Seven Years' War, after which he retired to his
estates in Berry, where, and also in Brittany and Picardy, he
sought to ameliorate the lot of his peasants by abolishing feudal
dues, and introducing reforms in agriculture. During the
Terror he was arrested, but was liberated after the gth Thermidor.
He was mayor of the roth arrondissement of Paris under the
Consulate, and died at Paris on the 27th of October 1800, of
small-pox, contracted during a visit to a workshop for the
blind which he had founded. He published essays on the way
to destroy mendicancy and to improve the condition of the
labourers, and also on the establishment of a fund for rural
relief and the organization of rural education. His life throws
light on some phases of the ancien regime which are often over-
looked by historians. Louis XV. said of Charost, " Look at
this man, his appearance is insignificant, but he has put new
life into three of my provinces." His only son, Armand Louis
de Bethune, marquis de Charost, was beheaded on the 28th of
April 1794.
BETHUNE, CONON or QUESNES, DE (c. 1150-1224), French
Irouvere of Arras, was born about the middle of the 1 2th century.
He came about 1180 to the court of France, where he met Marie
de France, countess of Champagne. To this princess his love
poems are dedicated, and much of his time was passed at her
court where the trouveres were held in high honour. At the
French court he met with some criticisms from Queen Alix,
the widow of Louis VII., on the roughness of his verse and on his
Picard dialect. To these criticisms, interesting as proof of the
already preponderant influence of the dialect of the lie de France,
the poet replied by some verses in the satirical vein that best
suited his temperament. Some of his best songs were inspired
by anger at the delays before the crusade of 1188-1192. His
plain-speaking made him many enemies, and when he returned
BETHUNE BETTERMENT
831
with the rest after the fruitless capture of Acre, these were not
slow to take advantage of the opportunity for retaliation.
Conon took part with Baldwin of Flanders in the crusade which
resulted in 1 204 in the capture of Constantinople, and he is said
to have been the first to plant the crusaders' standard on the
walls of the city. He held high office in the new empire and died
about 1224. His verses, of which the crusading song Ah I
amors com dure departie is well known, are marked by a vigour
and martial spirit which distinguish them from the work of
other trouveres.
The completest edition of his works is in the Trouveres beiges of
Aug. Scheler (1876).
BETHUNE, a town of northern France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Pas-de-Calais, 24 m. N.N.W.
of Arras, on the Northern railway between that town and St
Omer. Pop. (1906) 12,601. Bethune is situated on a low
hill at the confluence of the Lawe with the canal from Aire
to Bauvin. Once strongly fortified, it is now surrounded by
wide boulevards, and new quarters have grown up on its out-
skirts. The old town is composed of winding streets and
culs-de-sac bordered by old houses in the Flemish style. In
the central square stands one of the finest belfries of northern
France, a square structure surmounted by a wooden campanile,
dating from the I4th century. St Vaast, the principal church
of B6thune, belongs to the i6th century. The town is the seat
of a sub-prefect, and has a tribunal of first instance, a chamber
of commerce and a communal college among its public institu-
tions. B6thune lies in the midst of the richest coal mines in
France. Its industries include the distillation of oil, tanning,
salt-refining, brewing, and the manufacture of earthenware
and casks. Trade is carried on in flax, cloth, cereals, oil-
seeds, &c.
The town, which dates from the nth century, was governed
by its own lords till 1248, after which date it passed through the
ownership of the counts of Flanders, the dukes of Burgundy,
and the sovereigns of Austria and Spain. Ceded to France by
the peace of Nijmwegen (1678), it was taken by the allied forces
in 1 7 10, and restored to France by the treaty of Utrecht.
BETROTHAL (A.S. treowth, " truth "), the giving " one's
truth," or pledging one's faith to marry. Although left optional
by the church and not necessary in law, betrothal was anciently
a formal ceremony which in most cases preceded the actual
marriage service, usually by a period of some weeks, but the
marriage might for various reasons be delayed for years. The
canon law distinguished two types of betrothal: (i) Spon-
salia de praesenti, (2) Sponsalia de future. The first was a true
though irregular marriage, and was abolished by the council
of Trent as leading to clandestine unions and therefore being
inimical to morality. The second, or betrothal properly so
called, was a promise to marry at a future date, which promise
without further ceremony became a valid marriage upon con-
summation. The church never precisely determined the form
of the ceremony, but demanded for its validity that it should
have been entered into freely and at a legal age, i.e. after the
seventh birthday. The church further declared that females
between the ages of seven and twelve, and males between
seven and fourteen, could be betrothed, but not married, and that
all such betrothals were to be public. The ill-defined laws as
to betrothals tended to encourage abuses; and the people,
especially in the rural districts, inclined to hold betrothal sufficient
justification for cohabitation. Such pre-contract is known to
have existed in the case of Shakespeare (q.v.). Francis Douce
(Illustrations of Shakespeare and of Antient Manners, 1807)
says that betrothal consisted of the " interchange of rings the
kiss the joining of hands, to which is to be added the testimony
of witnesses." In France the presence of a priest seems to have
been considered essential, and though this was not so elsewhere
it was customary for the couple to get their parish priest to wit-
ness their promise. In England solemn betrothal was almost
universally practised. Among the peasantry the place of rings
was taken by a coin which was broken between the pair, each
taking a part. But almost any gift sufficed. A case in 1582
is recorded where the lover gave the girl a pair of gloves, two
oranges, 'two handkerchiefs and a red silk girdle. Sometimes
the bride-elect received a bent or crooked sixpence. At the
conclusion of the ceremony, which by no means always took
place in a church, it seems to have been usual for the couple to
pledge each other in a cup of wine, as do the Jews and Russians
to-day. This drinking together was ever the universal custom
of parties in ratification of a bargain. Joseph Strutt (1749-
1802) states that by the civil law gifts given at betrothal could
be recovered by the parties, if the marriage did not take place.
But only conditionally, for if the man " had had a kiss for his
money, he should lose one half of that which he gave. Yet with
the woman it is otherwise, for, kissing or not kissing, whatever
she gave, she may ask and have it again. However, this extends
only to gloves, rings, bracelets and such-like small wares."
Though the church abstained from prescribing the form of
the ceremony, it jealously watched over the fulfilment of such
contracts and punished their violation. Betrothal, validly
contracted, could be dissolved either by mutual consent, or
by the supervening of some radical physical or social change
in the parties, or by the omission to fulfil one of the conditions
of the contract. But here the church stepped in, and endeavoured
to override such law as existed in the matter by decreeing that
whoever, after betrothal, refused to marry in fade ecclesiae,
was liable to excommunication till relieved by public penance.
In England the law was settled by an act of 1753, which enacted
that an aggrieved party could obtain redress only by an action at
common law for breach of promise of marriage (see MARRIAGE).
Formal betrothal is no longer customary in England, but on
the European continent it retains much of its former importance.
There it is either solemn (publicly in church) or private (simply
before witnesses). Such betrothals are legal contracts. They
are only valid between persons of legal age, both of whom consent;
and they are rendered void by fraud, intimidation and duress.
In Germany if the parties are under age the consent of the parents
is needed; but if this be unreasonably withheld the couple may
appeal to a magistrate, who can sanction the betrothal. If the
parents disagree, the father's wish prevails. Public betrothal
carries with it an obligation to marry, and in case of refusal
an action " lies " for the injured party. In Germany the betrothal
is generally celebrated before the relatives, and the couple are
called bride and bridegroom from that day until marriage.
In Russia, where it was once as binding as marriage, it is now a
mere formal part of the marriage ceremony.
Among the ancient Jews betrothal was formal and as
binding as marriage. After the ceremony, which consisted of
the handing of a ring or some object of value to the bride and
formal words of contract, and the mutual pledging of the couple
in consecrated wine, a period of twelve months elapsed before the
marriage was completed by the formal home-taking; unless
the bride was a widow or the groom a widower, when this interval
was reduced to thirty days. Latterly the ceremony of betrothal
has become a part of the marriage ceremony, and the engagement
has become the informal affair it is in England.
For betrothal customs in China, the East .and elsewhere, consult
L. I. Miln, Wooings and Weddings in Many Climes (London, 1900),
and H. N. Hutchinson, Marriage Customs in Many Lands (London,
1897). On early English law as to betrothals see Sir F. Pollock and
Maitland, History of English Law before the time of Edward I. (2nd ed.,
1898). See also I. O. Halliwell-Phillipps, Outlines of the Life of
Shakespeare (London, 1848, 1883).
BETTERMENT (i.e. " making better," as opposed to " worse-
ment "), a general term, used particularly in connexion with the
increased value given to real property by causes for which a
tenant or the public, but not the owner, is responsible; it is thus
of the nature of " unearned increment." When, for instance,
some public improvement results in raising the value of a piece
of private land, and the owner is thereby " bettered " through
no merit of his own, he gains by the betterment, and many econo-
mists and politicians have sought to arrange, by taxation or
otherwise, that the increased value shall come into the pocket of
the public rather than into his. A betterment tax would be so
assessed as to divert from the owner of the property the profit
BETTERTON BETTY
thus accruing " unearned " to him. (See also COMPENSATION.)
The whole problem is one of the incidence of taxation and the
question of land values, and various applications of the principle
of betterment have been tried in America and in England,
raising considerable controversy from time to time.
See A. A. Baumann, Betterment, Worsement and Recoupment
(1894).
BETTERTON, THOMAS (c. 1635-1710), English actor, son of
an under-cook to King Charles I., was born in London. He was
apprenticed to John Holden, Sir William Davenant's publisher,
and possibly later to a bookseller named Rhodes, who had been
wardrobe-keeper to the theatre in Blackfriars. The latter
obtained in 1659 a licence to set up a company of players at the
Cockpit in Drury Lane; and on the reopening of this theatre in
1660, Betterton made his first appearance on the stage. His
talents at once brought him into prominence, and he was given
leading parts. On the opening of the new theatre in Lincoln's
Inn Fields in 1661, Sir William Davenant, the patentee, engaged
Betterton and all Rhodes's company to play in his Siege of
Rhodes. Betterton, besides being a public favourite, was held
in high esteem by Charles II., who sent him to Paris to examine
stage improvements there. According to Gibber it was after his
return that shifting scenes instead of tapestry were first used in
an English theatre. In 1692, in an unfortunate speculation,
Betterton and his friend Sir Francis Watson were ruined; but
Betterton 's affection for Sir Francis was so strong that he adopted
the latter's daughter and educated her for the stage. In 1693,
with the aid of friends, he erected the New Playhouse in the
tennis court in Lincoln's Inn Fields. It was opened in 1695
with Congreve's Low for Love. But in a few years the profits
fell off; and Betterton, labouring under the infirmities of age
and gout, determined to quit the stage. At his benefit perform-
ance, when the profits are said to have been over 500, he played
Valentine in Love for Love. In 1710 he made his last appearance
as Melantius in The Maid's Tragedy; he died on the 28th of
April, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
In appearance he was athletic, slightly above middle height,
with a tendency to stoutness; his voice was strong rather than
melodious, but in recitation it was used with the greatest dex-
terity. Pepys, Pope, Steele and Gibber all bestow lavish praise
on his acting. His repertory included a large number of Shake-
spearian r61es, and although many of these were presented in ths
tasteless versions of Davenant, Dryden, Shad well and Nahum
Tate, yet they could not hide the great histrionic gifts which
Betterton possessed, nor does his reputation rest on these
performances alone. The blamelessness of his life was con-
spicuous in an age and a profession notorious for dissolute
habits. Betterton was author of several adaptations which
were popular in their day. In 1662 he had married Mary Saun-
derson (d. 1712), an admirable actress, whose Ophelia shared
the honours with his Hamlet.
See Howe, Thomas Betterton (1891) ; The Life and Times of Thomas
Betterton (1886).
BETTIA, a town of British India, in the Champaran district
of Bengal; situated on a former branch of the Harha river,
with a station on the Tirhoot section of the Bengal & North-
Western railway. Bettia is the residence of one of the leading
noblemen of northern Behar, who enjoys a rent-roll of 66,000.
In 1901, owing to a disputed succession, the estate was under
the management of the court of wards. It comprises land
in no fewer than ten districts, much of which is let on permanent
leases to indigo-planters. Besides the palace of the maharaja,
the town contains a middle English school and a female dis-
pensary, entirely supported out of the estate. There is a Roman
Catholic mission, with about 1000 converts, which was founded
by an Italian priest in 1 746.
BETTINELLI, SA VERIO (1718-1808), Italian Jesuit and man
of letters, was born at Mantua on the i8th of July 1718. After
studying under the Jesuits in his native city and at Bologna
he entered the society in 1736. He taught the belles-lettres
from 1739 to 1744 at Brescia, where Cardinal Quirini, Count
Mazzuchelli, Count Duranti and other scholars, formed an illus-
trious academy. He next went to Bologna, to pursue the study
of divinity, and there he enjoyed the society of many learned
and literary men. At the age of thirty he went to Venice,
where he became professor of rhetoric, and was on friendly terms
with the most illustrious persons of that city and state. The
superintendence of the college of nobles at Parma was entrusted
to him in 1751; and he had principal charge of the studies of
poetry and history, and the entertainments of the theatre. He
remained there eight years, visiting, at intervals, other cities of
Italy, either on the affairs of his order, for pleasure or for
health. In 1755 he traversed part of Germany, proceeded
as far as Strassburg and Nancy, and returned by way of
Germany into Italy, taking with him two young sons or
nephews of the prince of Hohenlohe, who had requested him
to take charge of their education. He made, the year following,
another journey into France, along with the eldest of his pupils;
and during this excursion he wrote his famous Letlere died di
Virgilio agli Arcadi, which were published at Venice with his
sciolti verses, and those of Frugoni and Algarotti. The opinions
maintained in these letters against the two great Italian poets
and particularly against Dante, created him many enemies,
and embroiled him with Algarotti. In 1758 he went into
Lorraine, to the court of King Stanislaus, who sent him on a
matter of business to visit Voltaire. Voltaire presented him with
a copy of his works, with a flattering inscription in allusion to
Bettinelli's Letters of Virgil. From Geneva he returned to
Parma, where he arrived in 1759- He afterwards lived for some
years at Verona and Modena, and he had just been appointed
professor of rhetoric there, when, in 1773, the order of Jesuits
was abolished in Italy. Bettinelli then returned into his own
country, and resumed his literary labours with new ardour.
The siege of Mantua by the French compelled him to leave the
city, and he retired to Verona, where he formed an intimate
friendship with the chevalier Hippolito Pindemonti. In 1797
he returned to Mantua. Though nearly eighty years old, he
resumed his labours and his customary manner of life. He
undertook in 1799 a complete edition of his works, which was
published at Venice in 24 vols. I2mo. Arrived at the age of
ninety years, he still retained his gaiety and vivacity of mind,
and died on the i3th of September 1808. The works of Bettinelli
are now of little value. The only one still deserving remembrance,
perhaps, is the Risorgimento negli studj, nelle Arti e ne' Costumi
dopo il Mille (1775-1786), a sketch of the progress of literature,
science, the fine arts, industry, &c., in Italy.
BETTWS Y COED, an urban district of Carnarvonshire, North
Wales, 4 m. from Llanrwst and 16 m. from Llandudno, on a branch
of the London & North-Western railway. Pop. (1901) 1070.
The name means " warm place of the wood," according to Llyn's
definition of bettws. The other derivation of the word from
Abbatis (domus) agrees with its vicinity to Yspytty 1 Ifan (Jeuan),
Hospitium loannis, near Pentre'r Foelas. The words " y coed "
are added to distinguish this Bettws from several others in Wales,
especially that near Llandeilo Fawr, Carmarthenshire, not far
from the Bettws hills. Bettws y coed is a favourite village for
artists and tourists. It is a centre for excursions towards Capel
Curig and Snowdon, or towards Blaenau Festiniog, via Roman
Bridge. There is excellent fishing for salmon and trout, and in
summer coaches leave their daily loads of tourists here. The
best-known streams and waterfalls are Llugwy, Lledr, with
Rhaiadr y wenol (Swallow falls) , Conwy and Machno tails. In the
neighbourhood are Dolwyddelan castle and the hill of Moel
Siabod.
BETTY, WILLIAM HENRY WEST (1791-1874), English
actor, known as " the young Roscius," was born on the i3th of
September 1791 at Shrewsbury. He first appeared on the stage
at Belfast before he was twelve years old, as Osman in Aaron
Hill's Zara, an English version of Voltaire's Zaire. His success
was immediate, and he shortly afterwards appeared in Dublin,
where it is said that in three hours of study he committed the
1 Other places named " Yspytty " are Y. Cynfyn and Y. Ystwyth.
For the name Yspytty, cf. Bale's King John, 2125: '^So many
masendeens (maisons Dieu), hospytals and spyttle howses."
BETUL BEUGNOT
833
part of Hamlet to memory. His precocious talents aroused great
enthusiasm in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and he was favourably
compared with some of the greatest tragedians. In 1804 he first
appeared at Covent Garden, when the troops had to be called out
to preserve order, so great was the crush to obtain admittance.
At Drury Lane the house was similarly packed, and he played
for the then unprecedented salary of over 75 guineas a night.
He was a great success socially, George III. himself presenting
him to the queen, and Pitt upon one occasion adjourning the
House of Commons that members might be in time for his
performance. But this enthusiasm gradually subsided, and in
1808 he made his final appearance as a boy actor, and entered
Christ's College, Cambridge. He re-appeared four years later,
but the public would have none of him, and he retired to the
enjoyment of the large fortune which he had amassed as a prodigy.
He died on the 24th of August 1874. His son Henry Betty
(1810-1897) was also an actor.
BETUL, a town and district of British India, in the Nerbudda
division of the Central Provinces. In 1901 the population of the
town was 4739. The administrative headquarters of the district
have been transferred to the town of Badnur (<?..), 3 m. north.
The district of BETUL has an area of 3826 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 285,363 , showing a decrease of 1 2 % in the decade,
due to the results of famine. The mean elevation above the
sea is about 2000 ft. The country is essentially a highland tract,
divided naturally into three distinct portions, differing in their
superficial aspects, the character of their soil and their geological
formation. The northern part of the district forms an irregular
plain of the sandstone formation. It is a well-wooded tract, in
many places stretching out in charming glades like an English
park, but it has a very sparse population and little cultivated
land. In the extreme north a line of hills rises abruptly out of
the great plain of the Nerbudda valley. The central tract alone
possesses a rich soil, well watered by the Machna and Sampna
rivers, almost entirely cultivated and studded with villages. To
the south lies a rolling plateau of basaltic formation (with the
sacred town of Multai, and the springs of the river Tapti at its
highest point), extending over the whole of the southern face of
the district, and finally merging into the wild and broken line of
the Ghats, which lead down to the plains. This tract consists of a
succession of stony ridges of trap rock, enclosing valleys or basins
of fertile soil, to which cultivation is for the most part confined,
except where the shallow soil on the tops of the hills has been
turned to account. The principal crops are wheat, millet, other
food-grains, pulse, oil-seeds, and a little sugar-cane and cotton.
A large part of the area is covered with forests, which yield teak
and other timber. The only manufacture is cotton cloth. A
railway is projected from Itarsi through the district to Berar.
Good roads are few; and none of the rivers is navigable. This
district suffered very severely from the famine of 1896-1897,
in 1897 tne death-rate being as high as 73 per 1000. It suffered
again in 190x3, when hi May the number of persons relieved rose
to one-third of the total population.
Little is known of the early history of the district except that
it must have been the centre of the first of the four ancient Gond
kingdoms of Kherla, Deogarh, Mandla and Chanda. According
to Ferishta, the Persian historian, these kingdoms engrossed
in 1398 all the hills of Gondwana and adjacent countries, and
were of great wealth and power. About the year 1418 Sultan
Husain Shah of Malwa invaded Kherla, and reduced it to a
dependency. Nine years later the raja rebelled, but although
with the help of the Bahmani kings of the Deccan he managed
for a time to assert his independence, he was finally subdued and
deprived of his territories. In 1467 Kherla was seized by the
Bahmani king, but was afterwards restored to Malwa. A century
later the kingdom of Malwa became incorporated into the
dominions of the emperor of Delhi. In 1703 a Mussulman
convert of the Gond tribe held the country, and in 1743 Raghoji
Bhonsla, the Mahratta ruler of Berar, annexed it to his dominions.
The Mahrattas in the year 1818 ceded this district to the East
India Company as payment for a contingent, and by the treaty
of 1826 it was formally incorporated with the British possessions,
m. 27
Detachments of British troops were stationed at Multai, Betul
and Shahpur to cut off the retreat of Apa Sahib, the Mahratta
general, and a military force was quartered at Betul until June
1862. The mined city of Kherla formed the seat of government
under the Gonds and preceding rulers, and hence the district was,
until the time of its annexation to the British dominions, known
as the " Kherla Sarkar." The town of Multai contains an
artificial tank, from the centre of which the Tapti is said to take
its rise; hence the reputed sanctity of the spot, and the accumula-
tion of temples in its honour.
The climate of Betul is fairly healthy. Its height above the
plains and the neighbourhood of extensive forests moderate the
heat, and render the temperature pleasant throughout the greater
part of the year. During the cold season the thermometer at
night falls below the freezing point; little or no hot wind is felt
before the end of April, and even then it ceases after sunset. The
nights in the hot season are comparatively cool and pleasant.
During the monsoon the climate is very damp, and at times even
cold and raw, thick clouds and mist enveloping the sky for many
days together. The average annual rainfall is 40 in. In the
denser jungles malaria prevails for months after the cessation
of the rains, but the Gonds do not appear to suffer much from its
effects. Travellers and strangers who venture into these jungles
run the risk of fever of a severe type at almost all seasons of the
year.
BETWA, a river of India, which rises in the native state of
Bhopal in Malwa, and after a course of 360 m., for the most part
in a north-easterly direction, falls into the Jumna at Hamirpur.
A weir is thrown across the Betwa about 15 m. from Jhanai
town, whence a canal 168 m. long takesoff, irrigating 106,000 acres
of the Jalaun district; similar works have been carried out
elsewhere on the river.
BEUDANT, FRANCOIS SULPICE (1787-1850), French minera-
logist and geologist, was born at Paris on the sth of September
1787. He was educated at the Ecole Poly technique and Ecole
Normale, and in 1811 was appointed professor of mathematics
at the lycee of Avignon. Thence he was called, in 1813, to
the Iyc6e of Marseilles to fill the post of professor of physics.
In the following year the royal mineralogical cabinet was com-
mitted to his charge to be conveyed into England, and from
that time his attention was directed principally towards geology
and cognate sciences. In 1817 he published a paper on the
phenomena of crystallization, treating especially of the variety
of forms assumed by the same mineral substance. In 1818
he undertook, at the expense of the French government, a
geological journey through Hungary, and the results of his
researches, Voyage mintralogique et glolo&iquc en Hongrie,
3 vols. 4 to, with atlas, published hi 1822, established for him
a European reputation. In 1820 he was appointed to the
professorship of mineralogy in the Paris faculty of sciences,
and afterwards became inspector-general of the university.
He subsequently published treatises on physics and on
mineralogy and geology, and died on the joth of December
1850.
BEUGNOT, JACQUES CLAUDE, COUNT (1761-1835), French
politician, was born at Bar-sur-Aube. A magistrate under the
old r6gime, he was elected deputy to the Legislative Assembly
(1791), then to the Convention. He was involved in the
proscription of the Girondists and imprisoned until the oth
Thermidor. He next entered into relations with the family
of Bonaparte, and in 1799, after the iSth Brumaire, again
entered politics, becoming successively prefect of the lower
Seine, councillor of state, and finance minister to Jerome Bona-
parte, king of Westphalia. In 1808 Beugnot, who had mean-
while.been appointed administrator of the duchy of Berg-Cleves,
received the cross of officer of the Legion of Honour with the
title of count. He returned to France in 1813, after the battle
of Leipzig, and was made prefect of the department of NoitL
In 1814 he was a member of the provisional government as
minister of the interior; and by Louis XVIII. he was named
director-general of police and afterwards minister of marine. He
followed Louis to Ghent during the Hundred Days, and became
834
BEUL BEUST
one of his confidants. He contributed to draw up Louis's
charter, and in his memoirs boasted of having furnished the
text of the proclamation addressed by the king to the French
people before his return to France; but it is known now that
it was another text that was adopted. Lacking the support
of the ultra-royalists, he was given the title of minister of state
without portfolio, which was equivalent to a retirement. Elected
deputy, he attached himself to the moderate party, and defended
the liberty of the press. In 183 1 Louis Philippe made him a peer
of France and director-general of manufactures and commerce.
He died on the 24th of June 1835.
His son, AUGUSTE ARTHUR BEUGNOT (1797-1865), was an
historian and scholar, who published an Essai sur les institutions
de Saint Louis (1821), Histoire de la destruction du paganisme
en accident (2 vols., 1885), and edited the Olim of the parlement
of Paris, the Assizes of Jerusalem, and the Coutumes de Beau-
voisis of Philippe de Beaumanoir. He was a member of the
chamber of peers under Louis Philippe, and opposed Villemain's
plan for freedom of education. After 1848 he maintained the
same r61e, acting as reporter of the loi Falloux. He retired from
public life after the coup d'etat of Napoleon III., and died on the
1 5th of March 1865.
The Memoires of J. C. Beugnot were published by his grandson,
Count Albert Beugnot (2nd ed., Paris, 1868) ; see H. Wallon, Eloges
academiques (1882); and E. Dejean, Un Prefet du Consulal: J. C,
Beugnot (Paris, 1907).
BEULE, CHARLES ERNEST (1826-1874), French archaeo-
logist and politician, was born at Saumur on the 29th of June
1826. He was educated at the Ecole Normale, and after having
held the professorship of rhetoric at Moulins for a year, was sent
to Athens in 1851 as one of the professors in the Ecole Frangaise
there. He had the good fortune to discover the propylaea of
the Acropolis, and his work, L'Acropoled' Athenes(2nded., 1863),
was published by order of the minister of public instruction.
On his return to France, promotion and distinctions followed
rapidly upon his first successes. He was made doctor of letters,
chevalier of the Legion of Honour, professor of archaeology
at the Bibliotheque Impe'riale, member of the Academic des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres and perpetual secretary of the
Academic des Beaux-Arts. He took great interest in political
affairs, with which the last few years of his life were entirely
occupied. Elected a member of the National Assembly in 1871,
he zealously supported the Orleanist party. In May-November
1873 he was minister of the interior in the Broglie ministry.
He died by his own hand on the 4th of April 1874. His other
important works are: Etudes sur le Peloponnese (2nd ed., 1875);
Les Monnaies d' Athenes (1858); L' Architecture au siecle de
Pisistrate (1860); Fouilles d Carthage (1861). Beul6 was also
the author of high-class popular works on artistic and historical
subjects: Histoire de I'art grec avanl Pericles (2nd ed., 1870);
Le Proces des Cisars (1867-1870, in four parts; Auguste, sa
famille et ses amis; Tibere et I'heritage d' Auguste; Le Sang de
Germanicus; Titus et sa dynastic) .
See Ideville, Monsieur Beule, Souvenirs personnels (1874).
BEURNONVILLE, PIERRE DE RUEL, MARQUIS DE (1752-
1821), French general. After service in the colonies, he married
a wealthy Creole, and returning to France purchased the post
of lieutenant of the Swiss guard of the count of Provence.
During the Revolution he was named lieutenant-general, and
took an active part in the battles of Valmy and Jemmapes.
Minister of war in February 1793, he denounced his old com-
mander, C. F. Dumouriez, to the Convention, and was one of
the four deputies sent to watch him. Given over by him to the
Austrians on the 3rd of April 1793, Beurnonville was not ex-
changed until November 1795. He entered the service again,
commanded the armies of the Sambre-et-Meuse and of the
North, and was appointed inspector of infantry of the army
of England in 1798. In 1800 he was sent as ambassador to
Berlin, in 1802 to Madrid. Napoleon made him a senator and
count of the empire. In 1814 he was a member of the pro-
visional government organized after the abdication of Napoleon,
and was created a peer of France. During the Hundred Days
he followed Louis XVIII. to Ghent, and after the second restora-
tion was made marquis and marshal of France.
See A. Chaquet, Les Guerres de la Revolution (Paris, 1886).
BEUST, FRIEDRICH FERDINAND VON (1800-1886), Austrian
statesman, was descended from a noble family which had
originally sprung from the Mark of Brandenburg, and of which
one branch had been for over 300 years settled in Saxony. He
was born on the i3th of January 1809 in Dresden, where his
father held office at the Saxon court. After studying at Leipzig
and Gottingen he entered the Saxon public service; in 1836
he was made secretary of legation at Berlin, and afterwards
held appointments at Paris, Munich and London. In March
1848 he was summoned to Dresden to take the office of foreign
minister, but in consequence of the outbreak of the revolution
was not appointed. In May he was appointed Saxon envoy at
Berlin, and in February 1849 was again summoned to Dresden,
and this time appointed minister of foreign affairs, an office
which he continued to hold till 1866. In addition to this he
held the ministry of education and public worship from 1849
to 1853; that of internal affairs in 1853, and in the same year
was appointed minister-president. From the time that he
entered the ministry he was, however, the leading member of
it, and he was chiefly responsible for the events of 1849. By
his advice the king refused to accept the constitution proclaimed
by the Frankfort parliament, a policy which led to the outbreak
of revolution in Dresden, which was suppressed after four days'
fighting by Prussian troops, for whose assistance Beust had
asked. On Beust fell also the chief responsibility for governing
the country after order was restored, and he was the author of
the so-called coup d'etat of June 1850 by which the new constitu-
tion was overthrown. The vigour he showed in repressing all
resistance to the government, especially that of the university, and
in reorganizing the police, made him one of the most unpopular
men among the Liberals, and his name became synonymous with
the worst form of reaction, but it is not clear that the attacks on
him were justified. After this he was chiefly occupied with foreign
affairs, and he soon became one of the most conspicuous figures
in German politics. He was the leader of that party which
hoped to maintain the independence of the smaller states, and
was the opponent of all attempts on the part of Prussia to
attract them into a separate union; in 1849-1850 he had
been obh'ged to join the "three kings' union" of Prussia,
Hanover and Saxony, but he was careful to keep open a loop-
hole for withdrawal, of which he speedily availed himself. In
the crisis of 1851 Saxony was on the side of Austria, and he
supported the restoration of the diet of the confederation.
In 1854 he took part in the Bamberg conferences, in which
the smaller German states claimed the right to direct their
own policy independent of that of Austria or of Prussia, and he
was the leading supporter of the idea of the Trias, i.e. that the
smaller states should form a closer union among themselves
against the preponderance of the great monarchies. In 1863
he came forward as a warm supporter of the claims of the
prince of Augustenburg to Schleswig-Holstein (see SCHLESWIG-
HOLSTEIN QUESTION); he was the leader of the party in the
German diet which refused to recognize the settlement of the
Danish question effected in 1852 by the treaty of London, and
in 1864 he was appointed representative of the diet at the con-
gress of London. He was thus thrown into opposition to the
policy of Bismarck, and he was exposed to violent attacks in
the Prussian press as a " particularist," i.e. a supporter of the
independence of the smaller states. The expulsion of the Saxon
troops from Rendsburg nearly led to a conflict with Prussia.
Beust was accused of having brought about the war of 1866,
but the responsibility for this must rest with Bismarck. On
the outbreak of war Beust accompanied the king to Prague, and
thence to Vienna, where they were received by the emperor
with the news of Koniggratz. Beust undertook a mission to
Paris to procure the help of Napoleon. When the terms of
peace were discussed he resigned, for Bismarck refused to
negotiate with him.
After the victory of Prussia there was no place for Beust in
BEUTHEN BEVERLEY, W. R.
835
Germany, and his public career seemed to be closed, but he
quite unexpectedly received an invitation from the emperor
of Austria to become his foreign minister. It was a bold decision,
for Beust was not only a stranger to Austria, but also a Pro-
testant; but the choice of the emperor justified itself. Beust
threw himself into his new position with great energy; it was
owing to him that the negotiations with Hungary were brought
to a successful issue. When difficulties came he went himself to
Budapest, and acted directly with the Hungarian leaders. In
1867 he also held the position of Austrian minister-president,
and he carried through the measures by which parliamentary
government was restored. He also carried on the negotiations
with the pope concerning the repeal of the concordat, and in this
matter also did much by a liberal policy to relieve Austria from
the pressure of institutions which had checked the development
of the country. In 1868, after giving up his post as minister-
president, he was appointed chancellor of the empire, and
received the title of count. His conduct of foreign affairs, especi-
ally in the matter of the Balkan States and Crete, successfully
maintained the position of the empire. In 1869 he accompanied
the emperor on his expedition to the East. He was still to some
extent influenced by the anti-Prussian feeling he had brought
from Saxony. He maintained a close understanding with France,
and there can be little doubt that he would have welcomed
an opportunity in his new position of another struggle with his
old rival Bismarck. In 1867, however, he helped to bring the
affair of Luxemburg to a peaceful termination. In 1870 he did
not disguise his sympathy for France, and the failure of all
attempts to bring about an intervention of the powers, joined
to the action of Russia in denouncing the treaty of Paris, was
the occasion of his celebrated saying that he was nowhere able
to find Europe. After the war was over he completely accepted
the new organization of Germany.
As early as December 1870 he had opened a correspondence
with Bismarck with a view to establishing a good understanding
with Germany. Bismarck accepted his advances with alacrity,
and the new entente, which Beust announced to the Austro-
Hungarian delegations in July 1871, was sealed in August
by a friendly meeting of the two old rivals and enemies at
Gastein.
In 1871 Beust interfered at the last moment, together with
Andrassy, to prevent the emperor accepting the federalist plans
of Hohenwart. He was successful, but at the same time he
was dismissed from office. The precise cause for this is not
known, and no reason was given him. At his own request
he was appointed Austrian ambassador at London; in 1878
he was transferred to Paris; in 1882 he retired from public life.
He died at his villa at Altenberg, near Vienna, on the 24th of
October 1886, leaving two sons, both of whom entered the
Austrian diplomatic service. His wife, a Bavarian lady, sur-
vived him only a few weeks. His elder brother Friedrich
Konstantin (1806-1891), who was at the head of the Saxon
department for mines, was the author of several works on
mining and geology, a subject in which other members of the
family had distinguished themselves.
Beust was in many ways a diplomatist of the old school. He
had great social gifts and personal graces; he was proud of
his proficiency in the lighter arts of composing waltzes and
vers de sociite. His chief fault was vanity, but it was an amiable
weakness. It was more vanity than rancour which made him
glad to appear even in later years as the great opponent of
Bismarck; and if he cared too much for popularity, and was
very sensitive to neglect, the saying attributed to Bismarck,
that if his vanity were taken away there would be nothing left,
is very unjust. He was apt to look more to the form than the
substance, and attached too much importance to the verbal
victory of a well-written despatch; but when the opportunity
was given him he showed higher qualities. In the crisis of 1849
he displayed considerable courage, and never lost his judgment
even in personal danger. If he was defeated in his German
policy, it must be remembered that Bismarck held all the good
cards, and in 1866 Saxony was the only one of the smaller states
which entered on the war with an army properly equipped and
ready at the moment. That he was no mere reactionary the
whole course of his government in Saxony, and still more in
Austria, shows. His Austrian policy has been much criticized,
on the ground that in establishing the system of dualism he
gave too much to Hungary, and did not really understand
Austrian affairs; and the Austro-Hungarian crisis during the
early years of the present century has given point to this view.
Yet it remains the fact that in a crisis of extraordinary difficulty
he carried to a successful conclusion a policy which, even if it
was not the best imaginable, was probably the best attainable
in the circumstances.
Beust was the author of reminiscences: Aus drei Viertel-Jakr-
hunderten (2 vols., Stuttgart, 1887; English trans, edited by Baron
H. de Worms) ; and he also wrote a shorter work, Erinnerungen *u
Erinnerungen (Leipzig, 1881), in answer to attacks made on him
by his former colleague, Herr v. Frieseri, in his reminiscence*.
See also Ebeling, F. F. Graf v. Beust (Leipzig, 1876), a full and care-
ful account of his political career, especially up to 1866; Diplomatic
Sketches: No. I, Count Beust, by Outsider (Baron Carl v. Malortie) ;
Flathe, Geschichte von Sachsen, vol. iii. (Gotha, 1877); Frieten,
Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben (Dresden, 1880). (J- W. HB.)
BEUTHEN, or NIEDERBEUTHEN, a town of Germany, in the
north of Prussian Silesia, on the Oder, the capital of the media-
tized principality of Carolath-Beuthen. Pop. (1900) 3164.
The chief industries of the place are straw-plaiting, boat-
building, and the manufacture of pottery; and a considerable
traffic is carried on by means of the river.
BEUTHEN, or OBERBEUTHEN, a town of Germany, in the
extreme south-east of Prussian Silesia, on the railway between
Breslau and Cracow, 121 m. S.E. of the former. Pop. (1005)
60,078. It is the centre of the mining district of Upper Silesia,
and its population is mainly engaged in such operations and in
iron and zinc smelting. Beuthen is an old town, and was
formerly the capital of the Bohemian duchy of Beuthen, which
in 1620 was ultimately granted, as a free lordship of the Empire,
to Lazarus, Baron Henckel von Donnersmarck, by the emperor
Ferdinand II., and parts of which, now mediatized, are held by
two branches of the counts Henckel von Donnersmarck.
BEVEL (from an O. Fr. word, cf. mod. biveau, a joiner's
instrument), the inclination of one surface of a solid body to
another; also, any angle other than a right angle, and parti-
cularly, in joinery, the angle to which a piece of timber has to
be cut. The mechanic's instrument known as a bevel consists of
a rule with two arms so jointed as to be adjustable to any angle.
In heraldry, a bevel is an angular break in a line. Bevelment,
as a term of crystallography, means the replacement of an edge
of a crystal by two planes equally inclined to the adjacent
planes. As an architectural term " bevel " is a sloped or canted
edge given to a sill or horizontal course of stone, but is more
frequently applied to the canted edges- worked round the pro-
jecting bands of masonry which for decorative purposes are
employed on the quoins of walls or windows and in some cases,
with vertical joints, cover the whole wall. When the outer face
of the stone band is left rough so that it fonr s what is known
as rusticated masonry, the description wculd be bevelled
and rusticated. The term is sometimes app.ied to the splay-
ing of the edges of a window on the outs de, but the wide
expansion made inside in order to admit m ire light is known
as a splay.
BEVERLEY, WILLIAM ROXBY (i8i4?-i88o), English
artist and scene-painter, was born at Rich nond, Surrey, about
1814, the son of William Roxby, an actor-manager who had
assumed the name of Beverley. His four brothers and his sister
all entered the theatrical profession, and Beverley soon became
both actor and scene-painter. In 1831 hi? father and his brothers
took over the old Durham circuit, and he joined them to play
heavy comedy for several seasons, besides painting scenery. His
work was first seen in 1831 in London, for the pantomime
Baron Munchausen at the Victoria theatre, which was being
managed by his brother Henry. He was appointed scenic director
for the Covent Garden operas in 1853. In 1854 he entered
the service of the Drury Lane theatre under the management
of E. T. Smith, and for thirty years continued to produce
8 3 6
BEVERLEY BEVIS OF HAMPTON
wonderful scenes for the pantomimes, besides working for Covent
Garden and a number of other theatres. In 1851 he executed
part of a great diorama of Jerusalem and the Holy Land, and
produced dioramic views of the ascent of Mont Blanc, exhibited
at the Egyptian Hall, Piccadilly, and in 1884 a panorama of
the Lakes of Killarney. He was a frequent exhibitor of sea
pictures at the Royal Academy from 1865 to 1880. In 1884
failing eyesight put an end to his painting. He died in com-
parative poverty at Hampstead on the i7th of May 1889. He
was the last of the old school of one surface painters, and famed
for the wonderful atmospheric effects he was able to produce.
Although he was skilled in all the mechanical devices of the
stage, and painted in 1881 scenery for Michael StrogofJ at the
Adelphi, in which for the first time in England the still life of
the stage was placed in harmony with the background, he
was strongly opposed to the new school of scene-builders.
BEVERLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Holderness parliamentary division of the East Riding of York-
shire, England, 8 m. N.N.W. of Hull by a branch of the North-
Eastern railway. Pop. (1901) 13,183. It lies in a level country
east of the line of slight elevations known as the Wolds, near
the river Hull, and has communication by canal with Hull.
The church of St John the Evangelist, commonly called Beverley
Minster, is a magnificent building, exceeding in size and splen-
dour some of the English cathedrals. A monastery was founded
here by John of Beverley (c. 640-721), a native of the East
Riding, who was bishop successively of Hexham and of York,
and was canonized in 1037. A college of secular canons followed
in the loth century, the provostship of which subsequently
became an office of high dignity, and was held by Thomas
Becket, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury. Of the existing
building, the easternmost bay of the nave, the transepts with
east and west aisles, the choir with aisles and short transepts,
and the Lady chapel, are Early English, a superb example of
the finest development of that style. The remainder of the
nave is Decorated, excepting the westernmost bay which is
Perpendicular, as is the ornate west front with its graceful
flanking towers. The north porch is also a beautiful example
of this style. The most noteworthy details within the church
are the exquisite Early English staircase which led to the chapter
house (no longer remaining), and the Percy tomb, a remarkable
example of Decorated work, commemorating Eleanor, wife of
Henry Percy (d. 1328). The church of St Mary is a cruciform
building with central tower, almost entirely of Decorated and
Perpendicular work. Though overshadowed by the presence
of the minster, it is yet a very fine example of its styles, its most
noteworthy features being the tower and the west front. Bever-
ley was walled, and one gate of the isth century remains; there
are also some picturesque old houses. The industries are tanning,
iron-founding, brewing and the manufacture of chemicals;
and there is a large agricultural trade. Beverley is the seat
of a suffragan bishop in the diocese of York. The municipal
borough is under a mayor, 6 aldermen and 18 councillors, and
has an area of 2404 acres, including a large extent of common
pasture land.
Beverley (Beverlac) is said to be on the site of a British settlement.
Evidently a church had existed there before 704, since in that year
it was restored by St John of Beverley, who also founded a monastery
there and was himself buried in the church. In the devastation of
the north of England which followed the Conquest, Beverley is said
to have escaped by a miracle attributed to St John; the Norman
leader, while about to enter and pillage the church, fell from his
horse dead, and the king, thinking this a sign that the town was
under the protection of heaven, exempted it from pillage. From the
time of St John of Beverley until the dissolution of the monasteries,
the manor and town of Beverley belonged to the archbishopric of
York, and is said to have been held under a charter of liberties
supposed to have been granted by King ^Ethelstan in 925. This
charter, besides other privileges, is said to have granted sanctuary
in Beverley, and the " leuga " over which this privilege extended
was afterwards shown to include the whole town. Confirmations of
/Ethelstan's charter were granted by Edward the Confessor and
other succeeding kings. In the reign of Henry I., Thurstan, arch-
bishop of York, gave the burgesses their first charter, which is one
of the earliest granted to any town in England. In it he granted
them the same privileges as the citizens of York, among these being
a gild merchant and freedom from toll throughout the whole of
Yorkshire, with right to take it at all the markets and fairs in their
town except at the three principal fairs, the toll of which belonged
to the archbishop. In 1200 King John granted the town a new
charter, for which the burgesses had to pay 500 marks. Other
charters generally confirming the first were granted to the town by
most of the early kings. The incorporation charter granted by
Queen Elizabeth in 1573 was confirmed by Charles I. in 1629 and
Charles II. in 1663, and renewed by James II. on his accession.
Parliamentary representation by two members began in the reign
of Edward I., but lapsed, until the corporation charter of 1573,
from which date it continued until the Reform Act of 1867. In
I 554~ I 555 Queen Mary granted the three fairs on the feasts of St
John the Confessor, the Translation of St John and the Nativity of
St John the Baptist, together with the weekly markets on Wednesday
and Saturday, which had been held by the archbishops of York by
traditional grant of Edward the Confessor to the burgesses of the
town. Cloth-weaving was one of the chief industries of Beverley;
it is mentioned and appears to have been important as early as
1315-
See Victoria County History Yorkshire; G. Poulson, Beverlac;
Antiquities and History of Beverley and of the Provostry, Sfc., of
St John's (2 vols., 1829); G. Oliver, D.D., History and Antiquities
of Beverley, &c. (1829).
BEVERLY, a seaboard city of Essex county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., situated on the N. shore of Massachusetts Bay, opposite
Salem. It is 1 8 m. from Boston on the Boston & Maine railway.
Pop. (1890) 10,821; (1900) 13,884, of whom 2814 were foreign-
born; (1910, census) 18,650. The land area of the city is
about 15 sq. m. The surface is the typical glacial topography,
with a few low, rocky hills, less than 100 ft. in height. There are
beautiful drives through well-wooded districts, studded with
handsome summer houses. In the city are a public library, the
Beverly hospital, the New England industrial school for deaf
mutes (organized, 1876; incorporated, 1879), and the Beverly
historical society (1891), which owns a large colonial house, in
which there is a valuable historical collection. The city has an
excellent public school system. There are a number of manu-
facturing establishments; in 1905 the total factory product of
the city was valued at $4,101,168, boots and shoes accounting
for more than one-half of the total. Leather and shoe machinery
also are important manufactures; and the main plant of the
United Shoe Machinery Corporation is located here. Market
gardening is a considerable industry, and large quantities of
vegetables are raised under glass for the Boston markets. Fishing
is an industry no longer of much importance. Beverly is con-
nected by a regular line of oil-steamers with Port Arthur, Texas,
and is the main distributing point for the Texas oil fields. The
first settlement within the limits of Beverly was made by Roger
Conant in 1626. The town was a part of Salem until 1668, when
it was incorporated as a separate township: in 1894 it was
chartered as a city. In 1788 there was established here the first
cotton mill to be successfully operated in the United States. The
manufacture of Britannia ware was begun in 1812. George
Cabot lived for many years in Beverly, which he represented in
the provincial congress (1779); Nathan Dane (1752-1835) was
also a resident; and it was the birthplace of Wilson Flagg
(1805-1884), the author of Studies in the Field and Forest (1857),
The Woods and By-Ways of New England (1872), The Birds and
Seasons of New England (1875), and A Year with the Birds (1881).
It was also the birthplace and early home of Lucy Larcom (1826-
1893), and the scene of much of her Story of a New England
Girlhood (Boston, 1889).
BEVIS OF HAMPTON, the name of an English metrical
romance. Bevis is the son of Guy, count of Hampton
(Southampton) and his young wife, a daughter of the king of
Scotland. The countess asks a former suitor, Doon or Devoun,
emperor of Almaine (Germany), to send an army to murder Guy
in the forest. The plot is successful, and she marries Doon.
When threatened with future vengeance by her ten-year-old son,
she determines to make away with him also, but he is saved from
death by a faithful tutor, is sold to heathen pirates, and reaches
the court of King Hermin, whose realm is variously placed in
Egypt and Armenia (Armorica). The exploits of Bevis, his love
for the king's daughter Josiane, his mission to KingBradmond
of Damascus with a sealed letter demanding his own death, his
BEWDLEY BEXLEY
37
imprisonment, his final vengeance on his stepfather are related
in detail. After succeeding to his inheritance he is, however,
driven into exile and separated from Josiane, to whom he is
reunited only after each of them has contracted, in form only,
a second union. The story also relates the hero's death and the
fortunes of his two sons.
The oldest extant version appears to be Boeve de Haumtone,
an Anglo-Norman text which dates from the first half of the I3th
century. The English metrical romance, Sir Beues of Hamtoun,
is founded on some French original varying slightly from those
which have been preserved. The oldest MS. dates from the
beginning of the i4th century. The French chanson de geste,
Beuve d'Hanslone, was followed by numerous prose versions.
The printed editions of the story were most numerous in Italy,
where Bovo d'Antona was the subject of more than one poem,
and the tale was interpolated in the Reali di Francia, the Italian
compilation of Carolingian legend. Although the English
version that we possess is based on a French original, it seems
probable that the legend took shape on English soil in the loth
century, and that it originated with the Danish invaders. Boon
may be identified with the emperor Otto the Great, who was
the contemporary of the English king Edgar of the story.
R. Zenker (Boeve- Amlethus, Berlin and Leipzig, 1004) establishes
a close parallel between Bevis and the Hamlet legend as related
by Saxo Grammaticus in the Historia Danica. Among the
more obvious coincidences which point to a common source are
the vengeance taken on a stepfather for a father's death, the
letter bearing his own death-warrant which is entrusted to the
hero, and his double marriage. 1 The motive of the feigned
madness is, however, lacking in Bevis. The princess who is
Josiane's rival is less ferocious than the Hermuthruda of the
Hamlet legend, but she threatens Bevis with death if he refuses
her. Both seem to be modelled on the type of Thyrdo of the
Beowulf legend. A fanciful etymology connecting Bevis (Boeve)
with Beowa (Beowulf), on the ground that both were dragon
slayers, is inadmissible.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. TheRomance of Sir Beues of Hamloun, edited from
six MSS. and the edition (without date) of Richard Pynson, by
E. Kolbing (Early Eng. Text Soc., 1885-1886-1894); A. Slimming,
" Der anglonormannische Boeve de Haumtone, ' in H. Suchier s
Bibl. Norm. vol. vii. (Halle, 1899) ; the Welsh version, with a trans-
lation, is given by R. Williams, Selections of the Hengwrt MSS. (vol. ii.,
London, 1892); the old Norse version by G. Cederschiold, Forn-
sogur Sudhrlanda (Lund, 1884) ; A. Wesselofsky, " Zum russischen
Bovod' Antona" (in Archiv fur slav. Phil. vol. viii., 1885); for the
early printed editions of the romance in English, French and Italian
see G. Brunei, Manuel du libraire, s.w. Bevis, Beufues and Buovo.
BEWDLEY, a market town and municipal borough in the
Bewdley parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England;
137 m. N.W. by W. from London and 17^ N. by W. from
Worcester by rail. Pop. (1901) 2866. The Worcester-Shrews-
bury line of the Great Western is here joined by lines east from
Birmingham and west from Tenbury. Bewdley is pleasantly
situated on the sloping right bank of the Severn, on the eastern
border of the forest of Wyre. A bridge by Telford (1797) crosses
the river. A free grammar school, founded in 1591, was re-
founded by James I. in 1606, and possesses a large library
bequeathed in 1812. The town manufactures combs and horn
goods, brass and iron wares, leather, malt, bricks and ropes.
The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 1 2 councillors.
Area, 2105 acres.
Bewdley (i.e. Beaulieu) is probably referred to in the Domesday
survey as " another Ribbesford," and was held by the king. The
manor, Ihen called Bellus Locus or Beaulieu on account of ils beautiful
siluation, was afterwards granted to the Mortimers, in whose family
it continued until it was merged in the crown on the accession of
Edward IV. It is from this time that Bewdiey dates its importance.
Through its situation on the Severn it was connected with the sea,
and in 1250 a bridge, the only one between it and Worcester, was
built across the river and added greatly to the commerce of the town.
From Edward IV. Bewdley received its charter in 1472, and there
1 On double marriage in early romance see G. Paris, " La L6gende
du mari aux deux femmes," in La Poesie du moyen Age (2nd series
Paris, 1895) ; and A. Nutt, " The Lai of Eliduc," &c., in Folk-Lore
vol. iii. (1892).
appears to be no evidence that it was a borough before this time.
Other charters were ({ranted in 1605, 1685 and 1708. By James l.'t
charter the burgesses sent one member to parliament, and continued
to do so until 1885. A fair and a market on Wednesday weregranted
y Edward III. in 1373 to his grand-daughter Philippa, wife of
Edmund Mortimer, and confirmed to Richard, duke of York, by
Henry VI. Edward IV. also granted the burgesses a market on
Saturdays, and three fairs, which were confirmed to them by Henry
VII. Coal-mines were worked in Bewdley as early as 1669, and the
town was formerly noted for making caps.
BEWICK, THOMAS (1753-1828), English wood-engraver,
was bom at Cherryburn, near Newcastle-on-Tync, in August
1753. His father rented a small colliery at Micklcybank, and
sent his son to school at Mickley. He proved a poor scholar,
but showed, at a very early age, a remarkable talent for drawing.
He had no tuition in the art, and no models save natural object*.
At the age of fourteen he was apprenticed to Mr Beilby, an
engraver in Newcastle. In his office Bewick engraved on
wood for Dr Hutton a series of diagrams illustrating a treatise
on mensuration. He seems thereafter to have devoted himself
entirely to engraving on wood, and in 1 77 5 he received a premium
from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and Manufactures
for a woodcut of the " Huntsman and the Old Hound." In
1784 appeared his Select Fables, the engravings in which, though
far surpassed by his later productions, were incomparably
superior to anything that had yet been done in that line. The
Quadrupeds appeared in 1790, and his great achievement, that
with which his name is inseparably associated, the British Birds,
was published from 1797-1804. Bewick, from his intimate
knowledge of the habits of animals acquired during his constant
excursions into the country, was thoroughly qualified to do
justice to his great task. Of his other productions the engravings
for Goldsmith's Traveller and Deserted Village, for Parnell's
Hermit, for Somerville's Chase, and for the collection of Fables
of Aesop and Others, may be specially mentioned. Bewick
was for many years in partnership with his former master, and
in later life had numerous pupils, several of whom gained
distinction as engravers. He died on the 8th of November
1828.
His autobiography, Memoirs of Thomas Bewick, by Himself,
appeared in 1862.
BEXHILL, a municipal borough and watering-place in the
Rye parliamentary division of Sussex, England, 62 m. S.E.
by S. from London, on the London, Brighton & South
Coast, and the South-Eastern & Chatham railways. Pop.
(1891) 5206; (1901) 12,213. The ancient village, with the
Norman and Early English church of St Peter, lies inland on
the slope of the low hills fringing the coast, but the watering-
place on the shore has developed very rapidly since about
1884, owing to the exertions of Earl De la Warr, who owns
most of the property. It has a marine parade, pier, golf links,
and the usual appointments of a seaside resort, while the climate
is bracing and the neighbouring country pleasant. Bexhill
was incorporated in 1902, the corporation consisting of a mayor,
6 aldermen and 18 councillors. Area, 8013 acres.
BEXLEY, NICHOLAS VANSITTART. BARON (1766-1851),
English politician, was the fifth son of Henry Vansittart (d. 1 7 70),
governor of Bengal, and was born in London on the 20th of April
1766. Educated at Christ Church, Oxford, he took his degree in
1787, and was called to the bar at Lincoln's Inn in 1791. He
began his public career by writing pamphlets in defence of
the administration of William Pitt, especially on its financial
side, and in May 1 796 became member of parliament for Hastings,
retaining his seat until July 1802, when he was returned for Old
Sarum. In February 1801 he was sent on a diplomatic errand
to Copenhagen, and shortly after his return was appointed joint
secretary to the treasury, a position which he retained until the
resignation of Addington's ministry in April 1804. Owing to the
influence of his friend, Ernest, duke of Cumberland, he became
secretary for Ireland under Pitt in January 1805, resigning
his office in the following September. With Addington, now
Viscount Sidmouth, he joined the government of Fox and Gren-
ville as secretary to the treasury in February 1806, leaving
office with Sidmouth just before the fall of the ministry in March
8 3 8
BEXLEY BEYLE
1807. During these and the next few years Vansittart's reputa-
tion as a financier was gradually rising. In 1809 he proposed
and carried without opposition in the House of Commons
thirty-eight resolutions on financial questions, and only his loyalty
to Sidmouth prevented him from joining the cabinet of Spencer
Perceval as chancellor of the exchequer in October 1809. He
opposed an early resumption of cash paymentsin 181 1, and became
chancellor of the exchequer when the earl of Liverpool succeeded
Perceval in May 1812. Having forsaken Old Sarum, he had
represented Helston from November 1806 to June 1812; and
after being member for East Grinstead for a few weeks, was
returned for Harwich in October 1812.
When Vansittart became chancellor of the exchequer the
country was burdened with heavy taxation and an enormous
debt. Nevertheless, the continuance of the war compelled him
to increase the custom duties and other taxes, and in 1813 he
introduced a complicated scheme for dealing with the sinking
fund. In 1816, after the conclusion of peace, a large decrease in
taxation was generally desired, and there was a loud outcry
when the jhancellor proposed only to reduce, not to abolish,
the property or income tax. The abolition of this tax, however,
was carried in parliament, and Vansittart was also obliged to
remit the extra tax on malt, meeting a large deficiency principally
by borrowing. He devoted considerable attention to effecting
real or supposed economies with regard to the national debt.
He carried an elaborate scheme for handing over the payment of
naval and military pensions to contractors, who would be paid
a fixed annual sum for forty-five years; but no one was found
willing to undertake this contract, although a modified plan on
the same lines was afterwards adopted. Vansittart became
very unpopular in the country, and he resigned his office in
December 1822. His system of finance was severely criticized
by Huskisson, Tierney, Brougham, Hume and Ricardo. On
his resignation Liverpool offered Vansittart the post of chancellor
of the duchy of Lancaster. Accepting this offer in February
1823, he was created Baron Bexley in March, and granted a
pension of 3000 a year. He resigned in January 1828. In
the House of Lords Bexley took very little part in public business,
although he introduced the Spitalfields weavers bill in 1823,
and voted for the removal of Roman Catholic disabilities in
1824. He took a good deal of interest in the British and Foreign
Bible Mission, the Church Missionary Society and kindred
bodies, and assisted to found King's College, London. He died
at Foot's Cray, Kent, on the 8th of February 1851. His wife,
whom he married in July 1806, was Isabella (d. 1810), daughter
of William Eden, ist Baron Auckland, and as he had no issue
the title became extinct on his death. There are nine volumes
of Vansittart's papers in the British Museum.
See Spencer Walpole, History of England (London, 1890); S. C.
Buxton, Finance and Politics (London, 1888).
BEXLEY, an urban district in the Dartford parliamentary
division of Kent, England, 12 m. S.E. by E. of London by
the South-Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. (1901) 12,918.
Bexley, which is mentioned in Domesday Book, has had a church
since the 9th century. The present church of St Mary is Early
English and later. With the rental of the manor of Bexley,
William Camden, the antiquary, founded the ancient history
professorship at Oxford. Hall Place, which contains a fine
Jacobean staircase and oak-panelled hall, is said to occupy the
site of the dwelling-place of the Black Prince. The course of
Watling Street may be traced over Bexley Heath, where, too,
there exist deep pits, widening into vaults below, and probably
of British origin.
BEY (a modern Turk, word, the older form being beg, cf.
Pers. baig), the administrator of a district, now generally an
honorific title throughout the Turkish empire; the granting
of this in Egypt is made by the sultan of Turkey through the
khedive. In Tunis "bey" has become the hereditary title
of the reigning sovereigns (see TUNISIA).
BEYBAZAR, the chief town of a kaza of the Angora vilayet
in Asiatic Turkey, situated on an affluent of the Sakaria (anc.
Sangarius), about 52 m. W. of Angora. It corresponds to the
anc. Lagania, renamed Anastasiopolis under the emperor
Anastasius (491-518), a bishopric by the sth century. Its well-
built wooden houses cover the slopes of three hills at the mouth
of a gorge filled with fruit gardens and vineyards. The chief
products are rice, cotton and fruits. From Beybazar come the
fine pears sold in Constantinople as " Angora pears "; its musk-
melons are equally esteemed; its grapes are used only for a
sweetmeat called jevizli-sujuk (" nutty fruit sausage "). There
are few remains > of antiquity apart from numerous rock-cut
chambers lining the banks of the stream. Pop. about 4000 to
5000.
BEYLE, MARIE HENRI (1783-1842), better known by his
nom de plume of STENDHAL, French author, was born at Grenoble
on the 23rd of January 1783. With his father, who was an
awcat in the parlement of Grenoble, he was never on good terms,
but his intractable disposition sufficiently explains his unhappy
childhood and youth. Until he was twelve years old he was
educated by a priest, who succeeded in inspiring him with a
lasting hatred of clericalism. He was then sent to the newly
established Ecole Centrale at Grenoble, and in 1799 to Paris
with a letter of introduction to the Daru family, with which the
Beyles were connected. Pierre Daru offered him a place in the
ministry for war, and with the brothers Daru he followed
Napoleon to Italy. Most of his time in Italy was spent at Milan,
a city for which he conceived a lasting attachment. Much of his
Chartreuse de Parme seems to be autobiographical of this part of
his life.
He was a spectator of the battle of Marengo, and afterwards
enlisted in a dragoon regiment. With rapid promotion he
became adjutant to General Michaud; but after the peace of
Amiens in 1802 he returned to study in Paris. There he met an
actress, Melanie Guilbert, whom he followed to Marseilles. His
father cut off his supplies on hearing of this escapade, and Beyle
was reduced to serving as clerk to a grocer. Melanie Guilbert,
however, soon abandoned him to marry a Russian, and Beyle
returned to Paris. Through the influence of Daru he obtained
a place in the commissariat, which he filled with some distinction
from 1806 to 1814. Charged with raising a levy in Brunswick
of five million francs, he extracted seven; and during the retreat
from Moscow he discharged his duties with efficiency. On the
fall of Napoleon he refused to accept a place under the new
regime, and retired to Milan, where he met Silvio Pellico, Manzoni ,
Lord Byron and other men of note. At Milan he contracted a
liaison with a certain Angelina P., whom he had admired fruit-
lessly during his earlier residence in that city. In 1814 he
published, under the pseudonym of Alexandre Cesar Bombet,
his Lettres icrites de Vienne en Autriche sur le cflebre compositeur,
Joseph Haydn, suivies d'une vie de Mozart, el de considerations sur
Metastase et I'etat present de la musique en Italic. His letters on
Haydn were borrowed from the Haydini (1812) of Joseph
Carpani, and the section on Mozart had no greater claim to
originality. The book was reprinted (1817) as Vies de Haydn,
Mozart et Metastase. His Histoire de la peinture en Italie (2 vols.,
1817) was originally dedicated to Napoleon.
His friendship with some Italian patriots brought him in 1821
under the notice of the Austrian authorities, and he was exiled
from Milan. In Paris he felt himself a stranger, as he had never
recognized French contemporary art in literature, music or
painting. He frequented, however, many literary salons in
Paris, and found some friends in the " ideologues " who gathered
round Destutt de Tracy. He was the most closely allied with
Prosper Merimee, a dilettante and an ironist like himself. He
published at this time his Essai sur I'amour (1822), of which only
seventeen copies were sold in eleven years, though it afterwards
became famous, Racine et Shakespeare (1823-1825), Vie de
Rossini (1824), D'un nouveau complot contre les industriels (1825),
Promenades dans Rome (1829), and his first novel, Armance, ou
quelques scenes de Paris en iSzf (1827). After the Revolution
of 1830 he was appointed consul at Trieste, but the Austrian
government refused to accept him, and he was sent to Civita
Vecchia instead. Le Rouge et le noir, chronique du XIX' siecle
(2 vols., 1830) appeared in Paris after his departure, but attracted
BEYRICH BEZA
839
small notice. He had published in 1838 Mtmoires d'un touriste,
and in 1839 La Chartreuse de Parme (2 vols.), which was the last
of his publications, and the first to secure any popular success,
though his earlier writings had been regarded as significant by a
limited public. It was enthusiastically reviewed by Balzac in his
Revue Parisienne (1840). Beyle remained at Civita Vecchia,
discharging his duties as consul perfunctorily and with frequent
intervals of absence until his death, which took place in Paris on
the 23rd of March 1842. He wrote his own epitaph, 1 describing
himself as a Milanese.
His posthumous works include a fragmentary Vie de Napolton
(1875); Melanges d'art et de litttrature (1867); Chroniques
italiennes (1885), including " L'Abbesse de Castro," " Les Cenci,"
" Vittoria Accoramboni," " Vanina Vanini," " La Duchesse de
Palliano," some of which has appeared separately; Romans et
nouvelles and Nouvelles inidites (1855); Correspondance (2 vols.,
1855); Lamiel (ed. C. Stryienski, 1889); his Journal 1801-1814
(ed. Stryienski and F. de Nion, 1888), of which the section dealing
with the Russian and German campaigns is unfortunately lost;
Vie de Henri Brulard (1890), a disguised autobiography, chiefly
the history of his numerous love affairs; Lettres intimes (1892);
Lucien Leuiven (ed. J. de Mitty, 1894); Souvenirs d'tgotisme
(ed. C. Stryienski, 1892), autobiography and unpublished letters.
Stendhal's reputation practically rests on the two novels Le
Rouge et le noir and La Chartreuse de Parme. In the former of
these he borrowed his plot from events which had actually
happened some years previously. Julien Sorel in the novel is
tutor in a noble family and seduces his pupil's mother. He
eventually kills her to avenge a letter accusing him to the family
of his betrothed, Mile de la Mole. Julien is a picture of Beyle as
he imagined himself to be. The Chartreuse de Parme has less
unity of purpose than Le Rouge el le noir. For its setting the
author drew largely on his own experiences. Fabrice's ex-
periences at Waterloo are his own in the Italian campaign, and
the countess Pietranera is his Milanese Angelina. But of the two
novels it is more picturesque and has been more popular. Stend-
hal's real vogue dates from the early sixties, but his importance
is essentially literary. In spite of his egotism and the limitations
of his ideas, his acute analysis of the motives of his personages
has appealed to successive generations of writers, and a great
part of the development of the French novel must be traced to
him. Brunetiere has pointed out (Manual of French Lit., Eng.
trans., 1898) that Stendhal supplied the Romanticists with the
notion of the interchange of the methods and effects of poetry,
painting and music, and that in his worship of Napoleon he
agreed with their glorification of individual energy. Stendhal,
however, thoroughly disliked the Romanticists, though Sainte-
Beuve acknowledged (Causeries du lundi, vol. ix.) that his
books gave ideas. Taine (Essais de critique et d'histoire, 1857)
found in him a great psychologist; Zola (Romanciers naturalistes,
1881) actually claimed him as the father of the naturalist school;
and Paul Bourget (Essais de psychologic contemporaine, 1883)
cited Le Rouge et le noir as one of the classic novels of analysis.
The 1846 edition of La Chartreuse de Parme contains a prefatory
notice by R. Colomb, and a reprint of Balzac's article. In addition
to the authorities already mentioned see the essay on Beyle (1850)
by Prosper Merimee; A. A. Paton, Henry Beyle, a Critical and
Biographical Study (1874); Adolphe Paupe, Histoire des ceuyres de
Stendhal (1003); A. Chuquet, Stendhal-Beyle (1002); a review by
R. Doumic (Revue des deux mondes, February 1902), deprecating the
excessive attention paid to Beyle's writings; and Edouard Rod,
Stendhal (1892) in the " Grands ecrivains frangais " series. See also
Correspondance de Stendhal, 1800-1842, with preface by M. Barres
(Paris, 1908).
BEYRICH, HEINRICH ERNST VON (1815-1896), German
geologist, was bom at Berlin on the 3ist of August 1815, and
educated at the university in that city, and afterwards at Bonn,
where he studied under Goldf uss and Noggerath. He obtained
his degree of Ph. D. in 1837 at Berlin, and was subsequently
employed in the mineralogical museum of the university,
becoming director of the palaeontological collection in 1857,
and director of the museum in 1875. He was one of the founders
1 QuI giace Arrigo Beyle Milanese; visse, scrisse, am6.
of the German Geological Society in 1848. He early recognized
the value of palaeontology in stratigraphical work; and he
made important researches in the Rhenish mountain*, in the
liar/, and Alpine districts. In later yean he gave special
attention to the Tertiary strata, including the Brown Coal of
North Germany. In 1854 he proposed the term Oligocene for
certain Tertiary strata intermediate between the Eocene and
Miocene; and the term is now generally adopted. In 1865
he was appointed professor of geology and palaeontology in the
Berlin University, where he was eminently successful as a
teacher; and when the Prussian Geological Survey was instituted
in 1873 he was appointed co-director with Wilhelm Hauchecorne
(1828-1900). He published Beitragetur Kenntnissder Versteine-
rungen des rheinischen Vbergangs-gebirges (1837); Vber einige
bdhmische Trilobiten (1845); Die Conchylien des norddeutscken
Tertidrgebirges (1853-1857). He died on the 9th of July
1896.
BEYSCHLAG, WILLIBALD (1823-1900), German Protestant
divine, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 5th of September
1823. He studied theology at Bonn and Berlin (1840-1844),
and in 1856 was appointed court-preacher at Karlsruhe. In
1860, he moved to Halle as professor ordinarius of practical
theology. A theologian of the mediating school, he became leader
of the Miitelpartei, and with Albrecht Wolters founded as iu
organ the Deutschetangelische Blatter. As a representative of this
party, he took a prominent part in the general synods of 1875
and 1879. His championship of the rights of the laity and his
belief in the autonomy of the church led him to advocate the
separation of church and state. He died at Halle on the 25th of
November i ooo. Among his numerous works are Die Christologie
desNeuen Testaments (1866), Der Altkatholicismus (three editions,
1882-1883), Leben Jesu (2 vols., 1885; 3rd ed., 1893), Nevtesta-
mentliche Theologie (2 vols., 1891-1892; 2nd ed., 1896), Ckristen-
lehre auf Grund des kleinen luth. Katechismus (1900), and an
autobiography Aus meinem Leben (2 parts, 1896-1898).
See P. Schaff, Living Divines (1887); Lichtenberger, Hist. Germ.
Theol. (1889) ; Calwer-Zeller. Kirchenlexikon.
BEZA (DE BiszE), THEODORE (1519-1605), French theo-
logian, son of bailli Pierre de Besze, was bom at Vezelai.Burgundy ,
on the 24th of June 1519. Of good descent, his parents were
known for generous piety. He owed his education to an uncle,
Nicolas de Besze, counsellor of the Paris parlement, who placed
him (1529) under Melchior Wolmar at Orleans, and later at
Bourges. Wolmar, who had taught Greek to Calvin, grounded
Beza in Scripture from a Protestant standpoint; after his
return to Germany (1534) Beza studied law at Orleans (May 1535
to August 1539), beginning practice in Paris (1539) as law licen-
tiate. To this period belong his exercises in Latin verse, in the
loose taste of the day, foolishly published by him as Juvenilia
in 1 548. Though not in orders, he held two benefices, A severe
illness wrought a change; he married his mistress, Claude
Desnoz, and joined the church of Calvin at Geneva (October
1548). In November 1549 he was appointed Greek professor
at Lausanne, where he acted as Calvin's adjutant in various
publications, including his defence of the burning of Servetus,
DC Haereticis a civil i magistratu puniendis (1554). In 1558 he
became professor in the Geneva academy, where his career was
brilliant. His conspicuous ability was shown in the abortive
Colloquy of Poissy (1561). On Calvin's death (1564) he became
his biographer and administrative successor. As a historian,
Beza, by his chronological inexactitude, has been the source
of serious mistakes; as an administrator, he softened the rigour
of Calvin. His editions and Latin versions of the New Testament
had a marked influence on the English versions of Geneva (1557
and 1560) and London (1611). The famous codex D. was pre-
sented by him (1581) to Cambridge University, with a character-
istically dubious account of the history of the manuscript.
His works are very numerous, but of little moment, except those
already mentioned. He resigned his offices in 1600, and died
on the i3th of October 1605. He had taken a second wife (1588),
Catherine del Piano, a widow, but left no issue. He was not the
author of the Histoire ecdesiaslique (1580), sometimes ascribed
840
BEZANT BEZIERS
to him; nor, probably, of the vulgar skit published under the
name of Benedict Panavantius (1551).
See Laingaeus, De Vita et Moribus (1585, calumnious); Antoine
la Faye, De Vita et Obitu (1606, eulogistic); Schlosser, Leben
(1806); Baum, Th. Bern, portrait (1843-1851); Heppe, Leben
(1861). (A. Go.*)
BEZANT or BYZANT (from Byzantium, the modern Constanti-
nople), originally a Byzantine gold coin which had a wide circula-
tion throughout Europe up to about 1250. Its average value
was about nine shillings. Bezants were also issued in Flanders
and Spain. Silver bezants, in value from one to two shillings,
were in circulation in England in the I3th and i4th centuries.
In Wycliffe's translation of the Bible he uses the word for a
" talent " (e.g. in Luke xv. 8). In heraldry, bezants are repre-
sented by gold circles on the shield, and were introduced by the
crusaders.
BEZANT&E, in architecture, a name given to an ornamented
moulding much used in the Norman period, resembling the coins
(bezants) struck in Byzantium.
BEZBORODKO, ALEKSANDER ANDREEVICH, PRINCE
(1747-1799), grand chancellor of Russia, was born at Gluchova
on the I4th of March 1747, and educated at home and in the
clerical academy at Kiev. He entered the public service as a
clerk in the office of Count P. A. Rumyantsev, then governor-
general of Little Russia, whom he accompanied to the Turkish
War in 1768. He was present at the engagements of Larga and
Kaluga, and at the storming of Silistria. On the conclusion of the
peace of Kuchuk-Kainarji (1774) the field marshal recommended
him to Catharine II., and she appointed him in 1775 her
petition-secretary. He thus had the opportunity of impressing
the empress with his brilliant gifts, the most remarkable of
which were exquisite manners, a marvellous memory and a
clear and pregnant style. At the same time he set to work to
acquire the principal European languages, especially French,
of which he became a master. It was at this time that he wrote
his historical sketches of the Tatar wars and of Little Russia.
His activity was prodigious, and Catharine called him her
factotum. In 1780 he accompanied her on her journey through
White Russia, meeting the emperor Joseph, who urged him to
study diplomacy. On his return from a delicate mission to Copen-
hagen, he presented to the empress " a memorial on political
affairs " which comprised the first plan of a partition of Turkey
between Russia and Austria. This document was transmitted
almost word for word to Vienna as the Russian proposals.
He followed this up by Epitomised Historical Information con-
cerning Moldavia. For these two state papers he was rewarded
with the posts of " plenipotentiary for all negotiations " in the
foreign office and postmaster-general. From this time he was
inseparably associated with Catharine in all important dip-
lomatic affairs, though officially he was the subordinate of the
vice-chancellor, Count Alexander Osterman. He wrote all
the most important despatches to the Russian ministers abroad,
concluded and subscribed all treaties, and performed all the
functions of a secretary of state. He identified himself
entirely with Catharine's political ideas, even with that of
re-establishing the Greek empire under her grandson Constantine.
The empress, as usual, richly rewarded her comes with pensions
and principalities. In 1786 he was promoted to the senate,
and it was through him that the empress communicated her
will to that august state-decoration. In 1787 he accompanied
Catharine on her triumphal progress through South Russia
in the capacity of minister of foreign affairs. At Kaniev he
conducted the negotiations with the Polish king, Stanislaus II.,
and at Novuiya Kaidaniya he was in the empress's carriage
when she received Joseph II.
The second Turkish War (1787-92) and the war with Gustavus
III. (1788-90) heaped fresh burdens on his already heavily
laden shoulders, and he suffered from the intrigues of his
numerous jealous rivals, including the empress's latest favourite,
A. M. Mamonov. All his efforts were directed towards the
conclusion of the two oppressive wars by an honourable peace.
The pause of Verela with Gustavus III. (i4th of August 1790)
was on the terms dictated by him. On the sudden death of
Potemkin he was despatched to Jassy to prevent the peace con-
gress there from breaking up, and succeeded, in the face of all
but insuperable difficulties, in concluding a treaty exceedingly
advantageous to Russia (gth of January 1792). For this service
he received the thanks of the empress, the ribbon of St Andrew
and 50,000 roubles. On his return from Jassy, however, he found
his confidential post of secretary of petitions occupied by the
empress's last favourite, P. A. Zubov. He complained of this
" diminution of his dignity " to the empress in a private
memorial in the course of 1793. The empress reassured him
by fresh honours and distinctions on the occasion of the solemn
celebration of the peace of Jassy (2nd of September 1793),
when she publicly presented him with a golden olive-branch
encrusted with brilliants. Subsequently Catharine reconciled
him with Zubov, and he resumed the conduct of foreign affairs.
He contributed more than any other man to bring about the
downfall and the third partition of Poland, for which he was
magnificently recompensed. But diplomacy by no means ex-
hausted Bezborodko's capacity for work. He had a large share
in the internal administration also. He reformed the post-office,
improved the banking system of Russia, regulated the finances,
constructed roads, and united the Uniate and Orthodox churches.
On the death of Catharine, the emperor Paul entrusted Bez-
borodko with the examination of the late empress's private
papers, and shortly afterwards made him a prince of the Russian
empire, with a correspondingly splendid apanage. On the
retirement of Osterman he received the highest dignity in the
Russian empire that of imperial chancellor. Bezborodko
was the only Russian minister who retained the favour of Paul
to the last. During the last two years of his life the control of
Russia's diplomacy was entirely in his hands. His programme
at this period was peace with all the European powers, revolu-
tionary France included. But the emperor's growing aversion
from this pacific policy induced the astute old minister to
attempt to " seek safety in moral and physical repose." Paul,
however, refused to accept his resignation and would have sent
him abroad for the benefit of his health, had not a sudden stroke
of paralysis prevented Bezborodko from taking advantage of
his master's kindAess. He died at St Petersburg on the
6th of April 1799. In private life Bezborodko was a typical
Catharinian, corrupt, licentious, conscienceless and self-seeking.
But he was infinitely generous and affectionate, and spent his
enormous fortune liberally. His banquets were magnificent,
his collections of pictures and statues unique in Europe. He
was the best friend of his innumerable poor relatives, and the
Maecenas of all the struggling authors of his day. Sycophantic
he might have been, but he was neither ungrateful nor vindictive.
His patriotism is as indisputable as his genius.
See Sbornik (Collections) of the Imperial Russian Historical
Society (Fr. and Russ.), vols. 60-100 (St Petersburg, 1870-1904);
Nikolai Ivanovich Grigorovich, The Chancellor A. A. Bezborodko
in Connexion with the Events of His Time (Rus., St Petersburg,
1879-1881). (R. N. B.)
BEZEL (from an 0. Fr. word, cf. Mod. Fr. biseau, basile,
possibly connected with Lat. bis, twice), a sloping edge, as of
a cutting tool, also known as basil. In jewelry, the term is used
for the oblique sides or faces of a gem; the rim which secures
the crystal of a watch in position or a jewel in its setting, and
particularly the enlarged part of a ring on which the device
is engraved (see RING).
BEZIERS, a town of southern France, capital of an arron-
dissement in the department of Herault, 47 m. S.W. of Mont-
pellier by rail. Pop. (1906) 46,262. Beziers is situated in a
wine-growing district on a hill on the left bank of the river
Orb, which is joined at this point by the Canal du Midi. The
Allees Paul Riquet, named after the creator of the canal, occupy
the centre of Beziers and divide the old town with its
maze of narrow and irregular streets from the new quarter to
the east. They form a long and shady promenade, terminating
at one end in the Place de la R6publique and the theatre, the
front of which is decorated with bas-reliefs by David d' Angers,
BEZIQUE
841
and at the other in a beautiful park, the Plateau des Poetes.
The most interesting portion of the town is the extreme west
where the old ramparts overlook the Orb. Above them towers
St Nazaire, the finest of the churches of B6ziers; it dates from
the 1 2th to the Hth centuries and is a good specimen of the
ecclesiastical fortification common in southern France. Its
chief artistic features are the rose window in the western facade,
and the stained glass and curious iron grilles of the choir-windows,
which belong to the i4th century. Adjoining the south transept
there are Gothic cloisters of the i4th century. The Orb is
crossed by four bridges, the railway bridge, an ancient bridge
of the I3th or I4th century, a modern bridge and the fine aqueduct
by which the Canal du Midi is carried over the river. About half
a mile to the south-west of the town are the locks of Fonserannes,
in which in 330 yds. the water of the canal descends 80 ft.
to reach the level of the Orb. There are remains of a Roman
arena which have been built into the houses of the rue St Jacques.
Bfiziers is seat of a sub-prefect and has tribunals of first instance
and of commerce, communal colleges and several learned societies.
It is an agricultural market and carries on an active trade in
wine, brandy, fruit, leather and sulphur. Its industries are
chiefly connected with the wine trade (cask and cork making,
&c.) and there are important distilleries. It also has iron-works
and tanneries.
The Romans established a colony at B6ziers, and it was the
headquarters of the seventh legion, under the title of Baeterrae
Septimanorum. The present name occurs in the form Besara
as early as Festus Avienus (later 4th century). The town was
completely destroyed in 1 209 by the forces of Simon de Montfort
in the crusade against the Albigenses, on which occasion 20,000
persons were massacred. The walls were rebuilt in 1289; but
the town again suffered severely in the civil and religious wars of
the 1 6th century, and all its fortifications were destroyed in 1632.
B&ZIQUE (probably from Span, besico, little kiss, in allusion to
the meeting of the queen and knave, an important feature in
the game), a game at cards played with two similar packs
from which the twos, threes, fours, fives and sixes have been
rejected, shuffled together and used as one. It is modelled on
a group of card games which possess many features in common;
the oldest of these is mariage, then follow brusquembille, I'homme
de brou, briscan or brisque, and cinq-cents. B6zique (also called
besi and besigue) is, in fact, brisque played with a double pack,
and with certain modifications rendered necessary by the intro-
duction of additional cards. The cards rank as follows: Ace,
ten, king, queen, knave, nine, eight, seven.
The usual game is for two players. The players cut for deal,
and the higher bezique card deals. The objects of the play are:
(i) to promote in the hand various combinations of cards, which,
when declared, entitle the holder to certain scores; (2) to win
aces and tens, known as " brisques "; (3) to win the so-called last
trick. The dealer deals eight cards to each, first three, then two,
and again three. The top card of those remaining (called the
" stock ") is turned up for trumps. As sometimes played, the
first marriage, or the first sequence, decides the trump suit;
there is then no score for the seven of trumps (see t-elow). The
stock is placed face downwards between the players and slightly
spread. The non-dealer leads any card, and the lealer plays
to it, but need not follow suit, nor win the trick. ll he wins the
trick by playing a higher card of the same suit led, or a trump,
the lead falls to him. In case of ties the leader wins. ( Whoever
wins the trick leads to the next; but before playing tgain each
player takes a card from the stock and adds it to his hand, the
winner of the trick taking the top card. This alternate playing
and drawing a card continues until the stock (including the trump
card or card exchanged for it, which is taken up last) is exhausted
The tricks remain face upwards on the table, but musi not be
searched during the play of the hand.
The scores are shown as follows:
Table of Bezique Scores.
Seven of trumps, turned up, dealer marks . i
Seven of trumps, declared (see below) or exchanged, player
marks . ......
Marriage (Icing and queen of any rait) declared ... 20
toyal marriage (king and queen of trumps) declared . . 40
3etique (queen of spade* and knave of diamond*) declared 40
Double bezique (all the four bezique cards) declared . 500
Four aces (any four, whether duplicates or not) declared loo
Four kings (any four) declared ... 80
Four queens (any four) declared . . 60
Four knaves (any four) declared ... 40
Sequence (ace, ten, king, queen, knave of trump*) declared . 250
Aces and tens, in tricks, the winner for each one marks . . 10
Last trick of all (as sometimes played, the last trick before the
stock is exhausted) the winner marka . . 10
A " declaration " can only be made by the winner of a trick
mmediately after he has won it, and before he draws from th
stock. It is effected by placing the declared cards (one of which
at least must not have been declared before) face upwards
on the table, where they are left, unless they are played, as they
may be. A player is not bound to declare. A card led or played
cannot be declared. More than one declaration may be made
at a time, provided no card of one combination forms part of
another that is declared with it. Thus four knaves and a mar-
riage may be declared at the same time; but a player cannot
declare king and queen of spades and knave of diamonds to-
gether to score marriage and bfezique. He must first declare one
combination, say bezique; and when he wins another trick he
can score marriage by declaring the king. A declaration cannot
be made of cards that have already all been declared. Thus,
if four knaves (one being a bezique knave) and four queens
(one being a bezique queen) have been declared, the knave
and queen already declared cannot be declared again as bezique.
To score all the combinations with these cards, after the knaves
are declared and another trick won, bezique must next be made,
after which, on winning another trick, the three queens can be
added and four queens scored. Lastly, a card once declared
can only be used again in declaring in combinations of a different
class. For example: the bezique queen can be declared in
bezique, marriage and four queens; but having once been de-
clared in single bfeique, she cannot form part of another single
b6zique. Two declarations may, in a sense, be made to a trick,
but only one can be scored at the time. Thus with four kings
declared, including the king of spades, bfzique can be declared
and scored, but the spade marriage cannot be scored till the
holder wins another trick. The correct formula is " Forty, and
20 to score." The seven of trumps may be either declared or
exchanged for the turn-up after winning a trick, and before
drawing. When exchanged, the turn-up is taken into the
player's hand, and the seven put in its place. The second
seven can, of course, be declared. A seven when declared
is not left on the table, but is simply shown.
The winner of the last trick can declare anything hitherto
undeclared in his hand. After this all declarations cease. The
winner of the last trick takes the last card of the stock, and the
loser the turn-up card (or seven exchanged for it). All cards on
the table, that have been declared and not played, are taken up
by their owners. The last eight tricks are then played, but the
second player must follow suit if able, and must win the trick if
able. Finally, each player counts his tricks for the aces and tens
they may contain, unless (as is often done) they are scored at the
time. If a player revokes in the last eight tricks, or does not
win the card led, if able, the last eight tricks belong to his
adversary. The deal then passes on alternately until the
game (1000) is won. If the loser does not make 500, his oppo-
nent counts a double game, or double points, according as they
have agreed. The score is best kept by means of a special
bezique-marker.
Three- and Four-Handed Bfsique Whtn three play, three packs
are used together. A" P'ay against each other. The player on tin-
left of the dealer is first dealt to and has the first lead. The rout i. m
of dealing goes to the left. If double beziauc has been scored, and
one pair has been played, a second double bezique may be made with
the third pair and the pair on the table. Triple Wzinuc scores 1500.
All the cards of the triple bezique must be on the table at the same
time and unplayed to a trick. All may be declared together, or a
double bezique may be added to a single one, or a third bezique may
be added to a double bezique already declared. The game i aooo
842
BEZWADA BHAGALPUR
up. Sometimes the three players cut, the one who cuts the highest
card plays against the other two in consultation, and continues to
do so till the allies win a game, when the two cut as before to see who
shall be the single player. Only two packs are then used.
When four play four packs are used. The players may then score
independently or may play as partners. A second double bezique
or triple bezique may be scored as before ; to form them the beziques
may be declared from the hand of either partner. A player may
declare when he or his partner takes a trick. In playing the last
eight tricks, the winner of the last trick and the adversary to his
left play their cards against each other, and then the other two
similarly play theirs. Four people may also play in pairs by con-
sultation, only two packs being then required.
Polish Bezique (also called Open Bezique " and " Fildniski ")
differs from ordinary bezique in the following particulars. The game
is not less than 2000 up. Whenever a scoring card is played^ the
winner of the trick places it face upwards in front of him (the same
with both cards if two scoring cards are played to a trick), forming
rows of aces, kings, queens, knaves and trump tens (called open
cards). Cards of the same denomination are placed overlapping
one another lengthwise from the player towards his adversary to
economise space. When a scoring card is placed among the open
cards, all the sevens, eights, nines, and plain suit tens in the tricks
are turned down and put on one side. Open cards cannot be played
a second time, and can only be used in declaring. Whether so used
or not they remain face upwards on the table until the end of the
hand, including the last eight tricks. A player can declare after
winning a trick and before drawing again, when the trick won con-
tains a card or cards, which added to his open cards complete any
combination that scores. Every declaration must include a card
played to the trick last won. Aces and tens must be scored as soon
as won, and not at the end of the hand. The seven of trumps can be
exchanged by the winner of the trick containing it; and if the turn-
up card is one that can be used in declaring, it becomes an open card
when exchanged . The seven of trumps when not exchanged is scored
for by the player winning the trick containing it.
Compound declarations are allowed, i.e. cards added to the open
cards can at once be used, without waiting to win another trick, in
as many combinations of different classes as they will form with the
winner s open cards. For example : A has three open kings, and
he wins a trick containing a king. Before drawing again he places
the fourth king with the other three, and scores 80 for kings. This
is a simple declaration. But suppose the card led was the queen
of trumps, and A wins it with the king, and he has the following
open cards three kings, three queens, and ace, ten, knave of trumps.
He at once declares royal marriage (40) ; four kings (80) ; four
queens (60) ; and sequence (250) ; and scores in all, 430. Again :
ace of spades is turned up, and ace of hearts is led. The second player
has two open aces, and wins the ace of hearts with the seven of
trumps and exchanges. He scores for the exchange, 10; for the
ace of hearts, 10; for the ace of spades, 10; and adds the aces to
his open cards, and scores 100 for aces; in all, 130. If a declaration
or part of a compound declaration is omitted, and the winner of the
trick draws again, he cannot amend his score.
The ordinary rule holds that a second declaration cannot be made
of a card already declared in the same class. Thus: a queen once
married cannot be married again ; a fifth king added to four already
declared does not entitle to another score for kings. The funda-
mental point to be borne in mind is, that no declaration can be
effected by means of cards held in the hand. Thus: A having
three open queens and a queen in hand cannot add it to his
open cards. He must win another trick containing a queen, when
he can declare queens. Declarations continue during the play of
the last eight tricks just the same as during the play of the other
cards.
Rubicon Bezique. Four packs are used. Nine cards are dealt by
three to each player. The rules of Polish bezique hold good in regard
to dealing, leading, playing to lead, drawing and declaring; but a
player who receives a hand containing no picture-card (king, queen,
or knave) scores 50 for carte blanche, which he shows. If he does
not draw a picture-card, he can again score for carte blanche. The
trump suit is decided by the first sequence or marriage declared.
As four packs are used, triple and quadruple bezique may be made.
Triple bezique counts 1500, quadruple 4500. Tricks are left face
upwards till a brisque (ace or ten) is played, when the winner takes
all the played cards and puts them in a heap ; their only value is the
value of the brisques, which are only counted when the scores are very
close ; then they are used to decide the game. They may be counted
during the play, provided there are not more than twelve cards in
the stock. Declarations can only be made after winning a trick and
before drawing. In addition to the ordinary bezique declarations,
sequence, counting 150, can be made in plain suits. Declared cards,
except carte blanche, remain on the table. If the holder of carte
blanche hold four aces and wins the first trick, he can declare his
aces. With the exceptions already made, the scores for declarations
are the same as at ordinary bezique. Declaration is not compulsory.
Cards led or played cannot be declared. There are three classes of
declarations, their order being (i) marriage and sequence, (2) bezique,
(3) fours. A card once declared can be used for a second declaration,
but only in an equal or superior class. If a card of a declared com-
bination be played to a trick, another card of the same rank may
be used to form a second similar combination ; e.g. if aces be declared
and one of them be played by the playing of a fifth ace, aces can be
declared again. If a player has a chance of a double declaration he
can declare both, but can only score one at the time. As in other
variations of bezique he announces, say, " forty, and twenty to
score." He should repeat, " Twenty to score," after every trick,
until he can legally score it, but if he plays a card of the combination
he cannot score the points. To the last nine tricks, after the stock
is exhausted, the second player must follow suit and win the trick
by trumpingor over-playing, if he can. The winner of the odd trick
scores 50. The game consists of one deal. In reckoning the score all
fractions of 100 are neglected; the winner scores 500 for game in
addition to the difference between his own points and his opponent's.
The loser is " rubiconed " if he does not score 1000 points, in which
case the winner adds the loser's points to his own, takes 300 for
brisques and 1000 for game, but the loser may claim his brisques to
save a rubicon, though they are not reckoned among his points.
If a rubiconed player has scored less than 100 the opponent counts
the score as 100.
BEZWADA, a town of British India, in the Kistna district of
Madras, on the left bank of the river Kistna, at the head gf its
delta. Pop. (1901) 24,224. Here are the headquarters of the
Kistna canal system, which irrigates more than 500,000 acres,
and also provides navigation throughout the delta. The anicut
or dam at Bezwada, begun in 1852, consists of a mass of rubble,
fronted with masonry, 1240 yds. long. Here also is the central
junction of the East Coast railway from Madras to Calcutta,
267 m. from Madras, where one branch line comes down from
the Warangal coalfield in the Nizam's Dominions, and another
from Bellary on the Southern Mahratta line. Ancient cuttings
on the hills west of Bezwada have been held by some to mark
the site of a Buddhist monastery; by others they are considered
to have been quarries. At Undavalle to the south are some
noted cave-shrines.
BHAGALPUR, a city of British India, in the Behar province
of Bengal, which gives its name to a district and to a division;
situated on the right bank of the Ganges, 265 m. from Calcutta.
It is a station on the East Indian railway. Pop. (1901) 75,760,
showing an increase of 9% in the decade. The chief educational
institution is the Tejnarayan Jubilee college (1887), supported
almost entirely by fees. Adjacent to the town are the two
Augustus Cleveland monuments, one erected by government,
and the other by the Hindus, to the memory of the civilian, who,
as collector of Bhagalpur at the end of the i8th century, " by
conciliation, confidence and benevolence, attempted and
accomplished the entire subjection of the lawless and savage
inhabitants of the Jungleterry of Rajmahal."
The DISTRICT OF BHAGALPUR stretches across both banks of
the Ga.iges. It has an area of 4226 sq. m. In 1901 the
population was 2,088,953, showing an increase of 3 % in the
decade. 3hagalpur is a long and narrow district, divided into
two unequi 1 parts by the river Ganges. In the southern portion
of the district the scenery in parts of the hill-ranges and the
highlands which connect them is very beautiful. The hills are
of primary formation, with fine masses of contorted gneiss. The
ground is broken up into picturesque gorges and deep ravines,
and the whole is covered with fine forest trees and a rich under-
growth. Within this portion also lie the lowlands of Bhagalpur,
fertile, well planted, well watered, and highly cultivated. The
country north of the Ganges is level, but beautifully diversified
with trees and verdure. Three fine rivers flow through the
district the Ganges, Kusi and Ghagri. The Ganges runs a
course of 60 m. through Bhagalpur, is navigable all the year
round, and has an average width of 3 m. The Kusi rises
in the Himalayas and falls into the Ganges near Colgong within
Bhagalpur. It is a fine stream, navigable up to the foot of the
hills, and receives the Ghagri 8 m. above its debouchure.
In the early days of British administration the hill people,
the Nats and Santals, gave much trouble. They were the
original inhabitants of the country whom the Aryan conquerors
had driven back into the barren hills and unhealthy forests.
This they avenged from generation to generation by plundering
and ravaging the plains. The efforts to subdue or restrain these
marauders proved fruitless, till Augustus Cleveland won them by
mild measures, and successfully made over the protection of the
BHAMO BHANDARA
843
district to the very hill people who a few years before had been
its scourge. Rice, wheat, barley, oats, Indian corn, various kinds
of millet, pulses, oil-seeds, tobacco, cotton, indigo, opium, flax
and hemp and sugar-cane, are the principal agricultural products
of Bhagalpur district. The jungles afford good pasturage in the
hot weather, and abound in lac, silk cocoons, catechu, resin and
the mahuA fruit, which is both used as fruit and for the manu-
facture of spirits. Lead ores (chiefly argentiferous galena) and
building stone are found, and iron ore is distributed over the
hilly country. Attempts made to work the galena in 1878-79
and 1900 were abandoned, and the iron ore is little worked.
Gold is washed from the river sand in small particles.
The climate of Bhagalpur partakes of the character both of the
deltaic districts of Bengal and of the districts of Behar, between
which it is situated. The hot season sets in about the end of
March, and continues till the beginning of June, the temperature
at this time rising as high as 1 10 Fahr. The rains usually begin at
the end of June and last till the middle of September; average
annual rainfall, 55 in. The cold season commences at the begin-
ning of November and lasts till March. During December and
January the temperature falls as low as 41 Fahr. The average
annual temperature is 78. Bhagalpur formed a part of the ancient
Sanskrit kingdom of Anga. In later times it was included in the
powerful Hindu kingdom of Magadha or Behar, and in the 7th
century A.D. it was an independent state, with the city of Champa
for its capital. It afterwards formed a part of the Mahommedan
kingdom of Gaur, and was subsequently subjugated by Akbar,
who declared it to be a part of the Delhi empire. Bhagalpur
passed to the East India Company by the grant of the emperor
Shah Alam in 1765.
There are indigo factories, and other industries include the
weaving of tussur silk and the making of coarse glass. A large
trade is carried on by rail and river with Lower Bengal. The
tract south of the Ganges is traversed by the loop-line of the
East Indian railway, and there is also a railway across the
northern tract.
The DIVISION or BHAGALPUR stretches across the Ganges
from the Nepal frontier to the hills of Chota Nagpur. It com-
prises the five districts of Monghyr, Bhagalpur, Purnea, Dar-
jeeling, and the Santal Parganas. The total area is 19,776
sq. m.; and in 1901 the population was 8,091,405.
BHAMO, a town and district of Burma. The town was in
ancient times the capital of the Shan state of Manmaw, later the
seat of a Burmese governor. It is now the headquarters of a
district in the Mandalay division of Upper Burma (Chinese
frontier) . It is situated about 300 m. up the river from Mandalay.
It is the highest station on the Irrawaddy held by British troops,
and the nearest point on the river to the Chinese frontier. In
1901 it contained 10,734 inhabitants, of whom a considerable
number were Chinamen, natives of India and Shan-Chinese.
It stretches for a distance of nearly 4 m. along the Irrawaddy
bank in a series of small villages, transformed into quarters of the
town, but the town proper is confined mainly to the one high
ridge of land running at right angles to the river. The surface
of the ground is much cut up by ravines which fill and dry up
according to the rise and fall of the river. When the Irrawaddy
is at its height the lower portion of the town is flooded, and the
country all round is a sheet of water, but usually for no very
long time. Here or hereabouts has long been the terminus of
a great deal of the land commerce from China. For years
after its annexation by Great Britain in 1883 the trade routes
were unsafe owing to attacks from Kachins. These have now
ceased, and the roads, which were mere bridle-tracks, have
been greatly improved. The two chief are the so-called Santa
and Ponlaing route, through Manytin (Manwaing) and Nantien
to Momein, and the southern or Sawadi route by way of Namh-
kam. Cart roads are now being constructed on both routes, and
that south of the Taiping river could easily be continued through
Manyiin to Momein if the Chinese should be induced to co-operate.
There is a fairly large military garrison in Bhamo distributed
between two forts to the north and east of the town. There are
in general stationed here a native regiment, two sections of
a battery and the wing of a European regiment. Besides the
barracks there are a circuit house, dak bungalow, courthouse,
and post and telegraph offices. There is a branch railway from
Myitkyina to Katha, whence there is daily communication by
river to Bhamo.
The DISTRICT OF BHAMO lies wholly in the basin of the Irra-
waddy, which, as well as its tributaries, runs through the bean of
it. On the east of the river is the Shan plateau, running almost
due north and south. West of the Irrawaddy there is a regular
series of ranges, enclosing the basins of the Kaukkwe, Mosit,
Indaw and other streams, down which much timber is floated.
Beyond the Kaukkwe there is a ridge of hills, which starts at
Leka, near Mogaung, and diverges to the south, the eastern
ridge dividing the Kaukkwe from the Mosit, and the western
forming the eastern watershed of the Nam Yin and running
south into Katha. It is an offshoot from the latter of these
ridges that forms the third defile of the Irrawaddy between
Bhamo and Sinbo. The district covers an area of 4146 sq. m.,and
the population in 1901 was 79,515. It is mainly composed of
Shan-Burmese and Kachins. The Shan-Burmese inhabit the
valleys and alluvial plains on each side of the river. The Kachins,
who probably came from the sub-regions of the Himalayas,
occupy the hills throughout the district. There are also settle-
ments of Shans, Shan-Chinese, Chinese and Assamese. There are
extensive fisheries in the Shwegu and Mo-hnyin circles, and in the
Indaw, a chain of lakes just behind the Mosit, opposite Shwegu.
The district abounds in rich teak forests, and there are reserves
representing 60,000 acres of teak plantation. The whole of the
country along the banks of the Irrawaddy, the Mole, Taiping
and Kaukkwe, is generally in a water-logged condition during
the rains. The climate in the district is therefore decidedly
malarious, especially at the beginning and end of the rains. From
November to March there is very bracing cold weather. The
highest temperatures range a few degrees over 100 F. up to 106,
and the lowest a few degrees under 40. The average maximum
for the year is about 87, the average minimum about 62". The
rainfall averages 72 in. a year. (J. G. Sc.)
BHANDARA, a town and district of British India, in the
Nagpur division of the Central Provinces. The town (pop. in
1901, 14,023) is situated on the left bank of the river Wainganga,
7 m. from a station on the Bengal-Nagpur railway. It has
considerable manufactures of cotton cloth and brass-ware, and
a first-grade middle school, with a library.
The DISTRICT OF BHANDARA has an area of 3965 sq. m. In
1901 the population was 663,062, showing a decrease of n %
since 1891 compared with an increase of 8 % in the preceding
decade. The district is bounded on the N., N.E. and E. by
lofty hills, inhabited by Gonds and other aboriginal tribes,
while the W. and N.W. are comparatively open. Small branches
of the Satpura range make their way into the interior of the
district. The Ambagarh or Sendurjhari hills, which skirt the
south of the Chandpur pargana, have an average height of
between 300 and 400 ft. above the level of the plain. The
other elevated tracts are the Balahi hills, the Kanheri hills and
the Nawegaon hills. The Wainganga is the principal river in
the district, and the only stream that does not dry up in the hot
weather, its affluents within the district being the Ba wan than,
Bagh, Kanhan and Chulban. There are 3648 small lakes and
tanks in Bhandara district, whence it is called the " lake region
of Nagpur "; they afford ample means of irrigation. More
than one-third of the district lies under jungle, which yields
gum, medicinal fruit and nuts, edible fruits, lac, honey and the
blossoms of the mahuA tree (Bassia latifolia), which are eaten
by the poorer classes, and used for the manufacture of a kind
of spirit. Tigers, panthers, deer, wild hogs and other wild
animals abound in the forests, and during the rainy season
many deaths occur from snake-bites. Iron is the chief mineral
product. Gold is also found in the bed of the Sone river.
Laterite, shale and sandstone occur all over the district. Native
cloth, brass wares, pot-stone wares, cartwheels, straw and reed
baskets, and a small quantity of silk, form the only manufactures.
The principal crops are rice, wheat, millet, other food-grains,
844
BHANG BHARATPUR
pulse, linseed, and a little sugar-cane. The district is traversed
by the main road from Nagpur to the east, and also by the
Bengal-Nagpur railway. It suffered in the famine of 1896-1897,
and yet more severely in 1900.
Bhandara district contains 25 semi-independent chief ships.
These little states are exempted from the revenue system,
and only pay a light tribute. Their territory, however, is
included within the returns of area and population above given.
The climate of Bhandara is unhealthy, the prevailing diseases
being fever, small-pox and cholera. Nothing is known of the
early history of the district. Tradition says that at a remote
period a tribe of men, called the Gaulis or Gaulars, overran and
conquered it. At the end of the i7th century it belonged to
the Gond raja of Deogarh. In 1743 it was conquered by the
Mahrattas, who governed it till 1853, when it lapsed to the
British government, the raja of Nagpur having died without
an heir.
BHANG, an East Indian name for the hemp plant, Cannabis
saliva (see HEMP), but applied specially to the leaves dried and
prepared for use as a narcotic drug. In India the products of
the plant for use as a narcotic and intoxicant are recognized
under the three names and forms of Bhang, Gunja or Ganja,
and Churrus or Charas. Bhang consists of the larger leaves
and capsules of the plant on which an efflorescence of resinous
matter has occurred. The leaves are in broken and partly
agglutinated pieces, having a dark-green colour and a heavy
but not unpleasant smell. Bhang is used in India for smoking,
with or without tobacco; it is prepared in the form of a cake
or manjan, and it is made into an intoxicating beverage by
infusing in cold water and straining. Gunja is the flowering
or fruit-bearing tops of the female plants. It is gathered in
stalks of several inches in length, the tops of which form a matted
mass, from the agglutination of flowers, seeds and leaflets by
the abundant resinous exudation which coats them. Churrus
is the crude resinous substance separated from the plant. The
use of preparations of hemp among the Mussulman and Hindu
population of India is very general; and the habit also obtains
among the population of central Asia, the Arabs and Egyptians,
extending even to the negroes of the valley of the Zambezi and
the Hottentots of South Africa. The habit appears to date from
very remote times, for Herodotus says of the Scythians, that
they creep inside huts and throw hemp seeds on hot stones.
BHARAHAT, or BARHUT, a village in the small state of
Nagod in India, lying about 24 15' N. by 80 45' E., about
120 m. S.W. of Allahabad. General A. Cunningham discovered
there in 1873 the remains of a stupa (i.e. a burial mound over
the ashes of some distinguished person) which were excavated,
in 1874, by his assistant, J. D. Beglar. The results showed
that it must have been one of the most imposing and handsome
in India; and it is especially important now from the large
number of inscriptions found upon it. The ancient name of
the place has not been yet traced, but it must have been a
considerable city and its site lay on the high road between the
ancient capitals of Ujjeni and Kosambl. The stupa was circular,
70 ft. in diameter and 42 ft. high. It was surrounded by a
stone railing 100 ft. in diameter, so that between railing and
stupa there was an open circle round which visitors could walk;
and the whole stood towards the east side of a paved quadrangle
about 300 ft. by 320 ft., surrounded by a stone wall. On the
top of the stupa was an ornament shaped like the letter T, and
as the base of the stupa was above the quadrangle, the total
height of the monument was between 50 and 60 ft. But its
main interest, to us, lies in the railing. This consisted of eighty
square pillars, 7 ft. i in. in height, connected by cross-bars about
i ft. broad. Both pillars and cross-bars were elaborately
carved in bas-relief, and most of them bore inscriptions giving
either the name of the donor, or the subject of the bas-relief,
or both. There were four entrances through the railing, facing
the cardinal points, and each one protected by the railing coming
out at right angles, and then turning back across it in the shape
of the letter L. This gave the whole ground plan of the monument,
and no doubt designedly so, the shape of a gigantic swastika
(i.e. a symbol of good fortune) . By the forms of the letters of the
inscriptions, and by the architectural details, the age of the
monument has been approximately fixed in the 3rd century B.C.
The bas-reliefs give us invaluable evidence of the literature, and
also of the clothing, buildings and other details of the social
conditions of the peoples of Buddhist India at that period.
The subjects are taken from the Buddhist sacred books, more
especially from the accounts given in them of the life of the
Buddha in his last or in his previous births. Unfortunately,
only about half the pillars, and about one-third of the cross-
bars have been recovered. When the stupa was discovered
the villagers had already carried off the greater part of the
monument to build their cottages with the stones and bricks of
it. The process has gone on till now nothing is left except
what General Cunningham found and rescued and carried off to
Calcutta. Even the mere money value of the lost pieces must
be immense, and among them is the central relic box, which
would have told us in whose honour the monument was
put up.
See A. Cunningham, The Stupa of Bharhut (London, 1879) ; T. W.
Rhys Davids, Buddhist India (London, 1903). (T. W. R. D.)
BHARAL, the Tatar name for the " blue sheep " (his (Pseu-
dois) nahura, of Ladak and Tibet. The general colour is blue-
grey with black " points " and white markings and belly; and
the horns of the rams are olive-brown and nearly smooth, with
a characteristic backward curvature. In the absence of face-
glands, as well as in certain other features, the bharal serves to
connect more typical sheep (q.v.) with goats.
BHARATPUR, or BHURTPORE, a native state of India,
in the Rajputana agency. Its area covers 1982 sq. m. The
country is generally level, about 700 ft. above the sea. Small
detached hills, rising to 200 ft. in height, occur, especially in the
northern part. These hills contain good building stone for orna-
mental architecture, and in some of them iron ore is abundant.
The Banganga is the only river which flows through the state.
It takes its rise at Manoharpur in the territory of Jaipur, and
flowing eastward passes through the heart of the Bharatpur state,
and joins the Jamna below Agra.
Bharatpur rose into importance under Suraj Mall, who bore a
conspicuous part in the destruction of the Delhi empire. Having
built the forts of Dig and Kumbher in 1730, he received in 1756
the title of raja, and subsequently joined the great Mahratta
army with 30,000 troops. But the misconduct of the Mahratta
leader induced him to abandon the confederacy, just in time to
escape the murderous defeat at Panipat. Suraj Mall raised the
Jat power to its highest point; and Colonel Dow, in 1770, esti-
mated the raja's revenue (perhaps extravagantly) at 2,000,000
and his military force at 60,000 or 70,000 men. In 1803 the
East India Company concluded a treaty, offensive and defensive,
with Bharatpur. In 1804, however, the raja assisted the
Mahrattas against the British. The English under Lord Lake
captured the fort of Dig and besieged Bharatpur, but were
compelled to raise the siege after four attempts at storming.
A treaty, concluded on the i?th of April 1805, guaranteed the
raja's territory; but he became bound to pay 200,000 as
indemnity to the East India Company. A dispute as to the right
of the succession again led to a war in 1 8 2 5, and Lord Combe rmere
captured Bharatpur with a besieging force of 20,000 men, after
a desperate resistance, on the i8th of January 1826. The
fortifications were dismantled, the hostile chief being deported
to Benares, and an infant son of the former raja installed under
a treaty favourable to the company. In 1853 the Bharatpur
ruler died, leaving a minor heir. The state came under British
management, and the administration was improved, the revenue
increased, a system of irrigation developed, new tanks and wells
constructed and an excellent system of roads and public buildings
organized. Owing to the hot winds blowing from Rajputana,
the climate of Bharatpur is extremely sultry till the setting in of
the periodical rains.
In 1901 the population was 626,665, a decrease of 2%. The
estimated revenue is 180,000. The maharaja Ram Singh, who
succeeded his father in 1 893 , was deprived of power of government
BHATGAON BHILS
845
in 1895 on the ground of intemperate conduct; and in igoo
was finally deposed for the murder of one of his personal attend-
ants. He was succeeded by his infant son Kishen Singh.
During his minority the administration was undertaken by a
native minister, together with a state council, under the general
superintendence of the political agent. Imperial service cavalry
are maintained. The state is traversed for about 40 m. by
the Rajputana railway.
The CITY OF BHARATPUR is 34 m. W. of Agra by rail. The
population in 1901 was 43,601, showing a decrease of over 23,000
in the decade. The immense mud ramparts still stand. It has
a handsome palace, a new hospital and a high school. There
are special manufactures of chauris, or flappers, with handles
of sandalwood, ivory or silver, and tails also made of strips of
ivory or sandalwood as fine as horse-hair.
BHATGAON, a town of Nepal, 8 m. from Khatmandu. It
is a celebrated place of Hindu superstition, the favourite residence
of the Brahmans of Nepal, and contains more families of that
order than either Khatmandu or Patan. It has a population
of about 30,000, and its palace and buildings generally are of
a more striking appearance than in other Nepalese towns. The
town is said to possess many Sanskrit libraries.
BHATTIANA, a tract of country in the Punjab province of
India, covering the Ghaggar valley from Fatehabad in the
district of Hissar to Bhatnair in Bikanir. It derives its name
from the Bhattis, a wild Rajput clan, who held the country
lying between Hariana, Bikanir and Bahawalpur. It skirts
the borders of the great sandy desert, and only contains a small
and scattered population. This tract was ravaged by Timur
in his invasion of India; and in 1795 paid a nominal allegiance
to George Thomas, the adventurer of Hariana. After the
victories of Lord Lake in 1803 it passed with the rest of the
Delhi territory under British rule, but was not settled until 1810.
A district of Bhattiana was formed in 1837, but in 1858 it was
merged in the Sirsa district, which was divided up in 1884.
The Bhattis number some 350,000, and are a fine tall race,
making capital soldiers.
BHAU DAJI (RAMKRISHNA VITHAL) (1822-1874), Hindu
physician of Bombay, Sanskrit scholar and antiquary, was born
in 1822 at the village of Manjare, in the native state of Sawant-
wari, of humble parents dealing in clay dolls. Dr Bhau's career
is a striking instance of great results arising from small accidents.
An Englishman noticing his cleverness at chess induced his
father to give the boy an English education. Accordingly Bhau
was brought to Bombay and was educated at the Elphinstone
Institution. He relieved his father of the cost of his education
by winning many prizes and scholarships, and on his father's
death two years later he cheerfully undertook the burden of
supporting his mother and a brother (Narayen), who also in
after-life became a distinguished physician and surgeon. About
this time he gained a prize for an essay on infanticide, and was
appointed a teacher in the Elphinstone Institution. He began
to devote his time to the study of Indian antiquities, deciphering
inscriptions and ascertaining the dates and history of ancient
Sanskrit authors. He then studied at the Grant Medical College,
and was one of the first batch who graduated there in 1850.
In 1851 he set up as a medical practitioner in Bombay, where
his success was so great that he soon made a fortune. He studied
the Sanskrit literature of medicine, and also tested the value
of drugs to which the ancient Hindus ascribed marvellous
powers, among other pathological subjects of historical interest
investigating that of leprosy. Being an ardent promoter of
education, he was appointed a member of the board of education,
and was one of the original fellows of the university of Bombay.
As the first native president of the students' literary and scientific
society, and the champion of the cause of female education,
a girls' school was founded in his name, for which an endowment
was provided by his friends and admirers. In the political
progress of India he took a great and active interest, and the
Bombay Association and the Bombay branch of the East Indian
Association owe their existence to his ability and exertions.
He was twice chosen sheriff of Bombay, in 1869 and 1871.
Various scientific societies in England, France, Germany and
America conferred on him their membership. He contributed
numerous papers to the journal of the Bombay branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society. He found time to make a large collec-
tion of rare ancient Sanskrit manuscripts at great cost and
trouble. He died in May 1874. His brother, Dr Narayen
Daji (who helped him to set up the charitable dispensary in
Bombay), did not long survive him. Dr Bhau was a man
of the most simple and amiable character and manners; his
kindness and sympathy towards the poor and distressed
were unbounded, and endeared his memory among the Hindus
of Bombay. (N. B. W.)
BHAUNAOAR, or BHAVNAGAR, a native state of India in the
Kathiawar agency, Bombay. Its area covers 2860 sq. m. In
1901 the population was 412,664, showing a decrease of 12%
in the decade; the estimated revenue is 255,800, and the tribute
10,300. The chief, whose title is thakor sahib, is head of the
famous clan of the Gohel Rajputs of Kathiawar. The enlightened
system of administration formed during the rule of the thakor
sahib maharaja Sir Takhtsinghji Jaswatsinghji, G. C.S.I., was
continued with admirable results under the personal supervision
of his son, the maharaja Bhausinghji, K.C.S.I. (b. 1875), and
forms a model for other native states. The Gohel Rajputs are
said to have settled in the district about 1260. Bhaunagar
suffered terribly from the famine of 1899-1900. About 60 m. of
the Bhaunagar-Gondal railway run through the state, with its
terminus at the town of Bhaunagar, which is the principal port.
The town of Bhaunagar is situated on the west coast of the gulf
of Cambay. The population in 1901 was 56,442. It is the chief
port in Kathiawar, though only admitting vessels of small burden.
It was founded in 1723 by the thakor sahib Bhausinghji, after
whom it is named, in place of his former capital, Sihor, which
was considered too exposed to the Mahratta power.
BHEESTY (from the Persian bihisti, paradise), the Hindustani
name for a water carrier, the native who supplies water from a
pigskin or goat-skin bag.
BHBRA, a town of British India, in the Shahpur district of the
Punjab, situated on the river Jhelum. Pop. (1901) 18,680. It is
the terminus of a branch of the North- Western railway. It is an
important centre of trade, with manufactures of cotton goods,
metal- work, carving, &c. Bhera was founded about 1 540 on its
present site, but it took the place of a city on the opposite bank of
the river, of far greater antiquity, which was destroyed at this
period.
BHILS, or BEZELS (" bowmen," from Dravidian bil, a bow), a
Dravidian people of central India, probably aborigines of Marwar.
They live scattered over a great part of India. They are found
as far north as the AravaUi Hills, in Sind and Rajputana, as well
as Khandesh and Ahmedabad. They are mentioned in Sanskrit
works, and it is thought that Ptolemy (vii. i. 66) refers to them
as fcuXAirot ("leaf .wearers"), though this word might equally
apply to the Gonds. Expelled by the Aryans from the richer
lowlands, they are found to-day in greatest numbers on the hills
of central India. In many Rajput states the princes on succes-
sion have their foreheads marked with blood from the thumb or
toe of a Bhil. The Rajputs declare this a mark of Bhil allegiance,
but it is more probably a relic of days when the Bhils were a
power in India. The Bhils eagerly keep the practice alive, and
the right of giving the blood is hereditary in certain families.
The popular legend of the Bhil origin assigns them a semi-divine
birth, Mahadeva (Siva) having wedded an earth maiden who
bore him children, the ugliest of whom killed his father's bull and
was banished to the mountains. The Bhils of to-day claim to be
his descendants. Under the Moguls the Bhils were submissive,
but they rebelled against the Mahrattas, who, being unable to
subdue them, treated them with the utmost cruelty. The race
became outlaws, and they have lived their present wild life ever
since. Their nomad habits and skill with their bows helped
them to maintain successfully the fight with their oppressors.
An unsuccessful attempt was made in 1818 by the British to
conquer them. Milder measures were then tried, and the Bhil
Agency was formed in 1825. The Bhil corps was then organized
846
BHIMA BHUTAN
with a view to utilizing the excellent fighting qualities of the
tribesmen. This corps has done good service in gradually
reducing their more lawless countrymen to habits of order, and
many Bhils are now settled in regular industries.
The pure Bhil is to-day much what he has always been, a
savage forest dweller. The Bhils are a stunted race, but well built,
active and strong, of a black colour, with high cheek-bones, wide
nostrils, broad noses and coarse features. Like all Dravidians
the hair is long and wavy. The lowland Bhils are not now
easily distinguished from the low-caste Hindus. Surgeon-major
T. H. Hendley writes: " The Bhil is an excellent woodman,
knows the shortest cuts over the hills; can walk the roughest
paths and climb the steepest crags without slipping or feeling
distressed. Though robbers, and timorous owing to ages of ill-
treatment, the men are brave when trusted, and very faithful.
History proves them always to have been faithful to their
nominal Rajput sovereigns, especially in their adversity. The
Bhil is a merry soul, loving a jest." The hill Bhils wear nothing
but a loin-cloth, their women a coarse robe; lowland Bhils wear
turban, coat and waist-cloth. The Bhils have oaths none of
them will break. The most sacred is that sworn by a 'dog, the
Bhil praying that the curse of a dog may fall on him if he breaks
his word. Their chief divinity is Hanuman, the monkey-god.
Offerings are made to the much-feared goddess of smallpox.
Stone worship is found among them, and some lowland Bhils
are Moslems, while many have adopted Hinduism.
The Bhils of pure blood number upwards of a million, and
there are some 200,000 Bhils of mixed descent.
See Gustav Oppert, The Original Inhabitants of India (1893);
T. H. Hendley, Account of Marwar Bhils," in Bengal Asiatic
Journal, vol. 44; W. I. Sinclair in Indian Antiquary, vol. iv. pp. 336-
338; Col. W. Kincaid, "On the Bheel Tribes of the Vindhyan
Range," Jour. Anthrop. Institute, vol. ix.
BHIMA (Sanskrit, " The Terrible "), in Hindu mythology, a
hero, one of the Pandava princes who figure in the Mahabharata.
He was distinguished by his huge body, strength and voracity.
BHIWANI, a town of British India, in the Hissar district of the
Punjab, 38 m. S.E. of Hissar town by rail. Pop. (1901) 35,917.
It is an important centre of trade with Rajputana, and has
factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and metal manufactures.
Its rise dates from 1817, when it was made a free market.
BHOPAL, a native state of India, in the central India agency.
Its area is 6902 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 665,961,
showing a decrease of 30 % in the decade. This seems to be in
part due to a difference in numeration, but the state suffered
heavily from famine in 1896-1897 and 1899-1900. Bhopal is
the principal Mussulman state in central India, ranking next
to Hyderabad among the Mahommedan states of India. The
surface of the country is uneven, being traversed by the Vindhya
ranges, a peak of which near Raysen is upwards of 2500 ft. above
sea-level. The general inclination of the country is towards the
north, in which direction most of the streams of the state flow,
while others, passing through the Vindhya ranges, flow to the
Nerbudda.
Bhopal state was founded in 1723 by Dost Mahommed Khan,
an Afghan adventurer. In 1778, when General Thomas Goddard
made his bold march across India, the state of Bhopal was the
only Indian power that showed itself friendly; and hi 1809 when
another British expedition under General Close appeared in the
same parts, the nawab of Bhopal petitioned earnestly but in vain
to be received under British protection. But in 1817, at the
outbreak of the Pindari War, a treaty of dependence was con-
cluded between the chief and the British government. Since
then Bhopal has been steadily loyal to the British government,
and during the Mutiny it rendered good services. The throne
has descended in the female line since 1844, when Sikandar
Begum became ruler. Succeeding begums have taken a great
interest in the work of governing the state, which they carried on
with marked success. The sultan Jahan Begum, succeeded on
the death of her mother, Shah Jahan Begum, in June 1901,
being the only female ruler in India.
The estimated revenue of the state is 250,000, and the state
pays a subsidy of 13,000 for the Bhopal battalion. Besides the
Bhopal battalion, a regiment of imperial service cavalry is
maintained, under the name of the Victoria Lancers. There is a
branch railway from Itarsi to Bhopal city, continued to Jhansi.
The British currency has been introduced, and in 1897-1898,
Rs. 71,00,000 of Bhopali coins were converted.. The residence of
the political agent and the headquarters of the Bhopal battalion
are at Sehore, 20 m. west of Bhopal city. The city of Bhopal,
a railway station, had a population in 1901 of 76,561. The
palace, with its rock fortress, is called Fatehgarh. An excellent
water-supply has been provided from two large artificial lakes.
There are two hospitals. There is an export trade in opium.
BHOPAL AGENCY, an administrative section of central India,
takes its name from the state of Bhopal, which is included in it.
The Bhopal agency is administered by the agent to the governor-
general in central India. Its area is 11,653 S P.- m -> an d its
population in 1901 was 1,157,697. It was created in 1818. In
1900 this district suffered severely from famine owing to the com-
plete failure of the monsoon, and the cultivated area decreased
by 50 or 60 %; but, on the whole, trade has improved of late
years owing to the new railways, which have stimulated
commerce and created fresh centres of industry.
BHOPAWAR, an agency in central India. It consists of the
Dhar and Barwani states, three minor states, Ah' Rajpur, Jhabua
and Jobat, and a number of districts and estates. Its total area
is 7684 sq. m., and its population on this area in 1901 was
547,546. But in 1901 and 1904 certain districts were transferred
from this agency to the Indore residency, created in 1899, and
the area of Bhopawar was thus reduced by 3283 sq. m. The
chief towns are Dhar (pop. 17,792), Barwani (6277) and Kukshi
(5402).
BHOR, a native state of India, in the Poona political agency,
Bombay, forming one of the Satara Jagirs; situated among the
higher peaks of the Western Ghats. Its area covers 925 sq. m.
The population in 1901 was 137,268, showing a decrease of 12 %
in the decade; the estimated gross revenue is 21,437; the
tribute, 310. The chief, whose title is pant sachiv, is a Brahman
by caste. The town of BHOR is 25 m. south of Poona. In 1901
the population was 4178. The Bhor Ghat, on the northern
border of the state, has always been the main pass over the
Western Ghats, or means of communication between the sea-
coast and the Deccan. Since 1861 it has been traversed by the
main line of the Great Indian Peninsula railway.
BHUJ, a town of India, the capital of the native state of Kach,
in the Gujarat division of Bombay, situated at the base of a
fortified hill. Pop. (1901) 26,362. It contains some interesting
examples of architecture of the middle of the i6th century and
later; it was a place sacred to the snake-god Bhujanga.
BHUTAN, an independent kingdom in the Eastern Himalayas,
lying between the Brahmaputra and the southern face of the
mountains. It is under various commercial and other arrange-
ments with the government of India, from whom it receives
an annual subsidy of 3333. It is bounded on the N. by Tibet;
on the E. by a tract inhabited by various uncivilized hide-
pendent mountain tribes; on the S. by the British province of
Assam, and the district of Jalpaiguri; and on the W. by the
independent native state of Sikkim. The whole of Bhutan
presents a succession of lofty and rugged mountains abounding
in picturesque and sublime scenery. This alpine region sends
out numerous rivers in a southerly direction, which, forcing their
passage through narrow defiles, and precipitated in cataracts
over the precipices, eventually pour themselves into the Brah-
maputra. Of the rivers traversing Bhutan, the most considerable
is the Manas, flowing in its progress to the Brahmaputra under
the walls of Tasgaon, below which it is unfordable. At the foot
of Tasgaon Hill it is crossed by a suspension bridge. The other
principal rivers are the Machu, Tchinchu, Torsha, Manchi and
Dharla. Information respecting the country accumulates but
slowly. In 1863 Captain Godwin Austen accompanied Sir
Ashley Eden's mission to the court of the Deb raja, and made
a survey of the route to Punakha. There has also been a certain
amount of geographical sketching combined with trigonometrical
BHUTAN
847
observations ; and there are the route surveys of native
explorers. In 1887-1888 two native Indian explorers " R. N."
and " P. A." traversed a part of Western Bhutan, but were
forced to retire owing to the disturbed state of the districts.
They re-entered the country on the east from Dewangiri. Here
they explored the Kuru, or Lhobrak Chu, which proves to be
the largest river in Bhutan. It drains the tract between the
Yamdok Tso and Tigu Lakes, and is fed by the glaciers of the
Kulha Kangri and other great ranges. The Lhobrak was finally
identified with the Manas river, a geographical discovery of
some importance. A previously unknown tribe, the Chingmis,
were discovered in Eastern Bhutan, who are socially on a higher
level than the Bhutias, and differ from them chiefly in the
matter of wearing pigtails. Some excellent survey work was
done in Bhutan by a native surveyor during the progress of
the Tibetan Expedition in 1004. The Monla Kachung pass
(17,500 ft.), by which " R. N." crossed into Tibet, is nearly on
the meridian of Gualpara, and is one of the most important
passes between Bhutan and Tibet. East of Bhutan, amongst
the semi-independent hill states which sometimes own allegiance
to Tibet and sometimes assert complete freedom from all
authority, the geographical puzzle of the course of the Tsanpo, the
great river of Tibet, has been solved by the researches of Captain
Harman, and the explorations of the native surveyor " K. P."
The Tsanpo has been definitely ascertained to be the same
river as the Brahmaputra. The tracts inhabited by the
aboriginal tribes entitled Lo Nakpo, Lo Karpo and Lo Tawa
(" Lo " signifies " barbarous " in Tibetan), are described as a
pleasant country ; the lands on either side of the Tsanpo being well
cultivated and planted with mangoes, plantains and oranges.
Nothing is known certainly about the area and population
of Bhutan, the former being estimated at 16,800 sq. m. At
the head of the Bhutan government there are nominally two
supreme authorities, the Dharm raja, the spiritual head, and the
Deb raja, the temporal ruler. Recently official correspondence
has been written in the name of the Dharm raja, but it is not
known whether this change really signifies anything. To aid
these rajas in administering the country, there is a council of
permanent ministers, called the Lenehen. Practically, how-
ever, there is no government at all. Subordinate officers and
rapacious governors of forts wield all the power of the state,
and tyranny, oppression and anarchy reign over the whole
country. The Dharm raja succeeds as an incarnation of the
deity. On the death of a Dharm raja a year or two elapses, and
the new incarnation then reappears in the shape of a child who
generally happens to be born in the family of a principal officer.
The child establishes his identity by recognizing the cooking
utensils, &c., of the late Dharm raja; he is then trained in a
monastery, and on attaining his majority is recognized as raja,
though he exercises no more real authority in his majority than
he did in his infancy. The Deb raja is in theory elected by the
council. In practice he is merely the nominee of whichever of
the two governors of East and West Bhutan happens for the time
to be the more powerful. The people are industrious, and devote
themselves to agriculture, but from the geological structure of
the country, and from the insecurity of property, regular hus-
bandry is limited to comparatively few spots. The people are
oppressed and poor. " Nothing that a Bhutia possesses is his
own," wrote the British envoy in 1864; " he is at all times
liable to lose it if it attracts the cupidity of any one more power-
ful than himself. The lower classes, whether villagers or public
servants, are little better than the slaves of higher officials.
In regard to them no rights of property are observed, and they
have at once to surrender anything that is demanded of them.
There never was, I fancy, a country in which the doctrine of
'might is right' formed more completely the whole and sole
law and custom of the land than it does in Bhutan. No official
receives a salary; he has certain districts made over to him,
and he may get what he can out of them; a certain portion of
his gains he is compelled to send to the durbar; and the more
he extorts and the more he sends to his superior, the longer his
tenure of office is likely to be."
Physically the Bhutias are a fine race, although dirty in their
habits and persons. Their food consists of meat, chiefly pork,
turnips, rice, barley-meal and tea made from the brick-tea of
China. Their favourite drink is chong, distilled from rice or
barley and millet, and Marwd, beer made from fermented
millet. A loose woollen coat reaching to the knees, and bound
round the waist by a thick fold of cotton doth, forms the dress
of the men; the women's dress is a long cloak with loose sleeves.
The houses of the Bhutias are of three and four storeys; all the
floors are neatly boarded with deal; and on two sides of the
house is a verandah ornamented with carved work generally
painted. The Bhutias are neat joiners, and their doors, windows
and panelling are perfect in their way. No iron-work is used;
the doors open on ingenious wooden hinges. The appearance of
the houses is precisely that of Swiss chalets, picturesque and com-
fortable the only drawback being a want of chimneys, which
the Bhutias do not know how to construct. The people nomin-
ally profess the Buddhist religion, but in reality their religious
exercises are confined to the propitiation of evil spirits, and the
mechanical recital of a few sacred sentences. Around the
cottages in the mountains the land is cleared for cultivation,
and produces thriving crops of barley, wheat, buckwheat, millet,
mustard, chillies, etc. Turnips of excellent quality are exten-
sively grown; they are free from fibre and remarkably sweet.
The wheat and barley have a full round grain, and the climate
is well adapted to the production of both European and Asiatic
vegetables. Potatoes have been introduced. The Bhutias
lay out their fields in a series of terraces cut out of the sides of
the hills; each terrace is riveted and supported by stone
embankments, sometimes 20 ft. high. Every field is care-
fully fenced with pine branches, or protected by a stone wall.
A complete system of irrigation permeates the whole culti-
vated part of a village, the water being often brought from
a long distance by stone aqueducts. Bhutias do not care to
extend their cultivation, as an increased revenue is exacted in
proportion to the land cultivated, but devote their whole energies
to make the land yield twice what it is estimated to produce.
The forests of Bhutan abound in many varieties of stately trees.
Among them are the beech, ash, birch, maple, cypress and yew.
Firs and pines cover the mountain heights; and below these,
but still at an elevation of eight or nine thousand feet, is a
zone of vegetation, consisting principally of oaks and rhodo-
dendrons. The cinnamon tree is also found. Some of the roots
and branches were examined by Captain Samuel Turner during
his journey to Tibet; but the plant being neither in blossom
nor bearing fruit, it was impossible to decide whether it was the
true cinnamon or an inferior kind of cassia. The leaf, how-
ever, corresponded with the description given of the true
cinnamon by Linnaeus. The lower ranges of the hills
abound in animal life. Elephants are so numerous as to be
dangerous to travellers; but tigers are not common, except
near the river Tista, and in the dense reed jungle and forests
of the Dwars. Leopards abound in the Hah valley; deer every-
where, some of them of a very large species. The musk deer
is found in the snows, and the barking deer on every
hill side. Wild hogs are met with even at great eleva-
tions. Large squirrels are common. Bears and rhinoceros are
also found. Pheasants, jungle fowls, pigeons and other small
game abound. The Bhutias are no sportsmen. They have a
superstitious objection to firing a gun, thinking that it offends
the deities of the woods and valleys, and brings down rain.
A species of horse, which seems indigenous to Bhutan, and is
used as a domestic animal, is called tdngan, from Tangastan,
the general appellation of that assemblage of mountains which
constitutes the territory of Bhutan. It is peculiar to this tract,
not being found in any of the neighbouring countries of Assam,
Nepal, Tibet or Bengal, and unites in an eminent degree the
two qualities of strength and beauty. The Idngan horse usually
stands about thirteen hands high, is short-bodied, dean-limbed,
deep in the chest and extremely active, his colour usually
inclining to piebald. In so barren and rude a country the
manufacturing industry of its people is, as might be expected,
BIANCHINI BIARRITZ
in a low stage, the few articles produced being all destined for
home consumption. These consist of coarse blankets and
cotton cloths made by the villagers inhabiting the southern
tract. Leather, from the hide of the buffalo, imperfectly
tanned, furnishes the soles of snow boots. Circular bowls are
neatly turned from various woods. A small quantity of paper
is made from a plant described as the Daphne papyri/era. Swords,
iron spears and arrow-heads, and a few copper caldrons,
fabricated from the metal obtained in the country, complete
the list of manufactures.
Trade connections are rather with Tibet than with India.
In 1001-1902 the value of the import and export trade with
British India amounted only to 57,000. The military resources
of the country are on an insignificant scale. Beyond the guards
for the defence of the various castles, there is nothing like a
standing army. The total military force was estimated by the
British envoy in 1864 at 6000. The climate of Bhutan varies
according to the difference of elevation. At the time when the
inhabitants of Punakha (the winter residence of the rajas) are
afraid of exposing themselves to the blazing sun, those of Ghasa
experience all the rigour of winter, and are chilled by perpetual
snows. Yet these places are within sight of each other. The
rains descend in floods upon the heights; but in the vicinity of
Tasisudon, the capital, they are moderate; there are frequent
showers, but nothing that can be compared to the tropical rains
of Bengal. Owing to the great elevation and steepness of the
mountains, dreadful storms arise among the hollows, often
attended with fatal results.
History. Bhutan formerly belonged to a tribe called by the
Bhutias Tephu, generally believed to have been the people of
Kuch Behar. About A.D. 1670 some Tibetan soldiers subjugated
the Tephus, took possession of the country and settled down
in it. The relations of the British with Bhutan commenced in
1772, when the Bhutias invaded the principality of Kuch Behar,
a dependency of Bengal. The Kuch Behar Raja applied for aid,
and a force under Captain James was despatched to his assistance;
the invaders were expelled and pursued into their own territories.
Upon the intercession of Teshu Lama, then regent of Tibet, a
treaty of peace was concluded in 1774 between the East India
Company and the ruler of Bhutan. In 1783 Captain S. Turner
was deputed to Bhutan, with a view of promoting commercial
intercourse, but his mission proved unsuccessful. From this
period little intercourse took place with Bhutan, until the
occupation of Assam by the British in 1826. It was then
discovered that the Bhutias had usurped several tracts of low
land lying at the foot of the mountains, called the Dwars or
passes, and for these they agreed to pay a small tribute. They
failed to pay, however, and availed themselves of the command
of the passes to commit depredations within the British territory.
Captain R. B. Pemberton was accordingly deputed to Bhutan to
adjust the points of difference. But his negotiations yielded no
definite result; and every other means of obtaining redress and
security proving unsuccessful, the Assam Dwars were wrested
from the Bhutias, and the British government consented to pay
to Bhutan a sum of 1000 per annum as compensation for the
resumption of their tenure, during the good behaviour of the
Bhutias. Continued outrages and aggressions were, however,
committed by the Bhutias on British subjects in the Dwars.
Nothwithstanding repeated remonstrances and threats, scarcely
a year passed without the occurrence of several raids in British
territory headed by Bhutia officials, in which they plundered the
inhabitants, massacred them, or carried them away as slaves.
In 1863 Sir Ashley Eden was sent as an envoy to Bhutan to
demand reparation for these outrages. He did not succeed in his
mission; he was subjected to the grossest insults; and under
compulsion signed a treaty giving over the disputed territory to
Bhutan, and making other concessions which the Bhutan
government demanded. On Sir A. Eden's return the viceroy
at once disavowed his treaty, sternly stopped the former allowance
for the Assam Dwars, and demanded the immediate restoration
of all British subjects kidnapped during the last five years. The
Bhutias not complying with this demand, the governor-general
issued a proclamation, dated the 1 2th of November 1864, by which
the eleven Western or Bengal Dwars were forthwith incorporated
with the queen's Indian dominions. No resistance was at first
offered to the annexation; but, suddenly, in January 1865, the
Bhutias surprised the English garrison at Dewangiri, and the
post was abandoned with the loss of two mountain guns. This
disaster was soon retrieved by General Sir Henry Tombs, and the
Bhutias were compelled to sue for peace, which was concluded on
the nth of November 1865. The Bhutan government formally
ceded all the eighteen Dwars of Bengal and Assam, with the rest
of the territory taken from them, and agreed to liberate all
kidnapped British subjects. As the revenues of Bhutan mainly
depended on these Dwars, the British government, in return for
these concessions, undertook to pay the Deb and Dharm rajas
annually, subject to the condition of their continued good
behaviour, an allowance beginning at 2300 and rising gradually
to the present figure. Since that time the annexed territories
have settled down into peaceful and prosperous British districts.
The recent relations between the Indian government and Bhutan
have been satisfactory ; and during the troubles with Tibet in 1904
the attitude of the Bhutias was perfectly correct and friendly.
See Report on Explorations in Sikkim, Bhutan and Tibet (Deva
Dun, 1889); Tanner, " Our present Knowledge of the Himalayas,"
R.G.S. Proceedings, vol. xiii. (T. H. H.*)
BIANCHINI, FRANCESCO (1662-1729), Italian astronomer
and antiquary, was born of a noble family at Verona on the
I3th of December 1662. In 1684 he went to Rome, and became
librarian to Cardinal Ottoboni, who, as Pope Alexander VIII.
(1689), raised him to the offices of papal chamberlain and canon
of Santa Maria Maggiore. Clement XI. sent him on a mission to
Paris in 1712, and employed him to form a museum of Christian
antiquities. He died at Rome on the 2nd of March 1729. A
paper by him on G. D. Cassini's new method of parallaxes was
inserted in the Ada Eruditorum of Leipzig in 1685. He pub-
lished separately: Istoria Universale (Roma, 1697), only one
volume of which appeared; De Calendario et Cyclo Caesaris
(1703); Hesperi et Phosphori nova Phaenomena (1729), in which
he asserted Venus to rotate in 243 days; and (posthumously)
Aslronomicae et Geographicae Observationes Selectae (1737) and
Opuscula Varia (1754).
See Fontenelle's " loge " (Memoires de VAcad. de I'Histoire, p. 102,
Paris, 1729); Mazzoleni, Vita di Francesco Bianchini (Verona,
J 735); Tipaldo, Biografia degli Italiani Illustri, vii. 288 (Venezia,
1840); Mazzuchelli, Scrittori d' Italia; Maffei, Verona Illustrata,
p. 254, &c.
BIARRITZ, a watering-place of south-western France, in the
department of Basses-Pyrenees, on the sea-coast about 5 m.
W.S.W. of Bayonne. Pop. (1906) 13,629. From a mere fishing
village, with a few hundred inhabitants in the beginning of the
igth century, Biarritz rose rapidly 'into a place of importance
under the patronage of the emperor Napoleon III. and the
empress Eugenie, with whom it was a favourite resort. The
town is situated on a promontory jutting north-west into the
Bay of Biscay and on the coast which extends on each side of it.
The beach to the north-east is known as the Grande Plage, that
to the south-west as the Cote des Basques. The Grande Plage is
more than half a mile long and stretches to the Cap St Martin, on
which stands a lighthouse. It is divided into two parts by a
small headland once the site of the villa of the empress Eugenie,
between which and the main promontory are the two casinos, the
principal baths and many luxurious villas and fine hotels.
Towards the north-east the promontory of Biarritz ends in a pro-
jection known as the Atalaye, crowned by the ruins of a castle
and surrounded by rocky islets. Some of these are united to the
mainland and to each other by jetties which curve round so as to
form the Port de Refuge, a haven available only in fair weather.
South-west of the Atalaye lies the Port-Vieux, a sheltered cove
now used only as a bathing-place. The Port des Pecheurs, the
principal of the three harbours, is on the south-east side of the
Atalaye and is that most used by the fishermen of the town.
Apart from unimportant manufactures of pottery, chocolate, &c.,
fishing is the only industry; Biarritz depends for its prosperity
on the visitors who are attracted by its mild climate and the
BIAS BIBLE
8 49
bathing. The season is almost continuous; in the winter the
English, in the summer Russians, Spaniards and French fill the
hotels of the town. Among its attractions is a 'golf club, estab-
lished in 1888, with a course of 18 holes.
BIAS of Priene in Ionia, one of the so-called Seven Sages of
Greece, son of Teutamus, flourished about 570 B.C. He was
famous for his patriotism, the nobility of his character and his
eloquence. A number of gnomes or aphorisms are attributed to
him, which may be found collected in F. W. A. Mullach, Frag-
menta Philosophorum Graecorum (1860). He is said to have
written a poem on the best means of making Ionia prosperous.
His advice to its inhabitants, at the time of the Persian invasion,
to migrate to Sardinia and there found a single pan-Ionic city
(Herodotus i. 170), has generally been regarded as historical.
One much-quoted saying of his may be mentioned. When his
native town was besieged by the enemy, the inhabitants resolved
to escape with their most valuable belongings. One of them
seeing Bias without anything, advised him to follow the example
of the rest. " I am doing so," said he, " for I carry all my belong-
ings with me " (omnia mea mecum porto). He was honoured with
a splendid funeral, and a sanctuary called Teutamium was
dedicated to him.
See Bohren, De Septem Sapientibus (1860).
BIAS (from the Fr. biais, of unknown origin; the derivation
from Lat. bifax, two-faced, is wrong), something oblique or
slanting. The term is used especially of a piece of doth cut
obliquely across the texture, or of a seam of two such pieces
brought together; and in the game of bowls (q.v.) it is applied
alike to the one-sided construction of the bowl, flattened on one
side and protruding on the other, and to the slanting line the
bowl takes when thrown. The figurative sense of the word,
prejudice or undue leaning to one side of a subject, is derived
from this bowling term.
BIBACULUS, MARCUS FURIUS, Roman poet, flourished
during the last century of the republic. According to Jerome,
he was born at Cremona in 103 B.C., and probably lived to a great
age. He wrote satirical poems after the manner of Catullus,
whose bitterness he rivalled, according to Quintilian (Instil, x.
i. 196), in his iambics. He even attacked Augustus (and perhaps
Caesar), who treated the matter with indifference. He was also
author of prose Lucubrationes and perhaps of an epic poem on
Caesar's Gallic wars (Pragmatia Belli Gallici). Otto Ribbeck
attributes to him one of the shorter poems usually assigned to
Virgil. It is doubtful whether he is the person ridiculed by
Horace (Satires, ii. 5. 40) and whether he is identical with the
turgidus Alpinus (Satires, i. 10. 36), the author of an Aethiopis
dealing with the life and death of Memnon and of a poem on the
Rhine. Some critics, on the ground that Horace would not have
ventured to attack so dangerous an adversary, assume the
existence of a poet whose real name was Furius (or Cornelius)
Alpinus. Bibaculus was ridiculed for his high-flown and exagger-
ated style and manner of expression.
See Weichert, " De M. Furio Bibaculo," in his Poetarum Latinorum
Reliquiae (1830) ; fragments in L. Miiiler's edition of Catullus in
the Teubner Series (1870).
BIBER, HEINRICH JOHANN FRANZ VON (1644-1704),
German violinist and composer, was for some time musical
conductor at Salzburg, and was ennobled by the emperor Leo-
pold in 1681. He is regarded as the earliest important German
composer for the violin, his works including sonatas and church
music.
BIBERACH, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Wiirttem-
berg, on the Riss, a small affluent of the Danube, 22 m. S.S.W.
from Ulm. Pop. (1900) 8390. It is still surrounded by medieval
walls and towers, and is strikingly picturesque. Its principal
church dates from the i2th century, and it possesses a hospital
with rich endowments. Its main industries are cloth, bell-
casting, toys and zinc wares, and its fruit markets are famous.
Biberach appears as a village in the 8th century, and in 1312 it
became a free imperial city. During the Thirty Years' War it
underwent various vicissitudes, and was for a while held by the
Swedes. In 1707 it was captured and put to ransom by the
French, who afterwards, in 1796 and 1800, defeated the Austrians
in the neighbourhood. In 1803 the city was deprived of its
imperial freedom and assigned to Baden, and in 1806 was trans-
ferred to Wurttemberg. Brberach is the birthplace of the
sculptor Johann Lorenz Natter (1705-1763) and the painter
Bernhard Neher (1806-1886); Christoph Martin Wit-land, born
i '733 at the neighbouring village of Oberholzheim, spent
several years in the town.
BIBIRINE, or BEBEERINE, Ci,H a NO,, an alkaloid obtained
from the bark and fruit of the greenheart (q.v.) tree, Ncctandra
rodiaei, called bibiru or sipiri in Guiana, where the tree grows.
The substance was discovered about the year 1835 by Hugh
Rodie, a surgeon in Demerara, who used it as a febrifuge in
substitution for quinine.
BIBLE. The word " Bible," which in English, as in medieval
Latin, is treated as a singular noun, is in its original Greek form
a plural, rA. /Ji/SXio, the (sacred) books correctly expressing the
fact that the sacred writings of Christendom (collectively de-
scribed by this title) are made up of a number of independent
records, which set before us the successive stages in the history
of revelation. The origin of each of these records forms a
distinct critical problem, and for the discussion of these questions
of detail the reader is referred to the separate articles on the
Biblical books. An account of the Bible as a whole involves so
many aspects of interest, that, apart from the separate articles
on its component books, the general questions of importance
arising out of its present shape require to be discussed in separate
sections of this article. They are here divided accordingly,
into two main divisions: (A) Old Testament, and (B) New
Testament; and under each of these are treated (i) the Canon,
(2) the texts and versions, (3) textual criticism, (4) the " higher
criticism," i.e. a general historical account (more particularly
considered for separate books in the articles on them) of the
criticism and views based on the substance and matter, as apart
from criticism devoted to the correction and elucidation of the
text, and (5) chronology. For the literary history of the trans-
lated English Bible, see the separate article under BIBLE,
ENGLISH.
(A) OLD TESTAMENT
i. Canon.
We shall begin by giving a general account of the historical
and literary conditions under which the unique literature of the
Old Testament sprang up, of the stages by which it gradually
reached its present form, and (so far as this is possible) of the
way in which the Biblical books were brought together in a
canonical collection. There exists no formal historical account
of the formation of the Old Testament canon. The popular
idea that this canon was closed by Ezra has no foundation in
antiquity. Certainly in the apocryphal book of 2 Esdras,
written towards the end of the ist century A.D., we read (riv.
20-26, 38-48), that, the law being burnt, Ezra, at his own request,
was miraculously inspired to rewrite it; he procured accord-
ingly five skilled scribes, and dictated to them for forty days,
during which time they wrote 04 books, i.e. not only (according
to the Jewish reckoning) the 24 books of the Old Testament,
but 70 apocryphal books as well, which, being filled, it is said,
with a superior, or esoteric wisdom, are placed upon even a higher
level (w. 46, 47) than the Old Testament itself. No argument
is needed to show that this legend is unworthy of credit; even
if it did deserve to be taken seriously, it still contains nothing
respecting either a completion of the canon, or even a collection,
or redaction, of sacred books by Ezra. Yet it is frequently
referred to by patristic writers; and Ezra, on the strength of
it, is regarded by them as the genuine restorer of the lost books
of the Old Testament (see EZRA).
In 2 Mace. ii. 13 it is said that Nehemiah, " founding a library,
gathered together the things concerning the kings and prophets,
and the (writings) of David, and letters of kings about sacred
gifts." These statements are found in a part of 2 Mace, which
is admitted to be both late and full of untrustworthy matter;
still, the passage may preserve an indistinct reminiscence of an
early stage in the formation of the canon, the writings referred
850
BIBLE
[O.T. CANON
to being possibly the books of Samuel and Kings and some of the
Prophets, a part of the Psalter, and documents such as those
excerpted in the book of Ezra, respecting edicts issued by
Persian kings in favour of the Temple. But obviously nothing
definite can be built upon a passage of this character.
The first traces of the idea current in modern times that the
canon of the Old Testament was closed by Ezra are found in the
i3th century A.D. From this time, as is clearly shown by the
series of quotations in Ryle's Canon of the Old Testament, p. 257 ff.
(znd ed., p. 269 ff.), the legend for it is nothing better grew,
until finally, in the hands of Elias Levita (1538), and especially
of Johannes Buxtorf (1665), it assumed the form that the " men
of the Great Synagogue," a body the real existence of which
is itself very doubtful, but which is affirmed in the Talmud to
have " written " (!) the books of Ezekiel, the Minor Prophets,
Daniel and Esther with Ezra as president, first collected the
books of the Old Testament into a single volume, restored the
text, where necessary, from the best MSS., and divided the
collection into three parts, the Law, the Prophets and the
" Writings " (the Hagiographa). The reputation of Elias
Levita and Buxtorf led to this view of Ezra's activity being
adopted by other scholars, and so it acquired general currency.
But it rests upon no authority in antiquity whatever.
The statement just quoted, however, that in the Jewish canon
the books of the Old Testament are divided into three parts,
though the arrangement is wrongly referred to Ezra, is in itself
both correct and important. " The Law, the Prophets and the
Writings (i.e. the Hagiographa) " is the standing Jewish ex-
pression for the Old Testament; and in every ordinary Hebrew
Bible the books are arranged accordingly in the following three
divisions :
1. The Torah (or " Law "), corresponding to our " Penta-
teuch " (5 books).
2. The " Prophets," consisting of eight books, divided into
two groups :
(a) The " Former Prophets "; Joshua, Judges, Samuel; Kings. 1
(b) The "Latter Prophets"; Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the
Minor Prophets (called by the Jews " the Twelve," and counted
by them as one book).
3. The " Writings," also sometimes the " Sacred Writings,"
i.e., as we call them, the " Hagiographa," consisting of three
groups, containing in all eleven books:
(a) The poetical books, Psalms, Proverbs, Job.
(b) The five Megillotk (or " Rolls ") grouped thus together
in later times, on account of the custom which arose of reading
them in the synagogues at five sacred seasons Song of Songs,
Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther.
(c) The remaining books, Daniel, Ezra and Nehemiah (forming
one book), Chronicles. 1
There are thus, according to the Jewish computation, twenty-
four " books " in the Hebrew canon. The threefold division
of the canon just given is recognized in the Talmud, and followed
in all Hebrew MSS., the only difference being that the books
included in the Latter Prophets and in the Hagiographa are not
always arranged in the same order. No book, however, belong-
ing to one of these three divisions is ever, by the Jews, trans-
ferred to another. The expansion of the Talmudic twenty-four
to the thirty-nine Old Testament books of the English Bible is
effected by reckoning the Minor Prophets one by one, by separ-
ating Ezra from Nehemiah, and by subdividing the long books
of Samuel, Kings and Chronicles. The different order of the
books in the English Bible is due to the fact that when the
Hebrew Bible was translated into Greek between the 3rd and
ist centuries B.C., the Hebrew<tripartite division was disregarded,
and the books (including those now known as the " Apocrypha ")
were grouped mostly by subjects, the historical books being
placed first (Genesis Esther), the poetical books next (Job
Song of Songs), and the prophetical books last (Isaiah Malachi).
1 The books of Samuel, Kings, Ezra and Nehemiah, and Chronicles,
were by the Jews each treated (and written) as one book, and were
not divided by them into two till the 1 6th century, through Christian
influence.
Substantially the same order was followed in the Vulgate.
The Reformers separated the books which had no Hebrew
original (i.e. the Apocrypha) from the rest, and placed them at
the end; the remaining books, as they stood in the Vulgate, were
then in the order which they still retain in the English Bible.
The tripartite division of the Hebrew canon thus recognized
by Jewish tradition can, however, be traced back far beyond
the Talmud. The Proverbs of Jesus, the son of Sirach (c. 200
B.C.), which form now the apocryphal book Ecclesiasticus,
were translated into Greek by the grandson of the author at
about 130 B.C.; and in the preface prefixed by him to his
translation he speaks of " the law, and the prophets, and the
other books of our fathers," and again of " the law, and the
prophets, and the rest of the books," expressions which point
naturally to the same threefold division which was afterwards
universally recognized by the Jews. The terms used, however,
do not show that the Hagiographa was already completed,
as we now have it; it would be entirely consistent with them,
if, for instance, particular books, as Esther, or Daniel, or Ecclesi-
astes, were only added to the collection subsequently. Another
allusion to the tripartite division is also no doubt to be found
in the expression " the law, the prophets, and the psalms," in
Luke xxiv. 44. A collection of sacred books, including in parti-
cular the prophets, is also referred to in Dan. ix. 2 (R.V.),
written about 166 B.C.
This threefold division of the Old Testament, it cannot reason-
ably be doubted, rests upon an historical basis. It represents
three successive stages in the history of the collection. The Law
was the first part to be definitely recognized as authoritative,
or canonized; the " Prophets " (as defined above) were next
accepted as canonical; the more miscellaneous collection of
books comprised in the Hagiographa was recognized last. In
the absence of all external evidence respecting the formation
of the canon, we are driven to internal evidence in our endeavour
to fix the dates at which these three collections were thus canon-
ized. And internal evidence points to the conclusion that the
Law could scarcely have been completed, and accepted formally,
as a whole, as canonical before 444 B.C. (cf. Neh. viii.-x.); that
the " Prophets " were completed and so recognized about
250 B.C., and the Hagiographa between about 150 and 100 B.C.
(See further Ryle's Canon of the Old Testament.)
Having thus fixed approximately the terminus ad quern at
which the Old Testament was completed, we must now begin at
the other end, and endeavour to sketch in outline the process
by which it gradually reached its completed form. And here
it will be found to be characteristic of nearly all the longer
books of the Old Testament, and in some cases even of the
shorter ones as well, that they were not completed by a single
hand, but that they were gradually expanded, and reached their
present form by a succession of stages.
Among the Hebrews, as among many other nations, the earliest
beginnings of literature were in all probability poetical. At
least the opening phrases of the song of Moses in Exodus xv.;
the song of Deborah in Judges v. ; the fragment from the " Book
of the Wars of Yahweh," in Numbers xxi. 14, 15; the war-ballad,
celebrating an Israelitish victory, in Numbers xxi. 27-30; the
extracts from the " Book of Jashar " (or " of the Upright,"
no doubt a title of Israel) quoted in Joshua x. 12, 13 (" Sun,
stand thou still upon Gibeon," &c.); in 2 Sam. i. (David's elegy
over Saul and Jonathan) ; and, very probably, in the Septuagint
of i Kings viii. 13 [Sept. 53], as the source of the poetical frag-
ment in vv. 12, 13, describing Solomon's building of the Temple,
show how great national occurrences and the deeds of ancient
Israelitish heroes stimulated the national genius for poetry,
and evoked lyric songs, suffused with religious feeling, by which
their memory was perpetuated. The poetical descriptions of
the character, or geographical position, of the various tribes,
now grouped together as the Blessings of Jacob (Gen. xlix.)
and Moses (Deut. xxxiii.), may be mentioned at the same time.
These poems, which are older, and in most cases considerably
older, than the narratives in which they are now embedded, if
they were collected into books, must have been fairly numerous,
O.T. CANON]
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851
and we could wish that more examples of them had been
preserved.
The historical books of the Old Testament form two series:
one, consisting of the books from Genesis to 2 Kings (exclusive of
Ruth, which, as we have seen, forms in the Hebrew canon part
of the Hagiographa), embracing the period from the Creation
to the destruction of Jerusalem by the Chaldaeans in 586 B.C. ;
the other, comprising the books of Chrdnicles, Ezra and Nehe-
miah, beginning with Adam and ending with the second visit of
Nehemiah to Jerusalem in 432 B.C. These two series differ
from one another materially in scope and point of view, but in
one respect they are both constructed upon a similar plan;
no entire book in either series consists of a single, original work ;
but older writings, or sources, have been combined by a com-
piler or sometimes, in stages, by a succession of compilers
in such a manner that the points of juncture are often clearly
discernible, and the sources are in consequence capable of being
separated from one another. The authors of the Hebrew
historical books, as we now have them, do not, as a rule, as a
modern author would do, rewrite the matter in their own language ;
they excerpt from pre-existing documents such passages as are
suitable to their purpose, and incorporate them in their work,
sometimes adding at the same time matter of their own. Hebrew
writers, however, exhibit usually such strongly marked individu-
alities of style that the documents or sources, thus combined, can
generally be distinguished from each other, and from the com-
ments or other additions of the compiler, without difficulty.
The literary differences are, moreover, often accompanied by
differences of treatment, or representation of the history, which,
where they exist, confirm independently the conclusions of the
literary analysis. Although, however, the historical books
generally are constructed upon similar principles, the method
on which these principles have been applied is not quite the
same in all cases. Sometimes, for instance, the excerpts from
the older documents form long and complete narratives; in
other cases (as in the account of the Flood) they consist of a
number of short passages, taken alternately from two older
narratives, and dovetailed together to make a continuous story;
in the books of Judges and Kings the compiler has fitted together
a series of older narratives in a framework supplied by himself;
the Pentateuch and book of Joshua (which form a literary whole,
and are now often spoken of together as the Hexateuch) have
passed through more stages than the books just mentioned,
and their literary structure is more complex.
The Hexateuch (Gen.- Josh.). The traditions current among
the Israelites respecting the origins and early history of their
nation the patriarchal period, and the times of Moses and
Joshua were probably first cast into a written form in the
loth or gth century B.C. by a prophet living in Judah, who,
from the almost exclusive use in his narrative of the sacred name
" Jahveh " (" Jehovah "), or, as we now commonly write it,
Yahweh, is referred to among scholars by the abbreviation
" J." This writer, who is characterized by a singularly bright
and picturesque style, and also by deep religious feeling and
insight, begins his narrative with the account of the creation
of man from the dust, and tells of the first sin and its consequences
(Gen. ii. 4*-iii. 24); then he gives an account of the early growth
of civilization (Gen. iv.), of the Flood (parts of Gen. vi.-viii.),
and the origin of different languages (xi. 1-9); afterwards in a
series of vivid pictures he gives the story, as tradition told it,
of the patriarchs, of Moses and the Exodus, of the journey through
the wilderness, and the conquest of Canaan. It would occupy
too much space to give here a complete list of the passages
belonging to "J"; but examples of his narrative (with the
exception here and there of a verse or two belonging to one of
the other sources described below) are to be found, for instance,
in Gen. xii., xiii., xviii.-xix. (the visit of the three angels to
Abraham, and the judgment on Sodom and Gomorrah), xxiv.
(Abraham's servant sent to find a wife for Isaac), xxvii. 1-45
(Jacob obtaining his father's blessing), xxxii., xliii., xliv.
(parts of the history of Joseph); Ex. iv.-v. (mostly), viii. 20-
ix. 7, x. i-n, xxxiii. 12-xxxiv. 26 (including, in xxxiv. 17-26,
a group of regulations, of a simple, undeveloped character, on
various religious observances); Num. x. 29-36, and most of
Num. xi.
Somewhat later than " J," another writer, commonly referred
to as " E," from his preference for the name Elohim (" God ")
rather than " Jehovah," living apparently in the northern king-
dom, wrote down the traditions of the past as they were current
in northern Israel, in a style resembling generally that of " J," but
not quite as bright and vivid, and marked by small differences
of expression and representation. The first traces of " E " are
found in the life of Abraham, in parts of Gen. xv.; examples
of other passages belonging to this source are: Gen. xx. 1-17,
xxi. 8-32, xxii. 1-14, xl.-xlii. and xlv. (except a few isolated
passages); Ex. xviii., xx.-xxiii. (including the decalogue in its
original, terser form, without the explanatory additions now
attached to several of the commandments and the collection
of laws, known as the " Book of the Covenant," in xxi.-xxiii.),
xxxii., xxxiii. 7-11; Num. xii., most of Num. xxii.-xxiv. (the
history of Balaam); Josh. xxiv. "E" thus covers substantially
the same ground as " J," and gives often a parallel, though
somewhat divergent, version of the same events. The laws
contained hi Ex. xx. 23-xxiii. 19 were no doubt taken by " E "
from a pre-existing source; with the regulations referred to
above as incorporated in "J" (Ex. xxxiv. 17-26), they form
the oldest legislation of the Hebrews that we possess; they
consist principally of civil ordinances, suited to regulate the life
of a community living under simple conditions of society, and
chiefly occupied in agriculture, but partly also of elementary
regulations respecting religious observances (altars, sacrifices,
festivals, &c.).
Not long, probably, after the fall of the northern kingdom
in 722 B.C., a prophet of Judah conceived the plan of compiling
a comprehensive history of the traditions of his people. For this
purpose he selected extracts from the two narratives, " J "
and " E," and combined them together into a single narrative,
introducing in some places additions of his own. This combined
narrative is commonly known as "JE." As distinguished from
the Priestly Narrative (to be mentioned presently), it has a
distinctly prophetical character; it treats the history from the
standpoint of the prophets, and the religious ideas characteristic
of the prophets often find expression in it. Most of the best-
known narratives of the patriarchal and Mosaic ages belong
to " JE." His style, especially in the parts belonging to " J,"
is graphic and picturesque, the descriptions are vivid and abound
in detail and colloquy, and both emotion and religious feeling
are warmly and sympathetically expressed in it.
Deuteronomy. In the 7th century B.C., during the reign of
either Manasseh or Josiah, the narrative of " JE " was enlarged
by the addition of the discourses of Deuteronomy. These dis-
courses purport to be addresses delivered by Moses to the
assembled people, shortly before his death, in the land of Moab,
opposite to Jericho. There was probably some tradition of a
farewell address delivered by Moses, and the writer of Deutero-
nomy gave this tradition form and substance. In impressive
and persuasive oratory he sets before Israel, in a form adapted
to the needs of the age in which he lived, the fundamental
principles which Moses had taught. Yahweh was Israel's only
god, who tolerated no other god beside Himself, and who claimed
to be the sole object of the Israelite's reverence. This is the
fundamental thought which is insisted on and developed in
Deuteronomy with great eloquence and power. The truths on
which the writer loves to dwell are the sole godhead of Yahweh.
His spirituality (ch. iv.), His choice of Israel, and the love and
faithfulness which He had shown towards it, by redeeming it
from slavery in Egypt, and planting it in a free and fertile land;
from which are deduced the great practical duties of loyal and
loving devotion to Him, an uncompromising repudiation of all
false gods, the rejection of all heathen practices, a cheerful and
ready obedience to His will, and a warm-hearted and generous
attitude towards man. Love of God is the primary spring of
human duty (vi. 5). In the course of his argument (especially
in chs. xii.-xxvi.), the writer takes up most of the laws, both civil
852
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[O.T. CANON
and ceremonial, which (see above) had been incorporated before
in " J " and " E," together with many besides which were
current in Israel; these, as a rule, he expands, applies or
enforces with motives; for obedience to them is not to be
rendered merely in deference to external authority, it is to be
prompted by right moral and religious motives. The ideal of
Deuteronomy is a community of which every member is full of
love and reverence towards his God, and of sympathy and
regard for his fellow-men. The " Song " (Deut. xxxii.) and
" Blessing " (Deut. xxxiii.) of Moses are not by the author of the
discourses; and the latter, though not Mosaic, is of considerably
earlier date.
The influence of Deuteronomy upon subsequent books of the
Old Testament is very perceptible. Upon its promulgation it
speedily became the book which both gave the religious ideals
of the age, and moulded the phraseology in which these ideals
were expressed. The style of Deuteronomy, when once it had
been formed, lent itself readily to imitation; and thus a school
of writers, imbued with its spirit, and using its expressions,
quickly arose, who have left their mark upon many parts of the
Old Testament. In particular, the parts of the combined
narrative " JE," which are now included in the book of Joshua,
passed through the hands of a Deuteronomic editor, who made
considerable additions to them chiefly in the form of speeches
placed, for instance, in the mouth of Joshua, or expansions of
the history, all emphasizing principles inculcated in Deuteronomy
and expressed in its characteristic phraseology (e.g. most of
Josh, i., ii. lo-n, iii. 2-4, 6-9, x. 28-43, n. 10-23, xii., xiii. 2-6,
8-12, xxiii.). From an historical point of view it is characteristic
of these additions that they generalize Joshua's successes, and
represent the conquest of Canaan, effected under his leadership,
as far more complete than the earlier narratives allow us to
suppose was the case. The compilers of Judges and Kings are
also (see below) strongly influenced by Deuteronomy.
The Priestly sections of the Hexateuch (known as " P ")
remain still to be considered. That these are later than " JE,"
and even than Deut., is apparent to mention but one feature
from the more complex, ritual and hierarchical organization
which they exhibit. They are to all appearance the work of a
school of priests, who, after the destruction of the Temple in
586 B.C., began to write down and codify the ceremonial regula-
tions of the pre-exilic times, combining them with an historical
narrative extending from the Creation to the establishment of
Israel in Canaan; and who completed their work during the
century following the restoration in 537 B.C. The chief object of
these sections is to describe in detail the leading institutions of
the theocracy (Tabernacle, sacrifices, purifications, &c.), and to
refer them to their traditional origin in the Mosaic age. The
history as such is subordinate; and except at important epochs
is given only in brief summaries (e.g. Gen. xix. 29, xli. 46).
Statistical data (lists of names, genealogies, and precise chrono-
logical notes) are a conspicuous feature in it. The legislation
of " P," though written down in or after the exile, must not,
however, be supposed to be the creation of that period; many
elements in it can be shown from the older literature to have
been of great antiquity in Israel; it is, in fact, based upon pre-
exilic Temple usage, though in some respects it is a development
of it, and exhibits the form which the older and simpler ceremonial
institutions of Israel ultimately assumed. In " P's " picture
of the Mosaic age there are many ideal elements; it represents
the priestly ideal of the past rather than the past as it actually
was. The following examples of passages from " P " will
illustrate what has been said: Gen. i. i-ii. 4, xvii. (institution
of circumcision), xxiii. (purchase of the cave of Machpelah),
xxv. 7-17, xlvi. 6-27; Ex. vi. 2-vii. 13, xxv.-xxxi. (directions for
making the Tabernacle, its vessels, dress of the priests, &c.),
xxxv.-xl. (execution of these directions); Lev. (the whole);
Num. i. i-x. 28 (census of people, arrangement of camp, and
duties of Levites, law of the Nazirite, &c.), xv., xviii.,xix., xxvi.-
xxxi., xxxiii.-xxxvi.; Josh. v. 10-12, the greater part of xv.-xix.
(distribution of the land among the different tribes), xxi. 1-42.
The style of " P " is strongly marked as strongly marked, in
fact, as (in a different way) that of Deuteronomy is; numerous
expressions not found elsewhere in the Hexateuch occur in it
repeatedly. The section Lev. xvii.-xxvi. has a character of its
own; for it consists of a substratum of older laws, partly moral
(chs. xviii.-xx. mostly), partly ceremonial, with a hortatory
conclusion (ch. xxvi.), with certain very marked characteristics
(from one of which it has received the name of the " Law of
Holiness "), which have been combined with elements belonging
to, or conceived in the spirit of, the main body of " P. "
Not long after " P " was completed, probably in the 5th century
B.C., the whole, consisting of " JE " and Deuteronomy, was com-
bined with it; and the existing Hexateuch was thus produced.
Judges, Samuel and Kings. The structure of these books is
simpler than that of the Hexateuch. The book of Judges
consists substantially of a series of older narratives, arranged
together by a compiler, and provided by him, where he deemed
it necessary, with introductory and concluding comments
(e.g. ii. n-iii. 6, iii. 12-15, 30, iv. 1-3, 23, 24, v. 3i l ). The
compiler is strongly imbued with the spirit of Deuteronomy;
and the object of his comments is partly to exhibit the chronology
of the peiiod as he conceived it, partly to state his theory of the
religious history of the time. The compiler will not have written
before c. 600 B.C.; the narratives incorporated by him will in
most cases have been considerably earlier. The books of Samuel
centre round the names of Samuel, Saul and David. They
consist of a series of narratives, or groups of narratives, dealing
with the lives of these three men, arranged by a compiler, who,
however, unlike the compilers of Judges and Kings, rarely
allows his own hand to appear. Some of these narratives are
to all appearance nearly contemporary with the events that they
describe (e.g. i Sam. ix. i-x. 16, xi. i-n, 15, xiii.-xiv., xxv.-
xxxi.; 2 Sam. ix.-xx.); others are later. In i Sam. the double
(and discrepant) accounts of the appointment of Saul as king
(ix. i-x. 16, xi. i-n, 15, and viii., x. 17-27, xii.), and of the
introduction of David to the history (xvi. 14-23 and xvii. i-
xviii. 5) are noticeable; in ix. i-x.i6, xi. i-n, 15, the monarchy
is viewed as God's gracious gift to His people; in viii., x. 17-27.
xii., which reflect the feeling of a much later date, the monarchy
is viewed unfavourably, and represented as granted by God
unwillingly. The structure of the book of Kings resembles that
of Judges. A number of narratives, evidently written by
prophets, and in many of which also (as those relating to Elijah,
Elisha and Isaiah) prophets play a prominent part, and a series
of short statistical notices, relating to political events, and
derived probably from the official annals of the two kingdoms
(which are usually cited at the end of a king's reign), have been
arranged together, and sometimes expanded at the same time,
in a framework supplied by the compiler. The framework is
generally recognizable without difficulty. It comprises the
chronological details, references to authorities, and judgments
on the character of the various kings, especially as regards their
attitude to the worship at the high places, all cast in the same
literary mould, and marked by the same characteristic phrase-
ology. Both in point of view and in phraseology the compiler
shows himself to be strongly influenced by Deuteronomy. The
two books appear to have been substantially completed before
the exile; but short passages were probably introduced into
them afterwards. Examples of passages due to the compiler:
i Kings ii. 3-4, viii. 14-61 (the prayer of dedication put into
Solomon's mouth), ix. 1-9, xi. 32 6 -39, xiv. 7-11, 19-20, 21-24,
29-31, xv. 1-15, xxi. 2o f> -26; 2 Kings ix. 7-10", xvii. 7-23.
The Latter Prophets. Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, the Twelve.
The writings of the canonical prophets form another important
element in the Old Testament, also, like the historical books, of
gradual growth. Beginning with Amos and Hosea, they form
a series which was not completed till more than three centuries
had passed away. The activity of the prophets was largely
called forth by crises in the national history. They were partly
moral reformers, partly religious teachers, partly political
advisers. They held up before a backsliding people the ideals
of human duty, of religious truth and of national policy. They
expanded and developed, and applied to new situations and
'O.T. CANON]
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853
circumstances of the national life, the truths which in a more
germinal form they had inherited from their ancestors. The
nature and attributes of God; His gracious purposes towards
man; the relation of man to God, with the practical conse-
quences that follow from it; the true nature of religious service;
the call to repentance as the condition of God's favour; the
ideal of character and action which each man should set
before himself; human duty under its various aspects; the
responsibilities of office and position; the claims of mercy and
philanthropy, justice and integrity; indignation against the
oppression of the weak and the unprotected; ideals of a blissful
future, when the troubles of the present will be over, and men
will bask in the enjoyment of righteousness and felicity, these,
and such as these, are the themes which are ever in the prophets'
mouths, and on which they enlarge with unwearying eloquence
and power.
For the more special characteristics of the individual prophets,
reference must be made to the separate articles devoted to each;
it is impossible to do more here than summarize briefly the
literary structure of their various books.
Isaiah. The book of Isaiah falls into two clearly distinguished
parts, viz. chs. i.-xxxix., and xl.-lxvi. Chs. xl.-lxvi., how-
ever, are not by Isaiah, but are the work of a prophet who
wrote about 540 B.C., shortly before the conquest of Babylon
by Cyrus, and whose aim was to encourage the Israelites in
exile, and assure them of the certainty of their approaching
restoration to Canaan. (According to many recent critics, this
prophet wrote only chs. xl.-lv., chs. Ivi.-lxvi. being added
subsequently, some time after the return.) The genuine
prophecies of Isaiah are contained in chs. i.-xii., xiv. 24-xxiii.,
xxviii.-xxxiii., xxxvii. 22-32, all written between 740 and
700 B.C. (or a little later), and all (except ch. vi.) having reference
to the condition of Judah and Israel, and the movements of the
Assyrians during the reigns of Ahaz and Hezekiah. The opinion
has, however, latterly gained ground that parts even of these
chapters are of later origin than Isaiah's own time. Of the rest
of chs. i.-xxxix. this is generally admitted. Thus chs. xiii. i-
xiv. 23, xxi. i-io, xxxiv.-xxxv. belong to the same age as
chs. xl.-lxvi., xiii. i-xiv. 23, and xxi. i-io, looking forward
similarly to the approaching fall of Babylon; chs. xxiv.-xxvii.
have a character of their own, and form an apocalypse written
not earlier than the sth century B.C.; chs. xxxvi.-xxxix.,
describing incidents in which Isaiah took a part, consist of
narratives excerpted from 2 Kings xviii. I3~xx. with the addition
of Hezekiah's song (xxxviii. 9-20). It is evident from these
facts that the book of Isaiah did not assume its present form
till considerably after the return of the Jews from exile in 537,
when a compiler, or series of compilers, arranged the genuine
prophecies of Isaiah which had come to his hands, together with
others which at the time were attributed to Isaiah, and gave
the book its present form.
Jeremiah. Jeremiah's first public appearance as a prophet
was in the I3th year of Josiah (Jer. i. 2, xxv. 3), i.e. 626 B.C.,
and his latest prophecy (ch. xliv.) was delivered by him in
Egypt, whither he was carried, against his will, by some of the
Jews who had been left in Judah, shortly after the fall of Jeru-
salem in 586. Jeremiah was keenly conscious of his people's
sin; and the aim of most of his earlier prophecies is to bring
his countrymen, if possible, to a better mind, in the hope that
thereby the doom which he sees impending may be averted
an end which eventually he saw clearly to be unattainable.
Jeremiah's was a sensitive, tender nature; and he laments, with
great pathos and emotion, his people's sins, the ruin to which
he saw his country hastening, and the trials and persecutions
which his predictions of disaster frequently brought upon him.
A large part of his book is biographical, describing various in-
cidents of his ministry. Prophecies of restoration are contained
in chs. xxx.-xxxiii. The prophecies of the first twenty-three
years of his ministry, as we are expressly told in ch. xxxvi.,
were first written down in 604 B.C. by his friend and amanuensis
Baruch, and the roll thus formed must have formed the nucleus
of the present bo<?k. Some of the reports of Jeremiah's pro-
phecies, and especially the biographical narratives, also probably
have Baruch for their author. But the chronological disorder of
the book, and other indications, show that Baruch could not
have been the compiler of the book, but that the prophecies
and narratives contained in it were collected together gradually,
and that it reached its present form by a succession of stages,
which were not finally completed till long after Israel's return
from Babylon. The long prophecy (1. i-li. 58), announcing the
approaching fall of Babylon, is not by Jeremiah, and cannot
have been written till shortly before 538 B.C.
Ezekiel. Ezekiel was one of the captives who were carried
with Jehoiachin in 597 B.C. to Babylonia, and was settled with
many other exiles at a place called Tel-abib (iii. 15). His pro-
phecies (which are regularly dated) arc assigned to various
years from 592 to 570 B.C. The theme of the first twenty-four
chapters of his book is the impending fall of Jerusalem, which
took place actually in 586, and which Ezekiel foretells in a series
of prophecies, distinguished by great variety of symbolism
and imagery. Chs. xxv.-xxxii. are on various foreign
nations, Edom, Tyre, Egypt, &c. Prophecies of Israel's future
restoration follow in chs. xxxiii.-xlviii., chs. xl.-xlviii. being
remarkable for the [minuteness with which Ezekiel describes
the organization of the restored community, as he would fain
see it realized, including even such details as the measurements
and other arrangements of the Temple, the sacrifices to be offered
in it, the duties and revenues of the priests, and the redistribu-
tion of the country among the twelve tribes. The book of
Ezekiel bears throughout the stamp of a single mind; the pro-
phecies contained in it are arranged methodically; and to all
appearance in striking contrast to the books of Isaiah and
Jeremiah it received the form in which we still have it from
the prophet himself.
The Twelve Minor Prophets. These, as was stated above,
were reckoned by the Jews as forming a single " book." The
two earliest of the Minor Prophets, Amos and Hosca, prophesied
in the northern kingdom, at about 760 and 740 B.C. respectively;
both foresaw the approaching ruin of northern Israel at the
hands of the Assyrians, which took place in fact when Sargon
took Samaria in 722 B.C.; and both did their best to stir their
people to better things. The dates of the other Minor Prophets
(in some cases approximate) are: Micah, c. 725-^. 680 B.C.
(some passages perhaps later); Zephaniah, c. 625; Nahum,
shortly before the destruction of Nineveh by the Manda in 607 ;
Habakkuk (on the rise and destiny of the Chaldaean empire)
605-600; Obadiah, after the destruction of Jerusalem by the
Chaldaeans in 586; Haggai, 520; Zechariah, i.-viii. (as in
Haggai, promises and encouragements connected with the re-
building of the Temple) 520 and 518; Malachi, c. 460-450;
Joel, 5th century B.C.; Jonah, 4th century B.C. The latest
prophecies in the book are, probably, those contained in Zech.
ix.-xiv. which reflect entirely different historical conditions
from Zech. i.-viii. (520 and 518 B.C.), and may be plausibly
assigned to the period beginning with the conquests of Alexander
the Great, between 332 and c. 300 B.C. Why these prophecies
were attached to Zech. i.-viii. must remain matter of conjecture;
but there are reasons for supposing that, together with the
prophecy of Malachi, they came to the compiler of the " book "
of the Twelve Prophets anonymously, and he simply attached
them at the point which his collection had reached (i.e. at the
end of Zech. viii.).
The Psalms. The Psalter is that part of the Old Testament
in which the devotional aspect of the religious character finds
its completest expression; and in lyrics of exquisite tenderness
and beauty the most varied emotions are poured forth by the
psalmists to their God despondency and distress, penitence
and resignation, hope and confidence, jubilation and thankful-
ness, adoration and praise. The Psalter, it is clear from many
indications, is not the work of a single compiler, but was formed
gradually. A single compiler is not likely to have introduced
double recensions of one and the same psalm (as Ps. liii.
Ps. xiv., Ps. lxx. = Ps. xl. 13-17, Ps. cviii.-Ps. Ivii. 7-11 +
Ix. 5-1 a); in the Hebrew canon the Psalter is composed of five
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[O.T. CANON
books (i.-xli., xlii.-lxxii., Ixxiii.-Ixxxix., xc.-cvi., cvii.-cl.);
and in many parts it is manifestly based upon independent
smaller collections; for it contains groups of psalms headed
" David," the " sons of Korah," " Asaph," " Songs of Ascents."
Each of the five books of which it is composed contains psalms
which show that its compilation cannot have been completed
till after the return from the Captivity; and indeed, when the
individual psalms are studied carefully it becomes apparent
that in the great majority of cases they presuppose the historical
conditions, or the religious experiences, of the ages that followed
Jeremiah. Thus, though it is going too far to say that there are
no pre-exilic psalms, the Psalter, as a whole, is the expression
of the deeper spiritual feeling which marked the later stages of
Israel's history. It has been not inaptly termed the Hymn-book
of the second Temple. 'Its compilation can hardly have been
finally completed before the 3rd century B.C.; if it is true, as
many scholars think, that there are psalms dating from the time
of the Maccabee struggle (Ps. xliv., Ixxiv., Ixxix., Ixxxiii., and
perhaps others), it cannot have been completed till after 165 B.C.
The Book of Proverbs. This is the first of the three books
belonging to the " Wisdom-literature " of the Hebrews, the
other two books being Job and Ecclesiastes. The Wisdom-
literature of the Hebrews concerned itself with what we should
call the philosophy of human nature, and sometimes also of
physical nature as well; its writers observed human character,
studied action in its consequences, laid down maxims for edu-
cation and conduct, and reflected on the moral problems which
human society presents. The book of Proverbs consists essen-
tially of generalizations on human character and conduct, with
(especially in chs. i.-ix.) moral exhortations addressed to an
imagined " son " or pupil. The book consists of eight distinct
portions, chs. i.-ix. being introductory, the proverbs, properly
so called, beginning at x. i (with the title " The Proverbs of
Solomon "), and other, shorter collections, beginning at xxii. 17,
xxiv. 23, xxv. i, xxx. i, xxxi. i, xxxi. 10 respectively. The
book, it is evident, was formed gradually. A small nucleus
of the proverbs may be Solomon's; but the great majority
represent no doubt the generalizations of a long succession of
" wise men." The introduction, or " Praise of Wisdom," as
it has been called (chs. i.-ix), commending the maxims of
Wisdom as a guide to the young, will have been added after
most of the rest of the book was already complete. The book
will not have finally reached its present form before the 4th
century B.C. Some scholars believe that it dates entirely from
the Greek period (which began 332 B.C.) ; but it may be doubted
whether there are sufficient grounds for this conclusion.
Job. The book of Job deals with a problem of human life;
in modern phraseology it is a work of religious philosophy. Job
is a righteous man, overwhelmed with undeserved misfortune;
and thus the question is raised, Why do the righteous suffer?
Is their suffering consistent with the justice of God ? The
dominant theory at the time when Job was written was that all
suffering was a punishment of sin; and the aim of the book is
to controvert this theory. Job's friends argue that he must have
been guilty of some grave sin; Job himself passionately main-
tains his innocence; and on the issue thus raised the dialogue
of the book turns. The outline of Job's story was no doubt
supplied by tradition; and a later poet has developed this out-
line, and made it a vehicle for expressing his new thoughts
respecting a great moral problem which perplexed his contem-
poraries. A variety of indications (see JOB) combine to show
that the book of Job was not written till after the time of Jere-
miah probably, indeed, not till after the return from exile.
The speeches of Elihu (chs. xxxii.-xxxvii.) are not part of the
original poem, but were inserted in it afterwards.
There follow (in the Hebrew Bible) the five short books, which,
as explained above, are now known by the Jews as the Megilloth,
or " Rolls," viz. Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes
and Esther. Of these, the Song of Songs, in exquisite poetry,
extols the power and sweetness of pure and faithful human love.
The date at which it was written is uncertain; there are features
in it which point to its having been the work of a poet living
in north Israel, and writing at an early date; but most recent
scholars, on account chiefly of certain late expressions occurring
in it, think that it cannot have been written earlier than the
4th or 3rd century B.C. In the graceful and tender idyll of Ruth,
it is told how Ruth, the Moabitess, and a native consequently
of a country hostile theocratically to Israel, adopted Israel's
faith (i. 1 6), and was counted worthy to become an ancestress
of David. The date of Ruth is disputed: Driver has defended
a pre-exilic date for it, but the general opinion of modern scholars
is that it belongs to the sth century B.C. The Lamentations
consist of five elegies on the fall of Jerusalem, and the sufferings
which its people experienced in consequence; they must all
have been composed not long after 586 B.C. Ecclesiastes, the
third book belonging (see above) to the Wisdom-literature,
consists of moralizings, prompted by the dark times in which
the author's lot in life was cast, on the disappointments which
seemed to him to be the reward of all human endeavour, and
the inability of man to remedy the injustices and anomalies of
society. If only upon linguistic grounds for the Hebrew of the
book resembles often that of the Mishnah more than the ordinary
Hebrew of the Old Testament Ecclesiastes must be one of the
latest books in the Hebrew canon. It was most probably
written during the Greek period towards the end of the 3rd
century B.C. The book of Esther, which describes, with many
legendary traits, how the beautiful Jewess succeeded in rescuing
her people from the destruction which Haman had prepared for
them, will not be earlier than the closing years of the 4th century
B.C., and is thought by many scholars to be even later.
The Book of Daniel, The aim of this book is to strengthen
and encourage the .pious Jews in their sufferings under the
persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes, 168-165 B.C. Chs. i.-vi.
consist of narratives, constructed no doubt upon a tradi-
tional basis, of the experiences of Daniel at the Babylonian
court, between 605 and 538 B.C., with the design of illustrating
how God, in times of trouble, defends and succours His faithful
servants. Chs. vii.-xii. contain a series of visions, purport-
ing to have been seen by Daniel, and describing, sometimes
(especially in ch. xi.) with considerable minuteness, the course
of events from Alexander the Great, through the two royal lines
of the Ptolemies and the Seleucidae, to Antiochus Epiphanes,
dwelling in particular on the persecuting measures adopted by
Antiochus against the Jews, and promising the tyrant's speedy
fall (see e.g. viii. 9-14, 23-25, xi. 21-45). Internal evidence
shows clearly that the book cannot have been written by Daniel
himself; and that it must in fact be a product of the period in
which its interest culminates, and the circumstances of which
it so accurately reflects, i.e. of 168-165 B - c -
Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah. These books form the
second series of historical books referred to above, Ezra and
Nehemiah carrying on the narrative of Chronicles, and forming
its direct sequel, i Chr. i.-ix. consists mostly of tribal gene-
alogies, partly based upon data contained in the older books
(Gen.-Kings), partly including materials found by the compiler
elsewhere, i Chr. x.-2 Chr. xxxvi. consists of a series of excerpts
from the books of Samuel and Kings sometimes transcribed
without substantial change, at other times materially altered
in the process combined with matter, in some cases limited
to a verse or two, in others extending to several chapters, con-
tributed by the compiler himself, and differing markedly from
the excerpts from the older books both in phraseology and in
point of view. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah are of similar
structure; here the sources excerpted are the Memoirs of Ezra
and Nehemiah, written by themselves in the first person;
viz. Ezra vii. i2-ix. (including the decree of Artaxerxes, vii.
12-26); Neh. i. i-vii. 73*, xii. 31-41, xiii.; and a narrative
written in Aramaic (Ezra iv. 8-vi. 18); Ezra x. and Neh. viii.-x.
also are in all probability based pretty directly upon the Memoirs
of Ezra; the remaining parts of the books are the composition
of the compiler. The additions of the compiler, especially in
the Chronicles, place the old history in a new light; he invests
it with the associations of his own day; and pictures pre-exilic
Judah as already possessing the fully developed ceremonial
O.T. TEXTS]
BIBLE
855
system, under which he lived himself, and as ruled by the ideas
and principles current among his contemporaries. There is much
in his representation of the past which cannot be historical.
For examples of narratives which are his composition see
i Chr. xv. 1-24, xvi. 4-42, xxii. 2-xxix.; 2 Chr. xiii. 3-22, xiv.
6-xv. 15, xvi. 7-n, xvii., xix. i-xx. 30, xxvi. 16-20, xxix. 3-
xxxi. 21. On account of the interest shown by the compiler
in the ecclesiastical aspects of the history, his work has been not
inaptly called the " Ecclesiastical Chronicle of Jerusalem."
From historical allusions in the book of Nehemiah, it may be
inferred that the compiler wrote at about 300 B.C. (S. R. D.)
2. Texts and Versions.
Text. The form in which the Hebrew text of the Old Testa-
ment is presented to us in all MSS. and printed editions is that
of the Massoretic text, the date of which is usually placed
somewhere between the 6th and 8th centuries of the Christian
era. It is probable that the present text became fixed as early
as the and century A.D., but even this earlier date leaves a
long interval between the original autographs of the Old Testa-
ment writers and our present text. Since the fixing of the
Massoretic text the task of preserving and transmitting the
sacred books has been carried out with the greatest care and
fidelity, with the result that the text has undergone practically
no change of any real importance; but before that date, owing
to various causes, it is beyond dispute that a large number of
corruptions were introduced into the Hebrew text. In dealing,
therefore, with the textual criticism of the Old Testament it is
necessary to determine the period at which the text assumed its
present fixed form before considering the means at our disposal for
controlling the text when it was, so to speak, in a less settled
condition.
An examination of the extant MSS. of the Hebrew Old Testa-
ment reveals two facts which at first sight are somewhat remark-
able. The first is that the oldest dated MS., the Codex
a jy on j clw Petropolitanus, only goes back to the year
A.D. 916, though it is probable that one or two MSS.
belong to the pth century. The second fact is that all our
Hebrew MSS. represent one and the same text, viz. the Massoretic.
This text was the work of a special gild of trained scholars
called Massoretes (moon hyi) or "masters of tradition"
(rrjta; or less correctly 1-303), ' whose aim was not only to
preserve and transmit the consonantal text which had been
handed down to them, but also to ensure its proper pronunciation.
To this end they provided the text with a complete system of
vowel points and accents. 2 Their labours further included the
compilation of a number of notes, to which the term Massorah
is now usually applied. These notes for the most part constitute
a sort of index of the peculiarities of the text, and possess but
little general interest. More important are those passages in
which the Massoretes have definitely adopted a variation from
the consonantal text. In these cases the vowel points attached
to the written word (Klthibh) belong to the word which is to be
substituted for it, the latter being placed in the margin with the
initial letter of Qfre ( = to be read) prefixed to it. Many even of
these readings merely relate to variations of spelling, pronuncia-
tion or grammatical forms; others substitute a more decent
expression for the coarser phrase of the text, but in some
instances the suggested reading really affects the sense of the
passage. These last are to be regarded either as old textual
1 For a discussion of this word see W. Bacher (J.Q.R. vol. iii.
pp. 785 f.), who maintains that the original pronunciation of these
words was rnio? and npio.
2 The actual date of the introduction of vowel points is not known,
but it must in any case have been later than the time of Jerome, and
is probably to be assigned to the 7th century. Of the systems of
punctuation which are known to us, the more familiar is the Tibenan,
or sublinear, which is found in all printed editions of the Hebrew
Bible. The other system, the Babylonian or superlinear, is chiefly
found in certain Yemen MSS. For yet a third system of vocalization
see M. Friedlander, J.Q.R., 1895, pp.56df.,and P. KahleinZ./l.r.H'.
xxi. (1901), pp. 273 f. Probably the idea of providing vowel points
was borrowed from the Syrians.
Massoretic
variants, or, more probably, as emendations corresponding to
the errata or corrigenda of a modern printed book. They do not
mint to any critical editing of the text; for the aim of the
Massoretes was essentially conservative. Their object was not
to create a new text, but rather to ensure the accurate trans-
mission of the traditional text which they themselves had
received. Their work may be said to culminate in the vocalized
text which resulted from the labours of Rabbi Aaron ben Ashcr
in the loth century.* But the writings of Jerome in the 4th, and
of Origen in the 3rd century both testify to a Hebrew text
practically identical with that of the Massoretes. Similar
evidence is furnished by theMishna and the Gcmara, the Targums,
and lastly by the Greek version of Aquila, 4 which dates from the
first half of the 2nd century A.D. Hence it is hardly doubtful
that the form in which we now possess the Hebrew text was
already fixed by the beginning of the 2nd century. On the
other hand, evidence such as that of the Book of Jubilees shows
that the form of the text still fluctuated considerably as late as
the ist century A.D., so that we are forced to place the fixing of
the text some time between the fall of Jerusalem and the produc-
tion of Aquila's version. Nor is the occasion far to seek. After
the fall of Jerusalem the new system of biblical exegesis founded
by Rabbi Hillel reached its climax at Jamnia under the famous
Rabbi Aqiba (d. c. 132). The latter's system of interpretation
was based upon an extremely literal treatment of the test,
according to which the smallest words or particles, and some-
times even the letters of scripture, were invested with divine
authority. The inevitable result of such a system must have
been the fixing of an officially recognized text, which could
scarcely have differed materially from that which was finally
adopted by the Massoretes. That the standard edition was
not the result of the critical investigation of existing materials
may be assumed with some certainty.* Indeed, it is probable,
as has been suggested,* that the manuscript which was
adopted as the standard text was an old and well-written copy,
possibly one of those which were preserved in the Court of the
Temple.
But if the evidence available points to the time of Hadrian as
the period at which the Hebrew text assumed its present form,
it is even more certain that prior to that date the various MSS.
of the Old Testament differed very materially from one another.
Sufficient proof of this statement is furnished by the Samaritan
Pentateuch and the versions, more especially the Septuagint.
Indications also are not wanting in the Hebrew text itself to
show that in earlier times the text was treated with considerable
freedom. Thus, according to Jewish tradition, there are eighteen 7
passages in which the older scribes deliberately altered the text
on the ground that the language employed was either irreverent
or liable to misconception. Of a similar nature are the changes
introduced into proper names, e.g. the substitution of bosheth
( = shame) for ba'al in Ishbosheth (2 Sam. ii. 8) and Mephibosheth
(2 Sam. ix. 6; cf. the older forms Eshbaal and Meribaal, i Chron.
viii. 34, 35); the use of the verb "to bless" (rs) in the sense
of cursing (i Kings xxi. 10, 13; Job i. 5, n, ii. 5, 9; Ps. x. 3);
and the insertion of " the enemies of " in i Sam. xxv. 33, 2 Sam.
xii. 14. These intentional alterations, however, only affect a
very limited portion of the text, and, though it is possible that
other changes were introduced at different times, it is very
* This represents the Western tradition as opposed to the Eastern
text of ben Naphtali. For the standard copies such as the Codex
HiUelis referred to by later writers see H. L. Strack. Proleg. Critica,
pp. 14 f.
4 Cf. F. C. Burkitt, Fragments of the Books of Kings according to
the Translation of Aquila.
* The Talmudic story of the three MSS. preserved in the court of
the temple (Sopherim, vi. 4) sufficiently illustrates the tentative
efforts of the rabbis in this direction.
* W. Robertson Smith, Old Testament and the Jevrisk Church
pp. 69 f.
7 For these Tiqqune Sopherim or " corrections of the scribes " see
Geiger, Urschrift, pp. 308 f. ; Strack, Prolegomena Critica, p. 87;
Buhl, Canon and Text of the Old Testament, pp. 103 f. In the Uekilta
(Exod. xv. 7) only eleven passages are mentioned. Less important
are the lUuri Sopherim, or five passages in which the scribes have
omitted a waw from the text.
8 5 6
BIBLE
[O.T. TEXTS
unlikely that they were either more extensive in range or more
important in character. At the same time it is clear both from
internal and external evidence that the archetype from which our
MSS. are descended was far from being a perfect representative of
the original text. For a comparison of the different parallel
passages which occur in the Old Testament (e.g. i and 2 Samuel,
i and 2 Kings, and i and 2 Chronicles; 2 Kings xviii. i3~xx. 19
and Isaiah xxxvi.-xxxix; 2 Sam. xxii. and Ps. xviii.; Ps. xiv.
and liii., &c.) reveals many variations which are obviously due to
textual corruption, while there are many passages which in their
present form are either ungrammatical, or inconsistent with the
context or with other passages. Externally also the ancient
versions, especially the Septuagint, frequently exhibit variations
from the Hebrew which are not only intrinsically more probable,
but often explain the difficulties presented by the Massoretic
text. Our estimate of the value of these variant readings,
moreover, is considerably heightened when we consider that the
MSS. on which the versions are based are older by several
centuries than those from which the Massoretic text was derived;
hence the text which they presuppose has no slight claim to be
regarded as an important witness for the original Hebrew.
" But the use of the ancient versions " (to quote Prof. Driver 1 )
" is not always such a simple matter as might be inferred. . . .
In the use of the ancient versions for the purposes of textual
criticism there are three precautions which must always be
observed; we must reasonably assure ourselves that we possess
the version itself in its original integrity; we must eliminate
such variants as have the appearance of originating merely with
the translator; the remainder, which will be those that are due
to a difference of text in the MS. (or MSS.) used by the trans-
lator, we must then compare carefully, in the light of the consid-
erations just stated, with the existing Hebrew text, in order to
determine on which side the superiority lies."
Versions. In point of age the Samaritan Pentateuch furnishes
the earliest external witness to the Hebrew text. It is not a version,
but merely that text of the Pentateuch which has been
Sstnari- preserved by the Samaritan community since the time
*" of Nehemiah (Neh. xiii. 23-31), i.e. about 432 B.C.'
It is written in the Samaritan script, which is closely allied to the old
Hebrew as opposed to the later " square " character. We further
possess a Samaritan Targum of the Pentateuch written in the
Samaritan dialect, a variety of western Aramaic, and also an Arabic
translation of the five books of the law; the latter dating perhaps
from the nth century A.D. or earlier. The Samaritan Pentateuch
agrees with the Septuagint version in many passages, but its chief
importance lies in the proof which it affords as to the substantial
agreement of our present text of the Pentateuch, apart from certain
intentional changes, 3 with that which was promulgated by Ezra.
Its value for critical purposes is considerably discounted by the
late date of the MSS., upon which the printed text is based.
The Targums, or Aramaic paraphrases of the books of the Old
Testament (see TARGUM), date from the time when Hebrew had
become superseded by Aramaic as the language spoken
Aramaic. ^ ^ j ewSj , e during the period immediately preceding
the Christian era. In their written form, however, the earlier
Targums, viz. those on the Pentateuch and the prophetical books,
cannot be earlier than the 4th or 5th century A.D. Since they were
designed to meet the needs of the people and had a directly edifica-
tory aim, they are naturally characterized by expansion and para-
?1irase, and thus afford invaluable illustrations of the methods of
:wish interpretation and of the development of Jewish thought,
he text which they exhibit is virtually identical with the Masso-
retic text.
The earliest among the versions as well as the most important
for the textual criticism of the Old Testament is the Septuagint.
This version probably arose out of the needs of the Greek-
\ptua- speaking Jews of Alexandria in the 3rd century B.C.
According to tradition the law was translated into Greek
during the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus (284-247 B.C.), and,
though the form (viz. the Letter of Aristeas) in which this tradition
1 Text of the Books of Samuel, pp. xxxix. f.
1 According to Josephus (Ant. xi. 7. 8) the temple on Mt. Gerizim
was set up by Manasseh in the reign of Darius Codomannus, i.e.
about 332 B.C. It is possible that he is correct in placing the
building of the temple at the later date, but probably he errs in
connecting it with the secession of Manasseh, which, according
to Nehemiah, occurred a century earliet; it has been suggested
that he has confused Darius Codomannus with his predecessor,
Darius Nothus.
3 e.g. Ex. xx. 17, 19 ff. ; Num. xx. f. ; Deut. xxvii. 4.
ofAquila,
Sym-
machu*,
Theo-
dotlon.
has come down to us cannot be regarded as historical, yet it seems
to have preserved correctly both the date and the locality of the
version. The name Septuagint, strictly speaking, only applies to
the translation of the Pentateuch, but it was afterwards extended
to include the other books of the Old Testament as they were trans-
lated. That the interval which elapsed before the Prophets and the
Hagiographa were also translated was no great one is shown by the
prologue to Sirach which speaks of " the Law, the Prophets and
the rest of the books," as already current in a translation by 132 B.C.
The date at which the various books were combined into a single
work is not known, but the existence of the Septuagint as a whole
may be assumed for the 1st century A.D., at which period the Greek
version was universally accepted by the Jews of the Dispersion
as Scripture, and from them passed on to the Christian Church.
The position of the Septuagint, however, as the official Greek
representative of the Old Testament did not long remain un-
challenged. The opposition, as might be expected, came ,
from the side of the Jews, and was due partly to the
controversial use which was made of the version by the
Christians, but chiefly to the fact that it was not suffi-
ciently in agreement with the standard Hebrew text estab-
lished by Rabbi Aqiba and his school. Hence arose _in
the 2nd century A.D. the three new versions of Aquiia,
Symmachus and Theodotion. Aquiia was a Jewish proselyte of
Pontus, and since he was a disciple of Rabbi Aqiba (d. A.D. 135), and
(according to another Talmudic account) also of Rabbi Eliezer and
Rabbi Joshua, the immediate predecessors of Aqiba, his version may
be assigned to the first half of the 2nd century. It is characterized
by extreme literalness, and clearly reflects the peculiar system of
exegesis which was then in vogue among the Jewish rabbis. Its
slavish adherence to the original caused the new translation to be
received with favour by the Hellenistic Jews, among whom it quickly
superseded the older Septuagint. For what remains of this version,
which owing to its character is of the greatest value to the textual
critic, we have until recently been indebted to Origen's Hexapla
(see below); for, though Jerome mentions a secunda editio, no MS.
of Aquila's translation has survived. Fragments, 4 however, of two
codices were discovered (1897) in the genizah at Cairo, which
illustrate more fully the peculiar features of this version.
The accounts given of Theodotion are somewhat conflicting.
Both Irenaeus and Epiphanius describe him as a Jewish proselyte,
but while the former calls him an Ephesian and mentions his trans-
lation before that of Aquiia, the latter states that he was a native
of Pontus and a follower of Marcion, and further assigns his work
to the reign of Commodus (A.D. 180-192); others, according to
Jerome, describe him as an Ebionite. On the whole it is probable
that Irenaeus has preserved the most trustworthy account. 6 Theo-
dotion's version differs from those of Aquiia and Symmachus in that
it was not an independent translation, but rather a revision of the
Septuagint on the basis of the current Hebrew text. He retained,
however, those passages of which there was no Hebrew equivalent,
and added translations of the Hebrew where the latter was not
represented in the Septuagint. A peculiar feature of his translation
is his excessive use of transliteration, but, apart from this, his work
has many points of contact with the Septuagint, which it closely
resembles in style ; hence it is not surprising to find that later MSS.
of the Septuagint have been largely influenced by Theodotion's
translation. In the case of the book of Daniel, as we learn from
Jerome (praefatio in Dan.), the translation of Theodotion was
definitely adopted by the Church, and is accordingly found in the
place of the original Septuagint in all MSS. and editions. 6 It is
interesting to note in this fconnexion that renderings which agree in
the most remarkable manner with Theodotion's version of Daniel
are found not only in writers of the 2nd century but also in the
New Testament. The most probable explanation of this phenomenon
is that these renderings are derived from an early Greek translation,
differing from the Septuagint proper, but closely allied to that
which Theodotion used as the basis of his revision.
Symmachus, according to Eusebius and Jerome, was an Ebionite;
Epiphanius represents him (very improbably) as a Samaritan who
became a Jewish proselyte. He is not mentioned by Irenaeus and
his date is uncertain, but probably his work is to be assigned to the
4 I Kings xx. 7-17 ; 2 Kings xxiii. 12-17, ed. by Mr (now Professor)
F. C. Burkitt in Fragments of the Books of Kings according to the
Translation of Aquiia (Cambridge, 1897), and Ps. xc. 6-13; xci.
4-10, and parts of Ps. xxiii. by Dr C. Taylor in Sayings of the Jewish
Fathers (2nd ed., 1897).
6 On the question of Theodotion's date, Schurer (Geschichte aes
jiidischen Volkes, Bd. iii. p. 324) argues very plausibly for his priority
to Aquiia on the grounds, (i) that Irenaeus mentions him before
Aquiia, and (2) that, after Aquila's version had been adopted by the
Greek Jews, a work such as that of Theodotion would have been
somewhat superfluous. Theodotion's work, he suggests, formed
the first stage towards the establishment of a Greek version which
should correspond more closely with the Hebrew. Moreover, this
theory affords the simplest explanation of its disappearance from
Jewish tradition.
6 Only one MS. of the Septuagint version of Daniel has survived,
the Codex Chisianus.
O.T. CRITICISM]
BIBLE
857
end of the 2nd century. His version was commended by Jerome as
giving the sense of the original, and in that respect it forms a direct
contrast with that of Aqmla. Indeed Dr Swete 1 thinks it probable
that " he wrote with Aquila's version before him, (and that) in his
efforts to recast it he made free use both of the Septuagint and of
Theodotion."
As in the case of Aquila, our knowledge of the works of Theodotion
and Symmachus is practically limited to the fragments that have
, been preserved through the labours of Origen. This writer
* , (see ORIGEN) conceived the idea of collecting all the
Hexapla. ex ; st j n g Greek versions of the Old Testament with a view
to recovering the original text of the Septuagint, partly by their aid
and partly by means of the current Hebrew text. He accordingly
arranged the texts to be compared in six 1 parallel columns in the
following order: (i) the Hebrew text; (2) the Hebrew transliterated
into Greek letters; (3) Aquila; (4) Symmachus; (5) the Septuagint;
and (6) Theodotion. In the Septuagint column he drew attention
to those passages for which there was no Hebrew equivalent by
prefixing an obelus; but where the Septuagint had nothing corre-
sponding to the Hebrew text he supplied the omissions, chiefly but
not entirely from the translation of Theodotion, placing an asterisk
at the beginning of the interpolation; the close of the passage to
which the obelus or the asterisk was prefixed was denoted by the
metobelus. That Origen did not succeed in his object of recovering
the original Septuagint is due to the fact that he started with the
false conception that the original text of the Septuagint must be
that which coincided most nearly with the current Hebrew text.
Indeed, the result of his monumental labours has been to impede
rather than to promote the restoration of the genuine Septuagint.
For the Hexaplar text which he thus produced not only effaced
many of the most characteristic features of the old version, but also
exercised a prejudicial influence on the MSS. of that version.
The Hexapla as a whole was far too large to be copied, but the
revised Septuagint text was published separately by Eusebius and
Pamphilus, and was extensively used in Palestine during
"" the 4th century. During the same period two other
Lucian. recensions made their appearance, that of Hesychius
which was current in Egypt, and that of Lucian which became the
accepted text of the Antiochene Church. Of Hesychius little is
known. Traces of his revision are to be found in the Egyptian
MSS., especially the Codex Marchalianus, and in the quotations of
Cyril of Alexandria. Lucian was a priest of Antioch who was
martyred at Nicomedia in A.D. 311 or 312. His revision (to quote
Dr Swete) " was doubtless an attempt to revise the KOUJI (or
' common text ' of the Septuagint) in accordance with the prin-
ciples of criticism which were accepted at Antioch." To Ceriani
is due the discovery that the text preserved by codices 19, 82, 93,
108, really represents Lucian's recension; the same conclusion was
reached independently by Lagarde, who combined codex 118 with
the four mentioned above.' As Field (Hexapla, p. 87) has shown,
this discovery is confirmed by the marginal readings of the Syro-
Hexapla. The recension (see Driver, Notes on the Hebrew Texlt of
the Books of Samuel, p. 52) is characterized by the substitution of
synonyms for the words originally used by the Septuagint, and by
the frequent occurrence of double renderings, but its chief claim
to critical importance rests on the fact that " it embodies renderings
not found in other MSS. of the Septuagint which presuppose a
Hebrew original self-evidently superior in the passages concerned
to the existing Massoretic text."
Latin Versions. Of even greater importance in this respect is
the Old Latin version, which undoubtedly represents a Greek
original prior to the Hexapla. " The earliest form of the version "
(to quote Dr Kennedy 4 ) " to which we can assign a definite date,
namely, that used by Cyprian, plainly circulated in Africa." In
the view of many authorities this version was first produced at
Carthage, but recent writers are inclined to regard Antioch as its
birthplace, a view which is supported by the remarkable agreement
of its readings with the Lucianic recension and with the early Syriac
MSS. Unfortunately the version is only extant in a fragmentary
form, being preserved partly in MSS., partly in Quotations of the
Fathers. The non-canonical books of the Vulgate, how-
ever, which do not appear to have been revised by Jerome,
still represent the older version. It was not until after the 6th
century that the Old Latin was finally superseded by the Vulgate
or Latin translation of the Old Testament made by Jerome during
the last quarter of the 4th century. This new version was translated
1 Introduction In the Old Testament in Greek, p. 51.
2 Hence the name Hexapla. In some books, especially the poetical,
the columns were increased to eight by the addition of the Ouinta and
Sexla, but the Octapla, as the enlarged work was called, was not
apparently a distinct work. The Tetrapla, on the other hand, was
a separate edition which did not contain the first two columns of
the Hexapla.
* Lagarde's projected edition of the Lucianic recension was un-
fortunately never completed; the existing volume contains Genesis
-2 Esdras, Esther. It may be noted here that the Complutensian
Polyglott represents a Lucianic text.
4 Hastings' s Diet, of the Bible, iii. pp. 54 ff.
from the Hebrew, but Jerome also made use of the Greek versions,
more especially of Symmachus. His original intention was to revise
the Old Latin, and his two revisions of the Psalter, the Roman and
the Gallican, the latter modelled on the Hexapla, still survive. < /(
the other books which he revised according to the Hexaplar text,
that of Job has alone come down to us. For textual purposes the
Vulgate possesses but little value, since it presupposes a Hebrew
original practically identical with the text stereotyped by the
MaMoretcs.
Syriac Versions. The Peshito (P'shitta) or " simple " revision of
the Old Testament is a translation from the Hebrew, though certain
books appear to have been influenced by the Septuagint. Its date
is unknown, but it is usually assigned to the 2nd century A.D. Its
value for textual purposes is not great, partly because the under-
lying text is the same as the ; Massoretic, partly because the Syriac
text has at different times been harmonized with that of the
Septuagint.
The Syro-Hexaplar version, on the other hand, is extremely
valuable for critical purposes. This Syriac translation of the Septua-
gint column of the Hexapla was made by Paul, bishop of
Telia, at Alexandria in A.D. 616-617. Its value consists "*"
in the extreme literalness of the translation, which renders
it possible to recover the Greek original with considerable certainty.
It has further preserved the critical signs employed by Origen as
well as many readings from the other Greek versions; hence it forms
our chief authority for reconstructing the Hexapla. The greater
part of this work is still extant ; the poetical and propheticalbooks
nave been preserved in the Codex Ambrosianus at Milan (published
in photolithography by Ceriani, Man. Sacr. et Prof.), and the remain-
ing portions of the other books have been collected by Lagarde in
his Bibliothecae Syriacae, &c.
Of the remaining versions of the Old Testament the most im-
portant are the Egyptian, Ethiopic, Arabic, Gothic and Armenian,
all of which, except a part of the Arabic, appear to have been made
through the medium of the Septuagint.
AUTHORITIES. Wellhausen-Bleek, Einleitung in dai alte Testa-
ment (4th ed., Berlin, 1878, pp. 571 ff., orjth ed., Berlin, 1886, pp. 523
ff.); S. R. Driver, Notes on Samuel (Oxford, 1800), Introd. | 3 f.;
W. Robertson Smith, Old Testament in the Jewish Church (2nd ed.,
1895); F. G. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient MSS. (London.
1896); T. H. Weir, A Short History of the Hebrew Text (London,
1896); H B. Swete, Introduction to the Old Testament in Greet
(Cambridge, 1900) ; F. Buhl, Kanon u. Text des A.T. (English trans.,
Edinburgh, 1892) ; E. Schurer, Geschichte des jAdischen Voltes
(3rd ed., 1902), vol. iii. 33; C. H. Cornill, Einleitung in das alte
Testament (4th ed., 1806), and Prolegomena to Ezechiel (Leipzig),
1886); H. L. Strack, Einleitung in das alte Testament, Prolegomena
Critica in Vet. Test. (Leipzig, 1873); A. Loisy, Histoire critique du
texle et des versions de la bible (Amiens, 1892) ; E. Nestle, Urtext und
Vbersetzungen der Bibel (Leipzig, 1807); Ed. KSnig, Einleitung in
das alte Testament (Bonn, 1893); F. Field, Origenis Hexaplorum
quae supersunt, &c. ; A. Dillmann and F. Buhl, article on Bibel-
text des A.T." in P.R.E. 1 vol. ii. ; Ch. D. Ginsburg, Introduction
to the Massoretico-crilical edition of the Bible (London, 1897), and
The Massorah (London, 1880-1885). (J. F. ST.)
3. Textual Criticism.
The aim of scientific Old Testament criticism is to obtain,
through discrimination between truth and error, a full apprecia-
tion of the literature which constitutes the Old Testa-
ment, of the life out of which it grew, and the secret of
the influence which these have exerted and still exert, between
For such an appreciation many things are needed; and Tixtumi
the branches of Old Testament criticism are corre-
spondingly numerous. It is necessary in the first
instance to detect the errors which have crept into the
text in the course of its transmission, and to recover, so far as
possible, the text in its original form ; this is the task of Textual,
or as it is sometimes called in contradistinction to another branch,
Lower Criticism. It then becomes the task of critical exegesis
to interpret the text thus recovered so as to bring out the meaning
intended by the original authors. This Higher Criticism partakes
of two characters, literary and historical. One branch seeks to
determine the scope, purpose and character of the various books
of the Old Testament, the times in and conditions under which
they were written, whether they are severally the work of a
single author or of several, whether they embody earlier sources
and, if so, the character of these, and the conditions under which
they have reached us, whether altered and, if altered, how; this
is Literary Criticism. A further task is to estimate the value of
this literature as evidence for the history of Israel, to determine,
as far as possible, whether such parts of the literature as are
contemporary with the time described present correct, or whether
858
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[O.T. CRITICISM
in any respect one-sided or biased or otherwise incorrect,
descriptions; and again, how far the literature that relates the
story of long past periods has drawn upon trustworthy records,
and how far it is possible to extract historical truth from tradi-
tions (such as those of the Pentateuch) that present, owing to the
gradual accretions and modifications of intervening generations,
a composite picture of the period described, or from a work such
as Chronicles, which narrates the past under the influence of the
conception that the institutions and ideas of the present must
have been established and current in the past; all this falls under
Historical Criticism, which, on its constructive side, must avail
itself of all available and well-sifted evidence, whether derived
from the Old Testament or elsewhere, for its presentation of the
history of Israel its ultimate purpose. Finally, by comparing
the results of this criticism as a whole, we have to determine, by
observing its growth and comparing it with others, the essential
character of the religion of Israel.
In brief, then, the criticism of the Old Testament seeks to
discover what the words written actually meant to the writers,
what the events in Hebrew history actually were, what the
religion actually was; and hence its aim differs from the dog-
matic or homiletic treatments of the Old Testament, which have
sought to discover in Scripture a given body of dogma or incen-
tives to a particular type of life or the like.
Biblical criticism, and in some respects more especially Old
Testament criticism, is, in all its branches, very largely of modern
growth. This has been due in part to the removal of conditions
unfavourable to the critical study of the evidence that existed,
in part to the discovery in recent times of fresh evidence. The
unfavourable conditions and the critical efforts which were made
in spite of them can only be briefly indicated.
For a long time Biblical study lacked the first essential of sound
critical method, viz. a critical text of the literature. Jewish
study was exclusively based on the official Hebrew
text > which was fixed, probably in the 2nd century A.D.,
and thereafter scrupulously preserved. This text,
however, had suffered certain now obvious corruptions, and,
probably enough, more corruption than can now, or perhaps ever
will be, detected with certainty. The position of Christian (and
Jewish Alexandrian) scholars was considerably worse; for,
with rare exceptions, down to the 5th century, and practically
without exception between the 5th and isth centuries, their
study was exclusively based on translations. Beneath the
ancient Greek version, the Septuagint, there certainly underlay an
earlier form of the Hebrew text than that perpetuated by Jewish
tradition, and if Christian scholars could have worked through
the version to the underlying Hebrew text, they would often
have come nearer to the original meaning than their Jewish
contemporaries. But this they could not do; and since the
version, owing to the limitations of the translators, departs widely
from the sense of the original, Christian scholars were on the
whole kept much farther from the original meaning than their
Jewish contemporaries, who used the Hebrew text; and later,
after Jewish grammatical and philological study had been
stimulated by intercourse with the Arabs, the relative disad-
vantages under which Christian scholarship laboured increased.
Still there are not lacking in the early centuries A.D. important, if
limited and imperfect, efforts in textual criticism. Origen, in his
Hexapla, placed side by side the Hebrew text, the Septuagint, and
certain later Greek versions, and drew attention to the variations:
he thus brought together for comparison, an indispensable
preliminary to criticism, the chief existing evidence to the text of
the Old Testament. Unfortunately this great work proved too
voluminous to be preserved entire; and in the form in which it
was fragmentarily preserved, it even largely enhanced the critical
task of later centuries. Jerome, perceiving the unsatisfactory
position of Latin-speaking Christian scholars who studied the Old
Testament at a double remove from the original in Latin versions
of the Greek made a fresh Latin translation direct from the
Hebrew text then received among the Jews. It is only in accord-
ince with what constantly recurs in the history of Biblical
criticism that this effort to approximate to the truth met at first
with considerable opposition, and was for a time regarded even by
Augustine as dangerous. Subsequently, however, this version of
Jerome (the Vulgate) became the basis of Western Biblical
scholarship. Henceforward the Western Church suffered both
from the corruptions in the official Hebrew text and also from the
fact that it worked from a version and not from the original, for a
knowledge of Hebrew was rare indeed among Christian scholars
between the time of Jerome and the i6th century.
But if the use of versions, or of an uncritical text of the
original, was one condition unfavourable to criticism, another
that was not less serious was the dominance over both Jews and
Christians of unsound methods of interpretation legal or
dogmatic or allegorical. The influence of these can be traced as
early as the Greek version (3rd century B.C. and later); alle-
gorical interpretation is conspicuous in the Alexandrian Jewish
scholar Philo (q.v.); it may be seen in many New Testament
interpretations of the Old Testament (e.g. Gal. iii. 16, iv. 21-31),
found a classical exponent in Origen, and, in spite of the opposi-
tion of the school of Antioch, pre-eminently of Theodore (d.
A.D. 428), maintained its power virtually unbroken down to the
Reformation. It is true that even by the most thorough-going
allegorists the literal sense of Scripture was not openly and
entirely disregarded; but the very fact that the study of Hebrew
was never more than exceptional, and so early ceased to be
cultivated at all, is eloquent of indifference to the original literal
sense, and the very principle of the many meanings inherent in
the sacred writings was hostile to sound interpretation; greater
importance was attached to the " deeper " or " hidden " senses,
i.e. to the various unreal interpretations, and when the literal
sense conflicted with the dogmas or tradition of the Church its
validity was wholly denied. The extraordinary ambiguity and
uncertainty which allegorical interpretation tacitly ascribed to
Scripture, and the ease with which heretical as well as orthodox
teaching could be represented as " hidden " under the literal
sense, was early perceived, but instead of this leading to any real
check on even wild subjectivity in interpretation and insistence
on reaching the literal sense, it created an ominous principle that
maintained much of its influence long after the supremacy of
allegorism was overthrown. This is the principle that all
interpretation of Scripture must be according to the Regula
Jidei that all interpretation which makes Scripture contradict or
offend the traditions of the Church is wrong.
The spirit and the age of humanism and the Reformation
effected and witnessed important developments in the study of
the Old Testament. It was still long before any considerable
results were achieved; but in various ways the dogmatic and
traditional treatment of Scripture was undermined; the way
was opened for a more r,eal and historical method. It must
suffice to refer briefly to two points.
i. Ignorance gave place to knowledge of the languages in'which
the Old Testament was written. In 1506 the distinguished humanist,
Johann Reuchlin, who had begun the study of Hebrew under a
Jewish teacher about 1492, published a work entitled De Rudimentis
Hebraicis containing a Hebrew lexicon and a Hebrew grammar.
In 1504 Konrad Peliikan (Pellicanus), whose study of Hebrew had
profited from intercourse with Reuchlin, had published a brief
introduction to the language. In 1514 the Cpmplutensian Polyglott
began to be printed and in 1522 was published. Various Jewish
editions of the Hebrew Bible had already been printed in part
since 1477, entire since 1488; but this work contained the first
Christian edition of the text. Certainly the editors did not intend
hereby to exalt the original above the versions; for they placed the
Vulgate in the centre of the page with the Hebrew on one side,
the Greek on the other, i.e. as they themselves explained it, the
Roman Church between the synagogue and the Greek Church, as
Christ crucified between two thieves. Yet even so the publication
of the Hebrew text by Christian scholars marks an important stage ;
henceforth the study of the original enters increasingly into Christian
Biblical scholarship; it already underlay the translations which
form so striking a feature of the l6th century. Luther's German
version (Pentateuch, 1523) and Tyndale's English version (Penta-
teuch, 1530) were both made from the Hebrew. At first, and indeed
down to the middle of the 1 7th century, Jewish traditions and
methods in the study of Hebrew dominated Christian scholars;
but in the I7th and l8th centuries the study of other Semitic lan-
guages opened up that comparative linguistic study which was
systematized and brought nearer to perfection in the igth century
O.T. CRITICISM]
BIBLE
859
(which also witnessed the opening up of the new study of Assyrian)
by scholars such as Gesenius, Ewald, Olshausen, Kenan, Ndldeke,
Stade and Driver. This has done much to render possible a more
critical interpretation of the Old Testament.
2. An increasing stress was laid on the literal sense of Scripture.
The leading Reformers Luther, Zwingli, Melancthon frequently
expressed themselves against the prevailing view of the manifold
sense of Scripture, and in particular questioned the legitimacy of
allegorical interpretation except for purposes of popular and
practical exposition. The effort to get at and abide by the literal
sense is characteristic of Calvin's extensive exegetical works. True,
practice did not always keep pace with theory, and the literal sense
had to yield if it came into conflict with the " Faith " : the alle-
gorical method for long obscured the meaning of the Song of Songs,
and any departure from it was severely condemned ; just as Theodore
of Mopsuestia drew down on himself for maintaining the literal
sense of the Song the condemnation of the Second Council of Con-
stantinople (A.D. 553), so Sebastian Castellio owed (in part) to the
same indiscretion his expulsion from Geneva in 1544. Even in the
1 6th and 1 7th centuries scholars like Grotius and Michaelis met with
violent opposition for the same cause.
But, however slowly and irregularly, the new conditions and the
new spirit affected the study of the Old Testament. It became subject
to the same critical methods which since the Renaissance have been
applied to other ancient literatures. Biblical criticism is part of a
wider critical movement, but it is noticeable how, from stage to
stage, Biblical scholars adopted the various critical methods which
as applied to other literatures have been proved valid, rather than
themselves initiated them. The textual criticism of the classical
literatures made way before the textual criticism of the Old Testa-
ment: Bentley's Phalaris (1699) preceded any thorough or
systematic application of Higher Criticism to any part of the Old
Testament; Niebuhr's History of Rome (1811) preceded Ewald's
History of Israel (1843-1859).
The fundamental principles of the Textual Criticism of the
Old Testament are the same as those which apply to any other
Conditions anc i ent text an d nee d not be described here (see the
of Textual article TEXTUAL CRITICISM). There are also, however,
Criticism certain conditions peculiar to the text of the Old
Testament. The significance of these and the extent
to which they must govern the application of the general
principles have even yet scarcely obtained full and general
recognition. These, then, must be briefly described.
The earliest Hebrew MSS. of the Old Testament date from
not earlier than the Qth century A.D., or nearly one thousand
years after the latest parts of the Old Testament were written.
These MSS., and the Hebrew Bibles as usually printed, contain
in reality two perfectly distinct texts the work of two different
ages separated from one another by centuries: the one is a
text of the Old Testament itself, the other a text of a later Jewish
interpretation of the Old Testament. The text of the Old
Testament consists of consonants only, for the alphabet of the
ancient Hebrews, like that of their Moabite, Aramaean and
Phoenician neighbours, contained no vowels; the text of the
interpretation consists of vowels and accents only for vowel
signs and accents had been invented by Jewish scholars between
the sth and gth centuries A.D.; the text of the Old Testament
is complete in itself and intelligible, though ambiguous; but
the text of the interpretation read by itself is unintelligible, and
only becomes intelligible when read with the consonants (under,
over, or in which they are inserted) of the text of the Old Testa-
ment. But the fact that the later text makes use of the earlier
to make itself intelligible in no way destroys the fact that it is
as entirely distinct a work from the earlier as is any commentary
distinct from the work on which it comments. The first task
of Old Testament textual criticism after the Reformation was
to prove the independence of these two texts, to gain general
recognition of the fact that vowels and accents formed no part
of the original Hebrew text of the Old Testament. The conflict
that arose over this question in the Christian Church was pro-
longed and bitter in part because it unfortunately became
inflamed by the contending interests of Roman Catholic and
Protestant. The coeval origin of consonants and vowels had
indeed been questioned or denied by the earliest reformers
(Luther, Zwingli, Calvin), but later, in the period of Protestant
scholasticism and under the influence of one school of Jewish
Rabbis, Protestant scholars in particular, and especially those
of the Swiss school, notably the Buxtorfs, had committed
themselves to the view that the vowels formed an integral and
original part of the text of the Old Testament; and this they
maintained with all the more fervency because the ambiguity
of the consonants without the vowels was a troublesome fact
in the way of the extreme Protestant doctrine of the inspiration,
verbal infallibility and sufficiency of Scripture, while it was
by no means unwelcome to Catholic theologians with their
doctrine of the need for an authoritative interpretation. Still
in the end it was due in large measure to the learning and argu-
mentative power devoted to this subject by the French Protestant
scholar, Louis Cupell, and, amongst others, by the English
Protestant scholar, Brian Walton, that by the end of the i?th
century this particular controversy was practically at an end;
criticism had triumphed, and the later origin of the vowels was
admitted. Yet, as often happens, the influence of tradition
lingered long after it had been proved to be false; thus the
R.V., instead of being an independent translation of the Hebrew
text, is intended (with rare exceptions, as e.g. in Is. lix. 19, where
R.V. translates the Hebrew text and R.V. margin the Jewish
interpretation) to be merely a translation of the Jewish inter-
pretation; and to the present day it is usual, though obviously
uncritical and wrong, to describe perfectly legitimate translations
of the received consonantal text, if they happen to presuppose
other vowels than those provided by Jewish tradition, as
based on emendation; even in the English edition of Haupt's
Sacred Books of the Old Testament (see below) the possi-
bility of this unfortunate misunderstanding is not altogether
removed.
But the original text of the Old Testament long before it was
combined with the text of the Jewish orMassoretic interpretation
had already undergone a somewhat similar change, the extent
of which was indeed far less, but also less clearly discoverable.
This change consisted in the insertion into the original text
of certain consonants which had come to be also used to express
vowel sounds : e.g. the Hebrew consonant corresponding to
w also expressed the vowel o or , the consonant h the vowel
a, and so forth. For reasons suggested partly by the study of
Semitic inscriptions, partly by comparison of passages occurring
twice within the Old Testament, and partly by a comparison
of the Hebrew text with the Septuagint, it is clear that the authors
of the Old Testament (or at least most of them) themselves made
some use of these vowel consonants, but that in a great number
of cases the vowel consonants that stand in our present text
were inserted by transcribers and editors of the texts. Again,
and for similar reasons, it is probable that in many cases, if not
in all, the original texts were written without any clear division
of the consonants into words. In view of all this, the first
requisite for a critical treatment of the text of the Old Testament
is to consider the consonants by themselves, to treat every
vowel-consonant as possibly not original, and the existing
divisions of the text into words as original only in those cases
where they yield a sense better than any other possible division
(or, at least, as good). Certainly all this brings us face to face
with much ambiguity and demands increased skill in interpreta-
tion, but anything short of it falls short also of strict critical
method. A perception of this has only been gradually reached,
and is even now none too general.
Apart from these changes in the history of the text, it has,
like all ancient texts, suffered from accidents of transmission,
from the unintentional mistakes of copyists. This fact was,
naturally enough and under the same dogmatic stress, denied
by those scholars who maintained that the vowels were an
integral part of the text. Here again we may single out Capellus
as a pioneer in criticism, in his Crttica sacra site de tariis quae
in sacris V. T. libris occurrunt leciionibus, written in 1634, much
studied in MS. by scholars before its publication in 1650, and
unavailingly criticized by Buxtorf the younger in his Anticritico
seu vindiciae veritatis hebraicae (1653). Capellus drew conclusions
from such important facts as the occurrence of variations in
the two Hebrew texts of passages found twice in the Old Testa-
ment itself, and the variations brought to light by a comparison
of the Jewish and Samaritan texts of the Pentateuch, the Hebrew
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[O.T. CRITICISM
text and the Septuagint, the Hebrew text and New Testament
quotations from the Old Testament.
In order that the principles already perceived by Capellus
might be satisfactorily applied in establishing a critical text,
many things were needed; for example, a complete collation
of existing MSS. of the Jewish text and of the Samaritan text
of the Pentateuch, the establishing of a critical text of the Septua-
gint, a careful study of the several versions directed to determin-
ing when real variants are implied and what they are. Some of
this work has been accomplished: much of it remains to be done.
The Hebrew MSS. were collated by Kennicott and de Rossi
at the close of the i8th century, with sufficient thoroughness
to justify the important conclusion that all existing MSS.
reproduce a single recension. The Samaritan MSS. are still
very imperfectly collated; the same is true of the Syriac and
other versions except the Septuagint. In regard to the Septua-
gint, though the work is by no means complete, much has been
done. For collection of material the edition of Holmes and
Parsons (Oxford, 1798-1827), with its magnificent critical
apparatus, is pre-eminent; the preparation of a similar edition,
on a rather smaller scale but embodying the results of fresh and
more careful collation, was subsequently undertaken by Cam-
bridge scholars. 1 These editions furnish the material, but neither
attempts the actual construction of a critical text of the version.
Some important contributions towards a right critical method
of using the material collected have been made in particular
by Lagarde, who has also opened up a valuable line of critical
work, along which much remains to be done, by his restoration
of the Lucianic recension, one of the three great recensions of
the Greek text of the Old Testament which obtained currency
at the close of the 3rd and beginning of the 4th centuries A.D.
More especially since the time of Capellus the value of the
Septuagint for correcting the Hebrew text has been recognized;
but it has often been used uncritically, and the correctness of the
Hebrew text underlying it in comparison with the text of the
Hebrew MSS., though still perhaps most generally under-
estimated, has certainly at times been exaggerated.
It has only been possible here to indicate in the briefest way
what is involved in the collection and critical sifting of the
extant evidence for the text of the Old Testament,
Criticism. how much of the work has been done and how much
remains; and with equal brevity it must suffice to
indicate the position which faces the textual critic when all
that can be done in this way has been done. In so far as it
is possible to recover the Hebrew text from which the Greek
version was made, it is possible to recover a form of the Hebrew
text current about 280 B.C. in the case of the Pentateuch, some
time before 100 B.C. in the case of most of the rest of the Old
Testament. By comparison of the Hebrew MSS. it is not
difficult to recover the recension which with few and unimportant
variants they have perpetuated, and which may safely be
regarded as differing but slightly from the text current and offici-
ally established before the end of the 2nd century A.D. By
a comparison of these two lines of evidence we can approximate
to a text current 'about 300 B.C. or later; but for any errors
which had entered into the common source of these two forms
of the text we possess no documentary means of detection
whatsoever. The case then stands thus. Except by the obviously
absurd assumption of the infallibility of copyists for the centuries
before c. 300 B.C., we cannot escape the conclusion that errors
lurk even where no variants now exist, and that such errors can
be corrected, if at all, only by conjectural emendation. The dangers
of conjectural emendation are well known and apparent; large
numbers of such emendations have been ill-advised; but in the
case of many passages the only alternative for the textual critic
who is at once competent and honest is to offer such emendations
or to indicate that such passages are corrupt and the means of
restoring them lacking.
Conjectural emendations were offered by Capellus in the
1 7th, and by scholars such as C. F. Houbigant, Archbishop
1 The Old Testament in Greek, by A. E. Brooke and N. McLean,
vol. i. pt. i (1906).
Seeker, Bishop Lowth and J. D. Michaelis in the i8th century.
Some of these have approved themselves to successive genera-
tions of scholars, who have also added largely to the store of such
suggestions; conjectural emendation has been carried furthest
by upholders of particular metrical theories (such as Bickell
and Duhm) which do not accommodate themselves well to the
existing text, and by T. K. Cheyne (in Crilica Biblica, 1903),
whose restorations resting on a dubious theory of Hebrew history
have met with little approval, though his negative criticism
of the text is often keen and suggestive.
A model of the application of the various resources of Old
Testament textual criticism to the restoration of the text is
C. H. Cornill's Das Buck des Propheten Ezechiel (1886) : outstand-
ing examples of important systematic critical notes are J. Well-
hausen's Der Text der Biicher Samuelis (1871) and S. R. Driver's
Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel (1890). Haupt's
Sacred Books of the Old Testament, edited by various scholars,
was designed to present, when complete, a critical text of the
entire Old Testament with critical notes. The results of textual
criticism, including a considerable number of conjectural emend-
ations, are succinctly presented in KittePs Biblia Hebraica
(1906); but the text here printed is the ordinary Massoretic
(vocalized) text. The valuable editions of the Old Testament
by Baer and Delitzsch, and by Ginsburg, contain critical texts
of the Jewish interpretation of Scripture, and therefore neces-
sarily uncritical texts of the Hebrew Old Testament itself: it
lies entirely outside their scope to give or even to consider the
evidence which exists for correcting the obvious errors in the
text of the Old Testament as received and perpetuated by the
Jewish interpreters. See also the authorities mentioned in the
following section. (G. B. G.*)
4. Higher Criticism.
We now pass on to consider the growth of literary and his-
toric criticism, which constitute the Higher Criticism as already
explained. Down to the Reformation conditions were un-
favourable to such criticism; the prevailing dogmatic use of
Scripture gave no occasion for inquiry into the human origins
or into the real purport and character of the several books.
Nevertheless we find some sporadic and tentative critical efforts
or questions. The most remarkable of these was made outside
the Church a significant indication of the adverse effect of
the conditions within; the Neo-platonist philosopher Porphyry 2
in the 3rd century A.D., untrammelled by church tradition and
methods, anticipated one of the clearest and most important
conclusions of modern criticism: he detected the incorrectness
of the traditional ascription of Daniel to the Jewish captivity
in Babylon and discerned that the real period of its composition
was that of Antiochus Epiphanes, four centuries later. In the
mind even of Augustine (Locutio in Jos. vi. 25) questions were
raised by the occurrence of the formula " until this day " in
Jos. iv. 9, but were stilled by a rather clever though wrong use
of Jos. vi. 25; Abelard (Heloissae Problema, xli.) considers the
problem whether the narrative of Moses's death in Deut. contains
a prophecy by Moses or is the work of another and later writer,
while the Jewish scholar Ibn Ezra ( Abenezra) , in a cryptic note
on Deut. i. i, which has been often quoted of late years, gathers
together several indications that point, as he appears to perceive,
to the post-Mosaic origin of the Pentateuch. Even rarer than
these rare perceptions of the evidence of the quasi-historical
books to their origin are such half-perceptions of the literary
origin of the prophetical books as is betrayed by Ibn Ezra, who
appears to question the Isaianic authorship of Is. xl.-lxvi., and
by Photius, patriarch of Constantinople in the gth century,
who, according to Diestel (Gesch. des A. T., 169), raises the ques-
tion why the sixth chapter of Isaiah, containing the inaugural
vision, does not stand at the beginning of the book.
Even after the Renaissance and the Reformation tradition
continued influential. For though the Reformers were critical
of the authority of ecclesiastical tradition in the matter of
2 His arguments are stated briefly (and in order to be refuted) by
Jerome in his commentary on Daniel.
O.T. CRITICISM]
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861
the interpretation and use of Scripture, they were not im-
mediately interested in literary and historical criticism, nor con-
cerned to challenge the whole body of traditional lore
Reformer*. on these matters. At the same time we can see from
Luther's attitude how the doctrine of the Reformers
(unlike that of the Protestant scholastics who came later)
admitted considerable freedom, in particular with reference
to the extent of the canon, but also to several questions of
higher criticism. Thus it is to Luther a matter of indifference
whether or not Moses wrote the Pentateuch; the books of
Chronicles he definitely pronounces less credible than those of
Kings, and he considers that the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and
Hosea probably owe their present form to later hands. Carlstadt
again definitely denied the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch
on the ground that Moses could not have written the account of
his own death and yet that Deut. xxxiv. cannot be separated
from the rest of the Pentateuch. The later scholastic Protestant
doctrine of verbal infallibility necessarily encouraged critical
reaction and proved a widely extended retarding force far down
into the ipth century. Nevertheless criticism advanced by
slow degrees among individuals, now in the Roman Church,
now in the number of those who sat loosely to the restrictions
of either Roman or Protestant authority, and now among
Protestant scholars and theologians.
It would be impossible to refer here even briefly to all these,
and it may be more useful to select for somewhat full description,
Hobbes as showing what could be achieved by, and what
limitations beset, even a critical spirit in the lyth
century, the survey of the origin of the Old Testament given
by one such individual Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan 1
(published 1651) c. xxxiii. As far as possible this survey shall
be cited verbatim:
" Who were the original writers of the several books of Holy
Scripture has not been made evident by any sufficient testimony
of other history, which is the only proof of matter of fact ; nor can
be, by any argument of natural reason: for reason serves only to
convince the truth, not of fact, but of consequence. The li(fht
therefore that must guide us in this question, must be that which
is held out unto us from the books themselves: and this light,
though it shew us not the author of every book, yet it is not unuseful
to give us knowledge of the time wherein they were written."
<r And first, for the Pentateuch. . . . We read (Deut. xxxiv. 6)
concerning the sepulchre of Moses ' that no man knoweth of his
sepulchre to this day ' ; that is, to the day wherein those words were
written. It is therefore manifest that these words were written
after his interment. For it were a strange interpretation to say
Moses spake of his own sepulchre, though by prophecy, that it was
not found to that day wherein he was yet living. ' The suggestion
that the last chapter only, not the whole Pentateuch, was written
later, is met by Hobbes by reference to Gen. xii. 6 (" the Canaanite
was then in the land ") and Num. xxi. 14 (citation from a book
relating the acts of Moses at the Red Sea and in Moab) and the con-
clusion reached that " the five books of Moses were written after
his time, though how long after is not so manifest."
" But though Moses did not compile those books entirely, and
in the form we have them, yet he wrote all that which he is there
said to have written: as, for example, the volume of the Law "
contained " as it seemeth " in Deut. xi.-xxyii, " and this is that Law
which . . . having been lost, was long time after found again by
Hilkiah and sent to King Josias (2 Kings xxii. 8)."
The books of Joshua, Judges, Ruth, Samuel are proved much
later than the times recorded in them by the numerous passages
which speak of customs, conditions, &c., remaining " unto this day,"
and Judges in particular by xviii. 30, " where it said that ' Jonathan
and his sons were priests to the tribe of Dan, until the day of the
captivity of the land.' "
As for Kings and Chronicles, " besides the places which mention
such monuments as, the writer saith, remained till his own days "
(Hobbes here cites thirteen from Kings, two from Chron.), " it is
argument sufficient that they were written after the captivity in
Babylon, that the history of them is continued till that time. For
the facts registered are always more ancient than the register; and
much more ancient than such books as make mention of and quote
the register, as these books do in divers places."
Ezra and Nehemiah were written after, Esther during, or after,
the captivity : Job, which is not a history but a philosophical poem,
at an uncertain date. The Psalms were written mostly by David,
but " some of them after the return from the captivity, as the I37th
1 In what follows the actual quotations are from his English work;
some of the summaries take account of the brief expansions in his
later Latin version.
and 1 26th, whereby it is manifest that the psalter was compiled
and put into the form it now hath, after the return of the Jews from
Babylon." The compilation of Proverbs is later than any of those
whose proverbs are therein contained ; but Ecclesiastes and Canticles
are wholly Solomon's except the titles. There is little noticeable in
Hobbes' dating of the prophets, though he considers it " not appar-
ent " whether Amos wrote, as well as composed, his prophecy, or
whether Jeremiah and the other prophets of the time of Josiah
and Ezekiel, Daniel, Haggai and Zechariah, who lived in the cap-
tivity, edited the prophecies ascribed to them. He concludes: "But
considering the inscriptions, or titles of their books, it is manifest
enough that the whole Scripture of the Old Testament was set forth
in the form we have it after the return of the Jews from their cap-
tivity in Babylon and before the time of Ptolemacus Philadelphus."
Except in strangely making Zcphaniah contemporary with
Isaiah, Hobbes' conclusions, in so far as they differ from the
traditional views, have been confirmed by the more thorough
criticism of subsequent scholars. But apart from the special
conclusions, the opening and closing considerations contain clear
and important statements which still hold good. No fresh
discoveries since the time of Hobbes have furnished any " testi-
mony of other history " to the origin of the books of the Old
Testament: this must still be determined by the statements
and internal evidence of the Old Testament itself, and a deeper
criticism has given to the final consideration that the Old
Testament received its present form after the Exile a far greater
significance than Hobbes perhaps guessed.
But the limitations of Hobbes' literary criticism judged from
our present standpoint are great. The considerations from
which he acutely and accurately draws far-reaching and im-
portant conclusions might be suggested by a very superficial
examination of the literature; they involve, for example, no
special philological knowledge. The effect of a deeper criticism
has been (a) to give a more powerful support to some of Hobbes'
conclusions; (b) to show that works (e.g. Ecclesiastes) whose
traditional antiquity is left unquestioned by him are in reality
of far more recent origin; (c) to eliminate the earlier sources
or elements in the writings which Hobbes was content to date
mainly or as a whole by their latest elements (e.g. Pentateuch,
Judges, Kings), and thus to give to these earlier sources an
historical value higher than that which would be safely attri-
buted to them as indistinguishable parts of a late compilation.
Hobbes argues in the case of the Pentateuch that two authors
are distinguishable Moses and a much later compiler and
editor. Spinoza, whose conclusions in his Tractaius Iheologico-
polilicus (1671), c. viii. ix., had in general much in common with
Hobbes, drew attention in particular to the confused mixture
of law and narrative in the Pentateuch, the occurrence of
duplicate narratives and chronological incongruities. Father
Simon in his Histoire critique du Views. Testament (1682) also
argues that the Pentateuch is the work of more than one author,
and makes an important advance towards a systematic analysis
of the separate elements by observing that the style varies,
being sometimes very curt and sometimes very copious " al-
though the variety of the matter does not require it." But
none of these makes any attempt to carry through a continuous
analysis.
The first attempt of this kind is that of a French Catholic
physician, Jean Astruc. In a work published anonymously in
1753 under the title of Conjectures sur let me moires Attne .
originaux dont U parott que Moyse s'est serri pour
composer le livre de la Genese, he argued that in Genesis and
Ex. i. ii. Moses had used different documents, and that of these
the two chief were distinguished by their use of different divine
names Elohim and Yahweh; by the use of this clue he gave
a detailed analysis of the passages belonging to the several
documents. Astruc's criteria were too slight to give to all the
details of his analysis anything approaching a final analysis;
but later criticism has shown that his criteria, so far as they
went, were valid, and his results, broadly speaking, sound
though incomplete: and, moreover, they have abundantly
justified his really important fundamental theory that the
documents used by the compiler of the Pentateuch have been
incorporated so much as they lay before him that we can get
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[O.T. CRITICISM
behind the compiler to the earlier sources and thus push back
the evidence of much of the Pentateuch beyond the date of its
compilation to the earlier date of the sources. In identifying
the compiler with Moses, Astruc failed to profit from some of
his predecessors: and the fact that he held to the traditional
(Mosaic) origin of the Pentateuch may have prevented him from
seeing the similar facts which would have led him to continue
his analysis into the remaining books of the Pentateuch.
For subsequent developments, and the fruitful results of
documentary analysis as applied to the Pentateuch and other
composite books, which cannot be dealt with in any detail here,
reference must be made to the special articles on the books of
the Old Testament.
The year of the publication of Astruc's book saw also the
publication of Bishop Lowth's De sacra poesi Hebraeorum: later
Lowth Lowth published a new translation of Isaiah with
notes (1778). Lowth's contribution to a more critical
appreciation of the Old Testament lies in his perception of the
nature and significance of parallelism in Hebrew poetry, in his
discernment of the extent to which the prophetical books are
poetical in form, and in his treatment of the Old Testament as the
expression of the thought and emotions of a people in a word,
as literature. Both Lowth's works were translated and became
influential in Germany.
In spite of these earlier achievements, it is J. G. Eichhorn who
has, not without reason, been termed the " founder of modern
Eichhorn Old Testament criticism." Certainly the publication
of his Einleitung (Introduction to the Old Testament),
in 1780-1783, is a landmark in the history of Old Testament
criticism. An intimate friend of Herder, himself keenly interested
in literature, he naturally enough treats the Old Testament as
literature like Lowth, but more thoroughly: and, as an
Oriental scholar, he treats it as an Oriental literature. In both
respects he was to be widely followed. His Introduction, con-
sisting of three closely packed volumes dealing with textual
as well as literary criticism, is the first comprehensive treatment
of the entire Old Testament as literature. Much of the voluminous
detailed work in this and other works is naturally enough
provisional, but in the Introduction there emerge most of the
broad conclusions of literary criticism (sometimes incomplete)
which, after more than a century of keen examination by scholars
unwilling to admit them, have passed by more or less general
consent into the number of historical certainties or high proba-
bilities. With his wide linguistic knowledge Eichhorn perceived
that the language alone (though he also adduces other considera-
tions) betrays the late origin of Ecclesiastes, which he places in
the Persian Period (538-332 B.C.): Canticles, too, preserves
linguistic features which are not of the Solomonic age. He
analyses significant stylistic peculiarities such as occur, e.g., in
Isaiah xxiv.-xxvii. For various reasons (here following Koppe,
who just previously in additions to his translation of Lowth's
Isaiah had shown himself the pioneer of the higher criticism of
the book of Isaiah) he argues that " in our Isaiah are many
oracles not the work of this prophet." In other directions the
still powerful influence of tradition affects Eichhorn. He
maintains the exilic origin of parts of Daniel, though he is
convinced (here again in part by language) of the later origin of
other parts. His Pentateuchal criticism is limited by the
tradition of Mosaic authorship: but even within these limits
he achieves much. He carries through, as Astruc had done, the
analysis of Genesis into (primarily) two documents; he draws
the distinction between the Priests' Code, of the middle books of
the Pentateuch, and Deuteronomy, the people's law book; and
admits that even the books that follow Genesis consist of different
documents, many incomplete and fragmentary (whence the
theory became known as the " Fragment-hypothesis "), but all
the work of Moses and some of his contemporaries.
Other literary critics of the same period or a little later are
Alex. Geddes, a Scottish Catholic priest, who projected, and in
part carried out (1792-180x3), a critically annotated new transla-
tion of the Old Testament, and argued therein that the Pentateuch
ultimately rests on a variety of sources partly written, partly
oral, but was compiled in Canaan probably in the reign of
Solomon; K. D. Ilgen, the discoverer (1798) that there were
two distinct documents in Genesis using the divine name Elohim,
and consequently that there were three main sources in the books,
not two, as Astruc and Eichhorn had conjectured; and J. S.
Vater, the elaborator of the " Fragment-hypothesis."
But the next distinct stage is reached when we come to De
Wette, whose contributions to Biblical learning were many and
varied, but who was pre-eminent in historical criticism. ^ Wette
He carried criticism beyond literary analysis and
literary appreciation to the task of determining the worth of the
documents as records, the validity of the evidence. His peculiar
qualities were conspicuous in his early and exceedingly influential
work the Beitrage zur Einleitung in das Alte Testament (1806-
1807). In the introduction to vol. ii. he carefully analyses the
principles of sound historical method and the essentials of a
trustworthy historical record. These principles he applied to
the Old Testament, firstly to the Books of Chronicles, and then
to the Pentateuch. The untrustworthiness of Chronicles
briefly admitted by Luther he proved in detail, and so cleared
the way for that truer view of the history and religion of Israel
which the treatment of Chronicles as a trustworthy record of the
past hopelessly obscured. In the criticism of the Pentateuch
his most influential and enduring contributions to criticism are
his proof that Deuteronomy is a work of the 7th century B.C., and
his insistence that the theory of the Mosaic origin of all the
institutions described in the Pentateuch is incompatible with the
history of Israel as described in the historical books, Judges,
Samuel and Kings.
Strong in historical criticism, De Wette was weak in historical
construction. But what he failed to give, Ewald supplied, and
if more of De Wette's than of Ewald's work still stands Ewald
to-day, that is but an illustration of the melancholy
fact that in history negative criticism is surer than positive
construction. But Ewald's History of the People of Israel (1843-
1859) was the first great attempt to synthesize the results of
criticism and to present the history of Israel as a great reality of
the past. By the force of his wide learning and even more of his
personality, Ewald exercised for long an all-pervading and
almost irresistible influence. He closes one epoch of Old Testa-
ment criticism; by his influence he retards the development of
the next. Before passing to the new epoch it must suffice to
make a simple reference to the philological work of Gesenius
and Ewald, which assisted a sounder exegesis and so secured for
later criticism a more stable basis.
The next stage brings us to the critical theories or conclusions
which at first gradually and then rapidly, in spite of the keenest
criticisms directed against them both by those who
clung more or less completely to tradition and by the
representatives of the earlier critical school, gained
increasing acceptance, until to-day they dominate Old Testament
study. The historico-critical starting-point of the movement
was really furnished by De Wette: but it was Vatke who, in
his Biblische Theologie wissenschaftlich dargestellt (1835), first
brought out its essential character. The fundamental peculiarity
of the movement lies in the fact that it is a criticism of what is
supreme in Israel its religion, and that it has rendered possible
a true appreciation of this by showing that, like all living and
life-giving systems of thought, belief and practice, the religion of
Israel was subject to development. It seized on the prophetic
element, and not the ceremonial, as containing what is essential
and unique in the religion of Israel. In literary criticism its
fundamental thesis, stated independently of Vatke and in the
same year by George in Die dlteren judischen Feste, and in a
measure anticipated by Reuss, who in 1832 was maintaining in
his academical lectures that the prophets were older than the
Law and the Psalms more recent than both, is that the chrono-
logical order of the three main sources of the Hexateuch is (i) the
prophetic narratives (JE), (2) Deuteronomy, (3) the Priestly
Code (P), the last being post-exilic. This entirely reversed the
prevailing view that P with its exact details and developed
ceremonial and sacerdotal system was at once the earliest portion
O.T. CRITICISM]
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863
of the Pentateuch and the Grundschrift or foundation of the
whole a view that was maintained by Ewald and, though with
very important modifications, to the last by A. Dillmann (d.
1894). Inherent in this view of religious development and the
new critical position were far-reaching changes in the literary,
historical and religious criticism of the Old Testament: these
have been gradually rendered clear as the fundamental positions
on which they rest have been secured by the manifold work of
two generations of scholars.
Nearly a generation passed before Vatke's point of view gained
any considerable number of adherents. This is significant. In
Oral; P art ' l mav fairly be attributed to the retarding
Kuenen ; influence of the school of Ewald, but in large part also
well- to the fact that Vatke, a pupil of Hegel, had developed
'c'oieaso n * s t ^ leo O r on priori grounds in accordance with the
principles of Hegel's philosophy of history. It was
only after a fresh and keener observation of facts that the new
theory made rapid progress. For that, when it came, much was
due to the work of Graf (a pupil of Reuss, whose Geschichtliche
Biicher des Allen Testaments appeared in 1866); to the Dutch
scholar Kuenen, who, starting from the earlier criticism, came
over to the new, made it the basis of his Religion of Israel (1869-
1870), a masterly work and a model of sound method, and
continued to support it by a long series of critical essays in the
Theologisch Tijdschrift; and to Wellhausen, who displayed an
unrivalled combination of grasp of details and power of historical
construction: his Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels was
published in 1878 and translated into English in 1885; the
history itself, Israelitische u. jiidische Geschichte, followed twenty
years later, after much further critical work had been done in
the meantime. Not a little also was due to Colenso ( The Penta-
teuch . . . critically examined, pt. i., 1862), who, though he
never entirely accepted the new position, contributed by his
searching analysis of the unreality of P's narrative to the forma-
tion (for example, in the mind of Kuenen) or ratification of the
judgment on that work which is fundamental to the general
theory.
This sketch of the critical movement has now been brought
down to the point at which the comprehensive conclusions
which still dominate Old Testament study gained clear ex-
pression and were shown to be drawn from the observation
of a large body of facts. It does not fall within the scope of
this article to examine the validity of these conclusions, nor
even to notice the various subsidiary or consequential con-
clusions. Nor again is it possible to survey the more special
developments of literary criticism which have later emerged,
amongst which one of the most important has been the radical
examination of the prophetic writings introduced and developed
by (amongst others) Stade, Wellhausen, Duhm, Cheyne, Marti. 1
The starting-point of this newer criticism of the prophets is
the clearer practical recognition of the fact that all pre-exilic
prophecy has come down to us in the works of post-exilic editors,
and that for the old statement of the problem of the prophetic
books What prophecies or elements in Isaiah, Jeremiah and
the rest are later than these prophets? is to be substituted
the new critical question From these post-exilic collections
how are the pre-exilic elements to be extracted ? Bound up
with this question of literary criticism is the very important
question of the origin and development of the Messianic
idea.
But two things, the extent of the influence of criticism and
the relation of archaeology and criticism, yet remain for con-
sideration, in the course of which it will be possible just to in-
dicate some other problems awaiting solution.
It is one thing for scholars to reach conclusions: it is another
for these conclusions to exercise a wide influence in the Churches
and over general culture. In the i6th century we find obiter
1 See particularly B. Stade, Geschichte des Volkes Israel (1887-
1888); J. Wellhausen, Die Kleinen Propheten (1892); B. I. Duhm,
Jesaia (1892) ; T. K. Cheyne, Introduction to the Book of Isaiah
(1895); K. Marti, Jesaja (1900), and Das Dodekapropheton
(1904).
dicta of the Reformers challenging traditional opinions on the
origin and character of the Old Testament; in the iyth century,
among certain isolated scholars, elementary critical
surveys of the whole field, which exercised, however, no
extensive influence. Nor was it till late in the i8th cen- ,j, m .
tury that criticism seriously challenged the dominance
of the Protestant scholastic treatment of the Old Testament on
the one hand, and the rough and ready, uncritical explanations
or depreciations of the Rationalists on the other. But Eichhorn's
Introduction appealed to more than technical scholars: its in-
fluence was great, and from that time forward criticism gradually
or even rapidly extended its sway in Germany. Very different was
the case in England; after Geddes and Lowth, at the close of the
i8th, till far down into the loth century, the attitude even of
scholars (with rare exceptions) was hostile to critical developments,
and no independent critical work was done. Pusey indeed studied
under Eichhorn, and in his Historical Enquiry into the probable
causes of the Rationalist Character lately predominant in German
Theology (1828-1830) speaks sympathetically of the attitude
of the Reformers on the question of Scripture and in condemna-
tion of the later Protestant scholastic doctrine; but even in this
book he shows no receptivity for any of the actual critical con-
clusions of Eichhorn and his successors, and subsequently threw
the weight of his learning against critical conclusions notably
in his Commentary on Daniel (1864). Dean Stanley owed some-
thing to Ewald and spoke warmly of him, but the Preface to
the History of the Jewish Church in which he does so bears
eloquent testimony to the general attitude towards Old Testa-
ment criticism in 1862, of which we have further proof in the
almost unanimous disapprobation and far-spread horror with
which Colenso's Pentateuch, pt. i., was met on its publication in
the same year.
From 1869 T. K. Cheyne worked indefatigably as a resource-
ful pioneer, but for many years, in view of the prevailing temper,
with " extreme self-suppression " and " willingness to concede
to tradition all that could with any plausibility be conceded '
(Cheyne, Origin of the Psalter, p. 15); more especially is his
influence observable after 1800, when he published his Hampton
Lectures, the Origin of the Psalter, a work of vast learning and
keen penetration, without restraint on the freedom of his judg-
ment always stimulating to students and fellow-workers,
though by no means always carrying large numbers with him.
From about 1880 the prevailing temper had changed; within
a decade of this date the change had become great; since then
the influence of Old Testament criticism has grown with increased
acceleration. The change in the former period with regard to
a single point, which is however typical of many, is briefly
summed up by Dr Cheyne: " In 1880 it was still a heresy to
accept with all its consequences the plurality of authorship of
the Book of Isaiah; in 1890 to a growing school of church-
students this has become an indubitable fact " (Origin of the
Psalter, xv.). By 1906 this plurality of authorship had become
almost a commonplace of the market. Many, particularly of
late, have contributed to the wide distribution, if not of the
critical spirit itself, yet at least of a knowledge of its conclusions.
To two only of the most influential is it possible to make more
definite reference to W. Robertson Smith and S. R. Driver.
From 1875 onwards Smith contributed to the 9th edition of the
Encyclopaedia Britannica a long series of important articles,
which, together with the articles of Cheyne, Wellhausen and
others, made that work an important factor in the change
which was to pass over English thought in regard to the Bible;
in 1878, by his pleadings in the trial for heresy brought against
him on the ground of these articles, he turned a personal defeat
in the immediate issue into a notable victory for the cause whkh
led to his condemnation; and subsequently (in 1880), in two
series of lectures, afterwards published * and widely read, he
gave a brilliant, and, as it proved, to a rapidly increasing number
a convincing exposition of the criticism of the literature, history
and religion of Israel, which was already represented in Germany
1 The Old Testament in the Jewish Church (1881); The Prophets
of Israel (1882).
86 4
BIBLE
[O.T. CRITICISM
by Wellhausen and in Holland by Kuenen. In 1891 Dr Driver
published his Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament
(6th ed., 1897); less popular in form than Smith's lectures, it
was a more systematic and comprehensive survey of the whole
field of the literary criticism of the Old Testament. The position
of the author as regius professor of Hebrew at Oxford and
canon of Christ Church in succession to Pusey, and his well-
established reputation as a profound Hebrew scholar, com-
manded wide attention; the qualities of the book itself its
marked sobriety, its careful discrimination between the differing
degrees of probability attaching to various conclusions and
suggestions, and in general its soundness of method rapidly
extended the understanding of what Old Testament criticism is
and commanded acceptance of the well-established conclusions.
No less rapid has been the change in America during the same
period, nor less numerous the scholars well equipped to pursue
the detailed investigation involved in critical study or those who
have shown ability in popular presentations of the critical
standpoint. 1 Pre-eminent amongst these is C. A. Briggs, whose
influence has been due in part to a large and varied body of
work (Biblical Study, 1883, and many articles and volumes
since) and in part to his organization of united critical, inter-
national and interconfessional labour, the chief fruits of which
have been the Hebrew Lexicon (based on Gesenius, and edited
by F. Brown, one of the most eminent of American scholars,
S. R. Driver and himself), and the International Critical Com-
mentary. Other important works in which English and American
scholars have co-operated are the Encyclopaedia Biblica (1899-
1903) and Hastings' Bible Dictionary (1898-1904) the latter less
radical, but yet on the whole based on acceptance of the funda-
mental positions of Vatke, Graf, Wellhausen. Between either
of these and Smith's Dictionary of the Bible (1863) yawns a great
gulf. Space forbids any attempt to sketch here the special
growth of criticism in other countries, such as France, where
the brilliant genius of Renan was in part devoted to the Old
Testament, or within the Roman Catholic Church, which pos-
sesses in Pere Lagrange, for example, a deservedly influential
critical scholar, and in the Revue Biblique an organ which devotes
much attention to the critical study of the Old Testament.
Rapid and extensive as has been the spread of critical methods,
there have not been lacking anticritica. Many of these have
been not only apologetic, but unscholarly; that is, however, not
the case with all. In Dr James Orr's learned work, The Problem
of the Old Testament considered with reference to Recent Criticism
(1906), the author's chief aim is to prove insecure the fundamental
positions of the now dominant school of criticism.
In view of extensive misconception occasioned by many of these
anticritica, it needs to be pointed out that terms like " criticism,"
"higher criticism," "critics " are often loosely used: criticism
is a method, its results are many. Again, many of the results
or conclusions of criticism are mutually independent, while
others are interrelated and depend for their validity on the
validity of others. For example, among the generally or largely
accepted critical conclusions are these: (i) Moses is not the
author of the whole Pentateuch; (2) Isaiah is not the author
of Is. xl.-lxvi.; (3) the book of Daniel was written in the 2nd
century B.C.; (4) the Priestly Code is post-exilic; (5) most
of the Psalms are post-exilic. Now i, 2, 3 are absolutely
independent if i were proved false, 2 and 3 would still stand;
and so with 2 and 3; so also 2 and 3 could be proved false
without in any way affecting the validity of 4. On the other
hand, if i were disproved, 4 would immediately fall through,
and the strength of 5 would be weakened (as it would also by the
disproof of 2), because the argument for the date of many Psalms
is derived from religious ideas and the significance of these
varies greatly according as the Priestly Code is held to be early
or late. In view of the number of critical conclusions and
the mutual independence of many of them, " higher criticism "
1 For details see an article in the Zeitschr. fur d. alttest. Wissen-
schaft for^ 1889, pp. 246-302, on " Alttestamentliche Studien in
Amerika," by G. F. Moore, who has himself since done much dis-
tinguished and influential critical work.
can only be overthrown by proving the application of criticism
to the Old Testament to be in itself unlawful, or else by proving
the falseness or inconclusiveness of all its mutually independent
judgments one by one. On examination, the authors of anti-
critica are generally found to disown, tacitly or openly, the first
of these alternatives; for example, Prof. Sayce, who frequently
takes the field against the " higher criticism," and denies, without,
however, disproving, the validity of the literary analysis of the
Hexateuch, nevertheless himself asserts that " no one can study
the Pentateuch . . . without perceiving that it is a com-
pilation, and that its author, or authors, has made use of a
large variety of older materials," and that " it has probably
received its final shape at the hands of Ezra " (Early History
of the Hebrews, 129 and 134). This is significant enough; Prof.
Sayce, the most brilliant and distinguished of the " anti-critics,"
does not really reoccupy the position of the " able and pious
men " of the mid-igth century, to whom " even to speak of any
portion of the Bible as a history " was " an outrage upon religion "
(Stanley, Jewish Church, Preface); these may still have pious,
but they have no longer scholarly successors. Prof. Sayce
travels farther back, it is true, but on critical lines: he abandons
the Pentateuchal criticism of the 2oth century, to reoccupy the
critical position of Hobbes, Spinoza and Simon in the 1 7th century
whether reasonably or not must here be left an open question.
Briefly, in conclusion, it remains to consider the relation of
Archaeology to Criticism, partly because it is frequently
asserted in the loose language just discussed that
Archaeology has overthrown Criticism, or in par-
ticular the " higher criticism," and partly because
Archaeology has stimulated and forced to the front certain
important critical questions.
More especially since the middle of the igth century the de-
cipherment of Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions and systematic
excavation in Palestine and other parts of the East have supplied
a multitude of new facts bearing more or less directly on the
Old Testament. What has been the general effect of these new
facts on traditional theories or critical conclusions?
(1) Literary Criticism. No discovery has yielded any direct
testimony as to the authorship of any book of the Bible, or
as to the mode or date of its composition. Any documentary
analysis of the Pentateuch may be right or wrong; but archae-
ology contributes nothing either one way or another as to the
answer. On the other hand, archaeology has in some cases
greatly strengthened the critical judgment that certain writings
(e.g. Daniel, the story of Joseph in Genesis) are not contem-
porary with the events described.
(2) Historical Criticism. Here the gain has been more direct;
e.g. the Assyrian inscriptions have furnished independent
evidence of the relations of certain Hebrew kings (Ahab, Jehu,
Ahaz) with the Assyrians, and thus supported more or less com-
pletely the evidence of the Old Testament on these points:
they have also served to clear up in part the confused chronology
of the Hebrews as given in the books of Kings. But above all
archaeology has immensely increased our knowledge of the
nations among which Israel was placed, and of the political
powers which from time to time held Palestine in subjection.
In this way archaeology has greatly helped to bring the history
of Israel into relation with the history of the ancient East,
and in so doing has raised important questions as to the origin
of Hebrew culture. For example, the recent discovery of
the Code of Khammurabi, which contains some remarkable re-
semblances to the Pentateuchal codes, raises the question of
the relation of Hebrew to Babylonian law. On the other
hand, there are certain great historical questions which have
been greatly affected by criticism, but on which archaeology
has hitherto shed no light. For example, much as archaeology
has increased our knowledge of the conditions obtaining in
Palestine before the Hebrew invasion, it has so far contributed
nothing to our knowledge of the Hebrew nation before that time
beyond the statement in the now famous stele of Merenptah
(Mineptah)(c. 1 2703. c.), discovered in 1896, "Ysirael is desolated,
its seed is not," and a few possible but vague and uncertain
O.T. CHRONOLOGY]
BIBLE
865
allusions to particular tribes. It has contributed nothing
whatsoever to our knowledge of any Hebrew individual of this
period, 1 and consequently what elements of history underlie
the stories in Genesis, in so far as they relate to the Hebrew
patriarchs, must still be determined, if at all, by a critical study of
the Old Testament. The story in Gen. xiv. is no exception to this
statement: archaeology has made probable the historic reality
of Chedorlaomer, which some critics had previously divined; it
has not proved the historical reality of the patriarch Abraham
or the part played by him in the story, which some critics,
whether rightly or wrongly, had questioned. The Dutch scholar
Rosters called in question the return of the Jews in the days
of Cyrus; his view, adopted by many, has hardly obtained, as
yet at all events, the weight of critical judgment: here again,
unfortunately, archaeology at present is silent.
(3) Criticism of Religion. Here, perhaps, archaeology has
contributed most new material, with the result that religious
terms, ideas, institutions, once supposed to be peculiar to Israel,
are now seen to be common to them and other nations; in some
cases, moreover, priority clearly does not lie with the Hebrews,
as, for example, in the case of the materials (as distinct from the
spirit in which they are worked up) of the stories of Creation
and the Flood. Of late, too, it has been much argued, and often
somewhat confidently maintained, that Hebrew monotheism
is derivative from Babylonian monotheism.
This and similar questions, leading up to the ultimate and
supreme question Wherein does lie the uniqueness of Israel's
religion? are among those which will require in the future
renewed examination in the light of a critical study alike of the
Old Testament and of all the relevant material furnished by
archaeology. Archaeology has not yet found the key to every
unopened door; but it has already done enough to justify the
surmise that if criticism had not already disintegrated the
traditional theories of the Old Testament, archaeology in the
latter half of the igth century would itself have initiated the
process.
LITERATURE. Much of the details and results of criticism and
the special literature will be found in the articles in the present work
on the several books of the Old Testament. To the works already
mentioned we may add L. Diestel, Geschichte des Allen Testaments
in der Christlichen Kirche (1860); C. A. Briggs, General Introduction
to the Study of Holy Scripture (1889) ; G. A. Smith, Modern Criticism
and the Preaching of the Old Testament (ippi) these for the history
of Criticism (or more generally of Ojd Testament study); T. K.
Cheyne, Founders of Old Testament Criticism (pp. 1-247, biographical
sketches of critical scholars since the middle of the i8th century;
pp. 248-372, criticism of Driver's Introduction). As already indi-
cated, the exposition of Literary Criticism in English is Driver's Intro-
duction to the Literature of the Old Testament. _For the general prin-
ciples of Historical Criticism see Ch. V. Langlois and Ch. Seignobos,
Introduction to the Study of History (Eng. trans., 1898), with which
it is interesting to compare De Wette's brief discussion referred
to in the article. (G. B. G.*)
5. Old Testament Chronology.
A sense of the importance of a fixed standard of chronology
was only acquired gradually in the history of the world. Nations
in a primitive state of civilization were not, and are not, conscious
of the need. When the need began to be felt events were prob-
ably at first dated by the regnal years of kings; the reigns of
successive kings were then arranged in order, and grouped, if
necessary, in dynasties, and thus a fixed standard was gradually
constructed. Particular states also not unfrequently introduced
fixed eras, which obtained a more or less extensive currency, as
the era of the first Olympiad (776 B.C.), of the foundation
of Rome (753 B.C.), and of the Seleucidae at \Antioch (312 B.C.),
which is followed by the Jewish author of the first book of
Maccabees. Some of the earliest documents which we possess
are dated by the year in which some noticeable event took
place, as in contract-tablets of the age of Sargon of Agade
1 To avoid any possibility of overstating the case, it is necessary
to refer here to the fact that Tethmosis (Tnothmes) III. in the i6th
century B.C. mentions two Palestinian places named respectively
Jacobel and Josephel, and Sheshonk in the loth century B.C. men-
tions another called " The field of Abram." From these names alone
it is impossible to determine whether the places derived their names
from individuals or tribes.
in. 28
(Akkad) (3800 B.C., or, according to other authorities, 2800 B.C.),
" In the year in which Sargon conquered the land of Amurru
[the Amorites]"; or, "In the year in which Samsu-dilana
[c. 1950 B.C.] made the statue of Marduk": Is. vi. i (" In the year
of King Uzziah's death "), xiv. 28, xx. i, are examples of this
method of dating found even in the Old Testament. In process
of time, however, the custom of dating by the regnal year of the
king became general. The Babylonians and Assyrians were
probably the first to construct and employ a fixed chronological
standard; and the numerous contract-tablets, and list of kings
and yearly officials, discovered within recent years, afford striking
evidence of the precision with which they noted chronological
details. Biblical chronology is, unfortunately, in many respects
uncertain. Prior to the establishment of the monarchy the
conditions for securing an exact and consecutive chronology did
not exist; the dates in the earlier period of the history, though
apparently in many cases precise, being in fact added long after
the events described, and often (as will appear below) resting
upon an artificial basis, so that the precision is in reality illusory.
And after the establishment of the monarchy, though the con-
ditions for an accurate chronology now existed, errors by some
means or other found their way into the figures; so that the
dates, as we now have them, are in many cases at fault by as
much as two to three decades of years. The exact dates of events
in Hebrew history can be determined only when the figures
given in the Old Testament can be checked and, if necessary,
corrected by the contemporary monuments of Assyria and
Babylonia, or (as in the post-exilic period) by the knowledge
which we independently possess of the chronology of the Persian
kings. In the following parts of this article the chronological
character of each successive period of the Old Testament history
will be considered and explained as far as the limits of space at
the writer's disposal permit.
i. From the Creation of Man to the Exodus. In the whole of
this period the chronology, in so far as it consists of definite
figures, depends upon that part of the Pentateuch which is called
by critics the " Priestly Narrative." The figures arc in most,
if not in all cases artificial, though the means now fail us of
determining upon what principles they were calculated. It is also
to be noted that in the Samaritan text of the Pentateuch, and in
the LXX., the figures, especially in the period from the Creation
to the birth of Abraham, differ considerably from those given in
the Hebrew, yielding in Sam. a lower, but in the LXX. a much
higher total. The following tables will make the details dear:
(i) From the Creation of Man to the Flood (Gen. v. and vii. n).
Age of e
.11 h at birth
of next.
Heb.
Sam.
LXX.
Adam (930)
Seth (912)
Enosh (905)
Kenan (910)
Mahalalel (895)
Jared (962)
Enoch (365) .
Methuselah (969)
Lamech (777) .
Noah (950) ; age at Flood
130
105
90
70
65
162
65
187
182
600
'30
105
90
70
65
62
65
67
53
600
230
205
190
170
165
162
165
1 87'
1 88
600
Total from the Creation of
Man to the Flood
1656
1307
2262
The figures in parentheses indicate the entire ages assigned to
the several patriarchs; these are generally the same in the three
texts. The Sam., however, it will be noticed, makes in three
cases the father's age at the birth of his eldest son less than it is in
the Heb. text, while the LXX. makes it in several cases as much
as 100 years higher, the general result of these differences being
that the total in the Sam. is 349 years less than in the Heb.,
while in the LXX. it is 606 years more. The names, it need
hardly be remarked, belong to the prehistoric period, and
equally with the figures are destitute of historical value.
1 Or, according to some MSS., 167.
866
BIBLE
[O.T. CHRONOLOGY
(2) From the Flood to the Call of Abraham (Gen. xi.).
Age of e
ach at birth
of next.
Heb.
Sam.
LXX.
Arphaxad (438) ' .
Cainan (460) [cf. Luke iii. 27]
35 '
135
135
130
Shelah (433)
Eber (464)
3
34
130
34
130
134
Peleg (239)
3
130
130
Reu (239)
32
132
132
Serug (230)
3
130
130
Nahor (148)
29
79
79
Terah (205)
70
7<>
70
Abraham (175); age at Call
(Gen. xii. 4) ...
75
75
75
Total from the Flood to
365
1015
"45
the Call of Abraham
The variations are analogous to those under (i), except that
here the birth-years of the patriarchs in both Sam. and LXX.
differ more consistently in one direction, being, viz., almost
uniformly higher by 100 years. It has been much debated, in
both cases, which of the three texts preserves the original figures.
In (2) it is generally agreed that the Heb. does this, the figures in
Sam. and LXX. having been arbitrarily increased for the purpose
of lengthening the entire period. The majority of scholars hold
the same view in regard also to (i) ; but Dillmann gives here the
preference to the figures of the Sam. The figures, of course, in no
case possess historical value: accepting even Ussher's date of the
Exodus, 1491 B.C., which is earlier than is probable, we should
obtain from them for the creation of man 4157 B.C., or (LXX.)
5328,' and for the confusion of tongues, which, according to
Gen. xi. 1-9, immediately followed the Flood, 2501 B.C., or
(LXX.) 3066 B.C. But the monuments of Egypt and Babylonia
make it certain that man must have appeared upon the earth
long before either 4157 B.C. or 5328 B.C.; and numerous in-
scriptions, written in three distinct languages Egyptian,
Sumerian and Babylonian are preserved dating from an age
considerably earlier than either 2501 B.C. or 3066 B.C. 4 The
figures of Gen. v. and xi. thus merely indicate the manner in
which the author of the Priestly Narrative and probably to
some extent tradition before him pictured the course of these
early ages of the world's history. The ages assigned to the several
patriarchs (except Enoch) hi Gen. v. are much greater than those
assigned to the patriarchs mentioned in Gen. xi., and similarly
the ages in Gen. xi. 10-18 are higher than those in Gen. xi.
19-26; it is thus a collateral aim of the author to exemplify the
supposed gradual diminution in the normal years of human life.
The Babylonians, according to Berossus, supposed that there
were ten antediluvian kings, who they declared had reigned for
the portentous period of 432,000 years: 432,000 years, however,
it has been ingeniously pointed out by Oppert (Colt. Gel. Nachrichten,
1877, p. 205 ff.) =86,400 lustra, while 1656 years (the Heb. date of
the Flood) = 86,400 weeks (1656 = 72X23; and 23 years being = 8395
days+5 intercalary days = 8400 days = 1200 weeks); and hence the
inference has been drawn that the two periods have in some way
been developed from a common basis, the Hebrews taking as their
unit a week, where the Babylonians took a lustrum of 5 years.
(3) From the Call of Abraham to the Exodus.
From the Call of Abraham to the birth of Isaac
(Abraham being then aged 100, Gen. xxi. 5) . 25 years
Age of Isaac at the birth of Esau and Jacob
(Gen. xxv. 26) 60 ,,
Age of Jacob when he went down into Egypt
(Gen. xlvii. 9) 130
The period of the Patriarchs' sojourn in Canaan
was thus 215,,
But the period of the Israelites' sojourn in Egypt,
according to Ex. xii. 40, 41, was . . . 430
1 Shem, the father of Arphaxad, is aged 100 at the time of the
Flood, and lives for 600 years.
1 Disregarding the " two years " of Gen. xi. 10: see v. 32, vii. n.
1 Taking account of the reading of LXX. in Ex. xii. 40.
< See further Driver's essay in Hogarth's A uthority and Archaeology
(1899), pp. 32-34; or his Bock of Genesis (1904, 7th ed., 1909),
p. xxxi. ff.
We thus get
From the Call of Abraham to the Exodus (Heb.
text) ' 215 +430 = 645 years
From the Flood to the Call of Abraham (Heb.
text) 365
From the Creation of Man to the Flood (Heb.
text) 1656
From the Creation of Man to the Exodus (Heb.
text) 2666
On these figures the following remarks may be made:
(i.) In Genesis the chronology of the Priestly Narrative (" P ")
is not consistent with the chronology of the other parts of
the book (" JE "). Three or four illustrations will suffice:
(a) The author of Gen. xii. 10-20 evidently pictures Sarai as
a comparatively young woman, yet according to P (xii. 4, xvii.
17) she was 65 years old. (6) In Gen. xxi. 15 it is clearly implied
that Ishmael has been carried by his mother, yet according to
xvi. 16, xxi. 5, 8, he must have been at least 15 years old. (c)
In Gen. xxvii. Isaac is to all appearance on his deathbed (cf.
ver. 2), yet according to P (xxv. 26, xxvi. 34, xxxv. 28) he sur-
vived for eighty years, dying at the age of 1 80. Ussher and others,
arguing back from the dates in xlvii. 9, xlv. 6, xii. 46, xxxi. 41,
infer that Jacob's flight to Haran took place in his 77th year.
This reduces the 80 years to 43 years, though that is scarcely
less incredible. It involves, moreover, the incongruity of suppos-
ing that thirty-seven years elapsed between Esau's marrying
his Hittite wives (xxvi. 34) and Rebekah's expressing her
apprehensions (xxvii. 46) lest Jacob, then aged seventy-seven,
should follow his brother's example, (d) In Gen. xliv. 20 Ben-
jamin is described as a " little one "; in P, almost immediately
afterwards (xlvi. 21), he appears as the father of ten sons; for
a similar anomaly in xlvi. 12, see the Oxford Hexateuch, i. p. 2571.
(ii.) The ages to which the various patriarchs lived (Abraham,
175; Isaac, 180; Jacob, 147), though not so extravagant as
those of the antediluvian patriarchs, or (with one exception) as
those of the patriarchs between Noah and Abraham, are much
greater than is at all probable in view of the structure and
constitution of the human body, (iii.) The plain intention of
Ex. xii. 40, 41 is to describe the Israelites as having dwelt in
Egypt for 430 years, which is also in substantial agreement with
the earlier passage, Gen. xv. 13 (" shall sojourn in a land that is
not theirs, . . . and they shall afflict them 400 years "). It does
not, however, accord with other passages, which assign only four
generations from Jacob's children to Moses (Ex. vi. 16-20; Num.
xxvi. 5-9; cf. Gen. xv. 16), or five to Joshua (Josh. vii. i); and
for this reason, no doubt, the Sam. and LXX. read in Ex. xii.
40, " The sojourning of the children of Israel in the land of
Egypt, and in the land of Canaan, was 430 years," reducing the
period of the sojourn in Egypt to half of that stated in the
Hebrew text, viz. 215 years. This computation attained cur-
rency among the later Jews (Josephus and others; cf. the
" 400 years " of Gal. iii. 17). The forced and unnatural render-
ing of Ex. xii. 40 in the A.V. (contrast R.V.), which was followed
by Ussher, is intended for the purpose of making it possible.
From the facts that have been here briefly noted it must be
evident how precarious and, in parts, how impossible the Biblical
chronology of this period is. (iv.) It has been observed as re-
markable that 2666, the number of years (in the Hebrew text)
from the Creation of Man to the Exodus, is, in round numbers,
just two-thirds of 4000; and the fact has suggested the infer-
ence that the figure was reached by artificial computation.
The Dale of the Exodus. Is it possible to determine this,
even approximately, upon the basis of external data? (i.) The
correspondence between the Egyptian governors established
in different parts of Palestine and the Egyptian kings Amen-
h6tep (Amenophis) III. and IV. of the i8th dynasty, which
was discovered in 1887 at Tel el-Amarna, makes it evident
that Palestine could not yet have been in the occupation of the
Israelites. It was still an Egyptian province, and the Baby-
lonian language, in which the correspondence is written, shows
that the country must have been for a considerable time past,
before it came into the possession of Egypt, under Babylonian
O.T. CHRONOLOGY]
BIBLE
867
influence. Now one of the kings, who corresponds with Amen-
hotep IV., is Burnaburiash (Burna-buryas), king of Babylon,
and Egyptologists and Assyriologists are agreed that the date
of these monarchs was c. 1400 B.C. The conquest of Canaan,
consequently, could not have taken place till after 1400 B.C.
(ii.) It is stated in Ex. i. ii that the Israelites built in Egypt
for the Pharaoh two store-cities, Pithom and Rameses. The
excavations of M. Naville have, however, shown that Ramses II.
of the igth dynasty was the builder of Pithom; and though
the other city has not at present been certainly identified, its
name is sufficient to show that he was its builder likewise. Hence
the Pharaoh of the Exodus is commonly supposed to have been
Ramses (Rameses) II. 's successor, Merenptah (Mineptah).
Egyptian chronology is unfortunately imperfect; but Professor
Petrie, who has paid particular attention to the subject, and who
assigns the reign of Amen-hOtep IV. to 1383-1365 B.C., assigns
Ramses II. to 1300-1234 B.C. 1 In Merenptah's fifth year the Delta
was invaded by a formidable body of Libyans and other foes ? and
it has been conjectured that the Israelites took the opportunity
of escaping during the unsettlement that was thus occasioned.
Alternative dates for Ramses II.: Maspero, The Struggle of
the Nations (1897), p. 449, c. 1320-1255; Breasted (1906), 1292-
1225; Meyer (1909), 1310-1244. Attempts have been made to
identify the Khabiri, who are mentioned often in the Tel el-Amarna
letters as foes, threatening to invade Palestine and bring the Egyptian
supremacy over it to an end, with the Hebrews. The Exodus, it
has been pointed out, might then be placed under Amen-hotep II.
(1448-1420 B.C., Breasted; 1449-1423, Petrie), the successor of
Thothmes, and more time would be allowed for the events between
the Exodus and the time of David (c. 1000), which, if the date given
above be correct, have been thought to be unduly compressed (see
Orr in the Expositor, March 1897, p. 161 ff.) ; but there are difficulties
attaching to this view, and it has not been adopted generally by
scholars. There may be some ultimate connexion between the
Khabiri and the Hebrews; but the Khabiri of the Tel el-Amarna
letters cannot be the Hebrews who invaded Canaan under Joshua.
The mention of Israel on the stele of Merenptah, discovered
by Petrie in 1896 (" Israel [Ysirael] is desolated; its seed [or
fruit] is not "), is too vague and indefinite in its terms to throw
any light on the question of the Exodus. The context speaks
of places in or near Canaan; and it is possible that the reference
is to Israelite clans who either had not gone down into Egypt at
all, or had already found their way back to Palestine. See
Hogarth's Authority and Archaeology, pp. 62-65.
2. From the Exodus to the Foundation of the Temple (in the
fourth year of Solomon, i Kings vi. i). In the chronological note,
i Kings vi. i, this period is stated to have consisted of 480
(LXX. 440) years. Is this figure correct? If the years of the
several periods of oppression and independence mentioned
in the Book of Judges (Judges iii. 8, n, 14, 30, iv. 3, v. 31,
vi. i, viii. 28, ix. 22, x. 2, 3, 8, xii. 7, 9, n, 14, xiii. i,
xv. 20, xvi. 31) be added up, they will be found to amount to
410 years; to these must be added further, in order to gain the
entire period from the Exodus to the foundation of the Temple,
the 40 years in the wilderness, x years under Joshua and the
elders (Judges ii. 7), the 40 (LXX. 20) years' judgeship of Eli
(i Sam. iv. 18), the 20 or more years of Samuel (i Sam. vii. 2,
15), the y years of Saul (the two years of i Sam. xiii. i [R.V.]
seem too few), the 40 years of David (i Kings ii. n), and the
first four years of Solomon, i.e. i44+*+y years, in all 554 years,
+ two unknown periods denoted by x and y in any case con-
siderably more than the 480 years of i Kings vi. i. This period
might no doubt be reduced to 480 years by the supposition, in
itself not improbable, that some of the judges were local and
contemporaneous; the suggestion has also been made that,
as is usual in Oriental chronologies, the years of foreign domina-
tion were not counted, the beginning of each judge's rule being
reckoned, not from the victory which brought him into power, but
from the death of his predecessor; we should in this case
obtain for the period from the Exodus to the foundation of the
Temple 440+*+? years, 1 which if 30 years be assigned con-
1 Petrie, Hist, of Egypt, i. (ed. 5, 1903), p. 251 ; iii. (1905), p. 2.
* See Merenptah's account of the defeat of these invaders ir
Maspero, op. cit. pp. 432-437; or in BreaJted's Ancient Records of
Egypt (Chicago, 1906), iii. 240-252.
iecturally to Joshua and the elders, and 10 years to Saul, would
amount exactly to 480 years. The terms used, however (" and
the land had rest forty years," iii. n, similarly, iii. 30, v. 31,
viii. 28), seem hardly to admit of the latter supposition; and
even if they did, it would still be scarcely possible to maintain
the correctness of the 480 years: it is difficult to harmonize with
what, as we have seen, appears to be the most probable date of
the Exodus; it is, moreover, open itself to the suspicion of having
been formed artificially, upon the assumption that the period
in question consisted of twelve generations 4 of 40 years each.
In the years assigned to the different judges, also, the frequency
of the number 40 (which certainly appears to have been regarded
by the Hebrews as a round number) is suspicious. On the whole
no certain chronology of this period is at present attainable. 1
3. From the Fourth Year of Solomon to the Captivity of Judah.
During this period the dates are both more abundant, and also,
approximately, far more nearly correct, than in any of the earlier
periods; nevertheless in details there is still much uncertainty
and difficulty. The Books of Kings are a compilation made
at about the beginning of the Exile, and one object of the
compiler was to give a consecutive and complete chronology
of the period embraced in his work. With this purpose in view,
he not only notes carefully the length of the reign of each king
in both kingdoms, but also (as long as the northern kingdom
existed) brings the history of the two kingdoms into relation
with one another by equating the commencement of each reign
in either kingdom with the year of the reign of the contemporary
king in the other kingdom.
The following are examples of the standing formulae used by the
compiler for the purpose: " In the twentieth year of Jeroboam
king of Israel began Asa to reign over Judah. And forty and one
years reigned he in Jerusalem " (i Kings xv. 9, 10). " In the third
year of Asa king of Judah began Baasha the son of Ahijah to reign
over all Israel in Tirzah (and reigned) twenty and four years "
(ibid. ver. 33).
In these chronological notices the lengths of the reigns were
derived, there is every reason to suppose, either from tradition or
from the state annals the " book of the chronicles of Israel "
(or " Judah "), so constantly referred to by the compiler as his
authority (e.g. i Kings xv. 23, 31, xvi. 5); but the "syn-
chronisms " i.e. the corresponding dates in the contemporary
reigns in the other kingdom were derived, it is practically
certain, by computation from the lengths of the successive
reigns. Now in some cases, perhaps, in the lengths of the reigns
themselves, in other cases in the computations based upon them,
errors have crept in, which have vitiated more or less the entire
chronology of the period. The existence of these errors can be
demonstrated in two ways: (i) The chronology of the two
kingdoms is not consistent with itself; (2) the dates of various
events in the history, which are mentioned also in the Assyrian
inscriptions, are in serious disagreement with the dates as fixed
by the contemporary Assyrian chronology.
(i) That the chronology of the two kingdoms is inconsistent
with itself is readily shown. After the division of the kingdom
the first year of Jeroboam in Israel coincides, of course, with the
first year of Rehoboam in Judah; and after the death of Jehoram
of Israel and Ahaziah of Judah in battle with Jehu (. Kings
ix. 24, 27), the first year of Jehu in Israel coincides similarly with
the first year of Athaliah in Judah: there are thus in the history
of the two kingdoms two fixed and certain synchronisms. Now,
'Namely, 40 years in the wilderness; Joshua and the elders
(Judges ii. 7), * years; Othniel (iii. ii), 40 years; Ehud (iii. 30),
80 years; Barak (v. 31), 40 years; Gideon (viii. 28), 40 years;
Jepnthah and five minor judges (x. 2, 3, xii. 7, 9, 1 1, 14), 76 years;
Samson (xvi. 31), 20 years; Eli (i Sam. iv. 18), 40 years; Samuel
(vii. 2), 20 years; Saul, y years; David, 40 years; and Solomon's
first four years in all 440+*+^ years.
4 Namely, Moses (in the wilderness), Joshua, Othniel, Ehud,
Deborah, Gideon, Jepnthah, Samson, Eli, Samuel, Saul and David.
The " 300 years " of Judges xi. 26 agrees very nearly with the
sum of the years (namely, 319) gjven in the preceding chapters for
the successive periods of oppression and independence. The verse
occurs in a long insertion (xi. 12-28) in the original narrative; and
the figure was most probably arrived at by computation upon the
basis of the present chronology of the book.
868
BIBLE
[O.T. CHRONOLOGY
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE.
The dales printed in heavy type are cettain, at least within a unit.
Chronology
of Ussher.
Probable Real
Dates.
Biblical Events.
Events in Contemporary History.
Babylonia.
Assyria.
Egypt. 3
4004
[4157 ']
Indeterminable,
but much before
Creation of Man
It * \J 1 J
7000 B.C.
7-6ooo. 2 Temple of Bel
at Nippur founded
Ta
4777. Menes, the first
u-
king of the First
Egyptian Dynasty
c. 4OOO. 2 Lugal-zaggisi,
king of Uruk (Erech,
3998-3721. Fourth Dyn-
Gen. x. 10)
asty
3969-3908 Cheops. The
Great Pyramid built
3800.* Sargon of Agade,
who carries his arms
as far as the Mediter-
ranean Sea
2348
The Deluge
c. 2800.* Ur-bau and
[2501 *]
Dungi, kings of Uru
(Ur, Gen. xi. 28, 31)
c. 2300. Ushpia, priest
of Ashur, builder of
temple in the city of
Ashur
c. 2225. Ilu-shuma,
1996-1821
[2211-2036']
c. 2100 (if, as is
probable, the
Abraham
c. B.C. 2130-2088.'
Khammurabi unifies
first king of Assyria
at present (1909)
Amraphel of
Babylonia and con-
known 8
Gen. xiv. I is
structs in it many
K Hammurabi)
great works (see art.
BABYLONIA)
2008-1587. Rule of the
Hyksos
1587-1328. Eighteenth
Dynasty
1503-1449. Thothmes
(Tethmosis) III. (leads
victorious expeditions
into Asia)
c. 1400. Burnaburiash.
1414-1383. Amen-hotep
Tel el-Amarna cor-
(Amenophis) III.
respondence
1383-1365. Amen-hotep
1328-1202. Nineteenth
c. 1300. Shalmaneser I.
Dynasty
(builder of Calah,
Gen. x. n)
1300-1234. Ramses II.
1491
c. 1230
The Exodus
1234-1214. Merenptah
1099-1058
c. 1025-1010*
Saul (2) u
1058-1017
c. 1010-970
David (40)
1017-977
c. 970-933
Solomon (40)
952-749 (al. 945-745)-
Twenty-secondDy nasty
Judah.
Israel.
952-930" (Breasted,
977
959
933. Rehoboam(i7)
916. Abijah (3)
933. Jeroboam I.
(22)
.
945-924). Sheshonq
(Shishak). Shishak in-
956
913. Asa (41)
vades Judah in the
956
954
912. Nadab (2)
911. Baasha (24)
fifth yearof Rehoboam
(i Ki. xiv. 25 f.)
1 The real Biblical date, Ussher in Gen. xi. 26 interpolating 60 years, because it is said in Acts vii. 4 that Abraham left Haran after
his father Terah's death (Gen. xi. 32), and also (as explained above) interpreting wrongly Ex. xii. 40.
2 Hilprecht's dates (The Bab. Expedition of the University of Pennsylvania, vol. i. pt. i. 1893, pp. n, 12; pt. ii. 1896, pp. 23, 24, 43, 44).
Petrie's dates, Hist, of Egypt, vol. i. (ed. 5, 1903), pp. 20, 30, 233, 251, 252; vol. 111. (1905), pp. 2, 235, 281-7, 296-360. Other
authorities, however, assign considerably lower dates for the dynasties prior to the i8th. Thus Breasted (Hist, of Egypt, 1906, pp. 22 ff.,
221, 597) agrees with Ed. Meyer in giving, for reasons which cannot be here explained, for the beginning of the 1st dynasty c. B c. 3400,
for the 4th dynasty c. B.C. 2900-2750, and for the rule of the Hyksos c. B.C. 1680-1580; and in his Researches in Sinai, 1906, p. 175,
Petrie proposes for Menes B.C. 55io, and for the 4th dynasty B.C. 4731-4454. See EGYPT (Chronology).
* So Sayce, Rogers (Hist, of Bab. and Ass., 1900, i. 318 f.) and others. The date rests upon a statement of Nabu-na'id's, that Sargon's
son, Naram-Sin, reigned 3200 years before himself. Lehmann holds that there are reasons for believing that the engraver, by error, put
a stroke too many, and that 2200 should be read instead of 3200. ' The real Biblical date.
* Rogers, i. 373-375. Many monuments and inscriptions of other kings in Babylonia, between 4000 and 2000 B.C., are also known.
7 The lists of the Babylonian and Assyrian kings are not continuous; and before 1907, from the data then available (see the discussion
in Rogers, op. cit. i. 312-348), Khammurabi, the sixth king of the first Babylonian dynasty, was commonly referred to such dates as
2376-2333 B.C. (Sayce) or 2285-2242 B.C. (Johns). But inscriptions recently discovered, by showing that the second dynasty was partly
contemporaneous with the first and the third, have proved that these dates are too high: see L. W. King, Chronicles Concerning Early
Bab. Kings (1907), i. 93-110; and the article BABYLONIA, Chronology. The date B.C. 2130-2088 is that adopted by Thureau-Dangin, after a
discussion of the subject, in the Journal des Savants, 1908, p. 199; and by Ungnad in the Orient. Litt.-zeitung, 1908, p. 13, and in
Gressmann's Altorientalische Texte und Bilder zum A.T. (1909), p. 103. 8 King, op. cit. i. 116, ii. 14.
* The dates of the kings are, in most cases, those given by Kautzsch in the table in his Outline of the Hist, of the Literature of the
O.T. (tr. by Taylor, 1898), pp. 167 ff. ; see also A. R. S. Kennedy, "Samuel" in the Century Bible (1905), p. 31. The dates given by
other recent authorities seldom differ by more than three or four years.
The figures after a king's name indicate the number of years assigned to his reign in the O.T. For Saul, see i Sam. xiii. i, R.V.
11 The date of Sheshonq depends on that fixed for Rehoboam. Petrie places the accession of Rehoboam in 937 B.C.
O.T. CHRONOLOGY]
BIBLE
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Continued.
86 9
Chronology
of Ussher.
Probable Real
Dates.
Biblical Events.
Events in Contemporary History.
Babylonia.
Assyria.
Egypt.
Judah.
Israel.
930
888. Elah (2)
885-860. Asshur-nazir-
929
887. Zimri (7 days)
abal
929
887. Omri (12)
860-825. Shalmaneser
918
876. Ahab (22)
11.
914
873. Jehoshaphat (25)
898
854. Ahaziah (2)
f f
854. Ahab mentioned at
896
853. Jehoram (12)
the battle of Karkar
892
849. Jehoram (8)
885
842. Ahaziah (i)
884
842. Athaliah (6)
842. Jehu (28)
. .
842. Jehu pays tribute
to Shalmaneser II.
878
836. Jehoash (40)
856
814. Jehoahaz (17)
B a
841
798. Jehoash (16)
825-812. Shamshi-Adad
(Hadad)
839
797. Amaziah (29)
812-783. Adad-Nirari
823
783. Jeroboam II.
(40
IV.
810
779. Uzziah (52)
c. 750. Jotham (16),
as regent (2 Ki.
xv. 5)
747-733. Nabonassar
745-727. Tiglath-pile-
773
743. Zechariah (6
serlV.
772
mo.)
743. Shallum(l mo.)
772
743. Menahem (10)
758
740. Jotham, sole
ruler
761
759
738. Pekahiah (2)
737. Pekah (20)
738. Menahem pays
tribute to Tigfath-
742
736.' Ahaz (16)
pileser IV. (cf. 2 Ki.
xv. 19)
730
733 (or 732). Hoshea
733 (or 732). Assassina-
(9)
tion of Pekah, and
succession of Hoshea,
mentioned by Tig-
lath-pileser III.
732. Capture of Dam-
"
ascus by Tiglath-
pileser IV. (2 Ki. xvi.
*
9; cf. Is. viii. 4,
729-724. Tiglath-pile-
xvii. i)
726
728.' Hezekiah (29)
ser, under the name
727-722. Shalmaneser
of Pulu (cf. 2 Ki. xv.
IV.
19), king of Babylon
722-705. Sargon
721
722. Fall of Samaria
722. Capture of Sam-
and end of the
aria in Sargon's ac-
northern king-
cession-year
dom
721-710. The Chaldaean
prince, Merodach-bal-
adan, king of Babylon
(cf. 2 Kings xx. 12 =
Is. xxxix. i)
715-663
. Twenty-fifth (Ethio-
pian) Dynasty
715.' Sabako (Shabaka)
711. Siege and capture
of Asndod (cf. Is. xx.
I)
705-681. Sennacherib
707.' Shabataka
701. Campaign against
Phoenicia, Philistia
and Judah (2 Kings
xviii. 13-xix. 35)
698
698. Manasseh (55)
693.' Taharqa (Tirha-
kah, Is. xxxvii. 9)
681-668. Esarhaddon
1 If these dates are correct, there must be some error in the ages assigned to Ahaz and Hezekiah at their accession, viz. 20 and 25
respectively, for it would otherwise follow from them that Ahaz, dying at the age of [20+8=] 28, left a son aged 25! The date
728 for Hezekiah's accession rests upon the assumption that of the two inconsistent dates in 2 Kings xviii. 10, 13, the one in ver. 10
(which places the fall of Samaria in Hezekiah's 6th year) is correct ; but some scholars (as Wellhauscn, Kamphausen, and Stade) suppose
that the date in ver. 10 (which places Sennacherib's invasion in Hezekiah's I4th year) is correct, and assign accordingly Hezekiah's
accession to 715. This removes, or at least mitigates, the difficulty referred to, and leaves more room for the reigns of Jotham and
Ahaz ; but it requires, of course, a corresponding reduction in the reigns of the kings succeeding Ahaz.
^Breasted's dates for these three kings (Hist, of Egypt, 1906, p. 601) are: Shabaka 712-700; Shabataka 700-688; Taharqa 688-663.
8yo
BIBLE
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Continued.
[O.T. CHRONOLOGY
Chronology
of Ussher.
Biblical Events.
Events in Contemporary History.
Babylonia.
Assyria.
Egypt.
643
641
629
624
610
599
599
588
562
536
515
457
445
641. Amon (2)
639. Josiah (31)
626. Call of the prophet Jeremiah in Josiah s
I3th year (Jer. i. 2, xxv. 3)
Law
621
ii. Discovery of the Book of the Law
(Deuteronomy) in Josiah's i8th year (2
Kings xxiii. 3 ff.)
608. Jehoahaz (3 mo.)
608. Jehoiakim (n)
597. Jehoiachin (3 mo.) First deportation
of captives (including Jehoiachin) to
Babylonia, in the 8th year of Nebuchad-
nezzar (2 Kings xxiv. 12-16)
597. Zedekiah (ll)
586. Destruction of Jerusalem by the Chal-
daeans in the igth year of Nebuchad-
nezzar (2 Kings xxv. 8). Second deporta-
tion of captives to Babylonia (2 Kings
xxv. 4-21)
561. Jehoiachin released from prison by
Evil-merodach in the 37th year of his
captivity (2 Kings xxv. 27-30)
Judah a province of the Persian Empire
538. Edict of Cyrus, permitting the Jews to
return to Palestine. Many return under
the leadership of Zerubbabel (Ezra i.-ii.)
516. Completion of the second Temple in
the 6th year of Darius (Ezra vi. 15)
458. Return of exiles with Ezra, in the 7th
year of Artaxerxes (Ezra vii. 7)
445. Nehemiah's first visit to Jerusalem
(Neh. i. i, ii. i)
670. Esarhaddon con-
quers Egypt
668-626. Asshur-banipal
(Assur-bani-pal)
663. Asshur-banipal in-
vades Egypt, and
sacks Thebes (Nah.
iii. 8-10)
664-525. Twenty-sixth
Dynasty
664. Psammetichus I.
Chaldaean Dynasty
625. Nabopolassar
610. Necho
608. Battle of Megiddo,
and death of Josiah
(2 Kings xxiii. 29)
605. Defeat of Egyp-
tians by Nebuchad-
rezzar (as his father's
general) at Carchem-
ish (Jer. xlvi. 2)
604. Nebuchadrezzar
607. Destruction of Nine-
veh by the Medes,
and end of the empire
of Assyria
568. Nebuchadrezzar in-
vades Egypt (cf. Jer.
xliii. 8-13)
561. Amel - marduk
(Evil-merodach, 2 Ki.
xxv. 27)
559. Nergal-sharuzur
(Neriglissar)
555. (9 months) Labashi-
marduk (Laboriso-
archod)
555. Nabu-na'id (Nabon-
nedus, Nabonidus)
539. Capture of Babylon
by Cyrus
Persian Kings
538. Cyrus
529. Cambyses
522. (7 mo.) Gaumata
(Pseudo-Smerdis)
522. Darius Hystaspis
490. Battle of Marathon
485. Xerxes
480. Battles of Thermo-
pylae and Salamis
465. Artaxerxes
594. Psammetichus II.
(Psammis)
589. Apries (Hophra,
Jer. xliv. 30)
570. Amasis II. (jointly
with Apries)
564. Amasis alone
526. Psammetichus III.
525. Conquest of Egypt
by Cambyses
O. T. CHRONOLOGY]
BIBLE
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE Continued.
8 7 i
Chronology
of Ussher.
Biblical Events.
Events in Contemporary History.
Babylonia.
Assyria.
Egypt.
434
432. Nehemiah's second visit to Jerusalem
(Neh. xiii. 6)
423. Darius II. (Nothus)
404. Artaxerxes II.
(Mnemon)
359. Artaxerxes III.
(Ochus)
c. 350. Many Jews carried away captive to
Hyrcania and Babylonia, probably on
account of a revolt against the Persians
338. Arses
336. Darius III. (Codo-
mannus)
333. Persian Empire
overthrown by Alex-
ander the Great
Palestine now becomes a province, first of the empire of Alexander,
and afterwards of that of one or other of Alexander's successors.
332. The Jews submit to Alexander the Great.
323. Death of Alexander in Babylon.
322. Alexander's general, Ptolemy Lagi, becomes Satrap of Egypt.
320. Ptolemy Lagi gains possession of Palestine, which, with short
interruptions, continues in the hands of the Ptolemies till
198.
312. Beginning of the era of the Seleucidae (reckoned from the time
when Seleucus Nicator, Alexander's former heavy cavalry
officer, finally established himself in the satrapy of Baby-
lonia. He founded Antioch as his capital, 300 B.C.).
305. Ptolemy Lagi assumes the title of king.
198. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria (223-187), defeats Ptolemy
Epiphanes at Panias (Baniyas, near the sources of the
Jordan), and obtains possession of Palestine.
175-164. Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria (Dan. xi. 21-45).
168. Antiochus's attempt to suppress the religion of the Jews (t
Mace. i. 41-63; cf. Dan. vii. 8, 21, 24-26, viii. 9-14, xii.
10-12). Public worship suspended in the Temple for three
years.
167. Rise of the Maccabees (i Mace. ii.).
166-165. Victories of Judas Maccabaeus over the generals of Anti-
ochus (i Mace, iii.-iv.).
165. Re-dedication of the Temple on 25th Chisleu (December), i
Mace. iv. 52-61.
160. Death of Judas Maccabaeus (i Mace. ix. 1-22).
160-142. Jonathan, younger brother of Judas, leader of the loyal
Jews (i Mace. ix. 23-xii. 53).
142-135. Simon, elder brother of Judas (i Mace, xiii.-xvi.).
135-105. John Hyrcanus, son of Simon.
105-104. Aristobulus I. (son of Hyrcanus), king.
104-78. Alexander Jannaeus (brother of Aristobulus), king.
78-69. Salome (Alexandra), widow of Alexander Jannaeus.
69. Aristobulus II. (son of Alexandra).
65. Capture of Jerusalem by Pompey. Palestine becomes a part
of the Roman province of Syria.
if the regnal years of the kings of Israel from Jeroboam tojehoram
be added together, they will be found to amount to 98, while if
those of the kings of Judah for the same period (viz. from
Rohoboam to Ahaziah) be added together, they amount only
to 95. This discrepancy, if it stood alone, would not, however,
be serious. But when we proceed to add up similarly the
regnal years in the two kingdoms from the division after Solomon's
death to the fall of Samaria in the sixth year of Hezekiah (2 Kings
xviii. 10), we find in the southern kingdom 260 years, and in
the northern kingdom only 241 years 7 months. This is a for-
midable discrepancy. Ussher, in order to remove it, has re-
course to the doubtful expedient of artificially lengthening the
northern series of years, by assuming (without any authority in
the text) an "interregnum of n years" after the death of
Jeroboam II., and an " anarchy for some years " between
Pekah and Hoshea (see the margin of A.V. at 2 Kings xiv. 29;
xv. 8, 29).
(2) As we now know, the methods of chronological computa-
tion adopted by the Assyrians were particularly exact. Every
year a special officer was appointed, who held office for that
year, and gave his name to the year; and " canons," or lists,
of these officers have been discovered, extending from 893 to
666 B.C.' The accuracy of these canons can in many cases be
checked by the full annals which we now possess of the reigns
of many of the kings as of Asshur-nazir-abal or Assur-nasir-pal
(885-860 B.C.), Shalmaneser II. (860-825), Tiglath-pileser IV.
(745-727), Sargon (722-705), Sennacherib (704-781), Esarhaddon
(681-668), and Asshurbanipal or Assur-bani-pal (668-626).
Thus from 893 B.C. the Assyrian chronology is certain and precise.
Reducing now both the Assyrian and Biblical dates to a common
standard, 1 and adopting for the latter the computations of Ussher,
we obtain the following singular series of discrepancies:
Dates accord-
ing to Ussher's
Chronology.
B.C.
918-897
884-^856
772-761
Reign of Ahab
Ahab mentioned at the battle of
Karkar
Reign of Jehu
Jehu pays tribute to Shal-
maneser II
Reign of Menahem ....
Menahem mentioned by Tiglatli-
pileser IV
Reign of Pekah 759-739
Reign of Hoshea 730-7:1
Assassination of Pekah and suc-
cession of Hoshea, mentioned
by Tiglath-pileser IV. . .
Capture of Samaria by Sargon
in Hezekiah's sixth year (2
Kings xviii. 10) .... 721
Invasion of Judah by Sennacherib
in Hezekiah's fourteenth year
(ibid. ver. 13) .... 713
Dates accord-
ing to Assyrian
Inscription.
B.C.
854
842
738
733(or 73*)
722
701
Manifestly all the Biblical dates earlier than 733-732 B.C.
are too high, and must be considerably reduced: the two events,
also, in Hezekiah's reign the fall of Samaria and the invasion
of Sennacherib which the compiler of the book of Kings treats
as separated by an interval of eight years, were separated in
reality by an interval of twenty-one years. 4
1 See George Smith, The Assyrian Eponym Canon (1875), pp. 29 ft".,
57 ff. ; Schrader, Keilinschrifttiche BMiolhek (transcriptions and trans-
lations of Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions), i. (1889), pp. 204 ff.
1 It may be explained here that the dates of the Assyrian and
Babylonian kings can be reduced to years B.C. by means of the so-
called " Canon of Ptolemy," which is a list of the Babylonian and
Persian kings, with the lengths of their reigns, extending from
Nabonassar, 747 B.C., to Alexander the Great, drawn up in the
2nd century A.D. by the celebrated Egyptian mathematician and
geographer Ptolemy : as the dates B.C. of the Persian kinp are known
independently, from Greek sources, the dates B.C. of the preceding
Babylonian kings can, of course, be at once calculated by means of
the Canon. The recently-discovered contemporary monuments have
fully established the accuracy of the Canon.
1 Or, in any case, between 734 and 732 ; see Rost, Die Keiisclirift-
texte Tiflat-pilesers III., 1893, pp. xii., 39, 81, with the discussion,
pp. xxxn.-xxxiv., xxxv.-xxxvi.
4 This interval does not depend upon a mere list of Eponym years:
we have in the annals of Sarjjon and Sennacherib full particulars of
the events in all the intervening years.
8 7 2
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[N.T. CANON
Much has been written on the chronology of the kings and
many endeavours have been made to readjust the Biblical
figures so as to bring them into consistency with themselves and
at the same time into conformity with the Assyrian dates. But,
though the fact of there being errors in the Biblical figures is
patent, it is not equally clear at what points the error lies, or how
the available years ought to be redistributed between the various
reigns. It is in any case evident that the accession of Jehu and
Athaliah must be brought down from 884 to 842 B.C.; and this
will involve, naturally, a corresponding reduction of the dates of
the previous kings of both kingdoms, and of course, at the same
time, of those of Solomon, David and Saul. The difficulty is,
however, greatest in the 8th century. Here, in Judah, from the
accession of Athaliah to the accession of Ahaz, tradition gives
143 years, whereas, in fact, there were but 106 years (842-736);
and in Israel, from the death of Menahem to the fall of Samaria,
it gives 31 years, whereas from 738 (assuming that Menahem
died hi that year) to 722 there are actually only 16 years. The
years assigned by tradition to the reigns in both kingdoms in the
middle part of the 8th century B.C. have thus to be materially
reduced. But in the following period, from the fall of Samaria in
722 to the capture of Jerusalem by the Chaldaeans in 586, the
Biblical dates, so far as we can judge, are substantially correct.
(See further the table above.)
4. From the Destruction of Jerusalem in $86 to the dose of the
Old Testament History. Here, though it is true that there are
events in the Biblical history which are not fully or unambigu-
ously dated, there is otherwise no difficulty. The lengths of the
reigns of Nebuchadrezzar and his successors on the throne of
Babylon, and also, after the conquest of Babylon, of Cyrus and
the following Persian kings, are known from the " Canon of
Ptolemy," referred to above, the particulars in which, for the
earlier part of this period, are also confirmed by the testimony of
the monuments.
See, for further information on the subject, the article CHRONOLOGY,
and the same heading in the Encyclopedia Biblica, cols. 773-799, with
the literature referred to on col. 819 (especially the writings of
Noldeke, Wellhausen, and Kamphausen there mentioned).
(S. R. D.)
(B) NEW TESTAMENT
i. Canon.
The New Testament is the collection of the Sacred Books of
Christians. It forms in the Bible the distinctive possession of
Christians, just as the Old Testament is the collection of Sacred
Books which Christians share with Jews. Every term in the
definition is significant and has a history. There are, first, the
Books; then, the Collection; then, the Sacred Volume, complete
as such in idea, though not as yet complete hi its actual con-
tents; and, lastly, the Sacred Volume in its full dimensions, as
it has come down to us.
There is a double development, of quality and of quantity; of
quality, as to the estimate formed of the books, their increasing
recognition as sacred; and of quantity, by which the books so
recognized were gradually brought up to their present number.
Our duty will be to describe this double process, and we shall do
so under the four heads: (a) The Growth of a specifically
Christian Literature; (/3) The Collection of the Books into a
single volume, made up of ordered groups; (7) The investing of
this volume with the character of a Sacred Book; and (6) The
gradual settlement by which the volume assumed its present
dimensions, neither less nor more.
The model throughout was the Old Testament. The result
was attained when there was a definite volume called the New
Testament by the side of the earlier volume called the Old
Testament, complete like it, and like it endowed with the
attributes of a Sacred Book. This is the consummation towards
which events had been steadily moving not at first consciously,
for it was some time before the tendencies at work were con-
sciously realized but ending at last in the complete equation of
Old Testament and New, and in the bracketing together of both
as the first and second volumes of a single Bible. This is the
process that we shall have to describe. And because the process
before us is the gradual assimilation of New Testament and Old
Testament, we shall have to include at each step all that
bears upon this. For instance, at starting, it will not be
enough for us simply to tell the story how the Books of the
New Testament came to be written, but we shall have to point
out what there was about them which fitted them to be what
they afterwards became, what inherent qualities they possessed
which suggested the estimate ultimately put upon them; in
others words, how they came to be not only a collection of
Christian books, but a collection of Christian sacred books, or
part of a Bible.
(a) The Growth of a Christian Literature, i. The Pauline
Epistles. The Bible of Jesus and His disciples was the Old
Testament. And both Jesus and His disciples were to all
appearance content with this. It was probably two full decades
after the death of Christ before there were any specifically
Christian writings at all. The first generation of Christians was
not given to writing. There was not only no obvious reason why
it should write, but there was a positive reason why it should not
write. This reason lay in the dominant attitude of Christians,
which was what we call " eschatological." The first genera-
tion of Christians lived in the daily expectation that Christ would
return from heaven. The truth is, that not only were Christians
expecting (as we say) the Second Coming of the Messiah, but
what they expected was the Coming. The Messiah, as all Jews
conceived of Him, was a superhuman being; and His First
Coming as a man among men did not count as really Messianic.
The whole first generation of Christians looked intently for His
Coming in power and great glory, which they believed to be near
at hand. In such a state of mind as this there was no motive for
seeking permanence by writing. Men who imagined that they
might at any moment be caught up to meet the Lord in the air
were not likely to take steps for the instruction of the generations
that might come after them.
Hence the first Christian writings were no deliberate product
of theologians who supposed themselves to be laying the founda-
tion of a sacred volume. They were not an outcome of the
dominant tendencies of the time, but they arose rather in spite of
them, in the simplest way, just from the practical needs of the
moment.
It was thus that St Paul came to write his two epistles to the
Thessalonians, the oldest Christian documents that we possess.
By this time he was launched on his missionary labours; he
had founded a number of churches, and he was going on to found
others. And these earliest epistles are just the substitute for his
personal presence, advice which he took occasion to send to his
converts after he had left them. There are a few indications that
he had sent similar communications to other churches before, but
these have not been preserved. Indeed the wonder is and it is a
testimony to the strength of the impression which St Paul left
upon all with whom he came into contact that these missionary
letters of his should have begun to be preserved so soon.
Both Epistles to the Thessalonians have for their object to
calm somewhat the excited expectations of which we have
spoken.
The first Epistle hits exactly the prominent features in the
situation, when it reminds the Thessalonians how they had
" turned unto God from idols, to serve a living and true God,
and to wait for his Son from heaven," who would deliver them
from the wrath to come (i Thess. i. 9, 10). The turning from
idols was of course peculiar to the Gentile communities, but the
waiting for the Messiah from heaven was common to all
Christians, whatever their origin. In this we may take the
epistle as typical of the state of the whole Church at the time.
And there is another important passage which shows why, in
spite of its natural and occasional character, the epistle exhibits
the germs of that essential quality which caused all the books
of the New -Testament to be so highly estimated. The apostle
again reminds his readers how they had received his preaching
" not as the word of men, but as it is in truth, the word of
God," which showed its power by the way in which it took hold
of those who believed hi it (i Thess. ii. 13). The reference is of
N.T. CANON]
BIBLE
873
course primarily to the spoken word, but the written word had
the same qualities as the spoken. It was the deep impression
made by these which prepared Christians generally to accept
the apostolic writings as inspired, and therefore sacred. There
is no greater mistake than to suppose that the estimate formed
by the early Church of its Bible was a merely arbitrary verdict
imposed by an external authority; it was tie expression, and
the natural expression (though following certain prescribed
lines), of its real sense of the value and fundamentally divine
origin of the writings which it treasured.
Nearest in character to the Thessalonian Epistles are the
two to Corinth, which have perhaps an interval of a year and
a half between them. When i Corinthians was written, the
attitude of the Church was still strongly eschatological (i Cor.
i. 7, 8, iii. 13-15, vii. 26, 29-31, xv. 25, 26, 51-54, xvi. 23). The
thoughts of men were still set upon the near approach of the end,
the troublous times that would issue in the break-up of the
existing order and the return of Christ to introduce a new era.
There was no idea of constructing a systematic theology;
Christ was still the Jewish Messiah, and His Coming was con-
ceived of as the Jews conceived of the coming of the Messiah,
as a great supernatural event transforming the face of things
and inaugurating the reign of God. In view of this approaching
revolution, both the Church and the world were regarded as
living from hand to mouth. It was useless to attempt to found
permanent institutions; everything was provisional and for
the moment. And yet, even under these conditions, some
practical arrangements had to be made. The epistle is taken
up with matters of this kind; either the apostle is reproving
disorders and abuses actually existing in the Church, and
almost sure to exist in a young community that had just adopted
a novel method of life and had as yet no settled understanding
of the principles involved in it; or else he is replying to definite
* questions put to him by his converts. In all this the epistle is
still a genuine letter, and not a treatise. It only rises from
time to time above the level of a letter, through the extraordinary
penetration, force, enthusiasm and elevation of feeling that the
apostle throws into his treatment of more or less ordinary topics.
He can never rest until he has carried up the question of the
moment to some higher ground of faith or conduct. It is in
this incidental and digressive way that we get the description
of the Gospel in i. i8-ii. 16; of the Christian ministry in chs.
iii., iv. ; of the principle of consideration for others in ch. ix. ; of the
Sacrament of the Lord's Supper in chs. x., xi.; of Christian love
in ch. xiii. ; of the Resurrection and its consequences in ch. xv.
2 Corinthians is even more a product of the situation: it is
even more taken up with personal relations. No epistle sheds
more light on St Paul's character as a man so mobile, so tactful,
so tender and affectionate, and yet so statesmanlike and so
commanding. If doctrinal utterances occur from time to time,
they are in every case incidental and unpremeditated.
The development of doctrine in St Paul's epistles is due in part
to the gradual subsiding of the eschatological temper, but even
more to the growth of controversy. A crisis had arisen in
Galatia owing to the invasion of the churches, which St Paul
had founded there, by reactionary Jews. This called forth
a letter 1 from St Paul, who felt himself compelled to grapple
at close quarters with teaching which he saw cut at the very
root of his own. He was thus led both to clear up for himself and
to state for the sake of others his whole conception of soteriology
his answer to the question how was man to be set right before
God. That was a large part, and at the moment the most
crucial part, of the whole problem of religion.
Two or three years later (c. A.D. 55-56) St Paul was bent on
paying a visit to Rome. He was not going there straight, but
to Jerusalem first. He knew that he could only do this at the
1 The date of this epistle is rather uncertain. Something depends
upon the vexed question as to the identity of the Galatian churches.
The epistle may be pjaced conjecturally early in the stay at Ephesus
(c. A.D. 52-53). It is to be noted that the chronological grouping
of the epistles by minute comparison of style is apt to be deceptive ;
resemblances of this kind are due more to similarity of subject than
to proximity in date.
imminent peril of his life. It seemed very doubtful whether he
would accomplish his desire. And therefore he took the oppor-
tunity to send to the Romans what is really a summing up,
not of the whole of Christianity, but of that side of Christianity
which the preceding controversy had brought into special relief.
He states his case as part of a larger question still a question
that inevitably became pressing at that particular time as to
the entire religious relation of Jew and Gentile.
These years of shock and conflict could not fail to have marked
effect upon the shaping of definite Christian doctrine. They
drew attention away from the future to the present', and to the
past as leading up to the present. They compelled a man like
St Paul to theorize: thought was driven inward; it was made
to search for foundations, to organize itself and knit together
part with part. And the impulse thus given continued. It
showed itself strongly in the epistles of the next group, especially
Ephesians and Colossians. These epistles took their form at
once from a natural progression of thought and from a new
phase of controversy, a sort of Gnosticizing theory, or theories,
which perverted Christian practice and impaired the supremacy
of Christ by placing other beings or entities by His side. The
apostle meets this by renewed emphasis on the central position
of Christ; and he at the same time carries a step farther his
conception of the unity of the Church, as embracing both Jew
nd Gentile. The predominance of this somewhat recondite
teaching gave to these epistles even more the character of
treatises, which in the case of Ephesians is further enhanced
by the fact that it is probably a circular letter addressed not to
a single church but to a group of churches. Philemon is of course
a pure letter, and Philippians mainly so, the Pastorals, as their
name implies, contain advice and instructions to the apostle's
lieutenants, Timothy and Titus, in the temporary charge com-
mitted to them of churches that the apostle could not visit
himself.
The Epistle to the Hebrews is an epistolary treatise of uncertain
date, on the Pauline model, and by a disciple of St Paul or at
least a writer strongly influenced by him, though influenced
also in no small degree by the Jewish school of Alexandria re-
presented by Philo. Of the many theories as to the address, the
most plausible are perhaps those which would apply to a single
congregation of Hebrew Christians in Rome, or to a local church
or group of local churches in Palestine, perhaps like that of
which the centre would be at Caesarea. It is not probable
that the epistle was addressed to the mother church at Jerusalem.
The above sketch of the growth and general character of the
Pauline Epistles is based upon the hypothesis that all thirteen are
genuine. But some discrimination should be made in detail.
The scepticism which challenges the whole collection may be set
aside as radically perverse ana unreasonable. Apart from this, the
keen criticism of modern times has fastened especially upon two
groups: 2 Thessalonians ; Colossians with Philemon, Ephesians and
the Pastorals. The present writer would accept without any real
hesitation the first of these classes; and the second he would also
himself accept, though in regard to this class he would think it right
to speak with rather more reserve. This may be said to be the
position generally taken up by the leading English scholars; it
differs slightly in a conservative direction, but not widely, from
that of Harnack, a little more from that of Julicher, and again a
little more from that of von Soden.
2 Thessalonians is still questioned by scholars of some note; but
when Julicher can say that no question could be raised if it were not
for the existence of I Thessalonians (assumed to be_genuine), this
is practically giving up the whole case, because the objections drawn
from I Thessalonians are, at least to the present writer, only an
example of faulty criticism. Still less is there any valid argument
against Philemon. It is a mark of the improved methods now current
in Germany that, whereas in 1886 this epistle was rejected by a
scholar as able and sober as WeizsScker, Julicher now pronounces
it " among the most assured possessions of the apostle " (Einl.
5th ed., p. 112).
But there is an arguable case of some real weight against Colos-
sians, Ephesians, Pastorals least against Colossians and perhaps
most against the Pastorals. Colossians is strongly vouched for by
its connexion with Philemon. And the objections to Ephesians
arc considerably reduced when it is taken as a circular letter. But
it should be admitted that, especially in regard to Ephesians and
Pastorals, there is a perceptible difference, (a) in style, and (6) in
characteristic subject matter, from the standard epistles. If these
BIBLE
[N.T. CANON
later epistles are really the work of St Paul, the difference must be
accounted for (a) by a somewhat unusual range of variation in style
and thought on his part, and (6) by different environment and
different purpose. The question is whether these explanations are
adequate. The writer of this is inclined to think that they are.
St Paul was in any case an unusual writer, by no means facile or
with ready command of expression ; still, he could by an effort express
what he wanted, and new situations called up new words and new
minor ideas. He was also a writer in whom the physical wear and
tear must have been enormous. It might well be believed that the
change in the so-called Epistles of the Imprisonment from the
earlier epistles was due in part to the physical effects of prolonged
confinement, as compared with the free, varied and open life and
exciting controversies of earlier years. There is also the uncertain
element that may possibly be due to the use of different amanuenses.
An argument in favour of the genuineness of the epistles may be
derived from the fact that each of the doubtful epistles is connected
with others that are not doubtful by subtle links both of style and
thought. If the reasons suggested above are not adequate, then
we must set down the questioned epistles to some disciple of St Paul,
who has carried the ideas and principles of his master a step farther
or has applied them to a different set of problems and conditions.
2. The Gospels and Acts. The Gospels and Acts arose in a
way very similar to the Pauline Epistles. Here too there was no
deliberate intention of writing a series of books that should be
at once accepted as sacred and authoritative. Here too the
expectation of the near return of Christ doubtless delayed for
a number of years the desire and need for written compositions.
Here too the first steps were taken as the exigencies of the
moment dictated. We are again driven to fill up the gaps in
our knowledge by conjectures; but some such outline as the
following has much to commend it.
When the enterprise of Christian missionaries had gone on for
some little time, especially in the regions outside Palestine
where there was little or no previous knowledge of Christ and of
Christian ideals, the wandering prophets and apostles by whom
the missions were mainly conducted must have soon begun to
feel the need for some sort of written manual to supplement
their own personal teaching. It was one of the characteristics
of the early Christian teachers that they rarely stayed for any
length of time in a place; they moved on, and the little con-
gregation was left to wait for another visitor, who might be
some time in coming. How was this interval to be filled?
There would be every degree of preparation, or want of prepara-
tion, for the reception of Christian teaching. Some Jews,
like those who are described in the Gospel as " waiting for the
kingdom of God," would be pious men and women carefully
trained in the Old Testament, who would be almost fit for the
kingdom even before they had heard of Christ. Other Gentile
converts would require instruction in the very rudiments of
ethical and monotheistic religion. Between these extremes
there would be many shades and degrees of ignorance and
knowledge. How could these various cases be met at once
most simply and most effectually? We remember that the
Christian preachers were preaching before all things a Person, but
a Person whose interest for these new converts lay chiefly in the
fact that He was about to come and establish a supernatural
kingdom for which they had to fit themselves. The best way
therefore of helping them to do this was to provide them with
an outline of the characteristic teaching of Christ, which should
be at the same time a clear statement of His moral demands.
It is probable that these requirements suggested the form of
the first Christian Gospel, which the writer believes to be rightly
identified with the so-called Logia of St Matthew, now often
designated by the symbol Q. It did not aim at being a history,
and still less a complete history, but it was mainly a collection
of sayings or discourses suited to supply a rule of life.
It would be somewhat later than this, and not until the
eschatological outlook became weaker, and men began to turn
their regard to the past rather than to the future, that there
would gradually arise a more strictly historical interest. There
is reason to think that in the Christian Church this interest did
not begin to be active much before the decade A.D. 60-70.
Its first conspicuous product was our present Gospel of St Mark,
which was probably composed at Rome within the years 64-70.
We say advisedly " our present Gospel of St Mark," because
there does not seem to, us to be any sufficient reason for pre-
supposing an Ur-Marcus, or older form of this Gospel.
These two works, the Logia (or, as some prefer to call it, the
Non-Marcan document common to Matthew and Luke) and
the Mark-Gospel, were the prime factors in all the subsequent
composition of Gospels. Our Matthew and our Luke are just
combinations, differently constructed, of these two documents,
with a certain amount of additional matter which the editors
had collected for themselves. And it is probable that other
Gospels of which only fragments have come down to us, like the
Gospel according to the Hebrews and the Gospel of Peter, have
been built up out of the same materials.
St Luke was the first to write, as we may see from his preface,
definitely in the spirit of a historian. He addresses his work
to Theophilus, apparently an official person, who had already
been taught the main outlines of Christianity. He had planned
his work on a large scale; and in Acts we have its second
volume. It is an event of no small importance for criticism
that so eminent a scholar as Prof. Harnack should have come
round to the view, almost universally prevalent in England,
that St Luke himself was the final editor and author of both
the Third Gospel and the Acts. It is a very secondary question
what is their exact date.
The reasons which converge upon the conclusion just ex-
pressed as to the origin and nature of the fundamental documents
worked up in our present Synoptic Gospels are as follows:
(i.) The literary analysis of the Synoptic Gospels brings out a
number of sections common to Matthew and Luke which probably
at one time existed as an independent document, (ii.) This
document consisted, in the main though not entirely, of a
collection of Sayings of the Lord, which set in strong relief
at once His character and the moral and religious ideal that He
desired to commend, (iii.) We have an express statement, which
must have been originally made before the end of the first
century, that the apostle Matthew composed in Hebrew a work
described as Logia. This word need not mean, but may quite
well and pointedly mean, a collection specially of Sayings,
and would still more aptly denote a collection of divine or
authoritative sayings (Xo7ia = prop. " oracles "). (iv.) We know
further that the conditions of early Christian missionary teaching
were such as have been described. We learn this especially
from the Didache; and the first part of that work, the
so-called " Two- Ways," is commonly thought to have been
in the first instance a Jewish manual put into the hands of
proselytes. On our hypothesis the Logia would have been a
sort of Christian manual used with a similar object, (v.) We
are confirmed in this opinion by the fact that the epistles of
St Paul furnish many indications that Christians in general,
including those who had 'not been much in contact with the
original Twelve, were well acquainted with the leading features
in the character of Christ and in the Christian ideal, although
there is little corresponding evidence for their knowledge of
details in the life of Christ.
There is a similar statement to the one mentioned above,
that like it must have been originally made before the end
of the first century, as to a Gospel composed by St Mark on the
basis mainly of the preaching of St Peter, though this need not
exclude personal experience (as, e.g., perhaps in Mark xiv. 51-52)
or information derived from other sources. Only raw materials
came from St Peter, and those probably not checked or revised
by him; the arrangement is due to Mark himself, and is more
successful than might have been expected in the circumstances
indeed so successful as to suggest advice from some good quarter.
According to Irenaeus (c. A.D. 185), who is more precise than
Clement of Alexandria, the Gospel was not published until
after the death of Peter, which would place its composition
between the limits A.D. 65 and 70. The phenomena which are
sometimes supposed to require the hypothesis of an Ur-Marcus
are more simply and satisfactorily explained as incidents in the
transmission of the Marcan text.
The matter peculiar to Matthew and Luke raises a number
of interesting questions which are still too much sub judice to
N.T. CANON]
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be answered decidedly or dogmatically, though approximate
and provisional answers may before long be forthcoming. All
parts of the problem have been greatly forwarded by the recent
publication of important works by Wellhausen and Harnack
(see below). The date of the completed Luke depends (a) on
whether or not we believe Luke himself or a later disciple to be
the author, and (6) whether or not we believe that the author
of Acts had seen Josephus' Antiquities, published in A.D. 93 or
94. Professor Burkitt takes an original line in maintaining that
Luke was the author of both works, and yet that he had seen
Antiq. The present writer is inclined to think the latter hypo-
thesis not proven. The date of Matthew cannot be fixed more
nearly than 70-100.
3. The Catholic Epistles. The Catholic Epistles were so
called in the first instance from their wider and more indefinite
address; they were intended for Christians generally, or over
some wide area, rather than for a particular church or individual.
2 and 3 John are exceptions, but probably came in under
the wing of the larger epistle, which is strictly " catholic." As
applied to a class of epistles, the title dates from Eusebius, early
in the 4th century; the epithet is given to single epistles by
Origen, and is found as far back as the end of the 2nd century.
In later Latin usage " catholic " came to mean much the same as
" canonical," another name that was also given.
This group of epistles practically continues and supplements
the work of the epistles of St Paul, i Peter, if genuine, must date
from the end of the apostle's career (for the early composition
claimed for it by B. Weiss is a paradox that may be disregarded).
It was written to instruct and encourage the Christians of Asia
Minor at a time of persecution, which on the hypothesis of
genuineness, would be the Neronian, i.e. a secondary outbreak
perhaps loosely connected with the onslaught in Rome. The
Epistle of James (also, if genuine) must be placed late in the life-
time of the brother of the Lord. In that case it was probably not
written with any direct polemic against writings of St Paul, but
against hearsay versions of his teaching that had reached
Jerusalem. Controversy of this kind is not always conducted
with complete understanding of that which is being opposed.
The Epistle of Jude cannot be either dated or localized with any
certainty. It seems on the whole most probable that 2 Peter is
not a genuine work, but that it came from the same factory of
pseudonymous Petrine writings as the Apocalypse which bears
the same name, though the one has, and the other has not,
obtained a place within the Canon. This epistle was questioned
from the first, and only gained its place with much hesitation,
and rather through slackness of opposition than any conclusive-
ness of proof. The three Johannine epistles may be more
conveniently treated under the next head.
Even in the case of the two more important epistles, i Peter
and James, we have to add the qualification " if genuine," but
rather perhaps because of the persistence with which they are
challenged than because of inherent defect of attestation. The
evidence for i Peter is both early in date and wide in range, and
the book was one of those that passed as " acknowledged " in
antiquity. The evidence for James is not so widely diffused but
is found in early writings. Perhaps the position of these two
epistles might be described as not unlike that of Colossians and
Ephesians. Instead of casting doubt upon them, we should
prefer to say that they are both probably genuine, but that there
are features about them that are not as yet fully explained.
The chief of these features is their relation to the writings of St
Paul. There is indeed so much that is Pauline in i Peter as to
give distinct attractiveness to the hypothesis, which is most
elaborately maintained by Zahn, that a larger share than usual
in the composition of the letter was left to Silvanus (i Peter
v. 1 2). Nor does it appear to us that the objections to this theory
brought by Dr Chase in his excellent article on the epistle in
Hastings' Dictionary are really so fatal as he supposes. The
epistle is more the work of a companion of St Paul of long
standing than of one who, with quite different and independent
antecedents, had only been influenced by the perusal of one or
two of St Paul's letters. In the Epistle of James we have a
really distinct type; and it seems to us that the degree to which
the epistle misses its mark as a polemic may be easily and
naturally accounted for in more ways than one.
4. The Johannine Writings. The Gospel and Epistles that
bear the name of John, and the Apocalypse, form a group of
writings that stand very much by themselves and are still the
subject of active discussion. The points in regard to them that
would unite the greatest number of suffrages would seem to be
these: (i.) That, except 2 Peter, they arc probably the latest of
the New Testament writings, and that they form a group closely
connected among themselves, though it is not dear how many
hands have been at work in them, (ii.) That they arose not far
from each other towards the end of the ist century. The
Apocalypse is plausibly dated by Reinach and Harnack near to
the precise year 93, and the other writings may be referred to
the reign of Domitian (81-96), though many critics would extend
the limit to some two decades later, (iii.) The writings are to be
connected, either more" or less closely, with John of Ephesus, who
was a prominent figure towards the end of the ist century. On
the other hand, the greatest differences would be: (i.) As to the
personal identity of this John is he himself " the beloved
disciple " ? Is he the apostle, the son of Zebedee or another?
Can the writer of the Apocalypse be the same as the writer of the
Gospel and Epistles ? (ii.) What is the exact relation of John
of Ephesus to the Gospel ? Is he its author or only the authority
behind it? (iii.) How far is the Gospel intended to be, and how
far is it, in the strict sense historical? This last question is
beginning to overshadow all the rest.
Whatever may be the ultimate decision on these intricate
questions, the Fourth Gospel in any case played a very important
part in the history of the Church and of Christian theology. It
drew together and gathered up into itself the forces at work in the
apostolic age; and, by reaching out a hand as it were (through
the preface) towards Greek philosophy, it succeeded in so
formulating the leading doctrines of Christianity as to make it
more acceptable than it had as yet been to the Gentile world,
and in securing for the Gospel a place in the main stream of
European thought. It is probably true to say that no other
primitive Christian writing has had so marked an effect on all
later attempts to systematize the Christian creed.
The situation as to the Fourth Gospel has been altered in recent
years by the statement attributed to Papias that the two sons of
Zebedee (and not only one) were slain by the Jews -a statement
which becomes more difficult to put aside as the evidence for it
increases (full details in Burkitt, Gosp. Hist. pp. 252-255; E.
Schwartz, Ober d. Tod d. Sohne Zebedoei, Berlin, 1904). But thi*
statement does not affect the historical character of John of Ephesus,
who is also expressly described by Papias as " a disciple of the
Lord " (Eus. H.E. iii. 30. 4). On the other hand, the theory that
the Gospel is a thorough-going allegory must be hard to maintain
in view of the frequent appeals to " witness " which is several times
defined as eye-witness (John i. 15, 32, iii. 1 1, xix. 35, xxi. 24; I John
i. 1-3; cf. John v. 36, x. 25). This is borne out by Ignatius with
his strong emphasis on the reality of the Gospel history (Eph. xx.
2; Troll, x.; Smyrn. \. i, 2, ii., iii. 1-3, v. 2). If the writer of the
Gospel were simply inventing his facts, they would be no proof of his
thesis (John xx. 31). It is a paradox that he should be invoked
" to prove the reality of Jesus Christ " (as against Docetism), and
yet that it should be contended at the same time that for him
ideas, and not events, were the true realities."
5. Other Literature not included in the New Testament. It
must not be thought that the primitive Christian literatun-
came abruptly to an end with the writings that are included in
our present New Testament. On the contrary, all round these
there was a broad fringe of writings more or less approximating
to them in character. Most nearly on the lines of the New
Testament are the so-called Apostolic (really Sub-Apostolic)
Fathers (Clement of Rome to the Corinthians, Didachi, Barnabas,
the letters of Ignatius and the single letter of Polycarp, th<-
Shepherd of Hennas, the homily commonly known as the Second
Epistle of Clement). These are in most cases the writings of
leading persons in the Church who took up and continued the
tradition of the apostles. Barnabas and 2 Clement are more
8 7 6
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[N.T. CANON
eccentric, but the writers must have been persons of some note.
Outside this group would come what are called the Apocryphal
Gospels and Acts (Gospel according to Hebrews, according to
Egyptians, of Peter, of Truth, of the Twelve [or Ebionite Gospel],
the recently recovered so-called Login; the Gospel of Nicodemus,
the Protevangelium of James, the Gospel of Thomas, the Acts
of Pilate, Acts of Paul, Peter, John, Andrew, Thomas; the
Preaching of Peter, the Apocalypse of Peter). As the 2nd century
wears on, we come to controversial or philosophical works by
Agrippa, Castor, Quadratus, Aristides. With the middle of the
century we reach a considerable writer in Justin Martyr. With
him the twilight period which succeeds to the apostolic age is
over, and we enter upon the main course of ecclesiastical history.
At this point, therefore, our survey may end.
(j3) The Process of Discrimination and Collection, i. Dis-
crimination. Throughout the apostolic age Christians were
conscious of being carried forward in a great movement, the
origin and motive-power of which they regarded as supernatural.
It began on the Day of Pentecost, but continued in full tide
almost to the end of the ist century, and, even when it began
to subside, it did so quite gradually. The moment of transition
is clearly marked in the Didache, where the charismatic ministry
of " apostles and prophets " is beginning to give place to per-
manent local officials of the Church, bishops, presbyters and
deacons. The literature that we now call the New Testament
held its place because it was regarded as a product of the palmy
days of that great movement. It was considered to be the work
of inspired men, of men whom the Holy Spirit, at that time
specially active in the Church, had chosen as its organs. We
have seen how St Paul, for instance, fully believed that his own
preaching had a force behind it which vindicated for it the claim
to be " the word of God " (i Thess. ii. 13) ; and it was inevitable
that the other preachers and teachers should have had in different
degrees something of the same consciousness. This conscious-
ness receives perhaps its strongest expression in the Apocalypse.
There is really no contradiction between this sense of a high
calling and mission, with a special endowment corresponding
to it, and the other fact that the writings from this age that
have come down to us are all (except perhaps the Apocalypse,
and even the Apocalypse, in some degree, as we see by the letters
to the Seven Churches) strictly occasional and natural in their
origin. The lives and actions of apostles and prophets were in
their general tenor like those of other men; it was only that,
for the particular purpose of their mission, they found them-
selves carried beyond and above themselves. St Paul himself
knew when he was speaking by the Spirit, and when he was
not; and we too can recognize to some extent when the
afflatus comes upon him. It is fortunate that this should be so
clearly marked in his epistles, because it enables us to argue
by analogy to the other writers. When we come to historical
books like the third Gospel and the Acts, we find the writer
just pursuing the ordinary methods of history, and. not claiming
to do anything more (Luke i. 1-4). With the methods of history,
these writers were naturally exposed to the risks and chances
of error attendant upon those methods. There was not at first
among the writers any idea that they were composing an infallible
narrative. The freedom with which they used each other's
work, and with which the early texts were transmitted, excludes
this. But there was the idea that the whole movement of the
Church to which they gave expression was in a special sense
divine. And this belief was the fundamental principle that
determined the marking off of the writings of the first, or apos-
tolic, age from the rest.
At the same time it must not be supposed that a hard and fast
line can be drawn beyond which the spiritual stimulus of this
first age ceased. The writings of Clement of Rome (A.D. 97) and
of Ignatius (c. A.D. no) mark the transition. Ignatius, for in-
stance, clearly distinguishes between his own position and that
of the apostles: " I do not enjoin you, as Peter and Paul did.
They were Apostles, I am a convict; they were free, but I am a
slave to this very hour " (Rom. iv. 3). And yet, none the less,
Ignatius is conscious of acting and speaking at times from a
kind of inspiration. " Even though certain persons desired
to deceive me after the flesh, yet the spirit is not deceived, being
from God ; for it knoweth whence it cometh and where it goeth,
and it searcheth out the hidden things. I cried out, when I was
among you; I spake with a loud voice, with God's own voice,
give ye heed to the bishops, and the presbyters and deacons "
(Philadelph. vii. i). In like manner Clement, in two places
(lix. i, Ixiii. 2), writes as though God were speaking through him.
2. Collection. Concurrently with the tendency to discriminate
between the higher authority of certain writings and the lower
authority of others, there was also a tendency to collect and
group together writings of the first class. The earliest example
of this tendency is in the case of the Pauline Epistles. Marcion,
we know (c. A.D. 140), had a collection of ten out of thirteen,
in the order, Gal., i and 2 Cor., Rom., i and 2 Thess., Laodic.
( =Eph.), Col., Phil., Philem. We observe that the Pastorals
are omitted. But it is highly probable that the collection went
back a full generation before Marcion. The short Epistle of
Polycarp contains references or allusions to no less than nine
out of the thirteen epistles, including 2 Thess., Eph., i and
2 Tim. Ignatius, writing just before, gives clear indications
of six, including i Tim. and Titus. The inference lies near
at hand that both writers had access to the full collection of
thirteen, not omitting the Pastorals. Polycarp (ad Phil. xiii. 2)
shows how strong was the interest in collecting the writings of
eminent men.
It of course did not follow that, because the letters of St Paul
were collected, they were therefore regarded as sacred. The
feeling towards them at first would be simply an instinct of
respect and deference; but we have seen above that the essential
conditions of the higher estimate were present all along, and
were only waiting to be recognized as soon as reflective thought
was turned upon them. This process appears to have been
going on throughout the middle years of the 2nd century.
The famous passage of Irenaeus (Adv. Haer. iii. 15. 8) assumes
the possession by the Church of four authoritative Gospels
and no more. This is the general view of the Church of his time,
except the little clique known as the Alogi who rejected the
Fourth Gospel, and Marcion who only recognized St Luke.
But here again, we may go back some way farther. Ireiiaeus
writes (c. A.D. 185) as though the Four Gospels had held the
field as far back as he can remember. About A.D. 170 Tatian,
the disciple of Justin, composed out of these Gospels his Diates-
saron. If Justin used any other Gospel, his use of it was very
subordinate. Practically we may say that the estimate of the
Four to which Tatian and Irenaeus testify must have been well
established by the middle of the century, though sporadic
instances may be found of the use of other Gospels that did not
become canonical. The -sifting out of these was proceeding
steadily and gradually, and by the end of the century it may be
regarded as complete.
We must make allowance for the existence of this margin,
and for the blurring of the boundary-line that goes along with
it. We cannot claim for the Church absolute sureness of judg-
ment as to what falls on one side of the line and what on the other.
It is possible, e.g., that a mistake has been made in the case of
2 Peter, which, however, is edifying enough. It is not less
possible that writings like i Clem, and Epp. Ignat. are not
inferior in real religious value to the Epistle of Jude. But,
broadly speaking, the judgment of the early Church has been
endorsed by that of after ages
Harnack raises an interesting question (Reden u. Aufsatze. ii.
239 ff.), how it came about that Four Gospels were recognized, and
not only one. There are many indications early in the and century
of a tendency towards the recognition of a single Gospel; for in-
stance, there are the local Gospels according to Hebrews, according
to Egyptians; Marcion had but one Gospel, St Luke, the Valen-
tinians preferred St John and so on; Tatian reduced the Four
Gospels to one by means of a Harmony, and it is possible that
something of the kind may have existed before he did this. There
is probably some truth in the view that the Church clung to its
Four Gospels as a weapon against Gnosticism; it could not afford
to reduce the number of its documents. But, over and above this,
there was probably something in the circumstances in which the
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canonical Gospels were composed, and in their early history, which
gave them a special prestige in the eyes of the faithful. The story
which Eusebius quotes from Clement of Alexandria (H.E. vi. 14)
seems to point to something of the kind.
3. Influences at work. The whole process of the formation
of the New Testament was steady and gradual. The critical
period, during which the conception grew up of the New Covenant
with its sacred book by the side of the Old Covenant, which in
its written embodiment we call the Old Testament, extends
roughly over the 2nd century. By the last decades of that
century a preliminary list of these new Sacred Books had been
formed and placed by the side of the Old with substantially the
same attributes. We must briefly sketch the process by which
this came about, tracing the causes which led to the result and
indicating the manner in which they operated.
We have seen that the ultimate cause was the consciousness
on the part of the Church that the first age of its own history
was characterized by spiritual workings more intense than other
times. This feeling had been instinctive, and it found expression
in several ways, each one of them partial, when taken alone,
but obtaining their full effect in combination. It should be
understood that the goal towards which events were moving
all the time was the equalizing of the New Testament with the
Old Testament.
(a) Public Reading. From the first the way in which the Epistles
of Paul were brought to the knowledge of the churches to which
they were addressed was by reading in the public assemblies for
worship. This was done by the direction of the apostle himself
(i Thess. v. 27; Col. iv. 16). At first any writing that was felt to
be useful for edification was read in this way, especially if it had
local associations (cf. Dionysius of Corinth, ap. Eus. H.E. iv. 23.
ll). But, as worship became more thoroughly organized, it was
invested with increasing solemnity; the freedom of choice was
gradually restricted; and inasmuch as lections were regularly taken
from the Old Testament, it was only natural that other lections
read alongside of them should gradually be placed upon the same
footing.
(b) Authority of Christ and the Apostles. As the words of prophets
and lawgivers had from the first carried their own authority with
them under the Old Covenant, so from the first the words of Christ
needed no commendation from without under the New. And what
applied to words of Christ soon came also to apply in their degree
to words of the apostles. The only difference was that an authority
at first instinctively assumed came to be consciously recognized
and formally defined. There was also a natural tendency towards
levelling up the different parts of books and groups of books. In
other words, the somewhat vague sense of spiritual power and im-
pressiveness hardened into the conception of sacred books united
in a sacred volume.
(c) Controversy. The process was accelerated by the demand for
a standard or rule of faith and practice. At an early date in the
2nd century this demand was met by the composition of the oldest
form of what we call the Apostles' Creed. But the Creed was but
the condensed essence of the New Testament scriptures, and behind
it there lay an appeal to these scriptures, which was especially
necessary where (as in the case of the Valentinian Gnostics) the
dissident bodies professed to accept the common belief of Christians.
In its conflict with Gnostics, Marcionites and Montanists the Church
was led to insist more and more upon its Bible, its own Bible, just
as in its older controversy with the Jews it had to insist on the Bible
which it inherited from them. This was a yet further cause of the
equating of the two parts of the sacred volume, which went on with
an imperceptible crescendo through the first three quarters of the
2nd century, and by the last quarter was fairly complete.
(y) Provisional Canon of New Testament (end of 2nd century).
By the last quarter of the 2nd century the conception of a
Christian Bible in two parts, Old Testament and New Testament,
may be said to be definitely established. Already at the beginning
of this period Melito had drawn up a list of the twenty-two
Books of the Old Covenant, i.e. of the documents to which the
Old Covenant made its appeal. It was a very short step to the
compiling of a similar list for the New Covenant, which by another
very short step becomes the New Testament, by the side of the
Old Testament. It is therefore not surprising, though a piece of
great good fortune, that there should be still extant a list of the
New Testament books that may be roughly dated from the end
of the century. This list published by Muratori in 1740, and
called after him " the Muratorian Fragment on the Canon," is
commonly believed to be of Roman origin and to be a trans-
lation from the Greek, though there are a few dissentients on
both heads. The list recognized four Gospels, Acts, thirteen
epistles of Paul, two epistles of John, Jude, Apocalypse of John
and (as the text stands) of Peter; there is no mention of
Hebrews or (apparently) of 3 John or Epistles of Peter, where it
is possible we cannot say more that the silence as to i Peter
is accidental; the Shepherd of Hennas on account of its date
is admitted to private, but not public, reading; various writ-
ings associated with Marcion, Valentinus, Basilidcs and Mon-
tanus are condemned.
There are many interesting points about this list, which still shows
considerable freshness of judgment, (i.) There are traces of earlier
discussions about the Gospels, both in disparagement cf the Synoptics
as compared with St John, and in criticism of the latter as differing
from the former, (ii.) There is a healthy tendency to lay stress on
the historical value of narratives which proceed from eye-witnesses.
(iii.) An over-ruling and uniting influence is ascribed to the Holy
Spirit, (iv.) The writer is concerned to point put that letters Ad-
dressed to a single church and even to an individual may yet have
a wider use for the Church as a whole, (v.) The sense is not yet lost
that the appeal of the Old Testament is as coming from men of pro-
phetic gifts, and that of the New Testament as coming from apostles.
(vi.) It is in accordance with this that a time limit is placed upon
the books included in the New Testament, (vii.) Christians are to
be on their guard against writings put forth in the interest of heretical
sects.
When the data of Fragm. Murat. are compared with those
supplied by the writers of the last quarter of the 2nd and first
of the 3rd centuries (Tatian, Theoph. Ant., Iren., Clem. Alex.,
Tert., Hippol.), it is seen that there is a fixed nucleus of writings
that is acknowledged, with one exception, over all parts of the
Christian world. The exception is the Syriac-speaking Church
of Edessa and Mesopotamia. This Church at first acknowledged
only the Gospel (in the form of Tatian's Diatessaron) , Acts and
the Epistles of Paul. These seem to have been the only books
translated immediately upon the foundation of the Edessan
Church, though an edition of the separate Gospels must have
followed either before or very soon afterwards. In all other
churches the four Gospels, Acts and Epistles of Paul are fixed,
with the addition in nearly all of i Peter, i John. The Apocalypse
was generally accepted in the West. Hebrews and James were
largely accepted in the East.
In the 3rd century the conspicuous figure is Origen (ob. 353),
whose principal service was, through the vast range of his know-
ledge, his travels and his respect for tradition wherever he found
it, to keep open the wider limits of the Canon. There is not one
of our present books that he does not show himself inclined to
accept, though he notes the doubts in regard to 2 Peter and
2 and 3 John. Later in the century Dionysius of Alexandria
applies some acute criticism to justify the Alexandrian dislike
of the Apocalypse.
(S) The Final Canon (4th century). Early in the 4th
century Eusebius, as a historian reviews the situation (H.E. iii.
25. i). He makes three classes; the first, including the Gospels,
Acts, Epistles of Paul, i Peter, i John, is acknowledged; to
these, if one likes, one may add the Apocalypse. The second
class is questioned, but accepted by the majority; viz. James,
Jude, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John. The third class, of works
to be decidedly rejected, contains the Acts of Paul, Hermas,
Apocalypse of Peter, Barnabas, Didachi ; to these some would
add Apoc. of John, and others Ev. sec. Hebr. About the same
time another line of tradition is represented by Lucian and the
school of Antioch. The vernacular Church of Syria represented
yet a third. In Egypt the uncertainty and laxity of usage was
still greater. This state of things the great Athanasius set
himself to correct, and he did so by laying down a list identical
with our New Testament as we have it now. It was very largely
the influence of Athanasius that finally turned the scale. He
was peculiarly qualified for exercising this influence, as his long
exile in the West made him familiar with Western usage, while
he was also able to bring to the West the usage that he was
trying to establish in the East. His efforts would be helped by
Westerns, like Hilary and Lucifer, who were exiled to the East.
The triumph of the Athanasian Canon, indeed, went along with
the triumph of Nicene Christianity. And while the movement
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received its impulse from Athanasius, the power by which it
was carried through and established was largely that of his
powerful ally, the Church of Rome.
The final victory was no doubt a little delayed. Asia Minor
and Syria were for most of the 4th century divided between
the following of Eusebius (Cyril of Jerusalem in A.D. 348, Gregory
of Nazianzus, the list of Apost. Can. 85, that attached to Can. 59
of the Council of Laodicea, c. A.D. 363) and the school of Antioch.
The leading members of that school adopted 3 Epp. Cath.
(James, i Peter, i John), Theod. Mops, omitting this group
altogether, and the whole school omitting Apoc. Amphilochius
of Iconium (c. 380) gives the two lists, Eusebian and Antiochene,
as alternatives. The Eusebian list only wanted the complete
admission of the Apocalypse to be identical with the Athanasian;
and Athanasius had one stalwart supporter in Epiphanius
(ob. 403).
The original Syriac list, as we have seen, had neither Epp.
Cath. nor Apoc. The Peshito version, in regard to which Professor
Burkitt's view is now pretty generally accepted, that it was the
work of Rabbula, bishop of Edessa, 411-433, added the 3 Epp.
Cath. The remaining 4 Epp. Cath. and Apoc. were sup-
plied in the Philoxenian version of 508, and retained in the
Harklean revision of 616. But both these were Monophysite
and of limited use, and the Nestorians still went on using the
Peshito.
Meantime, in the West, an important Synod was held by
Damasus at Rome in 382 which, under the dominant influence
of Jerome and the Athanasian tradition, drew up a list correspond-
ing to the present Canon. This was ratified by Pope Gelasius
(492-496), and independently confirmed for the province of
Africa by a series of Synods held at Hippo Regius in 393, and at
Carthage in 397 and 419, under the lead of Augustine. The
formal completion of the whole process in East and West was
reserved for the Quinisextine Council (Council in Trullo) of 692.
But even after that date irregularities occur from time to time,
especially in the East.
In the fixing of the Canon, as in the fixing of doctrine, the
decisive influence proceeded from the bishops and the theologians
of the period 325-450. But behind these was the practice of the
greater churches; and behind that again was not only the lead
of a few distinguished individuals, but the instinctive judgment
of the main body of the faithful. It was really this instinct that
told in the end more than any process of quasi-scientific criticism.
And it was well that it should be so, because the methods of
criticism are apt to be, and certainly would have been when the
Canon was formed, both faulty and inadequate, whereas instinct
brings into play the religious sense as a whole; with spirit
speaking to spirit rests the last word. Even this is not infallible;
and it cannot be claimed that the Canon of the Christian Sacred
Books is infallible. But experience has shown that the mis-
takes, so far as there have been mistakes, are unimportant;
and in practice even these are rectified by the natural gravita-
tion of the mind of man to that which it finds most nourishing
and most elevating.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The separate articles on the various books of
the New Testament may be consulted for detailed bibliographies.
The object of the above sketch has been to embrace in constructive
outline the ground usually covered analytically and on a far larger
scale by Introductions to the New Testament, and by Histories of
the New Testament Canon. In English there is a standard work
of the latter class in Westcott's General Survey of the History of the
Canon of the New Testament (first published in 1855, important revision
and additions in 4th ed. 1874, 7th ed. 1896), with valuable ap-
pendix of documents at the end. There was also a useful collection
of texts by Prof. Charteris of Edinburgh, Canonicity (1880), based
on Kirchhofer, Quellensamm-
lung (1844), but with im-
provements. The leading
documents are to be had in
the handyand reliable.K7eJMe
Texte (ed. Lietzmann, from
1002). On Introduction the
ablest older English work was
Salmon, Historical Introduc-
tion to the Study of N.T. (ist
ed. 1885, sth ed. 1891); but,
although still possessing value as argument, this has been more dis-
tinctly left behind by the progress of recent years. England has
made many weighty contributions both to Introduction and Canon,
especially Lightfoot, Essays on Supernatural Religion (collected in
1889); editions of Books of the New Testament and Apostolic
Fathers; Westcott, editions; Hort, especially Romans and
Ephesians (posthumous, 1895); Swete, editions; Knowling and
others. The Oxford Society of Historical Theology put out a useful
New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers in 1905, and Prof. Stanton of
Cambridge, The Gospels as Historical Documents (part i. in 1903).
Prof. Burkitt's Gospel History and its Transmission appeared in
1906. For introductory matter the student will do well to consult
the Dictionary of the Bible (ed. Hastings, 5 vols., 1898-1904) and
Encyclopaedia Biblica (ed. Cheyne and Black, 4 .vols., 1899-1903).
Dr Hastings and his contributors belong more to the right wing of
criticism, and Dr Cheyne and his to the left. The systematic Intro-
duction is a characteristic production of Germany and has done
excellent service in its day, though there are signs that the analytic
method hitherto mainly practised is beginning to give place to
something more synthetic or constructive. The pioneer work in
this latter direction is Weizsacker's skilful and artistic Apostolisches
Zeitalter (ist ed. 1886, 3rd ed. 1901; Eng. trans. 1894-1895);
somewhat similar on a smaller scale is von Soden, History of Early
Christian Literature (trans., 1906). Special mention should be made
of Wellhausen on the Synoptic Gospels (1903-1905), and Harnack,
Beitrdge z. Einleitung in d. N.T. (part i. 1906, part ii. 1907). The
most important recent works on Introduction and Canon have been
those of H. J. Holtzmann (ist ed. 1885, 3rd ed. 1902); B. Weiss
(ist ed. 1886, 3rd ed. 1807); a series of works by Th. Zahn,
almost colossal in scale and exhaustive in detail, embracing Gesch.
d. neut. Kanons (2 vols., 1888-1892, third to follow), Forschungen
z. Gesch. d. neut. Kan. (7 parts, 1881-1907), Einleitung (2 vols., 1897-
1899), Grundriss d. Gesch. d. neut. Kan. (ist ed. 1901, 2nd ed. 1904) ;
A. Julicher, Einleitung (ist and 2nd ed. 1894, 5th and 6th ed.
1906; Eng. trans, by Miss Janet Ward, 1904). Zahn and Julicher
may be said to supplement and correct each other, as they write
from very different points of view, and on Jiilicher's side there is
no lack of criticism of his great opponent. Zahn's series is monu-
mental in its way, and his Grundriss is very handy and full of closely
packed and (in statements of facts) trustworthy matter. Julicher's
work is also highly practical, very complete and well proportioned
in scale, and up to a certain point its matter is also excellent. The
History of the Canon, by the Egyptologist Joh. Leipoldt (Leipzig,
1907), may also be warmly recommended; it is clear and methodical,
and does not make the common mistake of assigning too much to
secondary causes; the author does not forget that he is dealing
with a sacred book, and that he has to show why it was held
sacred. (W. SA.)
2. Texts and Versions.
The apparatus criticus of the New Testament consists, from
one point of view, entirely of MSS. ; but theseMSS. may be divided
into three groups: (A) Greek MSS., which in practice are known
as " The MSS," (B) MSS. of versions in other languages repre-
senting translations from the Greek, (C) MSS. of other writings
whether in Greek or other languages which contain quotations
from the New Testament.
(A) Greek MSS. These may be divided into classes accord-
ing to style of writing, material, or contents. The first method
distinguishes between uncial or majuscule, and cursive or
minuscule; the second between papyrus, vellum or parchment,
and paper (for further details see MANUSCRIPT and PALAEO-
GRAPHY); and the third distinguishes mainly between Gospels,
Acts and Epistles (with or without the Apocalypse), New
Testaments (the word in this connexion being somewhat
broadly interpreted), lectionaries and commentaries.
Quite accurate statistics on this subject are scarcely attainable.
Von Soden's analysis of numbers, contents and date may be
tabulated as follows, but it must be remembered that it reckons
many small fragments as separate MSS., especially in the earlier
centuries. It is also necessary to add that there is one small
scrap of papyrus of the 3rd century containing a few verses of
the 4th Gospel.
Century
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVIf.
Total.
New Testaments
Gospels
Acts and Epistles
Acts and Catho-
lic Epp. .
Pauline Epp.
Apocalypse
2
3
i
2
IO
I
4
i
26
i
7
IO
i
4
i
i
19
i
2
26
4
5
2
82
"9
4
i
16
1 88
55
2
24
282
49
2
I
3
44
260
52
5
47
218
56
3
4
>
19
107
3i
2
3
21
7
46
8
5
3
6
167
1277
278
25
32
A\
BIBLE
PLATE I.
.i3.y MIN
r'AciSccxi
I.
A.C o
r er
H K M R ^ K :>KI
M H e
Fi Xrr J^M-TA. 'MM *.cJJkNTn
M c?i c i NTK. * M c X'l ' n i.c*T
TM N I MCTI" UC'I M
" UC'I f
AI xr KHN'
y r i A r v o w T~* M o y i
t i^r AAd)-r6co>M KMOY
FIG. I. Codex Vaticanus. (From facsimile ed. by
J. Cozza-Luzi, 1889-1890.)
K. II IXMTCOAvVt I VK^t'lO Ml IIIVH
' i -cox X|> i o ^i x; i
K4 Hi |VV4 TC'A^
K/ll t I .VMTOOXlt;PK-I IIKH:YOYCI1H-
ZMXOVL^IXC'I'XX'Xf IClUxiVfXIUivl
X O M X l< KHV II K VC> Y 1 1 ]* R< ) VI I M
'}'
C - l 'O > M XKIC1 >KI
1 KX|-|Xl>MXrrCXCl>M XrXun
I 1 IOXCI>|-CI'OM VXXXIxOCMX-""
I I K'Y 1 ^ 1 RXXt>lvIXXXXXZCl>N
L: ixn i
T 1 "
ii I<.:TI t rtiKvroopi
xi -xi
KXUI IXKI
' TOO O > V4 XK^ O Yl H XKXYX 1 1
Xi -xi 1 1 1 1 1 v.c-. K 1 1
FIG. 3. Codex Alexandrinus. (British Museum.)
- -. f .
.
en te
<: ) i^ K x c i AC
JON
" H KM I KM
I AH
/ oyc i / oyM (-
1 oy RXCJ
I c: TAp IMATAIfl-
Al C C f i
Palaeographical Soc.. 1873.)
j i ANT \a i\:a> d uo r.\N r t K i N \t uo j
pRAChcNr>ONS^.Aj)l\p.\LLKKTI)
CTAV r Ol^ic
eccc ceo sc ixD.\u> RCCNUCD
UWNCIU TC J
FIG. 4. From a probable Northumbrian Copy of the Codex Amiatitius.
(British Museum.)
mirl<wnti attrwn anfniaci ttidr
r <* adliuc crtl<tm^tnt ituw
ckttiottrtro -
fttm uelur ^ fcmAttf Attr c
turn ntmtcns . (r ft
FIG. 5. Pentateuch in Hebrew, 9th Century.
(British Museum.)
in. 878-
FIG. 6. Vulgate. (From MS. written for the monastery of Ste Marie de Parco,
Louvain, A.D. 1 148. British Museum.)
PLATE II.
BIBLE
!mao&m raomuolw frm
ttlrpttt
i Iwam 'ftjf fum tufttr cf ftntanf
telum tmtitai$.Ht hftopftam mane
tun ttitffei wnnwiottttutn itfatn/i dTxi
xmpmfacm t ttPttumtisinafinam
ormnraatf n^&mml fiim.ftrft difer
ta.Adtftm
fitemr^Oc
fimttttimi
touto
aspaj ttimna wuajftmnr
tttimif aurfnVfowl rn pfcfcteraaf jar ,
mf eft'tenwjna dheattotf n emtdantr
omnttiao
mcttrrr.na>
ftnctwccd
amtuqtttt:
atpmftmta faffi
FlG. 7. I3th Century Latin Bible. (From copy belonging to Robert
de Bella, abbot of St Augustine's, Canterbury. British Museum.)
i linguie ftofm loqr ^ agrioru:
taritatf aut no ^btarfad? fum
urTut ro fonoo aut nmbalu tinnif no.
butco.fli^na^ uoutn mifteq
a of a tr omne fticti a i igb ua'o omnf
fiUi ita ut moteo tcafltca-rantatf aut
no Ipburco : nirf|il fumt ft ft jftnbu
rca i nboo pauprtu omro fatultatto
rara0 * fl ttaiiiDeto rorp^ mtu ita ut
atUrarraritate aut no fcburt
mict|i jUtliXarita0 patieo tft:
FIG. 9. The 42-Line Bible. (Printed at Mainz, 1452-6.
British Museum.)
cwflc, o: Cn?tt>]egc perf^c,
newer 4 wafc.^o: cure fnotxlcgeie
fecte,rtn^ cure p:opbeci'eng e is vnparfecte
^but n ^4 c^ac w^id) ie perfect*,
then (^alt^c vnp4rfectebe fcone
n
ee n
ct)ilt>e.23ii 1 40 fcone 40 3 u->49 4 matt,
4wa>fe d)iIOt|^tted.tTOtt)rtfe fe t^oj^iv 4
{jtoffe m 4 ^arf c fpe4tynge,but t^5 |l?al we
Je free to f4ce.Hott> 3 Citowe vitperfectly:
tut t^)c (1><1 3 f Wtt?e eug 46 3 4w tnowne.
Hoiv 4b^0et^> fuel?, t^ope, loue,t^)e(e t^te:
buc fyt greatefl of t^|e 10 lone.
FIG. n. First printed English Bible, 1535. (British Museum.)
cfyantr ffciUp
act* Cctnilu be iwar
$ tpc Wial be ftuo>>t>id
a Utti
FIG. 8. Early Wycliffite Version. (From copy belonging to Thomas
of Woodstock, duke of Gloucester, written towards the end of i^th
century. British Museum.)
trtntvp into a mcmitainc/anbvrcnljo xx(j*fcrt/
lcD cainx i nro '
POVJC in fp:crc: fo: I T;crs is tr)t Fyn0>oin of {jeren . 23ItfTc<>
rcr()cy rl)ar inotinic:fo:tbcy ("balbe ccmf
tbc tncfc:fo: r^cyf(>all tn^cut ^tbctrt^c
iv!;t<i>!;ri0cr ftnt> tjnii -|rfo:rijJt)ttvrcfMCfl:fo
1 !(b.Brc(f^ftrafKfiicrcyfii[l:fo:rf>cy (bafl'obtcyiic nurcy.
BltfitbAre t^c pure in (>crt:for tbcy fbU f (Job . ^Icf^
fcb are tjx utayntcyiicre of peace: fo: tfrcy fbalbc caucb
fliibf j>al fa!|lyfayell manner of cvlcfaymtff ajjaynfl you
fci- my faFc.^tioycc ab bc^labbe/foHti'catcisjy
FlG. 10. Tyndale's Quarto Edition'of New Testament. (Printed
by P. Quenlel, Cologne,\$2$. From the only remaining fragment,
in British Museum.)
CHAP. XIII,
Allgiftcs, 2. 3 how excellent fbeuer.arc no-
thing worth without charitic. 4 Theprailes
thcro!,and 13 prclation before hope & faith.
tongues: of men $ of 3n
3 (ini become as foun Ding
tDougl) 3J Dauetljegift of
p?opt)eOe,ano DnuccftauD all tnvftcrics
ano all UuoiDlcDgc: ann tljougi) 3)
Daueallfaitl),fo tljatj coulo rentoouc
mountaines, ano ftauc no riiantic, 1)
FIG. 12. First Edition of the Authorized Version, 1611.
(British Museum.)
J
N.T. TEXTS]
BIBLE
879
This table says nothing about style of writing or material, but
it may be taken as a general rule that MSS. earlier than the I3th
century are on vellum and later than the I4th century are on
paper, and that MSS. earlier than the 9th century are uncial and
later than the loth are minuscule. There are said to be 129
uncial MSS. of the New Testament (Kenyon, Textual Criticism
of the New Testament, p. 45), but it is not easy to be quite
accurate on the point.
Besides the MSS. mentioned in the table above, there are
281 MSS. containing commentaries on the Gospels, 169 on Acts
and Epistles, 66 on the Apocalypse, 1072 lectionaries of the
Gospels and 287 of Acts and Epistles, making a grand total of
3698 MSS. It must be remembered that the dating of the MSS.,
especially of minuscules, is by no means certain: Greek Palaeo-
graphy is a difficult subject, and not all the MSS. have been
investigated by competent palaeographers.
The notation of this mass of MSS. is very complicated. There
are at present two main systems: (i) Since the time of Wetstein
it has been customary to employ capital letters, at first of the
Latin and latterly also of the Greek and Hebrew alphabets, to
designate the uncials, and Arabic figures to designate the minus-
cules. Of this system there are two chief representatives,
Gregory and Scrivener. These agree in the main, but differ for
the more recently discovered minuscules. Gregory's notation
is more generally used, and Scrivener's, though still followed by
a few English scholars, is likely to become obsolete. This
method of notation has various disadvantages. There are not
enough letters to cover the uncials, the same letter has to serve
for various fragments which are quite unconnected except by
the accident of simultaneous discovery, and no information is
given about the MS. referred to. (2) To remedy these drawbacks
an entirely new system was introduced in 1902 by von Soden in
his Die Schriften des neuen Testaments, Bd. i, Abt. i, pp. 33-40.
He abandons the practice of making a distinction between uncial
and minuscule, on the ground that for textual criticism the style
of writing is less important than the date and contents of a MS.
To indicate these he divided MSS. into three classes, (i) New
Testaments (the Apocalypse being not regarded as a necessary
part), (2) Gospels, and (3) Acts, Epistles and Apocalypse (the
latter again being loosely regarded). These three classes he dis-
tinguished as S(=Sia0i7Kij), (=tvayyi\iov) anda (=(bro<m>Xos).
To these letters he attaches numbers arranged on a principle
showing the century to which the MS. belongs and defining its
contents more precisely. The number is determined thus:
MSS. of the 6 and a classes from the earliest period to the 9th
century inclusive are numbered i to 49; those of the loth
century 50 to 99; for the later centuries numbers of three figures
are used, and the choice is made so that the figure in the hundreds'
place indicates the century, i meaning nth century, 2 meaning
1 2th century, and so on; to all these numbers the appropriate
letter, if it be 6 or a, must be always prefixed, but if it be e, only
when there is any chance of ambiguity. In & MSS. a distinction
is made for those of the nth and subsequent centuries by
reserving i to 49 in each hundred for MSS. containing the
Apocalypse, 50 to 99 for those which omit it. Similarly, in a
MSS. a distinction is made according to their contents; the
three-figure numbers are reserved for MSS. which contain Acts,
Catholic Epistles and Pauline Epistles with or without the
Apocalypse, the presence or absence of which is indicated as in
the 5 MSS.; but when a MS. consists of only one part a " i "
is prefixed, thus making a four-figure number, and the precise
part is indicated by the two last of the four figures; 00-19 means
Acts and Catholic Epistles, 20-69 means Pauline Epistles and
70-99 means Apocalypse. In the case of e MSS. 1-99 is used for
the earliest MSS. up to the 9th century, and as this is insufficient,
the available numbers are increased by prefixing a o, and
reckoning a second hundred from 01 to 099; 1000 to 1099 are
MSS. of the loth century; 100 to 199 are MSS. of the nth
century, 200-299 of the I2th century, and so on; as this is
insufficient, the range of numbers is increased by prefixing a i,
and so obtaining another hundred, e.g. iico to 1199, and in the
1 2th and subsequent centuries, where even this is not enough,
by passing on to the thousands and using 2000-2090 for the
1 2th century, 3000-3999 for the i3th and so on. In each case
< is prefixed whenever there is any chance of ambiguity. It is
claimed that this system gives the maximum of information
about a MS., and that it leaves room for the addition of any
number of MSS. which are likely to be discovered. At present
it has not seriously threatened the hold of Gregory's notation on
the critical world, but it will probably have to be adopted, at
least to a large extent, when von Soden's text is published.
(The full details of this subject can be found in E. Miller's edition
of Scrivener's Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament
(George Bell, 1894); C. R. Gregory's Prolegomena to Tischendorf's
Novum Testamentum Craece, Ed. VIII. critica major (Leipzig, 1891);
C. R. Gregory's Textkrilik (Leipzig, 1000); H. von Soden's Die
Schrifttn des neuen Testaments (Berlin, Band i., 1902-1907); F. G.
Kcnyon's Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the firw Testament
(London, 1901), especially valuable for a clear account of the Papyri
fragments.)
It is neither possible nor desirable to give any description of
most of these MSS., but the following are, critically, the most
important.
UNCIALS. Codex Vaticanus (Vat. Gr. 1209), Greg. B, v. Soden
S I ; an uncial MS. of the 4th century. It is written in three columns
and has forty-two lines to the column. It originally _
contained the whole Bible, but in the New Testament
Heb. ix. 14, xiii. 25, i and 2 Tim., Tit., Philemon, Apoc.,
are now missing. It was written by three scribes of whom the writer
of the New Testament was identified by Tischendorf as the scribe
D of K (cod. Sinaiticus). The text has been corrected by two scribes,
one (the ito/tfwnp) contemporary with the original writer, the other
belonging to the loth or nth century. The latter probably also
re-inked the whole of the MS. and introduced a few changes in the
text, though some critics think that this was done by a monk of
the 15th century who supplied the text of the lacuna in Heb. and
of the Apocalypse from a MS. belonging; to Bessarion. The text is
the best example of the so-called Neutral Text, except in the Pauline
epistles, where it has a strong " Western " element. How this
MS. came to be in the Vatican is not known. It first appears in the
catalogue of 1481 (Bibl. Vat. MS. Lat. 3952 f. 50), and is not in the
catalogue of 1475, as is often erroneously stated on the authority
of Vercellone. It was, therefore, probably acquired between the
years 1475 and 1481. The problem of its earlier history is so en-
tangled with the similar questions raised by * that the tv/o cannot
well be discussed separately. [Phototypic editions have been
issued in Rome in 1880-1890 and in 1905.]
Codex Sinaiticus (St Petersburg, Imperial library), Greg, it,
yon Soden 02; an uncial MS. of the 4th century. It was found
in 1844 by C. Tischendorf (q.v.) in the monastery of
St Catherine on Mt. Sinai, and finally acquired by the
tsar in 1869. It is written on thin vellum in four columns
of forty-eight lines each to a page. It contained originally the
whole Bible, and the New Testament is still complete. At the end
it also contains the Ep. of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hennas,
unfortunately incomplete, and there was probably originally some
other document between these two. The text was written, accord-
ing to Tischendorf, by four scribes, of whom he identified one as also
the scribe of cod. Vaticanus. It was corrected many times, especi-
ally in the 6th century, by a scribe known as K* and in the 7th
by K. It has, in the main, a Neutral text, less mixed in the
Epistles than that of B, but not so pure in the Gospels. The cor-
rections of K are important, as they are based (according to a note
by that scribe, at the end of Esther) on an early copy which had
been corrected by Pamphilus, the disciple of Origen, friend of
Eusebius and founder of a library at Caesarea.
[The text of * was published in Tischendorf's Bibliorum codex
Sinaiticus Petropoliianus (vol. iv.,i862), and separately in his Nonim
Testamentum Sinaiticum (1863); in 1909 it was published in collo-
type by the Clarendon Press, Oxford. The relations of to
Pamphilus are studied by Bousset in " Textkritische Studicn zum
N.T. (in Texte u. Untersuchuneen, xi. 4).)
If Tischendorf was right in identifying the scribe of B with that
of part of K, it is obvious that these MSS. probably come from the
same place. He was probably wrong, but there are some indications
of relationship to justify the same view. The two most probable
places seem to be Caesarea and Alexandria. The case for Caesarea
is that the colophon written by * at the end of Esther, and also
of Ezra, shows that K was then in the library of Caesarea, and that
a chapter division in Acts found both in K and B can also be traced
to the same library. This is a fairly strong case, but it falls short
of demonstration because it cannot be shown that the MS. corrected
by Pamphilus was still at Caesarea when it was used by^n, and
because it is not certain cither that the chapter divisions in Acts
were added by the original scribes, or that * and B were at that
time in their original home, or that the chapter divisions win-
necessarily only to be found at Caesarea. The case for Alexandria
depends partly on the orthography of B, which resemble*
88o
BIBLE
[N.T. TEXTS
Graeco-Coptic papyri, partly on the order of the Pauline epistles. At
present, both in K and B, Hebrews is placed after 2 Thess., but in
B there is also a continuous numeration of sections throughout
the epistles, according to which I to 58 cover Romans to Gakuians,
but Ephesians, the next epistle, begins with 70 instead of 59, and
the omitted section numbers are found in Hebrews. Obviously,
the archetype placed Hebrews between Galatians and Ephesians,
but the scribe altered the order and put it between 2 Thess. and
i Tim., though without changing the section numbers. This older
order of the epistles is only found elsewhere in the Sahidic version
of the New Testament, and it was probably therefore the old Egyp-
tian or Alexandrian order. Moreover, we know from the Festal
letter of A.D. 367 (according to the Greek and Syriac texts, but not
the Sahidic), that Athanasius then introduced the order of the
'epistles which is now given in tt B. This is strong evidence for
'the view that the archetype of B came from Alexandria or the
neighbourhood, and was older than the time of Athanasius, but it
scarcely proves that B itself is Alexandrian, for the order of epistles
which it gives is also that adopted by the council of Laodicea in
A.D. 363, and may have been introduced elsewhere, perhaps in
Caesarea. A further argument, sometimes based upon and some-
times in turn used to support the foregoing, is that the text of K B
represents that of Hesychius; but this is extremely doubtful (see
the section Textual Criticism below).
[The question of the provenance of K and B may best be studied
in J. Rendel Harris, Stichometry (Cambridge, 1893), pp. 71-89;
{. Armitage Robinson, " Euthaliana," Texts and Studies, iii. 3
Cambridge, 1895), esp. pp. 34-43 (these more especially for the
connexion with Caesarea) ; A. Rahfls, " Alter und Heimat der
vatikanischer Bibelhandschrift," in the Nachrichten der Gesell. der
Wiss. zu Gottingen (1899), vol. i. pp. 72-79; and O. von Gebhardt in
a review of the last named in the Theologische Literaturzeitung (1899),
col. 556.]
Codex Bezae (Cambridge Univ. Nu. 2, 41), Greg. D, von Soden 5 5 ;
an uncial Graeco-Latin MS. not later than the 6th century and prob-
ably considerably earlier. The text is written in one
column to a page, the Greek on the left hand page and
the Latin on the right. It was given to the university of Cambridge
in 1581, but its early history is doubtful. Beza stated that it came
from Lyons and had been always preserved in the monastery of
St Irenaeus there. There is no reason to question Beza's bona
fides, or that the MS. was obtained by him after the sack of Lyons
in 1562 by des Adrets, but there is room for doubt as to the accuracy
of his belief that it had been for a long time in the same monastery.
His information on this point would necessarily be derived from
Protestant sources, which would not be of the highest value, and
there are two pieces of evidence which show that just previously
the MS. was in Italy. In the first place it is certainly identical with
the MS. called r\ which is quoted in the margin of the 1550 edition
of Robert Stephanus' Greek Testament; this MS. according to
Stephanus' preface was collated for him by friends in Italy. In the
second place it was probably used at the council of Trent in 1546
by Gul. a Prato, bishop of Clermont in Auvergne, and in the last
edition of the Annotationes Beza quotes his MS. as Claromontanus ,
and not as Lugdunensis. These points suggest that the MS. had
only been a short time at Lyons when Beza obtained it. The still
earlier history of the MS. is equally doubtful. H. Quentin has pro-
duced some interesting but not convincing evidence to show that
the MS. was used in Lyons in the I2th century, and Rendel Harris
at one time thought that there were traces of Gallicism in the Latin,
but the Jatter's more recent researches go to show that the correc-
tions and annotations varying in date between the 7th and I2th
centuries point to a district which was at first predominantly Greek
and afterwards became Latin. This would suit South Italy, but
not Lyons. The text of this MS. is important as the oldest and
best witness in a Greek MS. to the so-called " Western " text. (See
the section Textual Criticism below.)
[The following books and articles are important for the history,
as apart from the text of the MS. Codex Bezae . . . phototypice
repraesentatus (Cambridge, 1899); Scrivener, Codex Bezae (Cam-
bridge, 1864); J. Rendel Harris, "A Study of Cod. Bezae," Texts
and Studies, i. i (Cambridge, 1891); J. Rendel Harris, The Anno-
tators of Cod. Bezae (London, 1901); F. E. Brightman and K. Lake,
" The Italian Origin of Codex Bezae," in Journal of Theol. Studies,
April 1900, pp. 441 ff.; F. C. Burkitt, " The Date of Codex Bezae,"
in the Journal of Theol. Studies, July 1902, pp. 501 ff. ; D. H.
Quentin, " Le Codex Bezae a Lyon, &c.," Revue Benedictine, xxxiii.
i, 1906.]
Codex Alexandrinus (G. M. reg. ID v.-viii.), Greg. A, von Soden
84; an uncial MS. of the 5th century. It was given by Cyril Lucar,
Alexan- patriarch of Constantinople, to Charles I. in 1621. It
ilrinus. appears probable that Cyril Lucar had brought it with
him from Alexandria, of which he had formerly been
patriarch. A note by Cyril Lucar states that it was written by
Thecla, a noble lady of Egypt, but this is probably merely his inter-
pretation of an Arabic note of the I4th century which states that
the MS. was written by Thecla, the martyr, an obviously absurd
legend; another Arabic note by Athanasius (probably Athanasius
III., patriarch c. 1308) states that it was given to the patriarchate
of Alexandria, and a Latin note of a later period dates the presenta-
tion in 1098. So far back as it can be traced it is, therefore, an
Alexandrian MS., and palaeographical arguments point in the same
direction. Originally, the MS. contained the whole of the Old and
New Testaments, including the Psalms of Solomon in the former
and I and 2 Clement in the latter. It has, however, suffered mutila-
tion in a few places. Its text in the Old Testament is thought by
some scholars to show signs of representing the Hesychian recension,
but this view seems latterly to have lost favour with students of
the Septuagint. If it be true, it falls in with the palaeographic
indications and suggests an Alexandrian provenance. In the New
Testament it has in the gospels a late text of Westcott and Hort's
" Syrian " type, but in the epistles there is a strongly marked " Alex-
andrian " element. [Cod. A was published in photographic fac-
simile in 1879-1880.]
Codex Ephroemi Syri Rescriptus (Paris Nat. Gr. 9), Greg. C, von
Soden 83; an uncial palimpsest (the top writing being that of
Ephraem) of the 5th century. It was formerly the pro- g p i, racm i
petty of Catherine de' Medici, and was probably brought s ^ rf
from the east to Italy in the l6th century. Hort (Intro-
duction, p. 268) has shown from a consideration of displacements in the
text of the Apocalypse that it was copied from a very small MS.,
but this, of course, only holds good of the Apocalypse. It is usually
said that this MS., like A, came originally from Egypt, but this is
merely a palaeographical guess, for which there is no real evidence.
Originally, it contained the whole Bible, but only sixty-four leaves
of the Old Testament remain, and 145 (giving about two-thirds
of the whole) of the New Testament. The character of the text is
mixed with a strong " Alexandrian " element. [Published in fac-
simile by Tischendorf (1843). Discussed by Lagarde in his Ges.
Abhandlungen, p. 94.]
Codex Claromontanus (Paris Nat. Gr. 107), Greg. D"*" 1 , von
Soden a 1026; an uncial Graeco-Latin MS. of the 6th century. This
MS. also belonged to Beza, who " acquired " it from the _
monastery of Clermont, near Beauvais. After his death ~~'
it passed through various private hands and was finally
bought for the French royal library before 1656. It contains the
whole of the Pauline epistles with a few lacunae, and has a famous
stichometric list of books prefixed in another hand to Hebrews. It
is probably the best extant witness to the type of Greek text which
was in use in Italy at an early time. It is closely connected with
cod. Sangermanensis (a direct copy) at St Petersburg, Greg. E wul ,
von Soden a 1027; cod. Augiensis (Cambridge, Trin. Coll. B xvii. i),
Greg. F wul , von Soden o 1029; and cod. Boernerianus (Dresden
K Bibl.), Greg. G"" ul , von Soden a 1028. [The text is published
in Tischendorf's Codex Claromontanus (1852). Its relations to
EFG are best discussed in Westcott and Hort's Introduction,
335-337-.
The
icre are no other uncials equal in importance to the above. The
next most valuable are probably cod. Regius of the 8th century
at Paris, Greg. L, von Soden 56, containing the Gospels; cod.
Laudianus of the 7th century at Oxford, Greg. E, von Soden a 1001,
a Latino-Greek MS. containing the Acts; cod. Coislinianus of the
6th century in Paris, Turin, Kiev, Moscow and Mt. Athos, Greg.
H"" 1 , von Soden a 1022, containing fragments of the Pauline
epistles; and cod. Augiensis of the gth century in Trinity College,
Cambridge, Greg. F"*" 1 , von Soden a 1029, a Graeco-Latin MS.
closely related to cod. Claromontanus. [Further details as to these
MSS. with bibliographies can be found in Gregory's Prolegomena
to Tischendorf's N.T. ed. maj. viii.]
MINUSCULES. Very few of these are of real importance. The
most valuable are the following:
1. The Ferrar Group; a group of eight MSS. known in Gregory's
notation as 13, 69, 124, 346, 543, 788, 826, 828, or in von Soden's
as f 368, 505, e 121 1, e 226, ( 257, t 1033, e 218, e 219, all which,
except 69, in spite of the dating implied by von Soden's notation
were probably written in the I2th century in Calabria. They have
a most peculiar text of a mainly " Western " type, with some special
affinities to the Old Syriac and perhaps to the Diatessaron. They
are known as the Ferrar group in memory of the scholar who first
published their text, and are sometimes quoted as * (which, however,
properly is the symbol for Codex Beratinus of the Gospels), and
sometimes as /am. 13 .
2. Cod. l and its Allies; a group of four MSS. known in Gregory's
notation as I, 118, 131, 209, and in von Soden's as S 50, e 346, d 467
and S 457. The dating implied by the latter notation is wrong, as
I certainly belongs to the I2th, not to the loth century, and 118
is probably later than 209. It is sometimes quoted as /am. 1 Fam. 1
and /aw. 13 probably have a common archetype in Mark which is also
represented by codd. 28 (e 168), 565 (e 93, quoted by Tischendorf and
others as 2"") and 700 ( 133, quoted by Scrivener and others as
604). It seems to have had many points of agreement with the
Old Syriac, but it is impossible to identify the locality to which it
belonged. Other minuscules of importance are cod. 33 (S 48) at
Paris, which often agrees with n BL and is the best minuscule repre-
sentative of the " Neutral " and " Alexandrian " types of text
in the gospels; cod. 137 (o 364) at Milan, a valuable "Western"
text of the Acts; a 78 (not in Gregory) in the Laura on Mt. Athos, a
MS. of the Acts and epistles, with an early (mixed) type of text and
textual comments and notes from Origen.
[The text of the Ferrar group was published after Ferrar's death
N.T. VERSIONS]
BIBLE
881
by T. K. Abbott, A Collation of Four Important MSS. of the Gospels
(Dublin, 1877). It I s be** discussed by Rendel Harris's books,
The Origin of the Leicester Codex (1887), The Origin of the Ferrar
Group (1893), and The Ferrar Group (1900), all published at Cam-
bridge; the text of /am. 1 with a discussion of its textual relations
is given in K. Lake s " Codex I and its Allies " (Texts and Studies,
vii. 3, 1902); 565 was edited by J. Belsheim in Das Evang. des
Marcus nach d. griech. Cod. Theodorae, &c. (Christiania, 1885), many
corrections to which are published in the appendix to H. S. Cronin's
" Codex Purpureus," Texts and Studies, v. 4; 700 was published
by H. C. Hoskier in his collation of cod. Evan. 604, London, 1890;
o 78 is edited by E. von der Goltz in Texte und Untersuchungen, N.F.
ii. 4.]
(B) The Versions. These are generally divided into (a)
Primary and (/3) secondary; the former being those which
represent translation made at an early period directly from
Greek originals, and the latter being those which were made
either from other versions or from late and unimportant Greek
texts.
(o) The primary versions are three Latin, Syriac and Egyptian.
Latin Versions. I. The Old Latin. According to Jerome's
letter to Pope Damasus in A.D. 384, there was in the 4th century
Old Latin. a 8 reat Y ar ' e ty of text in the Latin version, " Tot enim
exemplaria pene quot codices." This verdict is confirmed
by examination of the MSS. which have pre- Hieronymian texts.
It is customary to quote these by small letters of the Latin
alphabet, but there is a regrettable absence of unanimity in
the details of the notation. We can distinguish two main types,
African and European. The African version is best represented
in the gospels by cod. Bobiensis (k) of the sth (some say 6th) century
at Turin, and cod. Palatinus (e) of the 5th century at Vienna, both
of which are imperfect, especially k, which, however, is far the
superior in quality; in the Acts and Catholic epistles by cod.
Floriacensis ((, h. or reg.) of the 6th century, a palimpsest which once
belonged to the monks of Fleury, and by the so-called speculum (m)
or collection of quotations formerly attributed to Augustine but
probably connected with Spain. This scanty evidence is dated and
localized as African by tf.e quotations of Cyprian, of Augustine
(not from the gospels), and of Primasius, bishop of Hadrumetum
(d. c. 560), from the Apocalypse. It is still a disputed point whether
Tertullian's quotations may be regarded as evidence for a Latin
version or as independent translations from the Greek, nor is it
certain that this version is African in an exclusive sense; it was
undoubtedly used in Africa and there is no evidence that it was
known elsewhere originally, but on the other hand there is no proof
that it was not. The European version is best represented in the
gospels by cod. Vercellensis (a) of the 5th century and cod. Vero-
nensis (b) of the same date (the latter being the better), and by others
of less importance. It is possible that a later variety of it is found
in cod. Monacensis (q) of the 7th century, and cod. Brixianus (f)
of the 6th century, and this used to be called the Italic version,
owing (as F. C. Burkitt has shown) to a misunderstanding of a
remark of Augustine about the " Itala " which really refers to the
Vulgate. In the Acts the European text is found in cod. Gigas
(g or gig) of the I3th century at Stockholm, in a Perpignan MS.
of the 1 2th century (p), published by S. Berger, and probably in
cod. Laudianus (e) of the 7th century at Oxford. In the Catholic
epistles it is found in cod. Corbeiensis (f or ff) of the loth century
at St Petersburg. In the Pauline epistles it is doubtful whether
it is extant at all, though some have found it in the cod. Claro-
montanus (d) and its allies. In the Apocalypse it is found incod.
Gigas.
The main problem in connexion with the history of the African
and European versions is whether they were originally one or two.
As they stand at present they are undoubtedly two, and can be
distinguished both by the readings which they imply in the under-
lying Greek, and by the renderings which they have adopted. But
there is also a greater degree of similarity between them than can
be explained by accidental coincidence, and there is thus an a priori
case for the theory that one of the two is a revision of the other,
or that there was an older version, now lost, which was the original
of both. If one of the two is the original it is probably the African,
for which there is older evidence, and of which the style both in
reading and rendering .seems purer. The chief argument against
this is that it seems paradoxical to think of Africa rather than
Rome as the home of the first Latin version; but it must be
remembered that Roman Christianity was originally Greek, and
that the beginnings of a Latin church in Rome seem to be surpris-
ingly late.
[Editions of Old Latin MSS. are to be found in Old Latin Biblical
Texts, i.-iv. (Oxford); in Migne's Patrologia Latina, torn, xii.; and
their history is treated especially in F. C. Burkitt's " Old Latin
and the Itala " (Texts ana Studies, iv. 3), as well as in all books
dealing with Textual Criticism generally; other important books
are Ronsch's Itala und Vulgata (1875); Corssen's Der cyprianische
Text der Acta Apostolorum (Berlin, 1892); Wordsworth and Sanday
on the " Corbey S. James " in Studio Biblica, i. (1885); the article
on the " Old Latin Version," in Halting*' Dictionary of the BMt.
For the textual character and importance of these veruon* tee the
section Textual Criticism below.]
a. The Vulgate or Hieronymian version. To remedy the con-
fusion produced by the variations of the Latin text Pope Daniaus
asked Jerome to undertake a revision, and the latter V-IM
published a new text of the New Testament in A.D. 384
and the rest of the Bible probably within two years. This version
gradually became accepted as the standard text, and after a time
was called the " Vulgata," the first to use this name as a title being,
it is said, Roger Bacon. In the Old Testament Jerome made a
new translation directly from the Hebrew, as the Old Latin was
based on the LXX., but in the New Testament he revised the existing
version. He did this fully and carefully in the gospels, but some-
what superficially in the epistles. He seems to have taken as the
basis of his work the European version as it existed in his time,
perhaps best represented by cod. Monaceniis (q) of the 7th century,
and by the quotations in Ambrotiaster, to which cod. Brixianus (f)
of the 6th century would be added if it were not probable that it is
merely a Vulgate MS. with intrusive elements. This type of text
he revised with the help of Greek MSS. of a type which docs not
seem to correspond exactly to any now extant, but to resemble
B more closely than any others.
Of Jerome's revision we possess at least 8000 MSS., of which the
earliest may be divided (in the gospels at all events) into group*
connected with various countries; the most important are the
Northumbrian, Irish, Anglo-Irish and Spanish, but the first named
might also be called the Italian, as it represents the text of good
MSS. brought from Italy in the 7th century and copied in the great
schools of AVearmouth and Jarrow. One of the most important,
cod. Amiatinus, was copied in this way in the time of Ceolfrid,
Benedict Biscop's successor, as a present for Pope Gregory in 716.
From these MSS. the original Hieronymian text may be recon-
structed with considerable certainty. The later history of the version
is complicated, but fairly well known. The text soon began to
deteriorate by admixture with the Old Latin, as well from the process
of transcription, and several attempts at a revision were made before
the invention of printing. Of these the earliest of note were under-
taken in France in the 9th century by Alcuin in 801, and almost at
the same time by Theodulf, bishop of Orleans (787-821). In the
iith century a similar task was undertaken by Lanfranc, arch-
bishop of Canterbury (1069-1089); in the I2th century by Stephen
Harding (1109), third abbot of Citeaux, and by Cardinal N'icolaus
Maniacoria (1150), whose corrected Bible is preserved in the public
library at Dijon. But these were not successful, and in the I3th
century, instead of revisions, attempts were made to fix the text by
proyidmg correctpria, or lists of correct readings, which were the
equivalent of critical editions; of these the chief are the Parisian,
the Dominican (prepared under Hugo de S. Caro about 1240), and
the Vatican. In the I5th century the history of the printed Vulgates
begins. The earliest is the Mentz edition of 1452-1456 (the Mazarin
or " 42-line " Bible), but the earliest of a critical nature were those
of Robert Etienne in 1528 and 1538-1540. In 1546 the council
of Trent decided that the Vulgate should be held as authmtica, and
in 1590 Pope Sixtus V. published a new and authoritative edition,
which was, probably at the instigation of the Jesuits, recalled by
Pope Clement VIII. in 1592. In the same year, however, the same
pope published another edition under the name of Sixtus. This is,
according to the Bull of 1592, the authoritative edition, and has
since then been accepted as such in the Latin Church. The critical
edition by J. Wordsworth (bishop of Salisbury) and H. J. White
probably restores the text almost to the state in which Jerome
left it.
[The text of the Vulgate may be studied in Wordsworth and
White, Novum Testamentum Lattne; Corssen, Epistula ad Galatas.
Its history is best given in S. Berger's Histoire de la Vulgate (Paris,
1893), in which a good bibliography is given on pp. xxxii.-xxxiv.
The section in Kenyon's handbook to the Textual Criticism of the
New Testament is particularly clear and full.]
Syriac Versions. I. The Old Syriac. This is only known to us
at present through two MSS. of the gospels, containing the Evan-
gelton da-Mepharreshe, or separated gospel, probably
so called in distinction to Tatian's Diatessaron. These
MSS. are known as the Curetonian and Sinaitic. The Syrluc.
Curetonian is a MS. of the 5th century. The fragments of it which
we possess are MS. Brit. Mug. addit. 14,451, which was brought in
1842 from the monastery of St Mary in the Nitrian desert, and
was edited by Cureton in 1858; and three leaves in Berlin (MS.
Orient. Quart. 528) which were bought in Egypt by H. Brugsch
and published by A. Rocdigcr in 1872. It was given to the monas-
tery of St Mary in the loth century, but its earlier history is
unknown. It contained originally the four gospels in the order Sit.,
Mk.,Jo., Lc. It is generally quoted as Syr"* or Syr C. The Sinaitic
was discovered in 1892 by Mrs Lewis and Mrs Gibson in the library
of St Catherine's monastery on Mt. Sinai, where it still remains, and
was published in 1894 by R. L. Bensly, I. Rendel Harris and F. C.
Burkitt, with an introduction by Mrs Lewis. It is a palimpsest
MS., and the upper writing (lives of saints), dated A.D. 778. is the
work of " John, the anchorite of Beth Man Qanon. a monastery of
Ma'arrath McsrOn city in the district of Antioch." This town is
BIBLE
[N.T. VERSIONS
between Antioch and Aleppo; though the monastery is otherwise
unknown, it seems probable that it was the source of many of the
MSS. now at Sinai. The under writing seems to be a little earlier
than that of the Curetonian; it contains the gospels in the order
Mt., Me., Lc., Jo. with a few lacunae. There is no evidence that this
version was ever used in the Church services: the Diatessaron was
always the normal Syriac text of the gospels until the introduction
of the Peshito. But the quotations and references in Aphraates,
Ephraem and the Acts of Judas Thomas show that it was known,
even if not often used. It seems certain that the Old Syriac version
also contained the Acts and Pauline epistles, as Aphraates and
Ephraem agree in quoting a text which differs from the Peshito,
but no MSS. containing this text are at present known to exist.
[The text of this version is best given, with a literal English
translation, in F.C. Burkitt's Evangelion da Mepharreshe (Cambridge,
2. The Peshito (Simple) Version. This is represented by many
MSS. dating from the 5th century. It has been proved almost to
Peshito. demonstration by F. C. Burkitt that the portion contain-
ing the gospels was made by Rabbula, bishop of Edessa
(411), to take the place of the Diatessaron, and was based oa the
Greek text which was at that time in current use at Antioch. The
Old Testament Peshito is a much older and quite separate version.
The exact limits of Rabbula's work are difficult to define. It seems
probable that the Old Syriac version did not contain the Catholic
epistles, and as these are found in the Peshito they were presumably
added by Rabbula. But he never added 2 Peter, Jude, 2 and 3 John,
or the Apocalypse, and the text of these books, which is sometimes
bound up with the Peshito, really is that of the Phijoxenian or of
the Harklean version. A comparison of the Peshito with quotations
in Aphraates and Ephraem snows that Rabbula revised the text
of the Acts and Pauline epistles, but in the absence of MSS.
of the Old Syriac for these books, it is difficult to define the extent
or character of his work. The Peshito is quoted as Syr P, Pesh.,
and Syrsch (because Tischendorf _followed the edition of Schaaf).
[The best text of the Peshito is by G. H. Gwilliam, Tetraeyan-
geliunt Sanctum (Oxford, 1901); its relations to Rabbula's revision
are shown by F. C. Burkitt, " S. Ephraim's quotations from the
Gospel " (Texts and Studies, vii. 2, Cambridge, 1901), which renders
out of date F. H. Woods's article on the same subject in Studia
Biblica, iii. pp. 105-138.]
3. The Philoxenian Version. This is known, from a note extant
in MSS. of the Harklean version, to have been made in A.D. 508
Phllox- ' or Phj' xenus . bishop of Hierapolis, by Polycarpus, a
ealaa chorepiscopus. No MSS. of it nave survived except in
2 Peter, Jude, 2 and 3 John and the Apocalypse. The
four former are found in some MSS. of the Peshito, as the
Philoxenian was used to supply these epistles which were not in
the older version, and the Apocalypse was published in 1892 by Dr
Gwynn from a MS. belonging to Lord Crawford.
[This version may be studied in Isaac H. Hall's Williams MS.
(Baltimore, 1886) ; in the European editions of the Syriac Bible so
far as the minor Catholic epistles are concerned; in Hermathena,
vol. vii. (1890), pp. 281-314 (article by Gwynn) ; in Zeitschrifi fiir
Assyriologie, xii. and xiii. (series of articles by Merx); in Gwynn's
The Apocalypse of St John in a Syriac Version (Dublin, 1897).]
4. The Harklean Version. This is a revision of the Philoxenian
made in 616 by Thomas of Harkel (Heraclea), bishop of Hierapolis.
Harklean. '* was apparently an attempt to replace the literary free-
dom of the Philoxenian by an extreme literalness. It
represents in the main the text of the later Greek MSS., but it has
important textual notes, and has adopted a system of asterisks
and obeli from the Hexaplar LXX. The source of these notes seems
to have been old MSS. from the library of the Enaton near Alex-
andria. The marginal readings are therefore valuable evidence for
the Old Alexandrian text. This version is quoted as Syr H (and
when necessary Syr He* or Syr H m ) and by Tischendorf as Syr p
(=Syra posterior). It should be noted that when Tischendorf
speaks of Syr utr he means the Peshito and the Harklean.
[There is no satisfactory critical edition of this version, nor have
the Philoxenian and the Harklean been disentangled from each other.
The printed text is that published in 1778-1803 by J. White at
Oxford under the title Versio Philoxenia; for the marginal notes
see esp. Westcott and Hort, Introduction, and for Acts, Pott's
Abendldndische Text der Apostelgesch. (Leipzig, 1900).]
5. The Palestinian or Jerusalem Version. This is a lectionary
which was once thought to have come from the neighbourhood of
Pale*- Jerusalem, but has been shown by Burkitt to come from
tlnlaa. f nat f Antioch. It was probably made in the 6th century
in connexion with the attempts of Justinian to abolish
Judaism. Usually quoted as SyrPa and by Tischendorf as Syr w ".
[The text may be found in Lewis and Gibson's The Palestinian
Syriac Lectionary (London, 1899), (Gospels), and in Studia Sinaitica,
part yi. (Acts and Epistles); its origin is discussed best by F. C.
Burkitt in the Journal of Theological Studies, vol. ii. (1901), pp.
174-183.]
6. The Karkaphensian. This is not a version, but a Syriac
" Massorah " of the New Testament, i.e. a collection of notes on the
texts. Probably emanates from the monastery of the Skull. Little
is known of it and it is unimportant.
Tatlaa's
"/Mates-
[See Gwilliam's " Materials for the Criticism of the Peshito N.T."
in Studia Biblica, iii. esp. pp. 60-63.]
7. Tatian's Diatessaron. This is something more than a version.
It was originally a harmony of the four gospels made by Tatian, the
pupil of Justin Martyr, towards the end of the 2nd cen-
tury. In its original form it is no longer extant, but it
exists in Arabic (published by Ciasca) and Latin (cod. saron >
Fuldensis) translations, in both of which the text has un-
fortunately been almost entirely conformed to the ordinary type.
These authorities are, therefore, only available for the reconstruction
of the order of the selections from the gospels, not for textual criticism
properly so called. For the latter purpose, however, we can use an
Armenian translation of a commentary on the Diatessaron by
Ephraem, and the quotations in Aphraates. The Diatessaron
appears to have been the usual form in which the gospels were read
until the beginning of the 5th century, when the Peshito was put
in its place, and a systematic destruction of copies of the Diatessaron
was undertaken.
[The Diatessaron may be studied in Zahn, " Eyangelien-
harmonie," article in the Protestantische Realencyklopadie (1898);
J. H. Hill, The Earliest Life of Christ (Edinburgh, 1893); J. Rendel
Harris, Fragments of the Commentary of Ephraim the Syrian (London,
!895); F. C. Burkitt, Evangelion da Mepharreshe (Cambridge, 1904,
vol. ii.).]
Inter-relation of Syriac Versions. The relations which subsist
between the various Syriac versions remain to be discussed. There
is little room for doubt that the Harklean was based on the Phil-
oxenian, and the Philoxenian was based on the Peshito, the revision
being made in each case by the help of the Greek MSS. of the day,
but the relations which subsist between the Old Syriac, the Diates-
saron and t*he Peshito are a more difficult question. There are now
but few, if any, scholars who think that the Peshito is an entirely
separate version, and the majority have been convinced by Burkitt
and recognize (i) that the Peshito is based on a knowledge of the
Old Syriac and the Diatessaron; (2) that it was made by Rabbula
with the help of the contemporary Greek text of the Antiochene
Church. But there is not yet the same degree of consensus as to
the relations between the Old Syriac and the Diatessaron. Here
it is necessary to distinguish between the original text of the Old
Syriac and the existing MSS. of it Cur. and Sin. There is no
question that many passages in these show signs of Diatessaron
influence, but this is only to be expected if we consider that from
the end of the 2nd to the beginning of the 5th century the Dia-
tessaron was the popular form of the gospels. A large discount
has therefore to be made from the agreements between Diatessaron
and Syr. S and C. Still, it is improbable that this will explain
everything, and it is generally conceded that the original Dia-
tessaron and the original Old Syriac were in some way connected.
The connexion is variously explained, and efforts have been made
to show on which side the dependence is to be found. The most
probable theory is that of Burkitt. He thinks that the first Syriac
translation was that of Tatian (c. A.D. 175), who brought the Dia-
tessaron from Rome and translated it into Syriac. There, in the
last days of the 2nd century, when Serapion was bishop of Antioch
(A.D. 190-203), a new start was made, and a translation of the
" separated Gospels " (Evangelion da Mepharreshe) was made from
the MSS. which was in use at Antioch. Probably the maker of this
version was partly guided, especially in his choice of renderings,
by his knowledge of the Diatessaron. Nevertheless, the Diatessaron
remained the more popular and was only driven out by Theodoret
and Rabbula in the 5th century, when it was replaced by the
Peshito. If this theory be correct the Syriac versions represent
three distinct Greek texts: (i) the 2nd-century Greek text from
Rome, used by Tatian; (2) the 2nd-century Greek text from Antioch,
used for the Old Syriac; (3) the 2nd-century Greek text from
Antioch, used by Rabbula for the Peshito.
[The best discussion of this point is in vol. ii. of Burkitt's Evan-
gelion da Mepharreshe.]
Egyptian Versions. Much less is known at present about the
history of the Egyptian versions. They are found in various
dialects of Coptic, the mutual relations of which are not Coptic.
yet certain, but the only ones which are preserved with
any completeness are the Bohairic, or Lower Egyptian, and Sahidic,
or* Upper Egyptian, though it is certain that fragments of inter-
mediate dialects such as Middle Egyptian, Fayumic, Akhmimic
and Memphitic also exist. The Bohairic has been edited by G.
Horner. It is well represented, as it became the official version of
the Coptic Church; its history is unknown, but from internal evid-
ence it seems to have been made from good Greek MSS. of the type
of NBL, but the date to which this points depends largely on the
general view taken of the history of the text of the New Testament.
It need not, but may, be earlier than the 4th century. The Sahidic
is not so well preserved. G. Horner's researches tend to show that
the Greek text on which it was based was different from that repre-
sented by the Bohairic, and probably was akin to the " Western "
text, perhaps of the type used by Clement of Alexandria. Un-
fortunately none of the MSS. seems to be good, and at present it is
impossible to make very definite use of the version. It is possible
that this is the oldest Coptic version, and this view is supported
by the general probabilities of the spread of Christianity in Egypt.
N.T. CRITICISM]
BIBLE
883
which suggest that the native church and native literature had their
strength at first chiefly in the southern parts of the country. It
must be noted that Westcott and Hort called the Bohairic Mem-
phitic, and the Sahidic Thebaic, and Tischendorf called the Bohairic
Coptic.
[See G. Hprner's The Coptic Version of the New Testament in the
Northern Dialect (Oxford) ; Scrivener's Introduction (ed. Miller),
vol. ii. pp. 91-144; and especially an article on " Egyptian Ver-
sions " in Hastings' Dictionary of the Bible, vol. i. by Forbes
Robinson.]
(/3) Among the secondary versions the only one of real importance
is the Armenian.
The Armenian Version. The early history of this version is
obscure, but it seems probable that there were two translations
Armenian, made in the 4th century: (l) by Mesrop with the help of
Hrofanos (Rufinus?) based on a Greek text; (2) by
Sahak, based on Syriac. After the council of Ephesus (A. D. 430)
Mesrop and Sahak compared and revised their work with the help
of MSS. from Constantinople. The general character of the version
is late, but there are many places in which the Old Syriac basis can
be recognized, and in the Acts and Epistles, where the Old Syriac
is no longer extant, this is sometimes very valuable evidence.
[See Scrivener (ed. Miller) vol. ii. pp. 148-154; Hastings' Dictionary
of the Bible, article on " The Armenian Versions of the New Testa-
ment," by F. C. Conybeare; J. A. Robinson, " Euthaliana " (Texts
and Studies, iii. 3), cap. 5; on the supposed connexion of Mark xvi.
8 ff. with Aristion mentioned in this version, see esp. Swete's The
Gospel according to St Mark (London, 1902), p. cxi.]
Other secondary versions which are sometimes quoted are the
Gothic, Ethiopic, Georgian, Arabic, Anglo-Saxon, Prankish and
Persic. None has any real critical importance; details are given
in Gregory's Prolegomena and in Scrivener's Introduction.
(C) Quotations in Patristic Writings. The value of this source
of evidence lies in the power which it gives us to date and localize
texts. Its limitations are found in the inaccuracy of quotation
of the writers, and often in the corrupt condition of their text.
This latter point especially affects quotations which later scribes
frequently forced into accord with the text they preferred.
All writers earlier than the 5th century are valuable, but particu-
larly important are the following groups: (i) Greek writers in the
West, especially Justin Martyr, Tatian, Marcion, Irenaeus and
flippolytus; (2) Latin writers in Italy, especially Novatian, the
author of the de Rebaptismate and Ambrosiaster ; (3) Latin writers
in Africa, especially Teitullian and Cyprian; (4) Greek writers in
Alexandria, especially Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Athanasius
and Cyril; (5) Greek writers in the East, especially Methodius of
Lycia and Eusebius of Caesarea; (6) Syriac writers, especially
Aphraates and Ephraem; it is doubtful whether the Diatessaron
of Tatian ought to be reckoned in this group or in (i). None of these
groups bears witness to quite the same text, nor can all of them be
identified with the texts found in existing MSS. or versions, but it
may be said with some truth that group 2 used the European Latin
version, group 3 the African Latin, and group 6 the Diatessaron in
the gospels and the Old Syriac elsewhere, while group i has much
in common with cod. Bezae, though the difference is here somewhat
greater. In group 4 the situation is more complex; Clement used
a text which has most in common with cod. Bezae, but is clearly
far from identical ; Origen in the main has the text of X B ; Athan-
asius a somewhat later variety of the same type, while Cyril has the
so-called Alexandrian text found especially in L. Group 4 has a
peculiar text which cannot be identified with any definite group of
MSS. For further treatment of the importance of this evidence see
the section Textual Criticism below.
[There is as yet but little satisfactory literature on this subject.
Outstanding work is P. M. Barnard's " Clement of Alexandria's
Biblical Text" (Texts and Studies, v. 5), 1899; Harnack's " Eine
Schrift Novatians," in Texte und Untersuchungen, xiii. 4; Souter's
" Ambrosiaster " in Texts and Studies, vii. 4; the Society of His-
torical Theology's New Testament in the Apostolic Fathers; an
article by Kostschau, " Bibelcitate bei Origenes," in the Zeitsr.hrift
f. wissenschaftliche Theologie (1900), pp. 321-378; and on the general
subject especially Nestle's Einfiihrung in das griechische Neue
Testament (Gottingen, 1909), pp. 159-167.] (K. L.)
3. Textual Criticism.
The problem which faces the textual critic of the New Testa-
ment is to reconstruct the original text from the materials
supplied by the MSS., versions, and quotations in early writers,
which have been described in the preceding section on the
apparatus criticus. His object, therefore, is to discover and
remove the various corruptions which have crept into the text,
by the usual methods of the textual critic the collection of
material, the grouping of MSS. and other authorities, the re-
construction of archetypes, and the consideration of tran-
scriptional and intrinsic probability. No book, however, presents
such a complicated problem or such a wealth of material for the
textual critic.
In a certain wide sense the textual criticism of the New Testa-
ment began as soon as men consciously made recensions and
versions, and in this sense Origen, Jerome, Augustine and many
other ecclesiastical writers might be regarded as textual critics.
But in practice it is general, and certainly convenient, to regard
their work rather as material for criticism, and to begin the
history of textual criticism with the earliest printed editions
which sought to establish a standard Greek Text. It is, of course,
impossible here to give an account of all these, but the following
may fairly be regarded as the epoch-making books from the
beginning to the present time.
The Complutensian. The first printed text of the Greek Testa-
ment is known as the Complutensian, because it was made under
the direction of Cardinal Ximenes of Alcala (Lat. Complutum).
It was printed in 1514, and is thus the first printed text, but is not
the first published, as it was not issued until 1522. It is not known
what MSS. Ximenes used, but it is plain from the character of the
text that they were not of great value. His text was reprinted in
1569 by Chr. Plantin at Antwerp.
Erasmus. The first published text was that of Erasmus. It was
undertaken at the request of Joannes Froben (Frobenius), the
printer of Basel, who had heard of Cardinal Ximenes' project and
wished to forestall it. In this he was successful, as it was issued in
1516. It was based chiefly on MSS. at Basel, of which the only
really good one (cod. Evan, l) was seldom followed. Erasmus issued
new editions in 1519, 1522, 1527 and 1535, and the Aldine Greek
Testament, printed at Venice in 1518, is a reproduction of the first
edition.
Stephanus. Perhaps the most important of all early editions
were those of Robert Etienne, or Stephanus, of Paris and afterwards
of Geneva. His two first editions (1546, 1549) were based on Eras-
mus, the Complutensian, and collations of fifteen Greek MSS.
These are l6mo volumes, but the third and most important edition
(1550) was a folio with a revised text. It is this edition which is
usually referred to as the text of Stephanus. A fourth edition (in
l6mo) published at Geneva in 1551 is remarkable for giving the divi-
sion of the text into verses which has since been generally adopted.
Beza. Stephanus' work was continued by Theodore Beza, who
published ten editions between 1565 and 1611. They did not
greatly differ from the 1550 edition of Stephanus, but historically
are important for the great part they played in spreading a know-
ledge of the Greek text, and as supplying the text which the Elzevirs
made the standard on the 'continent.
Elzevir. The two brothers, Bonaventura and Abraham Elzevir,
published two editions at Leiden in 1624 and 1633, based chiefly
on Beza's text. In the preface to the second edition the first is
referred to as " textum . . . nunc ab omnibus reccptum," and this
is the origin of the name " Textus Receptus " (or T.R.) often given
to the ordinary Greek Text. The Elzevir text has formed the basis
of all non-critical editions on the continent, but in England the
1550 edition of Stephanus has been more generally followed. The
importance of both the Stephanus and Elzevir editions is that they
formed a definite text for the purposes of comparison, and so pre-
pared the way for the next stage, in which scholars busied them-
selves with the investigation and collation of other MSS.
Walton's Polyglot. The first to begin this work was Brian Walton,
Stcpha
himself. The collations were made for him by Archbishop Usshcr.
John Fell. In 1675 John Fell, dean of Christ Church, published
the Elzevir text with an enlarged apparatus, but even more im-
portant was the help and advice which he gave to the next important
editor Mill.
John Mill, of Queen's College, Oxford, influenced by the advice,
and supported by the purse of John Fell until the lattcr's death,
published in 1707 a critical edition of the New Testament which
has still a considerable value for the scholar. It gives the text of
Stephanus (1550) with collations of 78 MSS., besides those of Ste-
phanus, the readings of the Old Latin, so far as was then known, the
Vulgate and Peshito, together with full and valuable prolegomena.
Bentley. A little later Richard Bcntlcy conceived the idea that
it would be possible to reconstruct the original text of the New
Testament by a comparison of the earliest Greek and Latin sources;
he began to collect material for this purpose, and issued a scheme
entitled " Proposals for Printing " in 1720, but though he amassed
many notes nothing was ever printed.
W. Mace. Fairness forbids us to omit the name of William (or
Daniel?) Mace, a Presbyterian minister who published The New
Testament in Creek and English, in 3 yols. in 1729, and really antici-
pated many of the verdicts of later critics. He was, however, not in
a position to obtain recognition, and his work has been generally
overlooked.
88 4
BIBLE
[N.T. CRITICISM
/. /. Wetstein, one of Bentley's assistants, when living in Basel in
1730, published " Prolegomena " to the Text, and in 1751-1752 (at
Amsterdam) the text of Stephanus with enlarged Prolegomena and
apparatus criticus. His textual views were peculiar; he preferred
to follow late MSS. on the ground that all the earlier copies had
been contaminated by the Latin almost reversing the teaching
of Bentley. His edition is historically very important as it intro-
duced the system of notation which, in the amplified form given to
it by Gregory, is still in general use.
J. A. Bengel, abbot of Alpirspach (a Lutheran community), pub-
lished in 1734, at Tubingen, an edition of the New Testament which
marks the beginning of a new era. For the first time an attempt
was made to group the MSS., which were divided into African and
Asiatic. The former group contained the few old MSS., the latter
the many late MSS., and preference was given to the African. This
innovation has been followed by almost all critics since Bengel's
time, and it was developed by Griesbach.
/. /. Griesbach, a pupil at Halle of J. S. Semler (who in 1764
reprinted Wetstein's Prolegomena, and in comments of his own
took over and expounded Bengel's views), collated many MSS.,
and distinguished three main groups : the Alexandrian or Origenian
(which roughly corresponded to Bengel's African), found in ABCL,
the Egyptian version and Origen; the Western, found in D and
Latin authorities; and the Constantinopolitan (Bengel's Asiatic),
found in the later MSS. and in Byzantine writers. His view was
that the last group was the least valuable; but, except when in-
ternal evidence forbade (and he thought that it frequently did so),
he followed the text found in any two groups against the third. His
first edition was published in 1774-1775, his second and improved
edition in 1796 (vol. i.) and 1806. For the second edition he had
the advantage not merely of his own collection of material (pub-
lished chiefly in his Symbolae Criticae, 1785-1793), but also of many
collations by Birch, Matthaei and Adler, and an edition with new
collations by F. K. Alter.
J. L. Hug, Roman Catholic professor of theology at Freiburg,
published (Stuttgart and Tubingen) his Einleitung in die Schriflen
des N. T. (1808); he is chiefly remarkable for the curious way in
which he introduced many critical ideas which were not appreciated
at the time but have since been revived. He accepted Griesbach's
views as a whole, but starting from the known recensions of the
LXX. he identified Griesbach's Alexandrian text with the work of
Hesychius, and the Constantinopolitan with that of Lucian, while
he described Griesbach's Western text as the HKI) 5ocns.
J. M. A. Scholz, a pupil of Hug, inspected and partially collated
nearly a thousand MSS. and assigned numbers to them which have
since been generally adopted. His work is for this reason important,
but is unfortunately inaccurate.
K. Lachmann, the famous classical scholar, opened a new era in
textual criticism in 1842-1850, in his N.T. Graece et Latine. In this
great book a break was made for the first time with the traditional
text and the evidence of the late MSS., and an attempt was made
to reconstruct the text according to the oldest authorities. This
was a great step forward, but unfortunately it was accompanied
by a retrogression to the pre-Griesbachian (or rather pre-Bengelian)
days; for Lachmann rejected the idea of grouping MSS., and
having selected a small number of the oldest authorities undertook
always to follow the reading of the majority.
C. Tischendorf, the most famous follower of Lachmann, besides
editions of many MSS. and the collation of many more, published
between 1841 and 1869-1872 eight editions of the New Testament
with full critical notes. The eighth edition, which for the first time
contained the readings of M, has not yet been equalled, and together
with the Prolegomena, supplied by C. R. Gregory after Tischendorf 's
death, is the standard critical edition which is used by scholars
all over the world. At the same time it must be admitted that
it gradually became antiquated. Fresh collations of MSS., and
especially fresh discoveries and investigations into the text of the
versions and Fathers, have given much new information which
entirely changed the character of the evidence for many readings,
and rendered a new edition necessary (see SODEN, H. VON). Asa
collector and publisher of evidence Tischendorf was marvellous, but
as an editor of the text he added little to the principles of Lach-
mann, and like Lachmann does not seem to have appreciated the
value of the Griesbachian system of grouping MSS.
5. P. Tregelles, an English scholar, like Tischendorf, spent almost
his whole life in the collection of material, and published a critical
edition, based on the earliest authorities, at intervals between
1857 and 1872. His work was eclipsed by Tischendorf's, and his
critical principles were almost the same as the German scholar's,
so that his work has obtained less recognition than would otherwise
have been the case. Tischendorf and Tregelles finished the work
which Lachmann began. They finally exploded the pretensions of
the Textus Receptus to be the original text; but neither of them
gave any explanation of the relations of the later text to the earlier,
nor developed Griesbach's system of dealing with groups of MSS.
rather than with single copies.
B. F. Westcolt and F. J. A. Hort (commonly quoted as WH), the
Cambridge scholars, supplied the deficiencies of Lachmann, and
without giving up the advantages of his system, and its develop-
ment by Tischendorf, brought back the study of the text of the
New Testament to the methods of Griesbach. Their great work was
published in 1881 under the title of The New Testament in the Original
Creek. Their view of the history of the text is that a comparison
of the evidence shows that, while we can distinguish more than one
type of text, the most clearly discernible of all the varieties is first
recognizable in the quotations of Chrysostpm, and is preserved in
almost all the later MSS. Though found in so great a number of
witnesses, this type of text is shown not to be the earliest or best
by the evidence of all the oldest MS. versions and Fathers, as well
as by internal evidence. Moreover, a comparison with the earlier
sources of evidence shows that it was built up out of previously
existing texts. This is proved by the " conflations " which are
found in it. For instance in Mark ix. 38 the later MSS. read
os oii/c &KO\ov8ti fllfiv, Kai (KuXiiaa^fv avrdv &ri otx &Ko\ov6ei i)M'", a
clumsy sentence which is clearly made up out of two earlier
readings, icai iKu\vontv avrov on OVK r]Ko\ov6ti i^uc, found in X BCL
boh., and os OVK AxoXouOei /je9' TJH&V, xai tKw\(iou.v aiirbv, found
in DX /am. 1 , fam. 13 28 latt. It is impossible, in face of the
fact that the evidence of the oldest witnesses of all sorts is con-
stantly opposed to the longer readings, to doubt that WH were
right in arguing that these phenomena prove that the later text was
made up by a process of revision and conflation of the earlier forms.
Influenced by the use of the later text by Chrysostom, WH called
it the Syrian or Antiochene text, and refer to the revision which
produced it as the Syrian revision. They suggested that it might
perhaps be attributed to Lucian, who is known to have made a
revision of the text of the LXX. The earlier texts which were used
for the Syrian revision may, according to WH, be divided into
three: (i) the Western text, used especially by Latin writers,
and found also in cod. Bezae and in Syr C; (2) the Alexandrine
text used by Cyril of Alexandria and found especially in CL E 33 ;
and (3) a text which differs from both the above mentioned and
is therefore called by WH the Neutral text, found especially in H B
and the quotations of Origen. Of these three types WH thought
that the Neutral was decidedly the best. The Alexandrian was
clearly a literary recension of it, and WH strove to show that the
Western was merely due to the non-literary efforts of scribes in other
parts to improve the narrative. The only exception which they
allowed to this general rule was in the case of certain passages,
especially in the last chapters of Luke, where the " Western "
authorities omit words which are found in the Neutral and Alex-
andrian texts. Their reason was that omission seems to be contrary
to the genius of the Western text, and that it is therefore probable
that these passages represent interpolations made in the text on
the Neutral side after the division between it and the Western.
They might be called Neutral interpolations, but WH preferred the
rather clumsy expression " Western non-interpolations." Having
thus decided that the Neutral text was almost always right, it only
remained for WH to choose between the various authorities which
preserved this type. They decided that the two best authorities
were K and B, and that when these differed the reading of B, except
when obviously an accidental blunder, was probably right. The
great importance of this work of WH lies in the facts that it not
merely condemns but explains the late Antiochene text, and that
it attempts to consider in an objective manner all the existing
evidence and to explain it historically and genealogically. Opinions
differ as to the correctness of the results reached by WH, but there
is scarcely room for doubt that as an example of method their work
is quite unrivalled at present and is the necessary starting-point for
all modern investigations.
Since Westcott and Hort no work of the same importance appeared
up till 1909. Various useful texts have been issued, among which
thoee of Nestle (Novum Testamentum Graece, Stuttgart, 1904), based
on a comparison of the texts of Tischendorf, WH and Weiss, and
of Balion (Novum Testamentum Graece, Groningen, 1898), are the
best. The only serious attempt as yet published to print a complete
text independently of other editors is that of B. Weiss (Das Neue
Testament, Leipzig, 1894-1900), but the method followed in this
is so subjective and pays so little attention to the evidence of the
versions that it is not likely to be permanently important. The
text reached is not widely different from that of WH. The new
work in course of preparation by von Soden at Berlin, which pro-
mises to take the place of Tischendorf's edition, must certainly do
this so far as Greek MSS. are concerned, for the whole field has been
reinvestigated by a band of assistants who have grouped and collated
specimens of all known MSS.
Besides these works the chief efforts of textual critics since WH
have been directed towards the elucidation of minor problems, and
the promulgation of certain hypotheses to explain the character-
istics either of individual MSS. or of groups of MSS. Among these
the works of Sanday, Corssen, Wordsworth, White, Burkitt and
Harris on the history of the Old Latin and Vulgate, and especially
the work of Burkitt on the Old Syriac, have given most light on the
subject. These lines of research have been described in the preceding
section on the apparatus criticus. Other noteworthy and inter-
esting, though in the end probably less important, work has been
done by Blass, Bousset, Schmidtke, Rendel Harris and Chase.
The outline of the chief works is as follows:
F. Blass. In his various books on the Acts and third gospel Blass
has propounded a new theory as to the " Western " text. He was
N.T. CRITICISM]
BIBLE
885
struck by the fact that neither the Western can be shown to be
derived from the Neutral, nor the Neutral from the Western. He
therefore conceived the idea that perhaps both texts were I. man,
and represented two recensions by the original writer, and he re-
constructed the history as follows. Luke wrote the first edition
of the Gospel for Theophilus from Caesarea; this is the Neutral
text of the Gospel. Afterwards he went to Rome and there revised
the text of the Gospel and reissued it for the Church in that city;
this is the Western (or, as Blass calls it, Roman) text of the Gospel.
At the same time he continued his narrative for the benefit of the
Roman Church, and published the Western text of the Acts. Finally
he revised the Acts and sent a copy to Theophilus; this is the
Neutral text of the Acts. This ingenious theory met with consider-
able approval when it was first advanced, but it has gradually been
seen that " Western " text does not possess the unity which Blass's
theory requires it to have. Still, Blass's textual notes are very
important , and there is a mass of material in his books.
Moussel and Schmidtke. These two scholars have done much
work in trying to identify smaller groups of MSS. with local texts.
Bousset has argued that the readings in the Pauline epistles found
in n H and a few minuscules represent the text used by Pamphilus,
and on the whole this view seems to be highly probable. Another
group which Bousset has tried to identify is that headed by B,
which he connects with the recension of Hesychius, but this theory,
though widely accepted in Germany, does not seem to rest on a very
solid basis. To some extent influenced by and using Bousset s
results, Schmidtke has tried to show that certain small lines in the
margin of B point to a connexion between that MS. and a Gospel
harmony, which, by assuming that the text of B is Hesychian, he
identifies with that of Ammonius. If true, this is exceedingly im-
portant. Nestle, however, and other scholars think that the lines
in B are merely indications of a division of the text into sense-
paragraphs and have nothing to do with any harmony.
Rendel Harris and Chase. Two investigations, which attracted
much notice when they were published, tried to explain the pheno-
mena of the Western text as due to retranslation from early versions
into Greek. Rendel Harris argued for the influence of Latin, and
Chase for that of Syriac. While both threw valuable light on obscure
points, it seems probable that they exaggerated the extent to which
retranslation can be traced; that they ranked Codex Bezae some-
what too highly as the best witness to the " Western " text ; and that
some of their work was rendered defective by their failure to recog-
nize quite clearly that the " Western " text is not a unity. At the
same time, however little of Rendel Harris's results may ultimately
be accepted by the textual critics of the future, his work will always
remain historically of the first importance as having done more
than anything else to stimulate thought and open new lines of
research in textual criticism in the last decade of the I9th century.
The time has not yet come when any final attempt can be made
to bring all these separate studies together and estimate exactly
how far they necessitate serious modification of the views of West-
cott and Hort; but a tentative and provisional judgment would
probably have to be on somewhat the following lines. The work
of WH may be summed up into two theorems: (i) The text pre-
served in the later MSS. is not primitive, but built up out of earlier
texts; (2) these earlier texts may be classified as Western, Alex-
andrian and Neutral, of which the Neutral is the primitive form.
The former of these theorems has been generally accepted and may
be taken as proved, but the second has been closely criticized and
probably must be modified. It has been approached from two sides,
according as critics have considered the Western or the Neutral and
Alexandrian texts.
The Western Text. This was regarded by WH as a definite text,
found in D, the Old Latin and the Old Syriac ; and it is an essential
part of their theory that in the main these three witnesses represent
one text. On the evidence which they had WH were undoubtedly
justified, but discoveries and investigation have gone far to make it
impossible to hold this view any longer. We now know more about
the Old Latin, and, thanks to Mrs Lewis' discovery, much more about
the Old Syriac. The result is that the authorities on which WH
relied for their Western text are seen to bear witness to two texts,
not to one. The Old Latin, if we take the African form as the
oldest, as compared with the Neutral text has a series of inter-
polations and a series of omissions. The Old Syriac, if we take
the Sinaitic MS. as the purest form, compared in the same way,
has a similar double series of interpolations and omissions, but
neither the omissions nor the interpolations arc the same in the
Old Latin as in the Old Syriac. Such a line of research suggests
that instead of being able, as WH thought, to set the Western
against the Neutral text (the Alexandrian being merely a develop-
ment of the latter), we must consider the problem as the comparison
of at least three texts, a Western (geographically), an Eastern and
the Neutral. This makes the matter much more difficult ; and an
answer is demanded to the problem afforded by the agreement of
two of these texts against the third. The obvious solution would
be to say that where two agree their reading is probably correct,
but the followers of WH maintain that the agreement of the Western
and Eastern is often an agreement in error. It is difficult to see
how texts, geographically so wide apart as the Old Latin and Old
Syriac would seem to be, are likely to agree in error, but it is certainly
true that some readings found in both texts seem to have little prob-
ability. Sanday, followed by Chaw and a few other English
scholars, has suggested that the Old Latin may have been made
originally in Antioch, but this paradoxical view has met with little
support. A more probable suggestion is Burkitt's, who thinks that
many readings in our present Old Syriac MSS. are due to the L>ia-
tessaron, which was a geographically Western text. It may be
that this suggestion will solve the difficulty, but at present it is
impossible to say.
The Neutral and Alexandrian Texts. WH made it plain that the
Alexandrian text was a literary development of the Neutral, but
they always maintained that the latter text was not confined to,
though chiefly used in Alexandria. More recent investigations
have confirmed their view as to the relation of the Alexandrian
to the Neutral text, but have thrown doubt on the age and wide-
spread use of the latter. Whatever view be taken of the provenance
of Codex Vaticanus it is plain that its archetype had the Pauline
epistles in a peculiar order which is only found in Egypt, and to
far no one has been able to discover any non-Alexandrian writer
who used the Neutral text. Moreover, Barnard's researches into
the Biblical text of Clement of Alexandria show that there is reason
to doubt whether even in Alexandria the Neutral text was used
in the earliest times. We have no evidence earlier than Clement,
and the text of the New Testament which he quotes has more in
common with the Old Latin or " geographically Western " text
than with the Neutral, though it definitely agrees with no known
type preserved in MSS. or versions. This discovery has put the
Neutral text in a different light. It would seem as though we could
roughly divide the history of the text in Alexandria into three
periods. The earliest is that which is represented by the quotations
in Clement, and must have been in use in Alexandria at the end of
the 2nd and beginning of the 3rd century. It is unfortunately
not found in any extant MS. The second stage is that found in the
quotations of Origen which is fairly well represented in B, though
Origen seems at times to have used MSS. of the earlier type. The
third stage is WH's Alexandrian, found in the quotations of Cyril
of Alexandria and a few MSS. (esp. CL HA*). It is clearly a re-
vision of the second stage, as WH saw. but we can now add that it
was not merely a literary revision but was influenced by the tendency
to revive readings which are found in the first stage but rejected in
the second.
It thus seems probable that WH's theory must be modified, both
as regards the " Western " text, which is seen not to be a single text
at all, and as regards the " Neutral " text, which seems to be
nothing more than the second stage of the development of the
text in Alexandria. But the importance of these modifications is
something more than the doubt which they have thrown on WH's
theories : they have really shifted the centre of gravity of the textual
problem.
Formerly the Greek uncials, which go back to the 4th century,
were regarded as the most important source of evidence, and were
supposed to have the decisive vote; but now it is becoming plain
that still more important, though unfortunately much less complete,
is the evidence of the versions and of quotations by early writers.
Both of these point to the existence in the 3rd and even and century
of types of text which differ in very many points from anything
preserved in Greek MSS. Yet there is no doubt that both of them
ultimately represent Greek MSS. which are no longer extant. The
question, therefore, is whether we ought not to base our text on the
versions and ecclesiastical quotations rather than on the extant
Greek MSS. Two positions are possible: (i) We may defend a
text based on the best existing Greek MSS. by the argument that
these represent the text which was approved by competent judges
in the 4th century, and would be found to exist in earlier MSS. if
we possessed them. The weak point of this argument is the lack
of evidence in support of the second part. The only possible sources
of evidence, apart from the discovery of fresh MSS., are the versions,
and they do not point to existence in the 2nd or 3rd century of
texts agreeing with the great uncials. It is also possible to argue,
as WH did, on the same side, that the purest form of text was pre-
served in Alexandria, from which the oldest uncials are directly or
indirectly derived, but this argument has been weakened if not
finally disposed of by the evidence of Clement of Alexandria. It
is, of course, conceivable that Clement merely used bad MSS., and
that there were other MSS. which he might have used, agreeinr
with the great uncials, but there is no evidence for this view, (a)
If we reject this position we must accept the evidence as giving
the great uncials much the same secondary importance as Westcott
and Hort gave to the later MSS., and make an attempt to reconstruct
a text on the basis of versions and Fathers. The adoption of this
view sets textual critics a peculiarly difficult task. The first stage
in their work must be the establishment of the earliest form of each
version, and the collection and examination of the quotations in
all the early writers. This has not yet been done, but enough has
been accomplished to point to the probabjlity that the result will
be the establishment of at least three main types of texts, repre-
sented by the Old Syriac, the Old Latin and Clement's quotations,
while it is doubtful now far Tatian's Diatessaron, the quotations in
Justin and a few other sources may be used to reconstruct the type
of Greek text used in Rome in the and century when Rome was still
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[N.T. CRITICISM
primarily a Greek church. The second stage must be the com-
parison of these results and the attempt to reconstruct from them
a Greek text from which they all arose.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of textual criticism of the New
Testament is so great that only a few of the more important modern
books can be mentioned here: H. von Soden, Die Schriften des
Neuen Testaments (i. 1902-1907); E. Nestle, Einfiihrung in das
griechische Netie Testament (Gottingen, 1909); F. G. Kenyon,
Handbook to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament (London,
1901); C. R. Gregory, Textkritik des Neuen Testament (Leipzig,
1900-1902), and Die griech. Handschr. des N.T. (Leipzig, 1908);
Westcott and Hort, Introduction (vol. ii. of their New Testament
in Greek, Cambridge, 1882). The history of criticism is dealt with
in all the above-mentioned books, and also in F. H. Scrivener,
Introduction to the Criticism of the New Testament (London,
1894). For other points especially important (besides books men-
tioned in the preceding section) see F. Blass, Ada Apostolorum
(Gottingen, 1895; and an editio minor, with a valuable preface,
Leipzig, 1896) ; Rendel Harris, Four Lectures on the Western Text
(Cambridge, 1894); F. Chase, The Syro-Lalin Text (London, 1895);
W. Bousset, Textkritische Studien (Leipzig, 1894); B. Weiss, Der
Codex D in der Apostelgeschichte (Leipzig, 1897); A. Pott, Der
abendldndische Text d. Apostelgeschichte (Leipzig, 1900); G. Salmon,
Some Thoughts on Textual Criticism of the New Testament (London,
1897); Schmidtke, Die Evangelien eines alien Unzialcodex (Leipzig,
1903). (K. L.)
4. Higher Criticism.
The New Testament is a series of early Christian writings
which the Church came to regard as canonical, i.e. they were
placed in the same category as the Old Testament, the writings
which the Christian had inherited from the Jewish Church.
Just as the ancient Scriptures were considered to be the Word
of God, so that what they contained was necessarily the true
and inspired doctrine, so also the New Testament was available
for proving the Church's dogma. The assured canonicity of the
whole New Testament resulted in its use by the medieval theo-
logians, the Schoolmen, as a storehouse of proof-texts. Thus
the New Testament seemed to exist in order to prove the Church's
conclusions, not to tell its own tale.
The Nouum Instrumenlum published by Erasmus in 1516
(see above, Textual Criticism) contained more than the mere
Editio Princeps of the Greek text: Erasmus accom-
crasinus. , . . . . ,. 1*1* 1-1
panied it with a Latin rendering of his own, in which
he aimed at giving the meaning of the Greek without blindly
following the conventional phraseology of the Latin Vulgate,
which was the only form in which the New Testament had been
current in western Europe for centuries. This rendering of
Erasmus, together with his annotations and prefaces to the
several books, make his editions the first great monument of
modern Biblical study. Medieval Bibles contain short prefaces
by St Jerome and others. The stereotyped .information supplied
in these prefaces was drawn from various sources: Erasmus
distinguishes, e.g., between the direct statements in the Acts and
the inferences which may be drawn from incidental allusions in
the Pauline Epistles, or from the statements of ancient non-
canonical writers. 1 This discrimination of sources is the starting-
point of scientific criticism.
The early champions of Church reform in the beginning of
the 1 6th century found in the Bible their most trustworthy
weapon. The picture of Apostolical Christianity
Reformers. f un d in the New Testament offered indeed a glaring
contrast to the papal system of the later middle ages.
Moreover, some of the " authorities " used by the Schoolmen
had been discovered by the New Learning of the Renaissance
to be no authorities at all, such as the writings falsely attributed
to Dionysius the Areopagite. When, therefore, the breach came,
and the struggle between reformers and conservatives within
the undivided Church was transformed into a struggle between
Protestants and Romanists, it was inevitable that the authority
which in the previous centuries had been ascribed to the Church
'E.g. from the preface to the Acts: " Dionysius, bishop of the
Corinthians, a very ancient writer, quoted by Eusebius, writes
that Peter and Paul obtained the crown of martyrdom by the com-
mand of Nero on the same day." And again: " Some industrious
critics have added (to the narrative of Acts) that Paul was acquitted
at his first trial by Nero. . . . This conjecture they make from the
and Ep. to Timothy. . . ."
should be transferred by the Reformed Churches to the Bible.
" The Bible, the Bible alone, is the religion of Protestants " 2 did
really ' express the watchword of the anti- Romanist parties,
especially towards the close of the acuter struggle. At the
beginning of the movement the New Testament itself had been
freely criticized. Luther, like his countrymen of to-day, judged
the contents of the New Testament by the light of his leading
convictions; and in his German translation, which occupies
the same place in Germany as the Authorized Version of 1611
does in English-speaking lands, he even placed four of the
books (Hebrews, James, Jude, Apocalypse) in an appendix at the
end, with prefaces explanatory of this drastic act of criticism.
But though we may trace a real affiliation between the principles
of Luther and modern German critical study notably in the
doctrines of the Gospel within the Gospel and of the residual
Essence of Christianity Luther's discriminations were in the
1 7th century ignored in practice.
From cover to cover the whole New Testament was regarded
at the beginning of the i8th century by almost all Protestants
as the infallible revelation of the true religion. The
doctrines of Christianity, and in many communities
the customs of the Church, were held to be inferences criticism.
from the inspired text of the Scriptures. The first
serious blow to this view came from the study of textual criticism.
The editions of Mill (1707) and of Wetstejn (1751) proved once
for all that variations in the text, many of them serious, had
existed from the earliest times. It was evident, therefore, that
the true authority of the New Testament could not be that of a
legal code which is definite in all its parts. More important still
was the growing perception of the general uniformity of nature,
which had forced itself with increasing insistence upon men's
minds as the study of the natural sciences progressed in the
1 7th and i8th centuries. The miracles of the New Testament,
which had formerly been received as bulwarks of Christianity,
now appeared as difficulties needing explanation. Furthermore,
the prevailing philosophies of the i8th century tended to demand
that a real divine revelation should be one which expressed
itself in a form convincing to the reason of the average plain
man, whatever his predispositions might be; it was obvious
that the New Testament did not wholly conform to this
standard.
But if the New Testament be not itself the direct divine
revelation in the sense of the i8th century, the question still
remains, how we are to picture the true history of the
rise of Christianity, and what its true meaning is. i/ ts '
This is the question which has occupied the theologians
of the igth and 2oth centuries. Perhaps the most significant
event from which to date the modern period is the publication
by Lessing in 1774-1777- of the "Wolfenbuttel Fragments," i.e.
H. S. Reimarus' posthumous attack on Christianity, a work
which showed that the mere study of the New Testament is not
enough to compel belief in an unwilling reader. Lessing's
publication also helped to demonstrate the weakness of the
older rationalist position, a position which really belongs to the
1 8th century, though its best-remembered exponent, Dr H. E. G.
Paulus, only died in 1851. The characteristic of the rationalists
was the attempt to explain away the New Testament miracles
as coincidences or naturally occurring events, while at the same
time they held as tenaciously as possible to the accuracy of the
letter of the New Testament narratives. The opposite swing
of the pendulum appears in D. F. Strauss: in his strauss.
Leben Jesu (1833) he abandons the shifts and ex-
pedients by which the rationalists eliminated the miraculous
from the Gospel stories, but he abandons also their historical
character. According to Strauss the fulfilments of prophecy
in the New Testament arise from the Christians' belief that the
Christian Messiah must have fulfilled the predictions of the
prophets, and the miracles of Jesus in the New Testament either
originate in the same way or are purely mythical embodiments
of Christian doctrines.
2 The phrase is Chillingworth's (1637), who may be described as
a Broad High-churchman.
N.T. CHRONOLOGY]
BIBLE
887
The main objection to this presentation, as also to that of
the rationalists, is that it is very largely based not upon the
historical data, but upon a pre-determined theory.
Granted the philosophical basis, the criticism practised
upon the New Testament by Paulus and Strauss
follows almost automatically. Herein lies the permanent im-
portance of the work of Ferdinand Christian Baur, professor
of theology at Tubingen from 1826 to 1860. The corner-stone
of his reconstruction of early Christian history is derived not
so much from philosophical principles as from a fresh study
of the documents. Starting from Galatians and i Corinthians,
which are obviously the genuine letters of a Christian leader
called Paul to his converts, Baur accepted 2 Corinthians and
Romans as the work of the same hand. From the study of these
contemporary and genuine documents, he elaborated the theory
that the earliest Christianity, the Christianity of Jesus and the
original apostles, was wholly Judaistic in tone and practice.
Paul, converted to belief in Jesus as Messiah after the Crucifixion,
was the first to perceive that for Christians Judaism had ceased
to be binding. Between him and the older apostles arose a long
and fierce controversy, which was healed only when at last his
disciples and the Judaizing disciples of the apostles coalesced
into the Catholic Church. This only occurred, according to
Baur, early in the 2nd century, when the strife was finally
allayed and forgotten. The various documents which make
up the New Testament were to be dated mainly by their relation
to the great dispute. The Apocalypse was a genuine work of
John the son of Zebedee, one of the leaders of the Judaistic
party, but most of the books were late, at least in their present
form. The Acts, Baur thought, were written about A.D. 140,
after the memory of the great controversy had almost passed
away. All four Gospels also were to be placed in the 2nd century,
though that according to Matthew retained many features
unaltered from the Judaistic original upon which it was based.
The Tubingen school founded by Baur dominated the theo-
logical criticism of the New Testament during a great part of
the ipth century and it still finds some support. The
main position was not so much erroneous as one-sided.
The quarrel between St Paul and his opponents did
not last so long as Baur supposed, and the great catastrophe
of the fall of Jerusalem effectually reduced thorough-going
Judaistic Christianity into insignificance from A.D. 70 onwards.
Moreover, St Paul's converts do not seem to have adopted
consistent " Paulinism " as a religious philosophy. St Paul
was an emancipated Jew, but his converts were mostly Greeks,
and the permanent significance of St Paul's theories of law and
faith only began to be perceived after his letters had been
collected together and had been received into the Church's
canon. All these considerations tend to make the late dates
proposed by Baur for the greater part of the New Testament
books unnecessary; the latest investigators, notably Professor A.
Harnack of Berlin, accept dates that are not far removed from
the ancient Christian literary tradition.
Literary criticism of the Gospels points to a similar conclusion.
A hundred years' study of the synoptic problem, i.e. the causes
which make the Gospels according to Matthew, Mark and Luke
at once so much alike and so different, has resulted in the demon-
stration of the priority of Mark, which " was known to Matthew
and Luke in the same state and with the same contents as we
have it now." l This Gospel may be dated a very few years
after A.D. 70. Luke and Matthew appear to have been published
between 80 and ioo. 2 Besides the Gospel of Mark these Evange-
lists made use of another document, now lost, which contained
many sayings of Jesus and some narratives not found in Mark.
This document is by many scholars identified with the " Logia,"
mentioned by Papias (Eusebius, Ch. Hist. iii. 39) as being the
work of Matthew the Apostle, but the identification is not certain.
1 J. Wellhausen, Einl. in die drei erslen Evangelien (1905), p. 57.
* If Luke used josephus, as F. C. Burkitt and others believe, the
later date must be taken; otherwise the earlier date is more prob-
able, as in any case it must fall within the lifetime of a companion
of St Paul.
Later
views.
The Johannine writings, i.e. the Fourth Gospel and the three
Epistles of John, represent the view of Christ and Christianity
taken by a Christian teacher, who seems to have lived and
written in Asia Minor at the dose of the ist century A.D. The
value of the Fourth Gospel as a narrative of events is a matter
of dispute, but the view of the personality of Jesus Christ set
forth in it is unquestionably that which the Church has accepted.
The discoveries of papyri in Upper Egypt during recent years,
containing original letters written by persons of various daises
and in some cases contemporary with the Epistles of the New
Testament, have immensely increased our knowledge of the
Greek of the period, and have dearcd up not a few difficulties
of language and expression. More important still is the applica-
tion of Semitic study to eluddatc the Gospels. It is idle indeed
to rewrite the Gospel narratives in the Aramaic dialect spoken by
Christ and the apostles, but the main watchwords of the Gospel
theology phrases like " the Kingdom of God," " the World to
come," the " Father in Heaven," " the Son of Man," can be
more or less surely reconstructed from Jewish writings, and their
meaning gauged apart from the special significance which they
received in Christian hands. This line of investigation has been
specially followed by Professor G. Dalman in his Worte Jesu.
The study of the Semitic elements in early Christianity is less
advanced than the study of the Greek elements, so that it is
doubtless from the Semitic side that further progress in the
criticism of the New Testament may be expected.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. See the separate bibliographies to the separate
articles on the books of the New Testament. The selection here
given of the vast literature of the subject has been drawn up with the
idea of setting the student on his way. I. General and Historical.
Jerome's Prefaces (to be found in any R. C. edition of the Vulgate) ;
Luther's Prefaces (to be found in German-printed editions of Luther's
Bible) ; F. Seebohm, The Oxford Reformers (yd ed., London, 1887)
for Erasmus; M. Creighton, " Chillingworth " in the Diet, of Nat.
Biogr.; Chr. Schrempf, Lessing als Philosoph (Stuttgart, 1906);
J. Kstlin Carpenter, The Bible in the loth Century (London, 1903);
A. Schweitzer, Von Reimarus zu Wrede (Tubingen, 1906). 2. For the
Synoptic Gospels. W. G. Rushbrooke, Synoplicon (London, 1880),
(trans, in The Common Tradition of the Synoptic Gospels by E. A.
Abbott and W. G. Rushbrooke, London, 1884), Sir J. C. Hawkins.
Horae Synopticae (Oxford, 1899); Prof. Julius Wellhausen, Ein-
leitung in die drei erslen Evangelien (Berlin, 1905), Das Evangelium
Mara (1903), Das Ev. Matthaei (1904), Das Ev. Luc at (1904)
these four books make one work; Prof. A. Harnack, Lukas der
Arzt (Berlin, 1905). 3. For the Fourth Gospel. K. G. Bretschneider.
Probabilia (Leipzig, 1820); Matthew Arnold's God and the Bible,
chaps, v., vi. (still the best defence in English of a Johannine kernel,
new ed., 1884); W. Sanday, Criticism of the Fourth Gospel (Oxford,
1905); A. Loisy, Le Quatrieme Emngile (Paris, 1903); Prof. P. W.
Schmiedel, Das vierte Evangelium gegenuber den drei erslen (Halle,
1906). 4. For the Semitic Elements tn the N.T. Prof. G. Dalman,
Die Worte Jesu (Leipzig, 1898), (Eng. trans., The Words of Jesus,
1905); Prof. Johannes Weiss, Die Predigt Jesu torn Reiche Goltes
(ist ed. 1892, 2nd ed. 1000). The Protestant view of the New
Testament in Prof. A. Harnack, Das Wesen des Christentums (Berlin,
1900), (Eng. trans., What is Christianity t, London, 1901) may be
compared with the Liberal Catholic view in A. Loisy, L'Evangtlt el
I'Eglise (2nd ed., 1903). (F. C. B.)
5. New Testament Chronology.
The subject of the chronology of the New Testament falls
naturally into two distinct sections the chronology of the
Gospels, that is, of the life of Christ; and the chronology of
the Acts, that is, of the apostolic age.
The Chronology of the Gospels.
The data group themselves round three definite points and
the intervals between them: the definite points are the Nativity,
the Baptism and the Crudfixion; the age of Christ at the time
of the Baptism connects the first two points, and the duration
of his public ministry connects the second and third. The
results obtained under the different heads serve mutually to
test, and thereby to correct or confirm, one another.
i. The date of the Nativity as fixed according to our common
computation of Anni Domini (first put forward by Dionysius
Exiguus at Rome early in the 6th century) has long been recog-
nized to be too late. The fathers of the primitive church had been
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[N.T. CHRONOLOGY
nearer the truth with the years 3 or 2 B.C. (see Irenaeus, Haer.
m. xxi. 3 [xxiv. a]; Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i. 21, p. 147;
Hippolytus, in Danielem, iv. ed. Bonwetsch, p. 242; [Tertullian],
adv. Judaeos, 8). What may be called the received chronology
during the last two centuries has pushed the date farther back
to 4 B.C. But the considerations now to be adduced make it
probable that the true date is earlier still.
(a) Evidence of St Matthew's Gospel (i. i8-ii. 22). The birth of
Christ took place before the death of Herod, and the evidence
of Josephus fixes the death of Herod, with some approach to
certainty, in the early spring of 4 B.C. Josephus, indeed, while
he tells us that Herod died not long before Passover, nowhere
names the exact year; but he gives four calculations which serve
to connect Herod's death with more or less known points, namely,
the length of Herod's own reign, both from his de jure and from
his de facto accession, and the length of the reigns of two of his
successors, Archelaus and Herod Philip, to the date of their
deposition and death respectively. The various calculations
are not quite easy to harmonize, but the extent of choice for the
year of Herod's death is limited to the years 4 and 3 B.C., with a
very great preponderance of probability in favour of the former.
How long before this the Nativity should be placed the Gospel
does not enable us to say precisely, but as Herod's decree of
extermination included all infants up to two years of age, and as
a sojourn of the Holy Family in Egypt of unknown length
intervened between the massacre and Herod's death, it is clear
that it is at least possible, so far as the evidence of this Gospel
goes, that the birth of Christ preceded Herod's death by as much
as two or three years. What is thus shown to be possible would,
of course, be necessary if we went on, with the astronomer
Kepler, to identify the star of the Magi with the conjunction of
the planets Jupiter and Saturn which occurred, in the constella-
tion Pisces, in May, October and December of 7 B.C. 1
(b) Evidence of St Luke's Gospel (ii. 1-8). The birth of Christ
took place at the time of a general census of the empire ordered
by Augustus: " it was the first census, and was made at the
time when Quirinius was governor of Syria." Against this account
it has been urged that we know that the governorship of Syria
from to or 9 B.C. down to and after Herod's death was hejd
successively by M. Titius, C. Sentius Saturninus, and P. Quintilius
Varus; and further, that when Judaea became a Roman
province on the deposition of Archelaus in A.D. 6, Quirinius was
governor of Syria, and did carry out an elaborate census. The
notice in the Gospel, it is suggested, grew out of a confused
recollection of the later (and only historical) census, and is
devoid of any value whatever. At the other extreme Sir W.
M. Ramsay (Was Christ Born at Bethlehem?, 1898, pp. 149 ff.)
defends the exact accuracy of St Luke's " first census " as wit-
nessing to the (otherwise of course unknown) introduction
into Syria of the periodic fourteen years' census which the
evidence of papyri has lately established for Egypt, at least
from A.D. 20 onwards. Reckoning back from A.D. 20, the periodic
census should fall in 9 B.C., but Ramsay alleges various .causes
for delay, which would have postponed the actual execution
of the census till 7 B.C., and supposes that Quirinius was an
imperial commissioner specially appointed to carry it out. The
truth seems to rest midway between these extremes. St Luke's
statement of a general census is in all probability erroneous,
and the introduction of the name Quirinius appears to be due
to confusion with the census of A.D. 6. But the confusion in
question would only be possible, or at any rate likely, if there
really was a census at the time of the Nativity; and it is no more
improbable that Herod should have held, or permitted to be
held, a local census than that Archelaus of Cappadocia in the
reign of Tiberius (Tacitus, Ann. vi. 41) should have taken a
census of his own native state "after the Roman manner."
1 It is a curious coincidence that a medieval Jew, R. Abarbanel
(Ahrabanel), records that the conjunction of these particular planets
in this particular constellation was to be a sign of Messiah's coming.
It is just conceivable that his statement may ultimately depend
on some such ancient tradition as may have been known to Chaldaean
magi.
But St Luke's account, when the name of Quirinius is subtracted
rom it, ceases to contain any chronological evidence.
(c) Evidence of Tertullian. Strangely enough, however,
the missing name of the governor under whom the census
of the Nativity was carried out appears to be supplied by an
author who wrote more than a century after St Luke, and has
ay no means a good reputation for historical trustworthiness.
Tertullian, in fact (adv. Marcionem, iv. 19), employs against
Marcion's denial of the true humanity of Christ the argument
that it was well known that Sentius Saturninus carried out a
census under Augustus in Judaea, by consulting which the
: amily and relationships of Christ could have been discovered.
This Saturninus was the middle one of the three governors of
Syria named above, and as his successor Varus must have
arrived by the middle of 6 B.C. at latest (for coins of Varus are
extant of the twenty-fifth year of the era of Actium), his own
tenure must have fallen about 8 and 7 B.C., and his census
cannot be placed later than 7 or 7-6 B.C. The independence
of Tertullian's information about this census is guaranteed by
the mere fact of his knowledge of the governor's name; and if
there was a census about that date, it would be unreasonable
not to identify it with St Luke's census of the Nativity.
The traditional Western day for the Christmas festival, 25th
December, goes back as far as Hippolytus, loc. tit.; the tradi-
tional Eastern day, 6th January, as far as the Basilidian
Gnostics (but in their case only as a celebration of the Baptism),
mentioned by Clement of Alexandria, loc. cit.
2. The interval between the Nativity and the Baptism.
Evidence of St Luke's Gospel (iii. 23). At the time of his
baptism Jesus was apxanfos uicrei erSiv TPIO.KOVTO., of which
words two opposite misinterpretations must be avoided: (i.)
xcyueros does not mean (as Valentinian interpreters thought,
Iren. n. xxii. 5 [xxxiii. 3]; so also Epiphanius, Haer. li. 16)
" beginning to be thirty years " in the sense of " not yet quite
thirty," but " at the beginning of His ministry," as in Luke
xxiii. 5; Acts i. 22, x. 37; (ii.) &<m &>v TOIOKOVTO. does not
mean " on attaining the full age of thirty, before which he could
not have publicly taught," for if there was by Jewish custom or
tradition any minimum age for a teacher, it was not thirty, but
forty (Bab. Talm. ed. 1713, fol. 19 b; Iren. loc cit.). St Luke's
phrase is a general one, " about thirty years old," and cannot
be so pressed as to exclude some latitude in either direction.
3. The date of the Baptism.
(a) Evidence of St Luke's Gospel (iii. i). A terminus a quo
for the Baptism is the synchronism of the commencement
of the Baptist's public ministry with the fifteenth year
of the rule (^ejuovta) of Tiberius. Augustus died on i9th
August A.D. 14, and, reckoned from that point, Tiberius's
fifteenth year might be, according to different methods of
calculation, either A.D. 28, or 28-29, or 2 9- But any such
result would be difficult to reconcile with the results yielded
by other lines of investigation in this article; among alter-
native views the choice seems to lie between the following:
(i.) The years of Tiberius are here reckoned from some
earlier starting-point than the death of his predecessor
probably from the grant to him of co-ordinate authority with
Augustus over the provinces made in A.D. ii (see, for the parallel
with the case of Vespasian and Titus, Ramsay, St Paul the
Roman Traveller, p. 387), so that the fifteenth year would be
roughly A.D. 25; or (ii.) St Luke has made here a second error in
chronology, caused perhaps in this case by reckoning back from
the Crucifixion, and only allowing one year to the ministry of
Christ.
(6) Evidence of St John's Gospel (ii. T3, 20). A terminus ad
quern for the Baptism is the synchronism of the first Passover
mentioned after it with the forty-sixth year of the building of
Herod's Temple. Herod began the Temple in the eighteenth
year of his reign, probably 20-19 B -C-, and the Passover of the
forty-sixth year is probably that of A.D. 27. While too much
stress must not be laid on a chain of reasoning open to some
uncertainty at several points, it is difficult to suppose with Loisy,
Quatrieme Evangile, 1903, p. 293, that the number was intended
N. T. CHRONOLOGY]
BIBLE
by the evangelist as purely figurative, and is therefore destitute
of all historical meaning.
On the whole, the Baptism of Christ should probably be placed
in A.D. 26-27; and as the Nativity was placed in 7-6 B.C. (at
latest), this would make the age of Christ at his Baptism to be
about thirty-two, which tallies well enough with St Luke's
general estimate.
4. The interval between the Baptism and the Crucifixion, or,
in other words, the duration of the public ministry of Christ.
(a) Evidence of the Synoptic Tradition and of St Mark's Gospel
(ii. 23, vi. 39, xiv. i). The order of events in the primitive
synoptic tradition appears to be faithfully reproduced in St
Mark; and if this order is chronological, Christ's ministry lasted
at least two years, since the plucking of the ears of corn (April-
June) marks a first spring; the feeding of the five thousand
when the grass was fresh green (x\wp6s: about March), a second;
and the Passover of the Crucifixion a third: and these three
points are so far removed from one another in the narrative that
the conclusion would hold, even if the general arrangement in
St Mark were only roughly, and not minutely, chronological.
On the other hand, it may be true that an impression of a briefer
period of ministry naturally results, and in early generations did
actually result, from the synoptic account considered as a whole.
(b) Evidence of St Luke's Gospel (ix. si-xix. 28 compared with
iv. I4~ix. 50; iv. 19). Still stronger is the impression of brevity
suggested by St Luke. The second and larger half of the narrative
of the ministry is introduced at ix. 51 with the words, " It came
to pass as the days of His assumption were coming to the full, He
set His face firmly to go to Jerusalem," under which phrase the
evangelist cannot have meant to include more than a few months,
perhaps not more than a few weeks; so that even if the earlier
and shorter half of the account, which describes a purely Galilean
ministry (" Judaea " in iv. 44, if it is the true reading, means
Judaea in the sense of Palestine), is to be spread over a longer
period of time, the combined narrative can hardly have been
planned on the scale of more than a single year. St Luke himself
may have understood literally, like so many of his readers in
ancient times, the reference which he records to the " acceptable
year of the Lord " (iv. 19 = Isaiah Ixi. 2): see, too, above, 3 (a)
ad fin.
(c) Evidence of St John's Gospel (ii. 13, " the Passover of the
Jews was near," and 23, " He was in Jerusalem at the Passover at
the feast "; v. i, " after these things was a feast [or ' the feast ']
of the Jews "; vi. 4, " and the Passover, the feast of the Jews,
was near "; vii. 2, " and the feast of the Jews, the Tabernacles,
was near "; x. 22, " at that time the feast of dedication took
place at Jerusalem "; xi. 55, " and the Passover of the Jews was
near ": besides iv. 35, " say ye not that there is yet a period of
four months and harvest cometh? behold, I tell you, lift up
your eyes and see the fields that they are white to harvest ").
This catena of time-references is of course unique in the Gospels
as a basis for a chronology of the ministry; and it is not reason-
able to doubt (with Loisy, loc. cil., who suggests that the aim was
to produce an artificial correspondence of a three and a half years'
ministry with the half- week of Daniel; but many and diverse as
are the early interpretations of Daniel's seventy weeks, no one
before Eusebius thought of connecting the half-week with the
ministry), that the evangelist intended these notices as definite
historical data, possibly for the correction of the looser synoptic
narratives and of the erroneous impressions to which they had
given rise. Unfortunately, difficulties, either (i.) of reading, or
(ii.) of interpretation, or (iii.) of arrangement, have been raised
with regard to nearly all of them; and these difficulties must be
briefly noticed here.
(i.) Readings (a) v. i , toprli A B D, Origen, Epiphanius, Chrysostom,
Paschal Chronicle; i> toprii SCLA 1-118, 33, the Egyptian versions,
Eusebius, Cyril-Alex. (Irenaeus ?). The balance of internal evidence
copyists being more likely to accentuate than to diminish the
precision of a note of time inclines, like the balance of external
evidence, against the article. (/3) vi. 4, r6 irderxo is read by all known
MSS. and versions; but it has been argued by Hort (in Westcott's
and Hort's New Testament in Creek, appendix, pp. 77-81) that four
ancient authorities omitted the words, and that their omission
simplifies the whole chronology, since " the feast " which wai
near ' in vi. 4 would then be identical with the feast of Tabernacle*
mentioned in vii. 2, and all the time-notices of the Gospel could be
arranged to fall within the space of a single year, between the Pass-
over of ii. 13 and the Passover of xi. 55. But of the four authorities
alleged, Irenaeus (i i. xxii. 3 (xxxiii. i|)andtheAlogi (op. Epiphanius.
Ilaer. \\. 32) were giving catalogues of Passovers " observed " by
Christ (at Jerusalem), and therefore naturally omitted a mere
chronological reference like vi. 4: Cyril of Alexandria, in so far as
his evidence is adverse to the words, appears to be incorporating
a passage from the Commentary of Origen, not extant in loc.: and
the only writer who perhaps really did omit the words with the
view, no doubt, of reconciling the witness of the fourth Gospel with
the then widely spread tradition of the single-year ministry i*
Origen himself.
(n.) Interpretation (a) iv. 35: which is to be taken literally, the
four months to harvest " (about January), or the " fields white to
harvest " (about May)? It does not seem possible to rule out either
interpretation; the choice between them will follow from the view
taken of the general chronological arrangement of the Gospel
(ft) v. i. : if " the feast " is read, a choice remains between Passover
and Tabernacles (the definite article would not be very definite after
all); if the more probable " a feast," the greater feasts are presum-
ably excluded, but a choice remains between, at any rate, Pentecost
(May), Trumpets (September), Dedication (December) and Purim
(February). Here again the decision will follow on the general
chronological arrangement which may be adopted.
(iii.) Arrangement. So far the amount of possible latitude left
is not so great as to obscure the main outline of the chronology.
For a first (ii. 13, 20), second (vi. 4), and third (xi. 55) Passover
are established, with two indeterminate notices (iv. 35, v. i) between
the first and second, and two determinate notices (vii. 2 Tabernacles
in October, x. 22 Dedication in December) between the second and
third. But of late years an increasing desire has been manifested,
especially in Germany and America, to manipulate the fourth Gospel
on grounds of internal evidence, at first only in the way of particular
transpositions of more or less attractiveness, but latterly also by
schemes of thorough-going rearrangement. The former class of
proposals will as a rule hardly affect the chronology of the Gospel ;
the latter will affect it vitally. The distinction here drawn may be
illustrated from the earliest instance of the former and one of the
latest of the latter. In 1871 Archdeacon J. P. Norris (Journal of
Philology) wished to transpose chapters v. and vi. ch. vi. was, like
ch. xxi., a Galilean appendix, and was inserted by mistake at some-
what top late a point in the body of the Gospel and to read " the
feast " in v. I, identifying it with the Passover which was near in
vi. 4: in any case, whether " the feast " = Passover, or "a feast "
= Pentecost, were read in v. I, the transposition would not affect
the two years' ministry. In 1900 Professor B. W. Bacon (American
Journal of Theology, p. 770) proposed a rearrangement of the whole
Gospel, according to which the time-notices would occur in the
following order: vi. 4, Passover is near; iv. 35, the fields white
to harvest = May; v. i, " a feast " = Pentecost; vii. 2, Tabernacles;
x. 22, Dedication; xi. 55, Passover is near; xii. I, Jesus at Bethany
six days before Passover; ii. 13, Passover is near and Jesus goes up
to Jerusalem (ii. 23, an interpolation) for the Passover of the Cruci-
fixion; and the ministry would thus be reduced to a single year.
Such a scheme does not lend itself to discussion here ; but as far as
evidence is at present obtainable, the conclusion that the fourth
evangelist drew up his narrative on the basis of a two years' rather
than a one year's ministry appears to be irrefragable.
Not only do the fourth and second Gospels thus agree in
indications of a two years' ministry, but the notes of the middle
spring of the three (John vi. 4; Mark vi. 39) both belong to the
feeding of the 5000, one of the few points of actual contact
between the two Gospels.
The question, however, may still be raised, whether these
time-indications of the two Gospels are exhaustive, whether
(that is) two years, and two years only, are to be allotted to the
ministry. Irenaeus (n. xxii. 3-6 [xxxiii. 1-4]), in favour of a
ministry of not less than ten years, appeals (i.) to the tradition
of Asia Minor; (ii.) to the record in St John that Christ, who was
thirty years old at the time of his baptism, was addressed by
the Jews as " not yet [i.e. nearly] fifty years old ": but both his
arguments are probably derived from a single source, Papias's
interpretation of John viii. 57. With this exception, however,
all ancient writers, whether they enumerated two or three or
four Passovers in the Gospel history, believed that the enumera-
tion was exhaustive; and their belief appears correctly to repre-
sent the mind of the author of the Fourth Gospel, seeing that his
various notes of time were probably in intentional contrast to the
looser synoptic accounts. Moreover, the wide currency in early
times of the tradition of the single-year ministry (Ptolcmacus.
8 9 o
BIBLE
[N.T. CHRONOLOGY
ap. Iren, loc. cil.; Clementine Homilies, xvii. 19; Clem.
Alex. Strom, i. 145, vi. 279; Julius Africanus, ap. Routh, Rell.
Sacr. ii. 240, 306; Hippolytus, Paschal Cycle and Chronicle;
Origen, in Levil. Horn. ix. 5, de Principiis, iv. 5) becomes
more difficult to account for the farther it is removed from the
actual facts.
5. The date of the Crucifixion.
(a) The Roman Governor. Pontius Pilate was on his way back
to Rome, after ten years of office, when Tiberius died on the i6th
March A.D. 37 (Josephus, Ant. xvm. ii. 2, iv. 2). Luke xiii. i,
xxiii. 12, show that he was not a newcomer at the time of the
Crucifixion. For the Crucifixion " under Pontius Pilate " the
Passover of A.D. 28 is therefore the earliest possible and the
Passover of A.D. 36 the latest.
(6) The Jewish High-Priest. Caiaphas was appointed before
Pilate's arrival, and was deposed at a Passover apparently not
later than that of the year of Herod Philip's death, A.D. 34
(Josephus, Ant. xvm. ii. 2, iv. 3~v. 3. The Crucifixion at some
previous Passover would then fall not later than A.D. 33.
(c) The Day of the Week. The Resurrection on " the first
day of the week " (Sunday) was " on the third day " after the
Crucifixion; and that "the third day" implies an interval of
only two days hardly needed to be shown, but has been shown
to demonstration in Field's Notes on the Translation of the New
Testament (on Matt. xvi. 21). The Crucifixion was therefore
on a Friday in some year between A.D. 28 and 33 inclusive.
(d) The Day of the Jewish Month Nisan. The Passover was
kept at the full moon of the lunar month Nisan, the first of the
Jewish ecclesiastical year; the Paschal lambs were slain on the
afternoon of the I4th Nisan, and the Passover was eaten after
sunset the same day which, however, as the Jewish day began
at sunset, was by their reckoning the early hours of the isth
Nisan; the first fruits (of the barley harvest) were solemnly
offered on the i6th. The synoptic Gospels appear to place the
Crucifixion on the isth, since they speak of the Last Supper as
a Passover; 1 St John's Gospel, on the other hand (xiii. i, 29,
xviii. 28), distinctly implies that the feast had not yet taken
place, and thus makes the Crucifixion fall on the I4th. Early
Christian tradition is unanimous on this side; either the i4th
is mentioned, or the Crucifixion is made the antitype of the
slaughter of the Paschal Lamb (and the Resurrection of the first
fruits), in the following authorities anterior to A.D. 235: St Paul,
i Cor. v. 7, xv. 20; Quartodecimans of Asia Minor, who observed
the Christian Pascha on the " I4th," no matter on what day of
the week it fell; Claudius Apollinaris, Clement of Alexandria,
Hippolytus, all three quoted in the Paschal Chronicle; Irenaeus
(apparently) iv. x. i [xx. i]; [Tertullian] adv. Judaeos, 8;
Africanus, in Routh, Rell. Sacr. ii. 297. The Crucifixion, then,
should be placed rather on the i4th than on the isth of Nisan.
These four lines of inquiry have shown that the Crucifixion
fell on Friday, Nisan 14 (rather than 15), in one of the six years
28-33 A - D - ! an d therefore, if it is possible to discover (i.) exactly
which moon or month was reckoned each year as the moon or
month of Nisan, and (ii.) exactly on what day that particular
moon or month was reckoned as beginning, it will, of course, be
possible to tell in which of these years Nisan 14 fell on a Friday.
To neither question can an answer be given in terms so precise
as to exclude some latitude, but to both with sufficient exactness
to rule out at once three of the six years, (i.) The difficulty with
regard to the month is to know how the commencement of the
Jewish year was fixed in what years an extra month was inter-
calated before Nisan. If the Paschal full moon was, as in later
Christian times, the first after the spring equinox, the difficulty
would be reduced to the question on what day the equinox was
reckoned. If, on the other hand, it was, as in ancient Jewish
times, the first after the earliest ears of the barley harvest would
be ripe, it would have varied with the forwardness or backward-
1 If the Passover celebration could be anticipated by one day in
a private Jewish family (and we know perhaps too little of Jewish
rules in the time of Christ to be able to exclude this possibility), the
evidence of the synoptic Gospels would no longer conflict with
that of St John.
ness of the season from year to year, (ii.) The difficulty with
regard to the day is, quite similarly, to know what precise relation
the first day of the Jewish month bore to the astronomical new
moon. In later Christian times the Paschal month was calculated
from the astronomical new moon; in earlier Jewish times all
months were reckoned to begin at the first sunset when the new
moon was visible, which in the most favourable circumstances
would be some hours, and in the most unfavourable three days,
later than the astronomical new moon.
Direct material for answering the question when and how far
astronomical calculations replaced simple observations as the
basis of the Jewish calendar is not forthcoming. Jewish tradi-
tions represented the Sanhedrin as retaining to the end its
plenary power over the calendar, and as still fixing the first day
of every month and the first month of every year. But as it is
quite inconceivable that the Jews of the Dispersion should not
have known beforehand at what full moon they were to
present themselves at Jerusalem for the Passover, it must be
assumed as true in fact, whether or no it was true in theory,
that the old empirical methods must have been qualified, at
least partially, by permanent, that is in effect by astronomical
rules. Exactly what modifications were first made in the system
under which each month began by simple observation of the
new moon we do not know, and opinions are not agreed as to
the historical value of the rabbinical traditions; but probably
the first step in the direction of astronomical precision would
be the rule that no month could consist of less than twenty-nine
or more than thirty days to which appears to have been added,
but at what date is uncertain, the further rule that Adar, the
month preceding Nisan, was always to be limited to twenty-
nine. In the same way the beginning of the Jewish year accord-
ing to the state of the harvest was supplanted by some more fixed
relation to the solar year. But this relation was not, it would
seem, regulated by the date, real or supposed, of the equinox.
Christian controversialists from Anatolius of Laodicea (A.D. 277)
onwards accused the Jews of disregarding the (Christian) equi-
noctial limit, and of sometimes placing the Paschal full moon
before it; and it is possible that in the time of Christ the i4th
of Nisan might have fallen as far back as the I7th of March.
In the following table the first column gives the terminus
paschalis, or I4th of the Paschal moon, according to the Christian
calendar; the second gives the I4th, reckoned from the time
of the astronomical new moon of Nisan; the third the i4th,
reckoned from the probable first appearance of the new moon
at sunset. Alternative moons are given for A.D. 29, according
as the full moon falling about the i8th of March is or is not
reckoned the proper ,Paschal moon.
A D. 28 Sat. Mar. 27 Mar. 28 Mar. 30
29 Th. Mar. 17 Mar. 17 Mar. 19
F. Ap. 15 Ap. 16 Ap. 18
30 Tu. Ap. 4 Ap. 5 Ap. 7
31 Sat. Mar. 24 Mar. 25 Mar. 27
32 Sat. Ap. 12 Ap. 12 Ap. 14
33 W. Ap. i Ap. 1-2 Ap. 3 or 4.
It will be seen at once that Friday cannot have fallen on Nisan
i4th in any of the three years A.D. 28, 31 and 32. The choice is
narrowed down to A.D. 29, Friday, i8th March (Friday, isth
April, would no doubt be too early even for the I4th of Nisan);
A.D. 30, Friday 7th April; and A.D. 33, Friday, 3rd April.
(e) The Civil Year (consuls, or regnal years of Tiberius) in early
Christian tradition. It is not a priori improbable that the year
of the central event from which the Christian Church dated her
own existence should have been noted in the apostolic age
and handed down to the memory of succeeding generations;
and the evidence does go some way to suggest that we have in
favour of A.D. 29, the consulate of the two Gemini (isth or i6th
year of Tiberius), a body of tradition independent of the Gospels
and ancient, if not primitive, in origin.
The earliest witness, indeed, who can be cited for a definite
date for the crucifixion gave not 29, but 33 A.D. The pagan
chronicler, Phlegon, writing in the reign of Hadrian, noted
under Olympiad 202-4 ( = A.D. 32-33), besides a great earthquake
in Bithynia, an eclipse so remarkable that it became night
N.T. CHRONOLOGY]
BIBLE
891
" at the sixth hour of the day." The eclipse meant is, presum-
ably, that of the Crucifixion (so Origen, contra Celsum, ii. 33
[but see in Malt. 134, Delarue iii. 922], Eusebius's Chronicle
Tib. 19 [ =A.D. 33], Anon. -in Cramer's Catena in Matt. p. 237),
but as the notice of it was clearly derived by Phlegon, pagan as
he was, directly or indirectly from the Gospel narrative, there is
no reason at all to ascribe any independent value to the date.
Phlegon may have had grounds for dating the Bithynian earth-
quake in that year, and have brought the dateless portent into
connexion with the dated one. Eusebius adopted and popular-
ized this date, which fell in with his own system of Gospel
chronology, but of the year 33 as the date of the Passion there is
no vestige in Christian tradition before the 4th century.
The only date, in fact, which has any real claim to represent
Christian tradition independent of the Gospels, is the year 29.
Tiberius 15 is given by Clem. Alex. Strom, i. 147; Origen,
Horn, in Jerem. xiv. 13; cf. c. Cels. iv. 22. Tiberius 16 by
Julius Africanus (Routh, Rell. Sacr. ii. 301-304), and pseudo-
Cyprian de pascha computus (A.D. 243), 20. The consulship
of the two Gemini by Lactantius, Div. Inst. iv. x. 18, and
(Lactantius?) de morte pers. 2; the consulship of the two
Gemini = Tiberius 18 by Hippolytus, Comm. in Donielem, iv.
(ed. Bonwetsch, p. 242); the consulship of the two Gemini =
Tiberius 15 by [Tertullian] adv. Judaeos, 8; the consulship of
the two Gemini = Tiberius 15 (al. 18 or 19) =01. 202.4 Uh' s
last is a later interpolation from Eusebius] in the Acts of Pilate.
Other methods of expressing the year 29 appear in Hippolytus's
Paschal Cycle and Chronicle, and in the Abgar legend (ap.
Eusebius, H.E. i. 13). No doubt it would be possible to explain
Tiberius 16 as a combination of Luke iii. i with a one-year
ministry, and even to treat Tiberius 15 as an unintelligent
repetition from St Luke though the omission to allow a single
year for the ministry would be so strange as to be almost un-
intelligible but the date by the consuls has an independent
look about it, and of its extreme antiquity the evidence gives
two indications: (i.) Hippolytus's Commentary on Daniel (now
generally dated c. A.D. 200) combines it with an apparently
inconsistent date, Tiberius 18; the latter is clearly his own
combination of the length of the ministry (he says in the same
passage that Christ suffered in his 33rd year) with Luke iii.
i the consulship must have been taken from tradition without
regard to consistency; (ii.) the names of the Gemini are diverg-
ently given in our oldest authorities; in [Tert.] adv. Judaeos
correctly as Rubellius Geminus and Fufius (or Rufius) Geminus,
but in Hippolytus and the Acts of Pilate as Rufus and Rubellio.
But if the tradition of the consulship was thus, it would seem,
already an old one about the year 200, there is at least some reason
to conclude that trustworthy information in early Christian
circles pointed, independently of the Gospels, to the year 29
as that of the Crucifixion.
(/) The Civil Month and Day. The earliest known calculations,
by Basilidian Gnostics, quoted in Clem. Alex. Strom, i. 147,
gave alternative dates, Phamenoth 25, Pharmuthi 25, Pharmuthi
19; that is, according to the fixed Alexandrine calendar of
B.C. 26, 2ist March, 2oth April, uth April; in the older,
not wholly superseded, Egyptian calendar the equivalents
with Roman days varied from year to year. But in all
probability these dates were only one development of those
speculations in the region of numbers to which Gnosticism was
so prone; and in any case to look for genuine traditions among
Egyptian Gnostics, or even in the church of Alexandria, would
be to misread the history of Christianity in the 2nd century.
Such traditions must be found, if anywhere, in Palestine and
Syria, in Asia Minor, in Rome, not in Egypt; within the Church,
not among the Gnostics. The date which makes the most
obvious claim to satisfy these conditions would be the 25th of
March, as given by Hippolytus, [Tert.] adv. Judaeos, and the
Acts of Pilate (according to all extant MSS. and versions, but
see below), locc. citt. the same three authorities who bear the
earliest witness for the consuls of the year of the Crucifixion
and by many later writers. It cannot be correct, since no full
moon occurs near it in any of the possible years; yet it must be
very early, too early to be explained with Dr Salmon (Dictionary
of Christian Biography, iii. 926), as originated by Hippolytus's
Paschal cycle of A.D. 221. Now Epiphanius (Haer. 1. i) had
seen copies of the Acts of Pilate in which the day given was
not 25th March, but a.d. xv. kal. Apr. (-i8th March); and
if this was the primitive form of the tradition, it is easy to
see how 2sth March could have grown out of it, since the
iSth would from comparatively early times, in the East at any
rate, have been thought impossible as falling before the equinox,
and no substitution would be so natural as that of the day
week, Friday, 2$th March. But Friday, i8th March, A.D. 79,
was one of the three alternative dates for the Crucifixion which on
astronomical and calendar grounds were found (see above, yf)
to be possible.
Thus A.D. 29 is the year, the i8th of March is the day, to which
Christian tradition (whatever value, whether much or little,
be ascribed to it) appears to point. Further, the Baptism was
tentatively placed in A.D. 26-27; the length of the ministry
was fixed, with some approach to certainty, at between two and
three years, and here too the resultant date for the Crucifixion
would be the Passover of A.D. 29.
To sum up: the various dates and intervals, to the approxi-
mate determination of which this article has been devoted, do
not claim separately more than a tentative and probable value.
But it is submitted that their harmony and convergence give
them some additional claim to acceptance, and at any rate
do something to secure each one of them singly the Nativity
in 7-6 B:C., the Baptism in A.D. 26-27, the Crucifixion in A.D. 29
from being to any wide extent in error.
The Chronology of the Apostolic Age.
The chronology of the New Testament outside the Gospels may
be defined for the purposes of this article as that of the period
between the Crucifixion in A.D. 29 (30) on the one hand, and on
the other the persecution of Nero in A.D. 64 and the fall of Jerusa-
lem in A.D. 70. Of the events in Christian history which fall
between these limits it must be admitted that there are many
which with our present information we cannot date with exact-
ness. But the book of Acts, our only continuous authority for
the period, contains two synchronisms with secular history
which can be dated with some pretence to exactness and con-
stitute fixed points by help of which a more or less complete
chronology can be constructed for at least the latter half of the
apostolic age. These are the death of Herod Agrippa I. (xii. 23)
and the replacement of Felix by Festus (xxiv. 27).
i. The death of Herod Agrippa I. This prince, son of Aris-
tobulus and grandson of Herod the Great, was made (i.) king
over the tetrarchy. which had been Herod Philip's, " not many
days " after the accession of Gaius, i6th of March A.D. 37; (ii.)
ruler of the tetrarchy of Antipas, in A.D. 30-40; (iii.) ruler of the
whole of Palestine (with Abilene), on the accession of Claudius
at the beginning of A.D. 41. Josephus's Jewish Wars and Anti-
quities differ by one in the number of years they allot to his reign
over the tetrarchies (the former work says three years, the latter
four), but agree in the more important datum that he reigned
three years more after the grant from Claudius, which would
make the latest limit of his death the spring of A.D. 44. The
Antiquities also place his death in the seventh year of his reign,
which would be A.D. 43-44. On the other hand, coins whose
genuineness there is no apparent reason to doubt are extant
of Agrippa's ninth year; and this can only be reconciled even
with A.D. 44 by supposing that he commenced reckoning a second
year of his reign on Nisan i, A.D. 37, so that his ninth would
run from Nisan i, A.D. 44. On the balance of evidence the only
year which can possibly reconcile all the data appears to be
A.D. 44 after Nisan, so that it will have been at the Passover
of that year that St Peter's arrest and deliverance took
place.
After Agrippa's death Judaea was once more governed by
procurators, of whom Cuspius Fadus and Tiberius Alexander
ruled from A.D. 44 to 48; the third, Cumanus, was appointed in
A.D. 48; and the fourth, Felix, in A.D. 52. Under Tiberius
BIBLE
[N.T. CHRONOLOGY
Alexander, i.e. in A.D. 46 or 47, occurred the great famine which
Agabus had foretold, and in which the Antiochene church sent
help to that of Jerusalem by the ministry of Barnabas and Saul
(Acts xi. 30. xii. 25). Thus the earliest date at which the com-
mencement of the first missionary journey (Acts xiii. 4) can be
placed is the spring of A.D. 47. The journey extended from
Salamis " throughout the whole island " of Cyprus as far as
Paphos, and on the mainland from Pamphylia to Pisidian
Antioch, Iconium, Lystra and Derbe, at each of which places
indications are given of a prolonged visit (xiii. 49, xiv. 3, 6, 7, 21).
The same places were visited in reverse order on the return
journey, as far as Perga on the Pamphylian coast; but instead
of revisiting Cyprus the voyage to Syria was this time made
direct. In estimating the length of time occupied by this first
missionary journey, it must be remembered that a sea voyage
could never have been undertaken, and land travel only rarely,
during the winter months, say November to March; and as the
amount of the work accomplished is obviously more than could
fall within the travelling season of a single year, the winter of
47-48 must have been spent in the interior, and return to the
coast and to Syria made only some time before the end of
autumn A.D. 48. The succeeding winter, at least, was spent
again at Antioch of Syria (xiv. 28). The council at Jerusalem
of Acts xv. will fall at earliest in the spring of A.D. 49, and as
only " certain days " were spent at Antioch after it (xv. 36) the
start on the second missionary journey might have been made
in the (late) summer of the same year. The " confirmation "
of the existing churches of Syria and Cilicia, and of those of the
first journey beginning with Derbe (xv. 41, xvi. 5), cannot have
been completed under several months, nor would the Apostle
have commenced the strictly missionary part of the journey in
districts not previously visited, before the opening of the travel-
ling season of A.D. 50. No delay was then made on the Asiatic
side: it may still have been in spring when St Paul crossed to
Europe and began the course of preaching at Philippi, Thessa-
lonica, Beroea and Athens which finally brought him to Corinth.
The stay of eighteen months at the last-named place (xviii. n)
will naturally begin at the end cf one travelling season and end
at the beginning of another, i.e. from the autumn of A.D. 50
to the spring of A.D. 52. From Corinth the Apostle went to
Jerusalem to " salute the church," and then again to Antioch
in Syria, where he stayed only for " a time " (xviii. 22), and soon
left on the third missionary journey, as conventionally reckoned
proceeding " in order " through the churches of the interior
of Asia Minor. These journeys and the intervening halts must
have occupied seven or eight months, and it must have been
about the end of the year when St Paul established his new
headquarters at Ephesus. The stay there lasted between two
and three years (xix. 8, 10, xx. 31), and cannot have terminated
before the spring of A.D. 55. From Ephesus he went into Europe,
and after " much teaching " given to the churches of Macedonia
(xx. 2), spent the three winter months at Corinth, returning
to Philippi in time for the Passover (xx. 3, 6) of A.D. 56. Pente-
cost of the same year was spent at Jerusalem, and there St Paul
was arrested, and kept in prison at Caesarea for two full years,
until Festus succeeded Felix as governor (xx. 16, xxiv. 27), an
event which, on this arrangement of the chronology of the
missionary journeys, would therefore fall in A.D. 58.
Care, however, must be taken to remember exactly what this
line of argument amounts to what it can fairly be said to have
proved, and what it still leaves open. It has been shown, firstly,
that the missionary journeys cannot have commenced before
the spring of A.D. 47, and, secondly, that between their com-
mencement and the end of the two years' imprisonment at
Caesarea not less than eleven full years must have elapsed.
Consequently A.D. 58 appears to be the earliest date possible for
the arrival of Festus. On the other hand, a later date for Festus
is not absolutely excluded. It is possible that the first missionary
journey should be placed in A.D. 48 instead of A.D. 47; and
it is possible, though not probable, that the missionary journeys
should be spread over one year more than has been suggested
above. At any rate, then, the alternative is open that every
date given above, from A.D. 47 to A.D. 58, should be moved on
one year, with the result of placing Festus's arrival in A.D. 59.
It is now time to run to the direct evidence for the date of
Festus's arrival as procurator, in order to test by it the result
already tentatively obtained.
2. The replacement of Felix by Festus. This is the pivot date
of St Paul's later life, but unfortunately two schools of critics
date it as differently as A.D. 55 and A.D. 60 (or 61). The former
are represented by Harnack, the latter by Wieseler, whom
Lightfoot follows. It can be said confidently that the truth is
between these two extremes (though in what exact year it is not
easy to say) , as will be evident from a consideration of the argu-
ments urged, which in each case appear less to prove one extreme
than to disprove its opposite.
Arguments for the Later Date, A.D. 60 or 61. (a) St Paul, at the
time of his arrest, two years before Felix's recall, addresses him as
" for many years past a judge for this nation " (Acts xxiv. 10, 27).
It is certain that Felix succeeded Cumanus in A.D. 52, for Tacitus
mentions Cumanus's recall under that year, Josephus immediately
before the notice of the completion of Claudius's twelfth year
[January, A.D. 53], Eusebius probably under Claudius II, that is,
between September 51 and September 52 (for the meaning of the
regnal years in the Chronicle of Eusebius see the present writer's
article in Journal of Theological Studies, January 1900, pp. 188-192).
It is argued that " many years " cannot mean less than six or seven,
so that St Paul must have been speaking at earliest in 58 or 59, and
Felix will have left Judaea at earliest in 60 or 61. But this argument
overlooks the fact that Felix had been in some position which might
properly be described as that of " judge for this nation " before he
became governor of all Palestine in A.D. 52. In the words of Tacitus,
Felix was at the time of that appointment iampridem ludaeae im-
positus (Annals, xii. 54) ; he certainly supposes Felix to have been
already governor of Samaria, and apparently of Judaea too, and
only recognizes Cumanus as governor of Galilee; and Josephus,
though he says nothing of this, and treats Cumanus as the sole
procurator down to A.D. 52, implies that Felix had been in some
position where the Jewish authorities could judge of his fitness when
he tells us that the high priest Jonathan used to press on Felix, as
a reason for urging him to govern well, the fact he that had asked
of "many years" at least as early as 56 or 57.
(/3) Josephus enumerates after the accession of Nero (October 54)
a long catalogue of events which all took place under the procurator-
ship of Felix, including the revolt of " the Egyptian " which was
already " before these days " at the time of St Paul's arrest, two
years from the end of Felix's tenure. This suggests, no doubt, that
the Egyptian rebelled at earliest in 54-55, and makes it probable
that St Paul's arrest did not take place before (the Pentecost of)
A.D. 56; and it implies certainly that the main or most important
part of Felix's governorship fell, in Josephus's view, under Nero.
But as two years only of Felix's rule (52-54) fell under Claudius,
this procedure would be quite natural on Josephus's part if his recall
were dated in 58 or 59, so that four or five years fell under Nero.
And there is no need at all to suppose that all the incidents which
the historian masses under his account of Felix were successive:
events in Emesa, Chalcis, Caesarea and Jerusalem may easily have
been synchronous.
The arguments, then, brought forward in favour of A.D. 60 or 61
do not do more than bring the rule of Felix down to 58 or 59.
Arguments for an Early Date, A.D. 55 or 56. (a) Euse
Chronicle places the arrival of Festus in Nero 2, October 55-56, and
Eusebius's chronology of the procurators goes back probably through
Julius Africanus (himself a Palestinian) to contemporary authorities
like the Jewish kings of Justus of Tiberias. But (i.) Nero 2 is really
September 56-September 57; (ii.) it is doubtful whether Eusebius
had any authority to depend on here other than Josephus, who gives
no precise year for Festus Julius Africanus is' hardly probable, since
we know that his chronicle was very jejune for the Christian period
and if so, Eusebius had to find a year as best he could. '
(ff) Felix, on his return to Rome, was prosecuted by the Jews for
misgovernment, but was acquitted through the influence of his
brother Pallas. Pallas had been minister and favourite of Claudius,
1 DrC. Erbes (Texteund Untersuchungen, new series, iv. I ) attempts
to interpret the evidence of Eusebius in favour of the later date for
Festus as follows: Eusebius's date for Festus is to be found in Nero
i, by strikinga mean between the Armenian, Claudius 12, and the
Latin, Nero 2; it is really to be understood as reckoned, not by
years of Nero, but by years of Agrippa ; and as Eusebius erroneously
antedated Agrippa's reign by five years, commencing it with A.D. 45
instead of A.D. 50, his date for Festus is five years too early also, and
should be moved to Nero 6, A.D. 59-60. The whole of this theory
appears to the present writer to be a gigantic mare's nest: see
Journal of Theological Studies (October 1901), pp. 120-123.
N.T. CHRONOLOGY]
BIBLE
893
but was removed from office in the winter following Nero's accession,
54-55- Felix must therefore have been tried at the very beginning
of Nero's reign. But this argument would make Felix s recall if
Festus came in summer, as Acts xxv. I, xxvii. I, 9, seem to prove
fall actually under Claudius. And, in fact, it would be a mistake
to look upon Pallas's retirement as a disgrace. He stipulated that
no inquiry should be made into his conduct in office, and was left
for another seven years unmolested in the enjoyment of the fortune
he had amassed. There is, therefore, every likelihood that he retained
for some years enough influence to shield his brother.
Of these arguments, then, the first, so far as it is valid, is an
argument for the summer, not of A.D. 55 or 56, but of A.D. 57 as that
of the recall, while the second will apply to any of the earlier years of
Nero's reign.
In the result, then, the arguments brought forward in favour
of each extreme fail to prove their case, but at the same time
prove something against the opposite view. Thus the point that
Josephus catalogues the events of Felix's procuratorship under
Nero cannot be pressed to bring down Felix's tenure as far as
60 or 61, but it does seem to exclude as early a termination as
56, or even 57. Conversely, the influence of Pallas at court need
not be terminated by his ceasing to be minister early in 55; but
it would have been overshadowed not later than the year 60
by the influence of Poppaea, who in the summer of that year 1
enabled the Jews to win their cause in the matter of the Temple
wall, and would certainly have supported them against Felix.
Thus the choice again appears to lie between the years 58 and
59 for the recall of Felix and arrival of Festus.
If St Paul was arrested in 56 or 57, and appealed to Caesar on
the arrival of Festus in 58 or 59, then, as he reached Rome in the
early part of the year following, and remained there a prisoner
for two full years, we are brought down to the early spring of
either 6 1 or 62 for the close of the period recorded in the Acts.
That after these two years he was released and visited Spain in
the west, and in the east Ephesus, Macedonia, Crete, Troas,
Miletus, and perhaps Achaea and Epirus, is probable, in the one
case, from the evidence of Romans xv. 28, Clem, ad Cor. v. and
the Muratorian canon, and, in the other, from the Pastoral
Epistles. These journeys certainly cannot have occupied less
than two years, and it is more natural to allow three for them,
which takes us down to 64-65.
Early evidence is unanimous in pointing to St Peter and St
Paul as victims of the persecution of Nero (Clem, ad Cor. v, vi.,
Dionysius of Corinth ap. Eus. H.E. ii. 25, &c., combined with
what we know from Tacitus of the course of the persecution, and
from Gaius of Rome, ap. Eus. ii. 25, of the burial-places of the
two apostles); and tradition clearly distinguished the fierce
outbreak at Rome that followed on the fire of the city in July 64
from any permanent disabilities of the Christians in the eye of
the law which the persecution may have initiated. There is,
therefore, no reason at all to doubt that both apostles were
martyred in 64-65, and the date serves as a confirmation of the
chronology adopted above of the imprisonment, release and
subsequent journeys of St Paul.
Investigation, then, of that part of the book of Acts which
follows the death of Agrippa, recorded in chap. xii. i.e. of that
part of the apostolic age which follows the year 44 has shown
that apparent difficulties can be to a large extent set aside, and
that there is nowhere room between A.D. 44 and 64 for doubt
extending to more than a single year. The first missionary
journey may have begun in 47 or 48; the arrival of Festus may
have taken place in the summer of 58 or of 59 ; the two years of
the Roman imprisonment recorded in the last chapter of Acts
may have ended in the spring of 61 or 62; and the dates which
fall in between these extremes are liable to the same variation.
The present writer leans to the earlier alternative in each case,
47, 58, 61; but he willingly concedes that the evidence, as he
understands it, is not inconsistent with the later alternative.
But if the events of A.D. 44-64 can thus be fixed with a fair
approximation to certainty, it is unfortunately otherwise with
the events of A.D. 29-44. Here we are dependent (i.) on general
1 This date appears to be satisfactorily established by Ramsay,
" A Second Fixed Point in the Pauline Chronology," Expositor,
August 1900.
indications given in the Acts; (ii.) on the evidence of the Epistle
to the Galatians, which, though in appearance more precise, can
be and is interpreted in very different ways.
(i.) The book of Acts is divided, by general summaries from
time to time inserted in the narrative, into six periods: i. i-vi.
7, vi. 8-ix. 31, ix. 32-xii. 24, xii. J5~xvi. 5, xvi. 6-xix. 20, x. 21-
xxviii. 31. Of these the three last extend respectively from the
death of Herod to the start for Europe in the second missionary
journey (A.D. 44 to the spring of 50 [51]), from the start for
Europe to the end of the long stay at Ephesus (A.D. 50 [51] to the
spring of A.D. 55 [56]), and from the departure from Ephesus
to the end of the two years' captivity at Rome (A.D. 55 [56] to
the beginning of A.D. 61 [62]). It will be seen that these periods
are of more or less the same length, namely, six (or seven) years,
five years, six years. There is, therefore, some slight presumption
that the three earlier periods, which together cover about fifteen
years, were intended by so artistic a writer as St Luke to mark
each some similar lapse of time. If that were so, the preaching
of the apostles at Jerusalem and organization of the Church at the
capital the preaching of the seven and the extension of the
Church all over Palestine the extension of the Church to
Antioch, and the commencement of St Paul's work might each
occupy five years more or less, that is to say, roughly, A.D. 20-34,
34-397 39-44- The conversion of St Paul, which falls within
the second period, would on this arrangement fall somewhere
between five and ten years after the Crucifixion. Such con-
clusions are, however, of course general in the extreme.
(ii.) A nearer attempt to date at least the chronology of St
Paul's earlier years as a Christian could be made by the help of
the Galatian Epistle if we could be sure from what point and to
what point its reckonings are made. The apostle tells us that on
his conversion he retired from Damascus into Arabia, and thence
returned to Damascus; then after three years (from his con-
version) he went up to Jerusalem, but stayed only a fortnight,
and went to the regions of Syria and Cilicia. Then after fourteen
years (from his conversion ? or from his last visit ?) he went up to
Jerusalem again to confer with the elder apostles. Now, if
either of these visits to Jerusalem could be identified with any
of the visits whose dates have been approximately settled in the
chronology of A.D. 44-64, we should have a fixed point from
which to argue back. Unfortunately, even less agreement
exists on this head than on the question whether the fourteen
years of the last-mentioned visit are to be reckoned from the
conversion or from the previous visit. Most critics, indeed, are
now agreed that the fourteen years are to be calculated from the
conversion; and most of them still hold that the visit of
Galatians ii. is the same as the council of Acts xv., partly, no
doubt, on the ground that the latter visit was too important and
decisive for St Paul to have omitted in giving even the most
summary description of his relations with the twelve. This
ground would, however, be cut away from their feet if it were
possible to hold (with j. V. Bartlet, Apostolic Age, 1900, and
V. Weber, Die Abfassung des Calaterbriefs vor dem Apostelkonzil,
Ravensburg, 1900) that the epistle was actually written just
before the council, i.e. in the winter of 48-49 [49-50]. In that
case, of course, the two visits of Galatians i. and ii. would be
those of Acts ix. 26 and xi. 30. The fourteen years reckoned
back from the latter (c. A.D. 46) would bring us to A.D. 32-33 as
the latest possible date for the conversion. With the older view,
on the other hand, the fourteen years reckoned from the council
in A.D. 49 [50] would allow us to bring down the conversion to
A.D. 36. The new view clears away some manifest difficulties
in the reconciliation of the Epistle and the Acts, and the early
date for Galatians in relation to the other Pauline epistles is not
so improbable as it may seem; but the chronology still appears
more satisfactory on the older view, which enables the conversion
to be placed at least three years later than on the alternative
theory. But it is dear that the last word has not been said, and
that definite results for this period cannot yet be looked for.
To sum up: an attempt has been made, it is hoped with some
success, to provide a framework of history equipped with dates
from the time of St Peter's arrest by Herod Agrippa I. at the
894
BIBLE, ENGLISH
Passover of A.D. 44 down to the martyrdom of St Peter and St
Paul in the persecution of Nero, A.D. 64-65. For the previous
period, on the other hand, from A.D. 29 to A.D. 44, it appeared
impossible in our present state of knowledge to state conclusions
other than in the most general form.
AUTHORITIES. The views stated in this article are in general
(though with some modifications) the same as those which the
present writer worked out with more fulness of detail in Hastings'
Dictionary of the Bible, i. (1898) 403-424. Of older books should
be mentioned: Ideler, Handbuch der mathematischen und tech-
nischen Chronologic (2 vols., 1825); Wieseler, Chronologic des
apostolischen Zeitalters (1848); Lewin.'s FofH Sacri (1865). Im-
portant modern contributions are to be found in Prof. (Sir) W. M.
Ramsay's various works, and in Harnack's Chronologic der altchrist-
lichen Litteratur bis Eusebius, i. 233-244. Mention should also be
made of an article, containing much useful astronomical and Tal-
mudical information, by Mr J. K. Fotheringham, " The Date of the
Crucifixion," in the Journal of Philology, xxix. 100-118 (1904).
Mr Fotheringham is of opinion that the evidence from Christian
sources is too uncertain, and that the statements of the Mishnah
must be the starting-point of the inquiry: taking then the phasis
of the new moon as the true beginning of Nisan, he concludes that
Friday cannot have coincided with Nisan 14 in any year, within the
period A. D. 28-35, other than A. D. 33 (April 3rd). _ But in one of the
two empirical tests of the value of these calculations that he was
able to obtain (loc. cit. p. 106, n. 2), the new moon was seen a day
earlier than his rules allowed. This being so, it would be premature
to disregard the convergent lines of historical evidence which tell
against A.D. 33. Among the latest German works may be cited
the chapter on New Testament chronology in the Neutestamentliche
Zeitgeschichte of Dr Oscar Holtzmann (2nd ed., 1906), pp. 117-147:
regarded as a collection of historical material this deserves every
praise, but the mass is undigested and the treatment of the evidence
arbitrary. As might be expected, Dr Holtzmann's conclusions are
clear-cut, and alternatives are rigidly excluded: the Crucifixion is
dated on the 7th of April A.D. 30, and St Paul's arrest (with the older
writers) at Pentecost A.D. 58. (C. H. T.)
BIBLE, ENGLISH. The history of the vernacular Bible of
the English race resolves itself into two distinctly marked
periods the one being that of Manuscript Bibles, which were
direct translations from the Latin Vulgate, the other that of
Printed Bibles, which were, more or less completely, transla-
tions from the original Hebrew and Greek of the Old and New
Testaments.
i. The Manuscript Bible. The first essays in Biblical trans-
lation, or rather paraphrasing, assumed in English, as in many
other languages, a poetical form. Even in the 7th
century, according to the testimony of Bede (Hist.
Eccl. iv. 24), Caedmon sang " de creatione mundi et origine
humani generis, et tota Genesis historia, de egressu Israel ex
Aegypto et ingressu in terrain repromissionis, de aliis plurimis
sacrae Scripturae historiis, de incarnatione Dominica, passione,
resurrectione et ascensione in coelum, de Spiritus Sancti adventu,
et apostolorum doctrina." It is, however, doubtful whether
any of the poetry which has been ascribed to him can claim to
be regarded as his genuine work.
The first prose rendering of any part of the Bible and
with these we are mainly concerned in the present inquiry
originated in all probability in the 8th century, when
Bede, the eminent scholar and churchman, translated
the first portion (chs. i.-vi. 9) of the Gospel of St John into the
vernacular, but no part of this rendering is extant. His pupil
Cuthberht recorded this fact in a letter to a fellow-student,
Cuthwine: " a capite sancti evangelii Johannis usque ad eum
locum in quo dicitur, ' sed haec quid sunt inter tantos ?' in
nostram linguam ad utilitatem ecclesiae Dei convertit " (Mayor
and Lumby, Bedae Hist. Eccl. p. 178).
The 9th century is characterized by interlinear glosses on the
Book of Psalms, and towards its close by a few attempts at
9th and independent translation. Of these " glossed Psalters "
lothcea- twelve MSS. are known to exist, and they may be
tary ranged into two groups according to the Latin text
glosses. tney re p resent- The Roman Psalter is glossed in the
following MSS.: (i) Cotton Vesp. A. i (Vespasian Psalter);
(2) Bodl. Junius 27; (3) Univ. Libr. Camb. Ff. i. 23; (4) Brit.
Mus. Reg. 2. B. 5; (5) Trin. Coll. Camb. R. if. i (Eadvnne's
Psalter); (6) Brit. Mus. Add. 37517. The Gallican Psalter in the
following: (i) Brit. Mus. Stowe 2 (Spelman's text); (2) Cotton
Cxdmon.
Bede.
Vitell. E. 18; (3) Cotton Tib. C. 16; (4) Lambeth 48; (5)
Arundel 60; (6) Salisbury Cath. 1 50.'
The oldest and most important of these MSS. is the so-called
Vespasian Psalter, which was written in Mercia in the first half
of the gth century. It was in all probability the original from
which all the above-mentioned Old English glosses were derived,
though in several instances changes and modifications were
introduced by successive scribes. The first verse of Psalm c.
(Vulg. xcix. 2) may serve as a specimen of these glosses.
Roman Text. Gallican Text.
MS. Vespasian. A. i. MS. Stowe. 2,
WynsumiaS gode, all eorfle DrymaS drihtne, call eorSe;
Siowiad Dryhtne in blisse; Seowiaft drihtne on blisse;
ingatJ in gesihSe his in infaraS on gesyhSe hys
wynsumnisse. on bliSnysse.
Jubilate Deo, omnis terra; Jubilate Domino, omnis terra;
seniite Domino in laetitia; servile Domino in laetitia;
intrate in conspectu eius in introite in conspectu eius
exultatione. in exultatione.
To the late 9th or early loth century a work may be assigned
which is in so far an advance upon preceding efforts as to be a
real translation, not a mere gloss corresponding word for word
with the Latin original. This is the famous Paris Psalter? a
rendering of the first fifty Psalms (Vulg. i.-l. 10), contained in
the unique MS. lat. 8824 in the Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
The authorship of this version is doubtful, being by some scholars
attributed to King Alfred (d. 901), of whom William of Malmes-
bury writes (Gesta Regum Anglorum, ii. 123), " Psalterium
transferre dggressus vix prima parte explicata vivendi finem
fecit." This view is, however, denied by others.
In the course of the loth century the Gospels were glossed
and translated. The earliest in date is a Northumbrian Gloss
on the Gospels, contained in a beautiful and highly
interesting MS. variously known as the Durham f"
Book, the Lindisfarne Gospels, or the Book of St
Cuthbert (MS. Cotton, Nero. D. 4). The Latin text
dates from the close of the 7th century, and is the work of
Eadfrith, bishop of Lindisfarne (698-721). The English gloss was
added about a century and a half later (c. 950) by one Aldred,
whom Dr Charles O'Conor (Bibl. Stowensis, 1818-1819, ii. 180)
supposes to have been the bishop of Durham of that name.
The Lord's Prayer is glossed in the following way:
Lindisfarne Gospels.
Matthew vi. 9. Suae Sonne iuih gie bidde fader urer Su arS
sic ergo uos orabitis + Pater noster gut es
Su bist in heof num t in heofnas ; sie gehalgad noma Sin ;
in caelis; sanctificetur nomen tuum;
(10) to-cymeS rfc Sin. sie willo Cin suae is in heofne
adueniat regnum tuum fiat uoluntas tua sicut in caelo
~) in eorfio.
et in terra.
(ll)hlaf userne oferwistlic sel us to dseg.
panem nostrum super-substantiale[m] da nobis hodie.
(12) D forgef us scylda usra suae uoe fprgefon scyldgum
et demitte nobis debita nostra sicut nos dirmttimus debitoribus
usum.
nostris.
(13) 3 ne inlaed usih in costunge ah gefrig usich from yfle
et ne inducas nos in temtalionem sed libera nos a malo.'
1 See A. S. Cook, Biblical Quotations in Old English Prose Writers,
with an introduction on Old English Biblical Versions (London, 1898
1903), vol.i.pp.xxvi. ff. ; H. Sweet, The Vespasian Psalter in " Oldest
English Texts" (E.E.T.S., No. 83, London, 1885); F. Harsley,
Eadwine's Canterbury Psalter (E.E.T.S., No. 92, London, 1892);
John Spelman, Psalterium Davidis Latino-Saxomcum Vetus (London,
1640); Fr. Roeder, Der altengl. Regius Psalter (Reg. II. B. 5), Halle,
1904).
2 Benjamin Thorpe, Libri Psalmorum versio Antiqua Latino cum
paraphrasi Anglo-Saxonica (Oxford, 1835); cf. J. D. Bruce, The
Anglo-Saxon Version of the Booh of Psalms . . . known as the Paris
Psalter (Baltimore, 1894).
3 K. W. Bouterwek, Dte vier Evangelien in alt-nordh. Sprache
(GUtersloh, 1857), *# Screadunga (Elberfeld, 1858, prefaces to the
Gospels) ; J. Stevenson and E. Waring, The Lindisfarne and Rush-
worth Gospels (Surtees Soc., 1854-1865); W. W. Skeat, The Holy
Gospels in Anglo-Saxon. Northumbrian and Old Mercian Versions
(Cambridge, 1871-1887).
BIBLE, ENGLISH
895
Wett-
Saxon
Of a somewhat later date is the celebrated Rushworth Version
of the Gospels (MS. Bodl. Auct. D. ii. 9), which contains an
independent translation of the Gospel of St Matthew,
** and a loss on thosc of St Mark > St Luke and St J hn '
founded upon the Lindisfarne glosses. From a note
in the manuscript we learn that two men, Faerman and Owun,
made the version. Faerman was a priest at Harewood, or
Harwood, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, and to him
the best part of the work is due. He translated the whole of
St Matthew, and wrote the gloss of St Mark i.-ii. 15, and
St John xviii. 1-3. The remaining part, a mere transcript, is
Owun's work. The dialect of the translation of St Matthew is
Mercian. 1
A further testimony to the activity which prevailed in the
field of Biblical lore is the fact that at the close of the century
probably about the year 1000 the Gospels were
rendered anew for the first time in the south of Eng-
land. Of this version the so-called West-Saxon
Gospels not less than seven manuscripts have come
down to us. A note in one of these, MS. Corpus Christi College,
Cambridge, 140, states, ego jElfricus scripsi hunc librum in
Monasterio Bwtyonio et dedi Brihtwoldo preposito, but of this
/E\ir\c and his superior nothing further is known. 2
The Lord's Prayer is rendered in the following way in these
gospels:
West-Saxon Gospels. MS Corpus 140.
Matthew vi. 9. Eornustlice gebiddaS eow Sus; Faeder ure {>u
f>e:eart on heofonum; si f>in nama gehalgod (10) to-becume |>in
rice; gewurf>e Sin willa on eorSan swa swa on heofonum. (n) urne
gedaeghwamlican hlaf syle'us to dseg, (12) ] forgyf us ure gyltas
swa swa w6 forgyfaS urum gyltendum. (13) 3 ne gelaed {>u us on
costnunge ac alys us of yfele so|>lice.
Towards the close of the century the Old Testament found
a translator in JEliric (q.v.), the most eminent scholar in the close
of the loth and the opening decades of the i ith century.
According to his own statement in DC velere lestamento,
written about 1010, he had at that period translated the Penta-
teuch, Joshua, Judges, Kings, Job, Esther, Judith and the
Maccabees. 3 His rendering is dear and idiomatic, and though
he frequently abridges, the omissions never obscure the meaning
or hinder the easy flow of the narrative.
Dietrich, ^Elfric's most competent biographer (Niedner's,
Zeitschrift fiir historische Theologie, 1855-1856), looks upon the
Pentateuch, Joshua and Judges as a continuation of his Lives
of Saints, including as they do in a series of narratives the Old
Testament saints. Genesis is but slightly abridged, but Job,
Kings, Judges, Esther and Judith as well as the Maccabees are
mere homilies epitomized from the corresponding Old Testa-
ment books. Judith is metrical in form.
The nth century, with its political convulsions, resulting
in the establishment of an alien rule and the partial suppression
of the language of the conquered race, was unfavourable to
literary efforts of any kind in the vernacular. With the excep-
tion of .iElfric's late works at the very dawn of the century, we
can only record two transcripts of the West-Saxon Gospels as
coming at all within the scope of our inquiry.
In the 1 2th century the same gospels were again copied by
pious hands into the Kentish dialect of the period.
The I3th century, from the point of view of Biblical renderings
into the vernacular, is an absolute blank. French or rather
the Anglo-Norman dialect of the period reigned
/Vofmao supreme amongst the upper classes, in schools, in
Period. parliament, in the courts of law and in the palace of
the king. English lurked in farms and hovels, amongst
villeins and serfs, in the outlying country-districts, in the distant
1 See Stevenson, Waring and Skeat, op. cit.
2 W. W. Skeat, The Holy Gospels in Anglo-Saxon, &c. (Cambridge,
1871-1887); J. W. Bright, The Gospel of Saint Luke in Anglo-Saxon
(Oxford, 1893); f r earlier editions see Cook, op. cit, p. Ix.
3 C. W. M. Grein, Mlfrik de vetero et novo Testamento, &c. Bibl.
d. Angels, Prosa (Cassel and Gottingen, 1872), p. 6; E. Thwaites,
Heptateuchus, Liber Job, et Evangelium Nicodemi; Anglo-Saxonice
(Oxon., 1698).
monasteries, amongst the lower clergy, amongst the humble and
lowly and ignorant. There were certainly renderings of the
Bible during the I2th, I3th and early I4th centuries, but they
were all in French. Some of these translations were made in
England, some were brought over to England and copied and
recopied. Amongst the latter was the magnificently illumin-
ated Norman Commentary on the Apocalypse, some of the
earliest copies of which were written in an English hand. In
fact before the middle of the I4th century the entire Old Testa-
ment and the greater part of the New Testament had been
translated into the Anglo-Norman dialect of the period. (MSS.
Bibl. Nat. fr. i, 9562, Brit. Mus. Reg. I.C. iii. Cf. S. Berger,
La Bible franfaise au moyen Age, Paris, 1884, pp. 78 ff.)
When English finally emerged victorious, towards the middle
and latter half of the i4th century, it was for all practical pur-
poses a new language, largely intermixed with French, differing
from the language of the older period in sound, flexion and
structure. It is evident that any Old English versions which
might have survived the ravages of time would now be unin-
telligible, it was equally natural that as soon as French came to
be looked upon as an alien tongue, the French versions hitherto
in use would fail to fulfil their purpose, and that attempts should
again be made to render the Bible into the only language
intelligible to the greater part of the nation into
English. It was also natural that these attempts
should be made where the need was most pressing, acting*.
where French had gained least footing, where parlia-
ment and court were remote, where intercourse with France was
difficult. In fact in the Northern Midlands, and in the North
even before the middle of the I4th century, the book of Psalms
had been twice rendered into English, and before the end of
the same century, probably before the great Wycliffite versions
had spread over the country, the whole of the New Testament
had been translated by.different hands into one or other of the
dialects of this part of the country.
At the same time we can record only a single rendering during
the whole century which originated in the south of England,
namely the text of James, Peter, i John and the Pauline Epistles
(edited by A. C. Paues, Cambridge, 1904).
Of these pre- Wycliffite versions possibly the earliest is the
West Midland Psalter, once erroneously ascribed to William of
Shoreham. 4 It occurs in three MSS., the earliest of which,
Brit. Mus. Add. 17376, was probably written between 1340 and
1350. It contains a complete version of the book of Psalms,
followed by the usual eleven canticles and the Athanasian Creed.
The Latin original is a glossed version of the Vulgate, and in the
English translation the words of the gloss are often substituted
for the strong and picturesque expressions of the Biblical text;
in other respects the rendering is faithful and idiomatic. The
following two verses of the first psalm may exemplify this:
MS. British Mus. Add. 17376.
(i. i.) Beatus uir, qui non abijt in consilio impiorum, Sf in uia
peccalorum non stetit, et in cathedra -i- indicia pestilencie ' falsitatis
non sedit. Blesced be f>e man {>at 3ede nou3t in j)e counseil of wicked,
ne stode nou3t in ^>e waie of smjeres, ne sat nou3t in fals iugement.
(i)Set in lege domini uoluntas eius, & in lege eius meditabitur die ac
nocte. Ac Tiijs wylle was in {>e wylle of oure Lord, and he schal
}>enche in hijs lawe bo{>e daye and ny3t.
Before the middle of the century Richard Rolle (q.v.), the
hermit of Hampole (+ 1349), turned into English, with certain
additions and omissions, the famous Commentary on
the Psalms by Peter Lombard. The work was under-
taken, as the metrical prologue of one of the copies tells
us (MS. Laud. misc. 286), " At a worthy recluse prayer, cald
dame Merget Kyrkby." The Commentary gained immediate
and lasting popularity, and spread in numerous copies throughout
the country, the peculiarities of the hermit's vigorous northern
dialect being either modified or wholly removed in the more
K. D. Biilbring, The Earliest Complete English Prose Psalter
(E.E.T.S., No. 97), part i. (London, 1891) : cf. A. C. Paues, A Four-
teenth-Century Engl. Bibl. Version (Upsala Diss.) (Cambridge, 1902),
p. Ivi.
Richard
Rolle.
8 9 6
BIBLE, ENGLISH
southerly transcripts. The translation, however, is stiff and
literal to a fault, violating idiomatic usage and the proper order
of words in its strict adherence to the Latin. The following
brief extracts may exemplify the hermit's rendering and the
change the text underwent in later copies. 1
MS. Univ. Coll. 64. MS. Reg. 18 B. 21.
(i. I.) Blisful man be whilk Blessed is bat man bat hab
oway 3ed noght in |>e counsaile not gone in be counsell of wicked
of wicked, and in |>e way of men, and in be weye of sinfull
synful stode noght, & in be men hab not stonde, and in be
chaiere of pestilens he noght chaire of pestilence sat not.
sate. (2) Bot in laghe of lord be 2. But in be lawe of our lorde
will of him; and in his laghe is J>3 wille of him; and [in] his
he sail thynke day & nyght. lawe we shall binke day and
nyght.
Approximately to the same period as these early renderings
of the Psalter belongs a version of the Apocalypse with a Com-
mentary, the earliest MS. of which (Harleian 874) is written in
the dialect of the North Midlands. This Commentary, for a long
time attributed to Wycliffe, is really nothing but a verbal
rendering of the popular and widely-spread Norman Commentary
on the Apocalypse (Paul Meyer and L. Delisle, L' Apocalypse en
Franfais au XIII' siecle, Paris, 1901), which dates back as far
as the first half of the I3th century, and in its general tenor
represents the height of orthodoxy. The English apocalypse, to
judge from the number of MSS. remaining, must have enjoyed
great and lasting popularity. Several revisions of the text exist,
the later of which present such striking agreement with the later
Wycliffite version that we shall not be far wrong if we assume
that they were made use of to a considerable extent by the
revisers of this version.
To the North Midlands or the North belongs further a complete
version of the Pauline Epistles found in the unique MS. 32,
Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, of the isth century.
Commentaries on the Gospels of St Matthew, St Mark and St
Luke, we are told by the heading in one of the MSS. (Univ. Libr.
Camb. li. 2. 12), were also translated into English by " a man of
J'e north cuntre." The translation of these Gospels as well as of
the Epistles referred to above is stiff and awkward, the translator
being evidently afraid of any departure from the Latin text of
his original. The accompanying commentary is based on the
Fathers of the Church and entirely devoid of any original matter.
The opening lines of the third chapter of Matthew are rendered
in the following way:
MS. Camb. Univ. Libr. II. 2. 12.
(iii. I.) In bo dayes come Ihone baptist prechand in desert of be
lewry, & seyand, (2) Do 3e penaunce; forwhy be kyngdome of
heuyne sal come negh. (3) Pis is he of whome it was seide be Isaybe
prophete, sayand. " be voice of be cryand in be desert, redye 3e be
way of God, right made 3e be lityl wayes of him." (4) & Ihone his
klebing of be hoerys of camels, & a gyrdyl of a skyn about his lendys ;
& his mete was be locust & hony of {>e wode.
A version of the Acts and. the Catholic Epistles completes the
number of the New Testament books translated in the northern
parts of England. It is found in several MSS. either separately
or in conjunction with a fragmentary Southern Version of the
Pauline Epistles, Peter, James and I John in a curiously compiled
volume, evidently made, as the prologue tells us, by a brother
superior for the use and edification of an ignorant " sister," or
woman vowed to religion. 2 The translation of this, our only
southern text, surpasses all previous efforts from the point of
view of clearness of expression and idiomatic use of English, and,
though less exact, it may be even said in these respects to rank
equal with the later or revised Wycliffite version.
Apart from these more or less complete versions of separate
books of the Bible, there existed also numerous renderings of the
Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, accounts of the Life,
Passion and Resurrection of our Lord, translations of the
1 H. R. Bramley, The Psalter and Certain Canticles . . . by Richard
Rolle of Hampole (Oxford, 1884); cf. H. Middcndorff, Studien uber
Richard Rolle von Hampole unter besonderer Beriicksichtigung seiner
Psalmen-Commentare (Magdeburg, 1888).
* A. C. Paues, A Fourteenth-Century English Biblical Version
(Cambridge, 1904), pp. xxiv. ff.
epistles and gospels used in divine service, and other means of
familiarizing the people with Holy Scripture. It was the custom
of the medieval preachers and writers to give their own English
version of any text which they quoted, not resorting as in later
times to a commonly received translation. This explains the
fact that in collections of medieval homilies that have come down
to us, no two renderings of the Biblical text used are ever alike,
not even Wycliffe himself making use of the text of the commonly
accepted versions that went under his name.
It is noteworthy that these early versions from Anglo-Saxon
times onwards were perfectly orthodox, executed by and for good
and faithful sons of the church, and, generally speaking, with
the object of assisting those whose knowledge of Latin proved too
scanty for a proper interpretation and understanding of the holy
text. Thus Richard Rolle's version of the Psalms was executed
for a nun; so was in all likelihood the southern version of the
epistles referred to above. Again the earliest MS. (Harl. 874)
of the Commentary on the Apocalypse gives the owner's name in a
coeval hand as " Richard Schepard, presbiter," and the Catholic
Epistles of MS. Douce 250' were probably glossed for the
benefit of men in religious orders, if one may judge from a short
Commentary to James ii. 2, " & ]?erfore if eny man come into
3oure si3t, ]>at is, into $oure cumpenye ]>at be]> Codes religiouse
men in what degre so $e be." Nor do any of the remaining works
contain anything but what is strictly orthodox.
It is first with the appearance of Wycliffe (q.v.) and his followers
on the arena of religious controversy that the Bible in English
came to be looked upon with suspicion by the orthodox
party within the Church. For it is a well-known fact wyciitnte
that Wycliffe proclaimed the Bible, not the Church versions.
or Catholic tradition, as a man's supreme spiritual
authority, and that he sought in consequence by every means in
his power to spread the knowledge of it among the people. It
is, therefore, in all likelihood to the zeal of Wycliffe and his
followers that we owe the two noble 14th-century translations of
the Bible which tradition has always associated with his name,
and which are the earliest complete renderings that we possess of
the Holy Scriptures into English. 4
The first of these, the so-called Early Version, was probably
completed about 1382, at all events before 1384, the year of
Wycliffe's death. The second, or Later Version, being a thorough
revision of the first, is ascribed to the year 1388 by Sir Frederic
Madden and the Rev. Joshua Forshall in their edition of these
two versions. 6
It is a matter of uncertainty what part, if any, Wycliffe himself
took in the work. The editors of the Wycliffite versions say in
the Preface, pp. xv. ff. " The New Testament was naturally the
first object. The text of the Gospels was extracted from the
Commentary upon them by Wycliffe, and to these were added the
Epistles, the Acts and the Apocalypse, all now translated anew.
This translation might probably be the work of Wycliffe himself;
at least the similarity of style between the Gospels and the other
parts favours the supposition." The Wycliffite authorship of
the Commentaries on the Gospels, on which the learned editors
base their argument, is, however, unsupported by any evidence
beyond the fact that the writer of the Prologue to Matthew
urges in strong language " the propriety of translating Scripture
for the use of the laity." The Biblical text found in these
Commentaries is in fact so far removed from the original type
of the Early Version as to be transitional to the Late, and, what
is still more convincing, passages from the Early Version, from
both the Old Testament and the New Testament, are actually
quoted in the Commentary. Under such circumstances it
would be folly to look upon them as anything but late productions,
at all events later than the Early Version, and equal folly to
assign these bulky volumes to the last two years of Wycliffe's
3 See Paues, op. cit. p. 210.
4 For a different view as to the authorship of the Wycliffite
versions, see F. A. Gasquet, The Old English Bible and Other Essays
(London, 1897), pp. 102 ff.
6 Sir F. Madden and Rev. J. Forshall, The Holy Bible . . . made
from the Latin Vulgate by John Wycliffe and His Followers (4 vols.,
Oxford, 1850), pp. xix., xxiv.
BIBLE, ENGLISH
897
life merely because the text used in them happens to be that of
the Early Version. It is therefore at present impossible to say
what part of the Early Version of the New Testament was
translated by Wycliffe. 1
The Old Testament of the Early Version was, according to the
editors (Preface, p. xvii.), taken in hand by one of Wycliffe's
coadjutors, Nicholas de Herford. The translator's original copy
and a coeval transcript of it are still extant in the Bodleian
library (Bodl. 959, Douce 369). Both break off abruptly at
Baruch iii. 19, the latter having at this place a note inserted
to the following effect: Explicit Iranslacionem Nicholay de
herford. There is consequently but little doubt that Nicholas
de Herford took part in the translation of the Old Testament,
though it is uncertain to what extent. The translator's copy is
written in not less than five hands, differing in orthography and
dialect. The note may therefore be taken to refer either to the
portion translated by the last or fifth hand, or to the whole of the
Old Testament up to Baruch iii. 19. Judging from uniformity
of style and mode of translation the editors of the Bible are
inclined to take the latter view; they add that the remaining
part of the Old Testament was completed by a different hand,
the one which also translated the New Testament. This state-
ment is, however, not supported by sufficient evidence. In view
of the magnitude of the undertaking it is on the contrary highly
probable that other translators besides Wycliffe and Nicholas de
Herford took part in the work, and that already existing versions,
with changes when necessary, were incorporated or made use of
by the translators.
The Early Version, apart from its completeness, shows but
little advance upon preceding efforts. It is true that the transla-
tion is more careful and correct than some of the renderings
noticed above, but on the other hand it shares all their faults.
The translation of the Old Testament as far as Baruch iii. 19 is
stiff and awkward, sometimes unintelligible, even nonsensical,
from a too close adherence to the Latin text (e.g. Judges xx. 25).
In the remaining parts the translation is somewhat easier and
more skilful, though even here Latinisms and un-English render-
ings abound.
It is small wonder, therefore, if a revision was soon found
necessary and actually taken in hand within a few years of the
completion of the Earlier Version. The principles of work
adopted by the revisers are laid down in the general prologue to
their edition, the so-called " Later Version."
For these resons and othere ... a symple creature hath trans-
latid the bible out of Latyn into English. First, this symple creature
hadde myche trauaile, with diuerse felawis and helperis, to gedere
manie elde biblis, and othere doctouris, and comune glosis, and to
make oo Latyn bible sumdel trewe; and thanne to studie it qf the
newe, the text with the glose, and othere doctouris, as he mi3te
gete, and special! Lire on the elde testament, that helpide ful
myche in this werk; the thridde tyme to counseile with elde
gramariens, and elde dyuynis, of harde wordis, and harde sen-
tencis, hou tho mijten best be vndurstonden and translatid ;
the iiij tyme to translate as cleerli as he coude to the sentence,
and to haue manie gode felawis and kunnynge at the correcting of
the translacioun.
It is uncertain who the revisers were; John Purvey, the
leader of the Lollard party after Wycliffe's death, is generally
assumed to have taken a prominent part in the work, but the
evidence of this is extremely slight (cf. Wycl. Bible, Preface,
pp. xxv. f.). The exact date of the revision is also doubtful: the
editors of the Wycliffe Bible, judging from the internal evidence
of the Prologue, assume it to have been finished about 1388.
This Revised or Later Version is in every way a readable,
correct rendering of the Scriptures, it is far more idiomatic than
the Earlier, having been freed from the greater number of its
Latinisms; its vocabulary is less archaic. Its popularity admits
of no doubt, for even now in spite of neglect and persecution, in
spite of the ravages of fire and time, over 1 50 copies remain to
testify' to this fact. The following specimens of the Early
and Late Versions will afford a comparison with preceding
renderings:
1 Cf. A. C. Paues, The English Bible in the Fourteenth Century.
in. 29
Late Version.
i. I.) Blessid is the man, that
The
Lollards.
Early Version.
(Psalm i. i.) Blisful the man,
that went not awci in the coun- 3ede not in the councel of wickid
seil of vnpitousc, and in the wei men; and stood not in the
off sinful stod not; and in the weie of synneris, and sat not in
ch.iicr of pestilence sat not. the chaier of pestilence. (2)
(2) But in the lawe of the Lord his But his wille is in the lawe of
wil ; and in the lawe of hym he the Lord ; and he schal bithenke
shal sweteli thenke dai and ny it. in the lawe of hym dai and nyH.
(Matthew iii. I.) In thilke (iii. I.) In tho daies loon
days came loon Baptist, pre- Baptist cam, and preclude in
chynge in the desert of lude, the desert of ludce, and seide,
sayinge, (2) Do 3t penaunce, (2) Do 3e penaunce, for the
for the kyngdom of heuens shal kyngdom of neuenes shal nei3e.
nei3, or cume nile. (3) Forsothe (3) For this is he, of whom it is
this is he of whome it is said by seid bi Ysaie, the prophete,
Ysaye the prophet, A voice of seyinge, A vois of a crier in
a cryinge in desert, Make 3e redy desert, Make 3e red! the weies
the wayes of the Lord ; make 3e of the Lord ; make 3e ri3t the
riltful the pathes of hym. (4) pat his of hym. (4) And this
Forsothe that ilk loon hadde cloth loon hadde clothing of camels
of the heeris of cameylis, and a heeris, and a girdil of skynne
girdil of sky ii aboute his leendis; aboute his leendis; and his mete
sothely his mete weren locustis, was honysoukis and hony of the
and hony of the wode. wode.
The 1 5th century may well be described as the via dolorosa
of the English Bible as well as of its chief advocates and sup-
porters, the Lollards. After the death of Wycliffe
violence and anarchy set in, and the Lollards came
gradually to be looked upon as enemies of order and
disturbers of society. Stern measures of suppression were
directed not only against them but against " Goddis Lawe," the
book for which they pleaded with such passionate earnestness.
The bishops' registers bear sufficient testimony to this fact. 1
It would appear, however, as if at first at all events the persecu-
tion was directed not so much against the Biblical text itself as
against the Lollard interpretations which accompanied it. In a
convocation held at Oxford under Archbishop Arundel in 1408
it was enacted " that no man hereafter by his own authority
translate any text of the Scripture into English or any other
tongue, by way of a book, booklet, or tract; and that no man
read any such book, booklet, or tract, now lately composed in
the time of John Wycliffe or since, or hereafter to be set forth in
part or in whole, publicly or privately, upon pain of greater
excommunication, until the said translation be approved by the
ordinary of the place, or, if the case so require, by the council
provincial. He that shall do contrary to this shall likewise be
punished as a favourer of heresy and error."*
It must be allowed that an enactment of this kind was not
without justification. The Lollards, for instance, did not
hesitate to introduce in to certain copies of the pious and orthodox
Commentary on the Psalms by the hermit of Hampole interpola-
tions of their own of the most virulently controversial kind
(MSS. Trin. Coll. Camb. B.V. 25, Brit. Mus. Reg. 18. C. 26, &c.),
and although the text of their Biblical versions was faithful and
true, the General Prologue of the Later Version was interlarded
with controversial matter. It is small wonder if the prelates and
priests sought to repress such trenchant criticism of their lives
and doctrines as appeared more especially in the former work,
and probably in many others which since have perished in
" faggots and burning."
For all this, manuscripts of Purvey's Revision were copied
and re-copied during this century, the text itself being evidently
approved by the ecclesiastical authorities, when in the hands of
the right people and if unaccompanied by controversial matter.
Of the Lollard movement in Scotland but little is known, but
a curious relic has come down to our times in the shape of a New
Testament of Purvey's Revision in the Scottish dialect of the
early i6th century. The transcriber was in all probability a
certain Murdoch Nisbet, who also showed his reforming tend-
encies by adding to it a rendering of Luther's Prologue to the
New Testament. 4
1 See Foxe, Acts and Monuments, iv. 135 ff. (ed. Townsend, 1846).
3 Wilkin's Concilia, iii. 317.
4 T. G. Law, The New Testament in Scots, being Purvey's Revision
of Wycliffe's version turned into Scots by Murdoch Nisbet, c. 1520
(Scot. T. S., Edinburgh, 1901-1905).
898
BIBLE, ENGLISH
2. The Printed Bible. It is singular that while France,
Spain, Italy, Bohemia and Holland possessed the Bible in the
vernacular before the accession of Henry VIII., and in Germany
the Scriptures were printed in 1466 and seventeen times re-
printed before Luther began his great work, yet no English
printer attempted to put the familiar English Bible into type.
No part of the English Bible was printed before 1525, no com-
plete Bible before 1535, and none in England before 1538.
Versions of the Scriptures so far noticed were all secondary
renderings of the Vulgate, translations of a translation. It was
only with the advent of the " new learning " in England that
a direct rendering from the originals became possible. Erasmus
in 1516 published the New Testament in Greek, with a new
Latin version of his own; the Hebrew text of the Old Testament
had been published as early as 1488.
The first to take advantage of these altered conditions was
William Tyndale (g.v.), " to whom," as Dr Westcott says, 1 " it
has been allowed more than to any other man to give
Ty"a%e. its characteristic shape to the English Bible." Of
Tyndale's early life but little is known. Be it enough
for our purpose to say that he thoroughly saturated his mind
with the "new learning," first at Oxford, where in 1515 he was
admitted to the degree of M.A., and then in Cambridge, where
the fame of Erasmus still lingered. Before the beginning of
1522 we find Tyndale as chaplain and tutor in the family of
Sir John Walsh of Old Sodbury in Gloucestershire. He was
there constantly involved in theological controversies with the
surrounding clergy, and it was owing to their hostility that he
had to leave Gloucestershire. He then resolved to open their
eyes to the serious corruptions and decline of the church by
translating the New Testament into the vernacular. In order
to carry out this purpose he repaired in July or August 1523 to
London, and to the famous protector of scholars and scholarship,
Bishop Cuthbert Tunstall. His reception was, however, cold,
the bishop advising him to seek a livelihood in the town. During
a year of anxious waiting, it became clear to him " not only
that there was no rowme in my lorde of londons palace to
translate the new testament, but also that there was no place
to do it in all englonde." 2 In May 1524 he consequently
betook himself to Hamburg, his resolution to carry out his great
work never for a moment flagging, and it was probably during
his stay in this free city and in Wittenberg, where he may have
been stimulated by Luther, that his translation of the New
Testament was actually made. At all events there is no doubt
that in 1525 he was in Cologne, engaged in printing at the press
of Peter Quentel a quarto edition of the New Testament. This
edition was provided with prefaces and marginal glosses. He
had advanced as far as the tenth sheet, bearing the signature
K, when his work was discovered by Johann Cochlaeus (g.v.),
a famous controversialist and implacable enemy of the Refor-
mation, who not only caused the Senate of Cologne to prohibit
the continuation of the printing, but also communicated with
Henry VIII. and Wolsey, warning them to stop the importation
of the work at the English seaports. Tyndale and his assistant,
William Roye, managed, however, to escape higher up the Rhine
to Worms, and they succeeded in carrying with them some or
all of the sheets which had been printed. Instead of completing
Quentel's work, Peter Schoeffer, the Worms printer, was em-
ployed to print another impression of 3000 in a small octavo
size, without prefaces to the books or annotations in the margin,
and only having an address " To the Reder " at the end in
addition to the New Testament itself. Two impressions, the
quarto having possibly been completed by Schoeffer, arrived
in England early in the summer of 1526, and were eagerly
welcomed and bought. Such strong measures of suppression
were, however, at once adopted against these perilous volumes,
that of the quarto only a single fragment remains (Matt, i.-xxii.
12), now preserved in the British Museum (Grenville, I2I7Q), 3
1 B. F. Westcott, History of the English Bible (3rd ed.), revised by
W. Aldis Wright (London, 1905), p. 25.
Pref. to Genesis, p. 396 (Parker Soc.).
3 Photo lithographed by Edw. Arber (London, 1871).
of the octavo only one perfect copy (the title-page missing) in
the Baptist College at Bristol, 4 and one imperfect in the library
of St Paul's cathedral.
But Tyndale continued his labours undaunted. In 1529 the
manuscript translation of Deuteronomy is mentioned as having
perished with his other books and papers in a shipwreck which
he suffered on the coast of Holland, on his way to Hamburg.
In 1530, however, the whole of the Pentateuch was printed in
Marburg by Hans Luft; it is provided with prefaces and mar-
ginal annotations of a strongly controversial character. The
only perfect copy is preserved in the Grenville library of the
British Museum. 5 It was reissued in 1534 with a new preface
and certain corrections and emendations in Genesis, and again
in London in 1551.
In 1 53 1 the Book of Jonah appeared with an important and
highly interesting prologue, the only copy known of which is in
the British Museum. 6
Meanwhile the demand for New Testaments, for reading or
for the flames, steadily increased, and the printers found it to
their advantage to issue the Worms edition of the New Testa-
ment in not less than three surreptitious reprints before 1534.
This is testified by George Joye in his Apology, who himself
brought out a fourth edition of Tyndale's New Testament in
August 1534, freed from many of the errors which, through
the carelessness of the Flemish printers, had crept into the text,
but with such alterations and new renderings as to arouse the
indignation of Tyndale. The only remaining copy, a i6mo, is
in the Grenville library. To counteract and supersede all these
unauthorized editions, Tyndale himself brought out his own
revision of the New Testament with translations added of all
the Epistles of the Old Testament after the use of Salisbury.
It was published in November 1534 at Antwerp by Martin
Emperowr. Prologues were added to all books except the Acts
and the Apocalypse, and new marginal glosses were introduced.
Three copies of this edition are in the British Museum, and it
was reprinted in 1841 in Bagster's Hexapla. In the following
year Tyndale once more set forth a revised edition, " fynesshed
in the yere of oure Lorde God A.M.D. and XXXV.," and printed
at Antwerp by Godfried van der Haghen. 7 In this headings
were added to the chapters in the Gospels and the Acts, and
the marginal notes of the edition of 1534 were omitted. It
is chiefly noted for the peculiarities of its orthography. Of this
edition one copy is in the University library, Cambridge, a
second in Exeter College, Oxford, and a fragment in the British
Museum. It is supposed to have been revised by Tyndale while
in prison in the castle of Vilvorde, being the last of his labours
in connexion with the English Bible. His execution took place
on the 6th of October 1536, and about the same time a small
folio reprint of his revised edition of 1534 was brought out in
England, the first volume of Scripture printed in this country,
probably by T. Berthelet. 8 A perfect copy is found in the
Bodleian library. In later years, between 1536 and 1550,
numerous editions of Tyndale's New Testament were printed,
twenty-one of which have been enumerated and fully described
by Francis Fry. 9
" The history of our English Bible begins with the work of
Tyndale and not with that of Wycliffe," says Dr Westcott in his
History of the English Bible, p. 316, and it is true that one of the
most striking features of the work of Tyndale is its independence.
Attempts have been made to show that especially in the Old
Testament he based a great deal of his work on the Wycliffite
translations, but in face of this we have his own explicit
4 Reprinted by G. Offor (London, 1836) ; reproduced in facsimile
by Francis Fry (Bristol, 1862).
' Reprinted with an introduction by I. T. Mombert (New York,
1884).
6 Reproduced in facsimile by Francis Fry (1863).
7 Cf. H. Bradshaw, Bibliographer (1882-1881), i. 3 ff. (reprinted
1886).
8 See F. Jenkinson, Early English Printed Books in the Univ. Libr.
Cambridge, iii. (1730).
8 See Biographical Description of the Editions of the New Testament,
Tyndale's Version, in English (1878).
BIBLE, ENGLISH
899
statement, " I had no man to counterfet, nether was holpe with
englysshe of eny that had interpreted the same (i.e. the New
Testament), or soche lyke thlge I the scripture beforetyme." 1
He translated straight from the Hebrew and Greek originals,
although the Vulgate and more especially Erasmus's Latin
version were on occasion consulted. For his prefaces and
marginal notes he used Luther's Bible freely, even to para-
phrasing or verbally translating long passages from it.
Apart from certain blemishes and awkward and even incorrect
renderings, Tyndale's translation may be described as a truly
noble work, faithful and scholarly, though couched in simple
and popular language. Surely no higher praise can be accorded
to it than that it should have been taken as a basis by the
translators of the Authorized Version, and thus have lived on
through the centuries up to the present day.
The following specimens may prove of interest:
The thryde Chapter.
(Matthew iii. 1-4.) In those dayes Ihon the baptyser cam and
preached in the wyldernes of lury, saynge, Repent, the kyngedom
of heven ys at hond. Thys ys he of whom it ys spoken be the
prophet Isay, whych sayth : the voice of a cryer in wyldernes, pre-
paire ye the lordes waye, and make hys pathes strayght. Thys
Ihon had hys garment of camellcs heere, and a gyrdyll of a skynne
about hys loynes. Hys meate was locustes * and wyldhe ony.
* " Locustcs are more then oware greshoppers, souche men vse
to eate in divres parties of the est " (marginal note).
(Matthew vi. 9-13.) O oure father which art in heven, halewed
be thy name. Let thy kingdom come. Thy wyll be fulfilled, as well
in erth, as hit ys in heven. Geve vs this daye oure dayly breade.
And forgeve vs oure treaspases, even as we forgeve them whych
treaspas vs. Lede vs nott in to temptacion, but delyvre vs from
yvell. Amen. (Grenville 12179.)
Meanwhile a complete English Bible was being prepared by
Miles Coverdale (?..), an Augustinian friar who was afterwards
for a few years (1551-1553) bishop of Exeter. As the
Coverdale. Panting was finished on the 4th of October 1535 it
is evident that Coverdale must have been engaged
on the preparation of the work for the press at almost as
early a date as Tyndale. Foxe states (op. cit. v. 120) that
Coverdale was with Tyndale at Hamburg in 1529, and it is
probable that most of his time before 1535 was spent abroad,
and that his translation, like that of Tyndale, was done out of
England.
In 1877 Henry Stevens, in his catalogue of the Caxton Exhibi-
tion, pointed out a statement by a certain Simeon Ruytinck in
his life of Emanuel van Meteren, appended to the latter's Neder-
landische Historic (1614), that Jacob van Meteren, the father of
Emanuel, had manifested great zeal in producing at Antwerp
a translation of the Bible into English, and had employed for
that purpose a certain learned scholar named Miles Conerdale
(sic). In 1884 further evidence was adduced by W. J. C. Moens,
who reprinted an affidavit signed by Emanuel van Meteren,
28 May 1609, to the effect that " he was brought to England
anno 1550 ... by his father, a furtherer of reformed
religion, and he that caused the first Bible at his costes to be
Englisshed by Mr Myles Coverdal in Andwarp, the w'h his
father, with Mr Edward Whytchurch, printed both in Paris
and London" (Registers of the Dutch Reformed Church, Austin
Friars, 1884, p. xiv.). Apart from the reference to Whytchurch
and the place of printing, this statement agrees with that of
Simeon Ruytinck, and it is possible that van Meteren showed
his zeal in the matter by undertaking the cost of printing the
work as well as that of remunerating the translator. Mr W.
Aldis Wright, however, judging from the facts that the name of
Whytchurch was introduced, that the places of printing were
given as London and Paris, not Antwerp, and lastly that Emanuel
van Meteren being born in 1535 could only hav derived his
knowledge from hearsay, is inclined to think that the Bible in
which J. van Meteren was interested " was Matthew's of 1537
or the Great Bible of 1539, and not Coverdale's of 1535."'
It is highly probable that the printer of Cover' lale's Bible was
1 Epistle to the Reader in the New Testament ol 1526, reprinted
by G. Offor; cf. Parker Soc. (1848), p. 390.
1 Westcott, op. cit. p. 57 note.
Christopher Froschouer of Zurich,* who printed the edition of
1550, and that the sheets were sent for binding and distribution
to James Nicolson, the Southwark printer. 4 This first of all
printed English Bibles is a small folio in German black letter,
bearing the title: " Biblia, The Bible; that is, the Holy Scrip-
ture of the Olde and New Testament, faithfully and truly
translated out of Douche (German) and Latyn into Englishe,
M-.D.XXXV." The volume is provided with woodcuts and
initials, the title-page and preliminary matter in the only two
remaining copies (British Museum and Holkam Hall) being in the
same type as the body of the book. A second issue of the same
date, 1535, has the title-page and the preliminary matter in
English type, and omits the words " out of Douche and Latyn ";
a third issue bears the date 1536. A second edition in folio,
" newly oversene and corrected," was printed by Nicolson, with
English type, in 1537; and also in the same year, a third
edition in quarto. On the title-page of the latter were added
the significant words, " set forth with the Kynge's moost gracious
licence."
Coverdale, however, was no independent translator. Indeed,
he disavows any such claim by stating expressly, in his dedication
to the king, " I have with a cleare conscience purely & fayth-
fully translated this out of fyue sundry interpreters, hauyng
onely the manyfest trueth of the scripture before myne eyes,"
and in the Prologue he refers to his indebtedness to " The Douche
(German) interpreters: whom (because of theyr synguler gyftes
and speciall diligence in The Bible) I haue ben the more glad
to folowe for the most parte, accordynge as I was requyred."'
These "fyue interpreters" Dr Westcott (ibid. p. 163) identifies
as Luther, the Zurich Bible, the Latin version of Pagninus, the
Vulgate, and, in all likelihood, the English translation of Tyndale.
Though not endowed with the strength and originality of mind
that characterized Tyndale's work, Coverdale showed great
discrimination in the handling and use of his authorities, and
moreover a certain delicacy and happy ease in his rendering of
the Biblical text, to which we owe not a few of the beautiful
expressions of our present Bible.
The following extracts from the edition of 1535 may serve as
examples of his rendering:
The first psalme.
(i. 1-2.) Blessed is be man, be goeth not in the councell of be un-
godly : be abydeth not in the wave off synners, & sytteth not in be
seate of the scornefull. But delyteth in the lawe of be Lorde, &
exercyseth himself in his lawe both daye and night.
The gospell of S. Mathew.
(iii. 1-4.) In those dayes Ihon the Baptyst came and preached in
the wildernes of Jury, saynge: Amende youre selues, the kyng-
dome of heuen is at honde. This is he, of whom it is spoken by the
prophet Esay, which sayeth : The voyce of a cryer in be wyldernes,
prepare the Lordes waye, and make his pathes straight. This Ihon
had his garment of camels heer, and a lethren gerdell aboute his
loynes. Hys meate was locustes and wylde hony.
It should be added that Coverdale's Bible was the first in
which the non-canonical books were left out of the body of the
Old Testament and placed by themselves at the end of it under
the title Apocripha.
The large sale of the New Testaments of Tyndale, and the
success of Coverdale's Bible, showed the London booksellers
that a new and profitable branch of business was
opened out to them, and they soon began to avail
themselves of its advantages. Richard Grafton and
Edward Whitchurch were the first in the field, bringing out
a fine and full-sized folio in 1537, " truely and purely trans-
lated into English by Thomas Matthew.'' Thomas Matthew,
is, however, in all probability, an alias for John Rogers, a
friend and fellow-worker of Tyndale, and the volume is in
reality no new translation at all, but a compilation from the
renderings of Tyndale and Coverdale. Thus the Pentateuch
and the New Testament were reprinted from Tyndale's transla-
tions of 1530 and 1535 respectively, with very slight variations;
* See Dr Ginsburg's information to Mr Tedder, D.N.B. xii. .
4 Cf. H. Stevens, Catalogue of the Caxton Exhibition (1877), p.
1 Remains, Parker Soc., pp. II f.
"
goo
BIBLE, ENGLISH
the books from Joshua to the end of Chronicles are traditionally,
and lately also by external evidence, 1 assigned to Tyndale and
were probably left by him in the hands of Rogers. From Ezra
to Malachi the translation is taken from Coverdale, as is also
that of the Apocryphal books. John Roger's own work appears
in a marginal commentary distributed through the Old and
New Testaments and chiefly taken from Olivetan's French Bible
of 1535. The volume was printed in black letter in double
columns, and three copies are preserved in the British Museum.
In 1538 a second edition in folio appeared; it was reprinted twice
in 1549, and again in 1551. It is significant that this Bible,
like Coverdale's second edition, was " set forth with the kinges
most gracyous lycence," probably with the concurrence of
Cranmer, since he, in a letter to Cromwell, begged him to
" exhibit the book unto the king's highness, and to obtain
of his grace ... a licence that the same may be sold and
read of every person, without danger of any act, proclamation
or ordinance, heretofore granted to the contrary." 2 And thus
it came to pass, as Dr Westcott strikingly puts it, that " by
Cranmer's petition, by Crumwell's influence, and by Henry's
authority, without any formal ecclesiastical decision, the book
was given to the English people, which is the foundation of the
text of our present Bible. From Matthew's Bible itself a
combination of the labours of Tyndale and Coverdale all later
revisions have been successively formed " (op. cit. p. 71).
. Meanwhile the successful sale of Matthew's Bible, the private
venture of the two printers Grafton and Whitchurch, was threat-
_ ened by a rival edition published in 1 539 in folio and
' quarto by "John Byddell for Thomas Barthlet "
with Richard Taverner as editor. This was, in fact, what
would now be called " piracy," being Grafton's Matthew Bible
revised by Taverner, a learned member of the Inner Temple and
famous Greek scholar. He made many alterations in the Matthew
Bible, characterized by critical acumen and a happy choice of
strong and idiomatic expressions. He is, perhaps, the first
purist among the Biblical translators, endeavouring, whenever
possible, to substitute a word of native origin for the foreign
expression of his predecessors. 3 His revision seems, however,
to have had little or no influence on subsequent translators,
and was only once, in 1549, reprinted in its entirety. Quarto
and octavo editions of the New Testament alone were published
in the same year, 1 539, as the original edition, and in the following
year, 1540, the New Testament in duodecimo. The Old Testa-
ment was reprinted as part of a Bible in 1551, but no other
editions are known than those named.
It will have been observed that the translations of Holy
Scripture which had been printed during these years (1525-1539)
were all made by private men and printed without any
public authority. Some of them had indeed been set
forth by the king's licence, but the object of this is
shown by the above-quoted letter of Archbishop
Cranmer to Cromwell, touching Matthew's Bible. It is " that the
same may be sold and read of every person . . . until such time
that we, the bishops, shall set forth a better translation, which I
think will not be till a day after doomsday." This letter was
written on the 4th of August 1537, and the impatient words at
the end refer to an authorized version which had been projected
several years before, and which was, in fact, at that very time
in preparation, though not proceeding quickly enough to satisfy
Cranmer. In the year 1530, Henry VIII. had issued a commis-
sion of inquiry respecting the expediency and necessity of having
" in the English tongue both the New Testament and the Old "
(Wilkins* Concilia, iii. 737). This commission reported against
the expediency of setting forth a vernacular translation until
there was a more settled state of religious opinion, but states
that the king " intended to provide that the Holy Scripture shall
be, by great, learned and Catholic persons, translated into the
English tongue if it shall then seem to His Grace convenient to
be " (ib. 740). The Convocation of Canterbury refreshed thi
1 Westcott, op. cit. p. 172 note.
2 Cranmer's works, letter 194 (Parker Soc.).
* See examples in Westcott, op. cit. pp. 208 f .
"
1539
royal memory on the subject by petitioning the king on the
i gth of December 1534 " that His Majesty would vouchsafe
to decree, that the Scriptures should be translated into the
vulgar tongue . . . and . . . delivered to the people according
to their learning " (ibid. 770). The subject was again before
Convocation in 1 536, 4 but the detailed history is lost to us all
that is known being that Cromwell had placed Coverdale at the
head of the enterprise, and that the result was an entirely new
revision, based on Matthew's Bible. 6 Coverdale consulted in his
revision the Latin version of the Old Testament with the Hebrew
text by Sebastian Munster, the Vulgate and Erasmus's editions
of the Greek text for the New Testament.
Concerning the printing of this authorized Bible more details
are known. Cromwell had planned the work on a large scale,
too large evidently for the resources of the English presses, for
it was determined that the printing should be entrusted to
Francis Regnault, a famous Paris printer. At the request of
Henry VIII., a licence was granted to Regnault for this purpose
by Francis I., while Coverdale and Grafton were sent over in
1538 to superintend the work as it passed through the press.
The work was pressed forward with all speed, for, as Coverdale
writes to Cromwell, they were " dayly threatened " and ever
feared "to be spoken withall." 6 Indeed, when the printing
was far advanced, on the I7th of December 1538, its further
progress was interdicted by the Inquisitor-general for France,
and orders were given to seize the whole of the impression.
Coverdale and Grafton left Paris quickly, but soon returned,
rescued a great number of the finished sheets, "four great dry-
vats " full of them having been sold to a haberdasher instead
of being burnt and conveyed types, printing-presses and
workmen to England. Thus the volume which had been begun
in Paris in 1538 was completed in London, the colophon stating
that it was " Fynisshed in Apryll, Anno M.CCCCC.XXXIX."
It is a splendid folio Bible of the largest volume, and was dis-
tinguished from its predecessors by the name of The Great Bible.
The title-page represents Henry VIII. giving the " Word of God "
to Cromwell and Cranmer, who, in their order, distribute it to
laymen and clerics, and describes the volume as "truly translated
after the veryte of the Hebreue and Greke texts by be dylygent
studye of dyverse excellent learned men, expert in the for-
sayde tongues. Prynted by Rychard Grafton and Edward
Whitchurch." " Certain godly annotations," which Coverdale
promished in the Prologue, did not, however, appear in the first
issue, nor in any of the following. This Vfas the first of seven
editions of this noble Bible which issued from the press during
the years 1539-1541, the second of them, that of 1540, called
Cranmer's Bible from the fact that it contained a long Preface
by Archbishop Cranmer, having the important addition " This
is the Byble apoynted' to the vse of the churches " on the title-
page. Seventy years afterwards it assumed the form ever since
known as the Authorized Version, but its Psalter is still embedded,
without any alteration, in the Book of Common Prayer.
For the sake of comparison the following extracts from St
Matthew are given, according to the edition of 1539.
(Matthew iii. 1-4.) In those dayes came lohn the Baptyst, preach-
ing in the wyldernes of lewry, saying, Repent of the lite that is past,
for the kyngdome of heauen is at hande, For thys is he, of whom the
prophet Esay spake, which sayeth, the voyce of a cryer in the wylder-
nes, prepare ye the waye of the lorde: make hys pathes strayght.
Thys lohn had hys garment of camels heer And a gyrdell of a skynne
aboute hys loynes. His meate was locustes and wylde hony.
(Matthew vi. 9-13.) Oure father which art in heauen, halowed
be thy name. Let thy kingdome come. Thy will be fulfilled, as well
in erth, as it is in heuen. Geue vs this daye oure dayly bred. And
forgeue vs oure dettes, as we forgeue oure detters. And leade vs
not into temptation: but delyuer vs from euyll. For thyne is the
kyngdom and tie power, and the glorye for euer. Amen.
Meanwhile tie closing years of Henry VIII. 's reign were
characterized by restrictive measures as to the reading and use
of the Bible. Vyndale Version was prohibited by an act of
4 Burnet's Ref., ed. Pococke, 1865.
6 Westcott, op. cit. pp. 1 80 f.
Remains (Parcer Soc.), p. 493; cf. J. A. Kingdon, Incidents in
the Lives of Thomas Poyntz and Richard Grafton (1895).
BIBLE, ENGLISH
901
parliament, 1543; at the same time it was enacted that all notes
and marginal commentaries in other copies should be obliterated,
and that " no woman (unless she be a noble or gentle woman),
no artificers, apprentices, journeymen, servingmen, under the
degree of yeomen . . . husbandmen or labourers " should read or
use any part of the Bible under pain of fines and imprisonment. 1
In 1546 Coverdale's Bible was included in the proscription,
the Great Bible being the only translation not interdicted.
During Edward VI. 's reign there was a brief respite,
Wh'/tt!H kut wit ^ tne access i n of Mary the persecutions of the
bam. "' English Bible and its friends were renewed. Cranmer
suffered martyrdom at the stake, as John Rogers had
done before him. Other prominent reformers, amongst them
Coverdale, sought refuge in Geneva, the town of Calvin and Beza,
where they employed their enforced leisure in planning and
carrying out a new revision of the Bible. The first fruits of these
labours was a New Testament issued in June 1557, with an
introduction by Calvin, probably the work of William Whitting-
ham. 2 The volume, in a convenient quarto size, printed in clear
Roman type, and provided with marginal annotations, gained im-
mediate popularity in England, where a Bible suited for household
demands had long been needed. It was the first Bible which
had the text divided into " verses and sections according to the
best editions in other languages." 3
Whittingham's enterprise was, however, soon superseded by
an issue of the whole Bible, which appeared in 1 560, the so-called
Genevan Bible, popularly also known as the Breeches
Genevan Bible, from its rendering of Gen. iii. 7, " They sewed
Bible. fig leaves together and made themselves breeches."
This edition was mainly due to the combined efforts
of William Whittingham, Anthony Gilby and Thomas Sampson,
and the expenses towards printing and publication were borne
by members of the congregation at Geneva. It represented in
the Old Testament a thorough and independent revision of the
text of the Great Bible with the help of the Hebrew original,
the Latin versions of Leo Juda ( 1 543) , Pagninus (1528), Sebastian
Minister (1534-1535), and the French versions of Olivetan.
The New Testament consisted of Tyndale's latest text revised
to a great extent in accordance with Beza's translation and
commentary. The changes introduced by the Genevan trans-
lators were, as a rule, a great improvement, and the version
received a ready welcome and immediate popularity, not only
on account of its intrinsic merits, but because of its handy size,
usually that of a small quarto, and of its being printed, like
Whittingham's New Testament, in a readable Roman type
instead of black letter. Like this earlier publication, it had the
division of the chapters into verses, and a marginal commentary
which proved a great attraction to the Puritans. The popularity
of the Genevan Bible was so great that between 1560 and 1644
at least 140 editions of it were published, 4 and this in spite of its
not being allowed for use in the churches.
In 1576 the New Testament of the Genevan Bible was again
revised by Lawrence Tomson and provided with a new com-
mentary mainly translated from Beza. It soon became popular
and even replaced the Genevan New Testament in later editions
of this Bible.
Some time after the accession of Queen Elizabeth an attempt
was made to improve the authorized Great Bible, and in this
way to challenge the ever growing popularity of the
B/s/iops' Calvinistic Genevan Bible. The initiative was taken
Bible. by Archbishop Parker, about 1563-1565, who, accord-
ing to Strype (Parker i. 414) " took upon him the
labour to contrive and set the whole work a going ... by sorting
out the whole Bible into parcels . . . and distributing these
1 Cf. Burnet's Ref. i. 584.
2 Printed in Bagster's Hexapla, 1841, reprinted separately in 1842.
* See " Address to the Reader." The division into verses of the
New Testament was first found in R. Stephanus' Greek-Latin
New Testament (4th ed., 1551), whereas these divisions already
existed in the Hebrew Old Testament.
4 See T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule, Historical Catal. of the
Printed Editions of Holy Scripture in the Libr. of the Brit, and Foreign
Bible Soc. (London, 1903).
parcels to able bishops and other learned men, to peruse and
collate each the book or books allotted them . . . and they to
add some short marginal notes for the illustration or correction
of the text."
The rules upon which they proceeded were these :
i. " To follow the common English translation used in the
churches, and not to recede from it, but where it varieth manifestly
from the Hebrew or Greek original. 2. To use sections and divisions
in the text as Pagnine in his translation useth, and for the verity
of the Hebrew to follow the said Pagnine and MOnster specially,
and generally others learned in the tongues. 3. To make no bitter
notes upon any text, or yet to set down any determination in places
of controversy. 4. To note such chapters and places as_ contain
matters of genealogies, or other such places not edifying, with some
strike or note, that the reader may eschew them in his public read-
ing. 5. That all such words as sound in the old translation to any
offence of lightness or obscenity be expressed with more convenient
terms and phrases."
The work was pushed forward with energy, and on the sth
of October 1568 the volume was ready for publication. It
was a magnificent folio, generally known as the Bishops' Bible,
since not less than eight of these dignitaries took part in the
revision. But the detached and piecemeal way in which the
revision had been carried out naturally caused certain in-
equalities in the execution of the work. The different parts of
the Bible vary considerably in merit, the alterations in the New
Testament, for instance, snowing freshness and vigour, whereas
most of the changes introduced in the Old Testament have been
condemned as " arbitrary and at variance with the exact sense
of the Hebrew text " (Westcott, op.cit. p. 237). Several editions
of the Bishops' Bible were afterwards published, but it is doubt-
ful whether the ecclesiastical authorities in spite of repeated
enactments (Cardwell, Synodalia, pp. 115, 123, 210, 292) ever
succeeded in entirely enforcing its public use in the churches.
After 1569 the Great Bible ceased, however, to be reprinted.
But in the homes the Genevan version still maintained its
supremacy. One thing is certain, that the book of Psalms of
the new revision had fairly soon to give way before the well-
known and smooth rendering of the Great Bible. In the second
edition of the Bishops' Bible, 1572, the two texts were actually
printed side by side; in all later editions except one (1585) the
older Psalter alone remained.
From the time of Tyndale onwards the translation of the
Scriptures into English had been more or less an outcome of
the great reformatory movements within the church.
It was not until Queen Elizabeth's reign that members J
of the Romanist party found itexpedientto translate the Vtntoa.
Bible into the vernacular " for the more speedy abolish-
ing of a number of false and impious translations put forth by
sundry sectes, and for the better preseruation or reclaimc of many
good soules endangered thereby " (Preface to the Rhemish
Version).
According to the title-page the New Testament was " trans-
lated faithfvlly into English ovt of the authentical Latin, accord-
ing to the best corrected copies of the same, diligently conferred
with the Greeke and other editions in diuers languages. ... In
the English College of Rhemes, 1582." The Old Testament
had been " long since " completed, but " for lacke of good
meanes " (Preface to the New Testament), its appearance was
delayed till 1600-1610, when it was published at Douai. The
complete work, known as the Rhemes and Douay Version, was
reprinted in Rouen in 1635, and after a considerable time revised
by Dr Challoner (1749-1750). The translation is really anony-
mous, but there seems to be little doubt that it was carried out
by some of the Romanist refugees connected with the Seminary
at Douai and the English college at Reims, the chief amongst
them being Gregory Martin, William Allen, Richard Bristow
and J. Reynolds. Like the Wycliffite Versions it is merely a
secondary rendering from the Latin Vulgate, and it suffered from
many of the defects which characterized these versions, extreme
literalness, often stilted, ambiguous renderings, at times un-
intelligible except by a reference to the Latin original, as in
Luke xxii. 18, " I will not drink of the generation of the vine,"
or Phil. ii. 7, " But he exinanited himself."
9 2
BIBLE, ENGLISH
As further examples of this rendering we print the same
passages from St Matthew:
(Matthew Hi. 1-4.) And in those dayes cometh lohn the Baptist
preaching in the desert of levvrie, saying. Doe penance: for the
Kingdom of heauen is at hand. For this is he that vyas spoken of
by Esay the Prophet, saying, A voyce of one crying in the desert,
prepare ye the way of our Lord, make straight his pathes. And the
sayd lohn had his garment of camels heare, & a girdle of a skinne
about his loynes: and his meate was locustes & wilde honie.
(Matthew vi. 9-13.) Ovr Father which art in heauen, sanctified
be thy name. Let thy Kingdom come. Thy wil be done, as in
heauen, in earth also. Giue vs to day our supersubstanvial bread.
And forgiue vs our dettes, as we also forgiire our detters. And leade
vs not into tentation. But deliuer vs from evil. Amen.
The strongly Latinized vocabulary of this version was not
without its influence on the next great venture in English
translations of the Bible, the Authorized Version. 1
The English Bible, which is now recognized as the Authorized
Version wherever the English language is spoken, is a revision
The of the Bishops' Bible, begun in 1604, and published
Authorized in i6n. It arose incidentally out of a Conference
Version, between the High Church and the Low Church parties
l611 ' convened by James I. at Hampton Court Palace in
January 1604, for the purpose of determining " things pretended
to be amiss hi the church," and was originally proposed by
Dr Reynolds, president of Corpus Christi College, Oxford, the
leader and spokesman of the Low Church party, and subse-
quently on the committee which revised the translation of
the Prophets.
No real opposition was offered to the proposal, and the king
cleverly sketched out on the moment a plan to be adopted.
He " wished that some special pains should be taken in that
behalf for one uniform translation professing that he could
never yet see a Bible well translated in English and this to be
done by the best learned in both the Universities; after them
to be reviewed by the bishops and the chief learned of the
Church; from them to be presented to the privy council; and
lastly to be ratified by his royal authority; and so this whole
church to be bound unto it and none other." 2 He also
particularly desired that no notes should be added by way of
comment in the margin, since some of those in the Genevan
Bible appeared to him " very partial, untrue, seditious and
savouring too much of dangerous and traiterous conceits."
The appointment of the revisers was a work of much responsi-
bility and labour, and five months elapsed before they were
selected and their respective portions assigned to them; but
the list of those who began the work, and who, with some few
changes in consequence of deaths, brought it to a happy con-
clusion, shows how large an amount of scholarship was enlisted.
It includes Dr Andrewes, afterwards bishop of Winchester,
who was familiar with Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, Greek, Latin
and at least ten other languages, while his knowledge of patristic
literature was unrivalled; Dr Overall, regius professor of theology
and afterwards bishop of Norwich; Bed well, the greatest Arabic
scholar of Europe; Sir Henry Savile, the most learned layman
of his time; and, to say nothing of others well known to later
generations, nine who were then or afterwards professors of
Hebrew or of Greek at Oxford or Cambridge. It is observable
also that they were chosen without reference to party, at least
as many of the Puritan clergy as of the opposite party being
placed on the committees.
The following list* is drawn up in such a way as to show the
academical or other position which each of them occupied, and the
particular part of the work on which they were engaged.
1 See J. G. Carleton, The Part ofRheims in the Making of the English
Bible (Oxford, 1902).
2 Barlow, Sum and Substance of the Conference ... in Cardwell's
History of Conferences, pp. 187 f.
* Compiled chiefly from the list found in Cardwell's Synodalia
(ed. 1844), ii. 145-146, a reprint from Burnet's Doc. Annals, ii. 106 ff.,
" who himself took his list from a copy belonging originally to
Bishop Ravis." The list is correct for the year 1604; cf. Westcott,
op. cit. pp. 112 f.
<a
O
S-o
E 3
Dr Lancelot Andrewes, dean of Westminster.
Dr John Overall, dean of St Paul's.
Dr Hadrian de Saravia, canon of Canterbury.
Dr Richard Clark, fellow of Christ's Coll., Camb.
Dr John Layfield, fellow of Trin. Coll., Camb.
Dr Robert Teigh, archdeacon of Middlesex.
Mr Francis Burleigh, Pemb. Hall, Camb., D.D., 1607.
Mr Geoffrey King, fellow of King's Coll., Camb.
Mr Thompson, Clare Hall, Camb.
.Mr William Bedwell, St John's Coll., Camb.
Mr Edward Lively, fellow of Trin. Coll.
Mr John Richardson, afterwards master of Trin. Coll.
Mr Laurence Chatterton, master of Emm. Coll.
Mr Francis Dillingham, fellow of Christ's Coll.
Mr Thomas Harrison, vice-master of Trin. Coll.
Mr Roger Andrewes, afterwards master of Jesus- Coll.
Mr Robert Spalding, fellow of St John's.
.Mr Andrew Byng, fellow of St Peter's Coll.
Dr John Harding, pres. of Magd. Coll.
Dr John Reynolds, pres. of Corpus Christi Coll.
Dr Thomas Holland, afterwards rector of Ex. Coll.
Mr Richard Kilbye, rector of Lincoln Coll.
Dr Miles Smith, Brasenose Coll.
Dr Richard Brett, fellow of Lincoln Coll.
.Mr Richard Fairclough, fellow of New Coll.
Dr John Duport, master of Jesus Coll.
Dr William Branthwait, master of Caius Coll.
Dr Jeremiah Radcliffe, fellow of Trin. Coll.
Dr Samuel Ward, afterwards master of Sid. Coll.
Mr Andrew Downes, fellow of St John's Coll.
Mr John Bois, fellow of St John's Coll.
Mr Robert Ward, fellow of King's Coll.
r Dr Thomas Ravis, dean of Christ Church.
Dr George Abbot, dean of Winchester.
Dr Richard Eedes, dean of Worcester.
Dr Giles Thompson, dean of Windsor.
Mr (Sir Henry) Saville, provost of Eton.
Dr John Perin, fellow of St John's Coll.
Dr Ravens [fellow of St John's Coll.]
.Dr John Harmer, fellow of New Coll.
Dr William Barlow, dean of Chester.
Dr William Hutchinson, archdeacon of St Albans.
Dr John Spencer, pres. of Corp. Chr. Coll., Ox.
Dr Roger Fenton, fellow of Pemb. Hall, Camb.
Mr Michael Rabbett, Trin. Coll., Camb.
Mr Thomas Sanderson, Balliol Coll., Oxford, D.D., 1605.
Mr William Dakins, fellow of Trin. Coll., Camb.
1
When this large body of scholars were set down to their task,
an elaborate set of rules was drawn up for their guidance,
which contained a scheme of revision as well as general direc-
tions for the execution of their work. This is one of the very
few records that remain of their undertaking. 4
" (i) The ordinary Bible read in the Church, commonly called
' the Bishops' Bible,' to be followed, and as little altered as the truth
of the original will permit. (2) The names of the prophets and the
holy writers, with the other names of the text to be retained as nigh
as may be, accordingly as they were vulgarly used. (3.) The old
ecclesiastical words to be kept, viz. the word Church not to be trans-
lated Congregation, &c. (4) When a word hath divers significations,
that to be kept which hath been most commonly used by the most of
the ancient fathers, being agreeable to the propriety of the place and
the analogy of the faith. (5) The division of the chapters to be
altered either not at all or as little as may be, if necessity so require.
(6) No marginal notes at all to be affixed, but only for the explanation
of the Hebrew or Greek words which cannot, without some circum-
locution, so briefly and fitly be expressed in the text. (7) Such
quotations of places to be marginally set down as shall serve for the
fit reference ol one Scripture to another. (8) Every particular man
of each company to take the same chapter or chapters; and having
translated or amended them severally by himself where he thinketn
good, all to meet together, confer what they have done, and agree
for their parts what shall stand. (9) As any one company hath
dispatched any one book in this manner, they shall send it to the
rest to be considered of seriously and judiciously, for his majesty
is very careful in this point. (lO) If any company, upon the review
of the book so sent, doubt or differ upon any place, to send them
word thereof, note the place, and withal send the reasons; to which
if they consent not, the difference to be compounded at the general
meeting, which is to be of the chief persons of each company at the
end of the work, (u) When any place of special obscurity is doubted
of, letters to be directed by authority to send to any learned man in
the land for his judgment of such a place. (12) Letters to be sent
from every bishop to the rest of his clergy, admonishing them of his
4 Quoted from G. Burnet's Hist, of Reformation, ii. p. 368 (1861).
BIBLE, ENGLISH
903
translation in hand, and to move and charge as ma.ny as being skilful
in the tongues and having taken pains in that kind, to send his
particular observations to the company either at Westminster,
Cambridge or Oxford. (13) The directors in each company to the
deans of Westminster and Chester for that place; and the king's
professors in the Hebrew or Greek in either university. (14) These
translations to be used when they agree better with the text than
the Bishops' Bible; viz. Tyndale s, Matthew's, Coverdale's, Whit-
church's, Geneva. (15) Besides the said directors before mentioned,
three or four of the most ancient and grave divines in either of the
universities, not employed in translating, to be assigned by the vice-
chancellor upon conference with [the] rest of the heads to be over-
seers of the translations, as well Hebrew as Greek, for the better
observation of the fourth rule above specified."
It is not possible to determine in how far all these rules were
adhered to. All we know of the way this noble work was carried
out is contained in the Preface, where Dr Miles Smith, in 1612
bishop of Gloucester, in the name of his fellow-workers gives an
account of the manner and spirit in which it was done:
" Neither did we run ouer the worke with that posting haste
that the Septuagint did, if that be true which is reported of them,
that they finished it in 72 days. . . . The worke hath . . . cost the
workemen, as light as it seemeth, the paines of twise seuen times
seuentie two dayes and more . . . Truly (good Christian Reader),
we neuer thought from the beginning, that we should neede to make
a new Translation, nor yet to make of a bad one a good one . ._.
but to make a good one better, or out of many good ones, one princi-
pall good one, not iustly to be excepted against. . . . To that purpose
there were many chosen, that were greater in other mens eyes than
in their owne, and that sought the truth rather than their own
praise. . . . Neither did wee thinke much to consult the Translators
or Commentators, Chaldee, Hebrewe, Syrian, Greeke, or Latins, no
mor the Spanish, French, Italian or Dutch [German] ; neither did we
disdaine to reuise that which we had done, and to bring back to the
anuill that which we had hammered : but hauing and vsing as great
helpes as were needfull, and fearing no reproch for slownesse, nor
coueting praise for expedition, wee naue at the length, through the
good hand of the Lord vpon vs, brought the worke to that passe
that you see."
From the above it appears that the actual work of revision
occupied about two years and nine months, an additional nine
months being required for the final preparation for press. The
edition appeared at length in 1611, the full title being as follows:
The Holy Bible, conteyning the Old Testament, and the New:
Newly Translated out of the Originall tongues, & with the former
Translations diligently compared and reuised, by his Maiesties
speciall comandement. Appointed to be read in Churches.
Imprinted at London by Robert Barker, Printer to the Kings
most Excellent Maiestie. Anno Dom. it>u. 1 Since that time
many millions of this revised translation have been printed,
and the general acceptance of it by all English-speaking people
of whatever denomination is a testimony to its excellence.
Still the work of improving and correcting went on through the
centuries, and a modern copy of the Authorized Version shows
no inconsiderable departures from the standard edition of 1611.
Dr Scrivener imputes some of those differences " to oversight
and negligence . . . but much the greater part of them "
he holds to be " deliberate changes, introduced silently and
without authority by men whose very names are often
unknown." (A. C. P.)
More ambitious attempts at amending the new version were
not lacking, but they ah 1 proved fruitless, until in February 1870
the Convocation of Canterbury appointed a committee
to cons 'der tne subject of revision. The report of
*-^* s committee, presented in May, was adopted, to
the effect " that Convocation should nominate a body
of its own members to undertake the work of revision, who shall
be at liberty to invite the co-operation of any eminent for scholar-
ship, to whatever nation or religious body they may belong ";
and shortly afterwards two companies were formed for the re-
vision of the Authorized Version of the Old and New Testaments.
These companies consisted of the following : I . For the Old Testa-
ment: (o) Appointed by Convocation. Connop Thirlwall, bishop
of St David's (d. 1875); Alfred Ollivant (1798-1882), bishop of
Llandaff ; E. Harold Browne ( 1 8 1 l-i 89 1 ) , bishop of Ely ; Christopher
Wordsworth, bishop of Lincoln; and Lord Arthur Hervey (1808-
1 A reprint of this edition has been published by the Clarendon
Press (Oxford, 1833).
i d
1894), bishop of Bath and Wells; Archdeacon H. I. Rose (d. 1873);
William Selwyn (1806-1875), canon of Ely and Lady Margaret
professor at Cambridge; Dr John Jebb (1805-1886), canon of Here-
ford; and Dr William Kay (1820-1886). (ft) Invited. Dr William
Lindsay Alexander (1808-1884), congregational minister; Thomas
Chenery (1826 1884), professor of Arabic at Oxford, and afterwards
(1877) editor of The Times; Frederick Charles Cook (1810-1889),
canon of Exeter; Professor A. B. Davidson; Dr Benjamin Davies
(1814-1875), professor of oriental and classical languages at Stepney
Baptist College; the Rev. A. M. Fairbairn, congregationalist ; the
Rev. Frederick Field (1801-1885), fellow of Trinity, Cambridge;
Dr C. D. Ginsburg; the Rev. Dr Gotch of Bristol; Archdeacon
Benjamin Harrison (1808-1887), Hebraist; the Rev. Stanley
Leathes (1830-1900), professor of Hebrew at King's College, London ;
Professor M'Gill; Canon Robert Payne Smith (1819-1895), regius
professor of divinity at Oxford, dean of Canterbury (1870) ; Professor
I. J. S. Perowne, afterwards bishop of Worcester; the Rev. Edward
Hayes Plumtre (1821-1891), professor of exegesis at King's College,
London, afterwards dean of Wells; Canon E. Bouverie Pusey;
William Wright (1830-1889), the orientalist; W. Aldis Wright,
Cambridge. Of these Canons Cook and Pusey declined to serve,
and ten members died during the progress of the work. The secre-
tary of the company was Mr W. Aldis Wright, fellow of Trinity,
Cambridge.
2. For the New Testament: (a^ Appointed by Convocation.
Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Winchester; Charles J. Ellicott,
bishop of Gloucester and Bristol ; and George Moberly, bishop of
Salisbury; Dr Edward Bickersteth (1814-1892), prolocutor of the
lower house of convocation; Henry Alford, dean of Canterbury, and
Arthur Penrhyn Stanley, dean of Westminster; Joseph Williams
Blakesley (1808-1885), canon of Canterbury, and (1872) dean of
Lincoln. (/3) Invited. The Rev. Dr Joseph Angus, president of the
Stepney Baptist College; Dr David Brown; Richard Chenevix
Trench, archbishop of Dublin; the Rev. Dr John Eadie (1810-
1876), Presbyterian; the Rev. F. J. A. Hort; the Rev. W. G.
Humphry (1815-1886), vicar of St Martin-in-the-Fields, London;
the Rev. Benjamin Hall Kennedy, canon of Ely; William Lee
(1815-1883), archdeacon of Dublin, and professor of ecclesiastical
history in the university; J. B. Lightfoot, afterwards bishop of
Durham; Professor William Milligan; the Rev. William Fieldian
Moulton (1835-1898), Wesleyan biblical scholar; Dr J. H. Newman;
the Rev. Samuel Newth (1821-1898), congregationalist, professor of
ecclesiastical history at, and afterwards president of, New College,
London; Dr A. Roberts; the Rev. G. Vance Smith; Dr Robert
Scott ; the Rev. F. H. A. Scrivener (1813-1891), rector of St Gerrans,
Cornwall; Charles Wordsworth, bishop of St Andrews; Dr W. H.
Thompson; Dr S. P. Tregelles; Dr C. J. Vaughan; Canon Westcott.
Of these, Dr Thompson and Dr Newman declined to serve. Dean
Alford, Dr Tregelles, Bishop Wilberforce and Dr Eadie were removed
by death. Only the first vacancy was filled up. Dean Merivale was
co-opted, and on his resignation Professor, afterwards Archdeacon,
Edwin Palmer. The Rev. J. Troutbeck, minor canon of West-
minster, acted as secretary.
Negotiations were opened with the leading scholars of the
Protestant denominations in America, with the result that
similar companies were formed in the United States. The work
of the English revisers was regularly submitted to their con-
sideration; their comments were carefully considered and largely
adopted, and their divergences from the version ultimately agreed
upon were printed in an appendix to the published work. Thus
the Revised Version was the achievement of English-speaking
Christendom as a whole; only the Roman Catholic Church, of
the great English-speaking denominations, refused to take part
in the undertaking. The Church of England, which had put forth
the version of 1 6 1 1 , fitly initiated the work, but for its performance
most wisely invited the help of the sister churches. The delegates
of the Clarendon Press in Oxford, and the syndics of the Pitt
Press in Cambridge, entered into a liberal arrangement with the
revisers, by which the necessary funds were provided for all their
expenses. On the completion of its work the New Testament
company divided itself into three committees, working at London,
Westminster and Cambridge, for the purpose of revising the
Apocrypha.
The work of the Old Testament company was different in
some important respects from that which engaged the attention
of the New Testament company. The received Hebrew text
has undergone but little emendation, and the revisers had before
them substantially the same Massoretic text which was in the
hands of the translators of 1611. It was felt that there was no
sufficient justification to make any attempt at an entire re-
construction of the text on the authority of the versions. The
Old Testament revisers were therefore spared much of the
94
BIBLE, ENGLISH
labour of deciding between different readings, which formed one
of the most important duties of the New Testament company.
But the advance in the study of Hebrew since the early part of
the 1 7th century enabled them to give a more faithful translation
of the received text. The value of their work is evident,
especially in Job, Ecclesiastes and the prophetical books.
It is the work of the New Testament committee which has
attracted most attention, whether for blame or praise. The
critical resources at the disposal of scholars in 1611 were very
meagre, and the few early manuscripts with which they were
acquainted failed to receive the attention they deserved. The
results of modern critical methods could not fail to make the
incompleteness of the " Received Text," and of the " Authorized
Version," which was based on it, obvious. It had long been the
opinion of all competent scholars that a thorough revision was
necessary. A proposal in favour of this course was made in
Convocation in 1856, but it was not until fourteen years later
that the committee was appointed to undertake the work. The
revisers' first task was to reconstruct the Greek text, as the
necessary foundation of their work. In this difficult duty they
were no doubt influenced by Westcott and Hort's edition of the
New Testament. These two scholars were members of the
committee which prepared the Revised Version, and on the
question of various readings they appear to have exercised a
predominating influence. The revisers were privately supplied
with instalments of Westcott and Hort's text as their work
required them. But it is scarcely necessary to say that the
Revised Version is not the work of one or two scholars. Different
schools of criticism were represented on the committee, and the
most careful discussion took place before any decision was formed.
Every precaution was taken to ensure that the version should
represent the result of the best scholarship of the time, applied
to the work before it with constant devotion and with the
highest sense of responsibility. The changes in the Greek text of
the Authorized Version when compared with the textus receplus
are numerous, but the contrast between the English versions of
1611 and 1881 are all the more striking because of the difference
in the method of translation which was adopted. The revisers
aimed at the most scrupulous faithfulness. They adopted the
plan deliberately rejected by the translators of 161 1 of always
using the same English word for the same Greek word. " They
endeavoured to enable the English reader to follow the corre-
spondences of the original with the closest exactness, to catch the
solemn repetition of words and phrases, to mark the subtleties of
expression, to feel even the strangeness of unusual forms of
speech."
The revision of the New Testament was completed in 407
meetings, distributed over more than ten years. It was formally
presented to Convocation on May 17,1881. The re vision of the Ol d
Testament occupied 792 days, and was finished on June 20, 1884.
The revised Apocrypha did not make its appearance until 1895.
The text of the Revised Version is printed in paragraphs, the
old division of books into chapters and verses being retained for
convenience of reference. By this arrangement the capricious
divisions of some books is avoided. Various editions of the
New Version have been published, the most complete being the
edition of the whole Bible with marginal references. These
references had their origin in the work of two small sub-
committees of the revisers, but they received their present form
at the hands of a specially appointed committee. The marginal
references given in the original edition of the Authorized Version
of 1611 have been retained as far as possible.
The work of the revisers was received without enthusiasm.
It was too thorough for the majority of religious people.
Partisans found that havoc had been played with their proof
texts. Ecclesiastical conservatives were scandalized by the
freedom with which the traditional text was treated. The
advocates of change were discontented with the hesitating
acceptance which their principles had obtained. The most
vulnerable side of the revision was that on which the mass of
English readers thought itself capable of forming a judgment.
The general effect of so many small alterations was to spoil the
familiar sonorous style of the Authorized Version. The changes
were freely denounced as equally petty and vexatious; they
were, moreover, too often inconsistent with the avowed principles
of the revisers. The method of determining readings and
renderings by vote was not favourable to the consistency and
literary character of the Version. A whole literature of criticism
and apology made its appearance, and the achievement of so
many years of patient labour seemed destined to perish in a storm
of resentments. On the whole, the Revised Version weathered
the storm more successfully than might have been expected. Its
considerable excellences were better realized by students than
stated by apologists. The hue and cry of the critics largely died
away, and was replaced by a calmer and juster appreciation.
The work of the revisers has been sharply criticized from the
standpoint of specialists in New Testament Greek. Dr Ruther-
ford stated the case briefly and pointedly in the preface to his
translation of the Epistle to the Romans (London, 1900). He
maintains that " the Greek of the New Testament may never be
understood as classical Greek is understood," and accuses the
revisers of distorting the meaning " by translating in accordance
with Attic idiom phrases that convey in later Greek a wholly
different sense, the sense which the earlier translators in happy
ignorance had recognized that the context demanded."
The use of the new Version has become general. Familiarity
has mitigated the harshness of the revisers' renderings; scholar-
ship, on the whole, has confirmed their readings. The Version
has been publicly read in parish churches both in London and in
the country. In Canterbury cathedral and Westminster Abbey
it has definitely displaced the older Version. Bishops have
acquiesced and congregations approved. It is no longer possible
to maintain the plausible and damaging contention that the
Revised Bible is ill suited for public use. The Upper House of
the Convocation of Canterbury in May 1898 appointed a commit-
tee to consider the expediency of " permitting or encouraging "
the use of the Revised Version in the public services of the
Church. (H. H. H.*)
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The principal works dealing with the separate
versions have been referred to in the text of the article. The follow-
ing authorities may also be cited:
For the version as a whole: J. R. Dore, Old Bibles (2nd ed., 1888) ;
J. Eadie, The English Bible: an External and Critical History of the
various English Translations of Scripture (2 vols., 1876: the most
complete account); A. Edgar, The Bibles of England (1889); H. W.
Hoare, The Evolution of the English Bible(2nd ed., 1902 : gives historical
setting of the Versions) ; F. G. Kenyon, Our Bible and the Ancient
Manuscripts (1895); J. H. Lupton, article on " English Versions,"
in Hastings' Diet, of the Bible (extra vol.) ; R. Lovett, The Printed
English Bible, 1525-1885 (1894); G. Milligan, The English Bible,
a Sketch of its History (1895); J. I. Mombert, English Versions of
the Bible (1883); F. Moulton. The History of the English Bible
(2nd ed., 1884); T. H. Pattison, History of the English Bible (1894);
). Stoughton, Our English Bible, its Translations and Translators
1878].
For the earlier history : J. Lewis, History of English Translations
of the Bible (1818); the historical accounts prefixed to Bagster's
issue of The English Hexapla and of Forshall and Madden's edition
of the Wycliffite Versions (Oxford, 1850). These are all to a great
extent antiquated, their errors being repeated in almost all subse-
quent accounts of the subject. The only trustworthy authority
on the Anglo-Saxon Bible is A. S. Cook's " Introduction on Old
English Translations of the Bible," in Biblical Quotations in Old
English Prose-writers.
For the I4th and 151)1 centuries: See A. C. Paues, The Bible in
the Fourteenth Century.
For the early printed Bibles: H. Cotton, List of Editions of the
Bible (1852), Rhemes and Doway (1855) ; F. Fry, The Bible by Cover-
dale (1867); Description of the Great Bible; 1539 (1865); Biblio-
graphical Descriptions of the Editions of the New Testament (1878);
N. Pocock, " On the Bishops' and Genevan Bible," (Bibliographer,
vols. i.-iv.) ; Prime Wendell, Fifteenth -Century Bibles (1888) ; John
Wright, Early Bibles of America (1893).
For the Authorized Version: F. H. A. Scrivener, The Authorized
Edition of the English Bible (1884). See also R. Cell, Essay toward
the Amendment of the Authorized Version (1659); W. Kilburne,
Dangerous Errors in . . . Bibles (1659) ; R. C. Trench, OntheAuthor-
ized Version of the New Testament in connexion with some recent
proposals for its revision (2nd ed., 1859).
For the Revised Version: J. B. Lightfoot, On a Fresh Revision
of the English New Testament (London, 1871 ; 3rd ed.. 1891); West-
cott, Some Lessons of the Revised Version (London, 1897); Kennedy,
BIBLE CHRISTIANS BIBLE SOCIETIES
905
Ely Lectures on the Revised Version (London, 1882). The Revisers
fully explained their principles and methods in the Preface. The
American Committee of Revision issued an historical account of
their work (New York, 1885). The case against the Revisers is
ably stated in The Revision Revised, by Dean Burgon (London, 1883).
The literary defects of the Version are elaborately exhibited by
G. Washington Moon in two works: The Revisers' English (London,
1882), and Ecclesiastical English (London, 1886). See also Some
Thoughts on the Textual Criticism of the New Testament, by G. Salmon,
D.D. (London, 1807); Bishop Ellicott's Charge (1901). The Greek
Text of the New Testament adopted by the Revisers was edited
for the Clarendon Press by Archdeacon Palmer (Oxford, 1881).
Parallel editions of the Bible, showing both the Authorized and
Revised Versions, a large-type edition for public use, a reference
edition, and (1900) a "Two Version " edition, have been issued by
one or both the University Presses. (A. C. P.; H. H. H.*)
BIBLE CHRISTIANS, one of the denominations now merged
in the United Methodist Church (see UNITED METHODISTS), so
called because its early preachers appealed solely to the Bible
in confirmation of their doctrines. The denomination arose in
the agricultural districts and fishing villages of north Cornwall
and Devon; a district only slightly influenced by John Wesley
and the original Methodist movement. The founder was
William O'Bryan (afterwards Bryant), a Methodist lay preacher
of Luxillian, Cornwall. Finding that the people had no evan-
gelical preaching he began an itinerary to supply the need. The
coastmen were expert smugglers and wreckers, the agriculturists
were ignorant and drunken, the parish clergy were slothful, in
many cases intemperate, and largely given to fox-hunting. Only
in a parish or two was there any approach to religious ministry.
O'Bryan commenced his labours in north Devon, and in 1815 a
small society was formed at Lake Farm, Shebbear. The move-
ment had the seeds of great vitality in it. In 1819 the first
conference was held at Launceston. There were present besides
O'Bryan one accepted minister James Thome fourteen minis-
ters on trial and fifteen women preachers, a class that was always
conspicuous in the denomination. At that conference the work
had spread from Ring's Ash in Devon to Morrah, a lonely and
desolate parish in west Cornwall. In 1820-1821 Kent, North-
umberland, the Scilly and Norman (i.e. Channel) Islands appeared
on the list of stations. Then came a serious break. In 1829
there was a severance between the larger part of the new body
and O'Bryan, who had claimed to be perpetual president, and to
have all property vested in him personally. He tried to establish
a separate conference, but failed, and in 1836 there was a re-union.
O'Bryan left England for America, where he remained for the
rest of his life, and his contingent (numbering 565 members
and 4 ministers) returned to the original conference. The
growth continued. In 1831 agents were sent to Canada and
Prince Edward's Island, in 1850 to South Australia, in 1855 to
Victoria, in 1866 to Queensland, in 1877 to New Zealand and in
1885 to China, so that the original O'Bryan tradition of fervid
evangelism was amply maintained.
On O'Bryan's departure, James Thome, the first fully recog-
nized minister, at whose father's farm the connexion started,
became its leader. Although reared as an ordinary farm lad, he
proved to be a man of singular devotion and spiritual genius.
He laid the foundations broadly in evangelism, finance, temper-
ance and education, founding in the latter connexion a middle-
class school at Shebbear, at which generations of ministers' sons
and numerous students for the ministry have been educated.
James Thome was five times president of the conference and
fifteen times secretary. He died in 1872. In this period there
was much persecution. Landowners refused sites, and in the
Isle of Wight the people worshipped for many months in a
quarry. The preachers were sometimes imprisoned and many
times assaulted. The old Methodist body even excommunicated
persons for attending " Bryanite " meetings. Partly co-operative
with James Thorne and at his death independently, the Church
was favoured with the influence of Frederick William Bourne.
He was a minister for fifty-five years, and served the Bible
Christians as editor, missionary treasurer, book steward and
three times president of conference. With him will always be
associated the name of Billy Bray, an illiterate but inimitable
Cornish evangelist, a memoir of whom, written by Bourne,
exerted a great influence in the religious life of the de-
nomination.
In doctrine the Bible Christians did not differ from the other
Methodists. In constitution they differed only slightly. There was
an annual conference with full legislative power, and ability to hold
and dispose of property, composed of an equal number of lay and
ministerial representatives meeting together. The local churches
were grouped into circuits governed representatively by a quarterly
meeting. The quarterly or circuit meetings were in turn organized
into twelve districts, eleven in England and one in China. In 1906
the statistics showed 218 ministers, 32,549 members and 652 chapels,
with 47,301 scholars in Sunday-schools. These figures include
nearly 1400 full and probationary members in the China mission,
the first-fruits of two years' labour amongst the Miao tribe. In the
various colonial Methodist unions the Bible Christians have con-
tributed a total of 159 ministers, 14,925 members and 660 chapels.
The community supported a regular ministry from the beginning.
Its members have been keen evangelists, trusting jargely to " re-
vivals " for their success, staunch Radicals in politics and total
abstainers to a man. Both ministers and people entered with
interest and sympathy into the scheme for union between them-
selves, the Methodist New Connexion and the United Methodist
Free Church, which was successfully accomplished in 1906. See
METHODISM.
BIBLE SOCIETIES, associations for translating and circulating
the Holy Scriptures. This object has engaged the attention of
the leaders of Christendom from early times. In an extant
letter, dated A.D. 331, the emperor Constantine requested
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, to provide him with fifty copies of
the Old and New Testaments for use in the principal churches in
Constantinople. In 797 Charlemagne commissioned Alcuin to
prepare an emended text of the Vulgate; copies of this text
were multiplied, not always accurately, in the famous writing-
schools at Tours. The first book printed in Europe was the Latin
Bible, and Copinger estimates that 124 editions of the Vulgate
had been issued by the end of the isth century. The Italian
Bible was printed a dozen times before A.D. 1500, and eighteen
editions of the German Bible had already been published before
Luther's version appeared.
The Reformation quickened men's interest in the Scriptures
to an extraordinary degree, so that, notwithstanding the adverse
attitude adopted by the Roman Church at and after the council
of Trent, the translation and circulation of the Bible were taken
in hand with fresh zeal, and continued in more systematic
fashion.
Thus, the Revised French Geneva Bible of 1588, which was issued
in folio, quarto and octavo, and became a standard text, bears the
following note on the verso of the title: " Les frais deed ouvrage,
imprimfen trots diuerses formes en mesme temps, pour la commodite
et contentement de toules series de personnes, ont este liberalemet fpurnis
par quelques gens de bien, qui n'ont cherche gagnerpour leurparticulier,
mats settlement de servir a Dieu et a son Eglise. The Corporation
for the Promoting and Propagating of the Gospel of Jesus Christ in
New England (founded in 1649) bore the expense of printing both
the New Testament and the Bible as a whole (Cambridge, Mass.,
1663 the earliest Bible printed in America), which John Eliot, one
of the Pilgrim Fathers, translated into "the language of the Massa-
chusetts Indians," whom he evangelized. In Arnauld's Defence
(1669) of the famous Port Royal version of the New Testament in
French (issued, 1667), he states that it had been printed in many
forms and sizes, including very cheap editions for the poor, and
goes on to describe how its circulation was promoted by Us sacri-
fices que s'imposaient les pieux solitaires pour faire participer les plus
indigents au bienfait de leur entreprise. Des que leur traduction fut
prite, ils envoyerent de Paris un grand nombre de colporteurs charges
de la vendre au prix de revient et mime, dans certaines circonstances,
a des prix reduits; et ils couirirent la dfpense par des dons tolon-
taires (E. Petavel, La Bible en France, p. 152)
To meet the cost of publishing the Finn Bible in 1685, the editor,
J. Gezelius, bishop of Abo, obtained an order from the Swedish
government for the appropriation of certain corn-tithes, still known
as Bibel Tryck-Tunnan. When the Finnish Bible Society began
to publish editions of the Scriptures, the tsar Alexander I. contri-
buted 5000 roubles from his privy purse, and ordered that these corn-
tithes should again be appropriated to this purpose for five years
from 1812. In 1701 at F rankfort-on-Main there appeared a quarto
edition of the Ethiopic Psalter, whose editor, H. Ludolf, writes in
his preface: " Quamobrem nul'.um gratius officium Christianae huic
nationi a me praestari posse putavi, quam si Psalterium Aethiopicum,
quod apud illos non altter quam in membrana manuscriplum habetur,
et caro satis venditur, typis mandari, efusque plurima exemplaria
nomine Societatis Jndicae in Habessinia gratis distribui curarem."
In 1719 appeared the first of numerous editions of the French
906
BIBLE SOCIETIES
New Testament, connected with the name of the Abbe de Barne-
ville, a priest of the Oratory at Paris. Impressed by the popular
ignorance of the Scriptures, he himself translated, or caused others
to translate, the New Testament into French from the Vulgate, and
formed an association to distribute copies systematically at low
prices. The prefaces to his various editions contain details as to the
methods of this association, and repeatedly insist on the importance
of reading the Scriptures. (On this Societe biblique catholigue fran-
caise see O. Douen, Histoire de la societe biblique protesiante de Paris,
Paris, 1868, pp. 46-51.)
Christian missionaries to non-Christian lands have naturally
been among the most skilful translators and the most assiduous
distributors of the Bible. The earliest complete Arabic Bible
was produced at Rome in 1671, by the Congregatio de Propaganda
Fide. Protestant missionary societies have engaged energetically
in the task not only of translating, but of printing, publishing
and distributing the Scriptures. Thus the Society for Promoting
Christian Knowledge (founded 1698), besides its other activities,
has done much to cheapen and multiply copies of the Scriptures,
not only in English and Welsh, but in many foreign languages.
Early in the i8th century it printed editions in Arabic, and
promoted the first versions of the Bible in Tamil and Telugu,
made by the Danish Lutheran missionaries whom it then sup-
ported in south India. The earliest New Testament (1767) and
Old Testament (1783-1801) in Gaelic were published by the
Society :u Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge
(founded 1709). The S.P.C.K. now publishes versions of the
Scriptures (either complete, or in part) in 38 different languages
(without reckoning versions of the Prayer Book in 45 other
languages) ; and during 1905-1906 the S.P.C.K. issued in England
116,126 Bibles and 17,783 New Testaments.
The earliest noteworthy organization, formed for the specific
purpose of circulating the Scriptures, was the Canstein Bible
Institute (Bibeianstalt), founded in 1710 at Halle in Saxony, by
Karl Hildebrand, baron von Canstein (1667-1719), who was
associated with P. J. Spener and other leaders of Pietism in
Germany. He invented a method of printing, perhaps somewhat
akin to stereotyping though the details are not clearly known,
whereby the Institute could produce Bibles and Testaments in
Luther's version at a very low cost, -and sell them, in small size,
at prices equivalent to zod. and 3d. per copy, respectively. In
1722 editions of the Scriptures were also issued in Bohemian and
Polish. At von Canstem's death he left the Institute to the
care of his friend August Hermann Francke, founder in 1698 of
the famous Waisenhaus (orphanage) at Halle. The Canstein
Institute has issued some 6,000,000 copies of the Scriptures.
In England various Christian organizations, which arose out
of the Evangelical movement in the i8th century, took part in
the wcrk. Among such may be mentioned the Society for
Promoting Christian Knowledge among the Poor (1750); and
the Society for the Support and Encouragement of Sunday
Schools (1785). An institution was founded in 1780 under the
name of the Bible Society, but as its sphere was restricted to
soldiers and seamen the title was afterwards changed to the
Naval and Military Bible Society. The first ship among whose
crew it distributed the Scriptures was the " Royal George,"
which had 400 of this society's Bibles on board when it foundered
at Spithead on the 29th of August 1782. The French Bible
Society, instituted in 1792, came to an end in 1803, owing to the
Revolution.
The British and Foreign Bible Society. In 1804 was founded
in London the British and Foreign Bible Society, the most
important association of its kind. It originated in a proposal
made to the committee of the Religious Tract Society, by the
Rev. Thomas Charles of Bala, who found that his evangelistic
and philanthropic labours in Wales were sorely hindered by
the dearth of Welsh Bibles. His colleagues in the Religious
Tract Society united with other earnest evangelical leaders to
establish a new society, which should have for its sole object
" to encourage a wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures, without
note or comment." This simplicity of aim is combined with a
catholicity of constitution which admits the co-operation of all
persons interested in the society's object. The committee of
management consists of thirty-six laymen, six of them being
foreigners resident in or near London, while of the remaining
thirty, half are members of the Church of England, and half
are members of other Christian denominations.
Supported by representative Christian leaders, such as Gran-
ville Sharp, Zachary Macaulay, William Wilberforce, Charles
Grant and Henry Thornton, with Lord Teignmouth, ex-governor-
general of India, as its first president, and Dr Porteus, bishop of
London, as its friendly counsellor, the new society made rapid
progress. It spread throughout Great Britain, mainly by means
of auxiliaries, i.e. local societies, affiliated but self-controlled,
with subsidiary branches and associations (these last being often
managed by women). Up to 1816-1817 the parent society
had received from its auxiliaries altogether 420,000. This
system continues to flourish. In 1905-1906 the society had
about 5800 auxiliaries, branches and associations in England
and Wales, and more than 2000 auxiliaries abroad, mainly
in the British Colonies, many of which undertake vigorous
local work, besides remitting contributions to London.
The society's advance was chequered by several controversies.
(a) Its fundamental law to circulate the Bible alone, without note
or comment, was vehemently attacked by Bishop Marsh and other
divines of the Church of England, who insisted that the Prayer
Book ought to accompany the Bible. (6) Another more serious
controversy related to the circulation chiefly through affiliated
societies on the continent of Bibles containing the Deutero-canoni-
cal books of the Old Testament. In 1826 the society finally resolved
that its fundamental law be fully and distinctly recognized as exclud-
ing the circulation " of those Books, or parts of Books, which are
usually termed Apocryphal." This step, however, failed to satisfy
most of the society's supporters in Scotland, who proceeded to form
themselves into independent organizations, grouped for the most
part round centres at Edinburgh and Glasgow. These were finally
amalgamated in 1861 into the National Bible Society of Scotland.
(c) A third disoute turned upon the admissibility of non-Trinitarians
to the privilege of co-operation. The refusal of the society to alter
its constitution so as formally to exclude such persons led to the
formation (1831) of the Trinitarian Bible Society, which is still in
existence, (d) A fourth controversy arose out of the restrictive
renderings of the term " baptize " and its cognate terms, adopted
by William Carey and his colleagues in their famous " Serampore
Versions," towards publishing which the society had contributed
up to 1830 nearly 30,000. Protests from other Indian missionaries
led the society to determine that it could circulate only such versions
as gave neutral renderings for the terms in question. As a sequel, the
Bible Translation Society was founded in 1839 to issue versions
embodying distinctively Baptist renderings.
By one of its original laws the British and Foreign Bible Society
could circulate no copies of the Scriptures in English other than
King James's Version of 1611. In 1901 this law was widened to
include the Revised English Version of 1881-1885.
From its foundation the society has successfully laboured to pro-
mote new and improved versions of the Scriptures. In 1804 the
Bible, or some part of it, had been printed in about fifty-five different
tongues. By the year 1906 versions, more or less complete, had
been published in more than 530 distinct languages and dialects,
and in 400 of these the work of translation, printing or distribution
had been promoted by the society. Translations or revisions in
scores of languages are still being carried on by companies of scholars
and representative missionaries in different parts of the world,
organized under the society's auspices and largely at its expense.
New versions are made, wherever practicable, from the original
Hebrew or Greek text, and the results thus obtained have a high
philological value and interest. The society's interdenominational
character has commonly secured what could hardly otherwise
have been attained the acceptance of the same version by missions
of different churches working side by side. The society supplies
the Scriptures to missions of every Reformed Communion on such
terms that, as a rule, the books distributed by the missions involve
no charge on their funds. Except under special circumstances, the
society does not encourage wholesale free distribution, but provides
cheap editions at prices which the poorest can pay. On the whole
it receives from sales about 40 % of what it expends in preparing,
printing and circulating the books.
During the year 1905-1906 the society's circulation reached the
unprecedented total of 5,977,453 copies, including 968,683 Bibles
and 1,326,475 Testaments. Of the whole 1,921,000 volumes were
issued from the Bible House, London, and 1,331,000 were in English
or Welsh, circulating chiefly in England and the British colonies.
The other main fields of distribution were as follows: France,
203,000 copies; Central Europe, 679,000; Italy, 117,000; Spain
and Portugal, 120,000; the Russian empire, 505,000; India,
Burma and Ceylon, 768,000; Japan, 286,000; and China, 1,075,000
(most of these last being separate gospels).
The society spends 10,000 a year in grants to religious and
philanthropic agencies at home. Outside the United Kingdom
BIBLE SOCIETIES
907
it has its own agencies or secretaries in twenty-seven of the chief
cities of the world, and maintains depots in 200 other centres. It
employs 930 Christian colporteurs abroad, who sold in 1905-1006
over 2,250,000 volumes. It supports 670 native Christian Bible-
women in the East, in connexion with forty different missionary
organizations. The centenary festival in 1904 was celebrated with
enthusiasm by the Reformed Churches and their foreign missions
throughout the worid. Messages of congratulation came from the
rulers of every Protestant nation in Christendom, and a centenary
thanksgiving fund of 250,000 guineas was raised for extending the
society s work. Curing the year 1905-1906 the society expended
238,632, while its income was 23 1 ,964 (of which 98,204 represented
receipts from sales). Up to the 3 1st of March 1906 the society had
expended altogether 14,686,072, and had issued 198,515,199 copies
of the Scriptures of which more than 78,000,000 were in English.
In Scotland the Edinburgh Bible Society (1809), the Glasgow
Bible Society (1812), and other Scottish auxiliaries, many
of which had dissociated themselves from the British and
Foreign Bible Society after 1826, were finally incorporated (1861)
with the National Bible Society of Scotland, which has carried
on vigorous work all over the world, especially in China. During
1905, with an income of 27,108, it issued 1,590,881 copies,
907,000 of which were circulated in China. Its total issues from
1861 to iqo6 were 26,106,265 volumes.
In Ireland the Hibernian Bible Society (originally known as
the Dublin Bible Society) was founded in 1806, and with it were
federated kindred Irish associations formed at Cork, Belfast,
Derry, &c. The Hibernian Bible Society, whose centenary was
celebrated in 1906, had then issued a total of 5^13,837 copies.
It sends an annual subsidy to aid the foreign work of the British
and Foreign Bible Society.
Other European Societies. The impluse which founded the
British and Foreign Bible Society in 1804 soon spread over
Europe, and, notwithstanding the turmoils of the Napoleonic
wars, kindred organizations on similar lines quickly sprang up,
promoted and subsidized by the British and Foreign Bible
Society. Many of these secured royal and aristocratic patronage
and encouragement the tsar of Russia, the kings of Prussia,
Bavaria, Sweden, Denmark and Wiirttemberg all lending their
influence to the enterprise.
Within fourteen years the following Bible societies were in
active operation: the Basel Bible Society (founded at Nuremberg,
1804), the Prussian Bible Society (founded as the Berlin Bible
Society, 1805), the Revel Bible Society (1807), the Swedish
Evangelical Society (1808), the Dorpat Bible Society (1811),
the Riga Bible Society (1812), the Finnish Bible Society (1812),
the Hungarian Bible Institution (Pressburg, 1812), the Wtirt-
temberg Bible Society (Stuttgart, 1812), the Swedish Bible
Society (1814), the Danish Bible Society (1814), the Saxon Bible
Society (Dresden, 1814), the Thuringian Bible Society (Erfurt,
1814), the Berg Bible Society (Eberfeld, 1814), the Hanover
Bible Society (1814), the Hamburg-Altona Bible Society (1814),
the Liibeck Bible Society (1814), the Netherlands Bible Society
(Amsterdam, 1814). These were increased in 1815 by the
Brunswick, Bremen, Schleswig-Holstein, Strassburg and Eichs-
feld (Saxony) Bible Societies, and the Icelandic Bible Society.
In 1816-1817 came the Norwegian Bible Society, the Polish
Bible Society and ten minor German Bible Societies. Twelve
cantonal societies had also been formed in Switzerland.
Up to 1816-1817 these societies had printed altogether
436,000 copies of the Scriptures, and had received from the
British and Foreign Bible Society gifts amounting to over
62,000. The decision of the British and Foreign Bible Society
in 1826 with regard to circulating the Apocrypha (see above)
modified its relations with the most influential of these continental
societies. Some of them were ultimately dissolved or suppressed
through political or ecclesiastical opposition, the Roman Church
proving especially hostile. But many of them still flourish,
and are actively engaged in their original task.
The circulation of the Scriptures by German Bible Societies
during 1905 was estimated as follows: The Prussian Bible Society
(Berlin), 182,000 copies; the Wiirttemberg Bible Institute (Stutt-
gart), 247,000; the Berg Bible Society (Eberfeld), 142,000; the
Saxon Bible Society (Dresden), 44,000; the Central Bible Associa-
tion (Nuremberg), 14,000; the Canstein Bible Institute (Halle), the
Schleswig-Holstein Bible Society, the Hamburg-Altona Bible Society
and others, together 56,000.
During 1905, nine cantonal Bible societies in Switzerland circu-
lated altogether 71,000 copies; the Netherlands Bible Society
reported a circulation of 54,544 volumes, 48,137 of which were in
Dutch; the Danish Bible Society circulated 45,289 copies; the
Norwegian Bible Society circulated 67,058 copies; and in Sweden
the Evangelical National Society distributed about 110,000 copies.
In Italy, by a departure from the traditional policy of the Roman
Church, the newly formed " Pious Society of St Jerome for the
Dissemination of the Holy Gospels " issued in 1001 from the Vatican
press a new Italian version of the Four Gospels and Acts. By the
end of 1905 the society announced that over 400,000 copies of this
volume had been sold at 2<1. a copy.
In France, the SoctiU biblique protestante de Paris, founded in
1818, with generous aid from the British and Foreign Bible Society,
had a somewhat restricted basis and scope. In 1833 the Societi
biblique franc,aise et ftrarigere was formed on wider fines; after its
dissolution in 1863, many of its supporters joined the Societe biblique
de France, which dates from 1864, and represents chiefly members
of the Eglise libre, and kindred French Evangelicals. During 1905
its issues were 34,475 copies, while the Societe biblique protestante de
Paris issued 8061 copies.
Of these non-British societies the most noteworthy was established
in Russia. In December 1812, while " the last shattered remnants
of Napoleon's Grand Army struggled across the ice of the Niemen,"
the tsar Alexander I. sanctioned plans for a Bible society, which
was promptly inaugurated at St Petersburg under the presidency
of Prince Galitzin. Through the personal favour of the tsar, it made
rapid and remarkable progress. Nobles and ministers of state, with
the chief ecclesiastics not only of the Russian Church but of the
Roman, the Uniat, the Armenian, the Greek, the Georgian and the
Lutheran Churches, found themselves constrained to serve on its
committees. By the_close of 1823 the Russian Bible Society had
formed 289 auxiliaries, extending eastwards to Yakutsk and
Okhotsk; and had received altogether 145,640. In 1824, however,
Prince Galitzin ceased to be procurator of the Holy Synod, and
Seraphim, metropolitan of St Petersburg, became president of the
Russian Bible Society. And in 1826, soon after his accession, the
tsar Nicholas I. issued a ukase suspending the society's operations
after it had printed the Scriptures in thirty different languages,
seventeen of which were new tongues, and had circulated 600,000
volumes from the Caucasus to Kamchatka. In 1828 Nicholas I.
sanctioned the establishment of a Protestant Bible Society, which
still exists, to supply the Scriptures only to Protestant subjects of
the tsar (cf. Th. Schiemann, Ueschichte Russian/Is unter Nikolaus I.
vol. i. chap. ix.). In 1839 St Petersburg became the headquarters
of an agency of the British and Foreign Bible Society, which enjoys
special facilities in Russia, and now annually circulates about
600,000 copies of the Scriptures, in fifty different languages, within
the Russian empire.
In America the earliest Bible society was founded at Philadel-
phia in 1808. Six more societies including those of New York
and of Massachusetts were formed during 1809, and other
societies, auxiliaries and associations quickly followed. In
1816 a convention of delegates representing 31 of these institu-
tions met at New York and established the American Bible Society,
with Elias Boudinot as president. All kindred organizations in
the states gradually became amalgamated with this national body,
and the federation was completed in 1839 by the adhesion of the
Philadelphia Society (which now changed its name to the Pennsyl-
vania Bible Society) . Not a few noteworthy versions of the Bible,
such as those in Arabic, 15 dialects of Chinese, Armenian, and
Zulu, and many American Indian, Philippine, and African lan-
guages have appeared under the auspices of the American Bible
Society. Turkish, classical Chinese, and Korean versions have
been made by the American and British societies jointly. The
society's foreign agencies extend to China, Japan, Korea, the
Turkish empire, Bulgaria, Egypt, Micronesia, Siam, Mexico, Cen-
tral America, the South American republics, Cuba and the Philip-
pines. In the year ending March 3ist 1909 the income of the
Society was $502,345, and it issued 2,153,028 copies of the Scrip-
tures, nearly half of which went to readers outside the United States.
The total distribution effected by the American Bible Society and
its federated societies had in 1909 exceeded 84,000,000 volumes, in
over a hundred different languages.
AUTHORITIES. Besides the published reports of the societies in
question, the following works may be mentioned : J. Owen, History
of the First Ten Years of the British and Foreign Bible Society (London,
1816-1820); G. Browne, History of the Bible Society (London, 1859);
Bertram, Geschichte der Cansteinschen Bibelanstalt (Halle, 1863);
E. P6tavel, La Bible en France (Paris, 1864); O. Douen, Histoire
de la societe biblique protestante de Paris (Paris, 1868) ; G. Borrow,
908
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY
The Bible in Spain (London, 1849); W. Canton, The History of the
British and Foreign Bible Society (London, 1904 foil.); J- Ballinger,
The Bible in Wales (London, 1906) ; T. H. Darlow and H. F. Moule,
Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of Holy Scripture (London,
vol. i. 1903, vol. ii. 1908). (T. H. D.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY. The word ftjSXwxypa^ia
was used in post-classical Greek for the writing of books, and as
late as 1761, in Fenning's English Dictionary, a bibliographer
is defined as " one who writes or copies books." The transition
from the meaning " a writing of books " to that of " a writing
about books," was accomplished in France iu the i8th century
witness the publication in 1763 of the Bibliographic instructive
of de Bure. In England the new meaning seems to have been
popularized by the Rev. Thomas Frognall Dibdin early in the
ipth century, while Southey preferred the rival form bibliology,
which is now hardly used. Present custom inclines to restrict
the province of bibliography to printed books as opposed to
manuscripts, and on the other hand recognizes as coming within
its scope almost everything in which a book-loving antiquary
can be interested, including the history of printing (see
TYPOGRAPHY), book-binding (q.v.), book-illustration (see ILLUS-
TRATION) and book-collecting (q.v.). The present article is only
concerned with bibliography as the art of the examination,
collation and description of books, their enumeration and
arrangement in lists for purposes of information, and further
with the literature of this subject, i.e. with the bibliography
of bibliography.
Examination and Collation. Books are submitted to examina-
tion in order to discover their origin, or to test statements con-
cerning it which there is reason to doubt, or to ascertain if they
are perfect, and if perfect whether they are in their original
condition or have been " made up " from other copies. The
discovery of where, when and by whom a book, or fragment
of a book, was printed, is the most difficult of these tasks, though
as regards books printed in the isth century it has been much
facilitated by the numerous facsimiles enumerated under
INCUNABULA (q.v.). In the article BOOK (q.v.) a sketch is given
of the chief external characteristics of books in each century
since the invention of printing. Familiarity with books of
different ages and countries soon creates a series of general
ideas as to the dates and places with which any combination of
these characteristics may be connected, and an experienced
bibliographer, more especially if he knows something of the
history of paper, will quickly narrow down the field of inquiry
sufficiently to make special search possible.
As regards the correction of mis-statements in early books
as to their place and origin, glaring piracies such as the Lyonnese
counterfeits of the octavo editions of the classics printed by
Aldus at Venice, and the numerous unauthorized editions of
works by Luther, professing to be printed at Wittenberg, have
long ago been exposed. A different variety of the 1 same kind
of puzzle arises from the existence of numerous original
editions with fictitious imprints. As early as 1499 a Brescia
printer, in order to evade the privilege granted to Aldus, gave
to an edition of Politian the spurious imprint " Florentiae,"
and in the,i6th century many controversial books printed in
England purported to have been issued in German towns, or
with pleasant humour, " at Rome before the castle of S. Angel
at the sign of S. Peter." Only a knowledge of the general
characteristics which a book printed at such a place and such
a time should possess will secure avoidance of these traps, but
when suspicion has been aroused the whole story will often be
found in such books as Weller's Die maskirte Lileratur der dlteren
und neueren Sprachen (1856-1867), and Die falschen und fingir-
ten Druckorte (1864), Brunei's Imprimeurs imaginaires et libraires
supposes (1866), de Brouillanl's La Liberte de la Presse en France;
Histoire de Pierre du Marleau, imprimeur a Cologne, &c. (1888);
in the various bibliographies of Erotica and in Brunei's Manuel
de I' Amateur and other handbooks for the use of collectors.
A special case of this problem of piracies and spurious imprinls
is lhal of the modern photographic or type-facsimile forgery
of small books possessing a high commercial value, such as the
early editions of the letter of Columbus announcing his discovery
of the New World. Bad forgeries of Ihis kind can be delected
by the tendency of all photographic processes of reproduclion
lo ihicken lelters and exaggerale every kind of defecl, bul the
besl of these imitations when printed on old paper require
a specific knowledge of Ihe originals and oflen cause greal
Irouble. The lype-facsimile forgeries are moslly of shorl pieces
by Tennyson, George Eliot and A. C. Swinburne, printed (or
supposed to have been printed for it is doubtful if some of
these " forgeries " ever had any originals) for circulalion among
friends. These trifles should never be purchased withoul a
writlen guaranlee.
When Ihe edilion to which a book belongs is known, further
examination is needed to ascertain if it is perfecl and in ils
original slale. Where no standard collalion is available, Ihis
can only be ascerlained by a delailed examinalion of Ihe quires
or galherings of which it is made up (see below). In the earliest
books these are often very irregular. A large book was usually
printed simullaneously in four or six seclions on as many differenl
presses, and Ihe several compositors, if unable lo end Iheir
seclions al the end of a complete quire, would insert a single
leaf lo give more space, or sometimes leave a blank page, or
half page, for lack of ma tier, occasionally adding Ihe nole " Hie
nullus est defectus." A careful examinalion of Ihe text, a task
from which bibliographers oflen shrink, and a comparison with
olher edilions, are Ihe only remedies in Ihese cases.
If a copy conlains Ihe righl number of leaves, Ihe furlher
question arises as lo whelher any of Ihese have been supplied
from olher copies, or are in facsimile. Few collectors even now
are educaled enough lo prefer copies in Ihe condition in which
Ihe ravages of time have left them to Ihose which have been
" completed " by dealers; hence many old books have been
" made up " with leaves from other copies, or not infrequently
from other edilions. These meddlings oflen defy deleclion,
bul proof of ihem may be found in differences in Ihe height and
colour of the paper, in the Iwo corresponding leaves al eilher
end of a folio quire bolh possessing a walermark, or in Iheir
wiremarks nol corresponding, or (in very early books) by the
ornamentalion added by hand being in a differenl slyle.
When il has been ascerlained lhal a copy conlains the righl
number of leaves and lhal all Ihese leaves are original, Ihe last
point to be setlled is as to whether it differs in any respect from
the standard collation. Owing lo the extreme slowness of the
presswork for the firsl Iwo cenluries afler Ihe invenlion of
printing, there were more opportunities for making small correc-
tions while an old book was passing through the press than
Ihere are in the case of modern ones, and on the other hand Ihe
balls used for inking the type sometimes caught up words or
individual lellers and these were replaced by the compositors
as besl Ihey could. The small variations in the texl noliced
in differenl copies of Ihe Firsl Folio edilion of Shakespeare, and
again of Milton's Paradise Lost, are probably lo be explained
by a mixlure of Ihese two causes. Where a serious error was
discovered after a sheet had been printed off, Ihe leaf on which
it occurred was somelimes cul oul and a new leaf (called a
" cancel ") prinled to replace it and pasted on lo Ihe resl of
Ihe sheel. Varialions belween differenl copies of Ihe firsl edition
of Herrick's Hesperides which have puzzled all his edilors are
due lo Ihe presence of several of such cancels. Laslly, a prinler
when he had prinled parl of a book mighl wish to increase the
size of the edilion, and Ihe leaves already prinled off would have
to be reprinled, Ihus causing a combinalion of identical and
differenl leaves in differenl copies. The famous 42-line Bible
of c. I4S5> variously allribuled lo Gulenberg and lo Fusl and
Schoeffer, and Ihe Valerius Maximus printed by Schoeffer in
1471, are inslances of editions being Ihus enlarged while passing
Ihrough Ihe press. As each book was sel up simullaneously on
several differenl presses, Ihe reprinled leaves occur al Ihe
beginning of each of Ihe sections.
Il should be menlioned lhal Ihere are books of which il is
difficult to find two copies in exact agreement. Either to
quicken presswork or to comply with trade-regulalions made
in the interest of compositors, in some books of which large
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY
909
numbers were required, e.g. the Paraphrases of Erasmus, the
First Prayer-book of Edward VI., and the " Songs and Sonnets "
known as Tottell's Miscellany, each forme was set up two or
more different times. The formes were then used at haphazard
for printing, and both at this stage and when the printed sheets
came to be stitched almost any number of different combinations
might be made. The books named were all printed in the
middle of the i6th century, but probably later instances could
be produced.
Description. The ideal towards which all bibliographical
work should be directed is the provision in an accessible form of
a standard description of a perfect copy of every book of literary,
historical or typographical interest as it first issued from the
press, and of all the variant issues and editions of it. When such
standard descriptions shall have been made, adequately checked
and printed, it will be possible to describe every individual copy
by a simple reference to them, with a statement of its differences,
if any, and an insistence on the points bearing on the special
object with which it is being re-described. Only in a few cases
has any approach been made to a collection of such standard
descriptions. One instance which may be cited is that of the
entries of the i$th century books in the Repertorium Biblio-
graphicum of Ludwig Hain (1826-1838), which the addition of
an asterisk marks as having been examined by Hain himself in
the copies in the Royal library at Munich. The high standard
of accuracy of these asterisked entries (save for the omission to
note blank leaves at the beginning or end) has been so well
established, and the Repertorium is so widely known, that in
many catalogues of incunabula the short title of the book
together with the number of Hain's entry has been usefully
substituted for a long description. Books printed at Oxford up
to 1640 can be equally well described by their short titles and a
reference to Mr Falconer Madan's Early Oxford Press published
in 1895, At present the number of works which can thus be
taken as a standard is only small, owing partly to the greater
and more accurate detail now demanded, partly to the absence
of any system of co-operation among libraries, each of which is
only willing to pay for catalogues relating exclusively to its own
collections. It may be hoped that through the foundation of
bibliographical institutes more work of this kind may be done.
A standard description of any book must, as a rule, consist of
the following sections, though in the case of works which have no
typographical interest, some of the details may be advantage-
ously omitted: (a) A literal transcript of the title-page, also of
the colophon, if any, and of any headings or other portions of the
book serving to distinguish it from other issues; (6) Statements
as to the size or form of the book, the gatherings or quires of
which it is made up, with the total number of leaves, the measure-
ment of an uncut copy or of the type-page, a note of the types in
which different parts of the book are printed, and a reference
to any trustworthy information already in print; (c) A state-
ment of the literary contents of the book and of the points at
which they respectively begin; (d) A note giving any additional
information which may be needed.
(a) In transcribing the title-page and other parts of the book
it is desirable not to omit intermediate words; if an omission is
made it should be indicated by three dots placed close together.
The end of a line should be indicated by an upright stroke. 1 It is
a considerable gain to indicate to the eye in what types the words
transcribed are printed, i.e. whether in roman, gothic letter, or
italic, and in each case whether in majuscules or minuscules (" upper
or lower case "). To do this, however, adds greatly not only to the
cost of printing, but also to the liability of error. If roman minus-
cules are used throughout, or roman for the text and italic for the
imprint of colophon, the method of transliteration which the printer
himself would have used should be adopted. Many of the best
modern catalogues and bibliographies are disfigured by the occur-
rence in them of such forms as qvinqve," " qveen, " Evrope,"
due to an unintelligent transliteration of the forms QVINQVE,
QVEEN, EVROPE, as they occur on title-pages at a date when
V " was the majuscule form of both " v " and " u ." If it is de-
1 Some bibliographers prefer to use double strokes to avoid con-
fusion with the old-fashioned long commas. Others use a single
stroke to indicate the space between two lines and increase the
number of strokes where the space left is wider than this.
sired to retain the V forms the words should be printed in majus-
cules. If minuscules are used, the words should be transliterated
as quinque, queen, Europe, according to the practice of the old
printers themselves.
A troublesome question often arises as to what notice should be
taken in reproducing the misprints which frequently occur in the
original titles. Bibliographers who have satisfied themselves (and
their readers) of their own accuracy may reproduce them in silence,
though it will need constant watchfulness to prevent the printer
from " setting them right." Transcribers of only average accuracy
will consult their happiness by indicating the misprint in some way,
and the frequent use of (sic), more especially when printed in italics,
or of the German (!), being ugly, probably the simplest plan is to add
a note at the end stating that the misprints in question occur in the
original.
(b) The " size " of a book is a technical expression for the relation
of the individual leaves to the sheet of paper of which they form a
part. A book in-folio means one in which the paper has been folded
once, so that each sheet has made two leaves. In a book in -quarto,
each sheet has been folded twice so as to make four leaves. In an
octavo another fold has produced eight leaves, and so on for books in
i6mo, 32mo and 64tno. For books in twelves, twenty-fours, &c., the
paper has at some stage to be folded in three instead of in two, and
there will be some difference in form according to the way in which
this is done. The size of a book printed on handmade paper " is very
simply recognized by holding up a page to the light. Certain white
lines, called wire-lines, will be noticed, occurring as a rule about an
inch apart, and running at right angles to the fine lines. These
wire-lines are perpendicular in a folio, octavo, 32 mo, and horizontal
in a quarto and i6mo. In a I2mo, as the name implies, the sheet is
folded in twelve; and in the earlier part at least of the i6th century
this was done in such a way that the wire-lines are perpendicular,
the height of the sheet forming two pages, as is the case in an octavo,
while the width is divided into six instead of into four as in an
octavo. The later habit has been to fold the sheet differently, the
height of the sheet forming the width of four pages, and the width
of the sheet the height of three pages, consequently the wire-lines
are horizontal " (E. G. Duff, Early Printed BOOKS, pp. 206-207).
The recognition of what is meant by the size of a book has been
obscured by the erroneous idea that the quires or gatherings of which
books are made up necessarily consist of single sheets. 2 If this were
so all folios would be in gatherings of two leaves each ; all quartos
in gatherings of four leaves; all octavos in gatherings of eights.
In the case of books printed on handmade paper, this is generally
true of octavos, but to reduce the amount of sewing the earliest
folios were usually arranged in tens, i.e. in gatherings of five sheets
or ten leaves, while in Shakespeare's time English folios were mostjy
in sixes. In the same way quartos are often found made up in
eights, and on the other hand the use of a half-sheet produces a
gathering of only two leaves.
When a manuscript or early printed book was being prepared for
binding, it was usual for the order in which the quires or gatherings
were to be arranged to be indicated by signing them with the letters
of the alphabet in their order, the alphabet generally used being
the Latin, in which I stands for both I and J ; V for both U and V,
and there is no W. If more than twenty-three letters were needed
the contractions for et, con, rum and (less often) that for us, were
used as additional signs, and for large books minuscules were used
as well as majuscules, and the letters were doubled. In 1472 printed
signatures came into use. If the quires or gatherings in the book
to be described are signed in print, the signatures used should be
quoted without brackets. If they are not signed, the order of the
gatherings should be noted by the letters of the alphabet in square
brackets. In each case the number of leaves in each gathering
should be shown by index-figures. Thus, six gatherings of eight
leaves followed by one of four should be represented by the symbols
A-F* G*. The make-up "of an old book in original binding is
usually sufficiently shown by the strings in the middle of each quire.
In books which have been rebound help may sometimes be obtained
from the fact that between (roughly) 1750 and 1850, a period during
which there was much rebinding of early books, the gatherings
before being put into their new quires were mostly separately
pressed, with the result that the outer pages of each gathering are
much smoother than the rest. But the only safe guide to the make-up
of an old book without printed signatures is a collation by means
of the watermarks, i.e. the devices with which the papermaker as
a rule marked each sheet (see PAPER). In a folio book one of every
pair of leaves should have a watermark in the middle of the paper.
In a quarto some pairs of leaves will have no watermark; in others
it will be found divided by the fold of the paper. As the great
majority of books without printed signatures are in folio or quarto.
1 It may be noted that some confusion is caused in descriptions
of books by the word " sheet," which should be restricted to the
original sheet of paper which by folding becomes folio, quarto, &c.,
being applied also to the double-leaf of four pages. A word specially
appropriated to this is greatly needed, and as gatherings of two,
three, four, &c., of such double-leaves are known technically as
duernions, ternions, quaternions, &c., the double-leaf itself might
well be called a " unit."
910
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND BIBLIOLOGY
the sequence of watermarked and un-watermarked leaves, if care-
fully worked out, will mostly reveal the " make-up " of the successive
gatherings.
After the size and sequence of the gatherings has been stated, the
total number of leaves should be noted, with a mention of any
numeration of them given in the book. Any discrepancy between
the total of the leaves assigned to the successive gatherings and the
total as separately counted of course points to an error, and the
reckonings must be repeated till they tally. Errors in the printed
enumeration of the leaves of olg! books are common, and it is seldom
necessary to point them out in detail. When reference has to be
made to a particular page of an old book, the printed signatures
offer the readiest means, an index number placed below the letter
indicating the number of the leaf in the gathering and the addition
of " recto " or " verso " marking the upper or under page of the
leaf. Thus " X recto " (some bibliographers prefer the rather
clumsier form " X 4 recto ") stands for the first page of the fourth
leaf of the gathering signed X. Where there are no printed signa-
tures the leaf-number may be given, the letters " a " and ' b "
above the numeral taking the place of " recto " and " verso "
(leaf 99"). Where some leaves of a book are numbered and others
not, if the reference is to the printed numeration this should be stated.
Printed leaf numeration is found as early as 1470, and became
common about ten years later. Printed pagination did not become
common till nearly the middle of the 1 6th century.
The foregoing details are all directed to showing which leaves of
a book would be printed by the same pull of the press, how it was
made up for binding, and how imperfections in any copy may be
detected. They give little or no indication of the dimensions of the
book. In the case of modern editions this may be done by adding
one of the trade epithets, pott, foolscap, crown, &c., to the name of
the size, which when thus qualified denotes paper of a particular
measurement (see PAPER). As, however, these measurements are
not easily remembered, it is better to give the actual measurements
in inches or millimetres of a page of an uncut copy. In old books
uncut copies are not easily found, and it is useful instead of this to
give the measurement in millimetres of the printed portion of the
page (technically called the " type-page "), although this is subject
to a variation of about 3 % in different copies, according to the
degree to which they were damped for printing. To this is added
a statement of the number of lines in the pagje measured. The
character of the type (roman, gothic or italic) is next mentioned,
and in the case of 15th-century books, its number in the sequence
of founts used by the printer (see INCUNABULA). Finally a reference
to any authoritative description already printed completes this
portion of the entry. Thus the description of the collation of the
first-dated book printed at Augsburg, the Meditationes of S. Bona-
ventura, printed by Giinther 2ainer in 1468, should read: Folio
(a 10 , b-d 8 , e-g l , h 8 ) 72 leaves. Type-page ( l ) 202 X 120 mm. ; 35 lines.
Type i (gothic letter). Hain 3557.
(c) While many books, and this is especially true of early ones,
contain little or nothing beyond the bare text of a well-known work,
others are well provided, not only with commentaries which are
almost sure to be mentioned on the title-page, or in the colophon
(which the editor himself often wrote), but also with dedicatory
letters, prefaces, complimentary verses, indexes and other accessories,
the presence of which it is desirable to indicate. In these cases it is
often convenient to show the entire contents of the book in the order
in which they occur, noting the leaves or pages on which each begins.
Thus in the first edition (1590) of the first three books of Spenser's
Faerie Queene, the literary contents, their order, and the space
they occupy can be concisely noted by taking the successive gather-
ings according to their signatures and showing what comes on each
page. Thus: AI, recto, title; verso, dedication, "To the Most
- Mightie and Magnificent Empresse Elizabeth"; Aj-Oog, text of
books i.-iii. ; Ppi, letter dated the 23rd of January 1589 [1590] to
Sir Walter Raleigh expounding the intention of the work; Pp s verso,
commendatory verses signed W. R[aleigh], Hobynoll (Gabriel
Harvey), R.S., H.B., W.L. and Ignoto; Ppt-s, complimentary
sonnets severally inscribed to Sir C. Hatton, the earls of Essex,
Oxford, Northumberland and Ormond, Lord Ch. Howard, Lord
Grey of Wilton and Sir W. Raleigh, and to Lady Carew and to the
Ladies in the Court; and " Faults escaped in the print "; Qqi-,
fifteen other sonnets.
Some bibliographers prefer to reverse the order of notation,
(title, At,_ recto; dedication, AI, verso, &c.), and no principle is
sacrificed in doing so, though the order suggested usually works out
the more neatly.
Enumeration and Arrangement. In the i8th and early loth
centuries there was a tendency, especially among French writers,
to exaggerate the scope of bibliography, on the ground that it
was the duty of the bibliographer to appraise the value of all the
books he recorded, and to indicate the exact place which each
work should occupy in a logical classification of all literature
based on a previous classification of all knowledge. Biblio-
graphers are now more modest. They recognize that the
1 Here specify the page measured.
classification of human knowledge is a question for philosophers
and men of science, that the knowledge of chemistry and of its
history needed to make a good bibliography of chemistry is alto-
gether extrinsic to bibliography itself; that all, in fact, to which
bibliography can pretend is to suggest certain general principles
of arrangement and to point out to some extent how they may
be applied. The principles are neither numerous nor recondite.
To illustrate the history of printing, books may be arranged
according to the places and printing-houses where they were
produced. For the glorification of a province or county, they
are sometimes grouped under the places where their authors
were bom or resided. For special purposes, they may be arranged
according to the language or dialect in which they are written.
But, speaking generally, the choice for a basis of arrangement
rests between the alphabetical order of authors and titles, a
chronological order according to date of publication, a " logical "
or alphabetical order according to subjects, and some combina-
tion of these methods. In exercising the choice the essential
requisite is a really clear idea of the use to which the bibliography,
when made, is to be put. If its chief object be to give detailed
information about individual books, a strictly alphabetical
arrangement " by authors and titles " (i.e. by the names of
authors in their alphabetical order, and the titles of their books
in alphabetical sequence under the names) will be the most
useful, because it enables the student to obtain the information
he seeks with the greatest ease. But while such an alphabetical
arrangement offers the speediest access to individual entries, it
has no other merit, unless the main object of the bibliography
be to show what each author has written. If it is desired to
illustrate the history and development of a subject, or the
literary biography of an author, the books should be entered
chronologically. If direction in reading is to be given, this can
best be offered by a subject-index, in which the subjects are
arranged alphabetically for speedy reference, and the books
chronologically under the subject, so that the newest are always
at the end. Lastly if the object is to show how far the whole
field has been covered and what gaps remain to be filled, a class
catalogue arranged according to what are considered the logical
subdivisions of the subject has its advantages. It is important,
however, to remember that, if the bulk of the bibliography is
very large, a principle of arrangement which would be clear and
useful on a small scale may be lost in the quantity of pages over
which it extends. An arrangement which cannot be quickly
grasped, whatever satisfaction it may give its author, is useless
to readers, the measure of its inutility being the worn condition
of the alphabetical index to which those who cannot carry a
complicated " logical " arrangement in their heads are obliged
to turn, in the first instance, to find what they want. It should
be obvious that any system which necessitates a preliminary
reference to a key or index rests under grave suspicion, and needs
some clear counterbalancing gain to justify the loss of time
which it entails. The main classification should always be that
which will be most immediately useful to readers of the books.
To throw light on the history of a subject and to indicate how
far the field is covered are honourable objects for compilers, but
should mostly be held subordinate to practical use. It is note-
worthy also that they may often be better forwarded by means
of an index or table than by the main arrangement. The history
of Hain's Repertorium Bibliographicum, which enumerates in an
alphabetical arrangement of authors and titles some 16,000 books
printed in the isth century, is a good example of this. For
sixty-five years it was of the utmost use for its accurate descrip-
tions of individual books, but threw practically no light on the
history of printing. In 1891 Dr Konrad Burger published an
appendix to it containing an Index of Printers, since greatly
enlarged in his index to Dr Copinger's Supplement to Hain (1902).
The form of the index enables each printer's work to be seen at a
glance, and the impetus given to the study of the history of
printing was very great. But if the book had originally been
arranged under Printers instead of Authors, it would have been
far mere difficult to use; its literary value would have been
halved, and the record of the output of each press, now instantly
BIBLIOMANCY DIGESTER
911
visible, would have been obscured by the fuller entries causing
it to extend over many pages.
The Bibliography of Bibliography. The zeal of students of
early printing has provided the material for an almost exhaustive
list (see INCUNABULA) of the books printed in the isth century
still extant. Of those printed in the years 1501-1536 there is a
tentative enumeration in the continuation of Panzer's Annales
Typographici (1803), and materials are gradually being collected
for improving and extending this. But the projects once formed
for a universal bibliography have dwindled in proportion as the
output of the press has increased, and the nearest approaches
to such a work are the printed catalogue of the library of the
British Museum, and that of the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris,
now in progress. Of books of great rarity unrepresented in these
catalogues a fairly sufficient record exists in Brunei's Manuel
du libraire, the bibliographical collections of Mr W. C. Hazlitt,
the Bibliographer's Manual by Lowftcles, and the other biblio-
graphical works enumerated in the article on book-collecting
(q.v.). When a universal bibliography was recognized as an
impossibility, patriotism suggested the compilation of national
bibliographies, and the Bibliotheca Brilannica of Robert Watt
(Edinburgh, 1824) remains an extraordinary example of what
the zeal of a single man could accomplish in this direction.
Qu6rard's La France litteraire (Paris, 1827-1839), while it gives
fuller titles, is much less comprehensive, embracing mainly
books of the i8th and early igth centuries, and only such of
these as appeared to the compiler to be written by "savants,
historiens, et gens de lettres." In the works of Heinsius (All-
gemeines Bucherlexikon, 1700-1815, Leipzig, 1812-1817), and
Kayser (Bucherlexikon, 1750, &c., Leipzig, 1834, &c.) Germany
possesses a fine record of her output of books during the last
two centuries, and since the organization of the book-trade,
contemporary lists of books, with risumfs and indexes issued
at intervals, exist for most European countries. For the period
before these became of importance in England much biblio-
graphical material has been collected in the Catalogues of
English Books printed up to the end of the year 1640, issued
by the British Museum in 1884, by the John Rylands library,
Manchester, in 1895, and by the University library, Cambridge,
in 1900-1906. A similar record of the rich English collections
in the Bodleian library, Oxford, remains a great desideratum.
While these substitutes for a universal author catalogue have
gradually been provided, similar contributions to a universal
subject catalogue have been made in the form of innumerable
special bibliographies compiled by students or bookmen inter-
ested in special subjects or departments of literature. The
most important of these are enumerated in the bibliographical
notes appended to articles in this Encyclopaedia, but many
attempts have been made to compile separate catalogues of
them.
The most recent of these bibliographies of bibliographies naturally
take over all that is of any value in their predecessors, and it may
suffice therefore to make special mention of the following : Biblio-
theca bibliographica. Kritisches Verzeichniss der das Cesammlgebiet
der Bibliographic betreffenden Lilteratur des In- und Auslandes, in
systematisches Ordnung bearbeitet von Dr Julius Petzholdt. Mil
alphabelischen Namen und Sachregister (Leipzig, 1866), 8vo, pp. xii.
940; Manuel de bibliographic gtnerale, par Henri Stein (Paris, 1898),
8vo, pp. xx. 896; Manuel de bibliographic historique, par Ch. V.
Langlois (Paris, IQOI), I2mo, pp. xi. 623; A Register of National
Bibliography. With a selection of the chief bibliographical works
and articles printed in other Countries, by W. P. Courtney (London,
1905), 8vo, pp. viii. 631.
It should also be noted that the List of Books of Reference in the
Reading-Room of the British Museum, first published in 1889, and
the Subject-index of the Modern Works added to the Library of the
British Museum in the years 1881-1000, edited by G. K. Fortescue
(supplements published^ every five years), include entries of a vast
number of bibliographical works, and that an eclectic list, with
a valuable introduction, will be found in Professor Ferguson's
Some Aspects of Bibliography (Edinburgh, 1900). (A. W. Po.)
BIBLIOMANCY (from the Gr. 0if)\iov, a book, and uo.rrtla,
prophecy), a form of divination (q.v.) by means of the Bible or
other books. The method employed is to open the Bible hap-
hazard and be guided by the first verse which catches the eye.
Among the Greeks and Romans the practice was known under
the name of sortes Homericae or sortcs Virgilianae, the books
consulted being those of Homer or Virgil.
BIBRACTE, an ancient Gaulish town, the modern Mont
Beuvray, near Autun in France. Here, on a hilltop 2500 ft.
above sea-level, excavation has revealed a vast area of 330
acres, girt with a stone and wood rampart 3 m. long, and con-
taining the remains of dwelling-houses, a temple of Bibractis,
and the workshops of iron and bronze workers and enamellers.
It was the capital of the Aedui in the time of Julius Caesar.
Later on Augustus removed the inhabitants to his new town
Augustodflnum (Autun), to destroy the free native traditions.
Another far more obscure town in Gaul, near Reims, also bore
the name.
See Bulliot, Fouittes de Bewray; Dechelette, Oppidum de Bibracte;
also references s.v. AEDUI.
BIBULUS, a svrname of the Roman gens Calpurnia. The best-
known of those who bore it was Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus,
consul with Julius Caesar, 59 B.C. He was the candidate put
forward by the aristocratical party in opposition to L. Lucceius,
who was of the party of Caesar; and bribery was freely used,
with the approval of even the rigid Cato (Suetonius, Caesar, 9),
to secure his election. But he proved no match for his able
colleague. He made an attempt to oppose the agrarian law
introduced by Caesar for distributing the lands of Campania,
but was overpowered and even personally ill-treated by the
mob. After making vain complaints in the senate, he shut
himself up in his own house during the remaining eight months
of his consulship, taking no part in public business beyond
fulminating edicts against Caesar's proceedings, which only
provoked an attack upon his house by a mob of Caesar's
partisans. His conduct gave rise to the jest, that Julius and
Caesar were consuls during that year. When the relations of
Caesar and Pompey became strained, Bibulus supported Pompey
(Plutarch, Cato Minor, 41) and joined in proposing his election as
sole consul (52 B.C.). Next year he went to Syria as proconsul
and claimed credit for a victory gained by one of his officers
over the Parthians, before his own arrival in the province.
After the expiration of his term of office, Pompey gave him com-
mand of his fleet in the Ionian Sea. He proved himself utterly
incapable; his chief exploit was the burning of thirty transports
on their return from Epirus whither they had succeeded in
conveying Caesar and some troops from Brundusium. He died
soon afterwards (48) of fatigue and mortification (Caesar, Bell.
Civ. iii. 5-18; Dio Cassius xli. 48). Although not a man of great
importance, Bibulus showed great persistency as the enemy of
Caesar. Cicero says of him that he was no orator, but a careful
writer. By his wife Porcia, daughter of Cato, afterwards married
to Brutus, he had three sons. The two eldest were murdered
in Egypt by some of the soldiery of Gabinius; the youngest,
Lucius Calpurnius Bibulus, fought on the side of the republic
at the battle of Philippi, but surrendered to Antony soon after-
wards, and was by him appointed to the command of his fleet.
He died (about 32) while governor of Syria under Augustus.
He wrote a short memoir of his step-father Brutus, which was
used by Plutarch (Appian, B.C. iv. 136; Plutarch, Brutus,
13- 23)-
BICE (from Fr. bis, a word of doubtful origin, meaning dark-
coloured), a term erroneously applied in Engb'sh to particular
shades of green or blue pigments from the French terms vert bis
and azur bis, dark green or blue. These colours are generally
prepared from basic copper carbonates, but sometimes from
ultramarine and other pigments.
BICESTER, a market town in the Woodstock parliamentary
division of Oxfordshire, England, 12 m. N.N.E. of Oxford by
a branch of the London & North-Western railway. Pop.
of urban district (1901) 3023. It lies near the northern edge
of the flat open plain of Ot Moor, in a pastoral country. The
church of St Eadburg, the virgin of Aylesbury, is cruciform,
with a western tower, and contains examples of Norman and
each succeeding style. There is, moreover, in the nave a single
rude angular arch considered to be Saxon. Incorporated with
a farm-house, scanty Perpendicular remains are seen of an
912
BICHAT BICHROMATES
Augustinian priory founded at the close of the izth century.
Bicester has considerable agricultural trade and a brewing
industry. It is a favourite hunting centre.
The termination cesler, commonly indicating Roman origin,
does not do so here, and is perhaps copied from Alchester and
Chesterton, 2 m. west of Bicester, where there is a small Roman
site, probably a wayside village, at the meeting of roads from
the south (Dorchester), west, north-east and east.
Bicester (Bemcestre, Burencestre, Bissiter), according to the
Domesday survey, was held by Robert d'Oily. In 1182 Gilbert
Basset founded here an Augustinian priory, which from that
date until its dissolution in 1538 became the centre of the
industrial life and development of the town. In 1253 William
Longspey obtained a grant of a fair at the feast of St Edburg,
and a Friday market is mentioned in the I4th century. Richard
II. granted a Monday market and a fair at the feast of St James
the Apostle, and in 1440 an additional market was granted to be
held in that part of the town called Bury-End, from this date
known as Market-End. Bicester never possessed any manu-
factures of importance, but the fairs and markets were much
frequented, and in the i6th century the cattle market was
especially famous.
See J. C. Blomfield, History of the Deanery of Bicester (London,
1882-1894) ; John Dunkin, History of Bicester (London, 1816).
BICHAT, MARIE FRANCOIS XAVIER (1771-1802), French
anatomist and physiologist, was born at Thoirette (Jura) on the
I4th of November 1771. His father, a physician, was his first
instructor. He entered the college of Nantua, and afterwards
studied at Lyons. In mathematics and the physical sciences
he made rapid progress, but ultimately devote.d himself to the
study of anatomy and surgery, under the guidance of M. A.
Petit (1766-1811), chief surgeon to the H6tel Dieu at Lyons.
The revolutionary disturbances compelled him to fly from
Lyons and take refuge in Paris in 1793. He there became a
pupil of P. J. Desault, who was so strongly impressed with his
genius that he took him into his house and treated him as his
adopted son. For two years he actively participated in all the
labours of Desault, prosecuting at the same time his own re-
searches in anatomy and physiology. The sudden death of
Desault in 1795 was a severe blow to Bichat. His first care was
to acquit himself of the obligations he owed his benefactor, by
contributing to the support of his widow and her son, and by
conducting to a close the fourth volume of Desault's Journal de
Chirurgie, to which he added a biographical memoir of its author.
His next object was to reunite and digest in one body the surgical
doctrines which Desault had published in various periodical
works. Of these he composed (Euvres chirurgicales de Desault,
ou tableau de sa doctrine, el de sa pratique dans le trailement des
maladies externes (1798-1799), a work in which, although he
professes only to set forth the ideas of another, he develops
them with the clearness of one who is a master of the subject.
In 1797 he began a course of anatomical demonstrations, and
his success encouraged him to extend the plan of his lectures,
and boldly to announce a course of operative surgery. In
the following year, 1798, he gave in addition a separate course
of physiology. A dangerous attack of haemoptysis interrupted
his labours for a time; but the danger was no sooner past than
he plunged into new engagements with the same ardour as
before. He had now scope in his physiological lectures for a
fuller exposition of his original views on the animal economy,
which excited much attention in the medical schools at Paris.
Sketches of these doctrines were given by him in three papers
contained in the Memoirs of the Soci6t6 M6dicale d'Emulation,
which he founded in 1796, and they were afterwards more fully
developed in his Trails sur les membranes (1800). His next
publication was the Recherches physiologiques sur la vie el sur
la mart (1800), and it was quickly followed by his Anatomie
gen f rale (1801), the work which contains the fruits of his most
profound and original researches. He began another work,
under the title Anatomie descriptive (1801-1803), in which the
organs were arranged according to his peculiar classification of
their functions, but lived to publish only the first two volumes.
It was completed on the same plan by his pupils, M. F. R.
Buisson (1776-1805) and P. J. Roux (1780-1854).
Before Bichat had attained the age of eight-and-twenty he
was appointed physician to the H6tel Dieu, a situation which
opened an immense field to his ardent spirit of inquiry. In the
investigation of diseases he pursued the same method of observa-
tion and experiment which had characterized his researches
in physiology. He learned their history by studying them at
the bedside of his patients, and by accurate dissection of their
bodies after death. He engaged in a series of examinations,
with a view to ascertain the changes induced in the various
organs by disease, and in less than six months he had opened
above six hundred bodies. He was anxious also to determine
with more precision than had been attempted before, the
effects of remedial agents, and instituted with this view a series
of direct experiments which yielded a vast store of valuable
material. Towards the end of his life he was also engaged on
a new classification of diseases. A fall from a staircase at the
H6tel Dieu resulted in a fever, and, exhausted by his excessive
labours and by constantly breathing the tainted air of the
dissecting-room, he died on the 22nd of July 1802. His bust,
together with that of Desault, was placed in the Hotel Dieu by
order of Napoleon.
BICHROMATES AND CHROMATES. Chromium trioxide
dissolves readily in water, and the solution is supposed to contain
chromic acid, H 2 CrO.i; the salts of this acid are known as the
chromates. In addition to these normal salts, others exist,
namely bichromates, trichromates, &c., which may be regarded
as combinations of one molecular proportion of the normal salt
with one or more molecular proportions of chromium trioxide.
The series will thus possess the following general formulae:
M 2 CrO MjCrjO? MjCrsOio &c. (M = one atom of a
normal chromate bichromate trichromate monovalent metal.)
Chromates. The alkaline chromates are usually obtained by
fusion of a chromium compound with an alkaline carbonate and an
oxidizing agent, such for example as potassium nitrate or chlorate.
The native chrome-ironstone (CftOa-FeO) may be used in this way
as a source of such compounds, being fused in a reverberatory
furnace, along with soda-ash and lime, the oxidizing agent in this
case being atmospheric oxygen. They may also be prepared by
oxidizing chromium salts (m alkaline solution) with hydrogen
peroxide, chlorine, bleaching powder, potassium permanganate
and manganese dioxide. The majority of the chromates are yellow
in colour, and many of them are isomorphous with the corresponding
sulphates. The alkaline chromates are soluble in water, those of
most other metals being insoluble. By the addition of mineral
acids, they are converted rapidly into bichromates. They are easily
reduced in acid solution by sulphuretted hydrogen, and also by
sulphur dioxide to chromium salts. The chromates are stable
towards heat; they are poisonous, and may be recognized by the
yellow precipitates they give with soluble barium and lead salts.
Potassium chromate, K 2 CrO4, may be prepared by neutralizing
a solution of potassium bichromate with potassium carbonate or
with caustic potash. It crystallizes in yellow rhombic prisms, and
is readily soluble in water, the solution having a bitter taste and an
alkaline reaction. When heated in a current of sulphuretted hydro-
gen, or carbon bisulphide, it yields a mixture of chromium sesqui-
oxide and sulphide. When heated with sulphur it yields chromium
sesquioxide. Sodium chromate, NasCrOflQHiO, forms pale yellow
crystals isomorphous with hydrated sodium sulphate, NajSOi-lOHjO.
It is deliquescent, and melts at 23 C. (M. Berthelot). By evaporation
of its aqueous solution at temperatures above 30 C. it may be ob-
tained in the anhydrous condition. Lead chromate, PbCrO4, occurs
native as the mineral crocoisite, and may be obtained as an amor-
phous pale yellow solid by precipitating a soluble lead salt by an
alkaline chromate. It is used as a pigment under the name "chrome
yellow." When digested for some time with a caustic alkali it is
converted into a basic salt, PbCrCVPbO, a pigment known as
" chrome red." It melts readily, and on cooling resolidifies to a
brown mass, which at moderately high temperatures gives off oxygen
and leaves a residue of a basic lead salt; for this reason fused lead
chromate is sometimes made use of in the analysis of organic com-
pounds. Silver chromate, AgjCrO<, is a dark red amorphous powder
obtained when silver nitrate is precipitated by an alkaline chromate.
It is decomposed by the addition of caustic alkalis, forming silver
oxide and an alkaline chromate.
Bichromates. The bichromates are usually of a red or reddish-
brown colour, those of the alkali metals being readily soluble in
water. They are readily decomposed by heat, leaving a residue
of the normal chromate and chromium sesquioxide, and liberating
oxygen; ammonium bichromate, however, is completely decomposed
BICKER BICYCLE
Into chromium sesquioxide, water and nitrogen. Sulphuretted
hydrogen and sulphur dioxide reduce them in acid solution to the
condition of chromium salts.
Potassium bichromate, KjCriO;, is obtained by fusing chrome
ironstone with soda ash and lime (see above), the calcium chromate
formed in the process being decomposed by a hot solution of
potassium sulphate. After the calcium sulphate has settled, the
potassium chromate solution is converted into bichromate by the
action of sulphuric acid, and the salt is allowed to crystallize. It
forms large triclinic prisms of specific gravity 2-6-2-7, which are
moderately soluble in cold water and readily soluble in hot water.
The solution is strongly acid in reaction and is very poisonous.
Potassium bichromate finds extensive application in orga nic chemistry
as an oxidizing agent, being used for this purpose in dilute sulphuric
acid solution, K,Cr,O, +.4H,SO 4 = K,SO 4 +Cr ? (SO 4 ),+4H,O+3O. On
the addition of concentrated sulphuric acid to a cold saturated
solution of the salt, red crystals of chromium trioxide, CrO,,
separate (see CHROMIUM), whilst when warmed with concentrated
hydrochloric acid and a little water, potassium chlorochromate is
produced. When heated with phosphorus trichloride in a sealed
tube to 160 C., potassium chlorochromate, phosphorus oxychloride,
potassium chloride, and a complex chromium oxide (possibly Cr>O e )
are produced (A. Michaelis, Jour. prak. Chem., 1871, ii. 4, p. 452).
Potassium bichromate finds application in photography, in calico-
printing, and in the preparation of bichromate cells. Sodium
bichromate, NajCrjO7-2H z O, may be obtained by the addition of the
requisite quantity of chromium trioxide to a solution of sodium
chromate. It crystallizes in hyacinth-red prisms, which are very
hygroscopic and melt at 320 C.
Trichromates. The trichromates are obtained by the addition of
nitric acid (of specific gravity about 1-2) to solutions of the bi-
chromates. They form rhombic crystals of a red or brown red
colour and are readily decomposed by warm water, with formation
of the bichromate.
Perchromic Acid. By the addition of hydrogen peroxide to a
solution of chromic acid, a fine blue coloration due to a perchromic
acid is produced which is readily absorbed by shaking out with
ether. The following formulae have been assigned to the com-
pound: H s Oj-CrO (H. Moissan, Comptes rendus, 1883, 97, p. 96);
H,(V2HCrO4 (M. Berthelot, Comples rendus, 1889, 108, p. 25);
CrjCVxHjO (L. C. A. Barreswil, Ann. chim. et phys., 1847 [3], 20,
p. 364), and CrO c -3H 2 O (T. Fairley, Client. News, 1876, 33,j>. 237).
The more recent investigations of H. G. Byers and E. E. Reed
(Amer. Chem. Jour., 1904, 32, p. 503) show that if metallic potassium
be added to an ethereal solution of the blue compound at 20 C.,
hydrogen is liberated and a purple black precipitate of the per-
chromate, of composition KCrO< or K 2 CiiOj, is produced; this com-
pound is very unstable, and readily decomposes into oxygen and
potassium bichromate. Similar sodium, ammonium, lithium,
magnesium, calcium, barium and zinc salts have been obtained.
It is shown that the blue solution most probably contains the acid
of composition, HjCr^Os, whilst in the presence of an excess of hydro-
gen peroxide more highly oxidized products probably exist.
BICKER (connected by Skeat with bike, to. thrust or strike),
an Old English word (traced from the I3th century) implying
conflict or disputation. A poetical use, from the noise, is seen
in Tennyson's Brook, " to bicker down the valley."
BICKERSTAFFE, ISAAC (c. i735-c. 1812), English dramatist,
was born in Ireland about 1735. At the age of eleven he was
appointed a page to Lord Chesterfield, then lord lieutenant of
Ireland, and subsequently held a commission in the Marines,
but was dismissed the service under discreditable circumstances.
He was the author of a large number of plays and burlesque
farces interspersed with songs, produced between 1760 and 1771.
The best-known are Maid of the Mill (founded on Richardson's
Pamela), The Padlock, He Would if he Could, Love in a Village,
The Hypocrite and The Captive. In 1772 Bickerstaffe, suspected
of a capital offence, fled to the continent. The exact date of
his death is unknown, but he is stated to have been still living
in abject misery in 1812.
A full account of his dramatic productions is given in Biographia
Dramatica, edited by Stephen Jones (1812).
BICKERSTETH, EDWARD (1786-1830), English evangelical
divine, brother of Henry, Baron Langdale, master of the rolls
(1836-1851), and uncle of Robert Bickersteth, bishop of Ripon
(1857-1884), was born at Kirkby Lonsdale, and practised as a
solicitor at Norwich from 1812 to 1815. In 1816 he took orders,
and was made one of the secretaries of the Church Missionary
Society. On receiving the living of Watton, Hertfordshire, in
1830, he resigned his secretaryship, but continued to lecture and
preach, both for the Church Missionary Society and the Society
for the Conversion o't the Jews. His works include A Scripture
Help (London, 1816), which has been translated into many
European languages, and Christian Psalmody (London, 1833),
a collection of over 700 hymns, which forms the basis of the
Hymnal Companion (London, 1870), compiled by his son, E. H.
Bickersteth, bishop of Exeter (1885-1890). He was active in
promoting the Evangelical Alliance of 1845, strongly opposed
the Tractarian Movement, and was one of the founders of the
Irish Church Missions, and Parker, Societies.
EDWARD BICKERSTETH (1814-1892), dean of Lichfield, was
his nephew, and EDWARD BICKERSTETH (1850-1897), bishop of
South Tokyo, his grandson.
BICYCLE (from prefix W= twice, and Gr. KfoXos, a circle,
wheel). The modern bicycle, as developed from the old veloci-
pede (see CYCLING), consists essentially of two wheels placed
one behind the other and mounted on a frame which carries a
saddle for the rider. Between the wheels is a crank-axle which
the rider drives by means of the cranks and pedals, and its
motion is transmitted to the rear or driving wheel either by a
chain which passes over two chain wheels, one fixed on the
crank-axle and the other on the hub of the rear wheel, or, in the
chainless bicycle, by a tubular shaft and two pairs of bevel-
wheels. The rear wheel is usually so arranged that it can
turn, when the bicycle is running by its own momentum, inde-
pendently of the chain and pedals (" free-wheel "), and a variable
speed gear is often provided so that the rider may at will alter
the ratio between the rate of revolution of the crank-axle and the
driving wheel. The front, or steering wheel, is mounted in a fork
having its two upper ends brazed into the "crown," to which
also the lower end of the steering tube is brazed. The steering
tube is mounted by ball bearings in the socket tube, which forms
the forward portion of the rear-frame.
The highest quality of materials and the most accurate work-
manship are required to produce a first-class bicycle. Steel of
75 to 100 tons per sq. in. tensile strength is used in chains, spokes,
&c. In balls and ball-races, hardness without brittleness, and
homogeneity are of primary importance. Broken balls, or even
traces of wear in bearings, are now seldom heard of in a first-class
bicycle. The process of case-hardening, whereby an extremely
hard outer skin is combined with a tough interior, has been
brought to a high degree of perfection, and is applied to many
parts of the bicycle, particularly chains, free-wheels and toothed-
wheel variable speed gears. Interchangeability of parts is
secured by working to the smallest possible limits of error of
workmanship.
Frames. Fig. I represents a road-racer. A full roadster would
have the handles a little higher relatively to the saddle, and would
be provided with mud-guards, free-wheel and sometimes a gear-case
A f
FIG. i.
and variable speed gear. Fig. 2 shows a lady's bicycle with gear-
case and dress-guard. The rear frame of the " diamond " type(ng. i)
is subjected to very small stresses due to vertical load. The front
fork and steering post are subject to bending moment due to the
reaction from the ground in the direction deb. A slight amount of
elasticity in the front fork adds considerably to the comfort in riding
over rough roads. When the brake is applied lightly to the front
wheel, the reaction from the ground falls more closely along the axis
of the front fork, and the bending moment at the crown is diminished.
If the front brake is applied harder the reaction from the ground
at d may pass through the crown, in which case the bending moment
at the crown is zero. Still harder application of the brake causes
a bending moment in the opposite direction. In fig. I the axes of
the top and bottom tubes of the rear frame are produced to meet at a.
BICYCLE
If the reaction from the ground is in the direction da, the top
and bottom tubes are subjected to pure compressive and tensile
stresses respectively. When no brake pressure is applied a bending
moment due to the overhang ab is superimposed on these tubes.
Thus a short socket head with top tube sloping downwards towards
the head gives a stronger frame than a horizontal top tube. The
steering axis ef is arranged so as to cut the ground at /, a little in
front of the point of contact d of the wheel with the ground,
giving a slight castor action, and making steering possible without
use of the handle-bar. The rake of the steering head (that is the
angle between ef and bd) and the set of the fork (that is the displace-
ment of the wheel centre c from the axis ef) may be varied within
tolerably large limits without much affecting the easy steering
properties of the bicycle. The transverse stresses on the rear frame
due to the action of pedalling are more severe than those due to the
FIG. 2.
vertical load. The pedal pressure is applied at a considerable dis-
tance from the central plane of the bicycle, and the pedal pin,
cranks and crank-axle are subjected to a bending moment which
is transmitted by the ball bearings to the frame. The down-
tube from the seat lug to the crank-bracket and the bottom
tube from the foot of the steering socket tube to the crank-
bracket are made fairly stout to resist this bending moment.
Further, the pull of the chain causes a transverse bending moment
in the plane of the chain-stays, which must be stiff enough under
heavy pedal pressure.
The tubular portions of the frame are made of weldless cold-
drawn steel tube. The junctions or lugs are usually of malleable
cast iron, bored to fit the outside of the tube, the final union being
effected by brazing. In very light bicycles the tubes are kept thin,
22 or 24 W.G. (-028 in. or -022 in. thickness) at the middle, and are
strengthened at the ends by internal liners. Or butt-ended tubes
are employed, the tubes being drawn thicker at the ends than in
the middle. The steering post and fork sides especially should be
thus strengthened at their junction with the crown. Some of the best
makers use sheet steel stampings instead of cast lugs, greater lightness
and strength being secured, and in some cases the sheet steel lugs
are inside the tubes, so that the joints are all flush on the outside.
The front fork blades are best made of sheet steel stamped to shape
and with the edges brazed together to form a hollow tube. The
sheet steel that can be thus employed has a much higher elastic
limit than a weldless steel tube.
Bearings. Ball bearings are universally used. Each row of balls
runs between two ball-races of hardened steel, one on the stationary
member, the other on the rotating member. The outer is called the
" cup," and the inner the " cone." One of the four ball-races is
N
jiirai|.__ A
N
FIG. 3.
adjustable axially so that the bearing may run without any shake.
The ball-races are often made of separate pieces of steel, but the
crank-axle usually has the cones formed integral with it, the neces-
sary hardness being obtained by case-hardening. According as the
two cups face outwards or inwards the bearing is said to have out-
ward or inward cups, and according as the adjustable ball race is
the cone or cup, the bearing is said to be cone-adjusting or cup-
adjusting. Fig. 3 shows a ball-bearing hub with outward cups.
The hub-shell H is turned out of mild steel, and the cups C are
forced into the ends of the hub-shell and soldered thereto. A thin
washer W is then spun into the end, for the purpose of retaining oil,
and a thin internal tube T unites the two cups, and guides the oil
fed in at the middle of the hub to the balls. The projecting flanges
S are for the attachment of the tangent spokes used to build the
hub into the wheel. The spindle A has the two cones screwed on
it, one Ci against a shoulder, the other C 2 adjustable. The spindle
ends are passed through the back-fork ends and are there adjusted
in position by the chain-tension adjusters. After adjustment the
nuts N clamp the spindle securely between the fork-ends. The
chain-wheel or free-wheel clutch is screwed on the end of the hub-
shell, with a right-hand thread. The chain being at the right-hand
side of the bicycle (as the rider is seated) the driving pull of the chain
tends to screw the chain-wheel tight against the shoulder. A
locking-ring R with a left-hand thread, screwed tight against the
chain-wheel, prevents the latter from being unscrewed by back-
pedalling. With a free-wheel clutch screwed on the hub, the locking-
ring may be omitted.
Fig. 4 shows one end of the cup-adjusting hub, with inward bear-
ings. The cones are formed of one piece with the spindles, and the
adjusting cup C is screwed in the end of the hub shell, and locked
in position by the screwed locking-ring R. The figure also illustrates
a divided spindle for facilitating the removal of the tire for repair
when required without disturbing the wheel, bearings, chain or gear-
FIG. 4.
case. The chain side of the hub-spindle, not shown in the figure, is
secured to the frame in the usual way; on the left side the spindle
S projects very little beyond the adjusting cup. A distance washer
W is placed between the end of the spindle S and the fork-end F.
A detachable screw-pin, or the footstep, P, passes through the
chain-adjusting draw-bolt B, the fork-end F, and the distance
washer W, and is screwed into the end of the spindle S, the hexagon
head of the detachable pin drawing all the parts securely together.
On unscrewing the detachable pin, the distance washer W drops
out of place, leaving a clear space for removing the tire without
disturbing any other part.
The inward-cups bearing retains more oil than the other form.
The pressure on a ball being normal to the surface of contact with
the ball race, and each ball touching two ball races, the two points
of contact must be in line with the centre of the ball. All the lines
of pressure on the balls of a row meet at a point / on the axis of the
spindle. The distance between the two points / (fig. 5) may be
called the virtual length of the bearing. Other things being equal,
the outward-cups bearing has a greater virtual length than the
inward-cups bearing. In hubs and pedals where the actual distance
between the two rows of balls is sufficient, this point is of little im-
portance. At the crank-axle bearing, however, where the pedal
pressure which produces pressure on the axle bearings is applied
at a considerable overhang beyond the ball-races, the greater virtual
length of the outward-cups is an advantage.
Fig. 5 shows diagrammatically the usual form of crank-axle
bearing which has in- _
ward-cups and is cup-
adjusting. The end of
the bracket is split and
the cup after adjust-
ment is -clamped in
position by the clamp-
ing screw S. The usual
mode of fastening the
cranks to the axle is
by round cotters C with
a flat surface at a slight
angle to the axis, thus
forming a wedge, which
is driven in tight. The
small end of the cotter
projects through the
crank, and is screwed
and held in place by a nut.
FIG. 5.
The chain-wheel at the crank-axle is
usually detachably fastened to the right-hand crank.
BICYCLE
9*5
The Rudge-Whitworth crank-bracket has outward cups and is
cup-adjusting. The cranks are cotterless. Fig. 6 is a sectional view.
The left crank and axle are forged in one piece. The fastening of
the right crank and chain-
wheel is by multiple grooves
and teeth, this fastening being
better mechanically than the
cotter type.
Pedals. The pedal consists
of a pedal body, on which
the foot of the rider rests,
mounted by ball-bearings on
a pedal-pin, which is secured
to the end of the crank and
turns with it. The pedal body
is made in many forms, but
usually the bearing-cups are
FIG. 6.
contained in a tube from the ends of which project plates, carrying
rubber blocks, or serrated plates (rat-trap pedals), on which the
foot of the rider rests. Cone adjustment is most used. The fasten-
ing of the pedal pin to the crank is best effected by screwing it up
against a shoulder, the right and left crank eyes being tapped with
right and left hand screws respectively. With this arrangement, if
the pedal pin screw is a slack fit in the crank eye, the pressure on
the pedal tends to screw it up against the shoulder.
Wheels. Bicycle and tricycle wheels are made on the " sus-
pension " principle, the spokes being of high-tenacity steel wire,
screwed up to a certain initial tension, thus putting a circumferential
compression on the rim. In the " artillery " wheel, the wooden
spokes are in compression, and the rim is under tension. The rims,
which are made to a section suitable for pneumatic tires (see TIRE),
may be of sheet steel or aluminium alloy rolled to the required
section, either without joint or jointed by brazing or riveting.
Wood rims are used on racing bicycles, but in England are not
popular for roadster bicycles. Holes are drilled at or near the
central plane of the rim for the spoke nipples, which have shoulders
resting on the outer surface of the rim and shanks projecting through
the rim towards the hub. The spoke ends are screwed to fit the
nipples. The shank of the nipple has a square cut on its outside
surface by which it can be screwed up. The spoke flanges on the hub
are placed far apart and the spread of the spokes gives the wheel
lateral stability. Tangential rigidity under driving and braking is
obtained by fastening the spokes to the hub tangentially (figs. I
and 2). The hub fastening of the spoke is simply obtained by form-
ing a hook and head on the spoke end, and passing it through a hole
in the hub flange. The best spokes are butted at the ends, i.e. made
of larger diameter than at the middle, to allow for screwing at one
end and the hook bend at the other.
Chains. There are two widely used types of chains. The
" block " chain (fig. 7) consists of a series of central blocks connected
FIG. 7.
by side plates. The " roller " chain (fig. 8) consists of a series
of outside and inside links. The outside link A is made up of
two steel side plates P united by two shouldered rivets R. The
inside link B consists of two side plates P united by two tubular
pieces T, which form bushes for the
rivets R and pivots for the rollers L. The
rivets, bushes and rollers are case-hardened.
Roller chains for cycles are made in
two pitches, J in. and | in., and in widths
from J jn. to } in. between the side plates
of the inside links. The weight of 4 ft.
length (96 links) of a J in. pitch J in. wide
roller chain is about 12\ oz., and its break-
ing load is about 2000 Ib. In a block chain
the ends of the blocks engage with the
teeth of the chain-wheels, and the same
surfaces continually coming into contact,
the wear may become excessive, especially
when exposed to mud and grit. In the
roller chain the outer surfaces of the rollers
engage with the teeth of the chain-wheels,
and during the engagement and disengage-
ment may roll slightly on the tubular
rivets. The surface of contact of the roller
and tubular rivet is not directly exposed
to the dust and grit from the road. The
roller's therefore serve the double purpose
of (l) transferring the relative motion of
the parts to a pair of surfaces under better
conclitions as regards lubrication, and (2)
presenting a new part of the outside surface of the roller for the
next engagement with the chain-wheel. The durability of roller
FIG. 8.
chains is thus much greater than that of block chains, under
the usual conditions of cycling.
Chain-wheels. The pitch fine of the chain-wheel is polygonal
(fig- 9)i " b, i , d being centres of adjacent joints of the chain when
lying in contact with
the wheel. The path
of the joint a of the
chain, relative to the
chain-wheel as it enters
on to and leaves the
chain-wheel, is evi-
dently the curve
a> aj <j| a a'i a'j, made
up of a series of circular
arcs having centres d,
c, b, b', c', respectively.
Similarly for the path
of the adjacent joint b.
The fullest possible
form of the tooth is
that between the two
parallel curves, of radii
less by an amount equal
to the radius of the
roller, a? indicated in fig. 9. But since it is neither necessary nor
desirable that the roller should roll along the whole length of the
tooth, the radii of curvature of the tooth outline may be less than
shown in fig. o. A good arrangement of tooth form is shown in fig. ip.
Owing to the polygonal pitch surfaces of the chain-wheels a chain
does not transmit motion with con-
stant speed-ratio of the shafts. The
variation of speed-ratio in a chain
with links of equal pitch is ap-
proximately inversely proportional
to the square of the number of FIG. 10.
teeth in the smaller chain-wheel, as
shown in the table annexed, in which the percentage variation is
maximum speed-ratio-minimum speed-ratio
average speed-ratio
FIG. 9.
Number of teeth on hub
chain-wheel
10
12
H
16
18
20
24
28
Percentage variation
5-1
3-5
2-7
2-1
1-6
i'3
0-9
0-7
The rollers as they come in contact with the chain-wheel strike
it with a speed proportional to the angular speed of the chain-wheel
and to the pitch of the chain, causing a certain amount of noise.
Chain Adjustment. To keep the chain running at correct tension,
it is necessary to have some adjustment of the distance between
the crank-axle and hub. This is obtained either by an eccentric ad-
justment at the crank-bracket, an eccentric adjustment at the
hub-spindle or by draw-bolts at the fork-ends, the last method being
most common.
Gear-case. The modern roller chain by makers of repute is so
durable that the necessity for a gear-case is not so great as when
chains were of inferior quality. But if the bicycle is to require the
minimum amount of care and attention a gear-case should be fitted.
The Sunbeam gear-case is built into the frame and is oil-retaining,
and the chain, chain-wheels, free-wheel and two-speed gear are
continually lubricated by an oil-bath. A detachable gear-case is not
usually oil-retaining, but serves to exclude grit and mud from the
chain.
Gear and Crank-length. The " gear " of a bicycle is given by the
formula Dni/n where D is the diameter of the driving wheel in
inches, ni and n^ the numbers of teeth on the crank-axle and hub
chain-wheels respectively. At each revolution of the crank-axle,
the bicycle is moved forward a distance equal to the circumference
of the circle of diameter equal to the gear. Thus with a 28 in.
diameter driving-wheel, 18 teeth on the hub chain-wheel, 45 teeth
on the crank-axle chain-wheel, the bicycle is geared to 70 in. The
usual crank-length is 6J to 7 in. Cranks of 7}, 8 and o in. length can
be had, but require a bicycle frame of special design. The gear should
be roughly proportional to the crank-length. The gear 10 times the
crank-length is a good proportion for an average rider.
Free-wheels. A free-wheel clutch transmits the drive in one
direction only, allowing the pedals to remain at rest at the will of
the rider, while the bicycle runs on. With a free-wheel, chain
breakages are reduced or nearly eliminated, as should the chain get
accidentally caught the free-wheel comes into play. There are three
principal types of free-wheel clutches roller, ratchet and friction
cone. The roller type was the earliest in use, but has fallen into
disfavour. A sectional view of a ball-bearing ratchet free-wheel,
with outer cover removed, is shown in fig. n. The ring on which
the three pawls and springs are carried is screwed on the end of
the hub; the chain-wheel is combined with an inner ratchet wheel
and is mounted by two rows of ball bearings on the pawl ring. The
friction cone type of free-wheel clutch is usually combined with a brake
916
BICYCLE
inside the hub, the whole combination being termed a coaster hub.
Fig. 12 shows a sectional view of the Eadie two-speed coaster, in
which the free-wheel clutch and brake are combined with a two-
speed gear. The free-wheel clutch
action is as follows: A forward pres-
sure of the pedals turns the externally
threaded driving cone H in the in-
ternally threaded cone F, the latter
being thus forced to the right into
engagement with the cup J which is
screwed to the hub-shell, thus forming
a friction driving clutch. The pedals
being held stationary the driving cone
H is stationary, and the hub running
on the ball bearings G, the cone F
travels towards the left until released
from the cup J, when it also remains
at rest. In this type of free-wheel
clutch it is essential that there be
little or no friction between the screwed surfaces of H and F,
else on beginning to pedal, the cone F may remain stationary
relative to the driving cone H, and no engagement between F and
J may take place. If F be prevented from turning faster than the
hub-shell, as is sometimes done by a light spring between the two,
the engagement of the friction clutch must take place as soon as
FIG. n.
FIG. 12. Eadie Two-speed_Coaster Hub.
the pedals tend to move faster than the speed corresponding to
that of the hub-shell.
Brakes of many types are used, differing in the place and mode
of application. The tire brake has fallen into disuse, rim brakes
and internal hub brakes being usual. The retarding force that can
be applied by a brake is limited by the possibility of skidding the
wheel. In riding at uniform speed, without acceleration, the greater
part of the load is on the rear-wheel ; but as soon as the brake is
applied to cause retardation the wheel load distribution is altered,
more load being thrown on the front wheel. Thus the most power-
ful brake is one applied to the front wheel. On the other hand,
a front-wheel brake often sets up an unpleasant vibration of the
front fork. On a greasy road too powerful pressure on the front-
wheel brake may cause a side-slip with no chance of recovery;
while with the back-wheel brake recovery is possible. The Bowden
system of transmission, which is largely used for cycle brake work,
consists of a steel stranded cable inside a flexible tube formed by a
closely wound spiral of steel wire, the cable being practically in-
extensible and the spiral tube practically incompressible; if the ends
of the latter be fastened it forms a guide tube for the cable, any
movement given to one end of the cable being transmitted to the
other end. The spiral tube may be led round any corners, but the
frictional resistance of the cable inside the spiral tube increases with
the total angle of curvature of the guide tube; the laws of friction
of a rope passing over a drum apply. In fitting the Bowden system
the total curvature should therefore be kept as small as possible.
With a back-pedalling rim brake the cycle cannot be wheeled back-
wards unless a special device is used to throw the operating clutch
put of action. A back-pedalling brake is most conveniently applied
inside the hub, as in the coaster hub. In the Eadie two-speed
coaster (fig. 12) the braking action is obtained by the expansion of
the steel band I against a phosphor bronze ring L earned by the
rotating hub-shell. The steel band I is mounted on a disk with a
projecting arm, the end of which is clipped to the frame tube. The
expansion of the steel band is effected by the movement of the lever
K fixed to the cone E. On moving the pedals backward the screw
drive-ring H forces the cone nut F with which it engages to the left
into contact with the cone E. The backward movement of the
pedals being continued sets up the required movement of the lever
K, and applies the brake.
Variable Speed Gears. The effort required to propel a bicycle
varies greatly, according to the conditions of road surface, gradient
up or down hill, wind against or behind. To meet these variable
conditions, a variable speed-gear is an advantage. The action of
the human motor is, however, so entirely different from that of a
mechanical motor that it is easy, without practical experience, to
over-estimate the value of a variable speed gear. Probably from
50 in. to 80 in. represents the greatest useful range of gear for an
average rider. With a gear lower than 50 in., the speed of climbing
a steep gradient is so slow that balancing difficulties begin, and it
is better to walk up. With 80 in. gear and 7 in. cranks, the speed
of pedalling, even at 25 miles an hour, is not irksome, provided the
conditions are favourable. For those who have not cultivated the
art of quick pedalling the useful range of gear under favourable
conditions may be extended to say 90 in. or 100 in. The gear-ratio
of a two-speed gear is the ratio of the high to the low gear. The most
suitable gear-ratio for any rider will depend upon his personal
physique and the nature of the country in which he rides. For
a middle-aged rider of
average physique a gear-
ratio of 125: loo is suit-
able, for those of weaker
physique the gear-ratio
may with advantage be
greater, say 137-5: too;
while for road racing it
may be smaller, say 117 :
100. With a three-speed
gear the low and high
gears should be chosen
respectively below and
above the single gear
which suits the rider, the
middle gear being about
the same as the rider's
usual single gear.
All the variable speed
gears at present made
consist of toothed wheel FIG. 13. Sunbeam /Two-Speed Gear,
mechanism either at the
hub or crank-bracket, and nearly all are based on the same
epicyclic train of toothed wheels. At one speed there is no
relative motion of the toothed wheels, the whole mechanism
revolving as one solid piece; this is called the " normal "
speed. At the other speed one part of the mechanism is held
stationary and the driven part revolves faster or slower than the
driver, according as the gearing is up or down. In some two-speed
gears the normal is the high speed, in others the low. In expressing
the gear-ratio, the normal speed will be denoted by loo. At the
normal gear there is of course no additional friction. The type of
two-speed gear used practically settles whether the normal gear is
at high or Tow speed ; but it seems best, other things being equal,
to have the low speed the normal gear, as then the conditions
are worst. If the high speed is at normal gear, then at low speed
the chain gears up and the two-speed gear gears down; which is,
to say the least, a roundabout transmission.
Fig. 13 is a sectional view of the Sunbeam two-speed gear which
is arranged at the crank-axle, and clearly shows the relative dis-
position of the toothed wheel mechanism common to nearly all
cycle speed gears. The chain-wheel is fixed to the annular wheel
A; the planet carrier C is fixed to the crank; and when the sun-
wheel D is held stationary, the chain-wheel is driven faster than
the cranks. When the
sun-wheel D is released,
the planet carrier C drives
the annular wheel A by
the ratchet free-wheel
clutch; the part thus
revolves as a solid piece,
and gives the normal or!
low speed. The gear-!
ratio is 133-3 : loo.
Fig. 14 is a sectional
view of the " Hub " two-
speed gear, the chain-
wheel or free-wheel FlG/14-
clutch being omitted. In
this the annular wheel is the driver, and the planet carrier is part
of the hub-shell. When the central pinion is held stationary the
hub is driven at a less speed than the chain-wheel ; the gear-ratio
is 100 : 76-2.
In the Fagan two-speed gear, shown combined with the Eadie
coaster hub in fig. 12, the sun-wheel B can be moved laterally by
the striking gear, so as to engage with the chain-wheel centre C,
giving normal gear, or with an internally toothed wheel A fixed
to the spindle. The chain-wheel centre C carries the annular wheel,
and the four planet pinions D are mounted on the driving cone H.
Thus the gear gives a reduction of speed, the gear-ratio being 100 : 75.
BIDA
917
The Sturmey-Archer three-speed hub (fig. 15) has gear-ratios
125 : 100 : 80. In the high gear position the epicyclic toothed wheels
are to the extreme left position. The chain-wheel is mounted by a
free-wheel on a drive-ring, with which the ends of the spindles of
the planet wheels engage at high gear. The sun-wheel, not shown
in the figure, is held stationary, and the annular wheel engages
with a ring screwed to the hub-shell, by means of keys engaging in
notches. The hub is thus driven at a higher speed than the chain-
wheel. For normal gear, the striking gear draws the internal
mechanism of the hub towards a central position, compressing a
spring, disengaging the sun-wheel and locking the drive-ring hub
and annular wheel together. At low gear, the internal mechanism
FIG. 15.
is drawn to the right-hand side, where the planet carrier engages
with the end plate of the hub by means of cUw-clutches. The
annular wheel is still engaged with the drive-ring, and the sun-wheel
is again locked to the spindle. The hub is thus driven at a lower
speed.
Tandem Bicycles. The weight of a roadster tandem is about the
same as, or a trifle less than, that of two single roadster bicycles,
but the frictional resistance of the mechanism, the rolling resistance
of the tires, and the air resistance at a given speed are much less
than twice the values for a single bicycle. Consequently, much
higher speeds are attained on the level, and free-wheeling down
hill is much faster. On the other hand for riding up hill on a moderate
gradient, the effort required is about the same as on a single, while
on very steep gradients the tandem is at a slight disadvantage.
For the full enjoyment of tandem riding, therefore, a two-speed gear
is a necessity, while a three-speed gear is better. In the Raleigh
tandem (fig. 16) the frame design is such that it can be ridden by
two ladies, and the strength and rigidity is sufficient for two heavy-
weight riders. The steering and control of the brakes is done by
the front rider. Connected steering is employed in some tandems,
allowing the rear rider to steer if necessary. For two expert tandem
riders, connected steering is slightly more pleasurable than fixed
handle grips for the rear rider, but on the other hand, divided
control may lead to disaster at a critical moment. Most passengers
on a tandem with connected steering unconsciously give the steering
FIG. 16.
a bias in one direction or the other, putting a nervous strain on the
steersman which becomes almost intolerable towards the end of a
long ride.
Motor Bicycles. Fig. 17 shows a touring motor bicycle, fitted
with luggage carrier and stand, the latter for supporting the bicycle
while at rest. The average speed of a motor bicycle being much
greater than that of a pedal bicycle the stresses on the frame due
to moving over rough roads are greater. This necessitates greater
strength and weight in all parts frame, wheels and tires. To take
this increased weight up steep gradients requires increased engine
power. The weight of a tounng motor bicycle may be from 150 to
200 ft. The drive is usually by a V belt of leather, or of canvas
and rubber, the angle of the V being 28. The engine speed at maxi-
mum power is from 1500 to 2000 revolutions a minute, and the belt
gears down in a ratio varying between J and i according to the
cylinder capacity of the engine. The possibility of the belt slipping
slightly is conducive to smoothness of drive; chain-driving, except
in combination with a slipping clutch, is too harsh. The principal
defect of the belt drive is that the belt stretches, and on coming
to a steep hill may have to be tightened before the bicycle can be
driven up. The control of the speed and power of the engine is
effected by the throttle, extra air valve and spark advance, the
levers for which are all placed within convenient reach of the driver.
As the engine is almost invariably air-cooled, the skilful manipulation
of these three levers is essential for satisfactory results. On a good
jevel road when the engine may be working at a small fraction of
its maximum power, the proportion of air mixed with the petrol
vapour from the carburettor may be great, giving a " weak " mixture,
yet one rich enough to be ignited in the cylinder. The throttle
valve may be fully open and the spark advanced for high speed ;
the throttle partially closed and spark retarded for slow speed.
Under these conditions the engine will run for an indefinite period
without overheating. Up a steep gradient, the mixture may have
to be made " richer " by partial closing of the extra air opening,
and as more heat is evolved, the cylinder walls may become over-
heated, unless the engine power is sufficient to keep the bicycle
moving through the air at a good speed. As the engine cannot run
steadily at low speed, pedalling is resorted to for starting and for
riding slowly through traffic. For this purpose, an " exhaust valve
lifter " is usually fitted, by means of which the exhaust can be kept
FIG. 17.
permanently open, in order to relieve the resistance to pedalling
which the compression stroke would otherwise offer.
The nominal' rating of the horse-power of a motor cycle engine
is rather vague and indefinite. A 3-H.P. engine may have a cylinder
of 76-80 mm. diameter and 76-80 mm. stroke. Twin-cylinder
engines, with one crank, are largely used, and some excellent
^cylinder motor bicycles are made with bevel gear transmission.
The chief advantage of the multicylinder engine is the smoother
drive obtained.
A " trailer " with two wheels for carrying a passenger can be
attached to a motor bicycle, but the element of risk is increased.
A side-car, with one additional wheel, forms a safer passenger
carrier. (A. SP.)
BIDA, a town and administrative district in the British
protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Bida town, situated in
9 5' N., 6 E., 25 m. N. by E. of Muraji on the Niger, is the
capital of the province of Nupe. It was founded in 1859 when
Fula rule was established in Nupe, is walled and of considerable
size. In 1909 it was connected by railway with Baro, 40 m.
S.S.E., the river terminus of the Northern Nigeria railway. The
inhabitants, mostly Hausa, carry on an extensive trade and are
especially noted for their embossed brass and copper work. The
Bida goblets, in which brass and copper are beautifully blended,
are of extremely elegant design. The town also boasts a glass
factory. The preparation of indigo and the dyeing of cloths are
other flourishing industries. The streets are planted with huge
shade-trees, so that as Bida is approached it looks like a forest.
In 1897 there was a two-days' fight outside the walls of Bida
between the forces of the emir of Nupe and those of the Royal
Niger Company, ending in the defeat of the Fula army (mostly
cavalry). The victory was not followed at the time by a British
occupation, and the defeated king returned after the withdrawal
of the company's troops and re-established himself upon the
throne. In 1900 he allied himself with other hostile chiefs and
adopted an openly antagonistic attitude to the British govern-
ment. In 1901 it became necessary for British troops to march
on Bida. The emir fled, without fighting, to Kano. Another
emir was appointed in his place, and the province of Nupe was
placed under British administrative control. Since that date
the town has been peaceful and very prosperous. A mission
school has been established, and is attended by the sons of the
emir and of the principal chiefs, who are desirous of learning to
read and write English. The administrative district of Bida
includes the town and is the western division of the province of
Nupe (q.v.). (See also NIGERIA: History.)
BIDDEFORD BIDDLE, J.
BIDDEFORD, a city of York county, Maine, U.S.A., on the
Saco river, opposite Saco, and on the Atlantic Ocean, ism. S.W.
of Portland. Pop. (1800) 14,443; (1900) 16,145, of whom 7,149
were foreign-born (mostly French Canadians); (census, 1910)
17,079. Biddeford is served by the Boston & Maine railway, and
is connected by electric lines with Portland and with Old
Orchard Beach, a popular summer resort north of the Saco
river. The climate and the scenery in and about Biddeford
attract summer visitors and there are two resorts, Biddeford
Pool and Fortune Rocks within the municipal limits; but the
city is chiefly a manufacturing centre (third in rank among the
cities of the state in 1905) good water-power being furnished
by the river and cotton goods, foundry and machine shop
products and lumber are the principal products, the first being
by far the most important. The value of the factory products
increased from $5,472,254 in 1900 to $6,948,722 in 1005, or 27 %.
There are large quarries of granite of excellent quality. A
permanent settlement was established on both sides of the river
about 1630 under the leadership of Richard Vines (1585-1651)
and was named Saco. In 1718 the present name was adopted.
In 1762 that portion of Biddeford which lay east of the river was
incorporated as the town of Pepperellborough, for which name
Saco was substituted in 1805. Biddeford was incorporated as a
city in 1855.
BIDDER, GEORGE PARKER (1806-1878), English engineer,
was born at Moreton Hampstead, in Devonshire, on the i4th of
June 1806. From a very early age he manifested an extraordi-
nary natural aptitude for calculation, which induced his father,
who was a stone-mason, to exhibit him as a " calculating boy."
In this way his talent was turned to profitable account, but his
general education was in danger of being completely neglected.
Interest, however, was taken in him by some of those who hap-
pened to witness his performances, among them being Sir John
Herschel, and it was arranged that he should be sent to school
in Camberwell. There he did not remain long, being removed
by his father, who wished to exhibit him again, but he was saved
from this misfortune and enabled to attend classes at Edinburgh
University, largely through the kindness of Sir Henry Jardine,
to whom he subsequently showed his gratitude by founding a
" Jardine Bursary " at the university. On leaving college in 1824
he received a post in the ordnance survey, but gradually drifted
into engineering work. In 1834 Robert Stephenson, whose
acquaintance he had made in Edinburgh, offered him an appoint-
ment on the London & Birmingham railway, and in the succeeding
year or two he began to assist George Stephenson in his parlia-
mentary work, which at that time included schemes for railways
between London and Brighton and between Manchester and
Rugby via the Potteries. In this way he was introduced
to engineering and parliamentary practice at a period of great
activity which saw the establishment of the main features and
principles that have since governed English railway construction.
He is said to have been the best witness that ever entered a
committee-room. He was quick to discover and take advantage
of the weak points in an opponent's case, and his powers of men-
tal calculation frequently stood him in good stead, as when,
for example, an apparently casual glance at the plans of a railway
enabled him to point out errors in the engineering data that were
sufficient to secure rejection of the scheme to which he was
opposed In consequence there was scarcely an engineering
proposal of any importance brought before parliament in con-
nexion with which his services were not secured by one party or
the other.
On the constructive side of his profession he was also
busily occupied. In 1837 he was engaged with R. Stephenson
in building the Blackwall railway, and it was be who designed
the peculiar method of disconnecting a carriage at each
station while the rest of the train went on without stopping,
which was employed in the early days of that line when it was
worked by means of a cable. Another series of railways with
which he had much to do were those in the eastern counties
which afterwards became the Great Eastern system. He also
advised on the construction of the Belgian railways; with R.
Stephenson he made the first railway in Norway, from Christiania
to Eidsvold; he was engineer-in-chief of the Danish railways;
and he was largely concerned with railways in India, where
he strongly and successfully opposed break of gauge on through-
routes. But though he sometimes spoke of himself as a mere
"railway-engineer," he was in reality very much more; there
was indeed no branch of engineering in which he did not take
an interest, as was shown by the assiduity with which for half
a century he attended the weekly meetings of the Institution of
Civil Engineers, of which he was elected president in 1860. He
was one of the first to recognize the value of the electric telegraph.
That invention was in its infancy when, in 1837, jointly with R.
Stephenson he recommended its introduction on a portion of the
London & Birmingham and on the Blackwall lines, while three
years later he advised that it should be adopted to facilitate the
working of the single line between Norwich and Yarmouth.
He was also one of the founders of the Electric Telegraph Com-
pany, which enabled the public generally to enjoy the benefits
of telegraphic communication. In hydraulic engineering, he
was the designer of the Victoiia Docks (London), being
responsible not only for their construction, but also for what was
regarded by some people at the time as the foolish idea of utilizing
the Essex marshes for dock accommodation on a large scale.
His advice was frequently sought by the government on points
both of naval and military engineering. He died at Dartmouth
on the 28th of September 1878.
His son, GEORGE PARKER BIDDER, Junr. (1836-1896), who
inherited much of his father's calculating power, was a sv.c-
cessful parliamentary counsel and an authority on crypto-
graphy.
BIDDERY, or BIDRI (an Indian word, from Bedar or Bidar,
a town in the Nizam's Dominions), an alloy of coppe' , lead,
tin and zinc used in making various articles and ornaments
which are inlaid with gold and silver.
BIDDING-PRAYER (O. Eng. biddan, to pray, cf. Ger.
belen), the formula of prayer or exhortation to prayer said in
England before the sermon in cathedrals, at university sermons,
in the Inns of Court and elsewhere on special occasions. Such
formulae are found in the ancient Greek liturgies, e.g. that of St
Chrysostom, in the Gallican liturgy, and in the pre- Reformation
liturgies of England. The form varies, but in all the character-
istic feature is that the minister tells the people what to pray
for. Thus in England in the i6th century it took the form of a
direction to the people what to remember in " bidding their
beads." In course of time the word " bid " in the sense of " pray "
became obsolete and was confused with " bid " in the sense of
" command " (from O. Eng. beodan, to offer, present, and hence
to announce, or command; cf. Ger. bieten, to offer, gebieten, to
command), and the bidding-prayer has come practically to
mean the exhortation itself. A form of exhortation which
" preachers and ministers shall move the people to join with
them in prayer " is given in the 55th canon of the Church of
England (1603).
BIDDLE, JOHN (1615-1662), frequently called the father of
English Unitarianism, was born on the i4th of January 1615,
at Wotton-under-Edge, in Gloucestershire. He was educated
at the grammar school of his native town and at Magdalen Hall,
Oxford. He graduated B.A. in 1638 and proceeded M.A. in
1641, and was then appointed to the mastership of the free
school in the city of Gloucester, where " he was much esteemed
for his diligence in his profession, serenity of manners and sanctity
of life." He also diligently prosecuted theological studies, and
the results he arrived at were of such a nature as to draw down
upon him the reprobation of the civic authorities. A treacherous
friend obtained the manuscript of his Twelve Arguments drawn
out of Scripture, wherein the commonly received opinion touching
the deity of the Holy Spirit is clearly and fully refuted; and in
December 1645 ne was summoned before the parliamentary
committee then sitting at Gloucester. By them he was com-
mitted to prison, though he was at the time labouring under a
dangerous fever. He was released on bail after a short imprison-
ment, but was in July 1647 called before parliament, which
BIDDLE, N. BIDPAI
919
desired to inquire into his views. After tedious proceedings,
during which Sir Henry Vane befriended him, Biddle was com-
mitted to custody and his Twelve Arguments, which he had now
published, was ordered by parliament to be seized and burned
by the hangman. Notwithstanding this and the ordinance of
the znd of May 1648, visiting denial of the doctrine of the
Trinity with death, Biddle issued two tracts, one a Confession
of Faith touching the Holy Trinity, and the other The Testimonies
of Irenaeus, &c., concerning the one God and the Persons of the
Trinity (1648). These were suppressed by government, and the
Westminster assembly of 'divines eagerly pressed for the passing
of an act by which heretics like Biddle could be put to death.
This, however, was resisted by the army, and by many of the
Independent parliamentarians; and after the death of the
king, Biddle was allowed to reside in Staffordshire under sur-
veillance. He engaged in preaching and in literary work,
particularly an edition of the Septuagint, published by Roger
Daniel. In February 1652 the general act of oblivion gave
him complete freedom, and his adherents soon began to meet
regularly for worship on Sundays. They were called Biddellians,
or Socinians, or Unitarians, the name which has now become
associated with their opinions. Biddle was not left long in
peace. He translated some Socinian books, among others the
Life of Socinus, and published two catechisms which excited
a fury of indignation. He was summoned before the parliament
in December 1654 and imprisoned. The dissolution of that body
again set him at liberty for a short time, but he was presently
brought up for some expressions used by him in a discussion
with John Griffin, an illiterate Baptist pastor, who invoked the
law against his superior opponent. He was put upon trial,
and was only rescued by Cromwell, who sent him (October 1655)
out of the way to one of the Scilly Islands, allowed him 100
crowns a year, and in 1658, on the solicitation of many friends,
released him. For a few years he lived and taught quietly
in the country, but returning to London he was in June 1662
again arrested, and fined 100. As he was unable to pay this
sum, he was at once committed to prison, where fever, caused
by the pestilential atmosphere, carried him off on the 2 znd of
September 1662.
BIDDLE, NICHOLAS (1786-1844), American financier, was
born in Philadelphia on the 8th of January 1786. He was
the nephew of a naval officer, Captain Nicholas Biddle (1750-
1778), who lost his life while fighting on the American side,
during the War of American Independence. After almost finishing
the prescribed course at the university of Pennsylvania, the boy
went to Princeton, where he graduated with high honours
in 1801. During 1804-1807 he was the secretary, first of John
Armstrong, minister to France, and then of James Monroe,
minister to Great Britain. After his return to America he prac-
tised law for several years in Philadelphia, was an associate
editor of Dennie's Portfolio, to which he contributed both prose
and verse, and, with much literary skill, prepared for the press
from the explorers' own journals a History of the Expedition
under the Command of Captains Lewis and Clark (1814). He was
a prominent member of the Pennsylvania House of Representa-
tives in 1810-1811 and of the Senate in 1814-1817, and in
1819 became, by President Monroe's appointment, one of the
five government directors of the Bank of the United States.
In 1823 he replaced Langdon Cheves as its president. In
general he followed a conservative policy and showed marked
ability in the management of the bank, but during President
Andrew Jackson's warfare upon that institution, his character
and his policy were violently assailed by the president and his
followers. The bank's national charter lapsed in 1836, but it
was immediately chartered by Pennsylvania as the " Bank of
the United States, of Pennsylvania"; and Biddle remained
president until 1839, two years before the bank failed. As
president of the board of trustees appointed for the purpose,
he took a prominent part in the establishment of Girard College,
in accordance with the will of Stephen Girard (q.v.). He died
in Philadelphia on the 27th of February 1844.
His son, CHARLES JOHN BIDDLE (1810-1873), served in the
Mexican War as a captain of infantry, earning the brevet of major
at Chapultepec; practised law in Philadelphia; was a repre-
sentative in Congress in 1861-1863; was long editor-in-chief
of the Philadelphia Age; and published " The Case of Major
Andr6, with a Review of the Statement of it in Lord Mahon's
History of England," in the Memoirs of the Historical Society
of Pennsylvania (1858).
The best account of Nicholas Biddle's administration of the bank
may be found in an excellent work, by Ralph C. H. Catterall, The
Second Bank of the United States (Chicago, 1903).
BIDEFORD, a seaport, market town and municipal borough
in the Barnstaple parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
81 m. S.W. of Barnstaple. Pop. (1901)8754. It is served by the
London & South-Western and the Bideford, Westward Ho &
Appledore railways. It is picturesquely situated on two hills
rising from the banks of the river Torridge, 3 m. above its junction
with the estuary of the Taw. Many of the houses are built with
timber framework in Elizabethan style, and the two parts of
the town are united by a bridge of 24 arches, originally erected
in the I4th century, when the revenue of certain lands was set
apart for its upkeep. The church of St Mary, with the exception
of the tower, is a modern reconstruction. A stone chancel
screen and a Norman font are also preserved. Industries
include the manufacture of earthenware, leather goods, sails,
ropes and linen, and ironfounding. The small harbour has
about 17 ft. of water at high tide, but is dry at low tide. An-
thracite and a coarse potter's clay are found near the town.
The borough is under a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors.
Area, 3398 acres.
Bideford (Bedeford, Bydyford, Budeford, Bytheford) is not
mentioned in pre-Conquest records, but according to Domesday it
rendered geld for three hides to the king. From the time of the
Conquest down to the 1 8th century, Bideford remained in the
possession of the Grenville family, and it first appears as a borough
in an undated charter (probably of the reign of Edward I.) from
Richard de Grenville, confirming a charter from his grandfather,
Richard de Grenville, fixing the rent and services due from the
burgesses and granting them liberties similar to those in use at
Breteuil and a market every Monday. Another charter, dated 1271,
confirms to Richard de Grenville and his heirs a market every Monday
and five days' fair yearly at the feast of St Margaret (2Oth of July).
In 1573 Elizabeth granted a charter creating Bideford a free borough
corporate, with a common council consisting of a mayor, aldermen
and 7 chief burgesses, together with a recorder, town-clerk and 2
serjeants-at-mace. This charter also granted the Tuesday market,
which is still held, and three annual fairs in February, July and
November, now discontinued. A later charter from James I. in
1610 added the right to have a town seal, 7 aldermen instead of 5,
and 10 chief burgesses instead of 7, and continued in force until
the Municipal Corporations Act of 1873, which established 4 alder-
men and 12 common councillors. In the l6th century Sir Richard
Grenville, the famous Virginian settler, did much to stimulate the
commercial development of Bideford, which long maintained a very
considerable trade with America, Spain and the Mediterranean ports,
the import of tobacco from Maryland and Virginia being especially
noteworthy. From the beginning of the i8th century this gradually
declined and gave place to a coasting trade in timber and coal,
chiefly with Wales and Ireland. The silk industry which flourished
in the 1 7th century is extinct.
See John Watkins, History of Bideford (Exeter, 1792).
BIDPAI (or PILPAY), FABLES OF, the name given in the
middle ages (from Sanskrit Vidya-pati, chief scholar) to a famous
collection of Hindu stories. The origin of them is undoubtedly
to be found in the Pancha Tantra, or Five Sections, an extensive
body of early fables or apologues. A second collection, called the
Hitopadesa, has become more widely known in Europe than the
first, on which it is apparently founded. In the 6th century
A.D., a translation into Pahlavi of a number of these old fables
was made by a physician at the court of Chosroes I. Anushirvan,
king of Persia. No traces of this Persian translation can now be
found, but nearly two centuries later, Abdallah-ibn-Mokaffa
translated the Persian into Arabic; and his version, which is
known as the " Book of Kalilah and Dimna," from the two
jackals in the first story, became the channel through which a
knowledge of the fables was transmitted to Europe. It was
translated into Greek by Simeon Sethus towards the close of the
nth century; his version, however, does not appear to have
been retranslated into any other European language. But the
920
BIEBRICH BIENNE
Hebrew version of Rabbi Joel, made somewhat later, was trans-
lated in the I3th century into Latin by John of Capua, a con-
verted Jew, in his Directorium vitae humanae (first published in
1480), and in that form became widely known. Since then the
fables have been translated into nearly every European tongue.
There are also versions of them in the modern Persian, Malay,
Mongol and Afghan languages.
See Wilson's analysis of the Pancha Tantra, in the Mem. of the
Royal Asiat. Soc. i. ; Silvestre de Sacy's introduction to his edition of
the Kalilah and Dimna (1816) ; articles by the same in Notices et Extr.
des MSS. de la Bib. du Roi, vols. ix. and x. ; German translation by
Philipp Wolff, Bidpai's Fabeln (2 vols., 2nd ed., Stuttgart, 1839);
the Anvar-i Suheili, Persian version of the Fables, translated by
E. B. Eastwick (Hertford, 1854) > Benfey, Pantscha Tantra, German
translation with important introduction (2 vols., Leipzig, 1859) ;
other editions, by L. Fritze (ib. 1884) and R. Schmidt (tb. 1901);
Max Miiller, Essays (Leipzig, 1872), vol. iii. pp. 303, &c. ; J. Jacobs'
edition of Sir T. North's Morall Philosophie of Doni, the earliest
English version of the fables (London, 1888) ; J. G. N. Keith-Falconer,
Kalilah and Dimnah, or the Fables of Bidpai (Cambridge, 1895),
their history, with a translation of the later Syriac version and
notes; Leopold Hervieux, Les Fabulistes Latins, &c. v. Jean de Capoue
et ses derives (1899); E. G. Browne, Persian Literal. (1906), ii. 350.
BIEBRICH, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 3 m. S. from
Wiesbaden, of which it is the river port, and on the main line
of railway from Cologne to Frankfort-on-Main. Pop. (1900)
15,048; (1905) 20,137. The palace of the former dukes of
Nassau occupies a fine position on the river bank, and the shady
gardens and groves attract large numbers of visitors during the
summer. It is an important steamboat station for both
passenger and cargo traffic, and besides manufactures of cement,
dyes and soap, has a considerable trade in the wines of the
district.
BIEDERMANN, FRIEDRICH KARL (1812-1901), German
publicist and historian, was born at Leipzig on the 25th of
September 1812, and after studying at Leipzig and Heidelberg
became professor in the university of his native town in 1838.
His early writings show him as an ardent advocate of German
unity, and he was a member of the national parliament which
met at Frankfort in 1848. Becoming a member of the Upper
House of the parliament of Saxony, he advocated union under
the leadership of Prussia; and, subsequently losing his pro-
fessorship, he retired to Weimar, where he edited the Weima-
rische Zeitung. Returning to Leipzig in 1863 he edited the
Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, and regained his professorship in
1865. He was again a member of the Saxon Upper House, and
from 1871 to 1874 a member of the German Reichstag. He died
at Leipzig on the 5th of March 1901. Biedennann's chief works
are: Erinnerungen aus der Paulskirche (Leipzig, 1849); Deutsch-
land im 18. Jahrhundert (Leipzig, 1854-1880); Friedrich der
grosse und sein Verhaltnis zur Entwickelung des deutschen Geisles-
lebens (Brunswick, 1859); Geschichte Deutschlands 1815-1871
(Berlin, 1891); Deutsche Volks- und Kulturgeschichte (Wiesbaden,
1901). He also wrote the dramas, Kaiser Heinrich I V. (Weimar,
1861); Kaiser Otto III. (Leipzig, 1862); and Der letzte Bur ger-
meister von Strassburg (Leipzig, 1870).
BIEL, GABRIEL (c. 1425-1495), scholastic philosopher, was
born at Spires (Speier). He was the first professor of theology
at the newly founded (1477) university of Tubingen, of which
he was twice rector. Some years before his death he entered
a religious fraternity. His work consists in the systematic
development of the views of his master, William of Occam.
His Epitome et Collectorium ex Occamo super libros quatuor
Sententiarum (1508, 1512, and various dates) is a clear and
consistent account of the nominalist doctrine, and presents the
complete system of scholastic thought from that point of view.
The empirical individualism of the work, tending necessarily to
limit the province of reason and extend that of faith, together
with scattered utterances on special points, which gained for
Biel the title of Papista Antipapisla, had considerable influence in
giving form to the doctrines of Luther and Melanchthon. It is
the best specimen of the final aspect of scholasticism. His other
works also have been frequently reprinted. The title Ultimus
Scholasticorum is often wrongly bestowed on Biel; scholasticism
did not cease with him, even in Germany, and continued to
flourish long after his time in the universities of Spain.
See Linsenmann, in Theologischen Quartalschrift (Tubingen, 1865) ;
Stockl, Phil. d. Mittelalt. ii. 269; H. Plitt, Gabriel Biel als Prediger
(Erlangen, 1879) ; art. s.v. by P. Tschackert in Herzog-Hauck,
Realencyklopddie, vol. iii. (1897) ; W. Roscher, Ges. d. Nalional-
okonomik (Munich, 1874), pp. 21-28; and works quoted under
SCHOLASTICISM.
BIELEFELD, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Westphalia, 68 m. S.W. from Hanover on the main line to
Cologne. Pop. (1885) 34,931; (1905) 71,797. It is situated at
the foot of the Teutoburger Wald, and consists of two portions,
separated by the river Lutter, which were first united into one
town in 1520. Among its public buildings and institutions are
the old town church, with a curious carved altar-piece, the town
hall, the gymnasium and the provincial industrial school. On
the height above the town is the old castle of Sparenburg, built
in the i2th century by Bernhard, count of Lippe. It was for a
long time employed as a prison, but was restored after its
destruction by fire in 1877 and now contains a historical museum.
Bielefeld is the centre of the Westphalian linen industry. It has
also important plush, silk and hosiery manufactures, as well as
extensive bleaching works, and does a very large export trade
to all parts of the world in these branches. Engines, automobiles,
biscuits, glass, pianos, furniture and paper are also manufactured.
Bielefeld is mentioned as early as the gth century, as Belan-
velde, but its first recorded mention as a town is in 1233. It
belonged at this time to the counts of Ravensberg, who often
resided in the Sparenburg. It joined the Hanseatic league in
1270, and about the same time began to engage in the linen
manufacture, which was greatly extended during the i6th and
1 7th centuries by a number of refugees from the Netherlands. In
1347 the town passed with the countship of Ravensberg to the
duchy of Jiilich, and in 1666 to that of Brandenburg.
BIELITZ (Czech Bilsko, Polish Bielsko), a town of Austria, in
Silesia, 80 m. S.E. of Troppau by rail. Pop. (1900) 16,885,
chiefly German. It is situated on the Biala river, just opposite
the Galician town of Biala and possesses a fine castle belonging to
the Sulkowsky family, in favour of whom the lordship of Bielitz
was raised to a duchy in 1752. It has an important woollen and
linen industry, and manufactures of jute and machinery, as well
as an active trade, especially of woollens, to the East. The town
was founded in the I3th century, and in the isth and i6th was a
fortified place.
BIELLA, a town and episcopal see of Piedmont, Italy, in the
province of Novara, 55 m. N.E. of Turin by rail, and 38 m.
direct, situated on the S. edge of the lower Alps. Pop. (1901)
town, 3454; commune, 19,267. The old town (1558 ft.) lies on
a hill above the new town, and is reached from it by a cable
tramway. It has fine palaces with decorations in terra-cotta;
and a modern bath establishment is situated here. The new
town contains the 1 5th-century cathedral and the fine Renaissance
church of S. Sebastiano ; near the former is a baptistery of the 9th
century. It is a considerable manufacturing centre for woollens,
silks and cottons, electric power being furnished by the torrents
descending from the mountains at the foot of which it lies.
It is frequented as a tourist centre, and several hydropathic
establishments and mountain resorts lie in the vicinity.
BIENNE, or BIEL, an industrial town in the Swiss canton
of Bern. It is built between the N.E. end of the lake of the
same name and the point at which the river Suze or Scheuss
(on the right bank of which it is situated) issues from a deep cleft
(called the Taubenloch) in the Jura range. Bienne is 19 m. by
rail N.E. of Neuchatel, and 21 m. N.W. of Bern. Its industrial
importance is shown by the fact that it is the site of the West
Swiss technical institute, which has departments for instruction
in watch-making, in electricity, in engraving and chasing, and
in subjects relating to railway, postal and telegraph matters. Its
chief industries are watch-making, chain-making, the manu-
facture of machines and other objects for use on railways, &c.
Its rapidly increasing commercial activity accounts no doubt for
the rapid rise in its population, which in 1850 was but 3589,
rose in 1870 to 8165, and in 1900 was 22,016, mainly Protestant,
BIENNE, LAKE OF BIGAMY
921
and two-thirds German-speaking. The parish church of St
Benedict dates from 1431, but was restored in 1775 it has
some fine i sth-century painted glass in the choir. In the town
is the Schwab museum, which is chiefly notable for its fine col-
lection of objects from the lake-dwellings. To the north-west of
Bienne two funicular railways lead up to Evilard (or Leubringcn)
and Macolin (or Magglingen) ,both situated on the slopeof the Jura.
First mentioned in the izth century, Bienne continued for
centuries to be under the jurisdiction of the prince-bishop of
Basel. In 1279 (permanently in 1352) it made an alliance with
Bern, in 1344 with Soleure, and in 1382 with Fribourg. But its
attempts to be admitted into the Swiss Confederation were
fruitless, though after it adopted the Reformation in 1525, it
was closely associated with the Protestant cantons. In 1798
it was seized by the French, but in 1815, with the greater part
of the bishopric of Basel, it became part of the canton of Bern.
See C. A. Bloesch, Geschichte der Stadt Biel (to 1854), (3 vols -. Bie| .
1855-1856). (W. A. B. C.)
BIENNE, LAKE OF, or EIF.LERSEE, a lake in Switzerland,
S.W. of the town of Bienne, and extending along the southern
foot of the Jura range. It is 7$ m. in length, 2$ m. broad and
249 ft. in depth, while its surface is 1424 ft. above the sea-level,
and its area 16 sq. m. In it is the fie de St Pierre, where Rous-
seau resided for a short time in 1765. Many traces of lake-
dwellings have been discovered on the shores of the lake. It
receives the river Suze or Scheuss at its north-east end, while
the Hagneck canal leads the waters of the Aar into the lake,
as that of Nidau conducts them out again. At the south-
western end the river Thiele or Zihl flows into this lake from
that of Neuchatel. (W. A. B. C.)
BIERSTADT, ALBERT (1830-1902), American landscape
painter, was born in Solingen, Westphalia, Germany, on the 7th
of January 1830, and was taken to the United States when about
a year old. In 1853-1856 he studied painting at Dusseldorf.
His pictures of the western part of the United States, and par-
ticularly the Rocky Mountains, made him widely popular.
His " Estes Park, Colorado," is in the collection of the earl of
Dunraven; his " Sierra Nevada " (1878) is in the Corcoran
Gallery in Washington, and " The Valley of Yosemite " in the
James Lenox collection in New York. He received many
German and Austrian decorations, and was a chevalier of the
French Legion of Honour. He rendered panoramic views with
a certain ability, though his work was rather topographically
correct and impressive than artistic in conception and execution.
He was a member of the National Academy of Design of New York,
and is represented by two historical paintings, " The Discovery
of the Hudson River," and " The Settlement of California,"
in the Capitol in Washington, D.C. He died in New York
City on the i8th of February 1902.
BIFROST, in Old Norse mythology, the rainbow, which was
supposed to form the bridge by which the gods passed between
heaven and earth. It was guarded by Heimdal, god of light.
BIGAMY (from Lat. bis, twice, and Gr. 7<i/w>s, marriage),
in English law, according to the statute now in force (24 and
25 Viet. c. 100, 57), the offence committed by a person
who " being married shall marry any other person during
the life of the former husband or wife." In the canon law
the word had a rather wider meaning, and the marriage of a
clerk in minor orders with a widow came within its scope. At
the council of Lyons (A.D. 1274) bigamists were stripped of their
privilege of clergy. This canon was adopted and explained
by an English statute of 1276; and bigamy, therefore, became
a usual counterplea to the claim of benefit of clergy. However,
by an act of 1547 every person entitled to the benefit of clergy
is to be allowed the same, " although he hath been divers times
married to any single woman or single women, or to any widow
or widows, or to two wive* or more."
A bigamous marriage, by the ecclesiastical law of England, is
simply void. By a statute of 1 604 the offence was made a felony.
This statute, after being repealed in 1828, was re-enacted and
reproduced in the Offences against the Person Act 1861. It is
immaterial whether the second marriage has taken place within
England and Ireland or elsewhere, and the offence may be dealt
with in any county or place where the defendant shall be appre-
hended or be in custody. The following clause embodies the
necessary exceptions to the very general language used in
the definition of the offence: " Provided that nothing in this
section contained shall extend to any second marriage contracted
elsewhere than in England and Ireland by any other than a
British subject, or to any person marrying a second time whose
husband or wife shall have been continuously absent from such
person for the space of seven years then last past, and shall not
have been known by such person to be living within that time,
or shall extend to any person who at the time of such second
marriage shall have been divorced from the bond of the first
marriage, or to any person whose former marriage shall have
been declared void by any court of competent jurisdiction."
The punishment is penal servitude for not more than seven
nor less than five years, or imprisonment with or without hard
labour, not exceeding two years.
A valid marriage must be proved in the first instance in order
to support a charge of bigamy. A voidable marriage, such as
were marriages between persons within the prohibited degrees
before the Marriage Act 1836, will be sufficient, but a marriage
which is absolutely void as all such marriages now are, will not.
For example, if a woman marry B during the lifetime of her
husband A, and after A's death marry C during the lifetime of
B, her marriage with C is not bigamous, because her marriage
with B was a nullity. In regard to the second marriage (which
constitutes the offence) the English courts have held that it is
immaterial whether, but for the bigamy, it would have been a
valid marriage or not. An uncle, for example, cannot marry
his niece; but if being already married he goes through the
ceremony of marriage with her he is guilty of bigamy. In an
Irish case, however, it has been held that to constitute the offence
the second marriage must be one which, but for the existence of
the former marriage, would have been valid. With reference
to the case in which the parties to the first marriage have been
divorced, it may be observed that no sentence or act of any
foreign country dissolving a vinculo a. marriage contracted in
England by persons continuing to be domiciled in England,
for grounds on which it is not liable to be dissolved a
vinculo in England will be recognized as a divorce (R. \.
Lolley 1812, R. & R. 237). Hence, a divorce a vinculo for
adultery, in a Scottish court, of persons married in England, is
not within the statute. But if a person charged with bigamy
in England can prove that he has been legally divorced by the
law of the country where the divorced parties were domiciled at
the time (even though the ground on which the divorce was
granted was not one that would justify a divorce in England)
it will be good defence to the charge. Criminal jurisdiction is
always regarded as purely territorial, but bigamy (together
with homicide and treason) is an exception to this rule. A
British subject committing bigamy in any country may be tried
for the same in the United Kingdom (Earl Russell's case, 1901).
In Scotland, at the date of the only statute respecting bigamy,
that of 1551, cap. 19, the offence seems to have been chiefly
considered in a religious point of view, as a sort of perjury, or
violation of the solemn vow or oath which was then used in
contracting marriage; and, accordingly, it was ordained to be
punished with the proper pains of perjury.
Bigamy was punished in England until the reign of William
III. by death, then the penalty changed to life imprisonment
and branding of the right hand. An act of George I. still in
force lessened the penalty to deportation for seven years or
imprisonment for two years with or without hard labour. The
Offences against the Person Act 1861 changed deportation to
penal servitude.
In the United States the law in regard to bigamy is practically
founded on the English statute of 1604, with the exception that
imprisonment and a fine, varying in the different states, were
substituted instead of making the offence a felony. Congress
has passed a statute declaring bigamy within the territories
and places within the exclusive jurisdiction of the United
922
BIGELOW BIGNON
States to be a misdemeanour (U.S. Rev. Stat. 5352). Bystatute
in some states, upon absence cf one spouse from the state for
five years without being heard of, the other may marry again
without committing bigamy, in other states the period is seven
years. In most of the states, prosecutions for bigamy are barred
after the lapse of a certain number of years. The marriage
wherever solemnized must be a valid marriage according to the
law of the place of solemnization; if void there, no prosecution
for bigamy can be founded upon it. In some jurisdictions,
an honest belief that a prior divorce of one of the parties was
valid would be a defence to a prosecution for bigamy, in others
the contrary is held.
On the continent of Europe, bigamy is punishable in most
countries with varying terms of imprisonment, with or without
hard labour, according to the circumstances of the case.
See Stephen, History of Criminal Law, Dicey, Conflict of Laws;
Report of the Royal Commission on Marriage Laws (1868).
BIGELOW, JOHN (1817- ), American journalist and
diplomat, was born at Maiden, New York, on the 2Sth of Nov-
ember 1817. He graduated at Union College in 1835, practised
law in New York for several years after 1839; took up journal-
istic work; was joint owner (with William Cullen Bryant) and
managing editor of the New York Evening Post (1849-1861);
was United States consul at Paris in 1861-1864, and was
minister to France in 1864-1867. While consul, Bigelow wrote
Les Etats-Unis d'Amerique en 1863 in order to counteract the
apparent desire of the French people for a dissolution of the
American Union, by showing them the relative importance of
the commerce of the northern and southern states. On dis-
covering in 1863 that a French shipbuilder, with the connivance
of Napoleon III., was constructing two formidable iron-clads and
two corvettes for the use of the Confederacy, he devoted his
energies to thwarting this scheme, and succeeded in preventing
the delivery of all but one of these vessels to the Confederate
agents. In his work entitled France and the Confederate Navy
(New York, 1888) he gives an account of this episode. In 1865-
1866, it devolved upon Bigelow, as minister to France, to repre-
sent his government in its delicate negotiations concerning the
French occupation of Mexico, and he discharged this difficult task
with credit. From 1875 to 1877 he served as secretary of state
of New York. He wrote books of travel, of popular biography,
or of historical or political discussion, &c., from time to time;
but his principal literary achievements were editions, between
1868 and 1888, of Franklin's autobiography and autobiographical
writings, copiously annotated; and of the complete works of
Franklin, in ten octavo volumes (New York, 1887-1889). These
editions were based in part upon the editor's personal investiga-
tions of manuscript sources in France and elsewhere, and sup-
planted the well-known, long serviceable, but less accurate
edition of Jared Sparks (Boston, 1836-1840); they have in turn
been supplanted by the edition of A. H. Smythe (10 vols., 1905-
1907). Mr Bigelow was a close friend of Samuel J. Tilden, and
became his literary executor, editing his speeches and other
political writings (1885), publishing a biography in 1895, and
editing a two-volume collection of Tilden's letters and literary
memorials (1008). He also wrote a biography of William Cullen
Bryant (1890). In 1897 he published a volume entitled The
Mystery of Sleep (2nd ed., 1903). In 1909 he published Retro-
spections of an Active Life.
BIGGAR, a police burgh of Lanarkshire, Scotland. Pop.
(1901) 1366. It is situated about 10 m. S.E. of Carstairs
Junction (Caledonian railway), where the lines from Edinburgh
and Glasgow connect. Lying on Biggar Water and near the
Clyde, in a bracing, picturesque, upland country, Biggar enjoys
great vogue as a health and holiday resort. It was the birth-
place of Dr John Brown, author of Rab and his Friends, whose
father was secession minister in the town. It was created a
burgh of barony in 1451 and a police burgh in 1863. St Mary's
chuich was founded in 1545 by Lord Fleming, the head of the
ruling family in the district, whose seat, Boghall Castle, however,
is now a ruin. John Gledstanes, great-grandfather of W. E.
Gladstone, was a burgess of Biggar, and lies in the churchyard.
Easter Gledstanes, the seat of the family from the i3th to the
1 7th century, and the estate of Arthurshiels, occupied by them
for nearly a hundred years more, are situated about 3^ m.
to the north-west of the burgh. On the top of Quothquan Law
(1097 ft.), about 3 m. west is a rock called Wallace's Chair, from
the tradition that he held a council there prior to the battle of
Biggar in 1297. Lamington, nearly 6 m. south-west, is well
situated on the Clyde. It is principally associated with the family
of the Baillies, of whom the most notable were Cuthbert Baillie
(d. 1514), lord high treasurer of Scotland, William Baillie, Lord
Provand (d. 1593), the judge, and William Baillie (fl. 1648), the
general whose strategy in opposition to the marquess of Mont-
rose was so diligently stultified by the committee of estates.
The ancient church of St Ninian's has a fine Norman doorway.
Lamington Tower was reduced to its present fragmentary con-
dition in the time of Edward I., when William Heselrig, the
sheriff, laid siege to it. The defenders, Hugh de Bradfute and
his son, were slain, and his daughter Marion the betrothed, or, as
some say, the wife of William Wallace was conveyed to Lanark,
where she was barbarously executed because she refused to re-
veal the whereabouts of her lover. Wallace exacted swift venge-
ance. He burnt out the English garrison and killed the sheriff.
BIGGLESWADE, a market town in the Biggleswade parlia-
mentary division of Bedfordshire, England, 41 m. N. by W. of
London by the Great Northern railway. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 5120. It lies on the east bank of the Ivel, a tributary
of the Ouse, in a flat plain in which vegetables are largely grown
for the London markets. The town is a centre of this trade.
Biggleswade (Bichelswade, Beckeleswade, Bickleswade) is an
ancient borough by prescription which has never returned repre-
sentatives to parliament. The borough court was held by the lord
oi the manor. At the time of Edward the Confessor, Archbishop
Stigand owned the manor, which according to Domesday passed to
Ralf de Insula. Henry I. granted it to the bishop of Lincoln, under
whose protection the borough evidently grew up. In 1547 the
bishop surrendered his rights to the king, and in the I7th century
Biggleswade formed part of the jointure of the queens of England.
Owing to its important position on the Roman road to the north
the town became an agricultural centre for the surrounding district.
In ! 335 Edward III. renewed the bishop's licence to hold a Monday
market, and annual fairs were held here from very early times.
Those for horses are mentioned as famous by Camden. In addition
to agriculture, Biggleswade was formerly engaged in straw-plaiting
and lace manufacture.
BIGHT (O. Eng. bight, bend; cf. Ger. Bucht, a bay, and
beugen, to bend), a nautical term for the loop or bent part of a
rope, as distinguished from the ends; also a geographical term
for a bay between two distant headlands, or with a shallow
curve, e.g. the Bight of Benin, the Great Bight of Australia.
BIGNON, JEROME (1580-1656), French lawyer, was born at
Paris in 1589. He was uncommonly precocious, and under his
father's tuition had acquired an immense mass of knowledge
before he was ten years of age. In 1600 was published a work by
him entitled Chorograpkie, on description de la Terre Sainte.
The great reputation gained by this book introduced the author
to Henry IV., who placed him for some time as a companion to
the due de Vendome, and made him tutor to the dauphin,
afterwards Louis XIII. In 1604 he wrote his Discours de la
ville de Rome, and in the following year his Traite sommaire
de I'llection dtt pape. He then devoted himself to the study of
law, wrote in 1610 a treatise on the precedency of the kings of
France, which gave great satisfaction to Henry IV., and in 1613
edited, with learned notes, the Formulae of the jurist Marculfe.
In 1620 he was made advocate-general to the grand council, and
shortly afterwards a councillor of state, and in 1626 he became
advocate-general to the parlement of Paris. In 1641 he re-
signed his official dignity, and in 1642 was appointed by Richelieu
to the charge of the royal library. He died in 1656.
BIGNON, LOUIS PIERRE 6DOUARD, BARON (1771-1841),
French diplomatist and historian, tm on the 3rd of January
1771, was the son of a dyer at Rouen. Though he had received a
good education, he served throughout the early part of the
revolutionary wars without rising above the rank of private.
In 1797, however, the attention of Talleyrand, then minister of
foreign affairs, was called to his exceptional abilities by General
BIGOD BIG RAPIDS
923
Huet, and he was attached to the diplomatic service. After
serving in the legations in Switzerland and the Cisalpine re-
public, he was appointed in 1799 attach6 to the French legation at
Berlin, of which three years later he became charg6 d'affaires.
As minister-plenipotentiary at Cassel, between the years 1804 and
1806, he took a prominent share in the formation of the confedera-
tion of the Rhine; and after the battle of Jena he returned to
Prussia as administrator of the public domains and finances. He
filled a similar function in Austria after the battle of Wagram/
At the end of 1810 he became French resident at Warsaw and was
for a couple of years supreme in the affairs of the grand duchy.
The preparation of a constitution for Poland, on which he was
engaged, was, however, interrupted by the events of 1812.
Bignon, after a short imprisonment at the hands of the allies,
returned to France in time to witness the downfall of Napoleon.
During the Hundred Days he once more entered Napoleon's
service, and, after Waterloo, as minister of foreign affairs under
the executive commission, it was he who signed the convention of
the 3rd of July 1815, by which Paris was handed over to the
allies. Bignon did not re-enter public life until 1817, when he
was elected to the chamber of deputies, in which he sat until
1830, consistent in his opposition to the reactionary policy of
successive governments. His great reputation and his diplomatic
experience gave a special weight to the attacks which he published
on the policy of the continental allies, two of his works attracting
special attention, Du Congres de Troppau on Examen des pre-
tentions des monarchies absolues A I'egard de la monarchic con-
stitulionelle de Naples (Paris, 1821), and Les Cabinets et les peuples
depuis 1815 jusqu'a la fin de 1822 (Paris, 1822).
The revolution of 1830, which brought his party into power,
only led to a very temporary resumption of office by Bignon.
He was for a few weeks minister of foreign affairs in the first
government of Louis Philippe, and again for a few weeks minister
of public instruction. But the idea of making him responsible
for the foreign policy of France could not be realized owing to the
necessity under which Louis Philippe lay of courting the good-
will of the powers, whom Bignon had offended by his outspoken
writings. Elected deputy in 1831 and member of the chamber
of peers in 1839, he withdrew for the most part from politics, to
devote himself to his great work, the Hisloire de France sous
Napoleon (10 vols. 1820-1838, then 4 posthumous vols., 1847-
1850). This history, while suffering from the limitations of all
contemporaneous narratives, contains much that does not exist
elsewhere, and is one of the best-known sources for the later
histories of Napoleon's reign.
See Mignet, Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de M. Bignon
(1848).
BIGOD, HUGH (d. 1177), earl of Norfolk, was the second son of
Roger Bigod (d. 1107), the founder of the English family of this
name. Hugh inherited large estates in East Anglia on the death
of his brother William in 1120, and enjoyed the favour of
Henry I. At first a supporter of Stephen during this king's
struggle with the empress Matilda, Hugh was rewarded with the
earldom of Norfolk before 1141. After having fought for the
king at the battle of Lincoln the earl deserted him, assumed a
position of armed neutrality during the general anarchy, and then
assisted Henry II. in his efforts to obtain the throne. This king
confirmed him in the possession of his earldom; but becoming
restless under the rule of law initiated by Henry, he participated
in the revolt of 1173, which so far as England was concerned
centred round his possessions. Though defeated and compelled
to surrender his castles, Bigod kept his lands and his earldom, and
lived at peace with Henry II. until his death, which probably took
place in Palestine.
His son ROGER (d. 1221), who succeeded to the earldom of
Norfolk, was confirmed in his earldom and other honours by
Richard I., after he had fallen under the displeasure of Henry II.
He took part in the negotiations for the release of Richard from
prison, and after the king's return to England became justiciar.
The earl was one of the leaders of the baronial party which
obtained John's assent to Magna Carta, and his name appears
among the signatories to this document.
Roger was succeeded as 3rd earl by his son, Hugh, who died in
1225, leaving a son, ROGER (d. 1270), who became 4th earl of
Norfolk. Through his mother, Matilda, a daughter of William
Marshal, earl of Pembroke, Roger obtained the office of marshal
of England in 1 246. He was prominent among the barons who
wrested the control of the government from the hands of Henry
III., and assisted Simon de Montfort. The earl married Isabella,
daughter of William the Lion, king of Scotland, but left no sons.
Hugh, the 3rd earl, left a younger son, HUGH (d. 1266), who
was chief justiciar of England from 1258 to 1260, and who fought
for Henry III. at the battle of Lewes. The latter's son, ROGER,
succeeded his uncle Roger as sth earl of Norfolk in 1270. This
earl is the hero of a famous altercation with Edward I. in 1297,
which arose out of the king's command that Bigod should serve
against the king of France in Gascony, while he went to Flanders.
The earl asserted that by the tenure of his lands he was only com-
pelled to serve across the seas in the company of the king himself,
whereupon Edward said, " By God, earl, you shall either go or
hang," to which Bigod replied, " By the same oath, O king, I will
neither go nor hang." The earl gained his point, and after
Edward had left for France he and Humphrey Bohun, earl of
Hereford, prevented the collection of an aid for the war and forced
Edward to confirm the charters in this year and again in 1301.
Stubbs says Bigod and Bohun " are but degenerate sons of mighty
fathers; greater in their opportunities than in their patriotism."
The earl died without issue in December 1306, when his title
became extinct, and his estates reverted to the crown. The
Bigods held the hereditary office of steward (dapifer) of the
royal household, and their chief castle was at Framlingham in
Suffolk.
See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vols. i. and ii. (1896-1897) ;
J. R. Planche, "The Earls of East Anglia" (Brit. Arch. Ass..
vol. xxi., 1865); and G. E. C(okayne), Complete Peerage, vol. vi.
(1895)-
BIGOT, one obstinately and intolerantly holding particular
religious opinions, who refuses to listen to reason and is ready
to force others to agree with him; hence also applied to one
who holds similar views on any subject. The early meaning of
the word in English, at the end of the i6th century, was that
of a religious hypocrite. The origin is obscure; it appears in
French, in the forms bigot or bigos, in the 1 2th century romance
of Girard of Roussillon, where it is applied to certain tribes of
southern Gaul, and in the Roman du Rou of Wace (d. 1175?)
as an abusive name given by the French to the Normans :
" Moult on Franchois Normans laidis
et de meffais et de mesdis.
Souvent lor dient reproviers,
et c Li merit Bigos et Draschiers."
To this use has been attached the absurd origin from " ne se, bi
god," the words in which, according to the I2th century chronicle,
Rollo, duke of the Normans, refused to kiss the foot of Charles III.,
the Simple, king of the West Franks. The word may have some
connexion with a corruption of Visigoth, a suggestion to which
the use in the Girard romance lends colour. The meaning
changed in French to that of " religious hypocrite " through the
application, in the feminine bigote, to the members of the religious
sisterhoods called Beguines (?..).
BIG RAPIDS, a city and the county-seat of Mecosta county,
Michigan, U.S.A., on both sides of the Muskegon river, 56 m.
N. by E. of Grand Rapids, in the west central portion of the lower
peninsula. Pop. (1890) 5303; (1900) 4686, of whom 881 were
foreign-born; (1910, U. S. census) 4519. Tt is served by the
Pere Marquette and the Grand Rapids & Indiana railways.
Big Rapids is the seat of the Ferris Institute (opened 1884,
incorporated 1894), a large private co-educational school,
founded by W. N. Ferris. The river, which falls 16 ft. within
the city limits, is dammed a short distance south of the city, and
16,000 horse-power is generated, part of which is transmitted to
the city. The principal manufactures are lumber and furniture,
and saw-filing and filing-room machinery. Big Rapids, named
from the falls of the Muskegon here, was settled in 1854, was
platted in 1859 and was chartered as a city in 1869.
924
BIGSBY BIHARI
BIGSBY, JOHN JEREMIAH (1792-1881), English geologist
and physician, the son of Dr John Bigsby, was born at Notting-
ham on the I4th of August 1792. Educated at Edinburgh,
where he took the degree of M.D., he joined the army medical
service and was stationed at the Cape of Good Hope in 1817.
About a year later he went to Canada as medical officer to a
regiment, and having developed much interest in geology he was
commissioned in 1819 to report on the geology of Upper Canada.
In 1822 he was appointed British secretary and medical officer
to the Boundary Commission, and for several years he made
extensive and important geological researches, contributing
papers to the American Journal of Science and other scientific
journals; and later embodying an account of his travels in a
bookentitled The ShoeandCanoe (1850). Returning to England
in 1827 he practised medicine at Newark until 1846 when he
removed to London, where he remained until the end of his life.
He now took an active interest in the Geological Society of
London, of which he had been elected a fellow in 1823. In 1869
he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1874 he was
awarded the Murchison medal by the council of the Geological
Society. During the last twenty years of his long life he was
continually at work preparing, after the most painstaking
research, tabulated lists of the fossils of the Palaeozoic rocks.
His Thesaurus Siluricus was published with the aid of the
Royal Society in 1868; and the Thesaurus Devonico-Carboniferus
in 1878. In 1877 he founded the Bigsby medal to be awarded
by the Geological Society of London, with the stipulation that
the receiver should not be more than forty-five years old. He
died in London on the loth of February 1881.
BIHARI (properly Bihari), the name of the most western of
the four forms of speech which comprise the Eastern Group of
modern Indo-Aryan Languages (q.v.). The other members are
Bengali, Oriya and Assamese (see BENGALI). The number of
speakers of Bihari in 1901 was 34,579,844 in British India, out
of a total of 90,242,167 for the whole group. It is also the
language of the inhabitants of the neighbouring Tarai districts
of Nepal. In the present article it is throughout assumed that
the reader is in possession of the facts described under the heads
of INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES and PRAKRIT. The article BENGALI
may also be studied with advantage.
" Bihari " means the language of the province of " Bihar,"
and to a certain extent this is a true description. It is the
direct descendant of the old Magadhi Prakrit (see PRAKRIT) , of
which the headquarters were South Bihar, or the present districts
of Patna and Gaya. It is, however, also spoken considerably
beyond the limits of this province. To the west it extends over
the province of Agra so far as the longitude of Benares, and to
the south it covers nearly the whole of the province of Chota
Nagpur. Allowing for the speakers in Nepal, its area extends
over about 90,000 sq. m., and the total number of people who
claim it as a vernacular is about the same as the population of
France. Bihari has been looked upon as a separate language
only during the past twenty-five years. Before that it was
grouped with all the other languages spoken between Bengal
and the Punjab, under the general term " Hindi."
The usual character employed for writing Bihari is that known
as Kaithi, a cursive form of the well-known Nagari character of
Upper India. The name of the character is derived from the
Kdyath or Kayasth caste, whose profession is that of scribes.
Kaithi is widely spread, under various names, all over northern
India, and is the official character of Gujarati. The Nagari
character is commonly employed for printed books, while the
Brahmans of Tirhut have a character of their own, akin to that
used for writing Bengali and Assamese. In the south of the
Bihari tract the Oriya character belonging to the neighbouring
Orissa is also found.
Bihari has to its east Bengali, also a language of the Outer
Band. To its west it has Eastern Hindi, a language of the
Intermediate Band (see INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES). While it
must decidedly be classed as an Outer language, it nevertheless
shows, as might be expected, some points of contact with the
Intermediate ones. Nothing is so characteristic of Bengali as
its pronunciation of the vowel a and of the consonant 5. The
first is sounded like the o in " hot " (transliterated o). In
Eastern Bihari the same vowel has a broad sound, but not so
broad as in Bengali. As we go westwards this broad sound is
gradually lost, till it entirely disappears in the most western
dialect, Bhcjpuri. As regards s, the Magadhi Prakrit pronounced
it as i, like the sh in " shin." The Prakrits of the West preserved
its dental sound, like that of the s in " sin." Here Bengali and
Eastern Hindi exactly represent the ancient state of affairs.
The former has" the /-sound and the latter the s-sound. At the
present day Bihari has abandoned the practice of the old Magadhi
Prakrit in this respect, and pronounces its 5's as clearly as in the
West. There are political reasons for this. The pronunciation
of s is a literal shibboleth between Bengal and Upper India.
For centuries Bihar has been connected politically with the
West, and has in the course of generations rid itself of the
typical pronunciation of the East. On the other hand, a witness
as to the former pronunciation of the letter is present in the fact
that, in the Kaithi character, s is always written /. In the
declension of nouns, Bihari follows Bengali more closely than it
follows Eastern Hindi, and its conjugation is based on the same
principles as those which obtain in the former language.
The age of Bihari as an independent language is unknown.
We have songs written in it dating from the 15th century, and
at that time it had received considerable literary
culture. Bihari has three main dialects, which fall
into two divisions, an eastern and a western. The eastern
division includes Maithili or Tirhutid and Magahi. Magahi is
the dialect of the country corresponding to the ancient Magadha,
and may therefore be taken as the modern representative of
the purest Magadhi Prakrit. Its northern boundary is generally
the river Ganges, and its western the river Son. To the south
it has overflowed into the northern half of Chota Nagpur. It is
nearly related to Maithili, but it is quite uncultivated and has no
literature, although it is the vernacular of the birthplace of
Buddhism. Nowadaysjt is often referred to by natives of other
parts of the country as the typically boorish language of India.
Maithili faces Magahi across the Ganges. It is the dialect of
the old country of Mithild or Tirhut, famous from ancient times
for its learning. Historically and politically it has long been
closely connected with Oudh, the home of the hero Rama-candra,
and its people are amongst the most conservative in India.
Their language bears the national stamp. It has retained
numerous antiquated forms, and parts of its grammar are
extraordinarily complex. It has a small literature which has
helped to preserve these peculiarities in full play, so that though
Magahi shares them, it has lost many which are still extant in
the everyday talk of Mithila. The western division consists of
the Bhojpuri dialect, spoken on both sides of the Gangetic
valley, from near Patna to Benares. It has extended south-east
into the southern half of Chota Nagpur, and is spoken by at
least twenty millions of people who are as free from prejudice
as the inhabitants of Mithila are conservative. The Bhojpuris
are a fighting race, and their language is a practical one, made
for everyday use, as simple and straightforward as Maithili and
Magahi are complex. In fact, it might almost be classed as a
separate language, had it any literature worthy of the name.
(Abbreviations: Mth. = Maithili, Mg. = Magahi, Bh. = Bhojpuri,
B. = Bihari, Bg. = Bengali. Skr. = Sanskrit, Pr. = Prakrit. Mg. Pr. =
Magadhi Prakrit.)
Vocabulary. The Bihari vocabulary calls for few remarks.
Tatsamas, or words borrowed in modern times from Sanskrit (see
INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES), are few in number, while all the dialects
are replete with honest home-born ladbhavas, used (unlike Bengali)
both in the literary and in the colloquial language. Very few words
are borrowed from Persian, Arabic or other languages.
Phonetics. The stress-accent of Bihari follows the usual rules
of modern Indo-Aryan vernaculars. In words of more than one
syllable it cannot fall on the last, whether the vowel of that syllable
be long or short, pronounced, half-pronounced, or not pronounced.
With this exception, the accent always falls on the last long syllable.
If there are no long syllables in the word, the accent is thrown back
as far as possible, but never farther than the syllable before the
antepenultimate. Thus, ki-sa-n(a) (final a not pronounced) ;
pd-m; hd-m"-rd; de-khf-la-h 7 . In the last word there is a secondary
BIHARI
925
accent on the penultimate, owing to the following imperfect
vowel (see below). When the first syllable of a word nas not the
main stress-accent, it also takes a secondary one, as in de-khf-li-ai-
nh'. When the letter a follows a syllable which has the accent
(secondary or primary) it is only half pronounced, and is here
denoted by a small above the line. In Mth. (but not in Mg. or Bh.)
a final short i or u is often similarly very lightly pronounced, and
is then represented by the same device. Before such an " imper-
fect " * or " the preceding syllable has a secondary accent, if it has
not already got the main one.
When a word ends in a preceded by a single uncompounded
consonant, the a is not pronounced ; thus, kisana, sounded kisan.
This vowel is sometimes pronounced with a drawl, like the a in
'' ball," and is then transliterated d. When a has this sound it can
end a word, and in this position is common in the second person of
verbs; thus, dekhd, see thou. This sound is very frequently heard
in Bhojpuri, and gives a peculiar tone to the whole dialect, which at
once strikes the casual hearer. The usual short form of the letter
11 is a, but when this would lead to confusion it is shortened in Mth.
and Mg. to a sound like that of a in the German Mann, and is then
transliterated d. In Bh. it is always shortened to a. As an example,
from pant, water, is formed the word paniyd, but (in Mth. and Mg.)
from the word mdrab, to strike, we have Mth. mdr*U, Mg. mdrK, I
struck, because marli (-A) would mean " I died." In Bh. marn
actually has both these meanings. The letters e and o may be either
long (e, o) or shprtje, o). In Skr. the diphthongs di and du (here
transliterated di, au) are much longer than the Bihari ai and au,
which are contractions of only a+i and p+ respectively. We may
compare the Sanskrit, or tatsama, at with the English " aye," and
the tadbhava ai with the English " I." In counting syllables in
Bihari, ai and au count each as two syllables, not each as ons lone
syllable. The Skr. r appears only in tatsamas. Nasalization of
vowels is extremely frequent. In this article it is represented by
the sign - over the vowel, as in muh, mdrH and dekh"laW.
As regards consonants, <f and <jh, when medial, are pronounced
as strongly burred r. and r.h, and are then transliterated as here
shown. There is a constant tendency to change these to an ordinary
dental r and rh ; thus, ghotfd, pronounced ghor.d or ghdrd. The semi-
vowels y and are always pronounced like j and 6 respectively,
unless they are simply euphonic letters put in to bridge the hiatus
between two concurrent vowels; thus yauvana pronounced jauban,
and maliyd for mali-d, ghofwa for ghot?-d. The sibilants s and i
are both pronounced as a dental s, but (a relic of the old Mg. Pr.)
are both invariably written as a palatal s in the Kaithi character.
Thus, the English word " session " (sesan) is written sesan and
pronounced sesan. The cerebral .?, when uncompounded, is pro-
nounced kh. When compounded, it generally has its proper sound.
Thus, sastha, sixth, is pronounced khatfh. As a general statement
we may say that Bihari spelling is not fixed, and that there are often
many ways of writing, and sometimes two or three ways of pronoun-
cing, the same word.
The main typical characteristics of Mg. Pr. are that western Pr. s
becomes f, and that western Pr. r becomes /. We have seen that
the change of s to S occurs in Bengali but not in Bihari, and have
given reasons for the change back to s in the latter language, although
the Mg. Pr. i is retained in writing. In both Bengali and Bihari, a
western r is not now represented by /, but is represented by r. This
deviation from the Mg. Pr. rule is only apparent, and is due to the
letter r representing two distinct sounds. In Skr., in the western
Prakrits, and in the modern western languages, r is a cerebral letter,
with a cerebral sound. In the modern eastern languages, r is a
dental letter, with a dental sound. Everywhere, both in old times
and at the present day, / was and is a dental letter. The meaning,
therefore, of the change from western Pr. r to Mg. Pr. / was that
the western r lost its cerebral sound, and became a dental letter,
like /. That dental character is preserved in the r of the modern
eastern languages. In fact, in Bihari r and / are frequently con-
founded together, or with n, another dental letter. Thus, we have
kdtl or kdri, black; phar or phal, fruit; Skr. rajju-, B. leju-ri, a
string; Lakhnaur, the name of a town, quite commonly pronounced
Nakhlaul; and the English names Kelly and Currie both pro-
nounced indifferently kari or kafi. Compare Assamese saril for
Skr. sarira-.
The genius of the Bihari language is adverse to the existence of
a long vowel in a tadbhava word, when it would occupy a position
more than two syllables from the end. Thus, ghpri, but ghofwd;
mdral, but mdrR. This is subject to various subsidiary rules which
will be found in the grammars. The principle is a most important
one, and, indeed, pervades all Indo-Aryan vernaculars of the present
day, but it is carried out with the greatest thoroughness and con-
sistency in Bihari. The whole system of declension and conjugation
is subject to it. , When d preceding i or e is shortened, the two
together become at, and similarly a shortened d+u or o become au.
Declension. Bihari has a stronger sense of gender than the other
languages of the Eastern Group. In the modern language the dis-
tinction is in the main confined to animate beings, but in the older
poetry the system of grammatical, as distinct from sexual, gender
is in full swing. Except in the case of the interrogative pronoun,
there is no neuter gender words which in Skr. and Pr. were neuter
being generally, but not always, treated as masculine. The plural
can everywhere be formed by the addition of some noun of multitude
to the singular, and this is the universal rule in Mth., but in Mg.
and Bh. it is generally made by adding n or (in Bh.) nh or ni to the
singular, before all of which a final vowel is shortened. Thus ghdrd,
a horse, ghoran, horses.
As for cases, the Apabhram&a locative -hi (-hi) and the ablative
-Int (see PRAKRIT) terminations have survived in poetry, proverbs
and the like, and each of them can now be used for any oblique case;
but in ordinary language and in literature -hi and -hi have become
contracted to e and e, the former of which is employed for the instru-
mental and the latter for the locative case. Thus, ghar, house;
ghare, by a house ; ghare, in a house. The old termination -hit has
also survived in sporadic instances, under the form d, with an
ablative sense. Cases are, however, usually formed, as elsewhere,
by suffixing postpositions to a general oblique case (see INDO-
ARYAN LANGUAGES). The oblique case in Bihari is generally the
same as the nominative, but nouns ending in n, b, I or r, and some
others, form it by adding & (a relic of the old Mg.Pr. genitive in -aha).
Thus, moral, the act of striking, obi. mdr*ld (Mg. Pr. mdri-alldha).
Another set of verbal nouns forms the oblique case in ai, e or d;
thus, Bh. mar, the act of striking, mare-Id, for striking, to strike.
In Mg. every noun ending in a consonant may have its oblique
form in e; thus, ghar, a house, ghar-ke or ghare-ke, of a house. The
ai- or e- termination is another relic of the Apabhrarhsa -hi, and the
d is a survival of the Ap. -hu.
The usual genitive postposition is k, which has become a suffix,
and now forms part of the word to which it is attached, a final
preceding vowel being frequently shortened. Thus, ghor.d, gen.
ghorak. Other genitive postpositions are ke, kar and Kr. These,
and all other postpositions, are still separate words, and have not
yet become suffixes. The more common postpositions are * Acc.-
Dat. ke; Instr.-Abl. sa, se; Loc. ma., mi. The genitive does not
change to agree with the Render of the governing noun, as in Hindu-
stani, but in Bh. (not in Mth. or Mg.), when the governing noun is
not in the nominative singular, the genitive postposition takes the
oblique form kd; thus, rdjd-ke mandtr, the palace of the king; but
rdjd-kd mandir-me, in the palace of the king. In Mth. and Mg.
pronouns have a similar oblique genitive in d. There is no case
of the agent, as in Hindostani ; the subject of all tenses of all verbs
being always in the nominative case.
Every noun can have three forms, a short, a long and a redundant.
The short form is sometimes weak and sometimes strong. Occa-
sionally both weak and strong forms occur for the same word;
thus, short weak, ghdr; short strong, ghdrd] long, ghor*ioa; re-
dundant, ghor.auwd. This superfluity of forms is due to the existence
of the pleonastic suffix -ka- in the Prakrit stage of the language
(see PRAKRIT). In that stage the k of the suffix was already elided,
so that we have the stages : Skr. ghofa-ka-s, Pr. gho4~a-u, B. ghori
(by contraction) or ghor-ivd (with insertion of a euphonic to). The
redundant form is a result of the reduplication of the suffix, which
was allowed in Pr. Thus. Skr. *gho(a-ka-ka-s, Pr. ghoda-a-a-u, B.
ehorauwd (contracted from ghof-wa-wa-a). The long and redundant
forms are mainly used in conversation. They are familiar and often
contemptuous. Sometimes they give a definite force to the word,
as ghofwd, the horse. In the feminine they are much used to form
diminutives.
As in other languages of the Eastern Group, the singulars of the
personal pronouns have fallen into disuse. The plurals are used
politely for the singulars, and new forms are made from these old '
plurals, to make new plurals. The old singulars survive in poetry
and in the speech of villagers, but even here the nominative has
disappeared and new nominatives have been formed from the oblique
bases. All the pronouns have numerous optional forms. As a
specimen of pronominal declension, we may give the most common
forms of the first personal pronoun.
Maithili.
Magahi.
Bhojpuri.
Sing. Nom.
Gen.
Obi.
ham
hamdr
ham'rd
ham
hamdr
ham'rd
ham
hamdr
ham'rd
Plur. Nom.
Gen.
Obi.
ham'rd sabh
hanfrd sabhak
ham'rd sabh
hanfrant
ham*rani-ke
hanfrant
hanfm-kd
hanfnt-ke
hanfni
The important point to note in the above is that the oblique form
singular is formed from the genitive. It is the oblique form of that
case which is also used when agreeing with another noun in an
oblique case. Thus, hamdr ghar, my house; hanfrd ghar-mS, in my
house; hantfrd-ke, to me. In Mth. the nominative plural is also
the oblique form of the genitive singular, and in Bh. and M_g. it is
the oblique form of the genitive plural. In Bengali the nominative
plural of nouns substantive is formed in the same way from the
genitive singular (see BENGALI). The usual forms of the pronouns
are ham, I; t9, tS, thou; Mth. ap'nah' 1 , Bh. raurti, Your Honour;
?, this; o, that, he; je, who; si, he; ke, who? Mth. 4:, Mg.,
1 The origin of the postpositions is discussed in the article HINDO-
STANI.
926
BIHARI
Bh. kd, what? keo, keu, any one; Mth. kicch", Mg. kuchu, Bh. kachu,
anything. The oblique forms of these vary greatly, and must be
learned from the grammars.
Conjugation in Maithili and Magahi. It is in the conjugation of
the verb that the amazing complexity of the Mth. and Mg. grammars
appears. The conjugation of the Bhoipuri verb is quite simple, and
will be treated separately. In all three dialects the verb makes
little or no distinction of number, but instead there is a distinction
between non-honorific and honorific forms. In Mth. and Mg. this dis-
tinction applies not only to the subject but also to the object, so that
for each person there are, in the first place, four groups of forms,
viz. :
I. Subject non-honorific, object non-honorific.
II. Subject honorific, object non-honorific.
III. Subject non-honorific, object honorific.
IV. Subject honorific, object honorific.
English) substitutes the oblique form of the verbal noun for the
present participle, as in mare hi, I am a-striking. The perfect is
usually formed by adding the word for "is" to the past; thus,
Mth. mdr*U ach', I have struck, lit. struck-by-me it-is. A pluperfect
is similarly formed with the past tense of the auxiliary verb.
There are numerous irregular verbs. Most of the irregularities
are due to the root ending in a vowel or in a weak consonant such
as b ( = Pr. v). Thus root pdb, obtain, past participle pdol, first
singular, past tense, pauli. More definitely irregular are a few roots
like kar, do, past participle kail. These last instances are cases in
which the past participle is independently derived from a Skr. past
participle, and is not formed as usual by adding the pleonastic
suffix -al or -il (Skr., Pr., -alia-, -ilia-, see PRAKRIT) to the Bihari
root. Thus, Skr. krta-s, Pr. kaa-u, ka-itt-u, B. kail, instead of kar-al.
There is a long series of transitive verbs formed from intransitives
and of causal verbs formed from transitives, generally by adding
Object : non-honorific.
Object: honorific.
Person.
Short Form.
Long Form.
Redundant Form.
Group III.
(Subject: non-
honorific.)
Group IV.
(Subject :
honorific.)
Group I.
(Subject: non-
honorific.)
Group II.
(Subject :
honorific.)
Group I.
(Subject : non-
honorific.)
Group II.
(Subject :
honorific.)
Group I.
(Subject : non-
honorific.)
Group II.
(Subject:
honorific.)
i
2
mdr"K or mdrlah*
mdfliai
Or (with object in 2nd person)
mdfliau
mdrliaik
Or (with object in 2nd person)
marliauk
mdr a liainh i
mdrle
Same as 1st
person.
mdr*ldh
Same as 1st
person, but
no forms for
object in 2nd
person.
mdr*lahdk
Same as I st
person, but
no forms for
object in 2nd
person.
mdr*lahunh i
Same as ist
person.
3
mdrlak
mdr*lanh'
mdral"kai
Or (with object
in 2nd person)
mdral'kau
Wanting
mdral"kaik
Or (with object
in 2nd person)
mdral"kauk
Wanting
mdral'kainh'
mdral'thinh*
In Mth. all the forms in which the object is honorific end in -nh>.
Me. closely follows this, but the forms are more abraded.
Forms in which the object is non-honorific may be, as in the case
of nouns, short, long or redundant. The long forms are made by
adding at (or in the second person -dh) to the short forms, and the
redundant forms by adding k to the long forms. Again, if the
object is in the second person, the ai of the long and redundant forms
is changed to au. Finally, in the first person the non-honorific and
honorific forms depending on the subject are the same, and are also
identical with those forms of the second person in which the subject
is honorific. We thus get the following paradigm of the Mth. past
tense of the verb mdrab, to strike. The Mg. forms are very similar.
Besides the above there are numerous optional forms. Moreover,
these are only masculine forms. The feminine gender of the subject
introduces new complications. It is impossible here to go into all
these minutiae, interesting as they are to philologists. They must
be learnt from the regular grammars. On the present occasion
we shall confine ourselves to describing the formation of the principal
parts of the verb.
In Mth. the usual verb substantive and auxiliary verb is, as in
Bengali, based on the root ach (Skr. tcchali), the initial vowel being
generally dropped, as in chl, I am; chalah i , I was; but ach', he is.
In Mg. we have hi or hikl, I am ; halu, I was. The finite verb has
three verbal nouns or infinitives, viz. (from the root mar, strike),
Mth. mar* or Mg. mar; mdrab; and mdral. All three are fully
declined as nouns, the oblique forms being maraior mare, mdr*bd, and
mdrla, respectively. There are two participles, a present (Mth.
mdrait Pr. mdrentu) and a past (Mth. mdral = Pr. mdri-allu). The
Mg. forms are very similar. The old Mg. Pr. present and imperative
have survived, but all other tenses are made from verbal nouns or
participles. The past tense (of which the conjugation for a Maithili
transitive verb is given above) is formed by adding pronominal
suffixes to the past participle. Thus, mdral+l, struck+by-me,
becomes mdr'li, 1 struck. In the case of intransitive verbs, the
suffixes may represent the nominative and not the instrumental
case of the pronoun, and hence the conjugation is somewhat different.
The future is a mixed tense. Generally speaking, the first two
persons are formed from the verbal noun in 6, which is by origin
a future passive participle, and the third person is formed from the
present participle. Thus, mdrab+ah", about-tp-be-struck+by-me,
becomes mdr a bah s , I shall strike, and mdrait-\-ah, striking+he,
becomes mdr'tdh, he will strike (compare the English " he's going,"
for " he is on the point of going "). A past conditional is also formed
by adding similar suffixes to the present participle, as in mdritah*,
(if) I had struck. This use of the present participle already existed
in the Pr. age (cf. Hema-candra's Grammar, iii. 180). In Mth. the
present definite and the imperfect are formed by conjugating the
present or past tense respectively of the auxiliary verb with the
present participle; thus marait chi, I am striking. Mg. (like vulgar
db (Skr. dpaya-, Pr. ave-). Compound verbs are numerous. Note-
worthy is the desiderative compound formed by adding the root
cdh, wish, to the dative of a verbal noun. Thus, ham dekhd-ke
cahait-chl, I am wishing for the seeing, I wish to see.
Conjugation in Bhojpuri. The Bh. conjugation is as simple as
that of Mth. and Mg. is complex. In the first and second persons
the plural is generally employed for the singular, but there is no
change in the verb corresponding to the person or honour of the
object. The usual verb substantive and auxiliary verb is derived
in the present from the root bd( or bar,, be, as in bd(e or bdr.e (Skr.
vartate, Pr. va(tai), he is. The past is derived from the root rah
(Skr. rahati, Pr. rahai), as in rahfK or (contracted) rah*. I was.
The verbal nouns and participles are nearly the same as in Mth. -Mg.,
the first verbal noun and the present participle being mar and
mdrat, as in Mg. The old present and imperative, derived from the
Mg. Pr. forms, are also employed in Bh. Thus, mare (Pr. mdrei),
he strikes. This tense is often used as a present conditional. When
it is wished to emphasize the sense of a present indicative, the
syllable -Id is suffixed. The same suffix is employed in Rajasthani,
Naipali and Marathi to form the future, and in Bh. it is often also
used with a future sense. The past tense is formed, as in Mth.- Mg.,
by adding pronominal suffixes to the past participle; thus, marll
(mdra-^-li), I struck, as explained above. Similarly, for the first
and second persons of the future we have marbi, I shall strike, and
so on, but the third person is marl (Pr. marehi), he will strike, marihen
(Pr. mdrehinti), they will strike. The periphrastic tenses are formed
on the same principles as in Mth. As an example of Bh. conjugation
we give the present, past and future tenses in all persons. There
are a few additional optional forms, but nothing like the multi-
plicity of meanings which we find in Mth. and Mg.
Present.
Past.
Future.
Sing, i
Not used
Not used
Not used
2
mdre-le
marlas
marbe
3
mdre-ld
marble
marl
Plur. i
marl-la
marff
mar'tii
2
mard-ld
mar'ld
mar'bd
3
mdre-le
marlen
marihen
It will be observed that the termination of the present changes
in sympathy with the old present to which it is attached. In some
parts of the Bh. area, especially in the district of Saran, v is sub-
stituted for "I in the past. Thus, mariA, I struck. The maru- is
merely the past participle without the pleonastic termination -alla-
which is used in Bihari, as explained under the Mth.-Mg. conjugation.
Irregular verbs, the formation of transitive and causal verbs, and
the treatment of compound verbs, are on the same lines as in Mth.
BIHARI-LAL BIJAPUR
927
Literature.
Bihari Literature. In all three dialects there are numerous
folk-epics transmitted by word of mouth. Several have been
published at various times in the Journal of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal and in the Zeitschrift der deutschen
morgenlandischen Gesellschaft. The only dialect which has any
real literature is Maithili. The earliest writer of whom we have
any record is Vidyapati Thakkura (Bidyapati Thakur), who
lived at the court of Raja Siva Simha of Sugaona in Tirhut in
the i sth century. He was a voluminous Sanskrit writer, but
his fame rests chiefly on his dainty lyrics in Maithili dealing with
the loves of Radha and Krishna. These have exercised an
important influence on the religious history of eastern India.
They were adopted and enthusiastically recited by the reformer
Caitanya (i6th century), and through him became the home-
poetry of the Bengali-speaking Lower Provinces. Their lan-
guage was transformed (we can hardly say translated) into
Bengali, and in that shape they have had numerous imitators.
A collection of poems by the old Master-singer in their Maithili
dress has been published by the present writer in his Chresto-
mathy of that language. The most admired of Vidyapati's
successors is Manbodh Jha, who died in 1 788. He composed a
Haribans, or poetical life of Krishna, which has great popularity.
Many dramas have been composed in Mithila. The fashion is
to write the body of the work in Sanskrit and Prakrit, but the
songs in Maithili. Two dramas, the Pdrijata-harana and the
Rukmitfi-parinaya, are attributed to Vidyapati. Among modern
writers in the dialect, we may mention Har?anatha, an elegant
lyric poet and author of a drama entitled U^a-harana, and
Candra Jha, whose version of the Ramaydna and translation of
Vidyapati's Sanskrit Purusa-parik$a are deservedly popular.
AUTHORITIES. The Linguistic Survey of India, vol. y. part ii.
(Calcutta, 1903), gives a complete conspectus of Bihari in all its
dialects and sub-dialects. See also G. A. Grierson, Seven Grammars
of the Dialects and Sub-dialects of the Bihari Language, parts i. to viii.
(Calcutta, 1883-1887 these deal with every form of Bihari except
standard Maithili); and S. H. Kelloeg, A Grammar of the Hindi
Language, in which are treated High Hindi . . . also the Colloquial
Dialects of . . . Bhojpur, Magadha, Mailhila, &c. (2nd ed., London,
1893).
For Maithili, see G. A. Grierson, An Introduction to the Maithili
Language of North Bihar, containing a Grammar, Chrestomathy and
Vocabulary; part i. Grammar (Calcutta, 1881 ; 2nd ed., 1909) ; part ii.
Chrestomathy and Vocabulary (Calcutta, 1882). For Vidyapati Thak-
kura, see J.Beames," The Early Vaishnava Poets of Bengal," in Indian
Antiquary, ii. (1873), pp. 37 ff. ; the same, " On the Age and Country
of Vidyapati," ibid. iv. (1875), pp. 299 ff. ; anon, article in the
Banga Darsana, vol. iv. (1282 B.S.),pp. 75 ff. ; Saradacarana Maitra,
Introduction to Vidydpatir Paddvali (2nd ed., Calcutta, 1285 B.S.);
G. A. Grierson, Chrestomathy, as above; " Vidyapati and his Con-
temporaries," Indian Antiquary, vol. xiv. (1885), pp. 182 ff. ; " On
some Mediaeval Kings of Mithila," ibid. vol. xxviii. (1899), pp. 57 ff.
For Bhojpuri, see J. Beames, " Notes on the Bhojpun Dialect of
Hindi spoken in Western Bih4r," in Journal of the Royal Asiatic
Society, vol. iii. N.S., 1868, pp. 483 ff. ; A. F. R. Hoernle, A Grammar
of the Eastern Hindi compared with the other Gau&an Languages
(here " Eastern Hindi " means " Western Bhojpuri "), (London,
1880) ; J. R. Reid, Report on the Settlement Operations in the District
of Azamgarh (Allahabad, 1881) contains in appendices full grammar
and vocabulary of Western Bhojpurf).
No special works have been written about Magahi. (G. A. GR.)
BIHARl-LAL, a name famous in Hindustani literature as
the author of the Sat-sai, a collection of approximately seven
hundred distichs, which is perhaps the most celebrated Hindi
work of poetic art, as distinguished from narrative and simpler
styles. The language is the form of Hindi called Braj-bhdshd,
spoken in the country about Mathura, where the poet lived.
The couplets are inspired by the Krishna side of Vishnu-worship,
and the majority of them take the shape of amorous utterances
of Radha, the chief of the GSpIs or cowherd maidens of Braj,
and her divine lover, the son of Vasudgva. Each couplet is
independent and complete in itself, and is a triumph of skill in
compression of language, felicity of description and rhetorical
artifice. The distichs, in their collected form, are arranged,
not in any sequence of narrative or dialogue, but according to
the technical classification of the sentiments which they convey
as set forth in the treatises on Indian rhetoric.
Little is known of the author beyond what he himself tells us.
He was born in Gwalior, spent his boyhood in Bundelkhand,
and on his marriage settled in his father-in-law's household
in Mathura. His father was named Kesab Ray; he was a twice-
born (Dwija) by caste, which is generally understood to mean
that he was a Brahman, though some assert that he belonged
to the mixed caste, now called Ray, sprung from the offspring
of a Brahman father by a Kshatriya mother. A couplet in the
Sat-sai states that it was completed in A.D. 1662. It is certain
that his patron, whom he calls Jai Shah, was the Raja of Ambfr
or Jaipur, known as Mirza Jai Singh, who ruled from 1617 to
1667 during the reigns of the emperors Jahangfr, Shah Jahan
and Aurangzeb. A couplet (No. 705) appears to refer to an
event which occurred in 1665, and in which Raja Jai Singh was
concerned. For this prince the couplets were composed, and
for each doha the poet is said to have received a gold piece worth
sixteen rupees.
The collection very soon became celebrated. As the couplets
are independent one of another, and were put together for-
tuitously as composed, many different recensions exist; but the
standard is that settled by an assembly of poets under the
direction of Prince A'zam Shah, the third son of the emperor
AurangzSb (1653-1707), and hence called the A'zam-shahl; it
comprises 726 couplets. The estimation in which the work is
held may be measured by the number of commentators who
have devoted themselves to its elucidation, of whom Dr Grierson
mentions seventeen. Two of them were Musalmans, and two
other commentaries were composed for Musalnian patrons.
The collection has also twice been translated into Sanskrit.
The best-known commentary is that of Lallu-ii-Lal, entitled the
Lala-chandrikd. The author was employed by Dr Gilchrist in the
College of Fort William, where he finished his commentary in 1818.
A critical edition of it has been published by Dr G. A. Grierson
(Calcutta, government of India Press, 1896). (C. J. L.)
BIJAPUR, an ancient city and modern district of British
India in the southern division of Bombay. It is a station on the
Southern Mahratta railway, 60 m. S. of Sholapur. The ancient
city was supplied with water by an elaborate underground
system of reservoirs and aqueducts, which has been restored
in part as a famine relief work. The population in 1901 was
23,81 1. The city used to be the extensive, splendid and opulent
capital of an independent sovereignty of the same name, but
now retains only the vestiges of its former grandeur. It is still,
however, the most picturesque collection of ruins in India.
The city of Bijapur owed its greatness to Yusuf Adil Shah, the
founder of the independent state of Bijapur. It consists of three
distinct portions the citadel, the fort and the remains of the
city. The citadel, built by Yusuf Adil Shah, a mile in circuit,
is of great strength, well built of the most massive materials,
and encompassed by a ditch 100 yds. wide, formerly supplied
with water, but now nearly filled up with rubbish, so that its
original depth cannot be discovered. Within the citadel are the
remains of Hindu temples, which prove that Bijapur was an
important town in pre-Mahommedan times. The fort, which
was completed by Ali Adil Shah in 1566, is surrounded by a wall
6 m. in circumference. This wall is from 30 to 50 ft. high, and
is strengthened with ninety-six massive bastions of various
designs. In addition there are ten others at the various gateways.
The width is about 25 ft.; from bastion to bastion runs a battle-
mented curtained wall about 10 ft. high. The whole is
surrounded by a deep moat 30 to 40 ft. broad. Inside these walls
the Bijapur kings bade defiance to all comers. Outside the
walls are the remains of a vast city, now for the most part in
ruins, but the innumerable tombs, mosques, caravanserais and
other edifices, which have resisted the havoc of time, afford
abundant evidence of the ancient splendour of the place. Among
its many buildings three are specially worthy of mention. The
Gol Gunbaz, or tomb of Sultan Mahommed Adil Shah, which
was built 1626-1656, is one of the most interesting buildings in
the world. It is a square building, 135 ft. each way, which is
surmounted by a great circular dome 198 ft. high. The inside
area (18,360 ft.) is greater than the Pantheon at Rome (15,833
sq. ft.). When first built the dome was covered by gold leaf,
and the outer walls were adorned with stucco work picked out
in gold and blue, but to-day there are very few traces of this
928
BIJAWAR BIJNOR
ornamentation. Of late years this mosque has been thoroughly
restored, and one portion is now used as a museum in which all
objects of interest discovered in the surrounding country are
exhibited. Next to this comes the Ibrahim Roza, or tomb and
mosque of Ibrahim Adil Shah II., which was completed about
1620 and is supposed to be one of the most exquisite buildings
in the world after the Taj at Agra. It is said to have cost
1,700,000 and to have occupied thirty-six years in its con-
struction. The Gagan Mahal, or ancient audience hall, is now
a mass of ruins, but when complete must have been a beautiful
building. The archway remains. It is over 60 ft. span and
about 90 ft. high. Through this arch Sikandar Adil Shah, the
last king of Bijapur, was brought bound with silver chains,
while on a raised platform sat Aurangzeb, the Mogul emperor,
who had left Delhi three years previously to conquer the Deccan.
This magnificent palace, where so many scenes historic in the
Bijapur dynasty occurred, is now the abode of hundreds of
pigeons. Their cooing is the only sound that breaks the silence
of the old halls.
History. The founder of the Bijapur dynasty, Yusuf Adil
Shah, is said by Ferishta to have been a son of the Ottoman
sultan Murad II. When on his accession Mahommed II. gave
orders for the strangling of all his brothers, Yusuf was saved by
a stratagem of his mother. He went to India, where he took
service under the Bahmani king of the Deccan, and ultimately
became a person of great importance at the court of Mahmud II
In 1489 he took advantage of the break-up of the Bahmani
power to establish himself as an independent sultan at Bijapur,
his dominions including Goa on the west coast. He died in 1511
(Goa had been taken by the Portuguese a few months before),
and was succeeded by his son Ismail, who reigned prosperously
till 1534. The next king worth mentioning is Ali Adil Shah I.,
who reigned from 1557 to 1579 and, besides the fort, built the
Jama Masjid or great mosque, the aqueducts and other notable
works in the city. His son Ibrahim (d. 1626) maintained the
prosperity of the state; but under his successor, Mahommed
Adil Shah (d. 1656), the rise of the Mahratta power under Sivaji
began to make inroads upon it, and it was exposed to the yet
more formidable ambition of Shah Jahan. On the death of
Mahommed the succession passed to Ali Adil Shah II., and on
his death in 1672 to his infant son, Sikandar Adil Shah, the last
of the race. The kingdom had been for some time rapidly falling
to ruin, and in 1686 the Mogul emperor Aurangzeb, who as Shah
Jahan's general had unsuccessfully besieged the city under
Mahommed Adil Shah, took Bijapur and annexed the kingdom
to the Delhi empire. Among the curiosities of the capital is the
celebrated monster gun (Malik-i-Maidan), stated to be the largest
piece of cast bronze ordnance in the world. It was captured
from the king of Ahmednagar by the king of Bijapur about the
middle of the I7th century. An inscription on the gun recording
that fact was erased by Aurangzeb, who substituted the present
inscription stating that he conquered Bijapur in 1686. The city
and territory of Bijapur remained annexed to Delhi till 1724,
when the nizam established his independence in the Deccan, and
included Bijapur within his dominions. His sway over this
portion of his acquisitions, however, was of brief duration; for,
being defeated by the Peshwa hi 1760, he was compelled to
purchase peace by its cession to the Mahrattas. Upon the fall
of the Peshwa in 1818 Bijapur passed into the hands of the
British, and was by them included in the territory assigned to the
raja of Satara. In 1848 the territory of Satara was escheated
through the failure of heirs. The city was made the administra-
tive headquarters of the district in 1885.
The district of Bijapur, formerly called Kaladgi, occupies a
barren plain, sloping eastward from a string of feudatory
Mahratta states to the nizam's dominions. It contains an area
of 5669 sq. m., and its population in 1901 was 735,435, showing
a decrease of 8% compared with an increase of 27% in the
preceding decade, and a decrease of 2 1 % in the period between
1872 and 1881. These changes in population reveal the effects
of famine, which was very severely felt in 1876-1878 and again
in 1899-1900. There is very little irrigation in the district.
The principal crops are millet, wheat, pulse, oil-seeds and cotton.
There are considerable manufactures of cotton and silk goods
and blankets, and several factories for ginning and pressing
cotton. The East Deccan line of the Southern Mahratta railway
traverses the district from north to south.
BIJAWAR, a native state of central India, in the Bundelkhand
agency. Area, 973 sq. m.; pop. (1001) 110,500; revenue,
10,000. Forests cover nearly half the total area of the state,
which is believed to be rich in minerals, but lack of transport
facilities has hindered the development of its resources.
The state takes its name from the chief town, Bijawar (pop.
in 1901, 5220). which was founded by Bijai Singh, one of the
Gond chiefs of Garha Mandla, in the I7th century. It was
conquered in the i8th century by Chhatarsal, the founder of
Panna, a Rajput of the Bundela clan, by whose descendants it
is still held. It was confirmed to Ratan Singh in 1811 by the
British government for the usual deed of allegiance. In 1857
Bhan Pratap Singh rendered signal services to the British during
the Mutiny, being rewarded with certain privileges and a
hereditary salute of eleven guns. In 1866 he received the title
of maharaja, and the prefix sawai in 1877. Bhan Pratap was
succeeded on his death in 1899 by his adopted son, Sanwant
Singh, a son of the maharaja of Orchha.
BIJNOR, or BIJNAUR, a town and district of British India in
the Bareilly division of the United Provinces. The town is about
3 m. from the left bank of the Ganges. The population in 1901
was 17,583. There is a large trade in sugar. The American
Methodists have a mission, which maintains some aided schools,
and there is an English high school for boys.
The DISTRICT OF BIJNOR has an area of 1791 sq. m. The
aspect of the country is generally a level plain, but the northern
part of it rises towards the Himalayas, the greatest elevation
being 1342 ft. above the sea-level. The Koh and Ramganga are
the principal rivers that flow through the district, and the
Ganges forms its western boundary. In 1901 the population
was 779,451, showing a decrease of 2 % in the decade. The
country is watered in most parts by streams from the hills, but
a series of small canals has been constructed. Sugar is largely
exported. A line of the Oudh & Rohilkhand railway from
Moradabad to Saharanpur runs through the district.
History. Of the early history of Bijnor even after it passed
under Mahommedan rule little is known with any certainty.
The district was ravaged by Timur in 1399, and thenceforward
nothing is heard of it till the time of Akbar, when it formed part
of the Delhi empire and so continued undisturbed, save for
occasional raids, so long as the power of the Moguls survived
intact. In the early part of the i8th century, however, the
Rohilla Pathans established their independence in the country
called by them Rohilkhand; and about 1748 the Rohilla chief
Ali Mahommed made his first annexations in Bijnor, the rest
of which soon fell under the Rohilla domination. The northern
districts were granted by Ali Mahommed to Najib Khan, who
gradually extended his influence west of the Ganges and at Delhi,
receiving the title of Najib-ud-daula and becoming paymaster
of the royal forces. His success, however, raised up powerful
enemies against him, and at their instigation the Mahrattas
invaded Bijnor. This was the beginning of a feud which con-
tinued for years. Najib, indeed, held his own, and for the part
played by him in the victory of Panipat was made vizier of the
empire. After his death hi 1770, however, his son Zabita Khan
was defeated by the Mahrattas, who overran all Rohilkhand.
In 1772 the nawab of Oudh made a treaty with the Rohillas,
covenanting to expel the Mahrattas in return for a money
payment. He carried out his part of the bargain; but the
Rohilla chieftains refused to pay. In 1774 the nawab concluded
with the government of Calcutta a treaty of alliance, and he now
called upon the British, in accordance with its terms, to supply
a brigade to assist him in enforcing his claims against the Rohillas.
This was done; the Rohillas were driven beyond the Ganges,
and Bijnor was incorporated in the territories of the nawab, who
in 1801 ceded it to the East India Company. From this time the
history of Bijnor is uneventful, until the Mutiny of 1857, when
BIKANIR BILASPUR
929
(on the ist of June) it was occupied by the nawab of Najibabad,
a grandson of Zabita Khan. In spite of fighting between the
Hindus and the Mahommedan Pathans the nawab succeeded in
maintaining his position until the 2ist of April 1858, when he was
defeated by the British at Nagina; whereupon British authority
was restored.
BIKANIR, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency,
with an area of 23,311 sq. m. The natural aspect of the country
is one desolate tract, without a single permanently running
stream. Its surface is overspread with undulating sand-hills,
of from 20 to 100 ft. above the average level, and so loose that
men and quadrupeds stepping off the beaten track sink as if
in snow. Two streams, the Katli and Ghaggar, attempt to
flow through this dismal region, but are lost in its sands. Water
is very scarce, and is raised from wells of from 250 to 340 ft. in
depth. A few shallow salt lakes are filled by rain water, but they
dry up on the setting in of the hot weather, leaving a thick crust
of salt on their beds, which is used for commercial and domestic
purposes. The inhabitants are very poor. They live chiefly
by pasturage rearing camels, of which their chief agricultural
stock consists, and horses of a fine breed, which fetch good
prices. From the wool which their sheep yield they manufac-
ture every article of native dress and good blankets. The other
industries are leather work, sugar-refining, goldsmith's work,
ivory carving, iron, brass, copper, stone masonry, tanning,
weaving, dyeing and carpentry. The principal towns are
Bikanir, the capital, Churu, Rajgarh, Ratangarh and Reni. In
1901 the population was 584,627, showing a decrease of 30%
due to the results of famine. The revenue is 141,000. The
military force consists of 500 men, besides the Imperial Service
Corps of the same strength. The schools include a high school
affiliated to the university of Allahabad, a school for the sons
of nobles, and a girls' school called after Lady Elgin. The
railway from Jodhpur has been extended towards Bhatinda
in the Punjab; on the northern border, the Ghaggar canal
in the Punjab irrigates about 5000 acres. Drought is of common
occurrence. The famine of 1890-1900 was severely felt. The
city of Bikanir has a railway station. The city is surrounded by
a stone wall, 6 ft. thick, 15 to 30 ft. high and 35 m. in circuit,
with five gates and three sally-ports. The citadel is half a mile
ncrth-east of the city, and is surrounded by a rampart with
bastions. The population in 1901 was 53,075. There are
manufactures of fine blankets and sugar-candy.
History. In the isth century the territory which now forms
the state of Bikanir was occupied by Rajput clans, partly Jats,
partly Mahommedans. About 1465 Bika, a Rathor Rajput,
sixth son of Rao Jodha, chief of Marwar, started out to conquer
the country. By taking advantage of the rivalries of the clans
he succeeded; in 1485 he built the small fort at the capital
which still bears his name, and in 1488 began the building of the
city itself. He died in 1504, and his successors gradually
extended their possessions. In the reign of Akbar the chiefs of
Bikanir were esteemed among the most loyal adherents of the
Delhi empire, and in 1570 Akbar married a daughter of Kalyan
Singh. Kalyan's son, Rai Singh, who succeeded him in 1571,
was one of Akbar's most distinguished generals and the first
raja of Bikanir; his daughter married Selim, afterwards the
emperor Jahangir. Two other distinguished chiefs of the house
were Karan Singh (1631-1669), who in the struggle of the sons
of Shah Jahan for the throne threw in his lot with Aurangzeb,
and his'eldest son, Anup Singh (1669-1698), who fought with
distinction in the Deccan, was conspicuous in the capture of
Golconda, and earned the title of maharaja. From this time
forward the history of Bikanir was mainly that of the wars with
Jodhpur, which raged intermittently throughout the i8th century.
In 1802, during one of these wars, Elphinstone passed through
Bikanir on his way to Kabul; and the maharaja, Surat Singh
(1788-1828), applied to him for British protection, which was,
however, refused. In 1815 Surat Singh's tyranny led to a
general rising of his tftakurs, and in 1816 the maharaja again
applied for British protection. On the gth of May 1818 a treaty
was concluded, and order was restored in the country by British
ni. 30
troops. Ratan Singh, who succeeded his father in 1828, applied
in vain in 1830 to the British government for aid against a fresh
outbreak of his thakurs; but during the next five years dacoity
became so rife on the borders that the government raised a
special force to deal with it (the Shakhawati Brigade), and of this
for seven years Bikanir contributed part of the cost. Hence-
forth the relations of the maharajas with the British government
were increasingly cordial. In 1842 Ratan Singh supplied
camels for the Afghan expedition; in 1844 be reduced the dues
on goods passing through his country, and he gave assistance
in both Sikh campaigns. His son, Sardar Singh (1851-1872),
was rewarded for help given during the Mutiny by an increase
of territory. In 1868 a rising of the thakurs against his extortions
led to the despatch of a British political officer, by whom affairs
were adjusted. Sardar Singh had no son, and on his death
in 1872 his widow and principal ministers selected Dungar
Singh as his successor, with the approval of the British govern-
ment. The principal event of his reign was the rebellion of the
thakurs in 1883, owing to an attempt to increase the dues pay able
in lieu of military service; this led to the permanent location
at Bikanir of a British political agent. Dungar Singh died in
1887 without a son; but he had adopted his brother, Ganga
Singh (b. 1880), who succeeded as 2ist chief of Bikanir with the
approval of the government. He was educated at the Mayo
College at Ajmere, and was invested with full powers in 1898.
He attended King Edward's coronation in 1902, and accompanied
the British army in person in the Chinese campaign of 1901 in
command of the Bikanir Camel Corps, which also did good
service in Somaliland in 1904. The state owes to this ruler the
opening up of new railways across the great desert, which was
formerly passable only by camels, and the tapping of the valu-
able coal deposits that occur in the territory. For his conspicuous
services he was given the Kaisar-i-Hind medal of the first class,
made an honorary major in the Indian army, a G.C.I.E., a
K.C.S.I., and A.D.C. to the prince of Wales.
BILASPUR, a town and district of British India in the Chhat-
tisgarh division of the Central Provinces. The town is situated
on the right bank of the river Arpa. It is said to have
been founded by a fisherwoman named Bilasa in the 17th
century, and it still retains her name. The place, however,
came into note only after 1741, the year of the Mahratta
invasion (see below), when a Mahratta official took up his abode
there and began to build a fort which was never completed.
In 1862 it was made the headquarters of the district. The
population in 1901 was 18,937. It is an important junction on
the Bengal-Nagpur railway, where the two lines from the west
meet on their way to Calcutta, 255 m. from Nagpur.
The DISTRICT OF BILASPUR has an area of 7602 sq. m. It
forms the upper half of the basin of the river Mahanadi. It is
almost enclosed on the north, west and east by ranges of hills,
while its southern boundary is generally open and accessible,
well cultivated, and closely dotted with villages embedded in
groups of fruit trees. The principal hills are (i) the Maikal
range, situated in the north-western extremity of the district;
(2) a chain of hills forming part of the Vindhyan range, on the
north; (3) the Korba hills, an off-shoot of the Vindhyas, on
the eastern boundary; and (4) the Sonakhan block of hills, in
the vicinity of the Mahanadi river. The Mahanadi is the prin-
cipal river of the district, and governs the whole drainage and
river system of the surrounding country. It takes its rise in a
mountainous region which is described as the wildest of all wild
partsof the Central Provinces, crosses the Bilaspur boundary near
Seorinarain, and after a course of 25 m. in the south-eastern
extremity of the district enters Sambalpur district. Within
Bilaspur the river b everywhere navigable for six months in the
year. Minor rivers are the Sakri, Hamp, Tesua, Agar, Maniari.
Arpa, Kharod, Lilagar, Jonk and Bareri. The most important
affluents of the Mahanadi are the Seonath and Hasdu. Besides
the natural water supply afforded by the rivers, Bilaspur abounds
in tanks. There are large forest areas, those belonging to
the government covering over 600 sq. m. Sal (Shorea robusta)
is the chief timber tree.
93
BILBAO
Bilaspur, which was formerly a very isolated tract, is now
traversed in three directions by lines of the Bengal-Nagpur
railway. It suffered severely from the famine of 1896-1897.
In 1897 the general death-rate was as high as 90 per thousand,
rising to 297 in Bilaspur town. It suffered no less severely in
1000, when in May the number of persons relieved rose to one-
fourth of the total population.
In 1901 the population was 1,012,972, showing a decrease of
13 %, compared with an increase of 14 % in the preceding
decade. In 1906, however, the new district of Drug was formed,
which took away 739 sq. m. from Biiaspur; the population on
this reduced area of Bilaspur in 1901 was 91 7,240.
Among the Hindu inhabitants of the district, the Chamars
and Pankas deserve particular notice. The former, who form
the shoemaker and leather-dealing caste of the Hindu com-
munity, had always been held in utter contempt by the other
Hindu castes. But between 1820 and i83oa religious movement,
having for its object their freedom from the trammels of caste,
was inaugurated by a member of the caste, named Ghasi Das,
who preached the unity of God and the equality of men. Ghasi
Das gave himself out as a messenger of God; he prohibited the
adoration of idols, and enjoined the worship of the Supreme
Being without any visible sign or representation. The followers
of the new faith call themselves Satnamis, or the worshippers of
Satnam or God. They do not keep the Hindu festivals and they
defy the contempt of the Brahmans. Ghasi Das, the founder
of the faith, was their first high priest. He died in 1850; his
son succeeded him, but was assassinated (it was said by the
Hindus), and the grandson succeeded him. The Pankas,
who form about a sixth of the population, are all Kabirpanthis,
or followers of Kabir, a religious reformer of the isth
century. There is no great difference between the Kabir
Pankas and the Satnamis. They both abstain from meat and
liquor, marry at the age of puberty, ordinarily celebrate their
ceremonies through the agency of the elders of their own caste
and bury their dead. The Pankas worship the Supreme Being
under the name of Kabir, and the Chamars under the name
of Satnam; while each community has a high priest to whom
reverence is paid. At present the majority of the Pankas are
cultivators, though formerly all were weavers. The Gonds are
the most numerous among the aboriginal tribes, but so great
an intermixture has taken place between them and the Hindu
races that they have lost their language and most of their ethnical
characteristics, such as the flat forehead, squat nose, prominent
nostril, dark skin, &c., and are scarcely distinguishable from
the other classes of the Hindu labouring population. In addition
to some of the Hindu deities which they worship, the Gonds
have their own g9ds Bara Deva and Dula Deva. The Kan-
wars are the next largest section of the aboriginal population.
The upper class among them claim to be Rajputs, and are divided
into numerous septs. Although an aboriginal tribe, the census
returns them as a Hindu caste. All the northern landholders
of Bilaspur belong to this tribe, which consequently occupies
an influential position.
The chief wealth of the district consists in its agricultural
produce. Rice, wheat, pulses, millet, mustard, oil-seeds and
cotton are the chief crops. Rice, the chief export, is sent to
Bombay, Berar and northern India. The tussur silk industry
is of considerable importance, and the silk is reputed the best
in the Central Provinces. Sal and other timber is exported.
Lac is sent in large quantities to Calcutta and Mirzapur. Coal
and iron are the chief minerals; sandstone for building purposes
is quarried near Bilaspur and Seorinarain. Among local in-
dustries the most important is the weaving trade.
The early history of the district is very obscure. From remote
ages it was governed by kings of the Haihai dynasty of Ratanpur
and Raipur, known as the Chhattisgarh rajas, on account of
thirty-six forts (garhs), of which they were the lords. A genea-
logical list of kings of this dynasty was carefully kept up to the
fifty-fifth representative in the year 1741, when the country was
seized without a struggle by the Mahrattas of Nagpur. From
1818 to 1830 Bilaspur came under the management of the British
government, the Mahratta chief of Nagpur being then a minor.
In 1854 the country finally lapsed to the British government,
the chief having died without issue. During the Sepoy mutiny
a hill chief of the district gave some trouble, but he was speedily
captured and executed.
BILBAO, formerly sometimes written BILBOA, the capital of
the province of Biscay, in northern Spain; in 43 15' N. and
2 45' W.; on the river Nervion on Ansa (in Basque Ibaizabat),
and about 8 m. inland from the Bay of Biscay. Pop. (1900)
83,306. Bilbao is one of the principal seaports of Spain, and
the greatest of Basque towns. It occupies a small but fertile
and beautiful valley, shut in by mountains on every side except
towards the sea, and containing the fortified haven of Portu-
galete, the industrial town of Baracaldo (q.v.), and the villages
of Santnrce and Las Arenas, where the Nervion broadens to
form the Bay of Bilbao at its mouth. Bilbao comprises two
distinct parts, ancient and modern. The new town lies on the
left bank, while the old town rises on the right in terraces.
Communication across the river is afforded by five bridges,
of which the oldest, San Antonio, is of stone, and dates from the
I4th century. The houses in the principal streets are built of
hewn stone, and are several storeys high, with projecting eaves
that give shelter from both sun and rain. Many of the streets
in the old town are very narrow, and have an appearance of
cleanliness and quiet. For a long time no carts or carriages
were permitted to enter the city for fear of polluting and
injuring the pavement, and the transport of goods was carried
on in hand-carts. But after 1876 entirely new districts were
mapped out on the left bank of the Nervion. Fine broad streets,
splendid squares and public gardens, hotels, villas, palatial new
public buildings and numerous schools came into existence.
The part of the town on the right bank is, however, still the great
centre of business, the narrow streets containing the best shops.
There, too, are the banks, the town hall, the theatre, the principal
clubs, and the principal churches, including that of Santiago,
which dates from the i4th century. In and around Bilbao
there are more than thirty convents and monasteries, and at
Olaveaga, about a mile off, is the Jesuit university, attended by
850 students. Public education is not, however, entirely in the
hands of the priesthood and nuns; there are an institute, a normal
school to train teachers, a school of arts and handicrafts, a nautical
school and numerous public primary schools for both sexes.
Few Spanish cities grew so rapidly in size, importance an{
wealth as Bilbao in the latter half of the igth century. Its first
bank was founded in 1857; its first railway (Bilbao-Tudela)
opened in 1863. Thenceforward, despite the check it received
from the Carlist rebellion of 1870-1876, and the contemporaneous
decline of its wool and shipbuilding industries, its prosperity
increased steadily. The population, 17,649 in 1870, rose to
50,734 in 1887, 74,076 in 1897, and 83,306 in 1900. This develop-
ment was due principally to the growth of the mining and
metallurgical industries. From a very early period, as the Old
English word bilbo, " a sword," attests, Bilbao was celebrated
for the excellent quality of its steel blades; in modern times it
was the natural headquarters of the important steel and iron
trades of the Basque Provinces. Hence it became the centre
of a network of railway lines unsurpassed in Spain. The harbour
works board, constituted in 1877, improved the river channel
and the bar; made wharves and embankments; lighted the
lower reaches of the river by electricity, so as to allow vessels to
enter by night; and constructed a breakwater and counter-mole
outside the bar of the river Nervion, between Santurce, Portu-
galete and the opposite headland at the village of Algorta, so as
to secure deep anchorage and easy access to the river. The
first dry dock was constructed in 1896; in 1905 it was supple-
mented by another, the largest in Spain. The exports are
chiefly iron; the imports coal; large quantities of wine from
Navarre and the Ebro valley are also sent abroad, and the
importation of timber of all kinds from Scandinavia and Finland,
and coastwise from Asturias, is of great importance. In the,
coasting trade the exports are mostly pig-iron, codfish and
some products of local industries and agriculture. The shipping
BILBEIS BILFINGER
at Bilbao is mainly Spanish, owing to the multitude of small
vessels employed in the coasting trade; but from 1880 onwards
the majority of foreign ships were British. In 1004, 3319
vessels of 2,267,957 tons were accommodated at Bilbao; more
than 2000 were Spanish and nearly 700 British. In the same
year new harbour works and lighting arrangements were under-
taken on a large scale, and a movement was initiated for the
revival of shipbuilding. Besides the mining and metallurgic
industries, Bilbao has breweries, tanneries, flour mills, glass
works, brandy distilleries, and paper, soap, cotton and mosaic
factories.
Bilbao, or Belvao, as it was often called, was founded by Don
Pedro Lopez de Haro about 1300, and soon rose into importance.
It was occupied by the French in 1795, and from 1808 to 1813;
and in 1835 and 1874 it was unavailingly besieged by the Carlists.
BILBEIS, or BELBES, a town of lower Egypt, on the eastern
arm of the Nile, 36 m. N.N.E. of Cairo by rail. Pop. (1907)
13,485. The Coptic name, Phelbes, seems to have been derived
from Egyptian, but nothing is known of the place before medieval
times. Considered the bulwark of the kingdom on that side,
Bilbeis was by the Moslems defended with strong fortifications.
In 1163-1164 it was besieged for three months by the crusaders
under Amalric, and in 1168 was captured and pillaged by
another army of crusaders. Napoleon in 1798 ordered the
restoration of the fortifications, but they have again fallen into
decay. Bilbeis was the first halting-place of the English cavalry
in their march on Cairo after the fight at Tel-el-Kebir on the
I3th of September 1882.
BILBERRY, BLAEBERRY or WHORTLEBERRY, known botanic-
ally as V actinium myrtillus (natural order Ericaceae), a low-
growing shrub, found in woods, copses and on heaths, chiefly
in hilly districts. The stiff stems, from half a foot to two
feet long, bear small ovate leaves with a serrate margin, and
small, globose, rosy flowers tinged with green. The berries are
dark blue, with a waxy bloom, and about one-third of an inch
in diameter; they are used for tarts, preserves, &c. The plant
is widely distributed throughout the north temperate and ex-
tends into the arctic zone. Cowberry is a closely allied species,
V. Vitis-.Idaea, growing in similar situations, but not found in the
south-eastern portion of England, distinguished by its evergreen
leaves and red acid berry.
BILBO (from the Spanish town Bilbao, formerly called in
England " Bilboa," and famous, like Toledo, for its sword-
blades), in the earliest English use, a sword, especially one of
superior temper. In the plural form (as in Shakespeare's phrase
" methought I lay worse than the mutines in the bilboes ") it
meant the irons into which offenders were put on board ship.
BILDERDIJK, WILLEM (1756-1831), Dutch poet, the son
of an Amsterdam physician, was born on the 7th of September
1756. When he was six years old an accident to his foot
incapacitated him for ten years, and he developed habits of
continuous and concentrated study. His parents were ardent
partisans of the house of Orange, and Bilderdijk grew up with
strong monarchical and Calvinistic convictions. He was, says
Da Costa, " anti-revolutionary, anti-Barneveldtian, anti-
Loevesteinish, anti-liberal." After studying at Leiden Univer-
sity, he obtained his doctorate in law in 1782, and began to
practise as an advocate at the Hague. Three years later he
contracted an unhappy marriage with Rebecca Woesthoven.
He refused in 1795 to take the oath to the new administration,
and 'was consequently obliged to leave Holland. He went to
Hamburg, and then to London, where his great learning procured
him consideration. There he had as a pupil Katharina Wilhel-
mina Schweickhardt (1776-1830), the daughter of a Dutch
painter and herself a poet. When he left London in June 1797
for Braunschweig, this lady followed him, and after he had
formally divorced his first wife (1802) they were married. In
1806 he was persuaded by his friends to return to Holland. He
was kindly received by Louis Napoleon, who made him his
librarian, and a member and eventually president (1800-1811)
of the Royal Institute. After the abdication of Louis Napoleon
he suffered great poverty; on the accession of William of
Orange in 1813 he hoped to be made a professor, but was dis-
appointed and became a history tutor at Leiden. He continued
his vigorous campaign against liberal ideas to his death, which
took place at Haarlem on the iSth of December 1831.
A picture of the Bilderdijk household is given in the letters
(vol. v., 1850) of Robert Southey, who stayed some time with
Bilderdijk in 1825. Madame Bilderdijk had translated Roderick
into Dutch (1823-1824). For his work as a poet see DUTCH
LITERATURE. His many-sided activity showed itself also in
historical criticism Geschiedenis des Vaderlands (1832-1851,
13 vols.), a conservative commentary on Wagenaar's Vader-
landsche Historic; in translations from Sophocles (1779 and
1789), of part of the Iliad, of the hymns and epigrams of Calli-
machus, and from the Latin poets; in philology Tool en
Dichtkundige Verscheidenheden (1820-1825, 4 vols.); and in
drama the tragedies, Floris de Vijfde (1808), Willem I. van
Holland (1808), and others. His most important poetical works
are the didactic poem, De Ziekle der geleerden (" The Disease of
the Learned "), 2 vols., 1807; a descriptive poem in the manner
of Delille in Het Bttitenleven (1803); -and his fragmentary epic,
De Ondergang der eersle ivereld (1820). Other volumes were
Mijne Verlustigung (Leiden, 1781), Bloemljens (1785), Mengel-
poczij (1799, 2 vols.), Poezij (1803-1807, 4 vols.), MengeJingen
(1804-1808, 4 vols.), Nieuwe Mengelingen (1806,2 vols.), Hollands
Verlossing (1813-1814, 2 vols.), V ' aderlandsche Uilboezemingen
(Leiden, 1815), Winlerbloemen (1811, 2 vols.), &c., in some of
which his wife collaborated.
His poetical works were collected by I. da Costa (Haarlem, 1856-
1859, '6 vols.), with a biography of the poet. See also " Mijne
Levensbeschrijving " in Mengelingen en Fragmenten . . . (1834) ;
his Uneven (ed. 1836-1837) by I. da Costa and W. Messchert; Dr
R. A. Kollewijn, Bilderdijk, ZijnLevenenwerken . . . (2 vols., 1891).
BILEJIK (Byzantine Belocome), chief town of the Ertoghrul
sanjak of the Brusa vilayet in Asia Minor, altitude 1000 ft.,
situated on a hill 2^ m. from Its station on the Ismid-Angora
railway. Pop. 10,500 (Moslems, 7200; Christians, 3300). It is
an important centre of the silk industry, and has several silk-
spinning factories.
BILFINGER (BULFFINGER), GEORG BERNHARD (1693-
1 7 50) , German philosopher, mathematician and statesman, son of
a Lutheran minister, was born on the 23rd of January 1693, at
Kanstatt in Wurttemberg. As a boy he showed great aptitude
for study, and at first devoted himself to theology, but under the
influence of Wolff's writings he took up mathematics and
philosophy on the lines of Wolff and Leibnitz. Returning to
theology, he attempted to connect it with philosophy in a
treatise, Dilucidationes philosophicae, de deo, anima humana,
mundo (Tubingen, 1725, 1746, 1768). This work, containing
nothing original, but giving a clear representation of Wolff's
philosophy, met with great success, and the author was appointed
to the office of preacher at the castle of Tubingen and of reader in
the school of theology. In 1721, after two years' study under
Wolff, he became professor of philosophy at Halle, and in 1724
professor of mathematics. His friends at Tubingen disapproved
his new views, and in 1725, on Wolff's recommendation, he was
invited by Peter the Great to lecture in St Petersburg, where he
was well received. His success in winning the prize of a thousand
crowns offered for a dissertation on the cause of gravity by the
Academy of Sciences of Paris secured his return to his native
land in 1731. In 1735, largely on account of his knowledge of
military engineering, Duke Charles Alexander (1733-1737) made
him a privy councillor, but his hands were tied owing to the
frivolous atmosphere of the court. On the death of the duke,
however, he became a member of the Regency Council, and
devoted himself with energy and success to the reorganization
of the state. In the departments of education, state-religion,
agriculture and commerce, his administration was uniformly
successful, and he became in a real sense the head of the state.
He died at Stuttgart on the i8th of February 1750. After his
return from Russia, he won the highest respect at home and
abroad, and Frederick the Great is recorded to have said of him,
" He was a great man whom I shall ever remember with
admiration."
932
BILGE BILL
Beside the Dilucidationes, he wrote: De harmonia animi et
carports humani commentatio (Frankfort and Leipzig, 1735;
Tubingen, 1741); De origine et permissione mali (1724), an
account of the Leibnitzian theodicy.
For his life and times see Tafinger, Leichenrede (Stuttgart, 1750) ;
Prof. Abel in Moser's Patriot. Archiv., 1788, 9, p. 369; Spittler,
Verm. Schriften, 13, p. 421; G. Schwab in Morgenblatt (1830).
For his philosophy, see R. Wahl, " Bilfinger's Monadologie" (Zeil-
schrift fur Philos. vol. 85, pp. 66-92, 202-231 (Leipzig, 1884);
E. Zeller, Geschichted. deutsch. Philos. seit Leibnitz, pp. 283 foil., 294).
BILGE (a corruption of bulge, from Fr. bouge, Lat. bulga, a bag,
deriving probably from an original Celtic word), the " belly " or
widest part of a cask; the broad horizontal part of a ship's
bottom above the keel; also the lowest interior part of the hull;
hence " bilge-water," the foul water which collects in the bilge.
" Bilge-keels " are pieces of timber fastened to the bottom of a
ship to reduce rolling (see SHIPBUILDING).
BILHARZIOSIS. In various parts of Africa the inhabitants
are liable to suffer from a form of endemic haematuria caused
by the presence of a parasite in the mucous membrane of
the urinary passages. This parasite was discovered in 1852
by Bilharz, and hence is generally known as Bilharzia,
though it has been more scientifically named Schistosoma
haematobium. The condition to which it gives rise is that
of bilharziosis. (For description and life history of the para-
site see TREMATODES.) In man the parasites and ova have
been found in the minute veins of the bladder, ureter and pelvis
of the kidney (more rarely in other organs), where they infest the
mucous and submucous tissues. In an affected bladder the
mucous membrane presents swollen vascular patches of varying
size, or warty prominences on which the urinary salts may be
deposited. The ova often serve as a nucleus for urinary calculi.
Similar changes may take place in the ureter, and the consequent
swelling lead to obstruction to the passage of urine, and if left
untreated to pyelitis and pyonephrosis. If the rectum be affected
the mucous membrane becomes thickened, polypoid growths form
and large submucous haemorrhages may take place.
As to the mode of entrance of this parasite opinion is divided.
Some authorities favour the view that the entrance is through
the skin, urethra or rectum, the result of bathing in infected
water; others that it is taken by the mouth in water or uncooked
fish. The symptoms to which it gives rise are haematuria, pain in
the perineal region and a greater or less degree of anaemia
through loss of blood. If the disease continue, cystitis and its
consequent train of symptoms ensue (see BLADDER AND PRO-
STATE DISEASES). If the rectum be affected there is considerable
discharge of mucus, and later prolapsus ani may be the result.
But the symptoms vary to a remarkable extent, from the slightest
producing but little discomfort, to the most severe resulting in
death. The liquid extract of male fern is the only drug used with
much success. The symptoms caused by the parasite must be
treated as they arise. Polypoid growths of the rectum must be
surgically treated.
BILIN (Czech Bilina), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 90 m.
N. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 7871, chiefly German. It
is a very old town situated on the Biela, and contains a 17th-
century castle, belonging to Prince Lobkowitz. In the vicinity
of the towns are extensive lignite mines. Bilin is famous for its
mineral springs, the Biliner Sauerbrunnen. They have a tempera-
ture of 45-6 F., and contain a large proportion of bicarbonate
of soda. About 4,000,000 bottles of water are exported annually,
and another article of export is the salt recovered from the water
by evaporation. About 5 m. to the S. of the Sauerbrunnen lies
the Bofen or Biliner Stein (1763 ft.), a large mass of phonolite
or clinkstone, with rare flora and fine view. The town is indeed
surrounded by basaltic rocks, the largest of them being the
Radelstein (2460 ft.), from which a fine view is obtained.
BILL. There are three words in English with distinct mean-
ings and derivations, (i) A written, originally sealed, document.
The word is derived from the Early English bilk, Anglo-Latin
billa, from Latin bulla, in the medieval sense of " seal." It is
a doublet, therefore, of " bull." (2) A common Teutonic word
for a long-handled cutting weapon (O. Eng. bil, billes, sword or
falchion, O. Sax. bill, M.H.G. Bil, Mod. Ger. Bille, a pickaxe;
no connexion with Ger. Beil, an axe), of which the name and
shape is preserved in the hedging-bills used for pruning hedges
and lopping the branches of trees. For an account of the weapon
see (2) below. (3) The beak of a bird. This may be connected
with (2), but it does not appear in any Teutonic language other
than English.
(i) In the sense of a document the word is used in various
connexions in law and commerce.
In the English parliament, and similar legislative bodies, a
bill is a form of statute (q.v.) submitted to either house, which
when finally passed becomes an act. The modern system of
legislating by means of bill and statute appears to have been
introduced in the reign of Henry VI., superseding the older mode
of proceeding by petitions from the Commons, assented to by the
king, and afterwards enrolled by the judges. A bill consists of
a preamble, reciting the necessity for legislation, and clauses
which contain the enactments. (For procedure see PARLIAMENT.)
A Bill in Chancery, in former days, in English law, was a written
statement of the plaintiff's case whereby he complained of the
wrong upon which the suit was based and prayed for relief. By
the Judicature Acts 1873 and 1875 its place was taken by a
writ and statement of claim (see PLEADING).
A Bill of Indictment is a presentment against a prisoner, charg-
ing him with an offence, and presented at quarter sessions or
assizes to the grand jury (see INDICTMENT).
A Bill of Costs is an account setting forth the charges and dis-
bursements incurred by a solicitor in the conduct of his client's
business. The delivery of a bill of costs is by statute a condition
necessary before the solicitor can sue upon it (see COSTS).
A Bill of Exceptions was formerly a statement in writing of
objections to the ruling of a judge, who, at the trial, had mistaken
the law, either in directing the jury, or in refusing or admitting
evidence or otherwise. The bill of exceptions was tendered at
any time before the verdict by counsel of the dissatisfied party,
who required the judge to seal it. The case proceeded to the jury,
and judgment being given, the point raised was brought before
a court of error. Bills of exceptions were confined to civil cases.
They were abolished by the Judicature Act 1875, ar >d a " motion
for a new trial " substituted (see TRIAL).
A Bill of Health is a document given to the master of a ship by
the consul or other proper authority of the port from which he
clears, describing the sanitary state of the place. A bill of health
may be either " clean," " suspected " or " touched," or " foul."
A " clean " bill imports that at the time the ship sailed, no
disease of an infectious or contagious kind is known to exist;
a "suspected" or "touched" bill, that no such disease has as
yet appeared, but that there is reason to fear it; a "foul" bill,
that such a disease actually exists at the time of the ship's
departure. Bills of health are necessary where the destination
of the ship is a country whose laws require the production of
such a bill before the ship is allowed into port, and where, in
default of such production, the ship is subjected to quarantine.
A Bill of Mortality in England was a weekly return issued under
the supervision of the company of parish clerks showing the
number of deaths in a parish. During the Tudor period England
suffered much from plague, and various precautionary measures
became necessary. Quarantine or isolation was the most im-
portant, but to carry it out successfully it was necessary to have
early warning of the existence of plague in each parish or house.
For this purpose searchers usually women were appointed,
who reported to the clerk the cause of each death in the parish.
He, in turn, sent a report to the parish clerks' hall, from whence
was issued weekly a return of, all the deaths from plague and
other causes in the various parishes, as well as a list of those
parishes which were free from plague. Bills of mortality are
usually'said to date from 1538, when parish registers were estab-
lished by Cromwell (Lord Essex), but there is extant a bill which
dates from August 1535, and one which is possibly even earlier
than this. It is certain that they first began to be compiled
in a recognized manner in December 1603, and they were con-
tinued regularly from that date down to 1842, when under the
BILLAUD-VARENNE
933
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1836 they were superseded
by the registrar-general's returns. It was not till 1728, when
the ages of the dead were first introduced, that bills of mortality
acquired any considerable statistical value. It was on the data
thus furnished that the science of life insurance was founded.
A Bill of Particulars was, in law, a statement in writing, in-
forming each party to a suit the precise nature of the case they
had to meet. It contained the plaintiff's cause of action or
the defendant's set-off. Particulars are now usually indorsed on
the pleadings (see PLEADING).
A Bill of Peace is, in equity, a suit brought by a person to
establish and perpetuate a right which he claims, and which
from its nature may be controverted by different persons at
different times and by different actions; or where several attempts
have already been unsuccessfully made to overthrow the same
right, and justice requires that the party should be quieted in
the right if it is already sufficiently established. Bills of this
nature were usually filed where there was one general right to
be established against a great number of persons, or where one
person claimed or defended a right against many, or where many
claimed or defended a right against one. Thus, a bill might
be filed by a parson for tithes against his parishioners; by
parishioners against a parson to establish a modus', by a lord
against tenants for an encroachment under colour of a common
right; or by tenants against a lord for disturbance of a common
right. Bills were also filed in cases where the plaintiff had, after
repeated and satisfactory trials, established his right at law,
and yet was in danger of further litigation and obstruction to
his right from new attempts to controvert it. Actions in the
nature of bills of peace are still maintainable.
A Bill of Sight is a document furnished to a collector of customs
or other proper officer by an importer of goods in England, who,
being unable for want of full information to make a perfect entry
of goods consigned to him, describes the same to the best of his
knowledge and information. The goods may then be provision-
ally landed, but perfect entry must be made within three days
by indorsing on the bill of sight the necessary particulars. In
default of perfect entry within three days the goods are taken to
the king's warehouse, and if perfect entry is not made within one
month and all duties and charges paid, they are sold for payment
thereof. See the Customs Consolidation Act 1876.
A Bill of Store is a license granted by the custom-house to
re-import British goods into the United Kingdom. All British
goods re-imported into the United Kingdom are entered as
foreign, unless re-imported within ten years after their exporta-
tion and unless the property in the goods continues and remains
in the person by whom they were exported. But in such case
they may be entered as British goods, by bill of store, with the
exception of corn, grain, meal, flour and hops.
A Bill of Victualling or Victualling Bill, in its original meaning,
is a list of all stores for shipment, but now an order from an export
officer of the customs for the shipment from a bonded warehouse
or for drawback of such stores as may be required and allowed
with reference to the number of the crew and passengers on
board a ship proceeding on an oversea voyage. It is made out by
the master and countersigned by the collector of customs. Its
object is to prevent frauds on the revenue. No such stores are
supplied for the use of any ship nor any articles taken on board
deemed to be stores unless they are borne upon the victualling
bill, and any such stores relanded at any place in the United
Kingdom without the sanction of the proper officers of the
customs will be forfeited and the master and owner will each be
liable to a penalty of treble the value of the stores or 100. A
victualling bill serves as; a certificate of clearance when there is
nothing but stores on board the ship.
Seealso ADVENTURE, ATTAINDER, INDEMNITY, LETTEROF CREDIT,
BILL OF EXCHANGE, BILL OF RIGHTS and BILL OF SALE; for a
bill of lading see AFFREIGHTMENT. (T. A. I.)
(2) In the sense of a weapon, the primitive forms of a bill
suggest short scythe-blades or hedgers' bill-hooks mounted on
tall staves. In such shape it is found in the hands of the English
before the Conquest'. English medieval documents make much
confusion between the bill and the halbert and other forms of
staved weapons with cutting heads. Before the isth century
the bill had been reinforced with a pike head above the curved
blade and another jutting at a right angle from the blade's back.
In this form it became a popular English weapon, the " brown
bill " of many ballads. Billmcn are not found in the king's host
at Crecy and Calais, the bowmen carrying malls or short swords,
and Henry VII. 's contracts for troops do not name the bill, which
may be regarded rather as the private man's weapon. But when,
in the middle of the isth century, Walter Strickland, a West-
morland squire, contracts to raise armed men, it is noticeable
that more than half his horsemen carry the bill as their chief
arm, while seventy-one bowmen are to march on foot with
seventy-six billmen. In the i6th century the bill, with the
halbert, fell out of use among regular troops, the pike taking their
place on account of the longer staff, which made it a better
defence against cavalry. It remained during the I7th century
as a watchman or constable's weapon, although rudely-fashioned
bills were seen in Sedgemoor fight. (O. BA.)
BILLAUD-VARENNE, JACQUES NICOLAS (1756-1819),
French revolutionist, was the son of an avocat at the parlement
of Paris. He was badly brought up by a feeble father, a mother
who combined immorality with religion, and a libertine alibi'.
At nineteen he donned the robe of an Oratorian, but did not take
the vows, and busied himself with literature rather than with
religion. In 1785 he left the Oratorian college where he was
prefect of studies, came to Paris, married and bought a position
as avocal in the parlement. Early in 1789 he published at
Amsterdam a three-volume work on the Despolisme des minislres
de la France, and he adopted with enthusiasm the principles of
the Revolution.
At the Jacobin club he became from 1790 one of the most
violent of the anti-royalist orators. After the flight of Louis XVI.
to Varennes, he published a pamphlet, L'Aciphocralie, in which
he demanded the establishment of a federal republic. On the
ist of July, in a speech at the Jacobin club he spoke of a republic,
and the reference called out the stormy derision of the partisans
of the constitutional monarchy; but repeating his demand for
a republic on the 1 5th of the same month, the speech was ordered
to be printed and to be sent to the branch societies through-
out France. In the night of the loth of August 1792 he was
elected one of the " deputy-commissioners " of the sections who
shortly afterwards became the general council of the commune.
He was accused, though proof is lacking, of having been an
accomplice in the massacres in the prison of the Abbaye. Elected
a deputy of Paris to the National Convention, he at once spoke
in favour of the immediate abolition of the monarchy, and the
next day demanded that all acts be dated from the year i of
the republic. At the trial of Louis XVI. he added new charges
to the accusation, proposed to refuse counsel to the king, and
voted for death " within 24 hours." On the 2nd of June
1793 he proposed a decree of accusation against the Girondists;
on the gth, at the Jacobin dub, he outlined a programme which
the Convention was destined gradually to realize: the expulsion
of all foreigners not naturalized, the establishment of an impost
on the rich, the deprivation of the rights of citizenship of all
" anti-social " men, the creation of a revolutionary army, the
licensing of all officers ci-devant nobles, the death penalty for
unsuccessful generals. On the isth of July he made a violent
speech in the Convention in accusation of the Girondists. Sent
in August as " representative on mission " to the departments
of the Nord and of Pas-de-Calais, he showed himself inexorable
to all suspects. On his return he was added to the Committee
of Public Safety, which had decreed the arrest en masse of all
suspects and the establishment of a revolutionary army, caused
the extraordinary criminal tribunal to be named officially
"Revolutionary Tribunal" (on the 29th of October 1793),
demanded the execution of Marie Antoinette and then attacked
Hubert and Danton. Meanwhile he published a book, Les
Elements du rfpublicanisme, in which he demanded a division
of property, if not equally, at least proportionally among the
citizens. But he became uneasy for his own safety and turned
934
BILLET BILLIARDS
against Robespierre, whom he attacked on the 8th Thermidor
as a " moderate " and a Dantonist. Surprised and menaced by
the Thermidorian reaction, he denounced its partisans to the
Jacobin club. He was then attacked himself in the Convention
for his cruelty, and a commission was appointed to examine his
conduct and that of some other members of the former Com-
mittee of Public Safety. He was arrested, and as a result of
the insurrection of the izth Germinal of the year 3 (the ist of
April 1795), the Convention decreed his immediate deportation
to French Guiana. After the i8th Brumaire he refused the
pardon offered by the First Consul. In 1816 he left Guiana
and took refuge in Port-au-Prince (Haiti), where he died of
dysentery.
In 1821 were published the Memoires de Billaud-Varenne ecrits
a Port-au-Prince (Paris, 2 vols.), but they are probably forgeries.
An interesting autobiographical sketch of his youth, Tableau du
premier age, composed in 1786, was published in 1888 in the review,
La Revolution franfaise. The facts of such a life need no comment.
See, in addition to histories of the Revolution, F. A. Aulard, Les
Orateurs de la legislative et de la convention (2nded., 1906). (R. A.*)
BILLET, (i) (Like the Fr. billet, a diminutive of bitte, a
writing), a small paper or " note," commonly used in the i8th
and early ipth centuries as a " billet of invitation." A particular
use of the word in this sense is to denote an order issued to a
soldier entitling him to quarters with a certain person (see
BILLETING). From meaning the official order, the word billet
came to be loosely used of the quarters thus obtained, giving
rise to such colloquial expressions as " a good billet." Hence
arises the sense of " billet " as the destination allotted to any-
thing, for example in the saying of William III. " every bullet
has its billet." Another special sense of the word is that of a
voting-paper, found in the I7th century, especially with refer-
ence to the Act of Billets passed by the Scottish parliament
in 1662.
(2) (From the diminutive billette or billot of the Fr. bitte, the
trunk of a tree), a piece of wood roughly cylindrical, cut for use
as fuel. In medieval England it was used of the club or blud-
geon which was the weapon proper to the serf (Du Cange, s.
Billus). The name has been transferred to various objects of
a similar shape: to ingots of gold, for example, or bars of iron;
and in heraldry, to a bearing of rectangular shape. The term
is applied in architecture to a form of ornamental moulding
much used in Norman and sometimes in Early English work.
It bears a resemblance to small billets of wood arranged at
regular intervals in a sunk moulding. In French architecture
it is found in early work and there, sometimes, forms the decora-
tion of a string-course under the gutter, with two or three rows
of billets.
BILLETING, the providing of quarters (i.e. board and lodg-
ings) for soldiers (see BILLET, i). Troops have at all times
made use of the shelter and local resources afforded by the
villages on or near their line of march. The historical interest
of billeting in England begins with the repeated petitions against
it in the reigns of Elizabeth, James I. and Charles I., which
culminated in the Petition of Right. The billeting of troops
was superintended by a civil magistrate of the district to which
the troops were sent or through which they passed. The magis-
trate, who acted under an order from the king, too often spared
his friends at the expense of his political or personal opponents.
Owing to the abuses to which the system led, it was declared
illegal by the Petition of Right 1628, and again by an act of
1679. During the reign of James II., however, orders were
frequently issued for billeting, and one of the grievances in the
Bill of Rights was the quartering of soldiers contrary to law.
On the organization of a standing army after the i evolution
it was necessary to make legal provision for billeting owing
to the deficiency of barrack accommodation, which sufficed
only for 5000 men. Accordingly, the Mutiny Act 1689 author-
ized billeting among the various innkeepers and victuallers
throughout the kingdom. This statute was renewed annually
from 1689 to 1879, when the Army Discipline Act, consolidating
the provisions of the Mutiny Act, was passed. This statute
was replaced by the Army Act 1881 (renewed annually by a
" commencement " act), which contains the provisions by
which billeting is now regulated. But modern conditions have
practically dispensed with the necessity for billeting; there is
extensive barrack accommodation in most parts of the United
Kingdom, and, moreover, troops are entrained or sent by sea
when the distance to be covered is more than one day's march.
In Scotland the provisions as to billeting were assimilated to
those in England in 1857, and in Ireland in 1879. The Army
(Annual) Act 1909 provided for the billeting of the Territorial
forces in case of national emergency, on occupiers of any kind
of house at the discretion of the chief officer of police.
BILLIARDS, an indoor game of skill, played on a rectangular
table, 1 and consisting in the driving of small balls with a stick
called a cue either against one another or into pockets according
to the methods and rules described below. The name probably
originated in the Fr. bille (connected with Eng. " billet ") signi-
fying a stick. Of the origin of the game comparatively little
is known Spain, Italy, France and Germany all being regarded
as its original home by various authorities. In an American
text-book, Modern Billiards, it is stated that Catkire More
(Conn Cetchathach) , king of Ireland in the 2nd century, left
behind him " fifty-five billiard balls, of brass, with the pools
and cues of the same materials." The same writer refers to the
travels of Anacharsis through Greece, 400 B.C., during which
he saw a game analogous to billiards. French writers differ as
to whether their country can claim its origin, though the name
suggests this. While it is generally asserted that Henrique
Devigne, an artist, who lived in the reign of Charles IX., gave
form and rule to the pastime, the Dictionnaire universel and the
Academic desjeux ascribe its invention to the English. Bouillet
in the first work says: " Billiards appear to be derived from
the game of bowls. It was anciently known in England, where,
perhaps, it was invented. It was brought into France by Louis
XIV., whose physician recommended this exercise." In the
other work mentioned we read: " It would seem that the game
was invented in England." It was certainly known and played
in France in the time of Louis XI. (1423-1483). Strutt, a rather
doubtful authority, notwithstanding the reputation attained
by his Sports and Pastimes of the People of England, considers it
probable that it was the ancient game of Paille-maille (Pall
Mall) on a table instead of on the ground or floor an improve-
ment, he says, " which answered two good purposes: it pre-
cluded the necessity of the player to kneel or stoop exceedingly
when he struck the bowl, and accommodated the game to the
limits of a chamber." Whatever its origin, and whatever the
manner in which it was originally played, it is certain that it
was known in the time of Shakespeare, who makes Cleopatra,
in the absence of Anthony, invite her attendant to join in the
pastime
" Let us to billiards: come, Charmian."
Ant. and Cleo. Act ii. sc. 5.
In Cotton's Compleat Gamester, published in 1674, we are told
that this " most gentile, cleanly and ingenious game " was first
played in Italy, though in another page he mentions Spain as its
birthplace. At that date billiards must have been well enough
known, for we are told that " for the excellency of the recreation,
it is much approved of and played by most nations of Europe,
especially in England, there being few towns of note therein
which hath not a public billiard table, neither are they wanting
in many noble and private families in the country."
The game was at one time played on a lawn, like modern
croquet. 2 Some authorities consider that in this form it was
1 In 1907 an oval table was introduced in England by way of a
change, but this variety is not here considered.
2 A later form of " lawn-billiards " again enjoyed a brief popu-
larity during the latter half of the igth century. It was played on a
lawn, in the centre of which was a metal ring about 5$ in. in dia-
meter, planted upright in such a manner as to turn freely on its axis
on a level with the ground. The players, two or more, were provided
with implements resembling cues about 4 ft. long and ending in wire
loops somewhat smaller in diameter than the wooden balls (one for
each player), which were of such a size as barely to pass through the
ring. In modern times such games as billiards have afforded scope
for various imitations and modifications of this sort.
BILLIARDS
935
introduced into Europe from the Orient by the Crusaders.
The ball was rolled or struck with a mallet or cue (with the latter,
if Strutt's allusion to " inconveniences " is correct) through hoops
or rings, and these were reproduced for indoor purposes on a
billiard-table, as well as a " king " or pin which had to be struck.
In the original tables, which were square, there was one pocket,
a hole in the centre of the table, as on a bagatelle board, the
hoop or ring being retained. Then came similar pockets along
one of the side cushions sunk in the bed of the table; and
eventually the modern table was evolved, a true oblong or double-
square, with pockets opening in the cushions at each corner and
in the middle of each long side. The English tables are of this
type, small bags of netting being attached to the pockets. The
French and American game of billiards is played on a pocketless
table. We shall deal first with the English game.
ENGLISH BILLIARDS
The English table consists of a framework of mahogany or
other hard wood, with six legs, and strong enough to bear the
weight of five slabs of slate, each 2$ ft. wide by 6 ft. 15 in., and
about 2 in. thick. These having been fitted together with the
utmost accuracy to form a level surface, and a green cloth of the
finest texture having been tightly strained over it, the cushions
are screwed on, and the pockets, for which provision has been
made in the slates, are adjusted. As the inside edge of the
cushion is not perpendicular to the bed of the table, but is
bevelled away so that the top overhangs the base by about
J of an in., the actual playing area of the table is 6 ft. wide but
is 1 1 in. short of 12 ft. long. The height of the table is 2 ft. 8 in.
measured from the floor to the cloth. The cloth is in the shape
shown ;n the diagram.
The three spots are on the centre line of the table, and are usually
marked by small circular pieces of black tissue paper or court
plaster; sometimes they are specially marked for the occasion in
_ chalk. The baulk line and the D are
marked either with chalk, tailors' pipeclay,
or an ordinary lead pencil ; no other marks
appear on the table. Smaller tables provide
plenty of practice and amusement, pro-
vided that the relation of the length to the
breadth be observed. On these tables full-
sized balls may be used, the pockets being
made slightly smaller than in the full-size
table.
In the early part of the 1 9th century the
bed of the table was made of wood, occa-
sionally of marble or stone ; green baize was
used to cover both the bed and the cushions,
the latter made of layers of list. Then as
now the cushions proper were glued to a
wooden framework which is screwed on to
the bed of the table. The old list cushions
possessed so little resilience that about 1835
india-rubber was substituted, the value of
the improvement being somewhat modified
by the fact that in .cold weather the rubber
became hard and never recovered its elas-
ticity. Vulcanite resisted the cold, but was
nearest point of the not fast " enough, i.e. did not permit the
face of the cushion, ball to rebound quickly; but eventually a
B. Pyramid spot. substance was invented, practically proof
C. Centre spot. against cold and sufficiently elastic for
XY. Baulk line. all purposes. Late in the loth century
D. Semicircle of n in. pneumatic cushions were tried, tubes into
radius, known as the which air could be pumped, but they did
D. not become popular, though the so-called
" vacuum "cushions give good results. The
shape of the face of the cushion has gone through many modifications,
owing to the difficulty experienced in the accurate striking of the
ball when resting against the cushion with only a small fraction of
its surface offered to the cue; but low cushions are now made which
expose nearly half of the upper part of the ball.
On the size and shape of the pockets depends the ease with which
the players score. The mouth of the pocket, known as the " fall "
or " drop," is part of the arc of a circle, the circle being larger in the
case of the corner pockets than in that of the middle pockets; the
cushions are cut 'away to admit the passage of the ball. The corner
pockets are measurea by the length of the tangent drawn at the out-
side point of the arc to the cushion on either side. The middle
pockets are measured at the points where the arc terminates in the
cushions. The fall of the middle pockets, i.e. the outside point of the
A
C
The billiard spot
measured from the
arc, is on the line of the outside face of the cushion ; that of the corner
pockets is half way down the passage cut in the cushions.
From 1870 to 1885 matches for the championship were played on
" Championship Tables," the pockets measuring only 3 in. at the
" fall." The tables in ordinary use have 3|-in. or 3l-in. pockets, but
in the " Standard Association Tables," introduced by the Billiard
Association at the end of the igth century, the 3l-in. pocket was
adopted for all matches, while the fall of the middle pocket was with-
drawn slightly from the cushion-line. Further, as the shape of the
shoulders of the cushion at the pockets affects the facility of scoring,
the Association adopted a much rounder shoulder than that used
in ordinary tables, thereby requiring greater accuracy on the part
of the player. In the championship tables the baulk line was only
28 in. from the cushion, and the radius of the D was reduced to
<)' and afterwards to 10 in., the spot being 12} in. from the top
cushion.
The principal games are three in number, billiards proper,
pyramids and pool; and from these spring a variety of others.
The object of the player in each game, however, is either to drive
one or other of the balls into one or other of the pockets, or (only
in billiards proper) to cause the striker's ball to come into suc-
cessive contact with two other balls. The former stroke is known
as a hazard (a term derived from the fact that the pockets used to
be called hazards in old days), the latter as a cannon. When
the ball is forced into a pocket the stroke is called a winning
hazard; when the striker's ball falls into a pocket after contact
with the object ball, the stroke is a losing hazard; " red hazards "
mean that the red ball is the object -ball, " white hazards " the
white.
Three balls are used in billiards proper, two white and one red.
One of the white balls has a black spot at each end of an imaginary
diameter, to distinguish it from the other, the white balls being
known as spot-white (or " spot ") and " plain." They should be
theoretically perfect spheres, of identical size and weight, and of
equal durability in all parts. The size that is generally used in
matches has a diameter of 2 T \ in., and the weight about 4! oz. It
is exceedingly difficult to get three such ivory balls (the best sub-
stance for elasticity) except by cutting up many tusks, and when
procured the tails soon lose their perfection, partly because ivory
is softer in one part than another, partly because it is very sus-
ceptible to changes of weather and temperature, and unequally
susceptible in different parts; it is also liable to slight injury in the
ordinary course of play. Various substitutes have, therefore, been
tried for ivory (q.v.), such as crystalate, or bonzoline (a celluloid
compound), and even hollow steel; but their elasticity is inferior
to that of ivory, so that the ball rebounds at a wider angle when
it strikes. The price of a first-rate set of ivory balls is from four to
six guineas; the composition balls cost about half a guinea apiece.
The cue is a rounded rod of seasoned ash about 4 ft. 9 in. in length,
tapering from the butt, which is about 1 4 in. in diameter, to the tip,
which varies in size according to the fancy of the player. The
average tip is, however, J in. in diameter. The cue weighs generally
between 14 and 1 8 oz. The tip of the cue is usually a leather cap
or pad, which, being liable to slip along the surface of the ball in
striking, is kept covered with chalk. To the leather tip, the inven-
tion of a Frenchman named Mingin (about 1820), and to the control
which it gives the player over the ball, the science of modern play
is entirely due. The butt of the cue is generally spliced with ebony
or some other heavy wood, since a shaft of plain ash is too light
for its purpose, and is furthermore liable to warp. At one time
it was lawful to use the butt of the cue or even a special instrument
with a squared spoon-shaped end called a mace (or mast), in making
strokes or giving misses, but now all strokes must be made with
the point. The cue is held in one hand, and with the other the
player makes a " bridge " by placing wrist and finger-tips on the
table, and extending his thumb so as to make a passage along which
to slide his cue and to strike the ball. As it is not always possible
to reach the ball in this way, longer cues (the " half-butt " and
" long butt ") are required; they are used with a " rest," a shaft
of wood at the end of which, perpendicular to the axis, is fastened
an X of wood or metal, the cue being rested on the upper half while
the lower is on the cloth. A " long rest," about 6 ft. long, is used
with the long cues, the " short rest (or " jigger ") about 4 ft. long,
with the ordinary cue. A marking-board and stands or racks for
rests and butts, with iron and brush for the table, and a cover for
the table when not in use, complete the billiard " furniture " of the
room, apart from its seating accommodation.
The game of billiards proper consists of the making of winning
and losing hazards and cannons. It is usually played between
two opponents (or four, two against two) for 100 or more points,
three being scored for each red hazard, two for each white hazard
and two for each cannon. Certain forfeitures on the other hand
score to the opponent: running your ball off the table or into
a pocket without having hit another ball, 3 (a coup) ; ordinary
BILLIARDS
misses (not hitting an object-ball), i. All these forfeits involve
the termination of the turn. There are also " foul strokes "
which score nothing to the opponent, and only involve the
termination of the turn: such as playing with the wrong ball,
forcing a ball off the table, hitting a ball twice, &c. When the
red ball is pocketed it is replaced on the billiard-spot; if that is
occupied, on the pyramid-spot; if that too, on the centre-spot;
but if the opponent's white ball is pocketed it remains out of
play till his turn comes. Public matches between adepts are
played for higher points, but the rules which govern them are
the same. The players have alternate turns, each being " hi
play " and continuing his " break " until he fails to score.
The game commences by stringing for the lead and choice of balls.
The players standing behind the baulk line, strike each a ball from
the semicircle up to the top cushion, and he whose ball on its return
stops nearest the bottom cushion has the choice of lead and balls.
The red bal! is placed on the spot at the commencement of the game,
and the first player must " break the balls." The balls are said to
be " broken " when the first player has struck the red or given a
miss; and the opponent's ball when off the table is said to be " in
hand." Breaking the balls thus takes place whenever the position,
as at the beginning of the game, recurs. The first player (or the
player at any stage of the game when he plays after being " in
hand ") must place his own ball in any part of the D, or on the lines
that form the D, and must play into the part of the table outside
the baulk line, for he may not hit direct any ball that is " in baulk,"
i.e. on or behind the baulk-line; if he wishes to play at it he must
first strike a cushion out of baulk (or, as it is called, bricole). If a
player fails to score, the adversary plays, as soon as all the balls are at
rest, either from baulk (if " in hand ) or from the place where his
own ball has stopped. If by the same stroke a player makes two
scores, i.e. a cannon and a hazard for instance, or a winning and a
losing hazard, he scores for each of them. Thus if he pockets the
red ball and the cue-ball, he scores six, or if he makes a cannon
and holes the red ball, five. In the case of a cannon and a losing
hazard, made by the same stroke, the value of the hazard depends
on the ball first struck. Thus if the cue-ball strikes the red, cannons
on to the white, and runs into a pocket, the stroke counts five points,
but only one cannon can be made by the same stroke, even if the cue-
ball strikes each of the others twice. If both object-balls are struck
simultaneously it is considered that the red is struck first. Ten
points are the most that can be scored by a single stroke with the
cue, namely by striking the red ball first and then the white, and
holing all three. If the white ball be struck first and the same series
occurs, the value of the stroke is nine points. When the cue-ball
and object-ball are touching, whatever the position, the red ball is
spotted, the white object-ball put on the centre-spot, and the player
plays from baulk.
There are various subtleties in the art of striking, which may
be indicated, though only practice can really teach them; the simple
stroke being one delivered slightly above the centre of the ball.
The side-stroke is made by striking the object-ball on the side with
the point of the cue. The effect of such a mode of striking the ball
is to make it travel to the right or to the left, according as it is struck,
with a winding or slightly circular motion; and its purpose is to
cause the ball to proceed in a direction more or less slanting than is
usual, or ordinary, when the ball is struck in or about the centre
of its circumference. Many hazards and cannons, quite impossible
to be made with the central stroke, are accomplished with ease and
certainty by the side-stroke. It was the invention of the leather tip
which made side possible. The screw, or twist, is made by striking
the ball low down, with a sharp, sudden blow. According 'as the ball
is struck nearer and nearer to the cushion, it stops dead at the point
of concussion with the object-ball, or recoils by a series of reverse
revolutions, in the manner familiar to the schoolboy in throwing
forward a hoop, and causing it to return to his hand by the twist
given to its first impetus.
The follow is made by striking the ball high, with a flowing or
following motion of the cue. Just as the low stroke impedes the
motion of the ball, the follow expedites it.
In the drag the ball is struck low without the sudden jerk of the
screw, and with less than the onward push of the follow.
The spot-stroke is a series of winning hazards made by pocketing
the red ball in one of the corners from the spot. The great art is,
first, to make sure of the hazard, and next, to leave the striking ball
in such a position as to enable the player to make a similar stroke
in one or other of the corner pockets. To such perfection was the
spot-stroke brought, that at the end of the loth century it was
necessary to bar it out of the professional matches, and the " spot-
barred " game became consequently the rule for all players. The
leading English professionals so completely mastered the difficulties
of the stroke and made such long successions of hazards that they
practically killed all public interest in billiards, the game being little
more than a monotonous series of spot-strokes. In 1888 W. J. Peall
made 633 " spots " in succession, and in 1890 in a break of 3304
the longest record no less than 3183 of the points were scored
through spot-stroke breaks. J. G. Sala, by use of the screw-back,
made 186 successive hazards in one pocket, but C. Memmott is said
to have made as many as 423 such strokes in succession. The spot-
stroke was known and used in 1825, when a run of twenty-two
" spots " caused quite a sensation. The player, whose name was
Carr, offered to play any man in England, but though challenged
by Edwin Kentfield never met him, so the latter became champion.
Kentfield, however, did not regard the spot-stroke as genuine
billiards, rarely played it himself, and had the pocket of his tables
reduced to 3 m., and the billiard-spot moved nearer to the top of
the table, so as to make the stroke exceedingly difficult. John
Roberts, sen., who succeeded Kentfield as champion in 1849, worked
hard at the stroke, but never made, in public, a longer run than 104
in succession. But W. Cook, John Roberts, jun., and others, assisted
by the improvements made in the implements of the game, soon
outdid Roberts, sen., only to be themselves outdone by W. Peall
and W. Mitchell, who made such huge breaks by means of the stroke
that it was finally barred, the Association rules providing that only
two " spots " may be made in succession unless a cannon is combined
with a hazard, and that after the second hazard the red ball be placed
on the centre-spot.
Top-of-the-Table Play. When the spot-stroke was dying, many
leading players, headed by John Roberts, jun., assiduously cultivated
another form of rapid scoring, known as " top-of-the-table-play," the
first principle of which is to collect the three balls at the top of the
table near the spot. The balls are then manipulated by means of
red winning hazards and cannons, the winning hazard not being
made till the object-white can be left close to the spot.
The Push-stroke. Long series of cannons were also made along
the edge of the cushion, mainly by means of the " push-stroke,
and with great rapidity, but eventually the push-stroke too was
barred as unfair. It was usually employed when cue-ball and
object-ball were very close together and the third ball was in a line,
or nearly in a line with them; then by placing the tip of the cue
very close to the cue-ball and pushing gently and carefully, not
striking, the object-ball could be pushed aside and the cue-ball
directed on ball 3.
Balls Jammed in Pockets. If the two object-balls get jammed,
either by accident or design, in the jaws of a corner pocket, an almost
interminable series of cannons may be made by a skilful player.
T. Taylor made as many as 729 cannons in 1891, but the American
champion, Frank C. Ives, in a match with John Roberts, jun., easily
beat this in 1893, by making 1267 cannons, before he deliberately
broke up the balls. In Ives's case the balls, however, were just
outside the jaws, which were skilfully used to keep the balls close
together; but in this game, which was a compromise between
English and American billiards, 2j-in. balls and 3}-in. pockets were
used. Under the aegis of the Billiard Association a tacit understand-
ing was arrived at that the position must be broken up, should it
occur. A similar position came into discredit in 1907, in the case of
the " cradle-double-kiss " or " anchor " cannon, where the balls
were not actually jammed, but so close on each side of a pocket
that a long series of cannons could be made without disturbing the
position a stroke introduced by Lovejoy and carried to extremes
by him, T. Reece and others (see below).
The Quill or Feather Stroke. This stroke was barred early in the
game's history. It could only be made when the cue-ball was in
hand and the object-ball just outside that part of the baulk-line
that helps to form the D. The cue-ball <ras set so close to the object-
ball as only not to touch it, and was then pushed very gently into
the pocket, grazing the. other so slightly as just to shake it, and
no more. A number of similar strokes could thus be made before
the object-ball was out of position.
A jenny is a losing hazard into one of the (generally top) pockets
when the object-ball is close to the cushion along which the pocket
lies: it requires to be played with the side required to turn the ball
into the pocket. Long jennies to the top pockets are a difficult
and pretty stroke :^ short jennies are into the middle pockets.
Masse and Pique. A masse is a difficult stroke made by striking
downwards on the upper surface of the cue-ball, the cue being held
nearly at right angles to the table, and the point not being dirpcted
towards the centre of the ball. It is generally used to effect a
cannon when the three balls are more or less in a line, the cue-ball
and the object-ball being close together. The term masse is often
used irregularly for pique, made when the object-ball is as close
to the cue-ball as the latter to the cushion, or the third ball, or to
make screwing impossible; the cue is then raised to an angle of
almost 45 or 50 and its axis directed to the centre of the cue-ball,
so that backward rotation is set up. Vignaux, the French player,
says, " Le masse est un pique." Masse is in fact pique combined
with side.
The perfection of billiards is to be found in the nice combination
of the various strokes, in such fashion as to leave the balls in a
favourable position after each individual hazard and cannon; and
this perfection can only be attained by the most constant and
unremitting practice. When the cue-ball is so played that its centre
is aimed at the extreme edge of the object-ball, the cue-ball's course
is diverted at what is called the " natural " or " half-ball " angle.
If the balls were flat discs instead of spheres the edge of one ball
would touch the centre of the other. The object-bafi is struck at
" three-quarter ball " or " quarter-ball " according as the edge of
BILLIARDS
937
the cue-ball appears to strike mid-way between the half-ball point
and the centre or edge respectively of the object-ball. . The half-
ball angle is regarded as the standard angle for billiards, other
angles being sometimes termed rather vaguely as " rather more
or less than half-ball." The angle of the cue-ball's new course
would be about 45, were the object-ball fixed, but as the object-
ball moves immediately it is struck, the cue-ball is not actually
diverted more than 33 from the prolongation of its original course,
it being conventional among players to regard the prolongation of the
course and not the original track when calculating the angle. The
natural angle, and all angles, may be modified by side and screw;
the use of strength also makes the ball go off at a wider angle.
Development in Billiard Play. The modern development of
English billiards is due mainly to the skill of such leading players
as John Roberts, sen., and his son of the same name. Indeed,
their careers form the history of modem billiards from 1849
when the elder Roberts challenged Kentfield (who declined to
play) for the championship. No useful comparison can be made
between the last-named men, and the change of cushions from
list to india-rubber further complicates the question. Kentfield
represented the best of the old style of play, and was a most skilful
performer; but Roberts had a genius for the game, combined
with great nerve and physical power. This capacity for endur-
ance enabled him to practise single strokes till they became
certainties, when weaker men would have failed from sheer
fatigue; and that process applied to the acquisition of the
spot-stroke was what placed him decisively in front of the
"players of his day until a younger generation taught by him
came forward. In 1869 the younger generation had caught him
up, and soon afterwards surpassed him at this stroke; both
W. Cook and J. Roberts, jun., carried it to greater perfection,
but they were in turn put entirely in the shade by W. Mitchell
and W. J. Peall. It is curious to realize that John Roberts,
sen., developed the game chiefly by means of spot-play, whereas
his son continued the process by abandoning it. The public,
however, liked quick scoring and long breaks, and therefore
a substitute had 'to be devised. This was provided chiefly by
the younger Roberts, whose fertility of resource and manual
dexterity eventually placed him by a very long way at the head
of his profession. In exhibition matches he barred the spot-
stroke and gave his attention chiefly to top-of-the-table play.
The next development was borrowed from the French game
(see below), which consists entirely of cannons. Both French
and American professors, giving undivided attention to cannons
and not being permitted to use the push-stroke, arrived at a
perfection in controlling or " nursing " the balls to which
English players could not pretend; yet the principles involved
in making a long series of cannons were applied, and leading
professionals soon acquired the necessary delicacy of touch.
The plan is to get the three balls close to each other, say within
a space which a hand can cover, and not more than from
4 to 8 in. from a cushion. The striker's ball should be
behind the other two, one of which is nearer the cushion, the
other a little farther off and farther forward. The striker's ball
is tapped quietly on the one next the cushion, and hits the third
ball so as to drive it an inch or two in a line parallel to the
cushion. The ball first struck rebounds from the cushion, and
at the close of the stroke all three balls are at rest in a position
exactly similar to that at starting, which is called by the French
position mere. Thus each stroke is a repetition of the previous one,
the positions of the balls being relatively the same, but actually
forming a series of short advances along the cushion. With the
push-stroke a great number of these cannons could be quickly
made, say 50 in 3$ minutes; and, as that means 100 points,
scoring was rapid. Most of the great spot-barred breaks con-
tained long series of these cannons, and their value as records
is correspondingly diminished, for in such hair's-breadth dis-
tances very often no one but the player, and sometimes not
even he, could tell whether a stroke was made or missed or was
foul. Push-barred, the cannons are played nearly as fast;
but with most men the series is shorter, masse strokes being used
when the cannon cannot be directly played.
Championship. When Kentfield declined to play in 1849,
John Roberts, sen., assumed the title, and held the position till
1870, when he was defeated by his pupil W. Cook. The follow-
ing table gives particulars of championship matches up to 188 5 :
Points
Date.
Players.
Won
by.
1200
Feb. n, 1870 .
Cook b. Roberts, sen.
117
1000
April 14, 1870 .
Roberts, jun., b. Cook .
478
1000
May 30, 1870 .
Roberts, jun., b. Bowles.
246
IOOO
Nov. 28, 1870
los. Bennett 6. Roberts, jun.
95
IOOO
Ian. 30, 1871 .
Roberts, jun., b. Bennett
363
IOOO
May 25, 1871 .
Cook b. Roberts, jun.
15
IOOO
Nov. 21, 1871
Cook ft. Jos. Bennett
58
IOOO
Mar. 4, 1872 .
Cook 6. Roberts, jun.
201
IOOO
Feb. 4, 1874 .
Cook 6. Roberts, jun.
216
IOOO
May 24, 1875 .
Roberts, jun., 6. Cook .
63
IOOO
Dec. 20, 1875 .
Roberts, jun., b. Cook .
'35
IOOO
May 28, 1877 .
Roberts, jun., b. Cook .
223
IOOO
Nov. 8, 1880 .
Jos. Bennett b. Cook
51
IOOO
Ian. 12, 13, 1881
os. Bennett 6. Taylor .
90
3000
March 30, 31, and
April I, 1885
Roberts, jun., 6. Cook .
92
3000
June 1,2,3, 4. '885
Roberts, jun., b. Jos. Bennett
1640
These games were played on three-inch-pockct tables, and
John Roberts, jun., fairly contended that he remained champion
till beaten on such a table under the rules in force when he won
the title or under a new code to which he was a consenting
party. A match was played for the championship between
Roberts and Dawson in 1899 of 18,000 up, level. The main
departure from a championship game lay in the table, which
had ordinary, though not easy pockets, instead of three-inch
pockets. The match excited much interest, because Dawson,
who had already beaten North for the Billiard Association
championship, was the first man for many years to play
Roberts even; but Roberts secured the game by 1814 points.
After this Dawson improved materially, and in 1899, for the
second time, he won the Billiard Association championship.
His position was challenged by Diggle and Stevenson, who
contested a game of 9000 points. Stevenson won by 2900, but
lost to Dawson by 2225 points; he beat him in January 1901,
and though Dawson won a match before the close of the spring,
Stevenson continued to establish his superiority, and at the
beginning of 1907 was incontestably the English champion.
Records. Record scores at billiards have greatly altered since
W. Cook's break of 936, which included 292 spots, and was made
in 1873. Big breaks are in some degree a measure of development;
but too much weight must not be given to them, for tables vary
considerably between easy and difficult ones, and comparisons are
apt to mislead. Peall 's break of 3304 (1890) is the largest " all-in "
score on record ; and in the modern spot-barred ancf push-barred
game with a championship table, H. W. Stevenson in April 1904
made 788 against C. Dawson. In January 1905 John Roberts,
however, made 821 in fifty minutes, in a match with J. Duncan,
champion of Ireland; but this was not strictly a "record," since
the table had not been measured officially by the Billiard Association.
A break of 985 was made by Diggle in 1895 against Roberts, on a
" standard table " (before the reduction in size of the pockets). On
the 5th of March 1907 T. Reece began beating records by means of
the " anchor " stroke, making 1269 (5 21 cannons), and he made
an unfinished 4593 with the same stroke (2268 cannons) on the
23rd of March. Further large breaks followed, including 23,769
by Dawson on the 2Oth of April 1907, and even more by Reece;
and towards the end of the year the Billiard Association ruled the
stroke out.
^ Handicapping. The obvious way of handicapping unequal
players is for the stronger player to allow his opponent an agreed
number of points by way of start. Or he may owe " points, i.e.
not begin to reckon his score till he has scored a certain number.
A goocfplan is for the better player to agree to count no breaks that
are below a certain figure. The giver of points scores all forfeits
for misses, &c. If A can give B 20 points, and Bean give C 25 points,
the number of points that A can give C is calculated on the following
20X25
formula, 20+25
! =40. The handicap of " barring " one
or more pockets to the better player, he having only four or five
pockets to play into, has been abolished in company with other
methods that tended to make the game tedious.
Pyramids is played by two or four persons in the latter case
in sides, two and two. It is played with fifteen balls, placed
close together by means of a frame in the form of a triangle or
pyramid, with the apex towards the player, and a white striking
ball. The centre of the apex ball covers the second or pyramid
BILLIARDS
spot, and the balls forming the pyramid should lie in a compact
mass, the base in a straight line with the cushion.
Pyramids is a game entirely of winning hazards, and he who
succeeds in pocketing the greatest number of balls wins. Usually
the pyramid is made of fifteen red or coloured balls, with the strik-
ing ball white. This white ball is common to both players. Having
decided on the lead, the first player, placing his ball in the baulk-
semicircle, strikes it up to the pyramid, with a view either to lodge
a ball in a pocket or to get the white safely back into baulk. Should
he fail to pocket a red ball, the other player goes on and strikes the
white ball from the place at which it stopped. When either succeeds
in making a winning hazard, he plays at any other ball he chooses,
and continues his break till he ceases to score; and so the game is
continued by alternate breaks until the last red ball is pocketed.
The game is commonly played for a stake upon the whole, and a
proportionate sum upon each ball or life as, for instance, 33. game
and is. balls. The player winsa life by pocketing a red ball or forcing
it over the table; and loses a life by running his own, the white, ball
into a pocket, missing the red balls, or intentionally giving a miss.
In this game the baulk is no protection; that is to say, the player
can pocket any ball wherever it lies, either within or without the
baulk line, and whether the white be in hand or not. This liberty
is a great and certain advantage under many circumstances, especi-
ally in the hands of a good player. It is not a very uncommon
occurrence for an adept to pocket six or eight balls in a single break.
Both Cook and Roberts have been known, indeed, to pocket the
whole fifteen. If four persons play at pyramids, the rotation is
decided by chance, and each plays alternately partners, as in
billiards, being allowed to advise each other, each going on and con-
tinuing to play as long as he can, and ceasing when he misses a
hazard. Foul strokes are reckoned as in billiards, except as regards
balls touching each other. If two balls touch, the player proceeds
with his game and scores a point for every winning hazard. When
all the red balls but one are pocketed, he who made the last hazard
plays with the white and his opponent with the red; and so on
alternately, till the game terminates by the holing of one or other
ball. The pyramid balls are usually a little smaller than the billiard
balls; the former are about 2 in. in diameter, the latter 2-f t in. to
Losing Pyramids, seldom played, is the reverse of the last-named
game, and consists of losing hazards, each player using the same
striking ball, and taking a ball from the pyramid for every losing
hazard. As in the other game, the baulk is no protection. Another
variety of pyramids is known as Shell-out, a game at which any
number of persons may play. The pyramid is formed as before, and
the company play in rotation. For each winning hazard the striker
receives from each player a small stake, and for each losing hazard
he pays a like sum, till the game is concluded, by pocketing the
white or the last coloured ball.
Pool, a game which may be played by two or more persons,
consists entirely of winning hazards. Each player subscribes a
certain stake to form the pool, and at starting has three chances
or lives. He is then provided with a coloured or numbered ball,
and the game commences thus: The white ball is placed on the
spot and the red is played at it from the baulk semicircle. If
the player pocket the white he receives the price of a life from
the owner of the white; but if he fail, the next player, the yellow,
plays on the red; and so on alternately till all have played, or
till a ball be pocketed. When a ball is pocketed the striker plays
on the ball nearest his own, and goes on playing as long as he
can score.
The order of play is usually as follows : The white ball is spotted ;
red plays upon white; yellow upon red; then blue, brown, green,
black, and spot-white follow in the order of succession named, white
playing on spot-white. The order is similar for a larger number,
but it is not common for more than seven or eight to join in a pool.
The player wins a life for every ball pocketed, and receives the sum
agreed on for each life from the owner of that ball. He loses a life
to the owner of the ball he plays on and misses; or by making a
losing hazard after striking such ball; by playing at the wrong ball,
by running a coup; or by forcing his ball over the table. Rules
governing the game provide for many other incidents. A ball in
baulk may be played at by the striker whose ball is in hand. If
the striker's ball be angled that is, so placed in the jaws of the
pocket as not to allow him to strike the previously-played ball
he may have all the balls except his own and the object ball removed
from the table to allow him to try bricole from the cushion. In some
clubs and public rooms an angled ball is allowed to be moved an inch
or two from the corner; but with a ball so removed the player must
not take a life. . When the striker loses a life, the next in rotation
plays at the ball nearest his own; but if the player's ball happen
to be in hand, he plays at the ball nearest to the centre spot on the
baulk line, whether it be in or out of baulk. In such a case the striker
can play from any part of the semicircle. Any ball lying in the way
of the striker's ball, and preventing him from taking fair aim and
reaching the object-ball, must be removed, and replaced after the
stroke. If there be any doubt as to the nearest ball, the distance
must be measured by the marker or umpire; and if the distance be
equal, the ball to be played upon must be decided by chance. If the
striker first pocket the ball he plays on and then runs his own into
a pocket, he loses a life to the player whose ball he pocketed, which
ball is then to be considered in hand. The first player v/ho loses
all his three lives can " star "; that is, by paying into the pool a
sum equal to his original stake, he is entitled to as many lives as
the lowest number on the marking board. Thus if the lowest
number be 2, he stars 2; if I, he stars I. Only one star is allowed
in a pool ; and when there are only two players left in, no star can
be purchased. The price of each life must be paid by the player
losing it, immediately after the stroke is made; and the stake or
pool is finally won by the player who remains longest in the game.
In the event, however, of the two players last left in the pool having
an equal number of lives, they may either play for the whole or divide
the stake. The latter, the usual course, is followed except when the
combatants agree to play out the game. When three players are
left, each with one life, and the striker makes a miss, the two remain-
ing divide the pool without a stroke this rule being intended to
meet the possible case of two players combining to take advantage
of a third. When the striker has to play, he may ask which ball he
has to play at, and if being wrongly informed he play at the wrong
ball, he does not lose a life. In clubs and public rooms it is usual
for the marker to call the order and rotation of play: " Red upon
white, and! yellow's your player " ; and when a ball has been pocketed
the fact is notified " Brown upon blue, and green's your player, in
hand "; and so on till there are only two or three players left in the
pool.
There are some varieties of the game which need brief mention.
Single Pool is the white winning hazard game, played for a stake
and so much for each of three or more lives. Each person has a*
ball, usually white and spot-white. The white is spotted, and the
other plays on it from the baulk semicircle; and then each plays
alternately, spotting this ball after making a hazard. For each
winning hazard the striker receives a life ; for each losing hazard he
pays a life; and the taker of the three lives wins the game. No star
is allowed in single pool. The rules regulating pool are observed.
Nearest-Ball Pool is played by any number of persons with the
ordinary coloured balls, and in the same order of succession. All
the rules of pool are followed, except that the baulk is a protection.
The white is spotted, and the red plays on it; after that each striker
plays upon the ball nearest the upper or outer side of the baulk-line ;
but if the balls lie within the baulk-line, and the striker's ball be in
hand, he must play up to the top cushion, or place his ball on the spot.
If his ball be not in hand, he plays at the nearest ball, wherever it
may lie.
Black Pool. In this game, which lasts for half-an-hour, there are
no lives, the player whose ball is pocketed paying the stake to the
pocketer. Each player receives a coloured ball and plays in order
as in " Following Pool," the white ball being spotted; there is, in
addition, however, a black ball, which is spotted on the centre-spot.
When a player has taken a life he may in some rooms and clubs
must play on the black ball. If he pockets it he receives a stake
from each player, paying a stake all round if he misses^it, or com-
mits any of the errors for which he would have to pay at " Following
Pool." The black ball cannot be taken in consecutive strokes.
Sometimes a pink ball, spotted on the pyramid spot, is added and
a single stake is paid all round to the man who pockets it, and a
double stake on the black; it is also permitted in some rooms to
take blacks and 'pinks alternately without pocketing a coloured
ball between the strokes. Again it is the custom in certain rooms
to let a player, after the first round, play on any ball. The game
is more amusing when as much freedom is allowed as possible,
so that the taking of lives may be frequent. At the end of the half-
hour the marker announces at the beginning of the round that it
is the last round. White, who lost a stroke at the beginning by
being spotted, has the last stroke. If a player wishes to enter the
game during its progress his ball is put on the billiard-spot just before
white plays, and he takes his first stroke at the end of the round.
Snooker Pool. This is a game of many and elaborate rules,
principle it is a combination of pyramids and pool. The white ball
is the cue-ball for all players. The pyramid balls, set up as in pyra-
mids, count one point each, the yellow ball two points, green ball
three, and so on. The black is put on the billiard-spot, the pink on
the centre-spot, blue below the apex ball of the pyramid; brown,
green and yellow on the diameter of the semicircle, brown on the
middle spot, green on the right corner spot of the D, yellow on the
left. The players, having decided the order of play, generally by
distributing the pool balls from the basket, and playing in the order
of colours as shown on the marking board, are obliged to strike a
red ball first. If it is pocketed, the player scores one and is at
liberty to play on any of the coloured balls; though in some clubs
he is compelled to play on the yellow. If he pockets a coloured ball
he scores the number of points which that ball is worth, and plays
again on a red ball, the coloured ball being replaced on its spot, and
so on ; but a red ball must always be pocketed before a more valuable
ball can be played at. When all the red balls have been ppcketed-
none are put back on the table as at pyramids the remaining balls
must be pocketed in the pool order and are not replaced. Ine
BILLIARDS
939
penalties for missing a ball, running into a pocket, &c., are deducted
from the player's score ; they correspond to the values of the balls,
one point if the red be missed, two if the yellow be missed, &c. If,
before hitting the proper ball, the player hits one of a higher value,
the value of that ball is deducted from his score, but there is no
further penalty. A player is " snookered " if his ball is so placed
that he cannot hit a ball on which he is compelled to play. In this
case he is allowed in some rooms to give a miss, but in such a way
that the next player is not snookered; in others he must make a
bona fide attempt to hit the proper ball off the cushion, being liable
to the usual penalty if in so doing he hits a ball of higher value. In
some rooms it is considered fair and part of the game to snooker an
opponent deliberately; in others the practice is condemned. The
rules are so variable in different places that even the printed rules
are not of much value, owing to local by-laws.
Among other games of minor importance, being played in a less
serious spirit than those mentioned, are Selling Pool, Nearest Ball
Pool, Cork Pool and Skittle Pool. The directions for playing them
may be found in Billiards (Badminton Library series).
French and American Billiards. French and American
billiards is played on a pocketless table, the only kind of table
that is used in France, though the English table with six pockets
is also occasionally to be found in America. For match purposes
the table used measures 10 ft. by 5 ft., but in private houses and
clubs 9 ft. by 4^ ft. is the usual size, while tables 8 ft. by 4 ft.
are not uncommon. The balls, three in number as in English
billiards, measure from zj to af in., the latter being" match "
size. Since they are both larger and heavier than the English
balls, the cues are somewhat heavier and more powerful, so that
better effects can be produced by means of " side," masses, &c.
Only cannons (called in America " caroms," in French caram-
boles) are played, each counting one point.
The three-ball carom game is the recognized form of American
billiards. The table is marked with a centre-spot, " red " spot and
" white " spot. The first is on the centre of an imaginary line
dividing the table longitudinally into halves; the red (for the red
ball) and white spots are on the same line, half-way between the
centre-spot and the end cushions, the white spot being on the
string-line (corresponding to the English baulk-line). The right to
play first is decided, as in England, by " stringing." The opponent's
white ball and the red ball being spotted, the player plays from
within the imaginary baulk-line. Each carom counts one point;
a miss counts one to the opponent. A ball is re-spotted on its proper
spot if it has been forced off the table. Should red be forced off the
table and the red spot be occupied, it is placed on the white spot.
White under similar conditions is set on the red spot. The centre
spot is only used when, a ball having been forced off the table, both
spots are occupied, if a carom be made, and the ball afterwards
jumps off the table, it is spotted and the count allowed. If the
striker moves a ball not his own before he strikes, he cannot count
but may play for safety. If he does so after making a carom the
carom does not count, he forfeits one, and his break is ended. If
he touches his own ball before he plays, he forfeits a point, and
cannot play the stroke. Should he, however, touch his ball a
second time, the opponent has the option of having the balls replaced
as exactly as possible, or of playing on them as they are left. It is
a foul stroke to play with the wrong ball, but if the offence is not
detected before a second stroke has been made, the player may
continue.
Such long runs of caroms, chiefly " on the rail " along the cushion,
have been made by professional players (H. Kerkau, the German
champion, making 7156 caroms in 1901 at Zurich), that various
schemes have been devised to make the game more difficult. One
of these is known as the " continuous baulk-line." Lines are drawn,
8, 14, 18 or even 22 in. from the rails, parallel to the side of the table,
forming with them eight compartments. Of these 14 and 18 are the
most general. Only one, two or three caroms, as previously arranged,
are allowed to be made in every space, unless one at least of the
object-balls is driven over a line. In the space left in the middle of
the table any number of caroms may be made without restriction.
In the case of the Triangular Baulk-line, lines are drawn at the four
corners from the second " sight " on the side-rails to the first sight
on the end-rails, forming four triangles within which only a limited
number of caroms may be made, unless one object-ball at least be
driven outside one of the lines. The Anchor Baulk-lines were devised
to checkmate the " anchor " shot, which consisted in getting the
object-balls on the rail, one on either side of a baulk-line, and
delicately manipulating them so as to make long series of caroms;
each ball being in a different compartment, neither had to be driven
over a line. The " anchor baulk-lines " form a tiny compartment,
6 in. by 3, and are drawn at the end of a baulk-line where it touches
the rail and so divides the compartment into two squares. Only
one shot is allowed in this " anchor-space," unless a ball be driven
put of it. By these methods, " crptching " (getting them jammed
in a corner) the balls, and long series of rail-caroms were abolished.
The push-stroke is strictly forbidden.
The Cushion Carom game is a variety of the ordinary three-ball
game, in which no carom counts unless the cue-ball touches a cushion
before the carom is completed. There is also Three-Cushion Carom,
which is explained by its title, and the Bank-Shot game, in which
the cue-ball must touch a cushion before it strikes either ball. The
cushion carom games are often used in handicapping, other methods
of which are for the better player to make a certain number of caroms
" or no count," and for the weaker to receive a number of points
in the game.
In France billiards was played exclusively by the aristocracy
and the richer middle class until the first part of the I7th century,
when the privilege of keeping billiard-rooms was accorded to the
billardiers paulmiers, and billiards became the principal betting
game and remained so until the time of Louis Philippe. The most
prominent French player of late years is Maurice Vignaux. The
French game became the accepted one in the United States about
1870, and the best American players have proved themselves superior
to the French masters with the exception of Vignaux. The best-
known American masters have been M. Daly, Shaafer, Slosson,
Carter, Sexton and Frank C. Ives, doubtless the most brilliant player
who ever lived. His record for the l8-in. baulk-line game was an
average of 50, with a high run of 290 points. In cushion-caroms
he scored a run of 85.
The four-ball game, the original form of American billiards, is
practically obsolete. It was formerly played on an English six-
pocket table, with a dark-red and a light-red ball and two white
ones. At present when played an ordinary table is used, the rules
being identical with those of the three-ball game.
Pool is played in America on a six-pocket table with fifteen balls,
each bearing a number. There are several varieties of the game, the
most popular being Continuous Pool, an expanded form of Fifteen-
Ball Pool, in which the balls are set up as in English pyramids, the
game being won by the player pocketing the majority of the fifteen
Balls, each ball counting one point, the numbers being used only to
distinguish them, as a player must always name, or " cajl," the ball
he intends to pocket and the pocket into which he will drive it.
The player who " breaks " (plays first) must send at least two balls
to the cushion or forfeit three points. The usual method is to strike
a corner ball just hard enough to do this but not hard enough to
break up the balls, as in that case the second player would have too
great an advantage. Balls pocketed by chance in the same play in
which a called ball has been legitimately put down are counted;
all others pocketed by accident are replaced on the table. In
Fifteen-Ball Pool each frame (fifteen balls) constitutes a game. In
Continuous Pool the game is for a series of points, generally 100, the
balls being set up again after each frame and the player pocketing
the last ball having the choice whether to break or cause his opponent
to do so.
The balls in Fifteen-Ball Pool are generally all of one colour,
usually red. In Pyramid Pool they are parti-coloured as well as
numbered, and the game, which usually consists of a single frame,
is won by the player who, when all fifteen balls have been pocketed,
has scored the greatest aggregate of the numbers on the balls. In
Chicago Pool each frame constitutes a game and is won by the player
scoring the highest aggregate of numbers on the balls, which are set
up round the cushion opposite the diamond sights, the I being
placed in the middle of the top cushion, opposite the player,
with the odd-numbered balls on the player's left and those with even
numbers on his right. The arrangement of the balls, however,
varies and is not important. Each player must strike the lowest-
numbered ball still on the table, forfeiting the number of points
represented by the ball should his ball first hit any other ball, or
should he pocket his own ball. If he pockets the proper ball all
others that fall into pockets on that play count for him also. Missing
the ball played at forfeits three points (sometimes the number on
the ball played at), as well as fouls of all kinds. Bottle Pool is played
with a cue-ball, the I and 2 pool-balls and the leather pool-bottle,
which is stood upon its mouth in the middle of the table. A carom
on two balls counts 2 points; pocketing the l-ball counts i;
pocketing the 2-ball counts 2; upsetting bottle from carom counts
5; upsetting bottle to standing position counts 10, or, in many
clubs, the game is won when this occurs. Otherwise the game is for
31 points, which number must be scored exactly, a player scoring
more than that number being " burst," and having to begin over
again. There are many penalties of one point, such as missing the
object-ball, foul strokes, forcing a ball or the bottle off the table,
pocketing one's own ball and upsetting the bottle without hitting
a ball. The game of Thirty- Four is played without a bottle, the
scoring being by caroms or pocketing the two object-balls. Exactly
34 must be scored or the player is " burst."
High-Low-Jack-Game is played with a set of pyramid balls by
any number of players, the order of starting being determined by
distributing the small balls from the pool-bottle. The is-ball is
High, the I Low, the 9 Jack, and the highest aggregate of numbers
is the game, each of these four counting one point, the game consisting
of seven points, and therefore lasting at least for two frames. The
balls are set up with the three counting balls in the centre and
broken as in pyramids, although balls accidentally falling into
pockets count for the player, on which account the balls are some-
times broken as violently as possible. When two or more players
940
BILLINGTON BILL OF EXCHANGE
have the same score the High ball wins before the Low, &c., as in
the card game of the same title.
Pin Pool is played with two white balls, one red and five small
pins set up in diamond form in the centre of the table with the pin
counting 5 (the king-pin) in the middle, the pins being 3 in. apart.
Each player is given a small ball from the bottle and this he keeps
secret until he is able to announce that his points, added to the
number on his small ball, amount to exactly 31. If he " bursts "
he must begin again. Points are made only by knocking down pins,
which are numbered I to 5. Should a player knock down with one
stroke all four outside pins, leaving the 5'pin standing, it is a
" natural " and he wins the game.
Besides these common varieties of pool there are many others
which are played in different parts of America, many of them local
in character.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. The scientific features of billiards have been
discussed at more or less length in several of the following older
works: E. White, Practical Treatise on the Game of Billiards(i8oy),
this was partly a translation of a French treatise, published in 1805,
and partly a compilation from the article in the Academic universelle
des jeux, issued in the same year, and since frequently re-edited and
reprinted; Le Musee des jeux (Paris, 1820); Monsieur Mingaud,
The Noble Game of Billiards (Paris, 1834) ; a translation of the same,
by John Thurston (London, 1835); Kentfield, On Billiards (London,
1839), founded principally on the foregoing works: Edward Russell
Mardon, Billiards, Game 500 up (London, 1849) ; Turner, On Billiards,
a series of diagrams with instructions (Nottingham, 1849) ; Captain
Crawley, The Billiard Book (London, 1866-1875); Roberts, On
Billiards (1868); Fred. Hardy, Practical Billiards, edited by W.
Dufton (1867); Joseph Bennett (ex-champion), Billiards (1873).
These older books, however, are largely superseded by such modern
authorities as the following: J. Roberts, The Game of Billiards
(London, 1898); W. Cook, Billiards (Burroughes & Watts);
J. P. Buchanan, Hints on Billiards (Bell & Sons) ; Modern Billiards
(The Brunswick - Balke - Collender Co., New York) ; Broadfoot,
Billiards, Badminton Library (Longmans) ; Locock, Side and Screw
(Longmans); M. Vignaux, Le Biuard (Paris, 1889); A. Howard
Cady, Billiards and Pool (Spalding's Home Library, New York);
Thatcher, Championship Billiards, Old and New (Chicago, 1898).
For those interested in the purely mathematical aspect of the game,
Hemming, Billiards Mathematically Treated (Macmillan).
BILLINGTON, ELIZABETH (i768?-i8i8), British opera-singer,
was born in London, her father being a German musician named
Weichsel, and her mother a popular vocalist. She was trained
in music, and at fourteen sang at a concert in Oxford. In 1783
she married James Billington, a double-bass player. She had
a voice of unusual compass, and as Rosetta in Love in a Village
she had a great success at Covent Garden in 1786, being engaged
for the season at a salary of 1000, a large sum for those days.
Her position as a singer in London was now assured. In 1794
she and her husband went to Italy, and Mrs Billington appeared
at Naples (where she was the heroine of a new opera, Inez di
Castro, written for her by F. Bianchi), at Florence, at Venice
and at Milan. Her husband died suddenly during the tour, and
in 1799 she married a Frenchman named Felissent, whom, how-
ever, she left in 1801. Returning to England she appeared
alternately at Covent Garden and Drury Lane, her professional
income during 1801 amounting to between 10,000 and 15,000.
Henceforward she sang in Italian opera till the end of 1810,
when ill-health forced her to abandon her profession. In 1817
she was reconciled to her husband, and went with him to live
near Venice, where she died on the 25th of August 1818.
BILLITON (Dutch Blitoeng), an island of the Dutch East
Indies, between Banka and Borneo, from which it is separated
respectively by Caspar and Karimata straits. Politically it is
under an assistant resident. It is roughly circular in form, its
extreme measurements being 55 m. by 43, and its area 1773
sq. m. In physical structure and in products it resembles
Banka; its coasts are sandy or marshy; in the interior an
extreme elevation of 1670 ft. is found. The geological formation
is Devonian and granitic, with laterites. The mean annual rain-
fall is heavy, 102 to 1 26 in. The day temperature varies from
80 to 87 Fahr. The nights are very cool. Like Banka, Billiton
is chiefly noted for its production of tin, the island forming the
southern limit of the occurrence of this metal in this locality.
There are upwards of 80 mines, which employ some 7500 work-
men, and have produced more than 6500 tons of tin in a year.
Iron is also worked. On the rocks along the coast are found
tortoises, trepang and edible birds'-nests, which are articles
of export. The forests supply wood of different kinds for boat-
building, in which the inhabitants are expert; and also provide
trade in cocoa-nuts, sago, gum and other produce. The population
is about 42,000, of whom some 12,000 are Chinese. The natives
belong to two classes, the Orang Darat, the aborigines, thought
to be akin to the Battas and other branches of the pre-Malayan
or Indonesian race; and the Orang Sekah, people of Malayan
stock who live in boats. The coast is as a rule difficult of access,
being beset with rocks and coral banks, and the best harbour
is that at the chief town of Tanjong Pandan on the west coast.
The island was formerly under the sultan of Palembang, by
whom it was ceded to the British in 1812. As no mention was
made of it in the treaty between the British and Dutch in 1814,
the former at first refused to renounce their possession, and only
recognized the Dutch claim in 1824. Till 1852 Billiton was
dependent on Banka.
BILL OF EXCHANGE, a form of negotiable instrument,
defined below, the history of which, though somewhat obscure,
was ably summed up by Lord Chief Justice Cockburn in his
judgment in Goodwin v. Robarts (1875), L.R. 10 Ex. pp. 346-358.
Bills of exchange were probably invented by Florentine Jews.
They were well known in England in the middle ages, though
there is no reported decision on a bill of exchange before the year
1603. At first their use seems to have been confined to foreign
bills between English and foreign merchants. It was afterwards
extended to domestic bills between traders, and finally to
bills of all persons, whether traders or not. But for some time
after they had come into general employment, bills were always
alleged in legal proceedings to be drawn secundum usum et
consuetudinem mercatorum. The foundations of modern English
law were laid by Lord Mansfield with the aid of juries of London
merchants. No better tribunal of commerce could have been
devised. Subsequent judicial decisions have developed and
systematized the principles thus laid down. Promissory notes
are of more modern origin than bills of exchange, and their
validity as negotiable instruments was doubtful until it was
confirmed by a statute of Anne ( 1 704) . Cheques are the creation
of the modern system of banking.
Before 1882 the English law was to be found in 17 statutes
dealing with isolated points, and about 2600 cases scattered
over some 300 volumes of reports. The Bills of Exchange Act
1882 codifies for the United Kingdom the law relating to bills
of exchange, promissory notes and cheques. One peculiar
Scottish rule is preserved, but in other respects uniform rules
are laid down for England, Scotland and Ireland. After glancing
briefly at the history of these instruments, it will probably be
convenient to discuss the subject in the order followed by the
act, namely, first, to treat of a bill of exchange, which is the
original and typical negotiable instrument, and then to refer to
the special provisions which apply to promissory notes and
cheques. Two salient characteristics distinguish negotiable
instruments from other engagements to pay money. In the first
place, the assignee of a negotiable instrument, to whom it is
transferred by indorsement or delivery according to its tenor,
can sue thereon in his own name; and, secondly, he holds it
by an independent title. If he takes it in good faith and for
value, he takes it free from " all equities," that is to say, all
defects of title or grounds of defence which may have attached
to it in the hands of any previous party. These characteristic
privileges were conferred by the law merchant, which is part
of the common law, and are now confirmed by statute.
Definition. By 3 of the act a bill of exchange is defined to
be " an unconditional order in writing, addressed by one person
to another, signed by the person giving it, requiring the person
to whom it is addressed to pay on demand or at a fixed or deter-
minable future time a sum certain in money to or to the order
of a specified person, or to bearer." 1 The person who gives the
order is called the drawer. The person thereby required to pay
is called the drawee. If he assents to the order, he is then called
1 This is also the 'definition given in the United States, by 126 of
the general act relating to negotiable instruments, prepared by the
conference of state commissioners on uniform legislation, and it has
been adopted in the leading states.
BILL OF EXCHANGE
941
the acceptor. An acceptance must be in writing ancj must be
signed by the drawee. The mere signature of the drawee is
sufficient (17). The person to whom the money is payable is
called the payee. The person to whom a bill is transferred by
indorsement is called the indorsee. The generic term " holder "
includes any person in possession of a bill who holds it either as
payee, indorsee or bearer. A bill which in its origin is payable
to order becomes payable to bearer if it is indorsed in blank.
If the payee is a fictitious person the bill may be treated as
payable to bearer (7).
The following is a specimen of an ordinary form of a bill of
exchange:
100 LONDON, 1st January 1901.
Three months after date pay to the order of Mr J. Jones the sum
of one hundred pounds for value received.
BROWN & Co.
To Messrs. Smith & Sons, Liverpool.
The scope of the definition given above may be realized by
comparing it with the definition given by Sir John Comyns' Digest
in the early part of the i8th century: " A bill of exchange is
when a man takes money in one country or city upon exchange,
and draws a bill whereby he directs another person in another
country or city to pay so much to A, or order, for value received
of B, and subscribes it." Comyns' definition illustrates the
original theory of a bill of exchange. A bill in its origin was a
device to avoid the transmission of cash from place to place
to settle trade debts. Now a bill of exchange is a substitute for
money. It is immaterial whether it is payable in the place where
it is drawn or not. It is immaterial whether it is stated to be
given for value received or not, for the law itself raises a pre-
sumption that it was given for value. But though bills are a
substitute for cash payment, and though they constitute the
commercial currency cjf the country, they must not be confounded
with money. No man is bound to take a bill in payment of debt
unless he has agreed to do so. If he does take a bill, the instru-
ment ordinarily operates as conditional, and net as absolute
payment. If the bill is dishonoured the debt revives. Under
the laws of some continental countries, a creditor, as such, is
entitled to draw on his debtor for the amount of his debt, but in
England the obligation to accept or pay a bill rests solely on
actual agreement. A bill of exchange must be an unconditional
order to pay. If an instrument is made payable on a contingency,
or out of a particular fund, so that its payment is dependent on
the continued existence of that fund, it is invalid as a bill,
though it may, of course, avail as an agreement or equitable
assignment. In Scotland it has long been the law that a bill
may operate as an assignment of funds in the hands of the
drawee, and 53 of the act preserves this rule.
Stamp. Bills of exchange must be stamped, but the act of
1882 does not regulate the stamp. It merely saves the operation
of the stamp laws, which necessarily vary from time to time
according to the fluctuating needs and policy of the exchequer.
Under the Stamp Act 1891, bills payable on demand are subject
to a fixed stamp duty of one penny, and by the Finance Act 1899,
a similar privilege is extended to bills expressed to be payable
not more than three days after sight or date. The stamp may
be impressed or adhesive. All other bills are liable to an ad
valorem duty. Inland bills must be drawn on stamped paper,
but foreign bills, of course, can be stamped with adhesive stamps.
As a matter of policy, English law does not concern itself with
foreign revenue laws. For English purposes, therefore, it is
immaterial whether a bill drawn abroad is stamped in accordance
with the law of its place of origin or not. On arrival in England
it has to conform to the English stamp laws.
Maturity. A bill of exchange is payable on demand when it is
expressed to be payable on demand, or at sight, or on presentation
or when notice for payment is expressed. In calculating the
maturity of bills payable at a future time, three days, called days
of grace, must be added to the nominal due date of the bill. For
instance, if a bill payable one month after sight is accepted on
the ist of January, it is really payable on the 4th of February, and
not on the ist of February as its tenor indicates. On the continent
generally days of grace have been abolished as anomalous and
misleading. Their abolition has been proposed in England, but
it has been opposed on the ground that it would curtail the credit
of small traders who are accustomed to bills drawn at certain
fixed periods of currency. When the last day of grace is a non-
business day some complicated rules come into play ( 14 ).
Speaking generally, when the last day of grace falls on Sunday
or a common law holiday the bill is payable on the preceding day,
but when it falls on a bank holiday the bill is payable on the
succeeding day. Complications arise when Sunday is preceded
by a bank holiday; and, to add to the confusion, Christmas day
is a bank holiday in Scotland, but a common law holiday in
England. When the code was in committee an attempt was
made to remove these anomalies, but it was successfully resisted
by the bankers on alleged grounds of practical convenience.
Acceptance. By the acceptance of a bill the drawee becomes
the principal debtor on the instrument and the party primarily
liable to pay it. The acceptor of a bill " by accepting it engages
that he will pay it according to the tenor of his acceptance,"
and is precluded from denying the drawer's right to draw or the
genuineness of his signature ( 54). The acceptance may be
either general or qualified. As a qualified acceptance is so far a
disregard of the drawer's order, the holder is not obliged to take
it; and if he chooses to take it he must give notice to antecedent
parties, actingat his own risk if they dissent ( igand44). The
drawer and indorsers of a bill are in the nature of sureties. They
engage that the bill shall be duly accepted and paid according
to its tenor, and that if it is dishonoured by non-acceptance or
non-payment, as the case may be, they will compensate the
holder provided that the requisite proceedings on dishonour are
duly taken. Any indorser who is compelled to pay the bill has
the like remedy as the holder against any antecedent party ( 55).
A person who is not the holder of a bill, but who backs it with his
signature, thereby incurs the liability of an indorser to a holder
in due course ( 56). An indorser may 4y express term either
restrict or charge his ordinary liability as stated above. Prima
facie every signature to a bill is presumed to have been given for
valuable consideration. But sometimes this is not the case.
For friendship, or other reasons, a man may be willing to lend
his name and credit to another in a bill transaction. Hence arise
what are called accommodation bills. Ordinarily the acceptor
gives his acceptance to accommodate the drawer. But occasion-
ally both drawer and acceptor sign to accommodate the payee,
or even a person who is not a party to the bill at all. The
criterion of an accommodation bill is the fact that the principal
debtor according to the instrument has lent his name and is in
substance a surety for some one else. The holder for value of an
accommodation bill may enforce it exactly as if it was an ordinary
bill, for that is the presumable intention of the parties. But if
the bill is dishonoured the law takes cognizance of the true
relations of the parties, and many of the rules relating to principal
and surety come into play. Suppose a bill is accepted for the
accommodation of the drawer. It is the drawer's duty to provide
the acceptor with funds to meet the bill at maturity. If he fails
to do so, he cannot rely on the defence that the bill was not duly
presented for payment or that he did not receive due notice
of dishonour. If the holder, with notice of the real state of the
facts, agrees to give time to the drawer to pay, he may thereby
discharge the acceptor.
Holder in due Course. The holder of a bill has special rights
and special duties. He is the mercantile owner of the bill, but
in order to establish his ownership he must show a mercantile
title. The bill must be negotiated to him, that is to say, it must
be transferred to him according to the forms prescribed by
mercantile law. If the bill is payable to order, he must not only
get possession of the bill, but he must also obtain the indorse-
ment of the previous holder. If the bill is payable to bearer it
is transferable by mere delivery. A bill is payable to bearer
which is expressed to be so payable, or on which the only or
last indorsement is an indorsement in blank. If a man lawfully
obtains possession of a bill payable to order without the necessary
indorsement, he may obtain some common law rights in respect
942
BILL OF EXCHANGE
of it, but he is not the mercantile owner, and he is not technically
the holder or bearer. But to get the full advantages of mer-
cantile ownership the holder must be a "holder in due course "
that is to say, he must satisfy three business conditions.
First, he must have given value, or claim through some holder
who has given value. Secondly, when he takes the bill, it must
be regular on the face of it. In particular, the bill must not be
overdue or known to be dishonoured. An overdue bill, or a bill
which has been dishonoured, is still negotiable, but in a restricted
sense. The transferee cannot acquire a better title than the
party from whom he took it had ( 36). Thirdly, he must take
the bill honestly and without notice of any defect in the title
of the transferor, as, for instance, that the bill or acceptance
had been obtained by fraud, or threats or for an illegal con-
sideration. If he satisfies these conditions he obtains an in-
defeasible title, and can enforce the bill against all parties
thereto. The act substitutes the expression " holder in due
course " for the somewhat cumbrous older expression " bona
fide holder for value without notice." The statutory term has
the advantage of being positive instead of negative. The
French equivalent " tiers porteur de bonne foi " is expressive.
Forgery, of course, stands on a different footing from a mere
defect of title. A forged signature, as a general rule, is a nullity.
A person who claims through a forged signature has no title
himself, and cannot give a title to any one else ( 24). Two
exceptions to this general rule require to be noted. First, a
banker who in the ordinary course of business pays a demand
draft held under a forged indorsement is protected ( 60).
Secondly, if a bill be issued with material blanks in it, any per-
son in possession of it has prima facie authority to fill them up,
and if the instrument when complete gets into the hands of a
holder in due course the presumption becomes absolute. As
between the immediate parties the transaction may amount to
forgery, but the holder in due course is protected ( 20).
Dishonour. The htlder of a bill has special duties which he
must fulfil in order to preserve his rights against the drawers
arid indorsers. They are not absolute duties; they are duties
to use reasonable diligence. When a bill is payable after sight,
presentment for acceptance is necessary in order to fix the
maturity of the bill. Accordingly the bill must be presented
for acceptance within a reasonable time. When a bill is payable
on demand it must be presented for payment within a reasonable
time. When it is payable at a future time it must be presented
on the day that it is due. If the bill is dishonoured the holder
must notify promptly the fact of dishonour to any drawer and
indorser he wishes to charge. If, for example, the holder only
gives notice of dishonour to the last indorser, he could not sue
the drawer unless the last indorser or some other party liable
has duly sent notice to the drawer. When a foreign bill is
dishonoured the holder must cause it to be protested by a
notary public. The bill must be noted for protest on the day
of its dishonour. If this be duly done, the protest, i.e. the formal
notarial certificate attesting the dishonour, can be drawn up at
any time as of the date of the noting. A dishonoured inland bill
may be noted, and the holder can recover the expenses of noting,
but no legal consequences attach thereto. In practice, however,
noting is usually accepted as showing that a bill has been duly
presented and has been dishonoured. Sometimes the drawer
or indorser has reason to expect that the bill may be dishonoured
by the drawee. In that case he may insert the name of a
" referee in case of need." But whether he does so or not, when
a bill has been duly noted for protest, any person may, with
the consent of the holder, intervene for the honour of any party
liable on the bill. If the bill has been dishonoured by non-
acceptance it may be " accepted for honour supra protest."
If it has been dishonoured by non-payment it may be paid
supra protest. When a bill is thus paid and the proper formalities
are complied with, the person who pays becomes invested with
the rights and duties of the holder so far as regards the party
for whose honour he has paid the bill, and all parties antecedent
to him ( 65 to 68).
Discharge. Normally a bill is discharged by payment in due
course, that is to say, by payment by the drawee or acceptor
to the holder at or after maturity. But it may also be dis-
charged in other ways, as for example by coincidence of right
and liability ( 61), voluntary renunciation ( 62), cancellation
( 63), or material alteration ( 64).
Conflict of Laws. A bill of exchange is the most cosmo-
politan of all contracts. It may be drawn in one country,
payable in another, and indorsed on its journey to its destination
in two or three more. The laws of all these countries may differ.
Provision for this conflict of laws is made by 72, which lays
down rules for determining by what law the rights and duties
of the various parties are to be measured and regulated. Speak-
ing broadly, these rules follow the maxim Locus regit actum.
A man must be expected to know and follow the law of the place
where he conducts his business, but no man can be expected to
know the laws of every country through which a bill may travel.
For safety of transmission from country to country bills are
often made out in sets. The set usually consists of three counter-
parts, each part being numbered and containing a reference to
the other parts. The whole set then constitutes one bill, and
the drawee must be careful only to accept one part, otherwise
if different accepted parts get into the hands of different holders,
he may be liable to pay the bill twice ( 71). Foreign bills
circulating through different countries have given rise to many
intricate questions of law. But the subject is perhaps one of
diminishing importance, as in many trades the system of " cable
transfers " is superseding the use of bills of exchange.
A cheque " is a bill of exchange drawn on a banker payable
on demand" ( 73). For the most part the rules of law applic-
able to bills payable on demand apply in their entirety cheques.
to cheques. But there are certain peculiar rules
relating to the latter which arise from the fact that the relation-
ship of banker and customer subsists between the drawer and
drawee of a cheque. For example, when a person has an
account at a bank he is, as an inference of law, entitled to draw
on it by means of cheques. A right to overdraw, can, of course,
only arise from agreement. The drawer of a cheque is not
absolutely discharged by the holder's omission to present it
for payment within a reasonable time. He is only discharged
to the extent of any actual damage he may have suffered through
the delay ( 74). Apart from any question of delay, a banker's
authority to pay his customer's cheques is determined by
countermand of payment or by notice of the customer's death
(75)- Of recent years the use of cheques has enormously
increased, and they have now become the normal machinery by
which all but the smallest debts are discharged. To guard
against fraud, and to facilitate the safe transmission of cheques
by post, a system of crossing has been devised which makes
crossed cheques payable only through certain channels. The
first act which gave legislative recognition to the practice of
crossing was the 19 and 2.0 Viet. c. 95. That act was amended
in 1858, and a consolidating and amending act was passed in
1876. The act of 1876 is now repealed, and its provisions are
re-enacted with slight modifications by 76 to 82 of the Bills
of Exchange Act 1883. A cheque may be crossed either " gener-
ally " or " specially." A cheque is crossed generally by drawing
across it two parallel lines and writing between them the words
" & Co." When a cheque is crossed generally it cannot be paid
over the counter. It must be presented for payment by a
banker. A cheque is crossed specially by adding the name
of the banker, and then it can only be presented through that
particular banker. A cheque, whether crossed' generally or
specially, may further be crossed with the words " not
negotiable." A cheque crossed " not negotiable " is still
transferable, but its negotiable quality is restricted. It is
put on pretty much the same footing as an overdue bill. The
person who takes it does not get, and cannot give a better title
to it, than that which the person from whom he took it had.
These provisions are supplemented by provisions for the pro-
tection of paying and collecting bankers who act in good faith
and without negligence. Suppose that a cheque payable to
bearer, which is crossed generally and with the words " not
BILL OF RIGHTS
943
negotiable," is stolen. The thief then gets a tradesman to
cash it for him, and the tradesman gets the cheque paid on
presentment through his banker. The banker who pays and
the banker who receives the money for the tradesman are pro-
tected, but the tradesman would be liable to refund the money
to the true owner. Again, assuming payment of the cheque
to have been stopped, the tradesman could not maintain an
action against the drawer.
A promissory note is defined by section 83 of the act to be
an " unconditional promise in writing made by one person to
another, signed by the maker, engaging to pay on
demand, or at a fixed or determinable future time,
a sum certain in money to or to the order of a specified
person or to bearer." A promissory note may be made by two
or more makers, and they may be liable either jointly, or jointly
and severally, according to its tenor ( 85). For the most part,
rules of law applicable to a bill of exchange apply also to a
promissory note, but they require adaptation. A note differs
from a bill in this: it is a direct promise to pay, and not an
order to pay. When it issues it bears on it the engagement
of the principal debtor who is primarily liable thereon. The
formula for applying to notes the rules as to bills is that " the
maker of a note shall be deemed to correspond with the acceptoi
of a bill, and the first indorser of a note shall be deemed to
correspond with the drawer of a bill payable to drawer's order "
( 89). Rules relating to presentment for acceptance, accept-
ance, acceptance supra protest, and bills in a set, have no
application to a note. Moreover, when a foreign note is dis-
honoured it is not necessary, for English purposes, to protest it.
All promissory notes are, under the Stamp Act 1891, subject to
an ad valorem stamp duty. Inland notes must be on impressed
stamp paper. Foreign notes are stamped with adhesive stamps.
For ordinary legal purposes a bank note may be regarded as a
promissory note made by a banker payable to bearer on demand.
It is, however, subject to special stamp regulations. It is not
discharged by payment, but may be re-issued again and again.
In the interests of the currency the issue of bank notes is subject
to various statutory restrictions. A bank, other than the Bank
of England, may not issue notes in England unless it had a
lawful note issue in 1844. On the other hand, Bank of England
notes are legal tender except by the bank itself.
In fundamental principles there is general agreement between
the laws of all commercial nations regarding negotiable in-
struments. As Mr Justice Story, the great American
lawyer, says: " The law respecting negotiable in-
struments may be truly declared, in the language of
Cicero, to be in a great measure not the law of a single country
only, but of the whole commercial world. Non erit lex alia
Romae, alia Athenis, alia nunc alia posthac, sed et apud otnnes
gentes et omni tempore, una eademque lex obtinebit " (Swift v.
Tyson, 16 Peters i). But in matters of detail each nation
has impressed its individuality on its own system. The English
law has been summarized above. Perhaps its special character-
istics may be best brought out by comparing it with the French
code and noting some salient divergences. English law has
been developed gradually by judicial decision founded on trade
custom. French law was codified in the lyth century by the
" Ordonnance de 1673." The existing " Code de Commerce "
amplifies but substantially adopts the provisions of the " Ordon-
nance.'' The growth of French law was thus arrested at an
early period of its development. The result is instructive.
A reference to Marius' treatise on bills of exchange, published
about 1670, or Beawes' Lex Mercatoria, published about 1740,
shows that the law, or rather the practice, as to bills of ex-
change was even then fairly well denned. Comparing the
practice of that time with the law as it now stands, it will be
seen that it has been modified in some important respects.
For the most part, where English law differs from French law,
the latter is in strict accordance with the rules laid down by
Beawes. The fact is that, when Beawes wrote., the law or
practice of both nations on this subject was nearly uniform.
But English law has gone on growing while French law has stood
still. A bill of exchange in its origin was an instrument by
which a trade debt due in one place was transferred to another
place. This theory French law rigidly keeps in view. In Eng-
land bills have developed into a paper currency of perfect
flexibility. In France a bill represents a trade transaction;
in England it is merely an instrument of credit. English law
affords full play to the system of accommodation paper; French
law endeavours to stamp it out. A comparison of some of the
main points of difference between English and French law will
show how the two theories work. In England it is no longer
necessary to express on a bill that value has been given for it,
for the law raises a presumption to that effect. In France
the nature of the consideration must be stated, and a false
statement of value avoids the bill in the hands f all parties
with notice. In England a bill may be drawn and payable in the
same place. In France the place where a bill is drawn should
be so far distant from the place where it is payable that there
may be a possible rate of exchange between the two. This so-
called rule of distantia loci is said to be disregarded now in practice,
but the code is unaltered. As French lawyers put it, a bill of
exchange necessarily presupposes a contract of exchange. In
England since 1765 a bill may be drawn payable to bearer,
though formerly it was otherwise. In France it must be payable
to order; if it were not so it is clear that the rule requiring the
consideration to be truly stated would be a nullity. In England
a bill originally payable to order becomes payable to bearer
when indorsed in blank. In France an indorsement in blank
merely operates as a procuration. An indorsement, to operate
as a negotiation, must be to order, and must state the considera-
tion; in short, it must conform to the conditions of an original
draft. In England, if a bill is dishonoured by non-acceptance,
a right of action at once accrues to the holder. In France no
cause of action arises unless the bill is again dishonoured at
maturity; the holder in the meantime is only entitled to demand
security from the drawer and indorsers. In England a sharp
distinction is drawn between current and overdue bills. In
France no such distinction is drawn. In England no protest
is required in the case of the dishonour of an inland bill, notice
of dishonour being sufficient. In France every dishonoured
bill must be protested. Opinions may differ whether the English
or the French system is better calculated to serve sound commerce
and promote a healthy commercial morality. But an argument
in favour of the English system may be derived from the fact
that as the various continental codes are from time to time
revised and re-enacted, they tend to depart from the French
model and to approximate to the English rule. The effect
upon English law of its codification has yet to be proved. A
common objection to codification in England is that it deprives
the law of its elastic character. But when principles are once
settled common law has very little elasticity. On the other
hand no code is final. Modern parliaments legislate very freely,
and it is a much simpler task to alter statute law than to alter
common law. Moreover, legislation is cheaper than litigation.
One consequence of the codification of the English law relating
to bills is clear gain. Nearly all the British colonies have
adopted the act, and where countries are so closely connected
as England and her colonies, it is an obvious advantage that
their mercantile transactions should be governed by one and the
same law expressed in the same words.
The ordinary text-books on the law of bills of exchange are con-
stantly re-edited and brought up to date. The following among
others may be consulted: Byles, Bills of Exchange; Chalmers,
Bills of Exchange; Daniel, Law of Negotiable Instruments (United
States) ; Nouguier, Des lettres de change et des effets de commerce
(France); Thorburn, Bills of Exchange Act 1882 (Scotland); Story,
Bills of Exchange (United States); Hodgins, Bills of Exchange Act
iUcjo (Canada). (M. D. CH.)
BILL OF RIGHTS, an important statute in English constitu-
tional history. On the I3th of February 1689 the Declaration
of Right, a document drawn up by a committee of the commons,
and embodying the fundamental principles of the constitution,
was delivered by the lords and commons to the prince and
princess of Orange, afterwards William III. and Mary. In
944
BILL OF SALE
December 1689 the rights claimed by the declaration were
enacted with some alterations by the Bill of Rights, next to
Magna Carta the greatest landmark in the constitutional history
of England and the nearest approach to the written constitutions
of other countries. The act (the full name of which is An Act
declaring the Rights and Liberties of the Subject, and settling
the Succession of the Crown), after reciting the unconstitutional
proceedings of James II., the abdication of that king, the con-
sequent vacancy of the crown, and the summons of the convention
parliament, declared, on the part of the lords and commons, " for
the vindicating and asserting their ancient rights and liberties "
" (i) That the pretended power of suspending of laws or the
execution of laws by regal authority without consent of parliament
is illegal. (2^ That the pretended power of dispensing with laws or
the execution of laws by regal authority, as it hath been assumed
and exercised of late, is illegal. (3) That the commission for erecting
the late court of commissioners for ecclesiastical causes, and all other
commissions and courts of like nature, are illegal and pernicious.
(4) That levying money for or to the use of the crown, by pretence
of prerogative, without grant of parliament, for longer time or in
other manner than the same is or shall be granted, is illegal. (5)
That it is the right of the subjects to petition the king, and all com-
mitments and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal. (6) That
the raising or keeping a standing army within the kingdom in
time of peace, unless it be with consent of parliament, is against
law. (7) That the subjects which are Protestants may have arms
for their defence suitable to their conditions, and as allowed by law.
(8) That elections of members of parliament ought to be free. (9)
That the freedom of speech, and debates or proceedings in parlia-
ment, ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place
out of parliament. (10) That excessive bail ought not to be required,
nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments
inflicted. (l l) That jurors ought to be duly impanelled and returned
and jurors which pass upon men in trials for high treason ought to
be freeholders. (12) That all grants and promises of fines and for-
feitures of particular persons before conviction are illegal and void.
(13) And that for redress of all grievances, and for the amending,
strengthening and preserving of the laws, parliament ought to be held
frequently. And they do claim, demand and insist upon all and
singular the premises, as their undoubted rights and liberties."
The further provisions of the act were concerned with the
settlement of the crown upon the prince and princess of Orange,
with the exception of 12, which negatived the right of dis-
pensation by non obstante 1 to or of any statute or any part
thereof, unless a dispensation be allowed in the statute itself or
by bill or bills to be passed during the then session of parliament.
It is to be noticed that the Declaration of Right and the Bill
of Rights introduced no new principle into the English constitu-
tion; it was merely a declaration of the law as it stood. In the
United States, the main provisions of the Bill of Rights, so far
as they are applicable, have been adopted both in the constitution
of the United States and in the state constitutions.
BILL OF SALE, in its original sense, a legal document assign-
ing personal property, and still used in connexion with the trans-
ference of property in ships. The term has come to be applied
to mortgages as well as to sales, and the expression " bill of
sale " may now be understood to signify generally a document
evidencing a sale or mortgage of personal chattels, unaccompanied
by an actual transfer of possession to the purchaser or mortgagor.
The first English legislation on the subject was the Bills of Sale
Act 1834, which, after reciting that " frauds were frequently
committed upon creditors by secret bills of sale of personal
chattels, whereby persons are enabled to keep up the appearance
of being in good circumstances and possessed of property, and
the grantees or holders of such bills of sale have the power of
taking possession of the property of such person to the exclusion
of the rest of their creditors," provided that all bills of sale, as
defined in the act, should be void against execution creditors
unless registered. This act was amended by the Bills of Sale
Act 1866. These acts were repealed and a new act passed, the
Bills of Sale Act 1878, which, in the main, followed the lines of
the act of 1854. The scope of this legislation was very much
widened by the Bills of Sale Act (1878) Amendment Act 1882,
which was intended primarily " to prevent needy persons being
entrapped into signing complicated documents which they might
1 Non obstante (notwithstanding) means a licence from the crown
to do that which could not be lawfully done without it.
often be unable to comprehend, and so being subjected by their
creditors to the enforcement of harsh and unreasonable pro-
visions " (Manchester &c. Ry. Co. v. N.C. Wagon Co., 1888,
13 App. Ca. 554). The law is now regulated by these two acts,
together with the Bills of Sale Acts of 1890 and 1891, which
effected further small amendments by excluding from the
operation of the principal acts instruments hypothecating,
charging or declaring trusts on imported goods, during the
interval between their unloading from a ship and their deposit
in a warehouse, or re-shipping.
Under the acts of 1878 and 1882 bills of sale are of two kinds,
i.e. absolute bills of sale (where chattels are sold absolutely to a
purchaser), and bills of sale by way of security for the payment
of money. The Bills of Sale Act 1878 governs both kinds and is
the only act which applies to absolute bills. Bills of sale given
by way of security for the payment of money on or after the
ist of November 1882 are governed by the act of 1882, which,
however, does not apply to absolute bills. Section 4 of the act
of 1878 defines a bill of sale as (i) including bills of sale, assign-
ments, transfers, declarations of trust without transfer, inven-
tories of goods with receipt thereto attached, or receipts for
purchase moneys of goods and other assurances of personal
chattels; the term assurance has been best explained as a
document " on which the title of the transferee of the goods
depends, either as the actual transfer of the property, or an
agreement to transfer," Marsden v. Meadows, 1881, 7 Q.B.D.
80; (2) powers of attorney, authorities or licences to take
possession of personal chattels as security for any debt; these
words would not include a power of distress for rent in an ordinary
lease or bona fide hiring or hire purchase agreements; (3) any
agreement, whether intended or not to be followed by the execution
of any other instrument, by which a right in equity to any
personal chattels, or to any charge or security thereon, shall be
conferred; (4) any mode of disposition of trade machinery and
attornments and other instruments giving powers of distress
to secure a debt or advance. On the other hand, certain assur-
ances and instruments are expressly exempt by statute from the
definition: marriage settlements, assignments of ships, assign-
ments for the benefit of creditors, bills of lading and dock
warrants, and by the act of 1882, debentures and debenture
stock of a company. The expression " personal chattels " is
defined as goods, furniture and other articles capable of complete
transfer by delivery, and (when separately assigned or charged)
fixtures and growing crops.
Absolute Bills. Absolute bills of sale must be duly attested by
a solicitor, and the attestation must state that before execution
the effect of it was explained to the grantor by the attesting solicitor.
The consideration must be truly stated. The bill of sale, and all
schedules and inventories annexed to or referred to in the bill, and
also a true copy of the bijl and of every schedule and inventory
and of every attestation, together with an affidavit stating the time
of making or giving the bijl, its due execution and attestation and
the residence and occupation of the grantor, and every attesting
witness, must be presented to, and the copies filed by, the registrar
within seven clear days. In the case of absolute bills the effect of
non-compliance does riot affect the validity of the bill as between
the parties to it, but makes it void as against the trustee in bank-
ruptcy and execution creditors of the grantor.
Bills by Way of Security. All bills of sale given by way of security
for the repayment of money must be made in accordance with the
form given in the schedule to the act of 1882, and they must not
depart from the statutory form in anything which is not merely a
matter of verbal difference. The form given in the schedule to the
act is as follows :
This Indenture made the day of between A. B.
of of the one part and C. D. of
of the other part, witnesseth that in consideration of the sum
of now paid to A. B. by C. D., the receipt of which the said
A. B. hereby acknowledges, he the said A. B. doth hereby assign
unto C. D. his executors, administrators and assigns all and singular
the several chattels and things specifically described in the schedule
hereto annexed by way of security for the payment of the sum of
and interest thereon at the rate of % per annum. And
the said A. B. doth further agree and declare that he will duly pay
to the said C. D. the principal sum aforesaid together with the interest
then due, by equal payments of on the day of
And the said A. B. doth also agree with the said C. D.
that he will (here insert terms as to insurance, payment of rent, &c.,
BILLROTH BILNEY
945
which the parties may agree to for the maintenance or defeasance of
the security). Provided always that the chattels hereby assigned
shall not be liable to seizure or to be taken possession of by the said
C. D. for any cause other than those specified in 7 of the Bills of
Sale Act (1878) Amendment Act 1882.
In witness, &c.
Signed and sealed by the said A. B. in the presence of me E. F.
(add witness's name, address and description).
Non-compliance with the requirement of the statute as to form
renders a bill of sale void even as between the parties. The bill of
sale must have annexed to it an inventory of the chattels comprised
in it, and is void, except as against the grantor, in respect of any
personal chattels not specifically described. It must be duly attested
by one or more credible witnesses (not necessarily by a solicitor,
as in the case of absolute bills). Every witness must sign his name
and add his address and description. It must be duly registered
within seven clear days after the execution thereof, or if it is executed
in any place out of England then within seven clear days after the
time at which it would in the ordinary course of post arrive in
England if posted immediately after the execution: It must truly
set forth the consideration. The grantor must be the true owner
of the goods described in the schedule; as to any personal chattels
of which he is not the true owner, the bijl is void, except as against
the grantor. Every bill of sale made or given in consideration of any
sum under 30 is void. By 7 of the act personal chattels shall only
be liable to be seized or taken possession of in the following cases:
(l) If the grantor make default in payment of the debt or in the.
performance of any covenant or agreement contained in the bill and
necessary for maintaining the security; (2) if the grantor becomes
a bankrupt or suffers the goods to be distrained for rent, rates or
taxes; (3) if the grantor fraudulently removes the goods from the
premises; (4) if the grantor does not, without reasonable excuse,
upon demand in writing by the grantee, produce to him his last
receipts for rent, rates or taxes; (5) if execution is levied against
the goods of the grantor under any judgment. By 13 personal
chattels seized or taken possession of under a bill must not be re-
moved or sold until after the expiration of five clear days from the
date of seizure, and, if the goods have been wrongly seized, the
grantor may within the five days apply to the High Court or a judge
in chambers for an order to restrain the grantee from removing or
selling the goods. The Bills of Sale Acts 1878 and 1882 do not apply
to Scotland or Ireland. According to Scots law no security or charge
can be created over moveable property without delivery of possession.
The Irish statutes corresponding to the English acts are the Bills
of Sale (Ireland) Act 1879 and the Amendment Act 1883.
The stamp duties payable on an absolute bill of sale are 2s. 6d.
on every 25 secured up to 300; over 300, 53. 'on every 50. On
bills of sale by way of security, Is. 3d. for every 50 up to 300
secured; over 300, 2s. 6d. for every 100. The fees payable on
filing a bill of sale are, 53. where the consideration (including further
advances) does not exceed 100; above 100 and not exceeding
200, IDS. ; above 200, i.
The various trade protection papers always publish the registra-
tion of a bill of sale, and the usual effect is, therefore, to destroy
the credit of any person giving one. (T. A. I.)
BILLROTH, ALBERT CHRISTIAN THEODOR (1820-1894),
Viennese surgeon, was born on the 26th of April 1829 at Bergen,
on the island of Riigen, his family being of Swedish origin. He
studied at the universities of Greifswald, Gottingen and Berlin,
and after taking his doctor's degree at the last in 1852, started
on an educational tour, in the course of which he visited the
medical schools' of Vienna, Prague, Paris, Edinburgh and London.
On his return to Berlin he acted as assistant to B. R. K.
Langenbeck from 1853 to 1860, and then accepted the professorship
of surgery at Zurich. In 1867 he was invited to fill the same
position at Vienna, and in that city the remainder of his pro-
fessional life was spent. In 1887 he received the distinction,
rarely bestowed on members of his profession, of a seat in the
Austrian Herrnhaus. He died at Abbazia, on the Adriatic,
where he had a beautiful villa, on the 6th of February 1894.
Billroth was one of the most distinguished surgeons of his day.
His boldness as an operator was only equalled by his skill and
resourcefulness; no accident or emergency could disturb his
coolness and presence of mind, and his ability to invent or carry
out any new procedure that might be demanded in the particular
case with which he was dealing, gained for him the appellation
of " surgeon of great initiatives." At the same time he was full
of consideration for the comfort and well-being of his patient,
and never forgot that he had before him a human being to be
relieved, not a mere " case " for the display of technical dexterity.
He was especially interested in military surgery, and during the
Franco-German War volunteered to serve in the hospitals of
Mannheim and Weissenburg. His efforts did much to improve
the arrangements for the transport and treatment of the wounded
in war, and in a famous speech on the War Budget in 1891, he
eloquently urged the necessity for an improved ambulance
system, pointing out that the use of smokeless powder and the
greater precision of the arms of modern warfare must tend to
increase the number of men wounded, and that therefore more
efficient means must be provided for removing them from the
battlefield. Possessing a clear and graceful style, he was the
author of numerous papers and books on medical subjects; his
Allgemeine chirurgische Pathologic und Thcrapie (1863) ran
through many editions, and was translated into many languages.
He was of an exceedingly artistic disposition, and in particular
was devoted to music. A good performer on the pianoforte and
violin, he was an intimate friend and admirer of Brahms, many
of whose compositions were privately performed at his house
before they were published. His wirk on the physiology of
music (Wer ist musikalisch ?) was published after his death.
BILM A, or KAWAR, an oasis in the heart of the Sahara desert,
some 60 m. long by 10 broad. The inhabitants are Tibbu and
Kanuri. The name Bilma is properly confined to the southern
part of this region, where is the chief settlement, called Bilma
or Garu. This place is 800 m. due S. of the town of Tripoli
and about 350 N. of the N.W. corner of Lake Chad. In the
vicinity are a number of lakes, the waters of which on evapora-
tion yield large quantities of very pure and fine salt, which is
the object of an extensive trade with the countries of Central
Africa. North of Bilma is the town of Dirki, said to date from
the nth century. Near Bilma is a small circular oasis, kept
green by a fine spring, but immediately to the south begins the
most dreary part of the Saharan desert, over which the caravans
travel for fifteen days without discovering the slightest trace of
vegetable life. Gustav Nachtigal, who visited Bilma in 1870,
records that the temperature during the day rarely sank below
113 Fahr. By the Anglo-French Declaration of the 2ist of
March 1899 Bilma was included in the French sphere of influence
in West Africa. Turkey claimed the oasis as part of the hinter-
land of Tripoli and garrisoned Bilma in 1902. In 1906, however,
a French force from Zinder occupied the town, no opposition
being offered by the Ottoman authorities. In 1907 the oasis and
surrounding district was created a circle of the Military Territory
of the Niger (see SAHARA).
BILNEY, THOMAS (d. 1531), English martyr, was born at or
near Norwich. The exact date of his birth is uncertain, but
at all events it was not before 1495. He was educated at Trinity
Hall, Cambridge, graduating LL.B. and taking holy orders in
1519. Finding no satisfaction in the mechanical system of the
schoolmen, he turned his attention to the edition of the New
Testament published by Erasmus in 1516. " Immediately,"
he records, " I felt a marvellous comfort and quietness." The
Scriptures now became his chief study, and his influence led
other young Cambridge men to think along the same lines.
Among his friends were Matthew Parker, the future archbishop
of Canterbury, and Hugh Latimer. Latimer, previously a
strenuous conservative, was completely won over, and a warm
friendship sprang up between him and Bilney. " By his con-
fession," said Latimer, "I learned more than in twenty years
before." In 1525 Bilney obtained a licence to preach through-
out the diocese of Ely. He denounced saint and relic worship,
together with pilgrimages to Walsingham and Canterbury, and
refused to accept the mediation of the saints. The diocesan
authorities raised no objection, for, despite his reforming views
in these directions, he was to the last perfectly orthodox on
the power of the pope, the sacrifice of the mass, the doctrine
of transubstantiation and the authority of the church. But
Wolsey took a different view. In 1526 he appears to have
summoned Bilney before him. On his taking an oath that he
did not hold and would not disseminate the doctrines of Luther,
Bilney was dismissed. But in the following year serious objection
was taken to a series of sermons preached by him in and near
London, and he was arrested and imprisoned in the Tower.
Arraigned before Wolsey, Warham, archbishop of Canterbury,
94 6
BILOXI BIMETALLISM
and several bishops in the chapter-house at Westminster, he
was convicted of heresy, sentence being deferred while efforts
were made to induce him to recant, which eventually he did.
After being kept for more than a year in the Tower, he was
released in 1529, and went back to Cambridge. Here he was
overcome with remorse for his apostasy, and after two years
determined to preach again what he had held to be the truth.
The churches being no longer open to him, he preached openly
in the fields, finally arriving in Norwich, where the bishop,
Richard Nix, caused him to be arrested. Articles were drawn
up against him by Convocation, he was tried, degraded from
his orders and handed over to the civil authorities to be burned.
The sentence was carried out in London on the iqth of August
1 53 1 . A parliamentary inquiry was threatened into this case, not
because parliament approved of Bilney's doctrine but because it
was alleged that Bilney's execution had been obtained by the eccle-
siastics without the proper authorization by the state. In 1534
Bishop Nix was condemned on this charge to the confiscation of
his property. The significance of Bilney's execution lies in the
fact that on essential points he was an orthodox Roman Catholic.
See Letters and Papers of Henry VIII. vols. iv.-v. ; Foxe's Acts
and Monuments; Gardner's History of the Church; Pollard's
Henry VIII. (A. F. P.)
BILOXI, a city of Harrison county, Mississippi, U.S.A., in
the south part of the state, on Biloxi Bay, a branch of the
Mississippi Sound, which is a part of the Gulf of Mexico. By
rail it is 80 m. N.E. of New Orleans and 61 m. S.E. of Mobile,
Alabama. Pop. (1880) 1540; (1890) 3234; (19) (949 be-
ing negroes and 455 foreign-born); (1910) 7988. The city
is served by a branch of the Louisville & Nashville railway,
and by an electric railway extending to Bay St Louis, through
Gulfport (pop., 1900, 1060; 1910, 6386), 13 m. S.W., the port of
entry of the Pearl River customs district, whose exports, chiefly
timber, lumber, naval stores and charcoal, were valued at
$8,392,271 in 1907. Biloxi is both a summer and a winter resort,
particularly for the people of New Orleans and Mobile, and has
a fine beach, extending for about 12 m. around its peninsula,
and bordered by an automobile drive; along the beach are some
attractive residences, hotels and boarding houses, and several
sanatoriums. The city's principal industries are the canning
of oysters, shrimp, fish, figs and vegetables, and the manufacture
of fertilizers and flour. A beautiful thin faience with remarkable
metallic glazes is made here. The municipality owns the water-
works, the water being obtained from artesian wells. Pierre
le Moyne d'Iberville (1661-1706) in 1699 built Fort Maurepas
across the bay from the present city; and the settlement there,
called Biloxi after the Biloxi Indians, was the first to be estab-
lished by the French in this region. In 1702 this post, known
as Old Biloxi, was abandoned, and the seat of government was
removed to the Mobile river. In 1712 a settlement was made
on the present site, being the first permanent settlement within
what is now the state of Mississippi. Many of the early settlers
were French Canadians, who came down the Mississippi to join
the new colony. Biloxi was again the capital from 1719 until
1722. It was incorporated as a village in 1872, and was chartered
as a city in 1896.
BILSTON, a market town of Staffordshire, England, 25 m.
S.E. of Wolverhampton and 124 N.W. of London, in the Black
Country. Pop. of urban district (1901) 24,034. It is served
by the Great Western railway, and by the London & North-
Western at Ettingshall Road station. In the vicinity are very
productive mines of coal and ironstone, as well as sand of fine
quality for casting, and grinding-stones for cutlers. Bilston
contains numerous furnaces, forges, rolling and slitting mills
for the preparation of iron, and a great variety of factories
for japanned and painted goods, brass-work and heavy iron
goods. Though retaining no relics of antiquity, the town is
very ancient, appearing in Domesday. The parish church of
St Leonard, dating as it stands mainly from 1827, is on the site
of a building of the i3th century. Bilston suffered severely
from an outbreak of cholera in 1832. The town is within the
parliamentary borough of Wolverhampton.
BILTONG, a South African Dutch word (from bil, buttock, and
long, tongue), for sun-dried strips of antelope or buffalo meat.
BIMANA (Lat. "two-handed"), a word first used by the
naturalist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach to distinguish the
order of man from Quaclrumana or other mammals. The term
was popularized by Cuvier, and the majority of writers followed
him in its adoption. In 1863, however, Huxley in his Man's
Place in Nature demonstrated that the higher apes might fairly
be included in Bimana. Again and again it has been proved that
the human great toe can be by constant practice used as a thumb ;
artists exist who have painted pictures grasping the brush with
their toes, and violinists have been known to play their instru-
ments in the same manner. Among many savage races there is
developed a remarkable power of foot-grasp, which in a lesser
degree is often so noticeable among sailors. Haeckel calls atten-
tion to the fact that a baby can hold a spoon with the big-toe as
with a thumb. Man, in a word, is potentially quadrumanous.
BIMETALLISM. The very general employment of both gold
and silver for currency purposes (see MONEY) has given rise to
serious practical difficulties which have in turn led to keen
theoretical discussion as to the proper remedies to be employed.
Though every arrangement under which two metals form the
money of a region may be described as " bimetallism," the
term as often happens in economics has received a specialized
meaning. It denotes a system under which the two metals are
freely received by the mint and are equally available as legal
tender. The last clause implies the establishment of a definite
ratio in value between the two metals (e.g. i oz. of gold= 155 oz.
of silver) so that the title " rated bimetallism " may be given
to it, in contradistinction to the " unrated bimetallism " which
exists wherever two metals circulate together, but have their
relative values determined, not by law, but by " the higgling
of the market." Further, the inventor of the term H. Cernuschi
in 1869 regarded it as properly applicable to an international
arrangement by which a number of states agree to adopt the
same ratio, rather than to the use of the two metals by a single
country, which may be described as national bimetallism. Inter-
national bimetallism is at all events the form which has attracted
attention in recent times, and it is certainly the most important.
Regarded from the historical point of view it appears that the
failure of separate countries to maintain the two metals in
circulation was the cause which produced the idea of bimetallism
as an international system. We find first. the upholders of a
national double standard, as in France and the United States,
and these are followed by the advocates of bimetallism set up
by a combination of countries. The theoretical considerations
which underlie the controversy between the supporters and the
opponents of bimetallism find their appropriate place in the
article MONEY, as does also the earlier history of the double
standard. The circumstances that have led to the prominence of
the bimetallic question and the principal events that have marked
the course of the mcvement form the subject of this article.
In the earlier years of the igth century, when the monetary
disturbances that resulted from the Revolutionary wars had
ceased, we find France (1803) and the United States (1792) with
the double standard legally established. England, on the other
hand, had in 1816 accepted by law the gold standard, which had
come into use in the i8th century. Silver formed the currency
of the other European countries. The great discoveries of gold
in California (1848) and Australia (1851) brought about the
displacement of silver by gold in France, and the continuance
of gold as the principal currency metal in the United States,
where by the law of 1834 it had been somewhat over-rated (i : 16),
as compared with the ratio adopted in France (i: 15?), and had
therefore expelled most of the silver previously in circulation.
Between 1848 and 1860 over 100,000,000 of gold was coined
in France, while an equivalent amount of silver was exported,
principally to the East.
At this time the weight of economic and official opinion was
very decidedly in favour of the single gold standard as the best
system. In 1865 the Latin Union was established, in which the
French currency system was adopted and was followed by the
BIMLIPATAM BIN
947
international conference of 1867 in Paris (see MONETARY CON-
FERENCES), when gold was unanimously accepted as the standard
for the proposed international system to be produced by co-
ordinating the various currencies with that of the Latin Union.
A series of political and economic events speedily changed
this situation. The Franco-German War (1870-71) deposed
France from her leading position, and led to the establishment
of a German gold currency with a different unit from the franc,
accompanied by the demonetization of the silver currencies
previously in use in the German states. The United States,
where an inconvertible paper currency had been introduced
during the Civil War, formally established the gold dollar as the
standard coin (1873) and arranged fora return to specie payments
(1878). At this time, too, the great production of gold which
had marked the period 1850-1870 diminished, while very
productive silver mines were discovered in the Pacific states of
America. As a result of these combined influences the gold
price of silver, which had risen a little during the height of the
gold discoveries, began to fall rapidly, and the reverse process
to that by which France had in the 'fifties acquired a gold currency
came into operation. Silver, in accordance with Gresham's Law,
was imported and offered for coinage. To obviate this the
policy of limiting the coinage of silver (the Limping Standard)
was adopted by the Latin Union. A further fall in the gold
price of silver naturally resulted, and this made the position of
Eastern trade and the finances of the Indian government in-
secure. American silver producers, and the German government,
as holders of a large mass of demonetized silver, were also
sufferers by the depreciation. The effect on public and official
opinion was shown by the English parliamentary committee
on the depreciation of silver (1876), the American silver com-
mission of the same year, and the appearance of many works
on the subject, most of them advocating the double standard.
On the initiative of the United States an international monetary
conference met in Paris in 1878, but though the necessity of
keeping a place for silver in the money of the world was recog-
nized, the proposal to adopt the double standard for general use
was rejected by the European states. By the Bland-Allison Act
(Feb. 1878) the United States had provided for the coinage of a
certain amount of silver per month as a mode of keeping up the
price of the metal, which notwithstanding fell to 48 pence per oz.
in 1879. The prolonged depression of trade in America and
Germany was attributed to the scarcity of money, due to what
was described as " the outlawry of silver." By the joint action
of France and the United States a fresh monetary conference
was held in Paris in 1881, where the advocates of bimetallism
were very strongly represented. After prolonged discussion no
conclusion was reached, in consequence of the refusal of England
and Germany to abandon the gold standard. Though an
adjournment to the following year was resolved on, the conference
did not reassemble, and the bimetallic movement took the form
of agitation, carried on in each country. The English inquiry
into the depression of trade (1885-1886) drew from the commis-
sion a recommendation for a fresh commission to investigate the
relation of gold and silver. This latter body, appointed in 1886,
obtained a great body of important evidence, and in 1888 closed
its work by a report in which the views of the two sections of the
commission were separately presented. Six members supported
the existing gold standard and six were in favour of the bimetallic
system. This inconclusive result was soon followed in the
United States by the Sherman Act (1890), providing for a larger
monthly coinage of silver. A temporary rise in the price of the
metal was followed by a further fall, making the situation still
more critical. A new monetary conference was summoned by
the United States and met in Brussels in November 1892. To
modify opposition the " desirability of increasing the use of
silver " was the resolution proposed; the actual method being
left open. This conference also proved abortive and adjourned
to 1893, but like that of 1881 did not meet again.
International action having failed to secure any system of
bimetallism, the United States and India sought to relieve their
position by local legislation. The former repealed the Sherman
Act, and the latter closed its mints to the free coinage of silver
(1893). As these measures were opposed to bimetallism in that
they restricted the use of silver, and were followed by a lower
price for that metal than had ever been known, the agitation in
the United States and Europe continued. In America it took
the form of advocating the free coinage of silver by the United
States without waiting for other countries; and in this shape
made the principal issue at the presidential elections of 1896 and
1900, in each of which it was emphatically rejected.
A further attempt at securing international bimetallism was
made by Senator Wolcott's commission in 1897. The American
envoys, in concert with the French government, proposed to
England (i) the reopening of the Indian mints, and (2) the
annual purchase by England of 10,000,000 of silver. The
French minister claimed further concessions which were regarded
as inadmissible by the English government; but the fate of the
mission was settled by the refusal of the Indian government to
reopen its mints.
After the American election of 1900, bimetallism as a popular
cause disappeared from view. The silver issue was withdrawn
from the democratic platform in 1904, and the bimetallic move-
ment died out in England.
Amongst the causes of this collapse the most important are:
(i) the adoption of the gold standard by so many countries
Austria-Hungary (1892), Russia and Japan (1897), India (1899),
Mexico (1904) a movement which pointed to the complete
triumph of gold in the future; (2) the great increase in the
output of gold. Australia and South Africa so developed their
gold mines as to bring the yield for 1906 to 81,000,000 as con-
trasted with the less than 20,000,000 of 1883. This growing
supply removed all that dread of a " gold famine " which served
as a popular argument with bimetallists. To these may be added
(3) the knowledge that experience had brought of the difficulties
surrounding any attempt to establish a common ratio where
the interests of different countries are so opposed; and (4) the
great expansion of trade and industry, concomitantly with the
wider adoption of the gold standard. Therefore, to quote the
words of perhaps the ablest advocate of bimetallism, " The
outcome of the prolonged controversy . . . appears to be that
the commercial world will carry on its business principally and
more and more on a gold basis, and that particular countries will
endeavour in different ways to adjust their actual medium . . .
to the gold standard " (Nicholson, Money and Monetary Prob-
lems, 6th ed.).
Perhaps the principal service rendered by the many able
minds engaged in the movement will prove to be the fuller
development of the more difficult parts of monetary theory and
the additional light thrown on the course of monetary history.
A proposal, sometimes confounded with bimetallism, is that
for a standard composed of both gold and silver, which is better
described as the Joint-standard or as Symmetallism.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. On the bimetallic side, Nicholson, Money and
Monetary Problems (6th ed., 1903); F. A. Walker, International
Bimetallism (1896); Barbour, The Theory of Bimetallism (1885);
Lord Aldenham (H. H. Gibbs), A Colloquy on Currency (1900) ; and
the numerous pamphlets and leaflets of the Bimetallic League.
Opposed to bimetallism, Giffen, The Case against Bimetallism (1892) ;
Laughlin, History of Bimetallism in the United States (4th ed., 1897);
Lord Farrer, Studies in Currency (1898), The Cold Standard (1898)
papers issued by the Gold Standard Defence Assoc. Leonard
Darwin's Bimetallism aims at a judicial summary. See also MONEY,
MONETARY CONFERENCES. (C. F. B.)
BIMLIPATAM, a town of British India, in the Vizagapatam
district of Madras, on the sea-coast 18 m. N.E. of Vizagapatam.
Pop. (1901) 10,212. It was formerly a Dutch factory, and is
now the principal port of the district. The anchorage is an open
roadstead protected to some extent by headlands with a light-
house at Santapalli. Nearly half the sea-borne trade is conducted
with foreign countries. The principal exports are oil-seeds,
hides and jute.
BIN, a receptacle of various kinds, originally of wicker or
basket work. The word appears in most European languages,
cf. M.L. and Ital. benna, Ger. Benne, &c. ; etymologists trace the
word to a root meaning " to plait." It survives in various
948
BINAN BINIOU
connexions, e.g. dust-bin, wine-bin (for holding bottles), hop-bin,
coal-bin, corn-bin.
BINAN, a town of the province of La Laguna, Luzon, Philip-
pine Islands, on the W. shore of Laguna de Bay, about 20 m.
S.S.E. of Manila. Pop. (1903) 9563. The town is surrounded
by an extensive and extremely fertile plain which produces very
large quantities of rice as well as a great variety of tropical fruits,
and a ready market for these products is found in Manila whither
they are shipped by boat. The language is Tagalog.
BINARY SYSTEM, in astronomy, a system composed of two
stars revolving around each other under the influence of their
mutual attraction. A distinction was formerly made between
double stars of which the components were in revolution around
each other, and those in which no relative motion was observed;
but it is now considered that all double stars must really be
binary systems.
BINCHOIS, EGIDIUS (d. 1460), an early 15th-century musical
composer evidently named after his birthplace, Binche, near
Mons. He was esteemed by contemporary and later theorists
as second only to Dunstable and Dufay.
BINGEN (anc. Vincum or Bingium), a town of Germany, in
the grand-duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt, ism. N.W. from Mainz,
on the main line to Cologne. Pop. (1905) 9950. It is situated on
the left bank of the Rhine opposite Riidesheim, at the confluence
of the Nahe (or Nava) , which is crossed near its mouth by a stone
bridge, attributed to Drusus, and certainly of Roman origin, and
an iron railway bridge. On a height immediately to the south-
east is the ruined castle of Klopp, on the site of a fortress founded
by Drusus, and higher still the celebrated chapel of St Roch
(rebuilt in 1895 after a fire), where thousands of pilgrims gather
on the first Sunday after the i6th of August. Apart from its
situation, which renders it a convenient place of tourist resort,
the town itself presents but few attractions. There are a
Protestant and three Roman Catholic churches, among the latter
the parish church with a crypt dating from the nth century, and
a medieval town hall. It has a considerable commerce in wine,
grain and cattle, and, new quays and a harbour having been
recently constructed, does an extensive transit trade in coal and
iron. A short way down the Rhine is the Bingerloch, a famous
whirlpool, while about halfway between it and the town rises on
a rock in the middle of the stream the Miiuseturm (derived from
Muserie, cannon), in which, according to legend, Archbishop
Hatto II. of Mainz was in 969 eaten by mice (the legend being
doubtless due to the erroneous derivation from MHuse, mice).
Another legend states that the Nibelung treasure is hidden here-
abouts in the Rhine.
BINGERBRUCK, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine
province, at the confluence of the Nahe and the Rhine, lying just
below Bingen, and at the junction of the main lines of railway
Mainz-Coblenz and Bingerbriick-Metz. It has an extensive
trade in the wines of the oUstrict. Pop. 2500.
BINGHAM, JOSEPH (1668-1723), English scholar and divine,
was born at Wakefield in Yorkshire in September 1668. He
was educated at University College, Oxford, of which he was made
fellow in 1689 and tutor in 1691. A sermon preached by him
from the university pulpit, St Mary's, on the meaning of the
terms " Person " and " Substance " in the Fathers, brought upon
him a most unjust accusation of heresy. He was compelled to
give up his fellowship and leave the university; but he was
immediately presented by Dr John Radcliffe to the rectory of
Headbourn worthy, near Winchester (1695). In this country
retirement he began his laborious and valuable work entitled
Origines Ecdesiasticae, or Antiquities of the Christian Church,
the first volume of which appeared in 1708 and the tenth and
last in 1722. His design, learnedly, exhaustively and impartially
executed, was " to give such a methodical account of the anti-
quities of the Christian Church as others have done of the Greek
and Roman and Jewish antiquities, by reducing the ancient
customs, usages and practices of the church under certain proper
heads, whereby the reader may take a view at once of any par-
ticular usage or custom of Christians for four or five centuries."
Notwithstanding his learning and merit, Bingham received no
higher preferment than that of Headbournworthy till 1712,
when he was collated to the rectory of Havant, near Portsmouth,
by Sir Jonathan Trelawney, bishop of Winchester. Nearly all
his little property was lost in the great South Sea Bubble of 1720.
He died on the i7th of August 1723.
BINGHAMTON, a city and the county-seat of Broomb
county, New York, U.S. A., in the south part of the state, on both
banks of the north branch of the Susquehanna river, at the mouth
of the Chenango river. Pop. (1880) 17,317; (1890) 35,005;
(1900) 39,647, of whom 4272 were foreign-born; (1910), 48,443.
It is an important railway centre, being served by the Delaware
& Hudson, the Erie, and the Delaware, Lackawanna & West-
ern railways; and an extensive system of electric rail-
ways connects it with the suburbs and neighbouring towns.
Binghamton is picturesquely situated and has a number of
parks, the most attractive of which are Ross Park of 100 acres
and Ely Park of 134 acres. Among the principal buildings are
the city hall, the court-house, the post-office, the Binghamton
city hospital, Stone opera-house, the Carnegie library (1904),
the central high school, and a state armoury. Binghamton has
also some fine office buildings. Among the city's educational
and charitable institutions are the Lady Jane Grey school (for
girls), St Joseph's academy, St Mary's home for orphans, the
Susquehanna Valley orphan asylum, and a state hospital for
the insane. Binghamton is a manufacturing centre of consider-
able importance, ranking twelfth in the state in 1905 in the value
of factory products, $13,907,403, which was an increase of
32-0% over the value of the factory products in 1900; among
its manufactures are tobacco, cigars, chewing tobacco and snuff
(value in 1905, $2,879,217), patent medicines (value in 1905,
$2,133,198), flour and grist mill products ($1,089,910), men's
clothing ($833,835), and, of less importance, commercial and
computing scales and time recorders, chemicals, distilled liquor,
beer, fire-alarm apparatus, overalls, agricultural implements,
wagons, electrical apparatus, refined oil, sheet metal, paper
bags and envelopes, tacks and nails, window glass, glass-ware,
clocks, whips and furniture (especially Morris chairs). In the
village of Lestershire (pop. in 1910, 3775; incorporated in 1892),
about 2 m. west, and in Endicott, another suburb, are large boot
and shoe factories. The municipality owns and operates the
water-works. When Binghamton was first settled, about 1787,
it was known as Chenango Point. Its site was originally included
in the so-called " Bingham Patent," a tract on both sides of the
Susquehanna river owned by William Bingham (1751-1804), a
Philadelphia merchant, who was a member of the Continental
Congress in 1787-1788 and of the United States Senate in 1795-
1801, being president pro tempore of the Senate from the i6th
of February to the 3rd of March 1797. In 1800 a village was
laid out by an agent of Mr Bingham, and was named Bingham-
ton. In 1834 it was incorporated as a village, and in 1867 was
chartered as a city.
BINGLEY, a market town in the Otley parliamentary division
of the West Riding of Yorkshire, England, on the Aire, si m.
N.W. of Bradford, on the Midland railway. Pop. of urban
district (1901) 18,449. The church of All Saints is good Per-
pendicular, though considerably restored. The large industrial
population is engaged principally in the worsted and cotton
manufacture. The neighbourhood is populous, but the natural
beauty of the Aire valley is not greatly impaired.
BINIOU, or BIGNOU, a species of cornemuse or bagpipe, still
in use at the present day in Brittany. The biniou is a primitive
kind of bagpipe consisting of a leather bag inflated by means of
a short valved insufflation tube or blow-pipe, a chaunter with
conical bore furnished with a double reed concealed within the
stock or socket (see BAG-PIPE), and seven holes, the first being
duplicated to accommodate left- and right-handed players.
The scale of the biniou is usually
1 See Victor Mahillon, Catalogue descriptif, vol. ii. (Ghent, 1896),
P- 353. No. 1126; and Captain C. R. Day, Descriptive Catalogue
of Musical Instruments (London, 1891), p. 62, No. 135.
BINMALEY BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT
949
and the single drone is tuned to the lower octave of the first
holeg
The more primitive biniou, still occasionally found in the
remote districts of Cornouailles and Morbihan, has a chaunter
with but five holes, 1 giving part of the scale of D, the drone
being also tuned to D. The drone of the biniou is of box-
wood, handsomely inlaid with tin, and has a single or beating
reed hidden within the stock.
The word biniou or bignou (a Gallicized form), often errone-
ously derived from bigno, se renfler beaucoup an etymology
not supported by Breton dictionaries is the Breton plural form
of benvek, instrument, tool, i.e. binviou, binvijou? The word
is also found in the phrase, " Sac'h ar biniou " (a biniou bag),
a bag used by weavers to hold their tools, spindles, &c. The
biniou is still the traditional and popular instrument of the
Breton peasants of Cornouailles and Morbihan, and is almost
inseparable from the bombard (q.v.), which is no other than a
survival of the medieval musette, hautbois or chalemie, formerly
associated with the bag-pipe in western Europe (see OBOE).
At all festivals, at the pardons, wedding feasts and threshing
dances, the two traditional musicians or sonneurs give out in shrill
penetrating tones the ancient Breton rondes 3 and melodies.
BINMALEY, a town of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, on the delta of the Agno river, about 5 m. W.
of Dagupan, the north terminus of the Manila & Dagupan
railway. Pop. (1903) 16,439. It has important fisheries, and
manufactures salt, pottery, roofing (made of nipa leaves), and
nipa wine. Rice and cocoanuts are the principal agricultural
products of the town.
BINNACLE (before i8th century biltocle, through Span.
bitdcula, from Lat. habitaculum, a little dwelling), a case on the
deck of a ship, generally in front of the steersman, in which is
kept a compass, and a light by which the compass is read at
night.
BINNEY, EDWARD WILLIAM (1812-1881), English geologist,
was born at Morton, in Nottinghamshire, in 1812. He was
articled to a solicitor in Chesterfield, and in 1836 settled at
Manchester. He retired soon afterwards from legal practice
and gave his chief attention to geological pursuits. He assisted
in 1838 in founding the Manchester Geological Society, of which
he was then chosen one of the honorary secretaries; he was
elected president in 1857, and again in 1865. He was also
successively secretary and president of the Literary and Philo-
sophical Society of Manchester. Working especially at the
Carboniferous and Permian rocks of the north of England, he
studied also the Drift deposits of Lancashire, and made himself
familiar with the geology of the country around Manchester.
On the Coal Measures in particular he became an acknowledged
authority, and his Observations on the Structure of Fossil Plants
found in the Carboniferous Strata (1868-1875) formed one of
the monographs of the Palaeontographical Society. His large
collection of fossils was placed in Owens College. He was elected
a fellow of thp Royal Society in 1856. He died at Manchester
on the i Qth of December 1881.
BINNEY, HORACE (1780-1875), American lawyer, was born
in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on the 4th of January 1 780. He
graduated at Harvard College in 1797, and studied law in the
office of Jared Ingersoll (1749-1822), who had been a member
of the Constitutional convention of 1787, and who from 1791 to
1800 and again from 1811 to 1816 was the attorney-general of
Pennsylvania. Admitted to the bar in Philadelphia in 1800,
Binney practised with great success for half a century, and was
recognized as one of the leaders of the bar in the United States.
He served in the Pennsylvania legislature in 1806-1807, an d was
a Whig member of the National House of Representatives from
1833 until 1835, ably defending the United States Bank, and in
general opposing the policy of President Andrew Jackson. His
1 SeeN. Quellien, Chansons et danses des Bretons (Paris, 1 889), p. 39,
and note, where the description of the instrument is not technical.
* See Le Gonidec, Diclionnaire breton-fran$ais, ed. by T. Hersart
de la Villemarque; and N. Quellien, op. cit. p. 37, note.
* For examples of these see N. Quellien, op. cit. part ii.
most famous case, in which he was unsuccessfully opposed by
Daniel Webster, was the case of Bidal v. Girard's Executors,
which involved the disposition of the fortune of Stephen Girard
(q.v.). Binney's argument in this case greatly influenced the
interpretation of the law of charities. Binney made many public
addresses, the most noteworthy of which, entitled Life and
Character of Chief Justice Marshall, was published in 1835. He
also published Leaders of the Old Bar of Philadelphia (1858),
and an Inquiry into the Formation of Washington's Farewell
Address (1859); and during the Civil War he issued three
pamphlets (1861, 1862 and 1865), discussing the right of habeas
corpus under the American Constitution, and justifying President
Lincoln in his suspension of the writ.
See the Life of Horace Binney (Philadelphia, igo4),[by his grandson.
C. C. Binney.
BINNEY, THOMAS (1798-1874), English Congregationalism
divine, was born of Presbyterian parents at Newcastle-on-Tyne
in 1 798, and educated at an ordinary day school. After spending
seven years in the employment of a bookseller he entered the
theological school at Wymondley, Herts, now incorporated in
New College, Hampstead. In 1829, after short pastorates at
Bedford (New Meeting) and Newport, Isle of Wight, he accepted
a call to the historic Weigh House chapel, London. Here he
became very popular, and it was found necessary to build a much
larger chapel on Fish Street Hill, to which the congregation
removed in 1834. An address delivered on the occasion of the
laying of the foundation stone was published, with an appendix
containing a strong attack on the influence of the Church of
England, which gave rise to a long and bitter controversy.
Throughout his whole career Binney was a vigorous opponent
of the state church principle, but those who simply classified him
as a narrow-minded political dissenter did him injustice. His
liberality of view and breadth of ecclesiastical sympathy entitle
him to rank on questions of Nonconformity among the most
distinguished of the school of Richard Baxter; and he main-
tained friendly relations with many of the dignitaries of the
Established Church. He continued to discharge the duties of
the ministry until 1869, when he resigned. In 1845 he paid a
visit to Canada and the United States, and in 1857-1859 to the
Australian colonies. The university of Aberdeen conferred the
LL.D. degree on him in 1852, and he was twice chairman of the
Congregational Union of England and Wales.
- Binney was the pioneer in a much-needed improvement of the
forms of service in Nonconformist churches, and gave a special
impulse to congregational psalmody by the publication of a book
entitled The Service of Song in the House of the Lord. Of numerous
other works the best-known is his Is it Possible to Make the
Best of Both Worlds? an expansion of a lecture delivered
to young men in Exeter Hall, which attained a circulation of
30,000 copies within a year of its publication. He wrote much
devotional verse, including the well-known hymn " Eternal
Light! Eternal Light!" His last sermon was preached in
November 1873, and after some months of suffering he died on
the 24th of February 1874. Dean Stanley assisted at his funeral
service in Abney Park cemetery.
BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT, or briefly BINOCULAR,' an
apparatus through which objects are viewed with both eyes.
In this article only those instruments will be considered in which
solid objects or objects in space are viewed; reference should be
made to the article STEREOSCOPE for the instruments in which
plane representations are offered to both eyes. The natural
vision is such that different central projections of the objects are
communicated to both eyes; the difference of the two perspective
representations arises from the fact that the projection centres
are laterally separated by an interval about equal to the distance
between the eyes (the inter-pupillary distance). Binocular in-
struments should aid the natural spatial or stereoscopic vision,
or make it possible if the eyes fail. If the objects be so far
4 The term binocular (from the Lat. bini, two at a time, and ocvli.
eyes) was originally an adjective used to describe things adapted
for the simultaneous use of both eyes, as in " binocular vision."
"a binocular telescope or microscope"; now "a binocular" is
used as a noun, meaning a binocular microscope, a field-glass, &c.
950
BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT
distant that the two perspectives formed by the naked eye are
no more distinguished from each other, recourse may be had to
binocular telescopes and range-finders; and if the objects be
so small that, in order to observe details on them, we must bring
our eyes so close to the objects that they cannot accommodate
the images, recourse may be had to binocular microscopes and
magnifying glasses.
The construction of binocular instruments dates back over
several centuries, and has now been brought to great perfection.
The subject of their theory and history has been exhaustively
treated by M. von Rohr, Die binokularen Instruments (Berlin,
1907), the first publication to present a complete account of
these instruments.
Binocular Instruments for Observation only. The first binocular
telescope, consisting of two telescopes placed side by side, was
feksco constructed in 1608 by Johann Lipperhey, the inventor
of the ordinary or Dutch telescope. The subject was
next taken up by the monks. The Capuchin Antonius Maria
Schyrlaus (Schyrl) de Rheita (1597-1660) described in 1645 the
construction of double terrestrial telescopes. Greater success
attended the efforts of the Capuchin
Cherubin d'Orleans, who flourished
at about the same time, and con-
structed large double telescopes of
the Dutch type of high magnifica-
tion, for use in war, and smaller
instruments of lower magnification;
these instruments were provided
with mechanism for adjusting to
the interval between the eyes of
the observer (fig. i). After these
discoveries the subject received no
more attention until the igth
century; no improvements of these
instruments are recorded in the
literature of the second half of the
i8th century.
The re-invention of the Dutch
binocular telescope apparently dates
from 1823, and is to be assigned to
the Viennese optician, Johann Fried-
rich Voigtlander (1779-1859); but
the credit of having placed these
instruments on the market probably
belongs to J. P. Lemiere in Paris,
who, in 1825, took out a French patent for an improve-
ment of the Dutch double telescope. Lemiere's instruments
were furnished with a common focusing arrangement, and
the adapting to the inter-pupillary distance was effected by
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
turning the two parallel telescopes round their common axis.
The development of this instrument was studied by opticians
for the remainder of the first half of the igth century;
the last improvement apparently was made by P. G. Bardou
in 1854, and by H. Helmholtz in 1857 when he described
the telestereoscope (fig. 2) with telescopic magnification. By
utilizing the telescope with prism-inversion, devised in 1851
by Ignazio Porro (1795-1875), A. A. Boulanger succeeded in
producing a binocular of an entirely new type in 1859 (fig. 3).
But he overlooked the possibility of increasing the distance
between the objectives; Camille Nachet introduced this im-
provement in 1875, but his instruments did not meet with much
popularity. This was probably due to the fact that, at this time,
the manufacture of the glass for the prisms was too difficult;
this was overcome by E. Abbe, after the founding of the glass-
works at Jena, who effected, independently of his predecessors,
the wider separation of the ob-
jectives (fig. 4), and increased it
in the telestereoscope (fig. 5),
or relief telescope, in a manner
nearly approaching to Helm-
holtz's proposal.
The first binocular microscope
was invented by the previously
mentioned Father
scope." Cherubin, whose in-
strument consisted of
two inverting systems, and con-
sequently gave a totally wrong
impression of depth, i.e. de-
pressions appeared as elevations,
and vice versa, or, as we must
say after Charles Wheatstone,
it presented a pseudoscopic im-
pression; this quality, however,
was not recognized by the
microscopists of the time. The
instrument subsequently fell into
complete neglect for nearly two
centuries, to be revived in 1852
by Charles Wheatstone, who has stated that he had previously
studied the problem; the publication of his views in his second
great paper " On Binocular Vision," ' in the Phil. Trans, for 1852,
undoubtedly stimulated the investigation of this instrument,
which was carried on with zeal and success more especially
in England and the United
States. In 1853 the American
J. L. Riddell (1807-1867) de-
vised his binocular microscope,
which contained the essentials of
Wheatstone's pseudoscope. F.
H. Wenham, another constructor,
did not at first succeed in avoid-
ing the pseudoscopic effect, but,
by the application of refracting
dividing prisms, he subsequently
arrived at orthoscopic representa-
tions and continued the de-
velopment of the different
methods for producing micro-
photographic stereograms; this
was effected in the first "case by
placing a diaphragm over one half of the objective for
each exposure, and in the second case by a suitable direction
of the illuminating pencil (fig. 6). Of greater benefit, how-
ever, for stimulating interest in binocular microscopes, was
his invention of reflecting dividing prisms (fi^ 7). Other
experiments, begun by Powell and Lealand, and developed
with greater skill by Wenham, were concerned with the
binocular vision of identical images. Such an impression
could not possibly be stereoscopic, and these experiments
FIG. 4.
it
FIG. 5.
led to the construction of a non-stereoscopic binocular micro-
scope. Of the other workers in this field mention may be made
1 The first part appeared in 1838.
BINOMIAL
of Alfred Nachet, who in 1853, and subsequently in 1863, brought
forward two forms of binocular microscope.
The earliest stages of the development of the binocular
microscope had been always confined to those instruments with
one objective, in the immediate neighbourhood of which the
systems for dividing the pencil were placed. At a later date
attempts were made to separate the two halves of the objective
by modifying the eye-piece; this led to the construction of
stereoscopic eye-pieces, initiated by R. B. Tolles, E. Abbe and
A. Prazmowski. Of special importance is the work of Abbe;
although, as he himself has stated, his methods accidentally led
to the Wehham system, he certainly was far above his prede-
cessors in his theoretical treatment of the problem, and in the
perspicuity and clearness of his explanation. To him is also
due the re-establishment of the instruments, which Wenham
had abandoned by reason of too great technical difficulties
(fig. 8). The newest form of the binocular microscope is very
similar to the oldest form in which two completely separated
FIG. 6.
FIG. 7.
FIG. 8.
tubes were employed. The inventor, H. S. Greenough, employs
two systems for setting up the image, in order to avoid the
pseudoscopic effect. After experiments in the Zeiss works, the
erecting of Porro's prisms simultaneously permitted a con-
venient adaptation to the eye-distance of the observer.
The first binocular magnifying glass or simple .microscope
(German, Lupe) was devised by J. L. Riddell in 1853; in this
instrument (fig. 9) the pencil of light is transmitted
to the eyes by means of two pairs of parallel mirrors.
Of the many different improvements mention may
be made of A. Nachet's. H. Westien made use of two
Chevalier-Briicke's simple microscopes with their long working
distances in order to form an instrument in which the curvature
of the image was not entirely
avoided. Mention may also
be made of the binoculars of
K. Fritzsch (formerly Pro-
kesch) and E. Berger.
Binocular Instruments for
Range-finding. For measur-
ing purposes binocular tele-
scopes with parallel axes are
FIG. 9.
the only types employed. The measurement is effected by adjoin-
ing to the space or interval to be measured some means of measure-
ment defined; for example, by a fixed scale which extends into
the space, or by a movable point (Wandermarke). This instru-
ment shows a transition to the stereoscope, inasmuch as the
scale or means of measurement is not directly observed, but
to each eye a plane representation is offered, just as in the
stereoscope; the space to be measured, on the other hand,
is portrayed in exactly the same way as in the double telescope.
The method for superposing the two spaces on one another
was deduced by Sir David Brewster in 1856, but he does not
appear to have dealt with the problem of range-finding. The
problem was attacked in 1861 by A. Rollet; later, in 1866,
E. Mach published a promising idea, and finally independently
of the researches of his predecessors Hektor de Grousilliers, in
partnership with the Zeiss firm (E. Abbe and C. Pulfrich), con-
structed the first stereoscopic range-finder suitable for practical
use. (O. HR.)
BINOMIAL (from the Lat. bi-, bis, twice, and nomen, a name
or term), in mathematics, a word first introduced by Robert
Recorde (1557) to denote a quantity composed of the sum or
difference to two terms; as a+b, ab. The terms trinomial,
quadrinomial, multinomial, &c., are applied to expressions
composed similarly of three, four or many quantities.
The binomial theorem is a celebrated theorem, originally
due to Sir Isaac Newton, by which any power of a
binomial can be expressed as a series. In its modern form
the theorem, which is true for all values of n, is written as
(x+a)- =*+<-' +*=lu&i+*- H ~ ' "V^. ... +.. The
1.2 1.2.3
reader is referred to the article ALGEBRA for the proof and
applications of this theorem; here we shall only treat of the
history of its discovery.
The original form of the theorem was first given in a letter,
dated the i3th of June 1676, from Sir Isaac Newton to Henry
Oldenburg for communication to Wilhelm G. Leibnitz, although
Newton had discovered it some years previously. Newton
there states that (p+pq) =
. . . &c.,
where p+pq is the quantity whose^ power or root is required,
ft
P the first term of that quantity, and q the quotient of the rest
divided by p, 2j the power, which may be a positive or negative
integer or a fraction, and a, b, c, &c., the several terms in order,
e.g.
4= aq, c-
2n
*-bq, and so on.
In a second letter, dated the 24th of October 1676, to Olden-
burg, Newton gave the train of reasoning by , which he devised
the theorem.
" In the beginning of my mathematical studies, when I was perus-
ing the works of the celebrated Dr Wallis, and considering the series
by the interpolation of which he exhibits the area of the circle and
hyperbola (for instance, in this series of curves whose common base
or axis is x, and the ordinates respectively (i xx)*, (i **)*,
(i **)', (i **)', &c), I perceived that if the areas of the alternate
curves, which are*, x $x',xxlx 3 +lx*, x Jx'+jx' }*', &c., could
be interpolated, we should obtain the areas of the intermediate
ones, the first of which (i xx)^ is the area of the circle. Now in
order to [do] this, it appeared that in all the series the first term was
x; that the second terms %x*, Jx a , Jx', &c., were in arithmetical pro-
gression; and consequently that the first two terms of all the series
to be interpolated would be x
_!*' ,_!*! ,_
-,&c.
" Now for the interpolation of the rest, I considered that the de-
nominators i, 3, 5, &c., were in arithmetical progression; and that
therefore only the numerical coefficients of the numerators were to
be investigated. But these in the alternate areas, which are given,
were the same with the figures of which the several powers of II
consist, viz., of 11, n 1 , n*, u>, &c., that is, the first I ; the second,
I, i; the third, I, 2, I,; the fourth I, 3, 3, I ; and so on. I enquired
therefore how, in these series, the rest of the terms may be derived
from the first two being given ; and I found that by putting ro for
the second figure or term, the rest should tie produced by the con-
tinued multiplication of the terms of this series^p^ X^^ X^-^... ,
&c. . . . This rule I therefore applied to the series to be interpolated.
And since, in the series for the circle, the second term was *r-, I put
m = \. . . . And hence I found the required area of the circular segment
to be x ^7 ~ 7""' * c ' ' ' ' ^ nc ' * n tne same rnanner might be
produced the interpolated areas of other curves; as also the
area of the hyperbola and the other alternates in this series
(i +**)'. (i +**)* (i +**)', &c. . . . Having proceeded so far, I
considered that the terms (i xx)*, (l ix)', (i **)', (i **)',
&c., that is i, i-x, i-ax'+x*, l-yt*+yc i -x > , &c., might be
interpolated in the same manner as the areas generated by
them, and for this, nothing more was required than to omit
the denominators i, 3, 5, 7, &c., in the terms expressing the
areas; that is, the coefficients of the terms of the quantity to
be interpolated (l -**)* or (l -xx)' /f , or generally (l xx)"> will
952
BINTURONG BIOGRAPHY
be produced by the continued multiplication of this series
The binomial theorem was thus discovered as a development
of John Wallis's investigations in the method of interpolation.
Newton gave no proof, and it was in the Ars Conjectandi (1713)
that James Bernoulli's proof for positive integral values of the
exponent was first published, although Bernoulli must have
discovered it many years previously. A rigorous demonstration
was wanting for many years, Leonhard Euler's proof for negative
and fractional values being faulty, and was finally given by
Niels Heinrik Abel.
The multi- (or poly-) nomial theorem has for its object the
expansion of any power of a multinomial and was discussed
in 1697 by Abraham Demoivre (see COMBINATORIAL ANALYSIS).
REFERENCES. For the history of the binomial theorem, see John
Collins, Commercium Epistolicum (1712); S. P. Rigaud, The Corre-
spondence of Scientific Men of the i?th Century (1841); M. Cantor,
Geschichte der Mathematik (1894-1901).
BINTURONG (Arctictis binturong), the single species of the
viverrine genus Arctictis, ranging from Nepal through the
Malay Peninsula to Sumatra and Java. This animal, also called
the bear-cat, is allied to the palm-civets, or paradoxures, but
differs from the rest of the family ( Viverridae) by its tufted ears
and long, bushy, prehensile tail, which is thick at the root and
almost equals in length the head and body together (from 28
to 33 inches). The fur is long and coarse, of a dull black hue
with a grey wash on the head and fore-limbs. In habits the
binturong is nocturnal and arboreal, inhabiting forests, and
living on small vertebrates, worms, insects and fruits. It is
said to be naturally fierce, but when taken young is easily tamed
and becomes gentle and playful.
BINYON, LAURENCE (1869- ), English poet, born at
Lancaster on the loth of August 1869, was educated at St Paul's
school, London, and Trinity College, Oxford, where he won the
Newdigate prize in 1800 for his Persephone. He entered the
department of printed books at the British Museum in 1893,
and was transferred to the department of prints and drawings
in 1895, the Catalogue of English Drawings in the British Museum
(1898, &c.) being by him. As a poet he is represented by Lyric
Poems (1894), Poems (Oxford, 1895), London Visions (2 vols.,
1895-1898), The Praise of Life (1896), Porphyrion and other
Poems (1898), Odes (1900), The Death of Adam (1903), Penthe-
silea (1905), Dream come true (1905), Paris and Oenone (1906),
a one-act tragedy, and Attila, a poetical drama (1907); as an
art critic by monographs on the 17th-century Dutch etchers,
on John Crome and John Sell Cotman, contributed to the
Portfolio, &c. In 1906 he published the first volume of a series
of reproductions from William Blake, with a critical introduction.
See also R. A. Streatfeild, Two Poets of the New Century (1901),
and W. Archer, Poets of the Younger Generation (1902).
BIO-BIO, a river of southern Chile, rising in the Pino Hachado
pass across the Andes, 38 45' S. lat., and flowing in a general
north-westerly direction to the Pacific at Conception, where
it is 2 m. wide and forms an excellent harbour. It has a total
length of about 225 m., nearly one half of which is navigable.
BIO-BIO, an inland province of southern Chile, bounded N.,
W. and S. respectively by the provinces of Concepci6n, Arauco
and Malleco, and E. by Argentina. It has an area of 5246
sq. m. of well-wooded and mountainous country, and exports
timber to a large extent. The great trunk railway from San-
tiago S. to Puerto Montt crosses the western part of the province
and also connects it with the port of Concepci6n. The capital,
Los Angeles (est. pop. 7777 in 1902) lies 15$ m. E. of this
railway' and is connected with it by a branch line.
BIOGENESIS (from the Gr. /3ios, life, and ykvtaa, genera-
tion, birth), a biological term for the theory according to which
each living organism, however simple, arises by a process of
budding, fission, spore-formation of sexual reproduction from
a parent organism. Under the heading of ABIOGENESIS (q.v.)
is discussed the series of steps by which the modern acceptance
of biogenesis and rejection of abiogenesis has been brought
about. No biological generalization rests on a wider series of
observations, or has been subjected to a more critical scrutiny
than that every living organism has come into existence from
a living portion or portions of a pre-existing organism. In
the articles REPRODUCTION and HEREDITY the details of the
relations between parent and offspring are discussed. There
remains for treatment here a curious collateral issue of the
theory. It is within common observation that parent and off-
spring, are alike: that the new organism resembles that from
which it has come into existence: in fine, biogenesis is homo-
genesis. Every organism takes origin from a parent organism
of the same kind. The conception of homogenesis, however,
does not imply an absolute similarity between parent and
organism. In the first place, the normal life-cycle of plants and
animals exhibits what is known as alternation of generations, so
that any individual in the chain may resemble its grand-parent
and its grand-child, and differ markedly from its parent and child.
Next, any organism may pass through a series of free-living
larval stages, so that the new organism at first resembles its
parent only very remotely, corresponding to an early stage in the
life-history of that parent. (See EMBRYOLOGY, LARVAL FORMS
and REPRODUCTION.) Finally, the conception of homogenesis
does not exclude the differences between parent and offspring
that continually occur, forming the material for the slow altera-
tion of stocks in the course of evolution (see VARIATION AND
SELECTION). Homogenesis means simply that. such organism
comes into existence directly from a parent organism of the same
race, and hence of the same species, sub-species, genus and so
forth.
From time to time there have been observers who have
maintained a belief in the opposite theory, to which the name
heterogenesis has been given. According to the latter theory, the
offspring of a given organism may be utterly different from itself,
so that a known animal may give rise to another known animal
of a different race, species, genus, or even family, or to a plant,
or vice versa. The most extreme cases of this belief is the well-
known fable of the " barnacle-geese," an illustrated account
of which was printed in an early volume of the Royal Society of
London. Buds of a particular tree growing near the sea were
described as producing barnacles, and these, falling into the
water, were supposed to develop into geese. The whole story
was an imaginary embroidery of the facts that barnacles attach
themselves to submerged timber and that a species of goose
is known as the bernicle goose. In modern times the exponents
of heterogenesis have limited themselves to cases of microscopic
animals and plants, and in most cases, the observations that
they have brought forward have been explained by minuter
observation as cases of parasitism. No serious observer,
acquainted with modern microscopic technical methods, has
been able to confirm the explanation of their observations
given by the few modern believers in heterogenesis. (P. C. M.)
BIOGRAPHY (from the Gr. /Sios, life, and 7pd0)?, writing),
that form of history whichlis applied, not to races or masses of
men, but to an individual. The earliest use of the word 0ioypa<f>La
is attributed to Damascius, a Greek writer of the beginning
of the 6th century, and in Latin biographia was used, but in
English no earlier employment of the word, " biography " has
been traced than that of Dryden in 1683, who uses it to describe
the literary work of Plutarch, " the history of particular men's
lives." It is obvious that this definition is necessary, for biography
is not the record of " life " in general, but of the life of a single
person. The idea of the distinction between this and history is
a modern thing; we speak of "antique biography," but it is
doubtful whether any writer of antiquity, even Plutarch, clearly
perceived its possible existence as an independent branch of
literature. All of them, and Plutarch certainly, considered the
writing of a man's rife as an opportunity for celebrating, in his
person, certain definite moral qualities. It was in these, and not
in the individual characteristics of the man, that his interest as a
subject of biography resided.
The true conception of biography, therefore, as the faithful
portrait of a soul in its adventures through life, is very modern.
BIOGRAPHY
953
We may question whether it existed, save in rare and acci-
dental instances, until the iyth century. The personage
described was, in earlier times, treated either from the philo-
sophical or from the historical point of view. In the former case,
rhetoric inevitably clouded the definiteness of the picture; the
object was to produce a grandiose moral effect, to clothe the
subject with all the virtues or with all the vices; to make his
career a splendid example or else a solemn warning. The
consequence is that we have to piece together unconsidered
incidents and the accidental record of features in order to obtain
an approximate estimate. We may believe, for instance, that
a faithful and unprejudiced study of the emperor Julian, from
the life, would be a very different thing from the impression left
upon us by the passions of Cyril or of Theodoret. In considering
what biography, in its pure sense, ought to be, we must insist on
what it is not. It is not a philosophical treatise nor a polemical
pamphlet. It is not, even, a portion of the human contemporary
chronicle. Broad views are entirely 'out of place in biography,
and there is perhaps no greater literary mistake than to attempt
what is called the " Life and Times " of a man. In an adequate
record of the " times," the man is bound to sink into significance;
even a " Life and Times " of Napoleon I. would be an impossible
task. History deals with fragments of the vast roll of events;
it must always begin abruptly and close in the middle of affairs;
it must always deal, impartially, with a vast number of persons.
Biography is a study sharply defined by two definite events,
birth and death. It fills its canvas with one figure, and other
personages, however great in themselves, must always be
subsidiary to the central hero. The only remnant of the old
rhetorical purpose of " lives " which clearer modern purpose
can afford to retain is the relative light thrown on military or
intellectual or social genius by the achievements of the Selected
subject. Even this must be watched with great care, lest the
desire to illuminate that genius, and make it consistent, should
lead the biographer to glose over frailties or obscure irregularities.
In the old " lives " of great men, this is precisely what was done.
If the facts did not lend themselves to the great initial thesis,
so much the worse for them. They must be ignored or falsified,
since the whole object of the work was to " teach a lesson," to
magnify a certain tendency of conduct. It was very difficult
to persuade the literary world that, whatever biography is, it is
not an opportunity for panegyric or invective, and the lack of
this perception destroys our faith in most of the records of
personal life in ancient and medieval times. It is impossible to
avoid suspecting that Suetonius loaded his canvas with black
in order to excite hatred against the Roman emperors; it is still
more difficult to accept more than one page in three of the
stories of the professional hagiographers. As long as it was a
pious merit to deform the truth, biography could not hope to
flourish. It appears to have originally asserted itself when
the primitive instinct of sympathy began to have free play,
that is to say, not much or often before the lyth century.
Moreover, the peculiar curiosity which legitimate biography
satisfies is essentially a modern thing; and presupposes our
observation of life not unduly clouded by moral passion or
prejudice.
Among the ancients, biography was not specifically cultivated
until comparatively later times. The lost " Lives " of Critias
were probably political pamphlets. We meet first with deliberate
biography in Xenophon's memoirs of Socrates, a work of epoch-
making value. Towards the close of the ist century, Plutarch
wrote one of the most fascinating books in the world's literature,
his Parallel Lives of 46. Greeks and Romans. In later Greek,
the Life of Apollonius of Tyana was written by Philostratus, who
also produced a Lives of the Sophists. In the 3rd century,
Diogenes Laertius compiled a Lives of the Philosophers, which is
of greater interest than a Lives of the Sophists composed a
hundred years later by Eunapius. Finally in the loth century,
Suidas added a biographical section to his celebrated Lexicon.
In Latin literature, the earliest biography we meet with is the
fragment of the Illustrious Men of Cornelius Nepos. Memoirs
began to be largely written at the close of the Augustan age,
but these, like the Life of Alexander the Great, by Q. Curtius
Rufus, were rather historical than biographical. Tacitus
composed a life of his father-in-law, Agricola; this is a work
of the most elegant and stately beauty. Suetonius was the
author of several biographical compilations, of which the Lives
of the Twelve Caesars is the best-known; this was produced in
the year 120. Marius Maximus, in the 4th century, continued
the series of emperors down to Heliogabalus. but his work has
not been preserved. The Augustan History, finished under
Constantine, takes its place, and was concluded and edited by
Flavius Vopiscus.
Biography hardly begins to exist in English literature until
the close of the reign of Henry VIII . William Roper ( 1 496- 1578)
wrote a touching life of his father-in-law, Sir Thomas More,
and George Cavendish (1500-1561?), a memoir of Cardinal
Wolsey which is a masterpiece of liveliness and grace. It is
with these two works, both of which remained in manuscript
until the iyth century, that biography in England begins. The
lives of English writers compiled by John Bale (1495-1563) are
much more primitive and slight. John Leland (d. 1552) and
John Pits (1560-1616) were antiquaries who affected a species
of biography. In the early part of the iyth century, the absence
of the habit of memoir writing extremely impoverishes our
knowledge of the illustrious authors of the age, of none of whom
there are preserved such records as our curiosity would delight
in. The absence of any such chronicle was felt, and two writers,
Thomas Heywood and Sir Aston Cokayne, proposed to write
lives of the poets of their time. Unfortunately they never
carried their plans into execution. The pioneer of deliberate
English biography was Izaak Walton, who, in 1640, published a
Life of Donne, followed in 1651 by that of Sir Henry Wotton,
in 1665 by that of Richard Hooker, in 1670 by that of George
Herbert, and in 1678 by that of Dr Robert Saunderson. These
five reprinted, under the title of Walton's Lives, were not only
charming in themselves, but the forerunners of a whole class of
English literature. Meanwhile, Fuller was preparing his History
of the Worthies of England, which appeared after his death, in
1662, and John Aubrey (1626-1697) was compiling his Minutes
of Lives, which show such a perfect comprehension of the personal
element that should underlie biography; these have only in
our own days been completely given to the public. Edward,
Lord Herbert of Cherbury (1583-1648), wrote a brilliant auto-
biography, first printed in 1764; that of Anne Harrison, Lady
Fanshawe (1625-1680), remained unknown until 1829. A very
curious essay in biography is the memoir of Colonel John
Hutchinson, written by his widow, Lucy, between 1664 and 1671.
Margaret Lucas, duchess of Newcastle (i624?-i674), wrote her
own life (1656) and that of her duke (1667). The Allu-nat
Oxonienses of Anthony a Wood (1632-1695) was a complicated
celebration of the wit, wisdom and learning of Oxford nota-
bilities since the Reformation. In 1668 Thomas Sprat (1635-
1713) wrote a Life of Cowley, which was very much admired and
which exercised for many years a baneful influence on British
biography. Sprat considered that all familiar anecdote and
picturesque detail should be omitted in the composition of a
memoir, and that moral effect and a solemn vagueness should
be aimed at. The celebrated funeral orations of Jeremy Taylor
were of the same order of eloquence, and the wind of those
grandiose compositions destroyed the young shoot of genuine
and simple biography which had budded in Walton and Aubrey.
From this time forth, for more than half a century, English
biography became a highly artificial and rhetorical thing,
lacking all the salient features of honest portraiture. William
Oldys (1696-1761) was the first to speak out boldly; in 1747,
in the preface to the Biographia Brilannica, he pointed out " the
cruelty, we might even say the impiety, of sacrificing the glory
of great characters to trivial circumstances and mere conven-
iency," and attacked the timid and scrupulous superficiality
of those who undertook to write lives of eminent men, while
omitting everything which gave definition to the portrait. In
1753 the Lives of the Poets, which bore the name of Theophilus
Gibber (1703-1758), but was mainly written by Robert Shiels
954
BIOLOGY
(d. 1753), gave a great deal of valuable information with regard
to the personal adventures of our writers. Dr Johnson's Life
of Savage (1744), though containing some passages of extreme
interest, was a work of imperfect form, but Mason's Life and
Letters of Gray (1774) marks a great advance in the art of bio-
graphy. This was the earliest memoir in which correspondence
of a familiar kind was used to illustrate and to expand the narra-
tive, and Mason's Gray is really the pioneer of almost all modern
English biography. For the first time it was now admitted that
letters to intimate friends, not written with a view to publication,
might be used with advantage to illustrate the real character
of the writer. Boswell, it is certain, availed himself of Mason's
example, while improving upon it, and in 1791 he published
his Life of Dr Samuel Johnson, which is the most interesting
example of biography existing in English, or perhaps in any
language.
As soon as the model of Boswell became familiar to biographers,
it could no longer be said that any secret in the art was left
unknown to them, and the biographies of the ipth century
are all more or less founded upon the magnificent type of the
Life of Johnson. But few have even approached it in courage,
picturesqueness or mastery of portraiture. In the next genera-
tion Southey's lives of Nelson (1813) and John Wesley (1820)
at once became classics; but the pre-eminent specimen of
early ip-century biography is Lockhart's superb Life of
Sir Walter Scott (1837-1838). The biographies of the igth
century are far too numerous to be mentioned here in detail;
in the various articles dedicated to particular men and women
in this Encyclopaedia, the date and authorship of the authori-
tative life of each person will in most cases be found appended.
Towards the close of the century there was unquestionably
an excess, and even an abuse, in the habit of biography. It
became the custom a few years or even months after the decease
of an individual who had occupied a passing place in the eyes of
the public, to issue a " Life " of him; in many cases such bio-
graphy was a labour of utter supererogation. But the custom
has become general, and it is very unlikely, notwithstanding
the ephemeral interest of readers in the majority of the subjects,
that it will ever go out of fashion, for it directly indulges both
vanity and sentiment. What is true of Great Britain is true,
though in less measure, of all other modern nations, and it is not
necessary here to deal with more than the early manifestations
of biography in the principal European literatures.
To Switzerland appears due the honour of having given birth
to the earliest biographical dictionary ever compiled, the Biblio-
theca Universalis of Konrad Gesner (1516-1565), published at
Zurich in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, from 1545 to 1549. A very
rare work, by a writer of the greatest obscurity, the Prosopo-
graphia of Verdier de Vauprivas, published at Lyons in 1573,
professed to deal with the lives of all illustrious persons who
had flourished since the beginning of the world.
In medieval and renaissance France there existed numerous
memoirs and histories, such as those of Brant6me, into which
the lives of great men were inserted, and in which a biographical
character was given to studies of virtue and valour, or of the
reverse. But the honour of being the earliest deliberate contri-
bution to biography is generally given to the Ada Sanctorum,
compiled by the Bollandists, the first volume of which appeared
in 1653. This was the first biographical dictionary compiled in
Europe, and its publication produced a great sensation. It
was confined to the lives of saints and martyrs, but in 1674
Louis Moreri, in his Grand Diclionnaire, included a biographical
section of a general character. But the earliest biographical
dictionary which had anything of a modern form was the cele-
brated Dictionnaire hislorique el critique of Pierre Bayle, in
1696; the lives in this great work, however, are too often used
as mere excuses for developing the philosophical and contro-
versial views of the author; they are nevertheless the result
of genuine research and have a true biographical view. The
Dictionnaire was translated into English in 1734, and had a
wide influence in creating a legitimate interest in biography in
England.
In Italian literature, biography does not take a prominent
place until the isth century. The Lives of Illustrious
Florentines, in which a valuable memoir of Dante occurs, was
written in Latin by Filippo Villani. Vespasiano da Bistrici
(1421-1498) compiled a set of biographies of his contemporaries,
which are excellent of their kind. The so-called Life of Cas-
truccio Castracani, by Machiavelli, is hardly a biography, but a
brilliant essay on the ideals of statecraft. Paolo Giovio (1483-
1552) wrote the lives of poets and soldiers whom he had known.
All these attempts, however, seem insignificant by the side of
the autobiography of Benvenuto Cellini (1501-1571), confessedly
one of the most entertaining works of the world's literature.
A great deal of biography is scattered throughout the historical
compilations of the Italian renaissance, and the Lives of the
Artists, by Giorgio Vasari (1512-1574), is a storehouse of anec-
dotes admirably told. We find nothing else that requires
special mention till we reach the memoir- writers of the i8th
century, with the autobiographies of Count Carlo Gozzi
and Alfieri; and on the whole, ' Italy, although adopting in
the i gth century the habit of biography, has rarely excelled
in it.
In Spanish literature Fernan Perez de Guzman (1378-14601,
with great originality, enshrined, in his Generations and Like-
nesses, a series of admirable literary portraits; he has been called
the Plutarch of Spain. But, in spite of numerous lives of saints,
poets and soldiers, Spanish literature has not excelled in bio-
graphy, nor has it produced a single work of this class which is
universally read. In Germany there is little to record before
the close of the i8th century.
In the course of the igth century a new thing in biography
was invented, in the shape of dictionaries of national biography.
Of these, the first which was carried to a successful conclusion
was the Swedish (1835-1857), which occupied 23 volumes.
This dictionary was followed by the Dutch (1852-1878), in 24
volumes; the Austrian (1856-1891), in 35 volumes; the Belgian
(which was begun in 1866); the German (1875-1900), in 45
volumes; and others, representing nearly all the countries of
Europe. England was behind the competitors named above,
but when she joined the ranks a work was produced the value
of which can hardly be exaggerated. The project was started
in 1882 by the publisher George Smith (1824-1901), who con-
sulted Mr (afterwards Sir) Leslie Stephen. The first volume
of the English Dictionary of National Biography was published
on the ist of January 1885, under Stephen's editorship. A
volume was published quarterly, with complete punctuality
until Midsummer 1900, when volume 63 closed the work, which
was presently extended by the issue of three supplementary
volumes. In May 1891 Leslie Stephen resigned the editorship
and was succeeded by Mr "Sidney Lee, who conducted the work
to its prosperous close, bringing it up to the death of Queen
Victoria. The Dictionary of National Biography contains the
lives of more than 30,000 persons, and has proved of inestim-
able service in elucidating the private annals of the British
people. (E. G.)
BIOLOGY (Gr. |3ios, life). The biological sciences are those
which deal with the phenomena manifested by living matter;
and though it is customary and convenient to group apart
such of these phenomena as are termed mental, and such
of them as are exhibited by men in society, under the heads of
psychology and sociology, yet it must be allowed that no
natural boundary separates the subject matter of the latter
sciences from that of biology. Psychology is inseparably linked
with physiology; and the phases of social life exhibited by
animals other than man, which sometimes curiously fore-
shadow human policy, fall strictly within the province of the
biologist.
On the other hand, the biological sciences are sharply marked
off from the abiological, or those which treat of the phenomena
manifested by not-living matter, in so far as the properties of
living matter distinguish it absolutely from all other kinds of
things, and as the present state of knowledge furnishes us with
no link between the living and the not-living.
BIOLOGY
955
These distinctive properties of living matter are
1. Its chemical composition containing, as it invariably does,
one or more forms of a complex compound of carbon, hydrogen,
The pro- oxygen and nitrogen, the so-called protein or albumin
periics of (which has never yet been obtained except as a pro-
Hviag duct of living bodies), united with a large proportion
of water, and forming the chief constituent of a sub-
stance which, in its primary unmodified state, is known as
protoplasm.
2. Its universal disintegration and waste by oxidation; and
its concomitant reintegration by the intussusception of new matter.
A process of waste resulting from the decomposition of the
molecules of the protoplasm, in virtue of which they break up
into more highly oxidated products, which cease to form any
part of the living body, is a constant concomitant of life. There
is reason to believe that carbonic acid is always one of these
waste products, while the others contain the remainder of the
carbon, the nitrogen, the hydrogen and the other elements which
may enter into the composition of the protoplasm.
The new matter taken in to make good this constant loss is
either a ready-formed protoplasmic material, supplied by some
other living being, or it consists of the elements of protoplasm,
united together in simpler combinations, which consequently
have to be built up into protoplasm by the agency of the living
matter itself. In either case, the addition of molecules to those
which already existed takes place, not at the surface of the living
mass, but by interposition between the existing molecules of
the latter. If the processes of disintegration and of reconstruc-
tion which characterize life balance one another, the size of the
mass of living matter remains stationary, while, if the recon-
structive process is the more rapid, the living body grows. But
the increase of size which constitutes growth is the result of a
process of molecular intussusception, and therefore differs
altogether from the process of growth by accretion, which may
be observed in crystals and is effected purely by the external
addition of new matter so that, in the well-known aphorism
of Linnaeus, the word " grow " as applied to stones signifies a
totally different process from what is called " growth " in plants
and animals.
3. Its tendency to undergo cyclical changes.
In the ordinary course of nature, all living matter proceeds
from pre-existing living matter, a portion of the latter being
detached and acquiring an independent existence. The new
form takes on the characters of that from which it arose; ex-
hibits the same power of propagating itself by means of an off-
shoot; and, sooner or later, like its predecessor, ceases to live, and
is resolved into more highly oxidated compounds of its elements.
Thus an individual living body is not only constantly changing
its substance, but its size and form are undergoing continual
modifications, the end of which is the death and decay of that
individual; the continuation of the kind being secured by the
detachment of portions which tend to run through the same cycle
of forms as the parent. No forms of matter which are either
not living, or have not been derived from living matter, exhibit
these three properties, nor any approach to the remarkable
phenomena defined under the second and third heads. But in
addition to these distinctive characters, living matter has some
other peculiarities, the chief of which are the dependence of all
its activities upon moisture and upon heat, within a limited
range of temperature, and the fact that it usually possesses a
certain structure or organization.
As has been said, a large proportion of water enters into the
composition of all living matter; a certain amount of drying
arrests vital activity, and the complete abstraction
L aMonib of tms water ' s absolutely incompatible with either
moisture. * actual or potential life. But many of the simpler
forms of life may undergo desiccation to such an
extent as to arrest their vital manifestations and convert them
into the semblance of not-living matter, and yet remain poten-
tially alive. That is to say, on being duly moistened they return
to life again. And this revivification may take place after
months, or even years, of arrested life.
Llft
*r '"*
p "
The properties of living matter are intimately related to
temperature. Not only docs exposure to heat sufficient to
coagulate protein matter destroy life, by demolishing
the molecular structure upon which life depends; but
all vital activity, all phenomena of nutritive growth,
movement and reproduction are possible only be-
tween certain limits of temperature. These limits may be
set down as from a little above the freezing point of water to a
little below the boiling point It is to be noted, however,
that these limits apply to the living matter itself, and many of
the apparent exceptions are due to cases in which the living
matter is enclosed in protective wrappings capable of resisting
heat and cold. In many low organisms, such as the spores of
bacteria, the thick, non-conducting wall may preserve the
living protoplasm from subjection to external temperatures
below freezing point, or above boiling point, but all the evidence
goes to show that applications of such cold or heat, if prolonged
or arranged so as to penetrate to the living matter, destroy life.
In warm-blooded animals, such as birds and mammals, protective
mechanisms for the regulation of temperature enable them to
endure exposure to extreme heat or cold, but in such cases the
actually living cells do not appreciably rise or fall in temperature.
A variation of a very few degrees in the blood itself produces
death.
Recent investigations point to the conclusion that the immedi-
ate cause of the arrest of vitality, in the first place, and of its
destruction, in the second, is the coagulation of certain substances
in the protoplasm, and that the latter contains various coagul-
able matters, which solidify at different temperatures. And it
remains to be seen, how far the death of any form of living matter,
at a given temperature, depends on the destruction of its funda-
mental substance at that heat, and how far death is brought
about by the coagulation of merely accessory compounds.
It may be safely said of all those living things which are large
enough to enable us to trust the evidence of microscopes, that
they are heterogeneous optically, and that their
different parts, and especially the surface layer, as Llteaa<l
contrasted with the interior, differ physically and
chemically; while, in most living things, mere hetero-
geneity is exchanged for a definite structure, whereby the body
is distinguished into visibly different parts, which possess different
powers or functions. Living things which present this visible
structure are said to be organized', and so widely does organiza-
tion obtain among living beings, that organized and living are
not unfrequently used as if they were terms of co-extensive
applicability. This, however, is not exactly accurate, if it be
thereby implied that all living things have a visible organization.
as there are numerous forms of living matter of which it cannot
properly be said that they possess either a definite structure or
permanently specialized organs: though, doubtless, the simplest
particle of living matter must possess a highly complex molecular
structure, which is far beyond the reach of vision.
The broad distinctions which, as a matter of fact, exist between
every known form of living substance and every other component
of the material world, justify the separation of the biological
sciences from all others. But it must not be supposed that the
differences between living and not-living matter are such as to
justify the assumption that the forces at work in the one are
different from those which are to be met with in the other.
Considered apart from the phenomena of consciousness, the
phenomena of life are all dependent upon the working of the
same physical and chemical forces as those which are active in
the rest of the world. It may be convenient to use the terms
" vitality " and " vital force " to denote the causes of certain
great groups of natural operations, as we employ the names of
" electricity " and " electrical force " to denote others; but it
ceases to be proper to do so, if such a name implies the absurd
assumption that " electricity " and " vitality " are entities
playing the part of efficient causes of electrical or vital pheno-
mena. A mass of living protoplasm is simply a molecular
machine of great complexity, the total results of the working
of which, or its vital phenomena, depend on the one hand,
'
BION BIOT
upon its construction, and, on the other, upon the energy supplied
to it; and to speak of " vitality " as anything but the name of
a series of operations is as if one should talk of the " horologity "
of a clock.
Living matter, or protoplasm and the products of its meta-
morphosis, may be regarded under four aspects:
Classifica- i- It has a certain external and internal form, the
tioo of the latter being more usually called structure;
2 ' ^ occu P* es a certain position in space and in
time;
3. It is the subject of the operation of certain forces in virtue
of which it undergoes internal changes, modifies external objects,
and is modified by them; and
4. Its form, place and powers are the effects of certain
causes.
In correspondence with these four aspects of its subject,
biology is logically divisible into four chief subdivisions I.
MORPHOLOGY; II. DISTRIBUTION; III. PHYSIOLOGY; IV.
AETIOLOGY.
Various accidental circumstances, however, have brought it
about that the actual distribution of scientific work does not
correspond with the logical subdivisions of biology. The differ-
ence in technical methods and the historical evolution of teaching
posts (for in all civilized countries the progress of biological
knowledge has been very closely associated with the existence
of institutions for the diffusion of knowledge and for professional
education) have been the chief contributory causes to this
practical confusion. Details of the morphology of plants will
be found in the articles relating to the chief groups of plants,
those of animals in the corresponding articles on groups of
animals, while the classification of animals adopted in this work
will be found in the article ZOOLOGY. Distribution is treated
of under ZOOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTION, PLANKTON, PALAEONTO-
LOGY and PLANTS: Distribution. PHYSIOLOGY and its allied
articles deal with tke subject generally and in relation to man,
while the special physiology of plants is dealt with in a section
of the article PLANTS. Aetiology is treated of under the heading
EVOLUTION. But practical necessity has given rise to the
existence of many other divisions; see CYTOLOGY, for the
structure of cells; EMBRYOLOGY, for the development of
individual organisms; HEREDITY and REPRODUCTION, for the
relations between parents and offspring. (T. H. H. ; P. C. M.)
BION, Greek bucolic poet, was born at Phlossa near Smyrna,
and flourished about 100 B.C. The account formerly given of
him, that he was the contemporary and imitator of Theocritus,
the friend and tutor of Moschus, and lived about 280 B.C., is now
generally regarded as incorrect. W. Stein (De Moschi et Bionis
oetate, Tubingen, 1893) puts Bion, chiefly on metrical grounds,
in the first half of the ist century B.C. Nothing is known of him
except that he lived in Sicily. The story that he died of poison,
administered to him by some jealous rivals, who afterwards
suffered the penalty of their crime, is probably only an invention
of the author of the 'EiriTa(>js Blowos (see MOSCHUS). Although
his poems are included in the general class of bucolic poetry, the
remains show little of the vigour and truthfulness to nature
characteristic of Theocritus. They breathe an exaggerated
sentimentality, and show traces of the overstrained reflection
frequently observable in later developments of pastoral poetry.
The longest and best of them is the Lament for Adonis ('Ejurd^tos
'ASowSos). It refers to the first day of the festival of Adonis
(q.v.), on which the death of the favourite of Aphrodite was
lamented, thus forming an introduction to the Adoniazusae of
Theocritus, the subject of which is the second day, when the
reunion of Adonis and Aphrodite was celebrated. Fragments of
his other pieces are preserved in Stobaeus; the epithalamium
of Achilles and Deidameia is not his.
Bion and Moschus have been edited separately by G. Hermann
(1849) and C. Ziegler (Tubingen, 1869), the Epitaphios Adonidos by
H. L. Ahrens (1854) and E. Killer in Beitrdge zur Textegeschichte der
griechischen Bukoliker (1888). Bion's poems are generally included
in the editions of Theocritus. There are English translations by
L Banks (1853) <" Bohn's Classical Library, and by Andrew
ng (1889), with Theocritus and Moschus ; there is an edition of the
text by U. Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in the Oxford Scriptorum
Classicorum Bibliotheca (1905). On the date of Bion see F. Bucheler
in Rheinisches Museum, xxx. (1875), pp. 33-41; also G. Knaack in
Pauly-Wissowa's Realencyclopadie, s.v. ; and F. Susemihl, Geschichte
der griechischen Litter afar in der Alexandrinerzeit, i. (1891), p. 233.
BION, of Borysthenes (Olbia), in Sarmatia, Greek moralist
and philosopher, nourished in the first half of the 3rd century
B.C. He was of low origin, his mother being a courtesan and his
father a dealer in salt fish, with which he combined the occupa-
tion of smuggling. Bion, when a young man, was sold as a
slave to a rhetorician, who gave him his freedom and made him
his heir. After the death of his patron, Bion went to Athens to
study philosophy. Here he attached himself in succession to
the Academy, the Cynics, the Cyrenaics and the Peripatetics.
One of his teachers was the Cyrenaic Theodorus, called " the
atheist," whose influence is clearly shown in Bion's attitude
towards the gods. After the manner of the sophists of the
period, Bion travelled through Greece and Macedonia, and was
admitted to the literary circle at the court of Antigonus Gonatas.
He subsequently taught philosophy at Rhodes and died at Chalcis
in Euboea. His life was written by Diogenes Laertius. Bion
was essentially a popular writer, and in his Diatribae he satirized
the follies of mankind in a manner calculated to appeal to the
sympathies of a low-class audience. While eulogizing poverty
and philosophy, he attacked the gods, musicians, geometricians,
astrologers, and the wealthy, and denied the efficacy of prayer.
His influence is distinctly traceable in succeeding writers, e.g.
in the satires of Menippus. Horace (Epistles, ii. 2. 60) alludes
to his satires and caustic wit (sal nigrum) . An idea of his writings
can be gathered from the fragments of Teles, a cynic philosopher
who lived towards the end of the 3rd century, and who made
great use of them. Specimens of his apophthegms may be found
in Diogenes Laertius and the florilegium of Stobaeus, while there
are traces of his influence in Seneca.
See Hoogvliet, De Vita, Doctrina. et Scriptis Bionis (1821); Ros-
signol, Fragmenta Bionis Borysthenitae (1830); Heinze, De Horatio
Bionis Imitatore (1889).
BIOT, JEAN BAPTISTE (1774-1862), French physicist, was
born at Paris on the 2 ist of April 1 7 74. After serving for a short
time in the artillery, he was appointed in 1797 professor of
mathematics at Beauvais, and in 1800 he became professor
of physics at the College de France, through the influence of'
Laplace, from whom he had sought and obtained the favour
of reading the proof sheets of the Mecanique celeste. Three years
later, at an unusually early age, he was elected a member of
the Academy of Sciences, and in 1804 he accompanied Gay
Lussac on the first balloon ascent undertaken for scientific
purposes. In 1806 he was associated with F. J. D. Arago, with
whom he had already carried out investigations on the refractive
properties of different gases, in the measurement of an arc of
the meridian in Spain, and in subsequent years he was engaged
in various other geodetic determinations. In 1814 he was made
chevalier and in 1849 commander, of the Legion of Honour.
He failed in his ambition of becoming perpetual secretary of
the Academy of Sciences, but was somewhat consoled by his
election as a member of the French Academy in 1856. He died
in Paris on .the 3rd of February 1862. His researches extended
to almost every branch of physical science, but his most im-
portant work was of an optical character. He was especially
interested in questions relating to the polarization of light,
and his observations in this field, which gained him the Rumford
medal of the Royal Society in 1840, laid the foundations of the
polarimetric analysis of sugar.
Biot was an extremely prolific writer, and besides a great
number of scientific memoirs, biographies, &c., his published
works include: Analyse de la mecanique celeste de M. Laplace
(1801); TraitS analytique des courbes et des surfaces du second
degrt (1802); Recherches sur V integration des tquations differ en-
tielles partielles et sur les vibrations des surfaces (1803); Traite de
physique (1816) ; Recueil d' observations geodesique^, astronomiques
et physiques executtes en Espagne et Ecosse, with Arago (1821);
Memoire sur la vraie constitution de ^atmosphere terrestre (1841);
Traite elementaire d'astronomie physique (1805); Recherches sur
BIOTITE BIRBHUM
957
plusieurs points de I'astronomie tgyptiennc (1823) ; Recherches sur
I'ancienne astronomic chinoise (1840); Eludes sur I'astronomie
indienne el sur I'astronomie chinoise (1862); Essai sur I'histoire
gfnfrale dcs sciences pendant la Revolution (1803); Discours sur
Montaigne (1812); Letlres sur I'approvisionmment de Paris el
sur le commerce des grains (1835); Melanges scientifiques et
litteraires(i&$8).
His son, EDOUARD CONSTANT BIOT (1803-1850), after amass-
ing a competence from railway engineering, turned to the study
of Chinese subjects, and published Causes de I'abolilion de
I'esclavage ancien en accident (1840); Dictionnaire des noms
anciens et modernes des iiilles et des arrondissements compris dans
I'empire chinois (1842); Essai sur I'histoire de I'instruction
publique en Chine et de la corporation des lettres (1847); M (moire
sur les colonies militaires el agricoles des chinois (1850).
BIOTITE, an important rock-forming mineral belonging to
the group of micas (q.v.). The name was given by J. F. L.
Hausmann in 1847 in honour of the French physicist, J. B. Biot,
who in 1816 found the magnesia-micas to be optically uniaxial or
nearly so. The magnesia-micas are now referred to the species
biotite and phlogopite, which differ in that the former contains
a considerable but widely varying amount of iron. Biotite is
an orthosilicate of aluminium, magnesium, ferrous and ferric
iron, potassium and basic hydrogen, with small amounts of
calcium, sodium, lithium, fluorine, titanium, &c., and ranges
in composition between (H,K) 2 (Mg,Fe)4(Al,Fe)2(SiO 4 )4 and
(H,K) 2 (Mg,Fe) 2 Al 2 (Si0 4 ) 3 .
Like the other micas, it is monoclinic with pseudo-hexagonal
symmetry (figs, i, 2) and possesses a perfect cleavage in one
direction (c). Biotite is, however, readily distinguished by its
darker colour, strong pleochroism, and small optic axial angle.
FIG. i.
FIG. 2.
The colour is usually dark-green or brown; thick crystals are
often deep-black and opaque. The absorption of light-rays
vibrating parallel to the cleavage is much greater than of rays
vibrating in a direction perpendicular thereto, and in dark-
coloured crystals the former are almost completely absorbed.
The angle between the optic axes is usually very small, the
crystals being often practically uniaxial; an axial angle of 50
has, however, been recorded in a dark-coloured biotite. The
specific gravity of biotite is, as a rule, higher than that of other
micas, varying from 2-7 to 3-1 according to the amount of iron
present. The hardness is i\ to 3.
Several varieties of biotite are distinguished. By G. Tscher-
mak it is divided into two classes, meroxene and anomite; in
the former the plane of the optic axis coincides with the plane
of symmetry, whilst in the latter it is perpendicular thereto.
Meroxene includes nearly all ordinary biotite, and is the name
given by A. Breithaupt in 1841 to the Vesuvian crystals; on the
other hand, anomite (named from ara/jos. " contrary to law ")
is of rare occurrence. Haughtonite and siderophyllite are black
varieties rich in ferrous iron, and lepidomelane (from Xtir/.s,
a scale, and jjcXas, black) is a variety rich in ferric iron. In
barytobiotite and manganophyllite the magnesia is partly re-
placed by baryta and manganous oxide respectively. Rubellane,
hydrobiotite, pseudobiotite, and others are altered forms of
biotite, which is a mineral particularly liable to decomposition
with the production of chlorites and vermiculites.
Biotite is a common constituent of igneous and crystalline
rocks: in granite, gneiss and mica-schist it is often associated
with muscovite (white mica), the two kinds having sometimes
grown in parallel position. In volcanic rocks, and in nearly all
other kinds of igneous rocks with the exception of granite, biotite
occurs to the exclusion of the muscovite. In the dyke-rocks
known as mica-traps or mica-lamprophyres biotite is especially
abundant. It is also one of the most characteristic products
of contact-metamorphism, being developed in sedimentary
and other rocks at their contact with granite masses. In the
ejected blocks of crystalline limestone of Monte Somma,
Vesuvius, the most perfectly developed crystals of biotite (figs.
i, 2), or indeed of any of the micas, are found in abundance,
associated with brilliant crystals of augite, olivine, humite, &c.
Although biotite (black mica) is much more common and
widely distributed than white mica, yet it is of far less economic
importance. The small size of the sheets, their dark colour and
want of transparency render the material of little value. Large,
cleavable masses yielding fine smoky-black and green sheets,
sufficiently elastic for industrial purposes, are, however, found
in Renfrew county, Ontario. (L. J. S.)
BIPARTITE (from the Lat. bi-, two, and partite, to divide).
In a general sense, the word means having two corresponding
parts or in duplicate. In geometry, a bipartite curve consists of
two distinct branches (see PARABOLA, figs. 3, 5). In botany, the
word is applied to leaves divided into two parts near the base.
A bipartient factor is a number whose square exactly divides
another number. In zoology, the Bipartiti was a name given by
P. A. Latreille to a group of carnivorous Coleoptera.
BIPONT EDITIONS, the name of a famous series of editions,
in 50 volumes, of Greek and Latin classical authors, so called
from Bipontium, the modern Latin name of Zweibriicken or Deux-
Ponts in Bavaria, where they were first issued in 1779. Their
place of publication was afterwards transferred to Strassburg.
See Butters, Uber die Editiones Bipontinae (1877).
BIQUADRATIC (from the Lat. bi-, bis, twice, and quadratus,
squared). In mathematics, the biquadratic power or root of a
quantity is its fourth power or root (see ALGEBRA); a biquad-
ratic equation is an equation in which the highest power of the
unknown is the fourth (see EQUATION: Biquadratic).
BIQUINTILE (from Lat. prefix bi-, twice, quintilis, fifth), the
aspect of two planets which are distant from each other twice the
fifth part of a great circle, i.e. 144. It was one of the new
aspects introduced by Kepler.
BIRBHUM, a district of British India in the Burdwan division
of Bengal, situated in the Gangetic plain and partly on the hills,
being bounded on the south by the river Ajai. The admini-
strative headquarters are at Sun, which is the only town in the
district. The area comprises 1752 sq. m. The eastern portion of
the district is the ordinary alluvial plain of the Gangetic delta;
the western part consists of undulating beds of laterite resting on
a rock basis, and covered with small scrub jungle. The Ajai,
Bakheswar and Mor or Maurakshi, are the principal rivers of the
district, but they are merely hill streams and only navigable in
the rains. In 1001 the population was 902,280, showing an
increase of 13% in the decade. The principal industry is the
spinning and weaving of silk, chiefly from tussur or jungle silk-
worms. There are also several lac factories. The loop-line of the
East Indian railway runs through the district, with a junction at
Nalhati for Murshidabad.
History. Birbhum in the early part of the I3th century was
a Hindu state, with its capital at Rajnagar or Nagar. In the
course of the century it was conquered by the Pathans and formed
part of the Pathan kingdom of Bengal. At the beginning of the
i8th century it appears as a kind of military fief held under the
nawab of Murshidabad by one Asadullah Pathan, whose family
had probably been its chieftains since the fall of the Pathan
dynasty of Bengal in 1600. It passed into British possession in
i76s,butthe East India Company did not assume its direct govern-
ment until 1787, when that course became necessary. In the
interval it had been a prey to armed bands from the highlands of
Chota Nagpur, with whom the raja was unable to cope, and who
practically brought the trade of the Company in the district to
a standstill. The two border principalities of Birbhum and
Bankura were accordingly united into a district under a British
collector, being, however, separated again in 1793. By 1789, after
95 8
BIRCH
considerable trouble, the marauders were driven back into their
mountains, and since that time (except during the Santal rising
of 1855) the district has been one of the most peaceful and
prosperous in India.
See Imperial Gazetteer of India (Oxford, 1908), vol. viii. s.v.
BIRCH, SAMUEL (1813-1885), English Egyptologist and
antiquary, was born on the 3rd of November 1813, being the
son of the rector of St Mary Woolnoth, London. From an early
age he manifested a tendency to the study of out-of-the-way
subjects, and after a brief employment in the Record Office
obtained in 1836 an appointment in the antiquities department of
the British Museum on account of his knowledge of Chinese.
He soon extended his researches to Egyptian, and when the
cumbrous department came to be divided he was appointed to
the charge of the Egyptian and Assyrian branch. In the latter
language he had assistance, but for many years there was only
one other person in the institution in a different department
who knew anything of ancient Egyptian, and the entire arrange-
ment of the department devolved upon Birch. He found time
nevertheless for Egyptological work of the highest value, includ-
ing a hieroglyphical grammar and dictionary, translations of
The Book of the Dead and the Harris papyrus, and numerous
catalogues and guides. He further wrote what was long a
standard history of pottery, investigated the Cypriote syllabary,
and proved by various publications that he had not lost his old
interest in Chinese. Paradoxical in many of his views on things
in general, he was sound and cautious as a philologist; while
learned and laborious, he possessed much of the instinctive
divination of genius. He died on the 27th of December 1885.
BIRCH, THOMAS (1705-1766), English historian, son of
Joseph Birch, a coffee-mill maker, was born at Clerkenwell on the
23rd of November 1705. He preferred study to business, but as
his parents were Quakers he did not go to the university. Not-
withstanding this circumstance, he was ordained deacon in the
Church of England in 1730 and priest in 1731. As a strong
supporter of the Whigs, he gained the favour of Philip Yorke,
afterwards lord chancellor and first earl of Hardwicke, and his
subsequent preferments were largely due to this friendship.
He held successively a number of benefices in different counties,
and finally in London. In 1735 he became a member of the
Society of Antiquaries, and was elected a fellow of the Royal
Society, of which he was secretary from 1752101765. In 17 28 he
had married Hannah Cox, who died in the following year. Birch
was killed on the gth of January 1766 by a fall from his horse,
and was buried in the church of St Margaret Pattens, London, of
which he was then rector. He left his books and manuscripts to
the British Museum, and a sum of about 500 to increase the
salaries of the three assistant librarians.
Birch had an enormous capacity for work and was engaged in a
large number of literary undertakings. In spite of their dulness
many of his works are of considerable value, although Horace
Walpole questioned his " parts, taste and judgment." He
carried on an extensive correspondence with some of the leading
men of his time, and many of his letters appear in Literary
Anecdotes of the i8th Century (London, 1812-1815) an d Illustra-
tions of the Literary History of the iSthCentury (London, 1817-1858)
by J. Nichols, in the Bibliotheca Topographica Britatnica, vol. iii.
(London, 1780-1790), and in BoswelTs Life of Johnson. Birch
wrote most of the English lives in the General Dictionary,
Historical and Critical, 10 vols. (London, 1734-1741), assisted in
the composition of the Athenian Letters (London,i8io), edited the
State Papers of John Thurloe (London, 1742) and the State
Papers of W. Murdin (London, 1759). He also wrote a Life of
the Right Honourable Robert Boyle (London, 1744); Inquiry into
the share which King Charles I. had in the transactions of the Earl of
Glamorgan for bringing over a body of Irish rebels (London, 1756);
Historical view of Negotiations between the Courts of England,
France and Brussels 1592-1617 (London, 1749); Life of Arch-
bishop Tillotson (London, 1753); Memoirs of the Reign of Queen
Elizabeth from 1581 (London, 1754); History of the Royal
Society of London (London, 1756-1757); Life of Henry, Prince of
Wales (London, 1760), and many other works. Among the
papers left at his death were some which were published in 1848
as the Court and Times cf James I. and the Court and Times of
Charles I.
See W. P. Courtney in the Dictionary of National Biography, vol. v.
(1886); A. Kippis, Biographia Britannica (London, 1778-1793);
Horace Walpole, Letters (London, 1891).
BIRCH (Betula), a genus of plants allied to the alder (Alnus),
and like it a member of the natural order Betulaceae. The various
species of birch are mostly trees of medium size, but several of
them are merely shrubs. They are as a rule of a very hardy
character, thriving best in northern latitudes the trees having
round, slender branches, and serrate, deciduous leaves, with
barren and fertile catkins on the same tree, and winged fruits,
the so-called seeds. The bark in most of the trees occurs in fine
soft membranous layers, the outer cuticle of which peels off in
thin, white, papery sheets.
The common white or silver birch (B. alba) (see fig.) grows
throughout the greater part of Europe, and also in Asia Minor,
Siberia and North America, reaching in the north to the extreme
limits of forest vege-
tation, and stretch-
ing southward on
the European con-
tinent as a forest tree
to 45 N. lat., be-
yond which birches
occur only in special
situations or as iso-
lated trees. It is
well known in
England for its
graceful habit, the
slender, grey or
white barked stem,
the delicate, droop-
ing branches and the
quivering leaves, a
bright, clear green in
spring, becoming
duller in the sum-
mer, but often keep-
ing their greenness
rather late into the
autumn. The male
and female flowers
are borne on separate
catkins in April and
May. It is a short-
lived tree, generally
from 40 to 50 ft.
high with a trunk seldom more than i ft. in diameter. It
flourishes in light soils and is one of the few trees that will grow
amongst heather; owing to the large number of " winged
seeds " which are readily scattered by the wind, it spreads
rapidly, springing up where the soil is dry and covering clear-
ings or waste places.
The birch is one of the most wide-spread and generally useful
of forest trees of Russia, occurring in that empire in vast forests,
in many instances alone, and in other cases mingled with pines,
poplars and other forest trees. The wood is highly valued by
carriage-builders, upholsterers and turners, on account of its
toughness and tenacity, and in Russia it is prized as firewood
and a source of charcoal. A very extensive domestic industry
in Russia consists in the manufacture of wooden spoons, which
are made to the extent of 30,000,000 annually, mostly of birch.
Its pliant and flexible branches are made into brooms; and in
ancient Rome the fasces of the lictors, with which they cleared
the way for the magistrates, were made up of birch rods. A
similar use of birch rods has continued among pedagogues to
times so recent that the birch is yet, literally or metaphorically,
the instrument of school-room discipline. The bark of the
common birch is much more durable, and industrially of greater
From Strasburger, Lchrbuch der Botanik.
Betula alba. I , Branch with male (a) and
female (b) inflorescences; 2, bract with three
male flowers; 3, bract with three female
flowers; 4', infrutescence; 5, fruit. (After
Wossidlo.)
BIRCH-PFEIFFER BIRD
959
value, than the wood. It is impermeable to water, and is there-
fore used in northern countries for roofing, for domestic utensils,
for boxes and jars to contain both solid and liquid substances,
and for a kind of bark shoes, of which it is estimated 25 millions
of pairs are annually worn by the Russian peasantry. The
jars and boxes of birch bark made by Russian peasants are
often stamped with very effective patterns. By dry distillation
the bark yields an empyreumatic oil, called diogott in Russia,
used in the preparation of Russia leather; to this oil the peculiar
pleasant odour of the leather is due. The bark itself is used in
tanning; and by the Samoiedes and Kamchatkans it is ground
up and eaten on account of the starchy matter it contains. A
sugary sap is drawn from the trunk in the spring before the
opening of the leaf-buds, and is fermented into a kind of beer and
vinegar. The whole tree, but especially the bark and leaves,
has a very pleasant resinous odour, and from the young leaves
and buds an essential oil is distilled with water. The leaves are
used as fodder in northern latitudes.
The species which belong peculiarly to America (B. lenla,
excelsa, nigra, papyracea, &c.) are generally similar in appearance
and properties to B. alba, and have the same range, of applica-
tions. The largest and most valuable is the black birch (B.
lento) found abundantly over an extensive area in British North
America, growing 60 to 70 ft. high and 2 to 3 ft. in diameter.
It is a wood most extensively used for furniture and for carriage-
building, being tough in texture and bearing shocks well, while
much of it has a handsome grain and it is susceptible of a fine
polish. The bark, which is dark brown or reddish, and very
durable, is used by Indians and backwoodsmen in the same way
as the bark of B. alba is used in northern Europe.
The canoe or paper birch (B. papyracea) is found as far north
as 70 N. on the American continent, but it becomes rare and
stunted in the Arctic circle. Professor Charles Sprague Sargent
says: " It is one of the most widely distributed trees of North
America. From Labrador it ranges to the southern shores of
Hudson's Bay and to those of the Great Bear Lake, and to the
valley of the Yukon and the coast of Alaska, forming with the
aspen, the larch, the balsam poplar, the banksian pine, the
black and white spruces and the balsam fir, the great subarctic
transcontinental forest; and southward it ranges through all
the forest region of the Dominion of Canada and the northern
states." It is a tree of the greatest value to the inhabitants of
the Mackenzie river district in British North America. Its bark
is used for the construction of canoes, and for drinking-cups,
dishes and baskets. From the wood, platters, axe-handles,
snow-shoe frames, and dog sledges are made, and it is worked
into articles of furniture which are susceptible of a good polish.
The sap which flows in the spring is drawn off and boiled down
to an agreeable spirit, or fermented with a birch-wine of consider-
able alcoholic strength. The bark is also used as a substitute
for paper. A species (B. Bhojpullra) growing on the Himalayan
Mountains, as high up as 9000 ft., yields large quantities of fine
thin papery bark, extensively sent down to the plains as a sub-
stitute for wrapping paper, for covering the " snakes " of
hookahs and for umbrellas. It is also said to be used as writing
paper by the mountaineers; and in Kashmir it is in general use
for roofing houses.
BIRCH-PFEIFFER, CHARLOTTE (1800-1868), German
actress and dramatic writer, was born at Stuttgart on the 23rd
of June 1800, the daughter of an estate agent named Pfeiffer.
She received her early training at the Munich court theatre, and
in 1818 began to play leading tragic r61es at various theatres.
In 1825 she married the historian Christian Birch of Copenhagen,
but continued to act. From 1837 to 1843 she managed the
theatre at Zurich. In 1844 she accepted an engagement at the
royal theatre in Berlin, to which she remained attached until
her death on the 24th of August 1868. Her intimate knowledge
of the technical necessities of the stage fitted her for the successful
dramatization of many popular novels, and her plays, adapted
and original, make twenty-three volumes, Gesammelte drama-
tische Werke (Leip. 1863-1880). Many still retain the public
favour. Her novels and tales, Gesammelte Novellen und
Erzithlungen, were collected in three volumes (Leip. 1863-
1865).
Her daughter, WILHELJCNE VON HILLERN (b. 1836), born
at Munich, went on the stage, but retired upon her marriage
in 1857. After 1889 she lived in Oberammergau and won a
reputation as a novelist. Her most popular works are Ein Ant
der Seele (1869, 4th ed. 1886); and Die Geier-WaUy (1883),
which was dramatized and translated into English as The
Vulture Maiden (Leip. 1876).
BIRD, the common English name for feathered vertebrates,
members of the class Aves. The word in Old Eng. is brid and
in Mid. Eng. byrd or bryd, and in early uses meant the young
or nestlings only. It is partly due to this early meaning that the
derivation from the root of " brood " has been usually accepted;
this the New English Dictionary regards as "inadmissible."
The word does not occur in any other Teutonic language. As
a generic name for the feathered vertebrates " bird " has replaced
the older " fowl," a common Teutonic word, appearing in
German as Vogel. " Bird," when it passed fiom its earliest
meaning of " nestlings," seems to have been applied to the smaller,
and " fowl " to the larger species, a distinction which was
retained by Johnson. In modern usage " fowl," except in
" wild-fowl " or " water-fowl," is confined to domestic poultry.
The scope of the anatomical part of the following article is
a general account of the structure of birds (Aves) in so far as
they, as a class, differ from other vertebrates, notably reptiles
and mammals, whilst features especially characteristic, peculiar
or unique, have been dwelt upon at greater length so far as space
permitted. References to original papers indicate further
sources of information. For a comprehensive account the
reader may be referred to Prof. M. Fiirbringer's enormous
work Untersuchungen zur Morphologic und Systematik der Vogel,
4to., 2 vols. (1888); H. G. Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des
Thierreichs, vol. vi., " Aves," Leipzig, completed 1893 by
Gadow; and A. Newton's Dictionary of Birds, London, 1896.
For the history of the classification of birds see the article
ORNITHOLOGY, where also the more important ornithological
works are mentioned. EGG, FEATHER (including Moult),
MIGRATION, &c., also form separate articles to which reference
should be made. In this article (A) the general anatomy of
birds is discussed, (B) fossil birds, (c) the geographical distribution
of birds, (D) the latest classification of birds.
A. ANATOMY OF BIRDS
i. Skeleton.
Skull. When W. K. Parker wrote the account of the skull
in the article BIRDS for the gth edition of the Encyclopaedia
Britannica, he had still to wrestle with the general problem of
the composition and evolution of the skull. That chapter of
comparative anatomy (together with other anatomical details,
for which see the separate articles) is now dealt with in the
article SKULL; here only the most avinc features are alluded to,
and since some of Parker's original illustrations have been
retained, the description has been shortened considerably.
One general feature of the adult bird's skull is the almost complete
disappearance of the sutures between the bones of the cranium
proper, whilst another is the great movability of the whole palatal
and other suspensorial apparatus. The occipital condyle (fig. i)
is a single knob, bein^ formed almost wholly by the basi-occipital,
while the lateral pccipitals (often perversely called exoccipitals) take
but little share in it. Part of the membranous roof between the
supra-occipital and parietal bones frequently remains unossified
and presents in the macerated skull a pair of fontanelles. The squa-
mosals form the posterior outer margin of the orbits and are
frequently continued into two lateral downward processes across the
temporal fossa. One of these, the processus orbitalts posterior, often
combines with an outgrowth of the alisphenoid, and may be, e.g. in
cockatoos, continued forwards to the lacrymal bone, so as to form
a complete infraorbital bridge. The posterior, so-called proctssus
Zygomaticus is very variable; in many Galli it encloses a foramen
by distally joining the orbital process. The ethmoid frequently
appears on the dorsal surface between the frontals. There are three
periotic bones (pro-, epi-, opisth-otic). The proOtic encloses between
it and the lateral occipital the fenestra ovalis, into which fits the
columclla of the ear. The epiotic is often small, ossifies irrcgularlv,
960
BIRD
and fuses with the supra-occipital. The ppisthotic lies between the
epiotic and the lateral occipital with which it ultimately fuses; in
some birds, e.g. in Larus, it extends far enough to help to bound the
foramen magnum. The basisphenoids are ventrally overlaid, and
FIG. i. End view
of skull of a Chicken
three weeks old, X8
diameters. Here the
opisthotic bone ap-
pears in the occipital
region, as in the adult
Chelonian. (After W.
K. Parker.)
bo, Basi-occipital.
bt, Basi-temporal.
eo, Opisthotic.
/, Frontal.
fm, Foramen magnum.
fo, Fontanella.
oc, Occipital condyle.
op, Opisthotic.
p, Parietal.
pf, Post-frontal.
sc, Sinus canal in
supra-occipital.
so, Supra-occipital.
sq, Squamosal.
3, Exit of vagus nerve.
later on fused with, a pair of membrane bones, the basi-temporals,
homologous in part with the parasphenoid of lower vertebrates.
They contribute to the formation of the auditory meatus, and of the
right and left carotid canals which accompany the eustachian tubes.
FIG. 2. Ripe Chick's head,
(After W. K. Parker.)
as, Alisphenoid.
bo, Basi-occipital.
bt, Basi-temporal.
dpx, Dentary process of pre-
maxilla.
eo, Opisthotic.
eu, Eustachian tube.
/, Frontal.
fm, Foramen magnum.
j, Jugal.
/, Lacrymal.
mx. Maxilla.
mxp, Maxillo-palatine process.
oc. Occipital condyle.
pa, Palatine.
ij in. long; lower view X 3 diameters.
pf, Post-frontal.
pg, Pterygoid.
pn, Prenasal cartilage.
ppx, Palatine process of pre-
maxillary.
prp, Pterygoid process of sphe-
noid.
gj, Quadratojugal.
so. Supra-occipital.
sq, Squamosal.
tyt Tympanic cavity.
v, Vomer.
8, Exit of vagus nerve.
9, Exit of hypoglossal nerve.
n.p
[ANATOMY
In many birds the basisphenoids send out a pair of basipterygoid
processes by which they articulate with the pterygoids. Dorso-
laterally the basisphenoid is joined by the alisphenoid, which forms
most of the posterior wall of the orbit. The orbito-sphenoids diverge
only posteriorly, otherwise they are practically unpaired and form
the median interorbital septum, which is very large in correlation
with the extraordinary size of the eyeballs.
Prefrontal bones are absent ; post-frontals are possibly indicated
by a frequently occurring separate centre of ossification in the post-
orbital process, to which the frontals always contribute. The
lacrymal is always present, and perforated by a glandular duct.
Attached to it or the neighbouring frontal is often a supraorbital ;
infraorbitals occur also, attached to the jugal or downward process
of the lacrymal. The nasals were used by A. H. Garrod to distinguish
the birds as holorhinal (fig. 2) where the anterior margin of the nasal
is concave, and schizorhinal where this posterior border of the outer
nares is continued
backwards into a
slit which extends
beyond the frontal
processes of the pre-
maxilla. Many birds
possess a more or
less well developed
cross-joint in front
of the frontals and
lacrymals, perhaps
best developed in
Anseres and Psittaci.
Owing to this joint
the whole upper beak
can be moved up
and down with extra
facility, according to
the shoving forwards
or backwards of the
palato-pterygo-quad-
rate apparatus which
moves sledge - like
upon the cranial
basis. The premaxilla
is always unpaired,
but each half has
three long processes
directed backwards;
one fuses with the
maxillary bone, an-
other helps to form
the anterior part of
the palate, while the
third, together with
its fellow, forms the
" culmen " and ex-
tends backwards to
tht frontals, or rather
to the ethmoid which
there crops up on the
surface. The maxil-
laries (fig. 3) have
besides others, a
maxillo-palatine pro-
cess directed inwards
in a transverse hori-
zontal direction. The
palatines are long,
always fused an-
teriorly with the
premaxilla, and fre-
ea.
FIG. 3. SkullofanoldFowl, Xijdiameter,
upper view. (After W. K. Parker.)
eo, Lateral occipital, npx, Nasal process of
elk, Ethmoid.
/, Frontal.
Jugal.
Lacrymal.
n. Nostril.
np, Upper process of
nasal.
i:
P,
premaxillary.
Parietal.
pf, Post-frontal.
px, Premaxilla.
qj, Quadratojugal.
so, Supra-occipital.
sq, Squamosal.
quently with the maxillo-palatine processes; posteriorly they slide
upon the presphenoidal rostrum, and articulate in most birds with
the pterygoids; they form the greater part of the palatal roof and
border the choanae or inner nares. Between these, resting vertically
upon the rostrum, appears the yomer; very variable in shape and
size, often reduced to a mere trace, as in the Galli, or even absent,
broken up into a pair of tiny splints in Pici.
The taxonomic importance of the configurations of the palate was
first pointed out by J. de Cornay. T. H. Huxley, in 1868, divided
the carinate birds into Dromaeo-, Schizo-, Desmo-, and Aegitho-
gnathae, an arrangement which for many years had a considerable
influence upon classification. However, subsequent additions and
corrections have detracted much from its value, especially when it
became understood that the above sub-orders are by no means
natural groups. Dromaeognathae have a struthious palate, with
a broad vomer meeting in front the broad maxillo-palatal plates,
while behind it reaches the pterygoids. The only representatives
are the Tinamous. Schizognathae, e.g. fowls (fig. 4), pigeons, gulls,
plovers, rails and penguins, have the vomer pointed in front while
the maxillo-palatines are free, leaving a fissure between the vomer
and themselves. The schizognathous formation is doubtless the
most primitive, and its representatives for i a tolerably natural
ANATOMY]
BIRD
961
mxp
assembly. Desmognathae (fig. 5) were supposed to have the maxillo-
palatines united across the middle line, either directly or by the inter-
FIG. 4. Skull of
adult Fowl. This
skull is unusually
schizognathous, the
vomer (p.) being'
very small, and
the maxillo- pala-
tine process (mxp)
much aborted.
bo, Basi-occipital.
bt, Basi-temporal.
eo. Lateral occi-
pital.
eu, Eustachian
tube.
ic, Internalcarotid.
/, Lacrymal.
mx. Maxilla.
mxp, Maxillo-pala-
tine process.
Occipital con-
dyle.
Palatine.
, Post-frontal.
pg, Pterygoid.
prp, Pterygoid pro-
cess of sphenoid.
px, Premaxilla.
q, Quadrate.
Quadratojugal.
iRostrum of
basi-sphenoid.
Supra-occipital.
Vomer.
Exit of
nerve.
Exit of
glossal
rls
oc,
pa,
Pf,
.oc.
so,
V,
8,
1C.
(After W.
Parker.)
vagus
hypo-
nerve.
K.
mediation of ossifications in the nasal septum. This is a hopeless
assembly. Parker and Fiirbringer have demonstrated that desmo-
FIG. 5. Skull of
nestling Sparrow-
hawk (Accipiter nisus),
palatal view, X 2 dia-
meters. The circular
space on each side of
the basi-temporal (bt.)
is the opening of the
anterior tympanic re-
cess. The basi-ptery-
goids (bpg) are mere
knobs, and the com-
mon eustachian open-
ing is seen between
them. The maxillo-
palatine plates (mxp)
are dotted to show
theirspongycharacter.
bt, Basi-temporal.
bpg, Basi-pterygoid.
eo, Lateral occipital.
/, Frontal.
fm, Foramen magnum.
i, Jugal.
/, Lacrymal.
ly mpg, Mesopterygoid
process of W. K.
Parker.
mx, Maxillary.
mxp, Maxillo-palatine
process.
op, Opisthotic.
pa, Palatine.
pg, Pterygoid.
8, Exit of vagus
nerve.
pt.
op
PX, Premaxilla.
pto, Prootic.
q, Quadrate.
qj, Quadratojugal.
sn, Nasal septum.
jo, Supra-occipital.
ty, Tympanic cavity. 9, Exit of hypo-
v, Vomer. glossal nerve.
(After W. K. Parker.)
gnathism has been produced in half a dozen ways, implying numerous
cases of convergence without any nearer relationship than that they
are all derived from some schizognathous group or other. The
Aegithognathae, meant to comprise the passeres, woodpeckers and
swifts, &c., are really schizognathous but with a vomer which is
broadly truncated in front.
The remainder of the appendicular skeleton (fig. 6) of the head
requires little description. The maxillaries are connected with the
distal anterior corner of the quadrate by the thin, splint-like jugal
and quadratojugal. The quadrate is invariably a conspicuous
bone and movably articulating with the cranium and by a special
process with the ptcrygoid. The mandible is composed of several
bones as in reptiles. The os articulare bears on its inner side the inner
mandibular process which serves for the insertion of part of the
digastric muscle or opener of the mouth; another portion of this
muscle is attached to the os angulare, which frequently forms a
FIG. 6. Skull of adult Fowl. Here the temporal fossa is bridged
over by the junction of the post-frontal and squamosal processes
(pf : , sq.). The processes of the mandible (tap, pap) are character-
istic of this type, and of the anseres.
a,
ar,
bt,
d,
eo,
eth,
f,
tap,
ios,
i:
mx,
n,
os,
P.
Angular of mandible.
Articular.
Basi-temporal.
Dentary.
Lateral occipital.
Ethmoid.
Frontal.
Interangular process of
mandible.
Interorbital septum.
icrymal.
Maxillary.
Nasal.
Orbito-sphenoid.
Parietal.
pa. Palatine.
pap. Posterior angular process
of mandible.
pe, Ethmoid.
pf. Post-frontal.
pg, Pterygoid.
ps, Pre-sphenoid.
px, Premaxilla.
q. Quadrate.
qj, Quadratojugal.
sa. Supra-angular or coronoid.
so, Supra-occipital.
sq, Squamosal.
ty. Tympanic cavity.
v, Vomer.
i , Exit of olfactory nerve.
posterior mandibular process. The greater part of the under-jaw
is formed by the right and left dentaries, which in all recent birds are
fused together in Iront. Supra-angular and coronoid splint-bones
serve for the insertion of part of the temporaj or masseter muscle.
Additional splints rest on the inner side of the jaw. Like the croco-
diles, birds possess a siphonium, i.e. a membranous, or ossified, tube
which rises from a pneumatic foramen in the os articularc, on the
median side of the articulation, and passes upwards between the
quadrate and lateral occipital bone, opening into the cavity of the
middle ear.
The Hyoid apparatus is, in its detail, subject to many variations
in accord with the very diverse uses to which the tongue of birds is
m. 31
962
BIRD
[ANATOMY
t.h
put. It consists of (i) the basihyal variously called copula, or
corpus linguae, or unpaired middle portion. (2) The urohyal like-
wise unpaired, rested ventrally on the larynx. (3) The os ento-
glossum originally paired, but coalescing into an arrow-headed
piece, attached to the anterior end of the basihyal and lodged in the
tongue proper. It is homologous with the
distal ends of the ceratohyals or ventral
elements of the hyoidean or second visceral
arch. The dorsal or hyomandibular portion
of this same arch is transformed into the
auditory chain, ending in the fenestra ovalis.
(4) A pair of thyrohyals, homologous with
the posterior hyoid horns of mammals, i.e.
third visceral or first branchial arch. As the
most developed pair in birds they are com-
monly, although wrongly, called the hyoid
horns. They articulate upon facets of the
f.$ r hinder outer corners of the basihyal.
The vertebrae are stereospondylous, the
centrum or body and the arch being com-
pletely fused into one mass, leaving not even
a neuro-central suture. The arch alone sends
out processes, viz. the spinous process, the
anterior and posterior oblique (commonly
called pre- and post-zygapophyses), and the
transverse processes. The latter articulate
with the tuberculum of the corresponding
rib, while the capitulum articulates by a
knob on the side of the anterior end of the
centrum. In the cervical region the ribs
are much reduced, fused with their verte-
brae and enclosing the transverse canal or
foramen. When the vertebrae are free their
centra articulate with each other 'by com-
plicated joints, exhibiting four types, (i)
Amphicoelous; each end of the centrum is
concave; this, the lowest condition, is
embryonic, but was retained in Archaeopteryx
and in the thoracic vertebrae of Ichthyornis.
(2) Precocious, concave in front; only in the
atlas, for the reception of the occipital
condyle. (3) Opistnocoelous, or concave
behind, only occasionally found in the
thoracic region, e.g. Sphenisci. (4) Hetero-
FIG. 7. Oshyoides coelous (fig. 8) or saddle-shaped; the
of adult Fowl, Xii anterior surface is concave in a transverse,
diameters. but convex in a vertical direction, which on
c.h, Ceratohyals (con- posterior surface shows the conditions re-
fluent), versed. This is the most perfect arrangement
b.h, The so-called basi- attained by the vertebral column, and is
hyal, answering typical of, and restricted to, birds. The inter-
to the first basi- vertebral joints are further complicated by
branchial of a fish, the interposition of a cartilaginous or fibrous
b.br, Basi-branchial, pad or ring. This pad varies much; it is
or urohyal, an- morphologically the homologue of the pair
swering to the of basiventral elements which by their
rest of the basi- lateral extension give origin to the corre-
branchial series, spending ribs. Later those pads fuse with
c.br, e.br, together the anterior end of the centrum of the
'form the thyro- vertebra to which they belong; where the
hyal, answering vertebral column is rendered inflexible, the
to the first cer- disks are ossified with the centra and all
ato- and epi- trace of them is lost. Sometimes the pad is
branchials. reduced to a ventral semi-ring or meniscus;
it retains its largest almost original shape
and size in the second vertebra, the axis or epistropheus, where
it forms a separately ossifying piece which connects, and coossifies
with, the odontoid process (the centrum of the atlas) and the centrum
of the second vertebra. Sometimes the ventral portions of these pads
form paired or un-
paired little ossifica-
tions, then generally
described as inter-
centra; such are not
uncommon on the
tail. The atlas is com-
posed of three pieces;
a pair of lateral ele-
ments (the right and
left dorsal arch pieces)
joining above the
spinal cord, and a
ventral piece equiva-
lent to the first basi-
ventral elements, i.e.
serially homologous
with the intervertebral pads. In the adults the atlas forms a
more or less solid ring. A remnant of the chorda dorsalis and its
sheath persists as the ligamentum sus.pensorium between the central
portions of the successive vertebrae.
FIG. 8. A cervical vertebra from the
middle of the neck of a Fowl ; natural size.
a, Side view; b, upper view; c, lower view;
pr.z, pre-zygapophyses ; pt.z, post-zygapo-
physes.
In birds we distinguish between the following regions of the axial
skeleton, (i) Cervical vertebrae, or those between the skull and the
first vertebra which is connected with the sternum by a pair of com-
plete ribs. The last I to 5 of these vertebrae have movable ribs
which do not reach the sternum, and are called cervico-dorsals.
(2) Dorsals, those which begin with the first thoracic rib, and end at
the last that is not fused with the ilium. The term " lumbar "
vertebrae is inapplicable to birds. (3) Pelvic, all those which are
fused with the iliac portion of the pelvis, generally a considerable
number. (4) Caudal, those which are not connected with the pelvis.
It is to be noted that often no absolute
line of demarcation can be drawn in
regard to these regions, their definitions
being rather convenient than morpho-
logical.
In comparison with all other verte-
brates the number of neck-vertebrae of
the birds is considerably increased ; the
lowest number, 14 to 15, is that of
most Passeres and many other Coracio-
morphae; the largest numbers, 20 or
21, are found in the ostrich, 23 in Cygnus
olor and 25 in the black swan. Dorsal
vertebrae frequently have a ventral
outgrowth of the centrum; these hypa-
pophyses may be simple vertical blades,
X-shaped, or paired knobs; they serve
for the attachment of the thoracic
origin of the longus collianticus muscle,
reaching their greatest development in
Sphenisci and Colymbidae. In many
birds some of the thoracic vertebrae are
more or less coossified, in most pigeons
for instance the isth to I7th; in most
Galli the last cervical and the next three
or four thoracics are coalesced, &c.
The pelvic vertebrae include of course (!<
the sacrum. There are only two or
three vertebrae which are equivalent to
those of the reptiles; these true sacrals
are situated in a level just behind the
acetabulum; as a rule between these
two primary sacral vertebrae issues the
last of the spinal nerves which con-
tributes to the composition of the
sciadic plexus. These true sacrals alone
are connected with the ilium by pro- f a young Fowl ; natural
cesses which are really equivalent to size, seen from below,
modified ribs; but the pelvis of birds <f./,Dorso-lumbar,s, sacral,
extends considerably farther forwards c, caudal vertebrae,
and backwards, gradually coming into
contact with other vertebrae, wnich in various ways send out
connecting transverse processes or buttresses, and thus become
pre- and post-sacral vertebrae (fig. 9). The most anterior
part of the ilium often overlaps one or more short lumbar
ribs and fuses with them, or even a long, complete thoracic rib.
Similarly during the growth of the bird the posterior end of the ilium
connects itself with tne transverse processes of vertebrae which were
originally free, thus transforming them from caudals into secondary
post-sacrals. Individual, specific and
generic variations are frequent. i
The last six or seven caudal vertebrae
coalesce into the pygostyle, an upright
blade which carries the rectrices. Such
a pygostyle is absent in Archaeopteryx,
Hesperornis, Tinami and Ratitae, but it
occurs individually in old specimens of
the ostrich and the kiwi. In Ichthyornis
it is very small. In all the Neornithes
the total number of caudal vertebrae,
inclusive of those which coalesce, is
reduced to at least 13.
Sternum (figs. 10 and n). Charac-
teristic features of the sternum are the
following. There is a well-marked pro-
cessus lateralis anterior (the right and
left together equivalent to the mam-
malian manubrium), which is the
product of two or three ribs, the
dorsal parts of which reduced ribs
remain as cervico-dorsal ribs. Then
follows the rib-bearing portion and
then the processus lateralis posterior;
this also is the product of ribs, con-
sequently the right and left processes
together are equivalent to the xiphoid process or xiphisternum
of the mammals. The lateral process in most birds sends out an
outgrowth, directed out and upwards, overlapping some of the ribs,
the processus obliquus. The median and posterior extension of the
body of the sternum is a direct outgrowth of the latter, therefore
FIG. 9. The " sacrum"
FIG. 10. A side view of
the Chick's sternum.
ANATOMY]
called meta-sternum. The anterior margin of the sternum, between
the right and left anterior lateral processes receives in sockets the
feet o? the coracoids. Between them arises a median crest, which
varies much in extent and composition, and is of considerable taxo-
nomic value. It is represented either by a spina tnterna or by a
spina externa, or
by both, or they
join to form a
spina communis
which is often very
large and some-
times ends in a
bifurcation. Even-
tually, when the
right and left feet
of the coracoids
overlap each other,
the anterior sternal
spine contains a
foramen. The keel,
or carina sterni, is
formed as a direct
cartilaginous out-
growth of the body
of the sternum,
ossifying from a
special centre.
This keel is much
reduced in the
FIG 1 1 .Sternum of a Chick (Callus domes- New Zealand
ticus) three days old, lower view, X three dia- parrot, Stnngops,
meters. The cartilage is shaded and dotted, less m various
and the bony centres are light and striated. g*M "fbj-
taire. It is absent in the Ratitae, which from this feature have
received their name, but considerable traces of a cartilaginous
keel occur in the embryo of the ostrich, showing undeniably
that the absence of a keel in the recent bird is not a primitive,
fundamental feature. The keel has been lost, and is being lost,
at various epochs and by various groups of birds. The swim-
ming Hesperornis (see ODONTORNITHES) was also devoid of such
a structure. In many birds the spaces between the metasternum
and the posterior processes and again the spaces between this and
the oblique process are filled up by proceeding ossification and either
remain as notches, or as fenestrae, or they are completely abolished
so that the breastbone is turned into one solid more or less oblong
plate.
Shoulder Girdle. Scapula, coracoid and clavicle, meet to form the
foramen triosseum, through which passes the tendon of the supra-
coracoideus, or subclavius muscle to the tuberculum superius of the
humerus. The coracoid is one of the most characteristic bones of
the bird's skeleton. Its upper end forms the acrocoracoid process,
against the inner surface of which leans the proximal portion of the
clavicle. From the inner side of the neck of the coracoid arises the
precoracoidal process, the remnant of the precoracoid. Only in the
ostrich this element is almost typically complete, although soon
fused at either end with the coracoid. Near the base of the pre-
coracoidal process is a small foramen for the passage of the nervus
supracoracoideus. In most birds the feet of the coracoids do not
touch each other; in some groups they meet, in others one overlaps
the other, the right lying ventrally upon the left. The scapula is
sabre-shaped, and extends backwards over the ribs, lying almost
parallel to the vertebral column. This is a peculiar character of
all birds. The clavicles, when united, as usual, form the furcula;
mostly the distal median portion is drawn out into a hypocleidium
of various shape. Often it reaches the keel of the sternum, with
subsequent syndesmosis or even synostosis, e.g. in the gannet. In
birds of various groups the clavicles are more or less degenerated,
the reduction beginning at the distal end. This condition occurs
in the Ratitae as well as in the well-flying Platyrcecinae amongst
parrots.
The fore-limb or wing (fig. 12) ; highly specialized for flight, which,
initiated and made possible mainly by the strong development
of quill-feathers, has turned the wing into a unique organ. The
humerus with its crests, ridges and processes, presents so many modi-
fications characteristic of the various groups of birds, that its con-
figuration alone is not only of considerable taxonomic value but that
almost any genus, excepting, of course, those of Passeres, can be
" spotted ' by a close examination and comparison of this bone.
When the wing is folded the long glenoid surface of the head of the
humerus is bordered above by the tuberculum externum or superius,
in the middle and below by the tuberculum medium or inferius for
the insertion of the coraco-brachialis posterior muscle. From the outer
tuberculum extends the large crista superior (insertion of pectoralis
major and of deltoideus major muscles). The ventral portion of the
neck is formed by the strong crista inferior, on the median side of
which is the deep fossa sublrochanterica by which air sacs enter the
humerus. On the outer side of the humerus between the head and
the crista inferior is a groove lodging one of the coraco-humeral
ligaments. The distal end of the humerus ends in a trochlea, with
BIRD
963
a larger knob for the ulna and a smaller oval knob for the radius.
Above this knob is often present an ectepicondylar process whence
arise the tendons of the ulnar and radial flexors. The radius is the
straighter and more slender of the two forearm bones. Its proximal
end Forms a shallow cup for articulation with the outer condyle of
the humerus; the distal end bears a knob which fits into the radial
carpal. The ulna is curved and rather stout ; it articulates with both
carpal bones; the cubital quills often cause rugosities on its dorsal
surface. Of wrist-bones only two remain in the adult bird; the
original distal carpals coalesce with the proximal end of the meta-
carpals. These are reduced, in all birds, to three, but traces of the
fourth have been observed in embryos. The first metacarpal is
short and fuses throughout its length with the second. This and the
third are much longer and fuse together at their upper and distal
nr
FIG. 12. Bones of Fowl's right
wing, adult, nat. size.
h, Humerus.
r, Radius.
, Ulnar.
r', u', Radial and ulnar carpal
bones; with the three digits
I., II., III.
ends, leaving as a rule a space between the shafts. The pollex and
the third finger are as a rule reduced to one phalanx each, while the
index still has two. The first and second fingers frequently carry
a little claw. The greatest reduction of the hand-skeleton is met
with in Dromaeus and in Apteryx, which retain only the index finger.
It is of importance for our understanding of the position of the
Ratitae in the system, that the wing-skeleton of the ostrich and
rhea is an exact repetition of that of typical flying birds ; the bones
are much more slender, and the muscles are considerably reduced
in strength also to a lesser extent in numbers, but the total length of
the wing of an ostrich or a rhea is actually and comparatively
enormous. Starting with the kiwi and cassowary, people have got
into the habit of confounding flightless with wingless conditions.
It is absolutely certain that the wines of the Ratitae bear the
strongest testimony that they are the descendants of typical flying
birds.
9 6 4
BIRD
[ANATOMY
The pelvis (fig. 13), consisting of the sacrum (already described)
and the pelvic arch, namely ilium, ischiura and pubis, it follows that
only birds and mammals possess a pelvis proper, whilst such is
entirely absent in the Amphibia and in reptiles with the exception
of some of the Dinosaurs. The ventral inner margin of the pre-
acetabular portion of the ilium is attached to the pre-sacral vertebrae,
whilst the inner and dorsal margin of the postacetabular portion is
attached to the primary sacral and the postsacral vertebrae. In
rare cases the right and left preacetabular blades fuse with each other
above the spinous processes. In front of the acetabulum a thick
process of the ilium descends to meet the pubis, and a similar pro-
cess behind meets the ischium. The acetabulum is completely sur-
rounded by these three bones, but its cup always retains an open
foramen; from its posterior rim arises the strong antitrochanter.
The ischium and postacetabular ilium originally enclose the ischiadic
notch or incisura ischiadica. This primitive condition occurs only
in the Odontornithes (q.v.), Ratitae and Tinami; in all others this
notch becomes converted into a foramen ischiadicum, through which
pass the big stems ot the ischiadic nerves and most of the blood-
vessels of the hind-limb. The pubis consists of a short anterior
portion (spina pubica or pectineal process, homologous with the
prepubic process of Dinosaurs) and the long and slender pubis
proper (equivalent to the processus lateralis pubis of most reptiles).
The shaft of the pubis runs parallel with that of the ischium, with
which it is connected by a short ligamentous or bony bridge; this
cuts off from the long incisura pubo-ischiadica a proximal portion,
the foramen obturatum, for the passage of the obturator nerve. Only
in the ostrich the distal ends of the pubes meet, forming a dagger-
shaped symphysis, which is curved forwards. The pectineal process
Am
FIG. 13. Pelvis and caudal vertebrae of adult Fowl, side view, natural size.
//. Ilium ; 7s, ischium ; Pb, pubis ; d.l, dorso-lumbar vertebrae ; Cd, caudal vertebrae ; Am, acetabulum.
is variable ; it may grow entirely from the pubis, or both pubis and
ilium partake of its formation, or lastly its pubic portion may be
lost and the process is entirely formed by the ilium. It is largest in
the Galli and some of the Cuculi, in others it is hardly indicated. It
served originally for the origin of the ambiens muscle (see Muscular
System below) ; shifting or disappearance of this muscle, of course,
influences the process.
The Hind Limb. The femur often possesses a well visible pneu-
matic foramen on the median side of the proximal end of its shaft.
The inner condyle, the intercondylar sulcus, and a portion only
of its outer condyle, articulate with corresponding facets of the
tibia. The outer condyle articulates mainly with the fibula. There
is a patella, intercalated in the tendon of thefemori-tibialis or extensor
cruris muscle. In Colymbus the patella is reduced to a small ossicle,
its function being taken by the greatly developed pyramidal processus
tibialis anterior; in Podiceps and Hesperornis the patella itself is
large and pyramidal. The distal half of the fibula is very slender
and normally does not reach the ankle-joint; it is attached to the
peroneal ridge of the tibia. On the anterior side of the tibia, is the
intercondylar sulcus, which is crossed by an oblique bridge of tendon
or bone, acting as a pulley for the tendon of the extensor digilorum
communis muscle. The condyles of the tibia are in reality not parts
of this bone, but are the three proximal tarsalia which fuse together
and with the distal end of the tibia. The distal tarsalia likewise fuse
together, and then on to the upper ends of the metatarsals; the
tarsale centrale remains sometimes as a separate osseous nodule,
buried in the inter-articular pad. Consequently the ankle-joint of
birds is absolutely cruro-tarsal and tarso-metatarsal, i.e. intertarsal,
an arrangement absolutely diagnostic of birds if it did not also occur
in some of the Dinosaurs. Of the metatarsals the fifth occurs as
an embryonic vestige near the joint; the first is reduced to its distal
portion, and is, with the hallux, shoved on to the inner and pos-
terior side of the foot, at least in the majority of birds. The three
middle metatarsals become fused together into a cannon bone ; the
upper part of the third middle metatarsal projects behind and forms
the so-called hypotarsus, which in various ways, characteristic of
the different groups of birds (with one or more sulci, grooved or
perforated), acts as guiding pulley to the tendons of the flexor
muscles of the toes. Normally the four toes have two, three, four
and five phalanges respectively, but in Cypselus the number is
reduced to three in the front toes. Reduction of the number of toes
(the fifth shows no traces whatever, not even in Archaeopteryx)
begins with the hallux, which is completely or partly absent in many
birds ; the second toe is absent in Struthio only. The short feet of the
penguins are quite plantigrade, in adaptation to which habit the
metatarsals lie in one plane and are incompletely co-ossified, thus
presenting a pseudo-primitive condition.
LITERATURE. Only a mere fraction of the enormous literature
dealing with the skeleton of birds can here be mentioned.
M. E. Alix, Essaisurl'appareillocomoteurdesoiseaux (Paris, 1874);
E. Blanchard, " Recherches sur les caracteres osteologiques des
oiseaux appliquees a la classification," Ann. Sci. Nat. Ser. iv., t. xi. ;
W. Dames, " Uber Brustbein Schulter- und Beckengiirtel der
Archaeopteryx," Math. Natural. Mitih., Berlin, vii., 1897, pp. 476-
492; T. C. Eyton, Osteologia avium (London, 1858-1881), with
many plates; C. Gegenbaur, Untersuch. z. vergl. Anal. d. Wirbel-
thiere, I. Carpus und Tarsus, II. Schulter giirtel (Leipzig, 1864-1865);
P. Harting, L'Appareil episternal des oiseaux (Utrecht, 1864) ; T. H.
Huxley, On the Classification of Birds and on the Taxonomic
Value of the Modifications of certain of the Cranial Bones. . ." P.Z.S.,
1867; G. Jaeger, " Das Wirbelkorpergelenk der Vogel," Sitzb. K.
Ak. Wiss., Wien, xxxiii., 1858; A. Johnson, " On the Development
of the Pelvic Girdle and Skeleton of the Hind-limb in the Chick,"
Q.J.M.S., xxiii., 1883, pp. 399-411; K. F. Kessler, " Osteologie der
Vogelfusse," Bull. Soc. Imp. Nat.,
Moscow, xiv., 1841; B. Lindsay,
" On the Avian Sternum," P.Z.S.,
1885; E. Mehnert, " Entwickelung
des Ospelvis der Vogel," Morph.
Jahrb., xiii., 1877; A. B. Meyer,
Abbildungen von Vogel-Skeletten
(Dresden, 1879); St G. Mivart, " On
the Axial Skeleton of the Ostrich,
Struthionidae, Pelecanidae," Trans.
Zool. Soc. viii., 1874; x -> l &77't E. S.
Morse, " On the Carpus and Tarsus
of Birds," Ann. Lye. N.H., New
York, x., 1874; J- S. Parker, "Ob-
servations on the Anatomy and
Development of Apteryx," Phil.
Trans., 1890, pp. i-no, 17 pis.; W.
K. Parker, numerous papers in Trans.
L.S., R.S. and Z.S., e.g. " Osteology
of Gallinaceous Birds," T.Z.S., v.,
1863 ; " Rhinochetus," ibid. vi. ; "Skull
of Aegithognathous Birds," ibid, x.,
1878; "Skull in the Ostrich
Tribe," Phil. Trans, vol. 156, 1866;
" Skull of Common Fowl," ibid. vol.
159. .1870; " Skull of Picidae," T.
Linn. Soc., 1875; " Monograph on the Structure and Development
of the Shoulder-girdle and Sternum," Ray Soc. London, 1868; W. P.
Pycraft, " On the Morphology and Phylogeny of the Palaeognathae
(Ratitae and Crypturi) and Neognathae," Trans. Zool. Soc. xv.,
1900, pp. 149-290, pis. 42-45; id. " Some points in the morphology of
the Palate of the Nep'gnathae," T. Linn. Soc. 28, pp. 343-357,
pis. 31-32; P. Suschkin, " Zur Morphologic des Vogelskelets. I.
Schadel von Tinnunculus," Mem. Soc., Moscow, xvi., 1900, pp.
1-63, pis.
2. Muscular System.
Of the muscles of the stem or axis, those of the neck and tail
are well-developed and specialized, while those of the lower
back are more or less reduced, or even completely degenerated
owing to the rigidity of this region, brought about by the great
antero-posterior extent of the pelvis.
The muscles of the limbs show a great amount of special-
ization, away from the fundamental reptilian and mammalian
conditions. The muscles of the fore b'mbs are most aberrant,
but at the same time more uniformly developed than those of
the hinder extremities. The reasons are obvious. The whole
wing is a unique modification, deeply affecting the skeletal,
muscular and tegumentary structures, but fluttering, skimming,
sailing, soaring are motions much more akin to one another than
climbing and grasping, running, scratching, paddling and wading.
The modifications of the hind-limbs are in fact many times
greater (such as extremely long legs, with four, three or only two
toes; very short legs, almost incapable of walking, with all four
toes directed forwards, or two or one backwards, and two or
more connected and therefore bound to act together, in various
ANATOMY]
BIRD
9 6 5
ways. Thus it has come to pass that the muscles of the hind
limbs are, like their framework, more easily compared with those
of reptiles and mammals than are the wings, whilst within the
class of birds they show an enormous amount of variation in
direct correlation with their manifold requirements. The only
really aberrant modifications of the wing-muscles are found in
the Ratitae, where they are, however, all easily explained by
reduction, and in the penguins, where the wings are greatly
specialized into blades for rowing with screw-like motions.
The wing of the bird is folded in a unique way, namely, the radius
parallel with the humerus, and the whole wrist and hand with their
ulnar side against the ulna ; upper and forearm in a state of supina-
tion, the hand in that of strong abduction. Dorsal and ventral
bending, even in the extended wing, is almost impossible. Conse-
quently only a few of the original extensor muscles have been pre-
served, but these are much modified into very independent organs,
notably the extensor metacarpi radialis longus, the ext. metac. ulnaris
and the two radio- and ulnari-metacarpi muscles, all of which are
inserted upon the metacarpus by means of long tendons. The chief
muscular mass, arising from the sternum in the shape of a U. is the
pectoralis muscle; its fibres converge into a strong tendon, which is
inserted upon the greater tubercle and upper crest of the humerus,
which it depresses and slightly rotates forwards during the down-
stroke. This great muscle covers completely the supracoracoideus,
generally described as the second pectoral, or subclavius muscle, in
reality homologous with the mammalian supraspinatus muscle. This
arises mostly from the angle formed by the keel with the body of
the sternum, passes by a strong tendon through the foramen tri-
osseum, and is inserted upon the upper tubercle of the humeral crest,
which it rotates and abducts. The extent of the origin of this
muscle from the sternum, on which it leaves converging, parallel or
diverging impressions, is of some taxonomic value.
Much labour has been bestowed by A. H. Garrod and Max Fiir-
bringer upon the investigation of the variations of the inserting
tendons of the patagial muscles (fig. 14), mainly from a taxonomic
3(10.
Blast, sec.
'trysrmtL
Exp.sec.
From Newton's Dictionary o\ Birds, by permission of A. & C. Black.
FIG. 14. Wing muscles of a Goose. Bi, Biceps; Blast, sec.,
elastic vinculum and Exp.sec., expansor secundariorum; Pt.br and
Pt.lg, short and long propatagial muscles; Tri, triceps.
point of view. The propatagialis longus muscle is composed of
slips from the deltoid, pectoral, biceps and cucullaris muscles. Its
strong belly originates near the shoulder joint from clavicle, cora-
coid and scapula. Its elastic tendon runs directly to the carpus,
forming thereby the outer margin of the anterior patagium, or fold
of skin between the upper and forearm, which it serves to extend,
together with the propatagialis brevis muscle. This runs down the
anterior and outer side of the upper arm, and is attached to the
proximal tendon of the extensor metacarpi radialis longus, a little
below the outer condyle of the humerus. In most birds the tendon
is split into several portions, one of which is often attached to the
outer side of the ulna, below the elbow joint, while others are in
variable but characteristic ways connected with similar slips of the
propatagialis longus. The posterior patagium, the fold between
trunk and inner surface of the upper arm, is stretched by the meta-
patagialis muscle, which is composed of slips from the serratus,
superficialis, latissimus dorsi and the expansor secundariorum muscles.
This, the stretcher of the cubital quills, is a very interesting muscle.
Arising as a long tendon from the sterno-scapular ligament, it passes
the axilla by means of a fibrous pulley, accompanies the axillary
vessels and nerves along the humerus, and is inserted by a few fleshy
fibres on the base of the last two or three cubital quills. Here, alone,
at the distal portion of the tendon, occur muscular fibres, but these
are unstriped, belonging to the category of cutaneous muscles. We
have here the interesting fact that a muscle (portion of the triceps
humeri of the reptiles) has been reduced to a tendon, which in a secon-
dary way has become connected with cutaneous muscles, which,
when strongly developed, represent its belly.
The flexor digitorum sublimis muscle arises fleshy from the long
elastic band which extends from the inner humeral condyle along
the ventral surface of the ulna to the ulnar carpal bone, over which
the tendon runs to insert itself on the radial anterior side of the first
phalanx of the second digit. Owing to the elasticity of the humero-
i .np.il band the wing remains closed without any special muscular
exertion, while, when the wing is extended, this band assists in keep-
ing it taut. The arm-muscles have been studied in an absolutely
exhaustive manner by Fiirbringer, who in his monumental work
has tabulated and then scrutinized the chief characters of fourteen
selected muscles. The results arc as interesting from a morpho-
logical point of view (showing the subtle and gradual modifications of
these organs in their various adaptations), as they are sparse in
taxonomic value, far less satisfactory than are those of the hind-limb,
He was, however, the first to show clearly that the Ratitae are the
retrograde descendants of flying ancestors, that the various groups
of surviving Ratitae are, as such, a polypnyletic group, and he has
gone fully into the interesting question of the development and
subsequent loss of the power of flight, a loss which has taken place
not only in different orders of birds but also at various geological
pericxls, and is still taking place. Very important are also the in-
vestigations which show how, for instance in such fundamentally
different groups as petrels and gulls, similar bionomic conditions have
produced step by step a marvellously close convergence, not only
in general appearance, but even in many details of structure.
Of the muscles of the hind-limbs likewise only a few can be men-
tioned. The ambiens muscle, long and spindle-shaped, lying im-
mediately beneath the skin, extending from the pectineal process or
ilio-pubic spine to the knee, is the most median of the muscles of the
thigh. When typically developed its long tendon passes the knee-
joint, turning towards its outer side, and lastly, without being any-
where attached to the knee, it forms one of the heads of the flexor
perforatus digit, ii. or iii. One of the functions of this peculiar
muscle (which is similarly developed in crocodiles, but absent, or not
differentiated from the ilio-tibial and ilio-femoral mass, in other
vertebrates) is that its contraction helps to close the second and
third toes. Too much has been made of this feature since Sir R.
Owen (Cyclop. Anal. Phys. i. p. 296, 1835), following G. A. Borelli
(De motu ammalium, Rome, 1680), explained that birds are enabled
to grasp the twig on which they rest whilst sleeping, without having
to make any muscular exertion, because the weight of the body bends
the knee and ankle-joints, over both of which pass the tendons of this
compound muscle. There are many perching birds, e.g. all the
Passeres, which dp not possess this muscle at all, whilst many of
those which have it fully developed, e.g. Anseres, can hardly be said
to " perch."
Garrod went so far as to divide all the birds into Homalogonatat
and Anomalogonatae, according to the presence or absence of the
ambiens muscle. This resulted in a failure. To appreciate this,
it is sufficient to enumerate the birds without the critical muscle:
Passeriformes and Coraciiformes, without exception; Ardeae and
Podiceps; lastly various genera of storks, pigeons, parrots, petrels
and auks. The loss has taken place, and still takes place, inde-
pendently in widely different groups. It follows, first, that the
absence of this muscle does not always indicate relationship;
secondly that we can derive birds that are without it from a group
which still possess it, but not vice versa. The absence of the ambiens
muscle in all owls, which apparently use their feet in the same way
as the Accipitres (all of which possess it), indicates that owls are
not developed from the latter, but from a group which, like the other
Coraciiformes, had already lost their muscle.
Garrod further attributed much taxonomic value to the caud-
ilio-femoralis muscle (fig. 15). This, when fully developed, consists
of two parts, but inserted by a single ribbon-like tendon upon the
hinder surface of the femur, near the end of its first third ; the caudal
part, femoro-caudalis, expressed by Garrod by the symbol A, arises
from transverse processes of the tail; the iliac part (accessoro-
femoro-caudal of Garrod, with the symbol B), arises mostly from the
outer surface of the postacetabular ilium. Of course this double-
headed condition is the more primitive, and as such exists in most
nidifugous birds, but in many of these, as well as in many nidicolous
birds, either the caudal or the iliac head is absent, and in a very
few (Cancroma, Dicholophus, Steatornis and some Calhartes) the whole
muscle is absent. The caud-ilio flexorius (semitendinosus of most
authors) arises from the transverse processes of the tail, and from
the distal half of the postacetabular ilium, thence passing as a broad
ribbon to the popliteal region, where it splits into two portions. One
of these, broad and fleshy, is inserted upon the posterior surface of
the distal third of the femur. This portk>n, morphologically the
original, was named the " accessory semitendinosus " with the
symbol Y; the other portion descends on the hinder aspect of the
leg and joins the fascia of the inner femoral head of the gastrocnemius
muscle. In many birds the insertion is shifted from the femur to
the neck of the tibia, in which case the " accessory head " is said to
be absent, a condition expressed by Garrod by the symbol X. By
combining the four symbols A, B, X, Y, according to their presence
or absence, Garrod got a considerable number of formulae, each
of which was overruled, so to speak, by the two categories of the
presence or absence of the ambiens muscle. It needs hardly to be
pointed out why such a purely mechanical scheme was doomed to
9 66
BIRD
[ANATOMY
failure. Its author, with a considerable mathematical and mechani-
cal bias, reckoned entirely with the quantity, not with the quality
of his units, and relied almost implicitly upon his formulae. It is,
however, fair to state that his system was not built entirely upon
these muscular variations, but rather upon a more laborious com-
bination of anatomical characters, which were so selected that they
presumably could not stand in direct correlation with each other,
notably the oil-gland, caeca, carotids, nasal bones and above all, the
muscles of the thigh. He was, indeed, the first to show clearly the
relationship of the heron-like birds with the Steganopodes; of stork-
like birds with the American vultures; the great difference between
the latter and the other birds of prey; the connexion of the gulls
and auks with the plovers, and that of the sand-grouse with the
From Newton's Dictionary o/ Birds.
FIG. 15. Left thigh-muscles of a Rail. Outer view after removal
of the II jb, ilio-fibularis and Il.tib, ilio-tibialis.
A, Caudal. N, Sciatic nerve.
B, Iliac portion of caud-ilio-femoralis. Is.fm, Ischio-femoralis.
X, Caud-ilio-flexorius. Is-fl, Ischio-fibularis.
Y, " Accessory " portion of the same. Sart. Sartorius.
Pif, Pubischio-femoralis.
pigeons discoveries expressed in the new terms of the orders
Ciconiiformes and 'Charadriiformes. These are instances, now well
understood, that almost every organic system, even when studied
by itself, may yield valuable indications as to the natural affinities
of the various groups of birds. That Garrod has so very much
advanced the classification of birds is ultimately due to his com-
prehensive anatomical knowledge and general insight.
To return to these thigh muscles. The most primitive combina-
tion, ambiens and A B X Y, is the most common; next follows
that of A X Y, meaning the reduction of B, i.e. the iliac portion
of the caud-ilio-femoralis \ A B X and B X Y are less common;
A X and X Y are rare and occur only in smaller groups, as in sub-
families or genera; B X occurs only in Podiceps. But the greatest
reduction, with only A remaining, is characteristic of such a hetero-
geneous assembly as Accipitres, Cypselidae, Trochilidae, Striges and
Fregata. This fact alone is sufficient proof that these conditions,
or rather reductions, have been acquired independently of the various
groups. A B Y, A Y, A B, X Y and B do not occur at all,
some of them for obvious reasons. Occasionally there is an instruc-
tive progressive evolution expressed in these formula; for instance
Phaethon, in various other respects the lowest of the Steganopodes,
has A X Y, Sula and Phalacrocorax have A X, Fregata, the most
specialized of these birds, has arrived at the reduced formula A.
Further, the combinations B X Y and A X Y cannot be derived
from each other, but both directly from A B X Y in two different
directions. Keeping this in mind, we may fairly conclude that the
flamingo with B X Y points to an ancestral condition A B X Y,
which is still represented by Platalea and Ibis, whilst the other storks
proper have taken a different line, leading to A X Y.
LITERATURE. Well nigh complete lists of the enormous myo-
logical literature are contained in Furbringer's Untersuchungen zur
Morphologic und Systematik der Vogel, and in Gadow's vol. Vogel of
Bronn's Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs. Only a few papers
and works can be mentioned here, with the remark that few authors
have paid attention to the all-important innervation of the muscles.
A. Carlsson, Beitrdge zur Kenntniss der Anatomie der Schwimmvogel',
K. Svensk, Vet. Ak. Handlinger. J. G. No. 3 (1884); A. Alix, Essai
sur I'appareil locomoteur des oiseaux (Paris, 1874); H. Gadpw, Zur
vergl. Anal, der Muskulatur des Beckens und der hinteren Gliedmasse
der Ratiten, 4 (Jena, 1880); A. H. Garrod, "On Certain Muscles of the
Thigh of Birds and on their value in Classification," P.Z.S., 1873,
pp. 624-644; 1874, pp. 111-123. Other papers by Garrod, 1875,
PP- 339-348 (deep plantor tendons) ; 1876, pp. 506-519 (wing-muscles
of Passeres), &c. ; J. G. de Man, Vergelijkende myologische en neuro-
logische Stiidien over Amphibien en Vogels (Leiden, 1873), (Corvidae);
A. Milne-Edwards, Recherches anatomiques et paleontologiques pour
servir d I'histoire des oiseaux fossiles de la France (Paris, 1867-1868),
torn. i. pis. ix.-x. (Aquilaand Callus) ; R. Owen, article "Aves," Todds'
Cyclopaed. of Anat. and Phys. i. (London, 1835); "On the Anatomy
of the Southern Apteryx," Trans. Zool. Soc., iii., 1849; A. Quenner-
stedt, " Studierifoglarnasanatomi,"ttttds Univers. Aarsk.,ix., 1872
(hind-limb of swimming birds); G. Rolleston, " On the Homologies
of Certain Muscles connected with the Shoulder-joint," Trans. Linn.
Soc., xxvi., 1868; R. W. Shufeldt, The Myology of the Raven (London,
1891); M. Watson, " Report on the Anatomy of the Spheniscidae,"
Challenger Reports, 1883.
3. Nervous System.
Brain. The more characteristic features of the bird's brain
show clearly a further development of the reptilian type, not
always terminal features in a direct line, but rather side-depar-
tures, sometimes even a secondary sinking to a lower level,
and in almost every case in a direction away from those funda-
mentally reptilian lines which have led to the characters typical
of, and peculiar to, the mammals.
The forebrain forms the bulk of the whole brain, but the large size
of the hemispheres is due to the greater development of the basal
and lateral portions (pedunculi cerebri and corpora striata), while the
pallium (the portion external to the lateral ventricles) is thin, and
restricted to the median side of each hemisphere. As a direct result
of this undoubtedly secondary reduction of the pallium due to the
excessive preponderance of the basal and lateral parts the corpus
callosum (i.e. the transverse commissure of the right and left pallium)
is in birds reduced to a narrow flat bundle of a few white fibres; it
is situated immediately above and behind the much stronger anterior
commissure, i.e. the connexion between the corpora striata, or chief
remaining part of the hemispheres. Owing to the small size of the
olfactory lobes the anterior arms of the latter commissure are wanting.
There is very little grey matter in the cortex of the hemispheres,
the surface of which is devoid of convolutions, mostly quite smooth;
in others, for instance pigeons, fowls and birds of prey, a very slight
furrow might be compared with the Sylvian fissure.
The Thalamencephalon is much reduced. The epiphysis, or pineal
body, is quite as degenerate as in mammals, although still forming
a long stalk as in reptiles. In birds, this stalk consists entirely of
blood-vessels, which in the adult enclose no terminal vesicle, and fuse
with the membranous linings of the skull. The midbrain is repre-
sented chiefly by the optic lobes, the cortex of which alone is homo-
logous with the corpora quadragemina of the mammals. Their
transverse dorsal connexion is the posterior commissure; otherwise
the whole roof portion of the midbrain is reduced to a thin membrane,
continuous with that which covers the Sylvian aqueduct, and this
ventricle sends a lateral cavity into each optic lobe, as is the case in
reptiles. The right and left lobes themselves are rent asunder (so
to speak), so that they are freely visible from above, filling the
corners formed by the hemispheres and the cerebellum. The latter
is, in comparison with mammals, represented by its middle portion
only, the vermis; in a sagittal section it shows an extremely well
developed arbor vitae, produced by the transverse, repeated folding
of the whole organ. In comparison with reptiles the cerebellum of
birds shows high development. Forwards it covers, and has driven
asunder, the optic lobes; backwards it hides the much shortened
medulla oblongata.
Several futile attempts have been made to draw conclusions as
to the intelligence of various birds, from comparison of the weight
of the whole brain with that of the body, or the weight of the hemi-
spheres with that of other parts of the central nervous system.
The brachial plexus is formed by four or five of the lowest cervical
nerves; the last nerve of this plexus often marks the boundary of
the cervical and thoracic vertebrae. The composition of the plexus
varies much, not only in different species, but even individually.
The most careful observations are those by Fiirbringer. The serial
number of these nerves depends chiefly upon the length of the neck,
the extremes being represented by Cypselus (ioth-i4th cervical) and
Cygnus (22nd-24th), the usual numbers of the common fowl being
the 1 3th- 1 7th nerves.
The Crural Plexus is divided into a crural, ischiadic and pubic
portion. The first is generally composed of three nerves, the hind-
most of which, thefurcalis, issues in most birds between the last two
lumbo-sacral vertebrae, and then divides, one half going to the
crural, the other to the sciatic portions. The obturatorius nerve
invariably comes from the two main stems of the crural. The
ischiadic portion consists generally of five or six nerves, which leave
the pelvis as one thick system through the ilio-ischiadic foramen.
The last nerve which contributes to the ischiadic plexus leaves the
spinal column in most birds either between the two primary sacral
vertebrae, or just below the hindmost of them, and sends a branch
to the pubic portion which is composed of post-ischiadic nerves,
partly imbedded in the kidneys, and innervates the ventral muscles
between the tail and pubis, together with those of the cloaca and
copulatory organs.
ANATOMY]
BIRD
967
The Sympathetic System forms a chain on either side of the verte-
bral column. In the region of the neck lateral strands pass through
the transverse canal of the cervical vertebrae ; but from the thoracic
region onwards, where the cardiac branch to the heart is given off,
each strand is double and the basal ganglia are successively con-
nected with the next by a branch which runs ventrally over the
capitulum of the rib, and by another which passes directly through
the foramen or space formed between capitulum and tuberculum.
In the pelvic region, from about the level of the posterior end of the
ischiadic plexus, the strand of each side becomes single again, passing
ventrally over the transverse processes. Lastly, towards the caudal
region the right and left strands approach and anastomose, eventually
coalescing in the mid line.
i LITERATURE. A. Bumm, " Das Grosshirn der Vogel," Zeitschr.
vriss. Zool., 38, 1883, pp. 430-466, pis. 24-25; F. Leuret and P.
Gratiolet, Anatomic comparte du systeme nerveux (Paris, ^839-1857),
with atlas; A. Meckel, " Anatomic des Gehirns der Vogel," in Meckel's
Archivf. Physiol. vol. ii. ; H. F. Osborn, " The Origin of the Corpus
Callosum, a contribution upon the Cerebral Commissures of the
1824, 4 pis.) ; L. Stieda, " Studien iiber das centrale Nervensystem
der Vogel und Saugethiere," Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. xix., 1869, pp. 1-92,
pis.; J. Swan, Illustrations of the Comparative Anatomy of the
Nervous System (London, 1835, 410, with plates).
Concerning the spinal nerves and their plexus: H. v. Jhering,
Das peripherische Nervensystem der Wirbeltiere (Leipzig, 1871);
W. A. Haswell, " Notes on the Anatomy of Birds," Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W. iii., 1879; M. Furbringer, " Zur Lehre von den Umbil-
dungen der Nervenplexus," Morph. Jahrb. v., 1879, p. 358.
4. Organs of Sense.
The Eye is essentially reptilian, but in sharpness of vision,
power and quickness of accommodation it surpasses that of the
mammals. The eyeball, instead of being globular, resembles
rather the tube of a short and thick opera-glass.
The anterior half of the sclerotic is composed of a ring of some ten
to seventeen cartilaginous or bony scales which partly overlap each
other. Another cartilage or ossification, the posterior sclerotic
ring, occurs within the walls of the posterior portion of the cup,
and surrounds, especially in the Pici and in the Passeres, the entrance
of the optic nerve. The iris is in most young birds at first brown or
dull-coloured, but with maturity attains often very bright tints which
add considerably to the charm of the bird; sexual dimorphism is
in this respect of common occurrence. The iris contains a sphincter
and a dilator muscle; the former, supplied by branches from the
oculomotorius nerve, is under control of the will, whilst the dilator
fibres belong to the sympathetic system. When fully dilated, the
pupil is round in all birds; when contracted it is usually round,
rarely oval as in the fowl. From near the entrance of the optic
nerve, through the original choroidal fissure, arises the much-folded
pecten, deeply pigmented and very vascular, far into the vitreous
humour. The number of its folds varies considerably, from three in
Caprimulgus to nearly thirty in crow (Corvus). Apteryx, which
since Owen has generally been stated to be devoid of such an organ,
likewise possesses a pecten; its base is, however, trumpet-shaped,
covers almost the whole of the optic disk, and extends nearly to the
lens in the shape of a thick, densely pigmented cone, without any
plications, resembling in these respects the pecten of many Lacer-
tilia (see G. L. Johnson, Phil. Trans., 1901 , p. 54). In the retina the
cones prevail in numbers over the rods, as in the mammals, and their
tips contain, as in other Sauropsida, coloured drops of oil, mostly
red or yellow. Near the posterior pole of the fundus, but somewhat
excentrically placed towards the temporal or outer side, is the fovea
centralis, a slight depression in the retina, composed almost entirely
of cones, the spot of most acute vision. Many birds possess besides
this temporal fovea a second fovea nearer the nasal side. It is
supposed that the latter serves monocular, the other the binocular
vision, most birds being able to converge their eyes upon one spot.
Consequently the whole field of vision of these birds possesses three
points where vision is most acute. It may here be remembered that
of the mammalia man and monkeys alone are capable of convergence,
and have a circumscribed macular area.
Of the outer eyelids, the lower alone is movable in most birds, as
in reptiles, and it frequently contains a rather large saucer-shaped
cartilage, the tarsus palpebralis. The margins of the lids are some-
times furnished with eyelashes, e.g. in the ostrich and in the Amazon
parrots, which are vestigial feathers without barbs. During the
embryonic stage the lids are fused together, and either become
separated shortly before the bird is hatched, as is the case with most
Nidifugae, or else the blind condition prevails for some time, in
the young Nidicplae. All birds have, like most reptiles, a well-
developed third lid or " nictitating membrane," which moves from
the inner canthus obliquely upwards and backwards over the cornea.
The moving mechanism is a further and much higher development
of that which prevails in reptiles, there being two muscles com-
pletely separate from each other. Both are supplied by the abducens
tit
nerve, together with the rectus externus muscle. One, the quadratus
or bursalts muscle, arises from the hinder surface of the eyeball, and
forms with its narrow margin, which is directed towards the optic
nerve, a pulley for the long tendon of the pyramidalis muscle. This
arises from the nasal surface of the ball, and its tendon passes into
the somewhat imperfectly transparent nictitating membrane. The
quadrate muscle adjusts the motion, and prevents pressure upon
the optic nerve; during the state of relaxation of both muscle*
the nil t it .ins withdraws through its own elasticity.
See R. Leuckart in Graefe and Saemisch's Ilandbuch d. Ophthal-
mologie (Leipzig, 1876, vol. i. chap. 7); H. MUller, Gesammelte
Schriften (Otto Becker, Leipzig, 1872), and Arch. f. Ophthalmol. iii.;
Ch. Rpuget, " Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur les
appareils 6rectiles," " Appareil de ('adaptation de 1'ceil" . . . Compt.
Rend. (Paris, xlii., 1856, pp. 937-941) ; M. Schultze, art. " Retina," in
Strieker's Handbuch der Cewebelehre, 1871, vol. ii.; I. R. Slonakcr,
" Comp. Study of the Area of Acute Vision in Vertebrates," Journ.
Morph., 1897.
Ear. The outer opening of the ear is, with rare exceptions,
concealed by feathers, which are often rather stiff, or modified
into bristles. There is no other protection, but slight, imper-
fectly movable folds of skin arise from the outer rim. The
largest ear-opening is met with in the owls, with correspondingly
larger folds of skin, the function of which is less that of protection
than, probably, the catching of sound. In many owls the right
and left ears are asymmetrical, and this asymmetry affects the
whole of the temporal region, all the bones which surround the
outer and middle ear, notably the squamosal and the quadrate,
so that the skull becomes lopsided, one ear being turned ob-
liquely down, the other upwards. (For detail see Collett,
Christiania Vidensk. ForhandL, 1881, No. 3.)
The middle ear communicates with the mouth by the Eustachian
tubes, which pass between the basisphenoid and basioccipital bones,
and unite upon the ventral side of the sphenoid, a little behind its
articulation with the pterygoids, where they open into the mouth
cavity by a short membranous duct. The columellar apparatus,
or auditory chain of ossicles (fig. 16), extending between the fenestra
ovalis and the tympanic membrane or
drum, consists of (i) the long and slen-
der columella, a straight, ossified rod
which fits with a disk into the fenestra
ovalis; it is homologous with the
stapes (m.st.), although not stirrup-
shaped; (2) the extra-columellar mass.
This is chiefly cartilaginous and sends
put three processes: the dorsal (s. si.)
is attached to the upper wall of the
drum cavity; the outermost (e. st.) is
fastened on to the middle of the drum
membrane; the third, ventral or in-
fracolumellar process (. st.) is directed
downwards and tapers out into a thin,
partly cartilaginous, strand, which
originally extended to the inner corner
of the articular portion of the man-
dible, but on its long way comes to
grief, being squeezed in between the
pterygoid and quadrate. This long
downward process being homologous
with an almost exactly identical arrange- p JG jg Auditory
ment in the crocodile and with the .. chain " of ' chicken, X 6
process foln of the mammalian diametcrs; lateral and basal
malleus, it follows that the whole vi _ w< , f Aftpr w K ParUrr }
extracolumellar mass, that between vlews ' (After W ' K ' Vt
stapes and drum, is equivalent to incus and malleus of the mam-
malia. There is, in birds, no annulus tympanicus. Birds possess
an ear-muscle which at least acts as a tensor tympani; it arises near
the occipital condyle, passes through a hole into the tympanic
cavity, and its tendon is, in various ways, attached to the inside of
the membrane and the neighbouring extracolumellar processes.
As regards the inner ear, the endolymphatic duct ends in a closed
saccus, imbedded in the dura mater of the cranial cavity. The apex
of the cochlea is turned towards, and almost reaches the anterior
wall of the occipital condyle; at most it makes but half a twist or
turn; it possesses both Keissner's membrane and the organ of
Corti. Although the scala tympani is so rudimentary, not reaching
a higher level than in most of the reptiles, and remaining far below
the mammalia, birds do not only hear extremely well, but they
distinguish between and " understand " pitch, notes and melodies.
See G. Breschet, Recherches anatomiques et physiologiques sur
I'organe de f audition chez les oiseaux (Paris, 1836), with Atlas; C.
Hasse, various papers in Zeitschr. f. wiss. Zool. vol. xvii, and in Ana-
tomische Studien, pts. ii. and iv. (Breslau, 1871); I. Ibsen, Atlas
anatomicus auris internae (Copenhagen, 1846); G. Retzius, Dai
Cehororgan der Wirbelthiere (Stockholm, 1884), ii. pp. 139-198,
pis. 15-20.
tt.
9 68
BIRD
[ANATOMY
Nose. The olfactory organ is poorly developed, and it is
still a question whether birds possess much power of smell;
many are certainly devoid of it.
The olfactory perceptive membrane is restricted to the posterior
innermost region of the nasal chamber, where it covers a slight
bulging-out prominence on the nasal wall. This so-called third,
upper or posterior conch is not a true conch, nor is that of the
vestibulum; only the middle one forms a scroll, and this corresponds
to the only one of reptiles and the lower of the mammals. The
nasal cavity communicates with the mouth by the choanae or
posterior nares, situated between the palatine process of the maxil-
lary, the palatine and the vomer. The outer nares or nostrils are
most variable in size and shape. In the Steganopodes they tend
to become much reduced, e.g. in cormorants (Phalacrocoracidae) ,
and especially in Sula, where the nasal slits become completely
closed up, and the greater portion of the nasal cavity is also abolished,
being restricted to the olfactory region with its unusually wide
choanae. The nasal septum is often more or less incomplete, pro-
ducing nares perviae, e.g. in the Cathartae, in the Anseres, gulls,
rails and various other aquatic birds. The secretions of the mucous
membrane of the nasal cavity, and a pair of naso-lacrymal glands
(not to be confounded with the Harderian and the lacrymal glands),
moisten and clean the chamber. The glands are variable in size
and position; when very large, e.g. in plovers, they extend upon
the forehead, causing deep impressions on the bones of the skull.
Jacobson's organ has been lost by the birds, apparently without a
trace in the embryonic fowl, but T. J. Parker has described vestiges
of the corresponding cartilages in the Apteryx (Phil. Trans., 1890).
See C. Gegenbaur, " t)ber die Nasenmuscheln der Vogel," Jena,
Zeitschr. vii., 1873, pp. 1-21.
5. Vascular System.
The heart lies in the middle line of the body, its long axis
being parallel with that of the trunk. The whole ventral surface
of the pericardium is exposed when the sternum is removed. The
right and left halves are completely divided by septa, no mixture
of the venous and arterial blood being possible, an advance upon
reptilian conditions, even the highest.
The atria are comparatively small, the walls being thin, especially
those of the right, which possesses numerous muscular ridges pro-
jecting into the cavity presenting a honeycombed appearance. The
interauricular septum is mostly entirely membranous ; in the middle
it is thinner, rather transparent, but there is no depression or fossa
ovalis. The whole sinus venosus has become part of the right atrium.
It receives the three great venous trunks of the body, namely the
vena cava superior dextra, the vena cava superior sinistra more dor-
sally, and the vena cava inferior more to the right and below; the
opening of the last is guarded by two prominent valves in place of
the mammalian valvula Eustachh. The right ventricle occupies the
ventral portion of the heart. The communication with the atrium
is guarded by a valvula cardiaca dextra, which only in function re-
presents the mammalian tricuspid; it consists of an oblique re-
duplication of the muscular fibres together with the endocardiac
lining of the right ventricle, while the opposite wall is convex and
forms neither a velum nor papillary muscles, nor chordae tendineae.
The right anterior corner of the right ventricle passes into the short
stem, guarded by three semi-lunar valves, which divides into the
two pulmonary arteries. There are likewise two pulmonary veins,
entering the left atrium by one orifice. Two or three membranous
flaps, held by numerous chordae tendineae, form a true mitral valve,
and allow the blood to pass through the left ostium atrioventriculare.
The blood leaves the heart past three semi-lunar valves, by the
right aorta, this being alone functional, a feature characteristic of,
and peculiar to, birds. Remnants of the left aortic arch persist some-
times in the shape of a ligamentous strand. The aortic trunk is very
short, sends off the coronary arteries and then the left aorta brachio-
cephalica, while the rest divides into the right brachiocephalic and
the aorta descendens. Each brachiocephalic soon sends off its sub-
clavian, while in the normal or more usual cases the rest proceeds
as the carotid trunk, inclusive of the vertebral artery. But the
carotids show several interesting modifications which have been
examined chiefly by C. L. Nitzsch and by A. H. Garrod. (i) The
right and left carotids converge towards the middle and extend up
the neck, imbedded in a furrow along the ventral surface of the
cervical vertebrae. This is the usual arrangement. (2) The two
carotids are fused into one carotis conjuncta, imbedded in a special
median osseous semicanal of the vertebrae; e.g. herons, flamingos,
and some parrots. (3) There is one carotis conjuncta, but the basal
portion of its original right component is obliterated, leaving a so-
called c. primaria sinistra, an unfortunate name. Such Aves laevo-
carotidinae of Garrod are common, e.g. all the Passeriformes. (4)
The reverse of the third modification, producing a c. primaria
dextra in the bustard Eupodotis. In other likewise very rare cases
a left, or a left and right, superficial carotids are developed and take
the place of the then vanished deep or primary carotids.
Venous System. The bird's liver receives nearly all the blood from
the stomach, gut, pancreas and spleen, as wellas from the left liver
itself, into the right hepatic lobe, by a right and left portal vein.
The venae hepaticae magnae join the vena cava posterior and thereby
form with it the vena cava inferior. The left hepatica magna receives
also the umbilical vein, which persists on the visceral surface of the
abdominal wall, often anastomosing with the epigastric veins. A
likewise unpaired vena coccygeo-mesenterica is usually present. There
is no renal portal system, excepting unimportant vestiges of such
a system in the head kidneys.
Lymphatic System. The white blood-corpuscles are produced in
the follicles at the base of the intestinal villi. The lymph vessels
of the tail and hinder parts of the body enter the hypogastric veins ;
and at the point of junction, on either side, lies a small lymph heart,
which often persists until maturity. The red blood-corpuscles are in-
variably oval disks, with a central nucleus which causes a slight
swelling; hence they are oval and biconvex.
See A. H. Garrod, " On the Carotid Arteries of Birds," Proc. Zool.
Soc., 1873, PP- 457-47 2 ; E. A. Lauth, " Memoire sur les vaisseaux
lymphatiques des oiseaux," Ann. Sci. nat. (iii. 1824), p. 381; J. J.
Mackay, "The Development of the BranchialArterial Arches in Birds,
with special reference to the Origin of the Subclavians and Carotids,"
Phil. Trans. 179 B (1888), pp. 111-141 ; L. A. Neugebauer, " Systema
venosum avium," Nov. Act. Leopold. Carol, xxi., 1844, pp. 517-698,
15 pis.; R. Gasch, " Beitrage zur vergl. Anatomic des Herzens der
Vogel und Reptilien," Arch. f. Naturgesch., 1888.
6. Respiratory System.
The lungs are small and occupy only the dorsal portion of
the thoracic cavity. There is only one right and one left lobe,
each traversed through its whole length by a mesobronchium,
whence arise about ten secondary bronchia; these send off
radially arranged parabronchia, which end blindly near the
surface. The walls of these tertiary tubes send out, in all direc-
tions, canaliculi aeriferi which, ending in slight swellings, recall
the mammalian atieoli.
Highly specialized air-sacs are characteristic of all birds. They
are very thin-walled membranes, very poor in blood-vessels,
formed by the bulged-out pleural or peritoneal covering of the
lungs, through the parabronchial tubes of which they are filled
with air. Their function is not quite clear. The usual sugges-
tion, that the warm air contained within them assists the bird
in flight, balloon-like, is absurd. They assist in the extremely
rapid and vigorous ventilation of the lungs, the latter being
capable of but very limited expansion and contraction in birds.
Exchange of gas through the walls of the air-sacs, almost devoid
of blood-vessels, can at best be much restricted.
There are five pairs of larger sacs belonging to the pulmonary
system: (i) prebronchial or cervical, extending sometimes far up
the neck, even into the cranial cavities; the throat-bags of the
prairie fowls (Cupidonia and Pedioecetes) are a further development ;
(2) subbronchial or interclavicular ; (3 and 4) anterior and posterior
thoracic or intermediate ; (5) abdominal sacs. Most of these extend
through narrow apertures foramina pneumatica into the hollow
bones, sometimes, e.%. in hornbills and screamers, into every part
of the skeleton, or, in the shape of innumerable pneumatic cells,
even beneath the skin. There is also a naso-pharyngeal or tym-
panic system of air-sacs, restricted to the head (cf. the siphonium
described in connexion with the mandible), but filling also such
curious organs as the frontal excrescence of Chasmorhynchus, the
Brazilian bell-bird, the throat-bag of the adjutant stork, and the
gular pouch of the bustard.
The trachea or windpipe is strengthened by numerous cartilaginous,
often osseous, complete rings, but in the emeu several of these rings
are incomplete in the medioventral line, and permit the inner lining
of the trachea to bulge out into a large neck-pouch, which is used by
both sexes as a resounding bag. In humming-birds and petrels the
trachea is partly divided by a vertical, longitudinal, cartilaginous
septum. In some of those birds which have a peculiarly harsh or
trumpeting voice, the trachea is lengthened, forming loops which
lie subcutaneously (capercally, curassow), or it enters and dilates
the symphysis of the furcula (crested guineafowl) ; or, e.g. in the
cranes and in the hooper swan, even the whole crest of the sternum
becomes invaded by the much elongated, manifolded trachea.
The syrinx or lower larynx is the most interesting and absolutely
avine modification, although absent as a voice-producing organ
(probably due to retrogression) in most Ratitae, storks, turkey
buzzards (Cathartes) and Steganopodes. The syrinx is a modification
of the lower part of the trachea and of the adjoining bronchi.
Essential are vibrating membranes between the cartilaginous frame-
work, and next, special muscles for regulating the tension. The
majority of birds possess a pair of internal tympaniforrn membranes
forming the inner or median walls of the bronchi, which are there
furnished with semi-rings only. External tympaniforrn membranes
ANATOMY]
BIRD
969
exist, with great variations, between the specialized one or two
last tracheal and some of the first bronchial rings.
According to the position of the chief sound-producing membranes,
three types of syrinx are distinguishable: (l) Tracheo-bronchial,
by far the commonest form, of which the two others are to a certain
extent modifications. The essential feature is that the proximal
end of the inner membranes is attached to the last pair of tracheal
rings; outer tympaniform membranes exist generally between the
2nd, 3rd and 4th bronchial semi-rings. This type attains its highest
development in the Oscines, but it occurs also in many other orders.
(2) Syrinx bronchialis. The outer membranes are spread out between
two or more successive bronchial semi-rings, a distance from the
trachea which is, in typical cases, devoid of sounding membranes;
some Cuculi, Caprimulgi, and some owls. (3) Syrinx trachealis. The
lower portion of the trachea consists of thin membranes, about half
a dozen of the rings being very thin or deficient. Inner and outer
membranes may exist on the bronchi. The Tracheophonae among
the Passeriformes, the possessors of this specialized although low
type of syrinx, form a tolerably well-marked group, entirely neo-
tropical. But indications of such a syrinx occur also in Pittidae,
pigeons and gallinaceous birds (Gattidae), the last cases being clearly
analogous.
Whilst the type of syrinx affords no help in classification, it is very
different with its muscles. These as indicated by their supply
from a branch of the hypoglossal nerve, which descends on either
side of the trachea are, so to speak, a detached, now mostly inde-
pendent colony of glosso-pharyngeal muscles. Omitting the paired
tracheo-clavicular muscles, we restrict ourselves to the syringeal
proper, those which extend between tracheal and bronchial rings.
Their numbers vary from one pair to seven, and they are inserted
either upon the middle portion of the bronchial semi-rings (Meso-
myodi), or upon the ends of these semi-rings where these pass into
the inner tympaniform membrane (Acrpmyodi). The former is
morphologically the more primitive condition, and is found in the
overwhelming majority of birds, including many Passeriformes.
The acromyodian type is restricted almost entirely to the Oscines.
Further, according to these muscles being inserted only upon the
dorsal, or only upon the ventral, or on both ends of the semi-rings,
we distinguish between an-, kat- and diacromyodi. But the dis-
tinction between such Acromyodi and the Mesomyodi is not always
safe. For instance, the Tyranninae are anacromyod, while the
closely allied Pipras and Cotingas are katacromyod; both these
modifications can be shown to have been derived but recently from
the weak meso- and oligomyodian condition which prevails in
the majority of the so-called Oligomyodi. On the other hand, the
diacromyodian type can have been developed only from a strong
muscular basis which could split into a dorsal and a ventral mass;
moreover, no Passeres are known to be intermediate between those
that are diacromyodian and those that are not.
Attempts to derive the anacromyodian and the katacromyodian
from the diacromyodian condition are easy on paper, but quite hope-
less when hampered by the knowledge of anatomical facts and how
to use them. There remains but one logical way, namely, to dis-
tinguish as follows: (i) Passeres anisomyodi, in which the syrinx
muscles are unequally inserted, either on the middle or on one end
of the semi-rings, either dorsal or ventral. This type comprises the
Clamatores. (2) Passeres diacromyodi, in which some of the syrinx
muscles are attached to the dorsal, and some to the ventral ends,
those ends being, so to say, equally treated. This type comprises
the Oscines. Both types represent rather two divergent lines than
successive stages, although that of the Clamatores remains at a
lower level, possessing at the utmost three pairs of muscles, whilst
these range in the Oscines from rarely two or three to five or seven.
This way of using the characters of the syrinx for the classification
of the Passeriformes seems simple, but it took a long time to accom-
plish. Joh. Miiller introduced the terms Polymyodi and Trachea-
phones, Huxley that of Oligomyodi; Miiller himself had, moreover,
pointed out the more important characters of the mode of insertion,
but it was Garrod who invented the corresponding terms of Acro-
and Mesomyodi ( = Tracheophones+Oligomyodi). (For further his-
torical detail, see ORNITHOLOGY). After W. A. Forbes had investi-
gated such important genera asPhilepitta and Xenicus, P.L. Sclater,
A. Newton and R. B. Sharpe divided the Passeres respectively into
Oscines, Oligomyodae, Tracheophonae and Pseudoscines ( = Suboscines) ;
Oligomyodae, Tracheophonae and Acromyodae; Oscines, Oligomyodae,
Tracheophonae and Atrichiidae. Ignoring the fact that some Oligo-
myodae are meso- and others acromyodian, they tried to combine two
irreconcilable principles, namely, mere numbers against quality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. M.Baer, Beitr.z. Kenntnissd.Atemwerkzeuge
bei den Vogeln," Zeitschr. uriss. Zool. Ixi. 1896, pp. 420-498;
Campana, Physiologie de la respiration chez les otseaux. Anatomie
de I'appareil pneumatique . . . (Paris, 1875); A. H. Garrod, " Major
Divisions of Passerine Birds (syrinx, &c.)," P.Z.S., 1876, pp. 506-
519; and " On the Conformation of the Thoracic Extremity of the
Trachea in the Class Aves," P.Z.S., 1879, pp. 357-380; J. Miiller,
Stimmorgane der Passerinen, Miiller's Arch. (1847); and Abh. Akad.
Wiss. (Berlin, 1845-1847), translation by F. J. Bell, Oxford, 1878;
H. Strasser, " Luftsacke der Vogel," Morph. Jahrb. iii., 1877,
pp. 179-227; C. Wunderlich, " Unterer Kehlkopf der V8gel," Nov.
Act. Leap. Carol., 1884; Ph. C. Sappey, Recherches sur I'appareil
respiratoire des oiseaux (Paris, 1847) ; W. A. Forbes, " Contributions
to the Anatomy of Passerine Birds (syrinx)," P.Z.S., 1880, pp. 380-
386, 387-39; 1881, pp. 435-737: '882, pp. 544-546, 569-57 ': W.
Yarrell, Observations on the tracheae of Birds," Trans. Linn.
Sac., 1827, pp. 378-391.
7. Digestive System.'
For a general account of the digestive organs, see ALIMENTARY
CANAL. Here only a few peculiar features may be mentioned.
The young pigeons are fed by both parents with a peculiar stuff,
the product of the strongly proliferating epithelial cells of the crop,
which cells undergo a cheese-like fatty degeneration, and mixed with
mucus, perhaps also with the proventricular juice, make up a milk-
like fluid. Should the young die or be removed during this period,
the parents are liable to die, suffering severely from the turgid
congestion of the hypertrophied walls of the crop.
The male of the hornbills, Bticerotinae, feeds his mate, which is
imprisoned, or walled-up in a hollow tree, during the whole time of
incubation, by regorging his food. This bolus is surrounded, as by
a bag, by the cast-up lining of the gizzard. Since this process is
repeated for many days the habitual reaction of the stomach well-
nigh exhausts the male. A graphic account of this is given in
Livingstone's travels.
The hoactzin, Opislhocomus, feeds to a great extent upon the
leaves of the arpid Montrichardia or Caladium arborescens. The
crop is modified into a large and very rugose triturating apparatus,
while the gizzard, thereby relieved of its function, is reduced to the
utmost. The large and heavy crop has caused aunique modification of
the sternal apparatus. The keel is pushed back to the distal third
of the sternum, whilst the original anterior margin of the keel is corre-
spondingly elongated, and the furcula fused with the rostral portion.
In the ostrich, Struthio, the craze of overloading the stomach with
pebbles which, when triturated into sand, are not voided, has brought
about a dislocation, so that the enormously widened and stretched
space between proventriculus and gizzard forms a bag, directed
downwards, whilst the gizzard itself with part of the duodenum is
rotated round its axis to more than iop. A similar rotation and
dislocation occurs in various petrels, in correlation with the in-
digestible sepia-bills, &c., which these birds swallow in great quan-
tities. In Plotus, the snakebird, the pyloric chamber of the stomach
is beset with a mass of hair-like stiff filaments which permit nothing
but fluid to pass into the duodenum. The gizzard of various birds
which are addicted to eating hairy caterpillars, e.g. Cuculus canorus
and trogons, is often lined with the broken-off hairs of these cater-
pillars, which, penetrating the cuticle, assume a regular spiral
arrangement, due to the rotatory motion of the muscles of the
gizzard.
8. Cloaca and Genital Organs.
The_ cloaca is divided by transverse circular folds, which project
from its inner walls, into three successive chambers. The inner-
most, the coprodaeum, is an oval dilatation of the end of the rectum,
and attains its greatest size in those birds whose faeces are very
fluid; it serves entirely as the temporary receptacle of the faeces
and the urine. The next chamber, the urodaeum, is small, and
receives in its dorso-lateral wall the ureters and the genital durts;
above and below this chamber is closed by circular folds, the lower
of which, towards the ventral side, passes into the coating of the
copulatory organ when such is present. The urodaeum serves only
as a passage, the urine being mixed with the faeces in the chamber
above. The third or outermost chamber, the proctodaeum, is
closed externally by the sphincter ani ; the orifice is quite circular.
It lodges the copulatory organ, and on its dorsal wall lies the bursa
Fabricii, an organ peculiar to birds. It is most developed in the
young of both sexes, is of unknown function, and becomes more or
less obliterated in the adult. Only in the ostrich it remains through-
out life, being specialized into a large receptacle for the urine, an
absolutely unique arrangement. A true urinary bladder, i.e. a
ventral dilatation of the urodaeum, is absent in all birds. It is
significant that the whole type of their cloaca much resembles that
of the Crocodilia and Chelonia, in opposition to that of the Lacertilia.
The penis, and its much reduced vestige of the female, is developed
from the ventral wall of the proctodaeum. It occurs in two different
forms. In the Ratitae, except Rhea, it consists mainly of a right
and left united half (corpora fibrosa), with a deep longitudinal furrow
on the dorsal side, and much resembles the same organ in crocodiles
and tortoises. It is protruded and retracted by special muscles
which are partly attached to the ventral, distal end of the ilium.
Another type exists in Rhea and in the A nseriformes, greatly special-
ized by being spirally twisted and partly reversible like the finger of
a glove. This is mainly due to the greater development of an un-
paired, median portion, analogous to the mammalian corpus spongio-
sum, which is much less prominent in the Ratitae; the muscles
of this type are derived solely from the anal sphincter. In other
Carinatae, e.g. tinamous and storks, the penis is very much smaller
and simpler, with every appearance of a degenerated organ. In the
great majority of birds it has disappeared completely and the primi-
tive way of everting the cloaca is resorted to.
Both right and left testes are functional. They become greatly
Hi. 31 a
970
BIRD
[FOSSIL
enlarged in the breeding season; in the sparrow, for instance, from
the size of a mustard seed to that of a small cherry. The vas
deferens descends with many undulations down the lateral side of
the ureter of the same side, and opens upon a small papilla into the
urodaeum. Extraordinary increase in length during the breeding
season causes the vasa deferentia in some of the African weaver-
birds to protrude, or to bulge out the cloacal walls beyond the vent.
The spermatozoa exhibit many differences in shape, size and pro-
portions, in the various groups of birds. They have been studied
minutely by E. Ballowitz.
Only the left ovary becomes functional, with rare individual ex-
ceptions. Both present the appearance of diminutive clusters of
grapes, at the anterior end of the kidneys, close to the suprarenal
bodies, separated from each other by the descending aorta and by the
vena cava where this is formed by the right and left vena iliaca
communis. During the breeding season many more eggs are de-
veloped than reach maturity, amounting in most birds to several
dozens. Those germs which do not ripen during the season under-
go a process of resorption, and in the winter the whole ovary
dwindles to often a diminutive size. In young birds both oviducts
are almost equal in size, but the right soon degenerates into an
insignificant strand. During every laying season the left duct in-
creases enormously by new formation of its component fibres. For
instance, in the fowl its volume increases about fifty-fold, growing
from some 6 in. in length and scarcely one line in width to more than
2 ft. in length and | in. in thickness. The upper, wide opening of
the duct is attached by elastic, peritoneal lamellae to the hinder
margin of the left lung; the middle portion of the duct is glandular
and thick-walled, for the deposition of the albumen; it is connected
by a short, constricted " isthmus " (where the shell-membrane is
formed) with a dilated " uterus " in which the egg receives its cal-
careous shell and eventual pigmentation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY. A. v. Brunn, RiickbMung nichl ausgestassener
Eierstockseier, Henle Festschrift (Bonn, 1882); E. Ballowitz, "Die
Spermatozoon der Vogel," Arch. Mikr. Anal, xxxii., 1888, pjs. 14-18;
M. Sacchi, " Contribuzione all' istiologia del ovidotto dei saurop-
sidi," Alt. Soc. /to/., Milano, vol. xxx.; W. A. Forbes, " On the Bursa
Fabricii in Birds," P.Z.S., 1877, pp. 304-318; H. Gadow, " Remarks
on the Cloaca and on the Copulatory Organs of the Amniota."
Phil. Trans., 1887, pp. 5-37, pis. 2-5; Martin Saint Ange, "Etude
de 1'appareil reproducteur dans les cinq classes d'animaux vertebres,"
Mem. Ac. Sac., Paris, xiv., 1856; E. Retterer, " Contribution a
1'etude du cloaque et de la bourse de Fabricius, " Robin's Journ. de
I'anat. et physiol., 1885, pp. 369-454, pis. 17-19.
B. FOSSIL BIRDS
Much had naturally been expected from the study of fossil
birds, but, so far as the making of classifications is concerned,
they have proved rather a source of perplexities. So long as
the characters of new fossils are only of specific and generic
value, it is mostly possible to assign the birds to their proper
place, but when these characters indicate new families or orders,
for instance Hesperornithes, Ichthyornithes, Palaelodi, their
owners are put outside the more tersely constructed classifications
applicable to modern birds. It is no exaggeration to say that
the genus, often even the species, can be determined from almost
any recent bone, but in the case of Miocene, and still more, of
Eocene fossils, we have often to deal with strange families, which
either represent an extinct side branch, or which connect several
recent groups with each other. Our artificially-established
classifications collapse whilst we gain further insight into the
mutual affinities of the existing groups. Of course this must be
so if evolution is true. But it also follows that, if every extinct
and recent bird were known, neither species, nor genera, nor
families, nor orders could be defined. We should be able to
construct the pedigree of every group, in other words, the
gigantic natural system, but there would be no classification.
Much light has also been thrown by fossil birds upon the study
of geographical distribution. The key to the distribution of
recent groups lies in that of the extinct forms. Not only have
many absolutely new families been discovered, but many kinds
of modern birds are now known to have existed also in countries
which they are now extinct. There were, for instance, trogons,
secretary-birds, parrots, and other now Ethiopian forms in
Miocene France. Ostriches, undistinguishable from Struthio,
have been found in Samos and in the Sivalik Hills.
The proper study of fossil birds may be said to have begun
with A. Milne-Edwards, whose magnificent Oiseaux fossiles de la
France was published from 1867 to 1871. This work deals chiefly
with mid-Tertiary forms. A new impetus was given by 0. C.
Marsh, who, after 1870, discovered a great number of bird
remains in the Cretaceous strata of North America. The most
important result is the proof that, until the end of the Cretaceous
epoch, most, if not all, birds were still possessed of teeth (see
ODONTORNITHES) .
The oldest known bird is the Archaeopteryx (q.i>.), of the upper
Oolite in Bavaria. The imprints in the enormously older new
red sandstone or Lower Trias of Connecticut, and originally
named Ornithichnites, belong to Dinosaurian Reptiles.
A wide gap separates Archaeopteryx from the next order
of fossil birds of the Cretaceous epoch, and, since freshwater
deposits of that age are rare, bird remains are uncommon.
Many bones formerly referred to birds have since proved to
belong to Pterodactyls, e.g. Cimoliornis from the English Chalk.
But in 1858 were discerned in the Upper Greensand of Cambridge-
shire remains which are now known as Enaliornis. W. Dames
has described bones from the Chalk of southern Sweden under
the name of Scaniornis, probably allied to Palaelodus. From
the Cretaceous rocks of North America a large number of birds
have been described by O. C. Marsh. Of these the most interest-
ing are Ichthyornis. { = Gracttlavus) and Hesperornis, from the
Cretaceous shales of Kansas. They were placed by Marsh in a
distinct subclass of birds, Odontornithes (q.v.). Probably all
birds of Cretaceous age were still possessed of teeth. Baptornis,
another of Marsh's genera, seems to be allied to Enaliornis,
Palaeotringa and Talmatornis, were by him referred to Limicoline
and Passerine birds. Laornis from the Cretaceous marls of New
Jersey was as large as a swan.
The lower Eocene has furnished a greater number of bird
bones. Some of the largest are those of Gastornis, with three
species from France, Belgium and England. Much difference
of opinion obtains as to the affinities of these birds, which were
far larger than an ostrich; they were undoubtedly incapable
of flight and there are indications of teeth in the upper jaw.
Provisionally this genus has been grouped with the Ratitae,
which at any rate are a heterogenous assembly. Sir R. Owen's
Dasornis, of the London Clay, known from an imperfect cranium,
and E. D. Cope's Diatryma of New Mexico, based upon a gigantic
FIG. 17. Remains of head of Odontopteryx, from the original in
the British Museum; side view; natural size.
metatarsus, may also belong there. The London Clay of South
England has likewise supplied some long upper arm bones,
Argillornis. The most remarkable specimen is a skull, Odonto-
pteryx toliapicus (figs. 17, 18) ; the edges of the jaws were serrated
FIG. 1 8. Remains of head of Odontopteryx, seen from above.
like those of certain tortoises. The character of this skull and
the compound rhamphotheca (known by the imprints left upon
the jaws) indicate affinities with the Steganopodes. Remnants
FOSSIL]
BIRD
971
of a heron-like bird, Proherodius, of a gull-like creature, Halcyornis,
a raptorial Lithornis; and a supposed Passerine from Glarus in
Switzerland, called Protornis = Osteornis, complete the list.
The upper Eocene has yielded many birds, most of which are
at least close forerunners of recent genera, the differentiation
into the leading orders and families being already well marked,
e.g. Gallinaceous birds, stork- and crane-like waders, rails, birds
of prey, cormorants, &c. Especially numerous bones have been
found in the Paris basin, chiefly described by G. Cuvier, F. L. P.
Gervais, E. Blanchard, and above all by A. Milne-Edwards, and
in the equivalent beds of Hampshire. Others have been dis-
covered in Wyoming; a giant penguin, Palaeeudyptes, is known
from New Zealand, and Palaeospheniscus from Patagonia. The
Miocene has yielded by far the greatest number of bird-bones,
including even eggs and imprints of feathers. For instance,
from the lower Miocene beds of Allier and Puy-de-D6me Milne-
Edwards has described about 50 species. Of these Palaelodus
was an ancestral flamingo, but with shorter legs; Limnatornis
is referred to the hoopoes. The existing genera include Anas,
Aquila, Bubo, Columba, Cypselus, Lanius, Picus, Phalacrocorax,
Sula, &c. Very interesting is the fact that Serpentarius, Psittacus
and Trogon are amongst this list of birds, which are now restricted
to the tropics. A similarly mixed avifauna has been found in the
mid-Miocene beds of various other parts of France, Germany
and Italy. In Colorado and New Mexico Marsh has detected
bones of Meleagris, Puffinus, Sula and Uria, all existing genera ;
but the first is especially suggestive, since it is one of the most
characteristic forms of the New World.
Here may be interpolated a short account of the very peculiar
avifauna found in the Tertiary strata of Santa Cruz in Patagonia.
Instead of the age of lower Eocene, as had been stated originally,
these beds are not older than mid-Miocene, and not a few of
the bones are of a much younger, even latest Tertiary date.
Discovered, and partly described, by F. Ameghino, the bones
have been sumptuously monographed by F. P. Moreno and
A. Mercerat, who proposed for them the name of Stereornithes,
a new order of birds, mostly gigantic in size, and said to combine
the characters of Anseres, Herodiones and Accipitres. But the
whole mass of bones is in hopeless disorder, apparently without
any record of association. At any rate, the " Stereornithes,"
accepted as such in Bronn's Thierreich, and in Newton ^Dictionary
of Birds, had to be dissolved as an unnatural, haphazard assembly.
Many of these birds, to judge from the enormous size of their
hind- limbs, were undoubtedly flightless, e.g. Brontornis, and
remind us of the Eocene Gastornis of Europe. Phororhacos,
the most extraordinary of all, belongs to the Gruiformes, perhaps
also Pelecyornis and Liornis. On the other hand, the late
Tertiary Dryornis is a member of the Cathartae or American
vultures, and Mesembriornis, likewise of late Tertiary date, is
a close forerunner of the recent genus Rhea.
Pliocene remains are less numerous than those of the Miocene.
From Pikermi in Greece is known a Callus, a Phasianus and a
large Grus. From Samos a large stork, Amphipelargus, and a
typical Struthio; from the Sivalik Hills on the southern flanks
of the Himalayas also an ostrich, and another Ratite with three
toes, Hypselornis, as well as Leploptilus, Pelecamis and Phalacro-
corax. The fossil egg of a struthious bird, Struthiolilhus, has
been found near Cherson, south Russia, and
in north China. The Suffolk Crag has yielded
the unmistakable bones of an albatross,
Diomedea.
Most Pleistocene birds are generically, even
specifically, identical with recent forms; some,
however, have become extinct, or they have
become exterminated by man. A great
number of birds' bones have been found in caves, and among
them some bearing marks of human workmanship. In France we
have a large and extinct crane, Grus primigcnia, but more inter-
esting are the numerous relics of two species, the concomitants
even now of the reindeer, which were abundant in that country
at the period when this beast flourished there,and have followed
it in its northward retreat. These are the snowy owl, Nyctea
scandiaca, and the willow-grouse, Lagopus albus. A gigantic
swan, Cygnusfalconeri, is known from the Zebug cavern in Malta.
From caves of Minas Geraes in Brazil, O. Winge has determined at
least 126 species, of which nearly all still survive in the country.
Kitchen-middens of England, Ireland and Denmark reveal the
existence of the capercally, Tetrao urogallus, and of the great
auk or gare-fowl, Alca impennis; both species long since
vanished from those countries. In the fens of East Anglia have
been found two humeri, one of them immature, of a true Pele-
canus, a bird now no longer inhabiting middle Europe.
Until a very recent epoch there flourished in Madagascar
huge birds referable to the Ratitae, e.g. Aepyornis maximus,
which laid enormous eggs, and not unnaturally recalls the
mythical " roc " that figures so largely in Arabian tales. New
Zealand has also yielded many flightless birds, notably the
numerous species and genera of Dinornithidae, some of which
survived into the igth century (see MOA) ; Pseudapleryx allied
to the Kiwi; Cnemiornis, a big, flightless goose; Aptornis and
Notornis, flightless rails; and Harpagornis, a truly gigantic
bird of prey with tremendous wings and talons.
It is, of course, quite impossible, in a survey of extinct birds, to
divide them into those which are bona fide fossil, sub-fossil,
recently extirpated and partially exterminated. Nor is it possible,
except in a few cases, to decide whether they have come to an
From a tricing by M. A. Milne-Edwards of the original drawing in a MS. Journal
kept during Wolphart Harmanszoon's voyage to Mauritius (A.D. 1601-1601), perns H.
Schlegel (Proc. Zool. Soc. i8?s, p. 350). Reduced.
FIG. 19. Extinct Crested Parrot of Mauritius
(Lophopsittacus muuritianus).
end through the agency of man or through so-called natural
causes. Like other creatures birds have come, some to flourish
and stay, others to die out.
Mauritius is famous for the dodo, killed off by man; there
was also a curiously crested parrot, Lophopsittacus (fig. 19).
In the Mare aux Songes have been found the bones of another
FIG. 20. Mandible of A phanapteryx, side view. (From the original in the Museum
of Zoology of the University of Cambridge.)
parrot, of ducks, pigeons, rails, herons, geese and of a dwarf
darter, Plotus nanus, all sub-fossil, now extinct. Very inter-
esting is Aphanapteryx (fig. 20), a long-billed, flightless rail,
practically the same as Erythromachus of Rodriguez and Dia-
phorapteryx of Chatham Island. Reunion possessed the peculiar
starling, Fregilupus. Rodriguez was inhabited by Pczophaps,
the solitaire, Necropsittacus and Palaeornis exsul, which is now
972
BIRD
[DISTRIBUTION
probably extinct. The Antilles tell a similar tale. The great
auk, ODCC common on the British coasts, those of Denmark, the
east coast of North America, then restricted to those of New-
foundland, Greenland and Iceland, has been killed by man, and
the same fate has overtaken the Labrador duck, the Phillip
Island parrot, Nestor productus, and the large cormorant of
FIG. 21. Pied Duck (Somateria labradora), male and female.
(From specimens in the British Museum. Reduced.)
Bering Island, Phalacrocorax perspicillatus; and how long will
the flightless cormorant, Ph. harrisi of the Galapagos, survive
its quite recent discovery?
AUTHORITIES. A. Milne-Edwards, Recherches anatomiques et
paleontologiques pour servir a I'histoire des oiseaux fossiles de la France
(Paris, 1867-1868); F. P. Moreno and A. Mercerat, Catalogo de los
P ajar os fosiles de la Republica Argentina. A notes Mus. La Plata,
1891, 21 pis.; O. C. Marsh, Odontornithes : A monograph of the
Extinct Toothed Birds of North America (New Haven, Conn., 1880);
R. Lydekker, article " Fossil Birds," in A. Newton's Dictionary of
Birds (London, 1893); Cat. Foss. Birds, Brit. Museum, 1891; K. v.
Zittel, Handbuch der Paldontologie, i. 3 (1887-1890) ; C. W. Andrews,
" On the Extinct Birds of Patagonia," Tr. Zool. Soc. xv., 1899,
pp. 55-86, pis. 14-17.
C. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION
The study of the extinct organisms of any country leads to
a proper appreciation of its existing flora and fauna; while,
on the other hand, a due consideration of the plants and animals
which may predominate within its bounds cannot fail to throw
more or less light on the changes it has in the course of ages
undergone. That is to say, the distribution of forms in time is
a subject so much connected with the distribution of forms in
space, that the one can hardly be separated from the other.
Granting this is a general truth, it must yet be acknowledged
as a special fact, that in fossil birds we have as yet but scanty
means of arriving at any precise results which will justify bold
generalization in the matter of avine distribution. Remains
of extinct birds are, compared with those of other classes of
vertebrates, exceedingly scarce, and these have been found in
very few, widely separated countries. The great problems
involved in the study of geographical distribution must there-
fore be based mainly upon the other classes, both vertebrate
and invertebrate, which, moreover, enjoy less great facilities of
locomotion than the birds.
Yet it so happens that the great zoogeographical regions
of the world, now more or less generally accepted, have been
based upon the distribution of birds. The whole subject was
properly introduced by Treviranus, 1 who in his large philo-
sophical work devotes considerable space to the " geographical
1 Treviranus, Biologie oder Philosophic der lebenden Natur, vol. ii.
cap. 4, 2 (Gottingen, 1803).
distribution of animals." Next we have to mention F. Tiede-
mann, 2 the Heidelberg anatomist, who has been generally
ignored, although he surpassed many a recent zoogeographer
by the wide view he took of the problem; in fact he was the
first to connect distribution with environmental or bionomic
factors; e.g. the remark on p. 481 of his work that " the
countries of the East Indian flora have no kinds of birds in
common with America which are vegetable feeders." L. K.
Schmarda 3 divided the land into twenty-one realms, character-
izing these mainly by their birds. P. L. Sclater 4 was the first
to divide the world into a few great " regions," the Palaearctic,
Ethiopian, Indian and Australian forming one group, the " Old
World " (Palaeogaea); and the Nearctic and Neotropical form-
ing a second, the New World (Neogaea). Birds being of all
animals most particularly adapted for extended and rapid
locomotion, it became necessary for him to eliminate from his
consideration those groups, be they small or large, which are
of more or less universal occurrence, and to ground his results
on what was at that time commonly known as the order
Insessores or Passeres, comprehending the orders now differen-
tiated as Passeriformes, Coraciiformes and Cuculiformes, in other
words the mass of arboreal birds. His six main divisions
practically adopted by A. R. Wallace 6 in his epoch-making
work are excellent, taken separately. They express the main
complexes of land with their dependencies in well-chosen terms;
for instance the " Neotropical region " stands short for South
and Central America with the Antilles.
But these six divisions of Sclater and Wallace are not all
equivalent, only some are of primary importance; they require
co- and sub-ordination. This most important advance was
made by T. H. Huxley. 6 Some of the " regions " have now to
be called subregions, e.g. the Nearctic and the Palaearctic.
The reduction of the Oriental to a subregion, with consequent
" provincial " rank of its main subdivisions, will probably be
objected to, but these are matters of taste and prejudice. Above
all it should be borne in mind that nearly all the last subdivisions
or provinces are of very little real value and most of them are
inapplicable to other classes of animals.
Besides some occasional references in the text, only a few more
of the general works dealing with the distribution of birds can here
be mentioned. Especial attention has to be drawn to the article
" Geographical Distribution," in Newton's Dictionary of Birds.
See also A. Heilprin, The Geographical and Zoological Distribution
of Animals (New York, 1887); W. Marshall and A. Reichenow,
two maps with much detail, although badly arranged, in Berghaus'
Physikalischer Atlas, pt. vi. (Atlasd. Thierverbreitung) , (Gotha, 1887);
A. Reichenow, " Die Begrenzung zoogeographischer Regionen
vom ornithologischen Standpunkte," Zoolog. Jahrb. iii., 1888,
pp. 671-704, pi. xxvi.; E. L. Trouessart, La Geographie zoologigue
(Paris, 1890).
The scheme adopted in the following account stands as follows:
New Zealand subregion.
(A) AUSTROGAEA or I. Australian Region
(B) NEOGAEA or II. Neotropical Region
III. Holarctic Region
(C) ARCTOGaEA
IV. Palaeotropical
Region
Australian
Papuan
Antillean
Columbian
Patagonian
Nearctic
Palaearctic
Ethiopian
Oriental
In the following account the characterization of the various
regions and subregions has to a very great extent been adopted
from Newton's article in his Dictionary of Birds, and from the
chapter on distribution in the article on " Birds " in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica, gth edition. This applies especially
* F. Tiedemann, Anatomie und Nalurgeschichte der Vogel, vol. ii.
127-255 (Heidelberg, 1814).
3 L. K. Schmarda, Die geographische Verbreitung der Thiere (Wien,
1853)-
4 P. L. Sclater on the general geographical distribution of the
members of the class " Aves," 2. Linn. Soc. ii. pp. 130-145, 1858.
6 A. R. Wallace, The Geographical Distribution of Animals, with
a study of the Relations of Living and Extinct Faunas as elucidating
the Past Changes of the Earth's Surface, 2 vols. (London, 1876).
* T. H. Huxley, " On the Classification and Distribution of the
Alectoromorphae," P.Z.S., 1868, pp. 313-319.
DISTRIBUTION]
BIRD
973
to those instances in which the members of families, genera
and species are mentioned. The families are those which are
enumerated in Garow's classification. The numbers of genera
and species of birds are, of course, a matter of personal inclination.
If we take a moderate computation the number of recent species
may be taken at 10,000-11,000. l Dr R. B. Sharpe increases
their number to about 15,000 in the New Hand-List of Birds,
published by the British Museum. In the first two volumes
fossil birds, occasionally based upon a fragmentary bone only,
are also included.
(A) AUSTROGAEA, the Australian region in the wider sense, with the
Papuan, Australian and New Zealand subregions, including also Poly-
nesia. We may here quote Newton (Encyclopaedia Britanntca,<)th ea.,
" Birds," p. 738) on the remarkable differences between this region
and the rest of the Old World: " The prevalent zoological features
of any Region are of two kinds negative and positive. It is there-
fore just as much the business of the zoogeographer, who wishes to
arrive at the truth, to ascertain what groups of animals are wanting
in any particular locality (altogether independently of its extent)
as to determine those which are forthcoming there. Of course, in
the former case it would be absurd to regard as a physical feature
of any great value the absence from a district of groups which do
not occur except in its immediate neighbourhood; but when we
find that certain groups, though abounding in some part of the
vicinity, either suddenly cease from appearing or appear only in very
reduced numbers, and occasionally in abnormal forms, the fact
obviously has an important bearing. Now, mere geographical con-
siderations, taken from the situation and configuration of the islands
of the so-called Indian or Malay Archipelago, would indicate that
they extended in an unbroken series from the shores of the Strait
of Malacca to the southern coast of New Guinea, which confronts
that of north Australia in Torres Strait, or even farther to the east-
ward. Indeed, the very name Australasia, often applied to this part
of the world, would induce the belief that all the countless islands,
be they large or small and some of them are among the largest
on the globe were but a southern prolongation of the mainland of
Asia. But so far from this being the case a very definite barrier is
interposed. A strait, some 15 m. or so in width, and separating the
two fertile but otherwise insignificant islands of Bali and Lombok,
makes such a frontier as can hardly be shown to exist elsewhere.
The former of these two islands belongs to the Indian Region, the
latter to the Australian, and between them there is absolutely no
true transition that is, no species are common to both which cannot
be easily accounted for by the various accidents and migrations that
in the course of time must have tended to mingle the productions
of islands so c]ose to one another. The faunas of the two are as
absolutely distinct as those of South America and Africa, and it is
only because they are separated by a narrow strait instead of the
broad Atlantic that they have become so slightly connected by the
interchange of a few species and genera.
" Now, first, of the forms of birds which are prevalent throughout
the Indian Region, but are entirely wanting in the Australian, we
have at once the bulbuls (Ixidae), very characteristic of most parts
of Africa and Asia, including the sub-group Phyllornithinae, which
is peculiar to the Indian Region; the widely-spread families of
barbets (Megalaeminae) and vultures ( Vulturtdae) ; and the phea-
sants (Phasianidae), which attain so great a development in various
parts of the Asiatic continent and islands that there must their home
be regarded as fixed. Some naturalists would add the finches
(Fringillidae), rightly if we assume that the Ploceidae or weavers
constitute a separate family. Then, of forms which are but weakly
represented, we have the otherwise abundant thrushes (Turdidae),
and, above all, the woodpeckers (Picidae), of which only very
few species, out of 400, just cross the boundary and occur in
Lombok, Celebes or the Moluccas, but are unknown elsewhere in the
region."
But the Australian region is also remarkable for its ornithic
singularity. All the existing Ratitae (with the exception of the
ostriches of Africa and South America, belonging to the genera
Struthio and Rhea, and comprising at most but five species) are
found in Austrogaea and nowhere else. Of the Passeres the honey-
suckers (Meliphagidae) are most characteristic, and, abounding in
1 The following old-fashioned rough computation may serve as
an indication of the relative size of the orders and suborders of
recent birds:
Ratitae . . 20 Charadriiformes . 650 (incl. Columbae
Colymbiformes 20 350)
Spnenisciformes 15 Cuculiformes . 600 (incl. Psittaci
Procellariiformes 90 400)
Ciconiiformes . 150 Coraciiformes . 1600 (incl. Trochili
Anseriformes . 150 and Pici)
Falconiformes . 360 Passeres Clamatores 1000
Tinamiformes . 40 Passeres Oscines . 5000
Galliformes . 370
Gruiformes . 250 Total about ' 10,300 species
genera and species, extend to almost every part of the region, yet
only one species of Ptiiotis oversteps its limits, crossing the sea from
Lombok to Bali. Other peculiar families are much more confined.
But the positive characteristics of the region as a whole are not its
peculiar forms alone; there are at least Tour families which, being
feebly represented elsewhere, here attain the maximum of develop-
ment. Such are the thick-headed shrikes (Pachycephalidae), the
caterpillar-caters (Campephagidae), the flower-peckers (Dicaeidae),
and the swallow-flycatchers (Artamidae). Besides these, three or
perhaps four groups, though widely distributed throughout the
world, arrive in the Australian region at their culmination, present-
ing an abundance of most varied forms. These are the weaver-birds
(Ploceidae), and the moreporks (Podargidae), but especially the
kingfishers (AUedinidae) and the pigeons (Columbidae), the species
belonging to the two last obtaining in this region a degree of pro-
minence and beauty which is elsewhere unequalled.
The boundaries of the subregions arc not well defined.
The New Zealand Subregion, considered by Professors Newton
and Huxley and various other zoogeographcrs as deserving the
rank of a region, is, and to all appearance has long been, more isolated
than any other portion of the globe. Besides the three larger islands
numerous satellites belong to the subregion, as Lord Howe, Norfolk
and Kermadec islands, with the Chatham, Auckland and Macquaric
groups. The main affinities of the avifauna are, of course, Australian.
The most extraordinary feature is unquestionably the former
existence of the gigantic Dinornithes or moas (q.v.) and, another
family of Ratitae, the weird-looking kiwis or Apteryges, which are
totally unlike any other existing birds. Of other peculiar genera it
FIG. 22. Extinct Phillip-Island Parrot (Nestor productus).
(From specimen in the British Museum. Reduced.)
will suffice to mention only the more remarkable. The RaUidae
present the very noteworthy wootihens, Ocydromus, and the takahc,
Notornis, which is almost extinct. The widely-spread plovers,
Charadriidae, have two not less singular generic developments,
Thinornis, and the extraordinary wrybill, Anarhynchus. There is
an owl, type of the genus Sceloglaux. Of parrots, Stringops, the
kakapo or owl-parrot, is certainly peculiar, while Nestor constitutes
a peculiar subfamily of the brush-tongued parrots or Triehoglossidae.
Xenicus and Acanthositla form a little family of truly mesomyodean
Passeres Clamatores. Of the Meliphagidae the genera ProsDte-
madera, Pogonomis and Anthornis are peculiar. The starlings,
Sturnidae, are represented by Callaeas, Creadion and the very
abnormal Heterolocha. The gallinaceous birds are represented by
a quail, Colurnix novae zealandiae, now exterminated. A large
flightless goose, Cnemiornis, allied to the Australian Cereopsis, and
the gigantic rapacious Harpagomis, have died out recently, with
the moas. In all, there is a wonderful amount of specialization,
though perhaps in a very straight line from generalized forms;
but the affinity to Australian or Polynesian types is in many cases
clearly traceable, and it cannot be supposed but that these last are
of cognate origin with those of New Zealand. A very long period
of isolation must have been required to produce the differences so
manifestly to be observed, but a few forms seem at rare intervals
to have immigrated, and this immigration would appear to be kept
up to our own day, as shown by the instance of Zosterops laterolu,
which is said to have lately made its first appearance, and to have
established itself in the country, as well as by the fact of two cuckoos,
974
BIRD
[DISTRIBUTION
the widely-ranging Eudynamis taitensis and Ghrysococcyx lucidus,
which are annual visitors.
Polynesia forms, of course, part of Austrogaea. Its extent is so vast
tha.t it necessarily contains some peculiar, outlying forms, so to say
forgotten, which in their long-continued isolation have specialized
themselves. For instance, the kagu (Rhinochetus) of New Caledonia, a
queerly specialized form with Gruine affinities pointing only to South
America. The toothbilled pigeon (Didunculus) is restricted to
Samoa. Most interesting is the avifauna of the Sandwich islands;
entirely devoid of Psittaci and of Coraciiformes, these islands show
an extraordinary development of its peculiar family Drepanidae,
which are probably of South or Central American descent. Acrulo-
cercus is a Meliphagine, and a peculiar genus. There are a raven
(Corvus), a coot (Fulica), the well-known Sandwich island goose
(Bernicla sandvicensis), now very commonly domesticated in Europe ;
and some flycatchers and thrushlike birds.
The Australian Subregion comprises Australia and Tasmania. In
the north it is influenced, of course, by its proximity to Papuasia,
whence there is a considerable admixture of genera which do not
proceed beyond the tropics, and of these Casuarius is a striking
example. The Cape York peninsula practically belongs to Papuasia.
As a whole, Australia is rich in parrots, of which it has several very
peculiar forms, but Picarians in old-fashioned parlance, of all sorts
certain kingfishers excepted are few in number, and the pigeons
are also comparatively scarce, no doubt because of the many arboreal
predaceous marsupials. The continent, however, possesses the two
important genera of the Pseudoscines, namely the lyre-birds (Menura)
and the scrub-birds (Atrichia). Among the more curious forms of
other land-birds may be especially mentioned the Megapodiidae,
Lipoa and Talegallus, the rail Tribonyx and Pedionomus, which
represents the otherwise palaeotrppical Turnices in Australia. The
presence of bustards (Eupodotis) is a curious example of interrupted
distribution, since none other of the Otididae are found nearer than
India. The Ratitae are represented by two species of emeu
(Dromaeus), besides the cassowary of Cape York peninsula, and the
extinct Dromornis and Genyornis with its enormous skull.
The Papuan Subregion, chiefly New Guinea with its depend-
encies, the Timor group of islands, the Moluccas and Celebes. On
the whole its avifauna presents some very remarkable features.
Its most distinctive characteristic is the presence of the birds of
paradise, which are almost peculiar to it; for, granting that the
bower-birds, Chlamydodera and others, of Australia, belong to the
same family, they are far less highly specialized than the beautiful
and extraordinary forms which are found, within very restricted
limits, in the various islands of the Subregion. Another chief feature
is the extraordinary development of the cassowaries, the richness
and specialization of the kingfishers, parrots, pigeons, honeysuckers
and some remarkable flycatchers. It has several marked deficiencies
compared with Australia, among which are the babblers (Timeliidae),
weaver birds (Ploceidae), the Platycercinae among parrots, diurnal
birds of prey and the emeus. As a whole, the birds of Papua are
remarkable for their brilliance of plumage, or their metallic colour-
ing. The birds of paradise, the racquet-tailed kingfishers, Tany-
siptera, the largest and smallest of parrots, Calyptorhynchus and
tfasiterna, and the great crowned pigeons, Goura, are very char-
acteristic ; and so are the various Megapodes.
(B) NEOGAEA, or the Neotropical region. Excepting towards the
north, where, in Mexico, it meets, and inosculates with the Nearctic
subregion, the boundaries of the Neotropical region are simple
enough to trace, comprehending as it does the whole of South
America and all Central America; besides including the Falkland
islands to the south-east and the Galapagos under the equator to
the west, as well as the Antilles or West India islands up to the
Florida channel.
Owing to the comparatively scanty number of harmful mammalian
types, the birds play a considerable part in this large region, and
some authorities consider its avifauna the richest in the world.
The entire number of species amounts to about 3600. Of these
2000, or a good deal more than half, belong to the order Passerif ormes.
But the characteristic nature of the avifauna is more clearly brought
out when we learn that of the 2000 species just mentioned only
about 1070 belong to the higher suborder of Oscines, that means
to say, nearly one-half belong to the lower suborder Clamatores.
This is a state of things which exists nowhere else; for except in
Australia, where a few indigenous and peculiar low non-Oscines are
found, and in the Nearctic country, whither one family of Clama-
tores, viz. the Tyrannidae, has evidently been led by the geographical
continuity of its soil with that of the Neotropical region, such forms
do not occur elsewhere. Accordingly their disproportionate pre-
valence in South America points unerringly to the lower rank of the
avifauna of the region as a whole, and therefore to the propriety
of putting it next in order to that of the Australian region, the
general fauna of which is admittedly the lowest in the world. Huxley
has urged with his wonted perspicuity the alliance of these two
regions as Notogaea, basing his opinion, besides other weighty
evidence, in great measure on the evidence afforded by the two main
sections of the Galli, viz. the Peristeropodes and the Alectoropodes,
the former composed of the families Megapodiidae, almost wholly
Australian, and the Cracidae, entirely Neotropical. (Cf. P.Z.S.,
1868. pp. 294-319.)
Leaving, however, this matter as in some degree hypothetical,
we have as genera, families, or perhaps even larger groups, a great
many very remarkable forms which are characteristic of, or peculiar
to, the Neotropical region in part, if not as a whole. Of families
we find twenty-three, or maybe more, absolutely restricted thereto,
besides at least eight which, being peculiar to the New World,
extend their range into the Nearctic region, but are there so feebly
developed that their origin may be safely ascribed to the southern
portion of America. First in point of importance comes the extra-
ordinarily beautiful family of humming-birds (Trochilidae), with
nearly 150 genera (of which only three occur in the Nearctic region)
and more than 400 species. Then the tyrants (Tyrannidae), with
more than seventy genera (ten of which range into the northern
region), and over 300 species. To these follow the tanagers (Tana-
gridae), with upwards of forty genera (only one of which crosses the
border), and about 300 species; the piculules (TJendrocolaplidae),
with as many genera, and over 200 species; the ant-thrushes,
(Formicariidae) , with more than thirty genera, and nearly 200 species ;
together with other groups which, if not so large as those just
named, are yet just as well defined, and possibly more significant,
namely, the tapaculos (Pier optochidae) , the toucans (R hamphastidae) ,
the jacamars (Galbulid ae) , the motmots (Monotidae), the todies
(Todidae), the trumpeters (Psophiidae), and the screamers (Pala-
medeidae); besides such isolated forms as the seriema (Cariama),
and the sun-bittern (Eurypyga).
The nature of the South American avifauna will perhaps become
still more evident if we arrange the characteristic members as
follows :
1. Birds which are restricted to, probably indigenous of the
region: Rhea; Palamedea and Chauna, the screamers; Tinami;
Psophia, Dicholophus, Eurypyga, Heliornis of the Gruiform assembly ;
Thinocorys and Attagis; Cracidae; Opisthocomus ; of parrots Ara
and Conurus with their allies; Monotidae, incl. Todus; Steatornis;
Galbulinae and Bucconinae; Rhamphastidae; Formicariidae, Pterop-
tochidae, and of the Tyrannidae the Cotinginae.
2. Birds which are indigenous, but extend far into North America :
Cathartae, Trochilidae, Tyrannidae.
3. Birds which are originally immigrants from North America:
Podicipedidae, with the flightless Centropelma on Lake Titicaca;
Ceryle, the only genus of kingfishers in the New World; all the
Oscines.
More or less cosmopolitan groups like herons, Falconidae, Anseres,
Columbae, &c., and circumtropical families like Parridae, Trogonidae,
Capitonidae, are to be excluded from these lists as indifferent. The
differences between the Neotropical avifauna and that of North
America are fundamental and prove the independence or superior
value of the Neotropical region as one of the principal realms.
It is difficult to subdivide the Neotropical region into sub-
regions; the best suggestion is that of Newton: Antillean, with
the exception of the islands of Trinidad and Tobago, as well as those
which lie on the northern coast of South America; Patagonian,
including Chile and part of Peru; Columbian, comprising the rest
of the continent and also Central America.
The Antillean Subregion is in many respects one of the most
suggestive and interesting, comparatively small though it be. For
narrow as are the channels between Cuba and the opposite coast of
Central America, between the Bahamas and Florida, and between
Grenada and Tobago, the fauna of the Antillean chain, instead of
being a mixture of that of the almost contiguous countries, differs
much from all, and exhibits in some groups a degree of speciality
which may be not unfitly compared with that of oceanic islands.
Except such as are of coral formation, the Antilles are hilly, not to
say mountainous, their summits rising in places to an elevation of
8000 ft., and nearly all, prior to their occupation by Europeans,
were covered with luxuriant forest, which, assisting in the collection
and condensation of the clouds brought by the trade winds, ensured
its own vitality by precipitating frequent and long-continued rains
upon the fertile soil. Under such conditions we might expect to
find an extremely plentiful animal population, one as rich as that
which inhabits the same latitudes in Central America, not many
degrees farther to the west ; but no instance perhaps can be cited
which shows more strikingly the difference between a continental
and antinsular fauna, since, making every allowance for the ravages
of cultivation by civilized man, the contrary is the case, and possibly
no area of land so highly favoured by nature is so poorly furnished
with the higher forms of animal life. 'Here, as over so large a portion
of the Australian region, we find birds constituting the supreme
class the scarcity of mammals being accounted for in some measure
as a normal effect of insularity. \
There is one peculiar subfamily, Todinae, represented by only four
species of Todus. We note the absence of Ratitae, Tinami, Cracidae,
Rhamphastidae, and any of those gruiform genera which are so
characteristic of the continent. There is no family of birds common
to the Nearctic area and the Antillean subregion without occurring
also in other parts of the Neotropical region, a fact which proves its
affinity to the latter.
The Patagonian Subregion, most extratropical, is naturally
devoid of a good many typically tropical birds, or these are but
poorly represented, for instance Caerebidae, Mniotiltidae, Tanagridae,
vireonidae. On the other hand some of the most characteristic
DISTRIBUTION]
BIRD
975
features of the whole region are here well represented, e.g. Rkea,
Tinami, Chauna, Dicholophus, Attagis, Pteroptochidae, and indeed
therein we find some of the best evidence of the antiquity of its
population, both recent and extinct (cf. the numerous fossils of the
Santa Cruz formation), and also the nearest resemblance to the fauna
of Austrogaea.
(C) ARCTOGAEA is Huxley's well-chosen term for all the rest of
the world (including the Nearctic, Palaearctic, Indian and Ethiopian
regions of P. L. Sclater) in opposition to Notogaea. Faunistically,
although not geographically, the Nearctic and Palaearctic areas
must form the two subdivisions of one great unit, for which the
" Holarctic region " is now the generally accepted term.
The HOLARCTIC REGION, comprising North America and the extra-
tropical mass of land of the Old World, may from an ornithological
point of view be characterized by the Colymbi, Alcidae, CaUidae or
Alectorppodous Galli, and the Oscines, which have here reached
their highest development; while Ratitae, Tinami, Psittaci, and
non-Oscme Passeres (with the exception of Tyrannidae extending
into North America and Conurus carolinensis) are absent.
Nearctic Subregion. The close affinity of North America with
the Palaearctic avifauna becomes at once apparent if we exclude
those groups of birds which we have good reason to believe have
their original home in the Neotropical region, notably numerous
Tyrannidae, humming-birds and the turkey-buzzards.
The following groups may be mentioned as characteristic and
typically American, and, since we consider them as comparatively
recent immigrants into the Neotropical region, as originally peculiar
to the Nearctic area: Mniotiltidae, Vireonidae, Icteridae, Meleagris
and various Tetraoninae. Restricted to and peculiar to the sub-
region is only the little Oscine family of Chamaeidae, restricted to
the coast district of California. " More than one-third of the genera
of Nearctic birds are common also to the Palaearctic subregion. If
we take the number of Nearctic species at 700, which is perhaps an
exaggeration, and that of the Palaearctic at 850, we find that,
exclusive of stragglers, there are about 120 common to the two areas.
Nearly 20 more are properly Palaearctic, but occasionally occur in
America, and about 50 are Nearctic, which from time to time stray
to Europe or Asia. This, however, is by no means the only point of
resemblance. Of many genera, the so-called species found in the
New World are represented in the Old by forms so like them that
often none but an expert can distinguish them, and of such repre-
sentative ' species ' about 80 might be enumerated " (Newton, Diet.
Birds, p. 335).
Of the many attempts to subdivide the Nearctic subregion, the
same authority favours that of Dr S. F. Baird, who distinguishes
between Canadian, Alleghanian, Middle or Missourian, Californian
and Alaskan provinces. Dr Hart Merriam takes the broad point
of view " that the whole of extratropical North America consists of
but two primary life regions, a Boreal region, which is circumpolar,
and a Sonoran or Mexican tableland region which is unique." The
first of these supports Newton's contention of the essential unity of
the Nearctic and Palaearctic areas. In any case the various Nearctic
subdivisions completely merge into each other, just as is to be
expected from the physical configuration and other bionomic
conditions of the North American continent.
The Palaearctic Subregion is, broadly speaking, Europe and Asia,
with the exception of India and China. The propriety of com-
prehending this enormous tract in one zoological " region " was
first shown by Dr P. L. Sclater, and as regards the distribution of
most classes of animals there have been few to doubt that it is an
extremely natural one. Not indeed altogether so homogeneous as
the Nearctic area, it presents, however, even at its extreme points,
no very striking difference between the bulk of its birds. Though
Japan is far removed from western Europe, and though a few generic
forms and still fewer families inhabit the one without also frequenting
the other, yet there is a most astonishing similarity in a large portion
of their respective birds. In some cases the closest examination has
failed to detect any distinction that may be called specific between
the members of their avifauna ; but in most it is possible to discover
just sufficient difference to warrant a separation of the subjects.
Nevertheless, it is clear that in Japan we have, as it were, a repetition
of some of our most familiar species the redbreast and the hedge-
sparrow, for example slightly modified in plumage or otherwise, so
as to furnish instances of the most accurate representation, e.g.
Cyanopica cooki of Portugal and Spain, and C. cyana of Amoorland
and Japan.
Like the Nearctic the Palaearctic subregion seems to possess but
one single peculiar family of land birds, the Panuridae, represented
by the beautiful species known to Englishmen as the bearded tit-
mouse, Panurus biarmicus. The entire number of Palaearctic
families are, according to Newton, 67, and of the genera 323. Of
these 128 are common to the Nearctic subregion. Species of_5l
more seem to occur as true natives within the Ethiopian and Indian
regions, and besides these 18 appear to be common to the Ethiopian
without being found in the Indian, and no fewer than 71 to the
Indian without occurring in the Ethiopian. To compare the Palae-
arctic genera with those of the Australian and Neotropical regions
would be simply a waste of time, for the points of resemblance are
extremely few, and such as they are they lead to nothing. It will
therefore be seen from the above that next to the NearcUc area the
Palaearctic has a much greater affinity to any other, a fact which
might be expected from geographical considerations.
Having shown this much we have next to deal with the peculiarities
of the vast Palaearctic subregion. At the lowest computation 37
genera seem to be peculiar to it, though it is certain that species
of several are regularly wont to wander beyond its limits in winter
seeking a southern climate. Of the peculiar genera only a few
examples may be mentioned: Eurynorhynchus, the spoon-billed
sandpiper of Siberia ; Syrrhaptes, the sandgrouse of central Asia ;
Muscicapa of Europe.
We distinguish between a Siberian, Mongolian, Mediterranean
and European province, none of which can be well denned. The
islands of the Canaries, Madeira and the Azores belong to the Medi-
terranean province, and offer some peculiarities of great interest.
The Azores have been monographed by F. D. Godman (Nat. Hist, of
the Azores or Western Islands, London, 1870). There is a general
tendency among these insular birds to vary more or less from their
continental representatives, and this is especially shown by the
former having always darker plumage and stronger bills and legs.
In one instance the variation is so excessive that it fully justifies
the establishment of a specific distinction. This is the case of the
bullfinch of the more western of these islands (Pyrrhula murina),
the male of which, instead of the ruddy breast of its well-known
congener (P. vulgaris), has that part of a sober mouse-colour. A
similar sombre hue distinguishes the peculiar chaffinch of the Canary
Islands (Fringilla teydea), but to these islands as well as the Azores
and Madeiras there belongs in common another chaffinch (F. tintillon)
which, though very nearly allied to that of Mauritania (F. spodogenia)
is perfectly recognizable, and not found elsewhere. Madeira has also
its peculiar golden-crested wren (Regulus maderensis), and its peculiar
pigeon (Columba trocaz), while two allied forms of the latter (C.
laurivora and C. bollii) are found only in the Canaries. Further on
this subject we must not go; we can only state that Godman has
shown good reason for declaring that the avifauna of all these islands
is the effect of colonization extending over a long period of years, and
going on now.
PALAEOTROPICAL REGION. Muchcanbe said in favour of combin-
ing the mostly tropical portion of the great mass of land of the Old
World (excluding, of course, Austrogaea or the Australian region)
into one region, for which Oscar Drude's well-chosen term " palaeo-
tropical " has been adopted (cf. Bronn's Thierreich, System Part.
p. 296, 1893). This region naturally comprises the African and
Indian areas, conformably to be called subregions.
Both subregions possess, besides others, the following character-
istic birds: Ratitae, viz. Struthio in Africa and Arabia, fossil also
in the Sivalik Hills, and Aepyornithidae in Madagascar; Pitttdae,
Bucerotinae and Upupinae, of which Upupa itself in India, Mada-
gascar and Africa; Coraciidae; Pycnonotidae or bulbuls; Trogonidae,
of which the Asiatic genera are the less specialized in opposition to
the Neotropical forms; Vulturidae; Leptoptilus, Anaslomus and
Ciconia among the storks; Pteroclidae; Treroninae among pigeons.
Of other families which, however, extend their range more or less
far into the Australian realm, may be mentioned Otididae, the
bustards; Meropidae or bee-eaters; Muscicapidae or flycatchers;
Sturnidae or starlings.
The Ethiopian Subregion comprises the whole of Africa and
Madagascar, except the Barbary States, but including Arabia; in
the north-east the subregion melts into the Palaearctic between
Palestine and the Persian Gulf. Some authors are inclined to extend
its limits still farther to the eastwards, through Beluchistan and even
beyond the Indus.
So large a portion of the Ethiopian subregion lies between the
tropics that no surprise need be expressed at the richness of its fauna
relatively to that of the last two subregions we have considered.
Between fifty and sixty so-called families of land birds alone are
found within its limits, and of them at least nine are peculiar; the
typical genera of which are Buphaga, Euryceros, Philepitta, Muso-
phaga, Irrisor, Leptosoma, Colitis, Serpentarius, Struthio, Aepyornis.
It is singular that only the first three of them belong to the order
Passeriformes, a proportion which is not maintained^ in any other
tropical region. The number of peculiar genera, besides those just
mentioned, is too great for them to be named here; some of the
most remarkable on the continent are: Balaeniceps, the whale-
headed heron; Balaearica, the crowned crane; Podica, finfoot;
Numida and allied genera of guinea fowls.
The natural division of the subregion is that into an African and a
Madagascar province. Subdivision of the continental portion is
beset with great difficulties, and none of the numerous attempts
have proved long-lived. The forest -clad basin of the Congo, with
the coastal districts of the bay of Guinea, seem to form one domain
in opposition to the rest.
Trie Malagasy province comprises, besides Madagascar, the
Mascarene, Comoro and Seychelle islands. It may be safely deemed
the most peculiar area of the earth's surface, while from the richness
and multifariousness of its animal, and especially of its ornithic
population, New Zealand cannot be compared with it. In A.
Grandidier's magnificent Histoire physique, naturelle et politique de
Madagascar, vol. xii. (Paris, 1875-1884), are enumerated 238 species
as belonging to the island, of which 129 are peculiar to it. and
among those are no fewer than 35 peculiar genera. Euryceros of the
976
BIRD
[CLASSIFICATION
Oscines, and Philepitta of the Clamatores, are remarkable enough to
form the types of Passeriform families, and Mesites half-way between
Galli and Gruiformes is of prime importance. The Passerine
Falculia, with its recently extinguished allies Fregilupus and
Necropsar of the Mascarenes; the Coraciine Brachypteracias, Atel-
ornis and Geobiastes, are very abundant, while HeliodUus is an owl
belonging to that subfamily which is otherwise represented only by
the widely-spread barn owl, Strix flammea. Lastly must be noted
the extinct tall Ratite species of Aepyornis with its several fancy
genera. But, as Newton charmingly puts it (Diet. Birds, p. 353), the
avifauna of Madagascar is not entirely composed of such singularities
as these. We have homely genera, even among the true Passeres,
occurring there such as Alauda, Acrocephalus, Motacilla and
Pratincola, while the Cisticola madagascariensis is only distinguish-
able from the well-known fan-tailed warbler, C. schoenicola of
Europe, Africa and India by its rather darker coloration. But there
are also species, though not Passerine, which are absolutely identical
with those of Britain, the barn owl, common quail, pigmy rail, and
little grebe or dabchick, all of them common and apparently resident
in the island. Mauritius had the dodo (q.v.), Lophopsittacus and
Aphanapteryx. Rodriguez had the solitaire, Necropsittacus and
Necropsar, Bourbon or Reunion had Fregilupus.
Some of the Malagasy avifauna is certainly ancient, aboriginal,
and even points to India; other forms indicate clearly their African
FIG. 23. Extinct Starling of Reunion (Fregilupus varius),
adapted from figures by Daubenton, Levaillant and others.
Reduced.
origin; while, lastly, such strikingly characteristic Indo-African
birds as hprnbills are unaccountably absent.
The Oriental Subregion comprises all the countries and numerous
islands between the Palaearctic and Australian areas; it possesses
upwards of seventy families, of which, however, only "one is peculiar,
but this family, the Eurylaemidae or broadbills, is of great importance
since it represents all the Subdamatores. Of the many characteristic
birds may be mentioned Pycnonotidae or bulbuls, of which the
Phyllornithinae are peculiar, Campephagidae or cuckoo-shrikes,
Dicruridae or drongos, Nectarinitdae or sunbirds; pheasants,
together with Pavo and Callus. Some of the similarities to the
Ethiopian and the great differences from the Australian avifauna
have already been pointed out. Naturally no line whatever can be
drawn between the Oriental and the Palaearctic subregions, and
many otherwise essentially Indo-Malayan families extend far into
the Australian realm, far across Wallace's line, whilst the reverse
takes place to a much more moderate extent. Certainly the Oriental
area, in spite of its considerable size, cannot possibly claim the
standing of a primary region. It is a continuation of the great
Arctoeaea into the tropics.
Following H. J. Elwes we subdivide the whole subregion into
a Himalo-Chmese, Indian and Malayan province. These divisions
had the approval of W. T. Blanford, who proposed the terms Cis-
and Transgangetic for the two first. The Himalo-Chinese or Trans-
gangetic province shows the characteristics of its avifauna also far
away to the eastward in Formosa, Hainan and Cochin China, and
again in a lesser degree to the southward in the mountains of Malacca
and Sumatra. Indo-China is especially rich in Eurylaemidae,
China proper and the Himalayas in pheasants.
The Indian or Cisgangetic province is the least rich of the three
so far as peculiar genera are concerned.
The Malayan proVince comprising the Malay islands, besides the
Malay peninsula, and the very remarkable Philippines, possess an
extraordinary number of peculiar and interesting genera.
The influence of the Australian realm is indicated by a Megapode
in Celebes, another in Borneo and Labuan, and a third in the Nicobar
islands (which, however, like the Andamans, belong to the Indian
province), but there are no cockatoos, these keeping strictly to the
other side of Wallace's line, whence we started on this survey of the
world's avifauna.
D. CLASSIFICATION OF BIRDS
Fiirbringer's great work, published in the year 1888 by the
Natura Artis Magistra Society of Amsterdam, enabled Gadow
not only to continue for the next five years the same lines of
morphological research, but also further to investigate those
questions which were still left in abeyance or seemed to require
renewed study. The resulting " classification is based on the
examination, mostly autoptic, of a far greater number of
characters than any that had preceded it; moreover, they were
chosen in a different way, discernment being exercised in sifting
and weighing them, so as to determine, so far as possible, the
relative value of each, according as that value may vary in
different groups, and not to produce a mere mechanical ' key '
after the fashion become of late years so common " (Newton's
Dictionary of Birds, Introduction, p. 103) . It is not the quantity
but the quality of the anatomical and bionomic characters which
determines their taxonomic value, and a few fundamental
characters are better indications of the affinities of given groups
of birds than a great number of agreements if these can be
shown to be cases of isomorphism or heterophyletic, convergent
analogy. Nature possesses three great educational or develop-
mental schools terrestrial, aquatic and aerial life. Each of
these affords animal, vegetable or mixed diet. Animal diet
implies the greatest variety with regard to locality and the modes
of procuring the food. Each of these schools impresses its pupils,
in the case of the birds, with its own stamp, but there are many
combinations, since in the course of phyletic development many
a group of birds has exchanged one school for another. Origin-
ally terrestrial groups have taken to an entirely aquatic life, and
vice versd; others, originally endowed with the power of flight,
have become, or are transforming themselves into, absolutely
cursorial forms; some members of one group live entirely on
seeds, while others have become fierce fishers, and so forth.
Only by the most careful inquiry into their history can their
relationship or pedigree be unravelled. A statement may now
be given of Gadow's classification of birds, in which the extinct
forms have been intercalated so far as possible. The few char-
acters assigned to the various groups are sufficiently diagnostic
when taken together, although they are not always those upon
which the classification has been established:
CLASS AVES
I. Sub-class Archaeornithes The three fingers and their
metacarpals remain separate, each with a claw. Well-developed
remiges. Both jaws with alveolar teeth. Amphicoelous.
Caudal vertebrae more than thirteen, without a pygostyle, but
with about twelve pairs of rectrices. Archaeopteryx, A. litho-
graphica, s. macroura, two specimens from the upper Oolite of
Solenhofen, Bavaria.
II. Sub-class Neornithes. Metacarpals fused. Second finger
the longest. Not more than thirteen caudal vertebrae.
I. Division RATITAE. Terrestrial, flightless. Without sternal
keel. Quadrate bone with single proximal knob. With-
out pygostyle. Coracoid and scapula fused. Compound
rhamphotheca. Adult without apteria. With copulatory
organ. A collective polyphyletic or heterogeneous group,
originally cosmopolitan; with certainty existing since the
Miocene.
1. Order Struthiones. With pubic symphysis. Two toes only,
third and fourth. Slruthio, ostrich, Pliocene of Samos and of
north-west India, now Africa and Arabia.
2. Order Rheae. With long ischiadic symphysis. Three toes.
Mesembriornis, Miocene or Pliocene of Argentina. Rhea, South
America.
CLASSIFICATION]
BIRD
977
3. Order Casuarii. Three toes. Aftershaft as long as the other
half. Casuarius and Dromaeus, Australian. Hypselornis,
Pliocene of Sivalik Hills.
4. Order Apteryges. Four toes. Bill long and slender. Apteryx,
New Zealand.
5. Order Dinornithes. Three or four toes. Bill short. Anterior
limbs extremely reduced. Dinornis, numerous species, recently
extinct, New Zealand.
6. Order Aepyornithes. Aepyornis, recently extinct, Mada-
gascar.
To the Ratitae belong possibly also the imperfectly known
Diatryma, Eocene of New Mexico, Gastorms and Dasornis,
Eocene of Europe, Cenyornis, Pleistocene of Australia.
II. Division ODONTOLCAE. Marine, flightless, without sternal
keel. Upper and lower jaws with teeth in furrows. Cret-
aceous epoch. Enaliornis, England, vertebrae chiefly
biconcave; Hesperornis, North America, vertebrae
heterocoelous.
III. Division CARINATAE. With keeled sternum.
1. Order Ichthyornithes. Power of flight well developed. Verte-
brae still amphicoelous. With small pygostyle. Incisura
ischiadica. With alveolar teeth. Cretaceous of Kansas.
Ichthyornis, Apatornis.
2. Order Colymbiformes. Plantigrade, nidifugous, aquatic. All
toes webbed, fourth largest, hallux short; metatarsus laterally
compressed; tibia with high, pyramidal crest. Bill straight,
pointed, with simple sheath.
Sub-order I. COLYMBI, Divers. Front toes completely
webbed. Holarctic. Colymbus.
Sub-order 2. PODICIPEDES, Grebes. Toeslobated. Cosmo-
politan.
3. Order Sphenisciformes. Nidicolous, marine. Flightless, wings
transformed into rowing paddles. SPHENISCI, penguins.
Antarctic and southern temperate coasts. Since the Eocene.
4. Order Procellariifonnes. Well flying, pelagic, nidicolous.
Hallux absent or vestigial. Rhamphotheca compound.
Cosmopolitan. TUBINARES, petrels and albatrosses.
5. Order Ciconiifprmes. Swimmers or waders. Desmognathous,
without basipterygoid processes; with one pair of sterno-
tracheal muscles.
Sub-order i. STEGANOPODES. Well flying, aquatic,
nidicolous; with all the four toes webbed together.
Rhamphotheca compound; cosmopolitan. Phaelhon,
tropic-bird; Sula, gannet; Phalacrocorax, cormorant
and Plotus, snake-bird ; Fregata, frigate-bird ; Pelecanus.
Here also Pelagornis, Miocene of France; Argillornis
and probably Odontopteryx from the London Clay.
Sub-order 2. ARDEAE. Piscivorous, nidicolous, waders;
with complicated hypotarsus and with long cervical
apteria. Ardeidae, cosmopolitan; including Cancroma,
Neotropical, Balaeniceps, Scopidae, Ethiopian. Pro-
herodius. Eocene of England.
Sub-order 3. CICONIAE. Zoophagous, nidicolous, waders;
with simple hypotarsus and without cervical apteria.
Cosmopolitan. Ciconiidae, storks. Ibidae, ibises and
spoonbills. Propelargus, Oligocene.
Sub-order 4. PHOENICOPTERI. Flamingos. Nidifugous,
waders; with simple hypotarsus and without cervical
apteria. Front toes completely webbed; hallux very
short or absent ; feed chiefly on small aquatic inverte-
brates. Phoenicopterus, cosmopolitan. Oligocene Elornis
and, allied, Palaelodus.
6. Order Anseriformes. Desmognathous, nidifugous; with two
pairs of sterno-tracheal muscles, with complete basipterygoid
processes and with a penis.
Sub-order I. PALAMEDEAE. Screamers. Ribs without
uncinate processes. Hypotarsus simple. Neotropical.
Chauna, Palamedea.
Sub-order 2. ANSERES. Family Anatidae. Hypotarsus
complex. Anser, Anas, Cygnus, since Miocene.
Cnemiornis, Pleistocene, New Zealand, flightless.
7. Order Falconiformes. Birds of prey. Carnivorous, desmc-
gnathous, nidicolous, without functional caeca. Terrestrial,
aerial.
Sub-order i. CATHARTAE. American vultures. Withnares
perviae. Cathartes, turkey buzzards, Sarcorhamphus
gryphus, condor Gypagus papa, king vulture.
Sub-order 2. ACCIPITRES. Withnaresimperviae. Serpent-
ariidae, secretary-bird, Ethiopian; Miocene, France.
Vulturidae, Old World vultures, excluding Australia.
Falconidae, cosmopolitan, since the Eocene. Harpa-
gornis, Pleistocene, New Zealand; Lithornis, Eocene,
England. Pandionidae, ospreys or fish hawks, cosmo-
politan.
8. Order Tinamiformes. Nidifugous, with incisura ischiadica,
without pygostyle. Herbivorous, terrestrial, neotropical.
Crypturi, tinamous.
9. Order Galliformes. Schizognathpus, herbivorous, terrestrial.
With ten functional remigcs. With strong spinac sterni.
Sub-order I. MESITES. Without basipterygoid processes,
and with large spina interna. Mcsttes, Madagascar.
Sub-order 2. TURNICES. Hemipodes or button-quails.
Nidifugous; vomer large; sternum without processus
obliqui. Hallux absent or vestigial. Old World.
Turnix, Pedionomus.
Sub-order 3. GALLI. With large spina communis, and with
large processus obliqui. Hallux functional. Mega-
podiidae, Australian region. Cracidae, curassows and
guans, neotropical. Gallidae, cosmopolitan.
Sub-order 4. OPISTHOCOMI. Arboreal, with long spina
externa ; without basipterygoid processes. Opiilnocomus
hoatzin, Guiana, Venezuela and Amazon countries.
10. Order Gruiformes. Legs of the wading type. Without
basipterygoid processes. Without spina interna. Nidifugous.
Essentially schizognathous. Rallidae, cosmopolitan, since
Oligocene. Rallus, Fulica, Ocydromus, &c., Gailinula nesiotis,
Tristan d'Acunha, flightless. Notornis, New Zealand, flight-
less, nearly extinct. Aptornis, New Zealand, flightless, extinct.
Aphanapteryx (Mauritius) = Erythromachus (Rodriguez) =
Diaphorapteryx (Chatham Island), flightless and recently
extinct. Gypsornis, upper Eocene, France. Gruidae, cranes,
cosmopolitan, allied Phororhacos, Tertiary of Argentina.
Dicholophidae, cariamas, neotropical. Otididae, bustards. Old
World. Rhinochetidae, kagus, New Caledonia. Eurypygidae,
sun-bittern, neotropical. Heliornithidae, finfoots, tropical.
11. Order Charadriiiormes. Schizognathous. With eleven remiges,
of which the terminal very short. Aquinto-cubital. Spinac
sterni short, separate.
Sub-order i. LIMICOLAE. Nidifugous, without spina
interna sterni. Hypotarsus complicated. Charadriidae,
plovers. Chionidtdae, sheath-bill. Glareolidae, wading
swallows and coursers. Thinocorylhidae, seed-snipes.
Oedicnemididae, thick-knees. Parridae.
Sub-order 2. LARI. Aquatic, vomer complete. Without
basipterygoid processes. Front toes webbed; hallux
small or absent. Large supraorbital glands. Since
Miocene. Laridae, gulls, cosmopolitan. Alcidae, auks,
northern half of periarctic region.
Sub-order 3. PTEROCLES. Sand-grouse. Nidifugous. Vomer
vestigial. With large crop and caeca. Hallux vestigial
or absent since Oligocene. Africa to India, and Siberia.
Pterocles and Syrrhaptes.
Sub-order 4. COLUMBAE. Pigeons. Nidicolous. Vomer
vestigial. With large crop, vestigial caeca. Columbidae,
cosmopolitan, since Miocene. Ditlidae, flightless,
recently extinct. Didus, dodo, Mauritius. Pezophaps,
solitaire, Rodriguez.
12. Order Cuculiformes. Desmognathous, nidicolous; zygodac-
tylous, or with the outer toe reversible.
Sub-order i. CUCULI. Cuckoos. Quinto-cubital. Cuculidac,
cosmopolitan. Musophagtdae, plantain-eaters and
touracos, Ethiopian since Miocene.
Sub-order 2. PSITTACI. Parrots. Zygodactylous ; aquinto-
cubital. Cosmopolitan, chiefly tropical. Trichoglossidae,
' lories, Austro-Malayan. Nestor, New Zealand. Cydo-
psittactis, Eos, Lorius, &c. Psittacidae, tongue smooth,
tncl. Stringops.
13. Order Coraciiformes. Nidicolous. Nares imperviae, holo-
rhinal. Downs restricted to the apteria or absent. Thirteen
to fifteen cervical vertebrae. Mostly desmognathous. Deep
plantar tendons connected with each other.
Sub-order i. CORACIAE. Either (i) with long spina externa
sterni, Coraciidae, rollers, Old World. Momotidae,
neotropical, motmots and todies. AUedinidae. king-
fishers, cosmopolitan or (2) with long spina communis.
Meropidae, bee-eaters, Old World. Upupidae, Upupinae,
hoopoes: palaearctic and palaeptropical. Bucerotinae,
hornbills, palaeotropical ; Irrisorinae, woodhoopoes,
Ethiopian.
Sub-order 2. STRIGES. Owls. Outer toe reversible.
Schizognathous. Long caeca. Flexor tendons normal.
Hypotarsus simple. Cosmopolitan.
Sub-order. 3. CAPRIMULGI. Nightjars. Nocturnal. With
gaping mouth. Ten remiges and ten rectrices. Spinae
sterni vestigial. Caeca functional. Stcatornithidae.
Stcatornis, oil-bird or guacharo, South America.
Podargidae, Australasian, Caprimulgidae, cosmopolitan.
Sub-order 4. CYPSELI. Tenth terminal remex the longest.
With short spinae sterni. Without caeca. Cypseltdae,
swifts, cosmopolitan. Tractiilidae, humming-birds,
American.
Sub-order s. COLII. Mouse-birds. First and fourth toes
reversible. Ethiopian.
Sub-order 6. TROGONES. Trogons. Heterpdactyle, first
and second toes directed Forwards, third and fourth
backwards. Tropical. Trogon gallicus, Miocene of
France.
BIRD-LOUSEBIRDS OF PARADISE
Sub-order 7. PICI. Zygodactylous. Tendon of the flexor
hallucis kmgus muscle sending a strong vinculum to that
of the flexor profundus muscle, the tendon of which
goes to the third toe only. Galbulidae, puff-birds and
jacamars, neotropical. Capitonidae, barbets, tropical.
Rhamphastidae, toucans, neotropical. Picidae, wood-
peckers, cosmopolitan, excepting Madagascar and
Australian region.
14. Order Passerifonnes. Nidicolous. Aegithognathous, without
basipterygoid processes. Spina externa sterni large, spina
interna absent. Quinto-cubital, toes normal. Apparently
since the upper Eocene.
Sub-order I. PASSERES ANISOMYODAE. Syrinx muscles
entirely lateral or attached to the dorsal or ventral
corners of the bronchial semi-rings, (i) Subdamatores.
Deep plantar tendons connected by a vinculum. Eury-
laemidae, broad-bills, Indian and Indo-Malayan. (2)
Clamatores, Deep flexor tendons not connected.
Pittidae, palaeotropical. Xenicidae, New Zealand.
Tyrannidae, American, Formicariidae, Pteroptochidae,
neotropical.
Sub-order 2. PASSERES DIACROMYODAE. Syrinx muscles of
either side attached to the dorsal and ventral corners
of the rings. Hallux strong, with a large claw, (i)
Suboscines with Menura, lyre-bird, and Atrichia, scrub-
bird, in Australia. (2) Oscines, the true singing-birds,
with more than 5000 recent species, are mostly divided
into some thirty " families," few of which can be denned.
The fourteen orders of the Carinatae are further congregated into
four " Legions " :
I. COLYMBOMORPHAE= Ichthyornithes + Colymbiformes +
Sphenisciformes -f- Procellariiformes.
II. PELARGOMORPHAE = Ciconiiformes + Anseriformes +
Falconiformes.
III. ALECTOROMORPHAE = Tinamiformes + Galliformes +
Gruiformes + Charadriiformes.
IV. CORACIOMORPHAE = Cuculiformes + Coraciiformes +
Passerifonnes.
These four legions are again combined into two " Brigades," the
first of which comprises the first and second legions, while the
second brigade contains the third and fourth legions.
Thus the whole classification becomes a rounded-off phylogenetic
system, which, at least in its broad outlines, seems to approach the
natural system, the ideal goal of the scientific ornithologist. The
main branches of the resultant " tree " may be rendered as follows:
CORACIOMORPHAE
+
ODONTOLCAE..COLYMBO- + PELARGO- ALECTOROMORPHAE. .RATITAE
MORPHAE MORPHAE
NEORNITHES
The Odontolcae seem to be an early specialized offshoot of the
Colymbo-Pelargomorphous brigade, while the Ratitae represent a
number of side branches of early Alectoromorphae. The Ratitae
branched off, probably during the Eocene period, from that still
indifferent stock which gave rise to the Tinarni+Galli-r-Gruiformes,
when the members of this stock were still in possession of those
archaic characters which distinguish Ratitae from Carinatae. _ It
follows that new groups of Ratitae can no longer be developed since
there are no Carinatae living which still retain so many low char-
acters, e.g. configuration of the palate, precoracoid, pelvis, intestinal
convolutions, copulatory organ, &c. Loss of the keel is co-ordinated
with the power of using the forelimbs for locomotion; although a
" Ratite character, it is not sufficient to turn a Notornis, Cnemiornii
or Stringops, not even a Phororhacos into a member of the Ratitae.
Another branch of the Alectoromorphae, in particular of the
Galliformes, when these were still scarcely separated from the
Gruiformes, especially rail-like birds, leads through Opisthocomi
to the Cuculiformes. These are, again in an ascending direction,
connected with the Coraciiformes, out of which have arisen the
Passeriformes, and these have blossomed into the Oscines, which,
as the apotheosis of bird life, have conquered the whole inhabitable
world. (H. F. G.)
BIRD-LOUSE, any small flat degenerate wingless neuropterous
insect of the group Mallophaga, parasitic upon birds and
mammals and feeding upon dermal excretions or upon the softer
parts of hair and feathers. The term " biting-lice " is sometimes
given to these parasites, in allusion to the mandibulate character
of their mouth-parts, which serves to distinguish them at once
from the true lice of the order Rhynchota in which the jaws are
haustellate.
BIRD'S-EYE, a name applied to various small bright flowers,
especially those which have a small spot or " eye " in the centre.
The primula is thus spoken of, on account of its yellow centre,
also the adonis, or " pheasant's eye," and the blue veronica,
or germander speedwell. The word is also applied to a sort of
tobacco, in which the stalks (of a mottled colour) are cut up
together with the leaves. From a similar sense comes the
phrase " bird's-eye maple," a speckled variety of maple-wood,
or the " bird's-eye handkerchief " mentioned in Thackeray's
novels.
BIRDSNESTING, a general term for the pursuit of collecting
and preserving birds' eggs, with or without the nests themselves.
The nests and eggs of wild birds are nowadays protected by
local laws almost everywhere in both Great Britain and the
United States. By law they may be taken for scientific purposes
only, by special licence. In order not to interfere seriously with
breeding it is customary to take but one egg from a nest, and,
if the nest itself be taken, to wait until the young birds have left
it. Every egg, unless " hard-set," should be blown as soon as
removed from the nest. This is done by opening a small hole
in its side by means of a drill with a conical head, manufactured
for the purpose, a minute hole for the insertion of the drill-head
having first been made in the shell with a needle, which is then
used to stir up the contents, so that they shall flow easily. A
blow-pipe with a curved mouth is then inserted, the egg is held
hole downwards, and the contents blown out. The old-fashioned
method of making two holes in the egg is thus superseded.
Should the egg be " hard-set " a somewhat larger hole is made
and its edges reinforced with layers of paper pasted round them.
Minute forceps are then introduced and the embryo cut into
pieces small enough to pass through the hole. The inside of the
egg is then rinsed out with clean water, and also before being
placed in the cabinet, with a solution of corrosive sublimate,
which prevents decay and consequent discoloration of the inner
membrane. Finally the egg is placed with the hole downwards
upon a sheet of white blotting-paper to dry. The authentication
of the eggs is the most important duty of an egg-collector, next
to identifying the specimens. According to some the best
method is to mark with a fine pen on the egg itself the variety,
scientific name, locality of nest, date of taking and the initials
of the collector, as well as a reference to his note-book or cata-
logue. Others advocate keeping the authentication separate
with only a numbered reference on the egg itself. Eggs should
not be transported in bran or sawdust, but in strong wool-lined
boxes. The best cabinets are fitted with drawers, pulled out to
inspect the eggs, but at other times closed to preserve them
from the light, which is injurious to their delicate colouring.
When an entire nest is taken it should be disinfected with hypo-
sulphite of soda or insect-powder.
See Birdnesting and Bird-Skinning, by E. Newman (London,
1888); The Young Collector's Handbook of British Birds' Nests and
Eggs, by W. H. Bath (London, 1888); Birds' Nests, Eggs and Egg-
Collecting, by R. Kearton (London, 1890); British Birds' Eggs and
Nests, by J. C. Atkinson (London, 1898); Nests and Eggs of North
American Birds, by Ernest Ingersoll (1880-1881).
BIRDS OF PARADISE, a group of passerine birds inhabiting
New Guinea and the adjacent islands, so named by the Dutch
voyagers in allusion to the brilliancy of their plumage, and to
the current belief that, possessing neither wings nor feet, they
passed their lives in the air, sustained on their ample plumes, rest-
ing only at long intervals suspended from the branches of lofty
trees by the wire-like feathers of the tail, and drawing their
food " from the dews of heaven and the nectar of flowers."
Such stories obtained credence from the fact that so late as the
year 1760, when Linnaeus named the principal species apoda,
or " footless," no perfect specimen had been seen in Europe, the
natives who sold the skins to coast traders invariably depriving
them of feet and wings. The birds now usually included under this
name belong to the family Paradiseidae, closely allied to the crows.
The largest is the great emerald bird (Paradisea apoda), about the
size of the common jay. Its head and neck are covered with
short thick-set feathers, resembling velvet pile, of a bright straw
colour above, and a brilliant emerald green beneath. From
under the shoulders on each side springs a dense tuft of golden-
orange plumes, about 2 ft. in length, which the bird can raise
at pleasure, so as to enclose the greater part of its body. The
BIRDWOOD BIREN
979
two centre tail feathers attain a length of 34 in., and, being desti-
tute of webs, have a thin wire-like appearance. This splendid
plumage, however, belongs only to the adult males, the females
being exceedingly plain birds of a nearly uniform dusky brown
colour, and possessing neither plumes nor lengthened tail feathers.
The young males at first resemble the females, and it is only
after the fourth moulting, according to A. R. Wallace, who has
studied those birds in their native haunts, that they assume
the perfect plumage of their sex, which, however, they retain
permanently afterwards, and not during the breeding season
only as was formerly supposed. At that season the males
assemble, in numbers varying from twelve to twenty, on certain
trees, and there disport themselves, so as to display their mag-
nificent plumes in presence of the females. Wallace in his
Malay Archipelago, vol. ii., thus describes the attitude of the
male birds at one of those " sacaleli," or dancing parties, as the
natives call them; " their wings," he says, " are raised vertically
over the back, the head is bent down and stretched out, and the
long plumes are raised up and expanded till they form two
magnificent golden fans striped with deep red at the base, and
fading off into the pale brown tint of the finely-divided and
softly- waving points; the whole bird is then overshadowed
by them, the crouching body, yellow head, and emerald green
throat, forming
but the founda-
tion and setting to
the golden glory
which waves
above." It is at
Standard Wing Bird of Paradise
(Semioptera wallacei).
chiefly captured.
The bird-catcher
having found a
tree thus selected
for a " dancing
party," builds a
hut among the
lower branches in
which to conceal
himself. As soon
as the male birds
have begun their
graceful antics,
he shoots them,
one after the other, with blunt arrows, for the purpose of stunning
and bringing them to the ground without drawing blood, which
would injure their plumage ; and so eager are those birds in their
courtship that almost all the males are thus brought down
before the danger is perceived. The natives in preparing the
skins remove both feet and wings, so as to give more prominence
to the commercially valuable tuft of plumes. They also remove
the skull, and the skin is then dried in a smoky hut. The great
emerald bird, so far as yet known, is only found in the Aru
Islands. The lesser bird of paradise (Paradisea minor), though
smaller in size and somewhat less brilliant in plumage, in other
respects closely resembles the preceding species. It is also
more common, and much more widely distributed, being found
throughout New Guinea and the neighbouring islands. Its
plumes are those most generally used as ornaments for ladies'
head-dresses. Both species are omnivorous, feeding voraciously
on fruits and insects. They are strong, active birds, and are
believed to be polygamous. The king bird of paradise (Cicin-
nurus regius) is one of the smallest and most brilliant of the
group, and is specially distinguished by its two middle tail
feathers, the ends of which alone are webbed, and coiled into a
beautiful spiral disk of a lovely emerald green. In the red
bird of paradise (Paradisea rubra) the same feathers are greatly
elongated and destitute of webs, but differ from those in the other
species, in being flattened out like ribbons. They are only found
in the small island of Waigiu off the coast of New Guinea. Of
the long-billed paradise birds the most remarkable is that known
as the " twelve-wired " (Seleucides alba), its delicate yellow
plumes, twelve of which are transformed into wire-like bristles
nearly a foot long, affording a striking contrast to the dark
metallic tints of the rest of its plumage. (A. N.)
BIRDWOOD, SIR GEORGE CHRISTOPHER MOLESWORTH
(1832- ), Anglo-Indian official and writer, son of General
Christopher Birdwood, was born at Belgaum, in the Bombay
presidency, on the 8th of December 1832. He was educated
at Plymouth grammar-school and Edinburgh University, where
he took his M.D. degree. Entering the Bombay Medical
Service in 1854, he served in the Persian War of 1856-57, and
subsequently became professor at the Grant Medical College,
registrar of the university, curator of the museum, and sheriff
at Bombay, besides acting as secretary of the Asiatic and
Horticultural societies. His work on the Economic Vegetable
Products of the Bombay Presidency reached its twelfth edition in
1868. He interested himself prominently also in the municipal
life of the city, where he acquired great influence and popularity.
He was obliged by ill-health in 1868 to return to England, where
he entered the revenue and statistics department of the India
Office (1871-1902). Whilst engaged there he published im-
portant volumes on the industrial arts of India, the ancient
records of the India Office, and the first letter-book of the East
India Company. He devoted much time and energy to the
encouragement of Indian art, on various aspects of which he
wrote valuable monographs, and his name was identified with
the representation of India at all the principal international
exhibitions from 1857 to 1901. (See Journal of Indian Art, vol.
viii. "The Life and Work of Sir George Birdwood.") His
researches on the subject of incense (Trans. Linn. Soc. xxvii.,
1871; Ency. Brit, gth ed., "Incense," 1881; revised for
the present edition by him), a good example of his mastery of
detail, have made his historical and botanical account of this
subject a classic. Nor can his lifelong association with journal-
ism of the best sort be overlooked. From boyhood he was
a diligent contributor of special information to magazines and
newspapers; in India he helped to convert the Standard into
the Times of India, and edited the Bombay Saturday Review,
and after his return to London he wrote for the Pall Mall,
Athenaeum, Academy, and Times; and with Chenery, the editor
of The Times, and others he took the initiative (1882) in cele-
brating the anniversary of Lord Beaconsfield's death as " Prim-
rose Day" (April 19). He kept up his connexion with India
by constant contributions to the Indian press; and his long
friendships with Indian princes and the leading educated native
Indians made his intimate knowledge of the country of peculiar
value in the handling of the problems of the Indian empire.
In 1887 he was created a K.C.I.E.; and, besides being given his
LL.D. degree by Cambridge, he was also made an officer of the
Legion of Honour and a laureate of the French Academy.
BIREJIK (Arab. Sir; classical, A pamea- Zeugma), a town of
North-West Mesopotamia, in the Aleppo vilayet, altitude 1170 ft.,
built on a limestone cliff 400 ft. high on the left bank of the
Euphrates. Pop. about 10,000, three-quarters Moslem. It is
situated at one of the most important crossings of the Euphrates,
where there was, in ancient times, a bridge of boats, and is now
a ferry on the road from Aleppo to Urfa, Diarbekr and Mosul.
Birejik corresponds actually to Apamea, which lay opposite
Zeugma, and commanded the bridge with its strong castle
(Kala Beda) now much ruined. The place seems to have had
a pre-Seleucid existence as Birlha, a name which revived under
Roman rule (we hear of the emperor Julian resting there on his
march into Mesopotamia, A.D. 363), and is preserved to this
day. The ferry over an unusually deep and narrow part of the
Euphrates has been used from time immemorial in the passage
from North Syria to Haran (Charrae), Edessa and North Meso-
potamia, and was second in importance only to that at
Thapsacus, by which crossed the route to Babylon and South
Mesopotamia. Birejik was the scene of an unusually cruel
massacre and persecution of Armenians in 1895.
BIREN (or BOHREN), ERNST JOHANN (1690-1772), duke of
Courland, was the grandson of a groom in the service of Duke
BIRETTA
Jacob III. of Courland, who bestowed upon him a small estate,
which Biren's father inherited and where Biren himself was
born. He received what little education he had at the academy
of Konigsberg, from which he was expelled for riotous conduct.
In 1714 he set out to seek his fortune in Russia, and unsuccess-
fully solicited a place at the shabby court of the princess Sophia
Charlotte, the consort of the tsarevich Alexius. Returning to
Mittau, he succeeded in gaining a footing at court there through
one of his sisters, who was the fancy of the ruling minister,
Peter Bestuzhev, whose established mistress was no less a
person than the young duchess Anne Ivanovna. During his
patron's absence, Biren, a handsome, insinuating fellow, suc-
ceeded in supplanting him in the favour of Anne, and procuring
the disgrace and banishment of Bestuzhev and his family. From
henceforth to the end of her life Biren's influence over the
duchess was paramount. On the elevation of Anne to the
Russian throne in 1740, Biren, who had in the meantime
married a Fraulein von Treiden, came to Moscow, and honours
and riches were heaped upon him. At the coronation (ipth
May) he was made grand-chamberlain, a count of the empire,
on which occasion he is said to have adopted the arms of the
French ducal house of Biron, and was presented with an estate
at Wenden with 50,000 crowns a year. He soon made himself
cordially detested by Russians of every class. He was not
indeed the monster of iniquity he is popularly supposed to have
been. His vices were rather of the sordid than of the satanic
order. He had insinuating manners and could make himself
very agreeable if he chose; but he was mean, treacherous,
rapacious, suspicious and horribly vindictive. During the
latter years of Anne's reign, Biren increased enormously in
power and riches. His apartments in the palace adjoined
those of the empress, and his liveries, furnitures and equipages
were scarcely less costly than hers. Half the bribes intended
for the Russian court passed through his coffers. He had
landed estates everywhere. A special department of state
looked after his brood mares and stallions. The magnificence
of his plate astonished the French ambassador, and the diamonds
of his duchess were the envy of princes. The climax of this
wondrous elevation was reached when, on the extinction of the
line of Kettler, the estates of Courland, in June 1737, elected
him their reigning duke. He was almost as much loathed in
Courland as in Russia; but the will of the empress was the law
of the land, and large sums of money, smuggled into Courland
in the shape of bills payable in Amsterdam to bearer, speedily
convinced the electors. On her death-bed Anne, very unwill-
ingly and only at his urgent entreaty, appointed him regent
during the minority of the baby emperor, Ivan VI. Her common-
sense told her that the only way she could save the man she
loved from the vengeance of his enemies after her death was
to facilitate in time his descent from his untenable position.
Finally, on the 26th of October 1740, a so-called "positive
declaration " signed by 194 dignitaries, in the name of the
Russian nation, conferred the regency on Biren.
Biren's regency lasted exactly three weeks. At midnight of the
icjth of November 1740 he was seized in his bedroom by his
ancient rival, Field Marshal Miinnich. The commission appointed
to try his case condemned him (nth of April 1741) to death
by quartering, but this sentence was commuted by the clemency
of the new regent, Anna Leopoldovna, the mother of Ivan VI., to
banishment for life at Pelin in Siberia. All Biren's vast property
was confiscated, including his diamonds, worth 600,000.
For twenty-two years the ex-regent disappeared from the high
places of history. He re-emerges for a brief moment in 1762,
when the philo-German Peter III. summoned him to court.
He was now too old to be in any one's way, and that, no doubt,
was the reason why Catherine II. re-established him (1763) in
his duchy, which he bequeathed to his son Peter. Misfortune
had chastened him, and the last years of his rule were just and
even benevolent, if somewhat autocratic. He died at Mittau,
his capital, on the 28th of December 1772.
See Robert Nisbet Bain, The Pupils of Peter the Great (London,
1897); Christoph Hermann von Manstein, Memoirs (Eng. ed.,
London, 1856); Claudius Rondeau, Diplomatic Dispatches from
Russia (St Petersburg, 1889-1892). (R. N. B.)
BIRETTA (Ital. berretta, Med. Lat. biretum, birettum, dim. of
birrus, " a hooded cloak "; from the Fr. form barrette is derived
the Eng. " barret-cap "), a cap worn by the Catholic clergy.
It is square and stiff, being made of a framework of cardboard
covered with cloth or silk; on the top, along the sutures of the
stuff, are three or four raised, board-like, arched ridges, at the
junction of which in the centre is a knob or tassel (floccus).
Its colour varies with the rank of the wearer, that of the pope
being white, of the cardinals red, of bishops purple, and of the
lower clergy black. It is not in the strictest sense a liturgical
head-dress, its use not being confined to liturgical functions.
In these functions, moreover, its use is strictly limited; e.g.
it is worn at low masses by the priest only when he goes to and
from the altar, at high masses also when the celebrant sits
during the singing of the Kyrie, Gloria and Creed, and at pro-
cessions when these take place outside the church and are not
sacramental, and so on.
Though the form of the biretta, devised in the i7th century,
is peculiar to the Roman Church, it is but a variant of the
original biretum, which developed in various countries into
head-coverings of different shapes and significance. At the
outset there was little to distinguish the biretum from the pileus
or pileolus (skull-cap), a non-liturgical cap worn by dignitaries
of the Church under the mitre and even under the biretta. When
the word biretum first appears in the i3th century, it practically
means no more than " cap," and is used as a synonym of pileus.
As an ecclesiastical vestment the cap can be traced, under the
name of pileus, to the I2th century; under that of infula, to the
end of the loth. It would seem to have been worn by the cantors
as "a protection against cold. The same utilitarian reason led
to its introduction among the clergy generally. Thus in 1243
Pope Innocent IV. granted leave to the Benedictines of St.
Augustine's at Canterbury, and to those of Winchester, to wear
the pileus in choir. With the extension of its use, too, the
custom grew up (c. 1300) of investing clerks with the biretum
as the symbol of the transfer of a benefice, a custom which
survives, in Roman Catholic countries, in the solemn delivery
of the red biretta by the head of the state to newly created
cardinals, who afterwards go to Rome to receive the red hat.
This red biretta is called the zucchetto.
This use of the biretum as a symbol of office or dignity was not
confined to the clergy. With various modifications of form it
was worn by all persons of standing, e.g. barons, judges, and
doctors and masters of the universities. The biretum was also
used in the investiture of laymen with office, e.g. a duke or the
prefect of the city of Rome (Du Cange, Gloss, s.v. birretum).
The " cap of maintenance " still borne before the English
sovereign on state occasions is a barret-cap of the type of the
i4th and i$th centuries; it symbolized the cherished feudal
right of maintaining a personal armed following. By the
1 6th century the barret-cap had become the common head-gear
of all people of substance, men and women. It was flat, square
or round, sometimes with edges that could be turned up or down
according to convenience, and was often elaborately decorated.
By the i?th century it had given place in ordinary civil life to the
brimmed hat; but in various shapes it still survives as official
head-gear in many European countries: the Barett, worn in
church by the Lutheran clergy, in the courts by German lawyers,
and by the deans and rectors of the universities, the barrette of
French judges and barristers, the " black cap " of the English
judge, and the " college cap " familiar in English and American
universities, and vulgarly known as the " mortar-board."
Meanwhile the ecclesiastical developments of the biretum are
not without interest and significance. Originally this had been a
round cap, low or moderately high, slightly bulging out at the
top, and ornamented with a round knob. By the i6th century,
both in England and on the continent, a tendency had begun to
emphasize the ridges of the sutures and thus produce a square
shape. Henceforth the evolution followed different lines. In
England, in the I7th century, the square flat top began to be
BIRGER BIRKENFELD
981
enlarged, forming a rim of thick stuff projecting beyond the
close-fitting cap. This was the " square cap " so virulently
denounced by the Puritans as a symbol of High Church Erastian-
ism. With the triumph of High Church principles at the Restora-
tion it was natural that a loyal clergy should desire to emphasize
this squareness, and the consequent exaggeration of the square
top of the cap necessitated a further stiffening. In the i8th
century, accordingly, the top began to be made of a board of
wood or card covered with cloth, the close-fitting cap proper
retired farther from the edges, the knob developed into a long
tassel, and the evolution of the modern " college cap " was
complete (see fig. i).
On the continent, meanwhile, in the Roman Catholic Church,
the biretum had also developed into its present characteristic
form, and by a
very similar pro-
cess. By the end
of the i 6th cen-
tury the square
shape was every-
where prevalent;
at the beginning
of the i 7th cen-
tury cardboard
was introduced
to stiffen the sides
and emphasize
the squareness,
and the actual
form of the bir-
etta, as described
above, had be-
come fixed (see fig. 2). Only in Spain has the biretta continued
to be worn without the raised ridges.
The use of the Roman biretta has been introduced by a certain
number of the clergy into the Anglican Church. It is clear that
there is no historical justification for this; for though both
college cap and biretta are developed from the same " square cap,"
the biretta in its actual shape is strictly associated with the post-
Reformation Roman Church, and its actual ceremonial use is of
late growth. Braun (Liturgische Gewandung, p. 513) thinks
that the symbolism of the cross may have had some influence
in fixing and pro-
pagating the square
shape, and he
quotes a decree of
the synod of Aix
(1585) ordering the
clergy to wear a
biretta sewn in the
form of a cross
(biretum in modum
crucis consutum, ut
ecclesiasticos homi-
nes decel). So far
as the legality of
of the biretta in the Church of England is con-
FIG. i.
a, Pileus of Archbishop Warham (d. 1532).
b, Square cap of Archbishop Cranmer (d. 1556).
c, Square cap of Archbishop Parker (d. 1575).
d, Square cap of Archbishop Whitgift (d. 1583).
e, Square cap of Archbishop Laud (d. 1645).
All these are from portraits at Lambeth.
/, Square cap of George Morley, bishop of
Winchester (d. 1684).
Modern college cap.
'
(Redrawn from Braun's Liturgische Gewandung.)
FIG. 2. Illustrations of the biretum from
monuments in the cathedrals of
a, Brandenburg (1281). e, Wurzburg (1521).
b, Augsburg (1342). /, Regensburg(is64).
c, Bamberg (1483). g, ib. (1605?).
d, Regensburg (1550). h, Bamberg (1626).
the use
cerned, this was pronounced by Sir R. Phillimore in the Court
of Arches (Elphinstone v. Purchas, 1870) to be legal " as a
protection to the head when needed," but this decision was
reversed on appeal by the judicial committee of the privy
council (Hebbert v. Purchas, 1871). Of late years the old square
cap of soft padded cloth or velvet has been revived in the
Anglican Church by some dignitaries.
See J. Braun, S.J., DieliturgischeGeuiandung(Freiburg-l-R., 1907);
Hierurgica Anglicana, part h. (London, 1903); H. Druitt, Costume
on Brasses (London, 1906). (W. A. P.)
BIRGER (?-i266), Swedish statesman, nephew of Birger
Brosa, and the most famous member of the ancient noble family
of the Folkungeatten, which had so much to say for itself in
early Swedish history, was created jarl of Bjalbo by King Erik
Eriksson in 1 248 and married the king's sister. On Erik's death
(1250) Birgcr's son Valdemar was elected king while his father
acted as regent. During the sixteen years of his sway Sweden
advanced greatly in fame and prosperity. In 1249 he led an
expedition to Finland, built the fortress of Tavastehus, and thus
laid the foundations of Sweden's oversea empire. He also built
Stockholm, and enriched it by making it the chief man for the
trade of LUbeck, with which city he concluded a commercial
treaty. As a lawgiver also Birger laboured strenuously in the
interests of civilization. In his old age he married the daughter
of King Abel. There is a fine statue of the great jarl in the
Riddarholm church at Stockholm, erected by Fogelberg at the
expense of the Stockholm magistracy in 1884. He is also the
central figure of Fr. Hedberg's drama Brollopet pi Ulfdsa (1865).
See Sveriges Historia, vol. i. (Stockholm, 1879-1883).
BIRIBI, or CAVAGNOLE, a French game of chance, prohibited
by law since 1837. It is played on a board on which the numbers
i to 70 are marked. The players put their stakes on the numbers
they wish to back. The banker is provided with a bag from
which he draws a case containing a ticket, the tickets correspond-
ing with the numbers on the board. The banker calls out the
number, and the player who has backed it receives sixty-four
times his stake; the other stakes go to the banker. In the
French army " to be sent to Biribi " is a cant term for being sent
to the disciplinary battalion in Algeria.
B1RJEND, the capital of Kain, a sub-province of Khorasan
in Persia, in 32 53' N. 59 10' E., and at an elevation of 4550 ft.
Pop. about 25,000. It is situated 328 m. from Meshed by the
direct road, in a fertile valley running east and west, of which
the southern boundary is a lofty range of barren hills known as
Kuh i Bakeran. Through the valley runs the Khusp river,
which loses itself in the desert towards the west; it is, however,
generally dry. The water-supply of the town and of the 70 or 80
villages under its jurisdiction is very scanty. On the east of the
town at the foot of a hill stands a dilapidated fort. Birjend has
six good caravanserais, a college and some mosques; post and
telegraph offices were established there in 1902.
BIRKBECK, GEORGE (1776-1841), English physician and
philanthropist, was born at Settle in Yorkshire on the loth of
January 1776. He early evinced a strong predilection for
scientific pursuits; and in 1799, after graduating as doctor of
medicine, he was appointed to the chair of natural philosophy
at the Andersonian Institution of Glasgow. In the following
year he delivered, for the benefit of the working-classes, a
gratuitous course of scientific lectures, which were continued
during the two following years and proved eminently successful.
He removed to London in 1804, and there he endeavoured to
prosecute his philanthropic schemes, at first without much
encouragement, but ultimately with marked success. In 1823
he contributed to found the Mechanics' Institute, the name of
which was afterwards changed to Birkbeck Institution or
College, in honour of its founder. He was appointed director
of the institute, which he had originally endowed with the sum
of 3700, and held the office till his death on the ist of December
1841. The sphere of usefulness of the institution was gradually
enlarged, and an enlargement of the buildings was carried out
in 1883-1885. The college now holds day and evening classes
in many of the sciences, in literature, languages and art.
BIRKENFELD, a town of Germany, capital of the principality
of the same name, on the Zimmerbach, 25 m. S.E. of Trier and
on the main line of railway from Bingerbrtick to Neunkirchen.
Pop. 2500. Close by, on an eminence, lie the ruins of the castle
of Birkenfeld, dating from the I4th century, once the residence
of the counts palatine of Zweibriicken. The town has an Evan-
gelical and a Roman Catholic church, a grand-ducal high school
and a hospital. Besides brewing and tanning, its industries
include the manufacture of tobacco and chicory. There is also
a considerable trade in cattle.
The PRINCIPALITY OF BIRKENFELD is hilly and well-forested;
agriculture prospers on the cleared lands, and fruit is grown in
the valley of the Nahe, the principal stream. Ironstone and
roofing slates are quarried, and there is some industry in agate-
polishing and the manufacture of trinkets. The principality
982
BIRKENHEAD
has an area of 312 sq. m. and a population (1900) of 43,49,
chiefly Protestants. It is formed out of the former lordships of
Dachstuhl and Oberstein, of part of the ancient countship of
Sponheim, and sections of the duchy of Jiilich, which were
granted to the grand-duke of Oldenburg by the congress of
Vienna in 1815. It is entirely an enclave in Prussian territory,
and though it is represented in the Oldenburg diet, it is governed
by a separate Regierungskottegium, consisting of a president and
two members, who are responsible to the Oldenburg ministry.
BIRKENHEAD, a municipal, county and parliamentary
borough, and seaport of Cheshire, England, on the river Mersey,
195 m. N.W. of London. Pop. (1901) 110,915. It lies opposite
Liverpool, on the east shore of the peninsula of Wirral, and is
served by the Birkenhead (London & North- Western and Great
Western joint) and the Wirral railways. It is wholly of modern
growth, although the name of Byrkhed is traced to the forest
which is believed to have extended between the mouths of the
Dee and the Ribble in Lancashire. A Benedictine monastery
was founded (c. 1150) by Hamon de Mascy, third baron of
Dunham Massey, and dedicated to St Mary and St James. It
drew its main revenues from tolls levied at the Mersey ferry; and
its prior sat in the parliament of the earls of Chester, enjoying
all the dignities and privileges of a Palatinate baron. A fine
crypt, along with remains of the prior's lodging, refectory and
chapel, may still be viewed, as the priory was purchased by
private subscription and handed over to the municipality in
1896.
The rise of Birkenhead, from a hamlet of some 50 inhabitants
in 1818 to its present importance, was due in the first place to
the foresight and enterprise of William Laird, who purchased
in 1824 a few acres of land on the banks of a marshy stream,
known as Wallasey Pool, which flowed into the Mersey about
2 m. west of the village. Among other engineers, Telford and
Stephenson favoured the project of converting Wallasey Pool
into a great basin for shipping; but, largely owing to the fears
of Liverpool lest a formidable rival should thus be created, it was
not until 1843 that parliamentary powers were obtained, and the
work entrusted to James Rendel, who finished it in less than
five years. The docks, which covered an area of 7 acres, were
opened in 1847, and after thrice changing hands were made
over in 1858 to the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board, a body
created by act of 1857, to control the harbourage on both sides
of the river.
Meanwhile, the town itself grew rapidly. In 1833 an act
was passed for paving, watching, cleansing and improving the
streets; as well as for the regulation of police, and the establish-
ment of a market. The Improvement Commissioners constituted
by this act included the mayor, bailiffs and four aldermen of
Liverpool, under whose care the main streets were laid out on a
regular plan, intersecting one another at right angles; and the
first iron tramway in England was kid down. Electricity was
subsequently applied to the tramway system. Noteworthy
public buildings are St Aidan's College, a large brick building in
Tudor style, for the use of Anglican students in theology; the
market hall (1845); town hall, a free library with branches,
borough hospital, built at the cost of Sir John Laird; and many
schools both public and private, including the industrial schools
built as a memorial to Albert, prince consort, at the cost of Sir
W. Jackson, and the school of art, given by Sir John Laird.
There are many handsome modern churches, all built since 1821.
Roman Catholics are especially numerous, owing to the presence
of a large Irish population. The town is well furnished with
open spaces. Birkenhead Park was opened in 1847, Mersey
Park in 1885; while a tract of moorland 6 m. distant in the
township of Thurstaston, was allotted to the borough of Birken-
head in 1887; and Meols Common, comprising over 50 acres of
pastureland on the shores of Liverpool Bay, was made over to
the corporation in 1900.
The increase of railway accommodation has been swift. In
1878 the old Monks Ferry station on the Great Western system
was superseded by the opening of the Woodside passenger
station, and a few years later the Birkenhead town station was
opened. In 1886 the Mersey tunnel, connecting Birkenhead
with Liverpool, was opened by the prince of Wales. The system
extends from Rock Ferry and Park stations on the Cheshire
side to the low-level at Central Station in Liverpool, and has
connexions on the Cheshire side with the Great Western, North-
Western, Wirral and various local lines. The Wrexham,
Mold & Connah's Quay railway, which was taken over by the
Great Central company in 1905, helped to bring the mineral
wealth of Flint and North Wales generally into the Birkenhead
docks.
Woodside Ferry may still be regarded as the principal entrance
to Birkenhead and the Wirral from Liverpool. The exclusive
right of ferryage was granted to the priory in 1332. In
1842 the Birkenhead Commissioners purchased it, under an act
of parliament, from the lord of the manor, Mr F. R. Price. In
1897 the corporation further acquired the rights over the Rock
Ferry and the New Ferry at the southern end of the town.
Despite competition from the Mersey tunnel, these ferries
continue to transport millions of passengers annually, and have
a considerable share in the heavy goods traffic.
Though at the outset a mere commercial offshoot of Liverpool,
Birkenhead has acquired a large export trade in coal and manu-
factured articles, importing guano, grain and cattle in return.
Iron foundries, breweries, oil-cake and seed mills also exist side
by side with such immense engineering and shipbuilding works
as the Britannia Works, Canada Works, and, above all, Laird's
shipbuilding works, where several early iron vessels were built,
and many cruisers and battleships have been launched. Huge
warehouses and sheds have been erected along the quays for
the storage of freight. In 1847 the Birkenhead Dock Ware-
housing Company opened its first warehouse, capable of holding
80,000 tons of goods. A line called the Dock Extension railway
was carried round the whole, and the company erected, for their
workmen, the Dock Cottages. This entire property is now
under the authority of the Mersey Docks and Harbour Board.
The pile of buildings known as the corn warehouses are traversed
by a canal which gives access to its several departments, and are
provided with mechanical grain-elevators. There are also
extensive lairages for live-stock, and cold storage for dead meat.
On the north and north-east, and partly on the east, Birkenhead
is bounded by its docks, which extend, for a distance exceeding
2 m., from the landing-stage at Woodside Ferry to the Wall-
asey Bridge. Of these the principal are the Egerton, Morpeth,
Morpeth Branch and Wallasey Docks; while the Alfred Dock,
with its three entrances, nineteen pairs of lock-gates, 8 acres
of water, and 460 lin. yds. of quay-space, fulfils the part of
an entrance-lock to the whole system. The great Float, now
occupying the site of Wallasey Pool, separates Birkenhead from
Poulton-cum-Seacombe in the parish of Wallasey. It forms an
immense dock of 120 acres, with a quay-space of about 5 m.;
and communicates on the E. with a low-water basin of about
14 acres and with the Alfred Dock; on the S.E. with the Morpeth,
Morpeth Branch and Egerton Docks. The Morpeth Dock (about
ii acres, quay-space 1299 lin. yds.) is in communication with
the Morpeth Branch Dock (about 35 acres, quay-space 600 lin.
yds.); both being set apart for the use of steamers. The total
water-space of these docks amounts to 165 acres, and the lineal
quay-space is about 9^ m. The entrances to the Birkenhead
Docks are capable of docking the largest class of steamers afloat.
The massive iron bridges across the dock entrances are opened
and closed by hydraulic power, which is likewise applied to the
cranes, coal-hoists, warehouse-lifts and other machinery about
the docks. At the extreme western end of the West Float
are three large graving docks, two about 750 ft. in length,
and 130 and 80 ft. respectively in width; while the largest
measures about 900 ft. in length and 130 ft. in width.
In 1861 Birkenhead was created a parliamentary borough,
returning one member. In 1877 it received a municipal charter,
the boundaries of the borough including the suburban townships
of Tranmere, Claughton, Oxton and part of Higher Bebington.
The borough is under a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors.
Area, 3848 acres.
BIRMINGHAM
983
BIRMINGHAM, a city and the county-seat of Jefferson
county, Alabama, U.S.A., in the north-central part of the state,
96 m. N.W. of Montgomery, at an altitude of 600 ft. It is served
by the Southern, the Louisville & Nashville, the Seaboard
Air Line, the Central of Georgia, the Alabama Great Southern
(of the Queen & Crescent Route), the Illinois Central, the At-
lanta, Birmingham & Atlantic, the Birmingham Southern
(for freight only), and the Kansas City-, Memphis & Birmingham
(Frisco system) railways. Pop. (1890) 26,178; (1900) 38,415,
of whom 16,575 were of negro descent, and 1776 were foreign-
born; (1910) 132,685. Birmingham is situated in Jones Valley,
between two mountains which lie south-east and north-west of
the city. Its streets are wide and well constructed, and there
are sixteen public parks, three of which, East Lake, Lakeview
and Capitol, are particularly attractive. Among the principal
buildings are the First National bank, the immense Union
station and the Saint Vincent hospital; besides several fine office
and school buildings (including the beautiful manual training
high school) and churches. Although the state constitution
restricts municipal investments, a Waring or " Separate "
sewage system has been established. The most important
educational institutions are the Birmingham medical college
and college of pharmacy; the Birmingham dental college;
a school of art and a conservatory of music. At East Lake
station, in the north-east of the city, is Howard College (Baptist;
founded at Marion, Perry county, in 1841 as an academy;
granted first collegiate degrees in 1848; opened in East Lake
in 1887); and 2 m. west of the city is the North Alabama Con-
ference College (Methodist Episcopal South), opened in 1897.
Birmingham, situated in an immensely rich iron, coal and
limestone region, is the principal manufacturing centre in the
state, and the most important centre for the production and
manufacture of iron in the southern states. In the decade
1890-1900 the value of the products of Birmingham's manu-
factories increased 78.9% from $7,064,248 to $12,581,066; in
1900 establishments under the " factory system " produced
goods valued at $8,599,418, in 1905 at $7,592,958, a decrease
of ii. 7%.
Immediately outside the city limits in 1905 there were many
large manufactories, including the repair shops of the Southern
railroad; iron and steel, car wheels and cotton-oil were among
the products of the suburban factories. In Jefferson county
there were in 1900 more than 300 mining and manufacturing
establishments, engaged, chiefly, in the production of iron, coal
and coke, and a majority of these are in Birmingham and its sub-
urban towns. A short distance south of the city is Red Mountain,
25 m. long and about 225 ft. high, rich in hematite iron ore;
valuable limestone deposits are found some 30 m. distant, and
in the vicinity are three great coalfields, the Warrior, the Coosa
and the Cahaba. These natural advantages make possible the
production of pig iron at an unusually low cost. In 1900 the
Birmingham district produced six-sevenths of the total pig iron
exported from the United States, and in 1902 nine-tenths
of Alabama's coal, coke and pig iron; in 1905 Jefferson county
produced 67.5 % of the total iron and steel product of the state,
and 62.5% of the pig iron produced by the state. The first
steel plant in the southern states was established at Birmingham
in 1897; in 1902, at Ensley, one of the suburbs, there were 10
furnaces controlled by one company. The city has also a large
trade in cotton, the annual receipts averaging about 100,000 bales.
Among the manufactures are cotton goods, cotton-seed oil,
yarn, furniture and machinery. Birmingham also has important
lumber interests.
The city is a product of the industrial transformation in the
southern states since the Civil War. In 1870 the site was a
cotton field, where two railways, the South & North, and the
Alabama & Chattanooga, now part respectively of the Louis-
ville & Nashville and the Southern System, met, 2 m. from
Elyton. In 1871 a land company, promoted by railway officials,
founded Birmingham. Within four months the population was
1200; by 1873 it was 2500; in 1880 it was 3086; and in 1890
it had reached 26,178.
BIRMINGHAM, a city and a municipal, county, and parlia-
mentary borough, the metropolis of one of the greatest industrial
districts in England. Pop. (1901) 522,204. It lies in the north-
west of Warwickshire, but its suburbs extend into Staffordshire
on the north and west, and into Worcestershire on the south.
It is 113 m. north-west from London by the London & North-
Western railway, lying on the loop line between Rugby and
Stafford; it is also served by. the northern line of the Great
Western, and by the north and west (Derby-Bristol) line of the
Midland railway.
Site. Birmingham, built upon the New Red Sandstone, is
situated in the valleys of the Rea and other small feeders of the
river Tame, near their sources, and upon the rising ground
between these valleys. The site is, therefore, boldly undulating,
varying from 200 to 600 ft. above sea-level, steadily rising
towards the north and west, while the well-marked line of the
Lickey hills skirts the site on the south-west, extending thence
south-eastward. From the high ground to the south-east
Birmingham thus presents the appearance of a vast semicircular
amphitheatre, the masses of nouses broken by innumerable
factory -chimneys; the whole scene conveying a remarkable
impression of a community of untiring industrial activity.
The area of the town is nearly 20 sq. m., the greatest length from
north to south 7 m., and the greatest breadth about 4 m. Yet
Birmingham is a fraction only of an industrial district, of which
it forms the south-eastern extremity, which itself resembles
one vast city, and embraces such famous manufacturing towns
as Dudley, Wolverhampton, Walsall, Wednesbury and many
others. This is the district commonly known as the " Black
Country," which forms part of the South Staffordshire industrial
district. Birmingham, however, does not lie actually within
the " Black Country " properly so-called.
Streets and Buildings. The plan of the town, as dictated by
the site, is irregular; the streets are mostly winding, and often
somewhat narrow. In the centre are several fine thoroughfares,
containing nearly all the most important buildings. New Street,
Corporation Street and Colmore Row are the chief of these.
At the western end of New Street is a fine group of buildings,
including the council house and art gallery, the town hall and
post office. The council house and art gallery, begun in 1874
and completed in 1 88 1, is in Renaissance style, and the material
is Darley Dale, Spinkwell and Wrexham stone. The entrance
is surmounted with a pediment filled with groups of excellent
sculpture. The erection of that part which forms the art gallery
was the work of the gas committee, to whom the council granted
the site on condition that they would build such a gallery over
their own office, the council having no powers at the time to
raise the required funds. The art gallery contains a fine collection
of modern paintings, including masterpieces of David Cox,
Millais, Hunt, Henry Moore, Albert Moore, Briton-Riviere and
Burne- Jones. In the industrial hall are rich stores of Oriental
metal work, Limoges enamel, English and foreign glass and
Japanese ceramics. In the side galleries are various textiles,
and Persian, Rhodian, Gres de Flandres and other pottery.
There is a remarkable collection of Wedgwood. Notable also
is the collection of arms, which is probably the most complete in
existence. The purchase of pictures has been made from time
to time by means of an art gallery purchase fund of 12,000,
privately contributed and placed under the control of the cor-
poration. Many valuable works of art are the gift of individuals.
In 1906 plans were obtained for additional municipal offices and
another art gallery on a site on the opposite side of Edmund
Street from the council house. The town hall, completed in
1850, is severely classic, modelled upon a Greek temple. The
lower stage consists of a plinth or basement, 23 ft. high, upon
which is reared a facade of peripteral character, with eight
Corinthian columns (36 ft. high) at the two principal fronts, and
thirteen columns on each side. These columns (imitated from
those of the temple of Jupiter Stator at Rome) support a bold
and enriched cornice, finished at each end with a lofty pediment
and entablature. The exterior of the hall is built of Anglesea
marble. The interior consists chiefly of a regularly-built room,
9 8 4
BIRMINGHAM
designed specially for meetings and concerts, with an orchestra
containing a fine organ. The hall seats upwards of 2000 persons,
but when cleared of benches, as is the case at great political
meetings, over 5000 may find standing room. The Midland
Institute, adjacent to the town hall on the west, has a fine
lecture theatre. To the south lie the post office, the inland
revenue office and Queen's College. To the north is the Gothic
building of Mason College, an institution merged in the univer-
sity. The Central free library, adjoining the Midland Institute,
was rebuilt in 1879, after a fire which destroyed the fine Shake-
speare library, the Cervantes collection, and a large series of
books on, and antiquities of, Warwickshire, known as the
Staunton collection. The Shakespeare series was as far as
possible replaced, and the whole forms one of the largest refer-
ence and lending libraries in England. Edmund Street and
Colmore Row are fine thoroughfares running parallel in a
north-easterly direction from either side of the council house;
in the first the principal building is the school of art, in the second
are several noteworthy private buildings. Both terminate at
Snow Hill station, that of the Great Western railway. New
Street station, that of the London & North Western and Mid-
land railways, lies close to the street of that name, fronted by
the Queen's hotel. The station is nearly a quarter of a mile in
length. The roof of the older portion consists of a vast arch of
glass and iron, carried on pillars on each side, and measuring
i too ft. in length, 80 ft. in height, and 212 ft. in width in a single
span. The building of the Royal Society of Artists fronts New
Street itself with a fine classic portico; here are also the exchange
(Gothic) and the grammar school of King Edward VI., a Per-
pendicular building dating from 1840, designed by Sir Charles
Barry. Corporation Street was the outcome of a great " Im-
provement scheme" initiated in 1875, with the object of clearing
away a mass of insanitary property from the centre of the town
and of constructing a main thoroughfare from the centre to the
north-eastern outlet, starting from New Street, near the railway
station to Bull Street, and thence continuing to the Aston
Road. The scheme received parliamentary sanction in 1876,
and was finished in 1882 at a cost of 1,520,657. This led to an
almost total extinction of the residential quarter in the centre
of the town. The finest building in this handsome street is the
Victoria assize courts. The foundation stone was laid by Queen
Victoria in 1887, after Birmingham had been created an assize
district; the building was completed in 1891. There is a hand-
some entrance, and within is a great hall, 80 ft. by 40, with a
series of stained-glass windows. The exterior is red, and highly
ornamented in the style of the Renaissance.
Among other noteworthy buildings are the county court,
education offices and military drill hall. Among a fine series
of statues and monuments may be mentioned the statue of
Nelson by Richard Westmacott, in the Bull Ring; those of
Joseph Sturge, at the Five Ways, and of Thomas Attwood, the
founder of the Political Union, in Stephenson Place, both by
J. E. Thomas; James Watt, a singularly beautiful work, in
Ratcliff Place, by Alexander Munro; Sir Robert Peel, in New
Street, by Peter Hollins; Albert, prince consort, in the council
house, by J. H. Foley; and Queen Victoria, by Thomas Woolner;
Sir Rowland Hill, in the hall of the post office, by Matthew
Noble; and Dr Priestley, in New Street, by F. J. Williamson.
There is also a fountain behind the town hall, commemorative
of the mayoralty of Mr Joseph Chamberlain, and flanked by
statues of Sir Josiah Mason, and George Dawson, who took
active part in the municipal reform movement previous to
Mr Chamberlain's years of office. Sir Francis Chantrey's famous
statue of James Watt is in a special chapel at Handsworth
church.
Suburbs. The principal streets radiating from central
Birmingham to the suburbs are served by electric tramways
worked by the corporation, and also by motor omnibuses.
The principal suburbs are as follows. Edgbaston and Harborne
lie south-west of the centre of the city, being approached by
Broad Street. These form a residential district principally
inhabited by the richer classes, and owing to the enforcement
of strict rules by the ground landlord, retain a remarkable semi-
rural character, almost every house having a garden. Here,
moreover, are Calthorpe Park, the botanical gardens, and the
large private grounds attached to Edgbaston Hall, also the
Warwickshire county cricket ground. To the south of Edgbaston,
however, are the growing manufacturing districts of Selly Oak
and Bourneville, and south of these, Northfield and King's
Norton, in Worcestershire. The districts to the east of central
Birmingham are Balsall Heath, Sparkbrook, Small Heath and
Saltley. On the south-east is the residential suburb of Moseley,
and on the east that of Yardley. Between Moseley and King's
Heath to the south, is Highbury, the seat of Mr Joseph Chamber-
lain, whose active interest in the affairs of the town, both during
his mayoralty (1873-1876) and at other times, was a principal
factor in such works as the municipalization of the gas and water
supply, the Corporation Street improvement, and the foundation
of Birmingham University. On the east side the transition from
town to country is clearly marked. This, however, is not the
case on the west side, where the borough of Smethwick adjoins
Birmingham, and the roads through West Bromwich and towards
Oldbury and Dudley have the character of continuous streets.
On this side are Soho and Handsworth, which gives name to a
parliamentary division of Staffordshire. To the north lies
Aston Manor, a municipal borough of itself, with Perry Bar
beyond. To the north-east a populous district extends towards
the town of Sutton Coldfield. Aston Hall is a fine Jacobean
mansion standing in an extensive park. Aston Lower Grounds
is an adjacent pleasure-ground. Besides these and the Edg-
baston grounds the chief parks are Summersficld Park,
towards Smethwick; Soho Park; Victoria Park, Handsworth;
Adderley Park, towards Saltley; and Victoria Park, Small
Heath. There is a race-course at Castle Bromwich, 3 m. east of
the town.
Churches and Religion. Birmingham is not rich in ecclesi-
astical architecture. It became a bishopric under the Bishoprics
of Southwark and Birmingham Act 1904, including the arch-
deaconry of Birmingham and the rural deanery of Handsworth,
previously in the diocese of Worcester. Before 1821 it was in the
diocese of Lichfield. There were formerly a religious house, the
priory of St Thomas the Apostle, and a Gild of the Holy Cross,
an association partly religious and partly charitable, having a
chantry in the parish church. The possessions of the priory
went to the crown at the dissolution, and the building was
destroyed before the close of the i6th century. The lands of the
Gild of the Holy Cross were granted by Edward VI. to trustees
for the support of the free grammar school. Until 1715 there
was but one parish church, St Martin's, a rectory, having the
tithes of the entire parish of Birmingham. St Martin's was
erected about the middle of the i3th century, but in the course
of ages was so disfigured, internally and externally, as to present
no traces, except in the tower and spire, of its former character.
In 1853 the tower was found to be in a dangerous condition, and
together with the spire was rebuilt. In 1873 the remaining part
of the old church was removed without disturbing the monu-
ments, and a larger edifice was erected in its place. St. Philip's,
a stately Italian structure, designed by Archer, a pupil of Wren,
was the next church erected. It was consecrated in 1715,
enlarged in 1884, and became the pro-cathedral on the foundation
of the diocese. It contains a rich series of stained-glass windows
by Burne- Jones. Then followed St Bartholomew's in 1749,
St Mary's in 1774, St Paul's in 1779, St James's, Ashted, in 1791,
and others. St Alban's is a good example of J. L. Pearson's
work, and Edgbaston church is a picturesque Perpendicular
structure.
Under the Commonwealth Birmingham was a stronghold of
Puritanism. Clarendon speaks of it and the neighbourhood as
" the most eminently corrupted of any in England." Baxter,
on the other hand, commending the garrison of Coventry, says
it contained " the most religious men of the parts round about,
especially from Birmingham." The traditional reputation for
Nonconformity is maintained by the town, all varieties of
dissenters being numerous and influential. The Unitarians, the
BIRMINGHAM
985
oldest body established here, have among their chapels a hand-
some structure in Bristol Road, the Old Meeting, which in 1885
replaced the building in which the congregation was formed on
the Presbyterian model by a number of ministers ejected under
the Act of Uniformity. Another chapel, the New Meeting, in
Moor Street, is memorable as having been the place of Dr Joseph
Priestley's ministerial labours from 1780 onwards. In 1862 the
Unitarians removed from this place to a new Gothic edifice,
called the church of the Messiah, in Broad Street, where they
preserve a monument of Priestley, with a medallion portrait in
profile, and an inscription written by Priestley's friend, Dr Parr.
The first meeting-house of the Society of Friends dates from
about 1690. Among Independent chapels, that of Carr's Lane
had John Angell James and Robert William Dale as ministers.
The Baptists first erected a chapel in Cannon Street in 1738.
The Wesleyan Methodists were established in Birmingham by
John Wesley himself in 1745, when he was roughly handled
while preaching on Gosta Green. In 1903 a very fine central hall,
with lofty tower, was opened by this body, in the style of the
Renaissance, fronting upon Corporation, Ryder and Dalton
streets. The Presbyterians have also places of worship, and the
Jews have a synagogue. From the revolution of 1688 until
1789 the Roman Catholics had no place of worship here; but
Birmingham is now a Roman Catholic bishopric. The cathedral
of St Chad was built from the designs of A. W. Pugin. At
Erdington, towards Sutton Coldfield, is a large Benedictine Abbey
(1897) of the Beuron congregation, founded as a monastery in
1876; and in the vicinity, at Oscott, is St Mary's College, where
the chapel is a fine example of Pugin's work. Cardinal Newman
was superior of the Oratory of St Philip Neri from its foundation
in 1851.
Administration. The government of the town resided origin-
ally in the high and low bailiffs, both officers chosen at the court
of the lord of the manor, and acting as his deputies. The system
was a loose one, but by degrees it became somewhat organized,
and crown writs were addressed to the bailiffs. In 1832, when
the town was enfranchised, they were made the returning officers.
About the beginning of the igth century, however, a more regular
system was instituted, by an act creating a body of street com-
missioners, who acted for the parish of Birmingham, the hamlets
outside its boundaries having similar boards of their own. The
annoyance and difficulty caused by these bodies, thirteen in
number, led to a demand for the incorporation of Birmingham
as a borough; and a charter was accordingly granted by the
crown in 1838, vesting the general government in a mayor,
sixteen aldermen and forty-seven councillors. The powers of
this body were, however, unusually restricted, the other local
governing bodies remaining in existence. It was not until 1851
that an act of parliament was obtained, abolishing all governing
authorities excepting the town council, and transferring all
powers to this body. Another local act was obtained in 1862,
and in 1883 these various acts were combined into the Birming-
ham Corporation Consolidation Act. In 1889 Birmingham was
created a city, and a grant made of an official coat of arms carry-
ing supporters. The title of lord mayor was conferred on the
chief magistrate in 1897. The city council consists of eighteen
aldermen and fifty-four councillors, selected from eighteen wards;
it is divided into seventeen committees, most of which consist of
eight members. The corporation is the largest employer of
labour in the borough, and is also a large landowner.
The gas, electric and water supplies are in its hands. The
gas supply was taken over in 1875, and the electric in 1900 for
420,000. The local sources of water-supply are the rivers
Bourne and Blythe, the Plant Brook and the Perry Stream, and
eight deep wells. These works can provide 20 million gallons
daily in dry weather. A large area outside the city boundaries
is supplied, and in 1891, the demand having risen to nearly
17 millions a day, new sources had to be considered, and it was
determined to seek an entirely new supply in Wales. By an act
of 1892 power was given to acquire the watershed of the rivers
Elan and Claerwen, tributaries of the Wye, lying west of Rhyader
in Wales, and to construct the necessary works, the capital
authorized being 6,000,000. About 5,000,000 had been spent
when, on the zist of July 1004, King Edward VII. formally
opened the supply. Two reservoirs on the river Elan, formed by
masonry dams from 98 to 128 ft. above the river-bed, were then
completed, the construction of the three planned on the Claer-
wen being deferred until necessity should arise. Nearly a mile
below the confluence of the rivers the great Caban Coch dam,
122 ft. high, and the same in thickness at the base, and 600 ft.
long at the top, holds up the water for over 4 m. in the Elan, and
over 2 in the Claerwen, having a capacity of 1500 million gallons.
A series of thirty filter beds is included in the original scheme;
and the water travels 73-3 m. from the source to Birmingham
by gravity alone with a fall of about 170 ft. The area of the
gathering ground is 45,562 acres, the mean annual rainfall in the
district being 63 in. The complete scheme provided water for
fifty years in advance, and a maximum of 75 million gallons a
day was taken into account, in addition to 27 million gallons for
compensation water to the river. The part of the works opened
in 1004 provided about 27 million gallons of supply daily to the
city. The corporation is obliged by the act to supply towns
within 15 m. of the line of the aqueduct. A village for the
accommodation of workmen was established near the Caban Coch
dam; and the corporation adopted a modified form of the
Gothenburg system in respect of the supply of intoxicating
liquors, permitting no publican to open a licensed house.
The administration of the poor-law is vested in a board of
guardians of sixty members for the parish of Birmingham.
The parish of Edgbaston (wholly within the borough) is in the
poor-law union of King's Norton, and that part of the parish of
Aston included in the borough is in the Aston Union. There are
three workhouses that for Birmingham parish, situated at
Birmingham Heath, is capable of receiving over 2000 inmates.
In 1882 a superintendent relieving officer was appointed, and a
system of cross-visitation started for the purpose of checking
abuses of outdoor relief. Workhouses, infirmaries and cottage
homes are managed by the board, on which women first sat in
1880. The administration of justice was performed from 1838
to 1884 by a court of quarter sessions, with a recorder, and a
court of petty sessions. In 1884 Birmingham was made an
assize district of Warwickshire. In 1905 a special juvenile
offenders' court was initiated. The borough gaol is at Winson
Green towards Smethwick. The drainage system is managed
by the Birmingham, Tame and Rea District drainage board,
constituted in 1877, and consisting of members from the city
council and from districts outside the municipal area.
Birmingham was enfranchised in 1832, when two representa-
tives were assigned to it, and Thomas Attwood and Joshua
Scholefield, leaders of the Political Union, were elected. In 1867
three members were assigned, and in 1885 the number was
increased to seven, and a corresponding number of parliamentary
divisions created, namely Bordesley, Central, East, Edgbaston,
North, South and West. By the Provincial Local Government
Board Act of 1891 four local board districts were added to the
city of Birmingham for local government Harborne (Stafford-
shire), Balsall Heath (Worcestershire), Saltley and the rural
hamlet of Little Bromwich (Warwickshire). These districts
were by the act declared to be in the county of Warwick, though
still remaining in their respective counties for the exercise of
freehold votes. By this act the boundaries of the city were made
conterminous for parliamentary, municipal and school board
purposes. The area is 12,639 acres.
The population of Birmingham in 1700 was about 15,000.
In 1801 it was 73,000, and it increased rapidly through the
century. In 1891 it was 478,113 and in 1901, 522,204.
Education. The oldest educational institution is the grammar
school of King Edward VI., founded in 1552 out of the lands of
the Gild of the Holy Cross, then of the annual value of 2 1 . The
endowments now yield upwards of 37,000. The principal
school included in the foundation is the boys' high school, held
in the building in New Street. It has a classical and a modern
side, and educates about 500 boys. Adjoining it, in a new
building opened in 1896, is a large high school for girls, with 300
9 86
BIRMINGHAM
Ualvcr.
ttty.
pupils. There are also on the foundation seven middle schools,
called grammar schools, four for girls and three for boys, situated
in different parts of the city, and containing about 1900 pupils
altogether. The schools have numerous scholarships tenable
at the schools as well as exhibitions to the universities and other
places of higher education. Queen's College, founded in 1828
as a school of medicine, subsequently embraced other subjects,
though in 1882 only the medical and theological departments
were maintained. In 1882 a large part of the scientific teaching,
hitherto done by special professors in Queen's College, was taken
over by Mason College, and in 1892 the whole medical department
was removed to the same institution under an order from the
court of chancery. This change helped to advance the Birming-
ham medical school to a position of high repute. The theological
students (Church of England) of Queen's College are few. The
idea of developing Queen's College into a university had long
existed. But it was destined to be realized in connexion with
Mason College, founded by Sir Josiah Mason in 1870. Subse-
quent deeds (1874 and 1881) added Greek and Latin to the
practical, mechanical and artistic curriculum of the original
foundation, and provided that instruction may be given in all
such other subjects as the trustees may from time to time judge
necessary, while once in every fifteen years the provisions of the
deed may be varied to meet changing needs theology only being
definitely excluded. In 1897 a new act was passed at the instance
of the trustees, creating a court of 180 members, and removing
the theological restriction. A measure of popular
control is given through the appointment by the city
council of five out of the eleven trustees. In 1898 a
public meeting carried a resolution in favour of creating a uni-
versity. It was estimated that a quarter of a million was needed
to endow and equip a university on the scale proposed. Including
50,000 offered by Mr Andrew Carnegie, an equal amount from
an anonymous donor, and the rest from local subscribers, in the
autumn of 1899, 325,000 had been subscribed, and the privy
council was at once petitioned for a charter, which was granted.
The draft provided for the the incorporation of the university of
Birmingham with faculties of science, arts, medicine and com-
merce, with power to grant degrees, and for its government by
a court of governors (of which women may be members), a
council and a senate. Mason College was merged in the univer-
sity. The faculty of commerce constitutes a distinctive feature
in the scheme of the university, the object being to bring its
teaching into close touch with the industrial life of the city, the
district and the kingdom. In 1905 Sir Edward Elgar (who
resigned in 1908) became the first occupant of a chair of music,
founded owing to the liberality of Mr Richard Peyton. From
the same year great strides were made in the development of the
scientific departments of the university. A site at Edgbaston
was given by Lord Calthorpe, and the erection of a complete and
costly set of buildings was undertaken.
The Municipal School of Art was formed by the transference
to the corporation in 1885 of the then existing school of art
and the society of arts, and by the erection of the building
in Margaret Street, the site having already been given
and a portion of the cost provided by private donors.
There are one central school and two branch schools. Evening
classes are also held in some of the provided schools. The
Midland Institute, the building of which was founded in 1855,
and enlarged subsequently, includes a general literary and an
industrial department. A marked development took place
in 1885, when, fresh room having been provided by the removal
of the school of art hitherto held in the building, the industrial
department was greatly enlarged, resulting in the creation of one
of the best metallurgical schools in the kingdom. The Municipal
Technical School was established in 1893 in the building of the
Midland Institute, and in 1895 was housed in a fine building of its
own, in Suffolk Street, whither the whole of the scientific teaching
of the institute was transferred. It contains metallurgical and
engineering workshops and laboratories, lecture theatres for the
teaching of chemistry and physics, a women's department, and
rooms for the teaching of machine drawing and building con-
struction. Among other educational foundations may be men-
tioned a number of industrial schools, reformatories and private
schools of a good class.
The principal libraries are the Birmingham library, founded
in 1798 by Dr Priestley, in a modern building, the Central free
library, and other free libraries in different parts of the city,
each with a lending department and a reading room.
Charities. The general hospital, the foundation of Dr Ash,
an eminent local physician, was opened in 1779. The old
building was replaced in 1897 by a splendid new one in St Mary's
Square, costing 206,000. The Queen's hospital, Bath Row,
the other large hospital of the town, was founded in 1840 by
W. Sands Cox, F.R.S., an eminent local surgeon, who also
founded the Queen's College as a medical school. The general
dispensary, the officers of which visit patients at their own homes,
relieves about 8000 yearly. The children's hospital (free) estab-
lished in 1864 by Dr Heslop, has two establishments for out-
patients (a handsome Gothic building) in Steelhouse Lane, and
an in-patient department in Broad Street. There is also a
women's hospital (free) for the special diseases of women; a
lying-in charity; special hospitals for diseases of the eye, the
ear, bodily deformities, and the teeth; and a homoeopathic
hospital. The parish of Birmingham maintains a large infirmary
at the workhouse (Birmingham Heath), and a dispensary for
out-patients in Paradise Street. The majority of the hospitals
and dispensaries are free. Nearly all these medical charities
depend upon subscriptions, donations, legacies and income from
invested property. There are two public organizations for aiding
the charities, both of which were begun in Birmingham. One is
a simultaneous collection in October in churches and chapels,
on the Sunday called Hospital Sunday, established in 1859;
the other is the Saturday Hospital collection, made by the
work-people in March, which was established in 1873. A
musical festival is held triennially in aid of the general hospital.
There is a sanatorium at Blackwell, near the Lickey Hill, 10 m.
south of Birmingham, common to all the hospitals. Amongst
the non-medical charities the principal are the blind institution
and the deaf and dumb asylum, both at Edgbaston; and Sir
Josiah Mason's orphanage at Erdington. There are also in the
town numerous almhouses for aged persons, the chief of which
are Lench's Trust, the James Charities, and the Licensed
Victuallers' asylum. Besides the general benefit societies, such
as the Oddfellows', Foresters', &c., which are strongly supported
in Birmingham, the work-people have numerous clubs of a
charitable kind, and there are several important local provident
societies of a general character, with many thousand members.
Commerce. From an early period Birmingham has been a seat
of manufactures in metal. Hutton, the historian of the town,
claims for it Saxon or even British antiquity in this respect, but
without foundation. The first direct mention of Birmingham
trades is to be found in Leland's Itinerary (1538). He writes:
" I came through a pretty street as ever I entered into Berming-
ham towne. This street, as I remember, is called Dirtey
[Deritend]. In it dwell smiths and cutlers. There be many
smithes in the towne that use to make knives and all manner
of cutlery tooles, and many lorimers that make bittes, and a
great many naylors, so that a great part of the towne is main-
tained by smithes, who have their iron and sea-cole out of
Staffordshire." The cutlers no longer exist, this trade having
gone to Sheffield; but the smiths remain, and the heavier cutting
tools are still largely made here. The wide importance of
Birmingham as a centre of manufactures began towards the close
of the 1 7th century, one great source of it being the absolute
freedom of the town, there being no gilds, companies or restric-
tions of any kind; besides which the easy access to cheap coal
and iron indirectly helped the development. It is remarkable
that two important trades, now located elsewhere, were first
established here. Steel was made in Birmingham until 1797,
but then ceased to be so for about seventy years, when an
experiment in steel-making was made by a single firm. Cotton-
spinning was begun in Birmingham by John Wyatt, Lewis Paul
and Thomas Warren as early as 1730; but the speculation was
BIRMINGHAM
987
abandoned before the end of the century. The great staple
of Birmingham is metal-working in all its various forms. The
chief variety is the brass-working trade. Iron-working, though
largely carried on, is a much less important trade, works of this
kind being chiefly established in the Staffordshire district.
Jewelry, gold, silver and gilt come next to brass. The remarkable
development of this branch of industry is demonstrated by the
increase in the amount of gold and silver marked, as recorded
by the Assay office the figures of 48,123 oz. of gold and 84,323
oz. of silver in 1870 had been increased to 363,000 oz. of gold
and nearly 3,000,000 oz. of silver by the end of the century.
Then follow " small arms " of all kinds. Until 1906 a Royal
Small Arms factory was maintained by the government at
Sparkbrook, but it was then transferred to the Birmingham
Small Arms Company, which had already extensive works in
the district. Buttons, hooks and eyes, pins and other articles
used for dress, constitute a large class of manufactures. Glass,
especially table glass, is a renowned staple of the town. Screws,
nails, &c., are made in enormous quantities; indeed, Birmingham
has a monopoly of the English screw trade. Steel pens are also
a specialty, the name best known in this connexion being that of
Sir Josiah Mason. Electro-plating, first established in 1841 by
the firm of Elkington, is one of the leading trades. Among other
branches of manufacture are wire-drawing, bell founding,
metal rolling, railway-carriage building (a large and important
industry), the manufacture of cutting implements and tools of
all kinds, die-sinking, papier-mache making and a variety of
others. In 1897 there was a sudden development of cycle manu-
facturing, followed in 1899 by an almost equally sudden collapse,
but this industry is maintained and accompanied by the manufac-
ture of motor cars, tyres and accessories, for which Birmingham
is one of the principal centres in Great Britain.
Birmingham may claim as her own the perfection of the steam
engine, through the genius of James Watt and the courage of
Matthew Boulton. The memory of the great Soho factory is one
of the most precious heritages of the town, and Watt's own
private workshop continues just as he left it, with no single
article disturbed, carefully preserved in the garret of his house at
Heathfield. The mention of Watt and of Soho recalls the memories
of distinguished inventors and others who have been connected
with Birmingham. Here John Baskerville, the printer, carried
on his work. An institution called the Lunar Society, which
met each month about the time of full moon, brought together
a brilliant company Watt, Boulton, Joseph Priestley, Josiah
Wedgwood, Erasmus Darwin, Samuel Parr, Dr William Wither-
ing, Richard Lovell^Edgeworth, Sir Joseph Banks, Sir William
Herschel. Dr Solander, John Roebuck, James Keir and many
others. William Murdock, the inventor of gas, was a Soho man,
and first used his invention to light the Soho factory at the
peace of Amiens in 1802. The series of inventors is continued by
the names of Gillott, Elkington, Chance, Mason and others.
Thomas Rickman, the reviver and historian of Gothic architec-
ture, practised as an architect in Birmingham. William Hutton,
the antiquary and historian, carried on his bookselling business
here. Many of the best engravers were Birmingham men,
notably James Tibbitts Willmore and John Pye, the special
translators of Turner's marvellous creations. Attwood, Joseph
Parkes, John Bright and Joseph Chamberlain speak for Bir-
mingham in the region of politics and statesmanship.
One of the most marked features of social life in Birmingham
is the fact that contrasts in the distribution of wealth are less
strongly marked than in most other great cities. The distance
between the poorest and the richest is bridged over by a larger
number of intermediate gradations. Colossal fortunes are few;
on the other hand there is a numerous class of rich men. These,
however, for the greater part are actually engaged in trade or
manufactures, and hold their place in local life rather on account
of industry pursued than of wealth possessed. The number of
the leisured class, enjoying large incomes without participating
in any local industry, is relatively small, but is said to be on the
increase. There are many manufacturing companies, but great
private firms are also numerous. In regard to labour conditions,
the system of small masters holds its own in the manufactures
of Birmingham, and shows no signs of extinction. One
effect of this condition is that capital and labour are not
brought into enmity, and consequently strikes and disputes arc
infrequent. As regards the condition of the working classes it
may be noted that Birmingham was the birthplace of the freehold
land and building societies, by which workmen are enabled on
easy terms to acquire houses of their own. The risk of an over-
crowded population is consequently minimized; the houses,
moreover, are generally well situated as regards light and air,
and many have small gardens. Among industrial communities
where peculiar attention is paid to the housing of workmen and
their families, that of Bourneville, occupied by the employts of
Messrs Cadbury, chocolate manufacturers, is well known.
History. Owing to its rapid expansion, and the consequent
newness of most of the public and other buildings, Birmingham
is often supposed to be a modern town. It was, however, in
existence as a community in the Saxon period. Proof of this
was given in 1309 by William de Bermingham, then lord of the
manor, who showed in a law-suit that his ancestors had a market
in the place and levied tolls before the Conquest. Some authors
have endeavoured to identify the town with the supposed Roman
station called Bremenium, but this claim has long been
abandoned as fabulous. A Roman road runs north and south
across the site of the town, but no remains have been found other
than a very few coins. The origin of the name is untraceable;
the spelling itself has passed through about too different forms.
Dugdale, the historian of Warwickshire, adopts Bromwycham,
and regards it as of Saxon derivation. Hutton, the historian of
Birmingham, has the fanciful etymology of Brom (broom),
wych (a descent), and ham (a home), making together the home
on the hill by the heath.
In Domesday Book Birmingham is rated at four miles of land
with half a mile of woods, the whole valued at 203. Two
hundred years later the family of de Bermingham, the owners of
the place, come into sight, one of them, William, being killed at
the battle of Evesham, in 1265, fighting with Simon de Montfort
and the barons against Henry III. The son of this William
afterwards took part in the French war, and was made prisoner;
his father's estates, forfeited by treason, were restored to him.
Thenceforward the family engaged in various local and other
offices, but seemingly abstained from politics. They held the
place until 1527, when Edward de Bermingham was deprived of
his property by means of John Dudley, duke of Northumberland,
who trumped up a pretended charge of riot and robbery against
him and procured Birmingham for himself. On the attainder
of Dudley the manor passed to the crown, and was granted to
Thomas Marrow, of Berkswell, from whom by marriage and
descent it went to Christopher Musgrave, and finally, as regards
the only valuable part the market tolls by purchase to the
town itself. In the Wars of the Roses it does not seem that
Birmingham took any part; but energy revived in the Civil
War under Charles I., when the town sided actively with the
Parliamentarians. In 1642, when Charles was marching from
Shrewsbury to relieve Banbury, the Birmingham people seized
part of his baggage, including much plate, money and wine,
which they sent to the Parliamentary garrison at Warwick.
Before the battle of Edgehill Charles rested for two nights at
Aston Hall, near the town, as the guest of Sir Thomas Holte.
The Birmingham people resented this by helping the Parlia-
mentarians to cannonade the Hall and to levy a fine upon Sir
Thomas Holte. They also supplied the Parliamentary army
with 15,000 sword blades, refusing to make a single blade for
the Royalists. These manifestations of hostility were avenged
in April 1643 by Prince Rupert, who, with 2000 men and several
pieces of artillery, attacked the town, planting his cannon on an
eminence near Sparkbrook, still known as Camphill. The towns-
people resisted, but were beaten, many persons being killed or
wounded. Amongst the former was Lord Denbigh, one of the
Royalist officers. Having captured the place, Prince Rupert
allowed his troops to plunder it, to burn about eighty houses and
to set their prisoners to ransom. He also levied a fine of 30,000,
BIRNEY
equal to at least 100,000 of the present value of money. This
bitter lesson kept Birmingham quiet during the rest of the Civil
War, though the sympathies of the people with the Parliament-
arians were unabated. In 1665 Birmingham suffered heavy
losses by the plague, great numbers of dead being buried in the
Pest Field, at Ladywood, then a lonely place far outside the
town, but long since thickly covered with buildings. In 1688
the Revolution provoked a temporary outbreak of Protestant
feeling. James II. had given timber from the royal forest of
Needwood, near Burton, to build a Roman Catholic chapel and
convent in a place still called Mass-house Lane. This edifice the
mob promptly destroyed when James gave place to William and
Mary. Rather more than a century of quiet prosperity ensued,
and then occurred the serious and most lamentable outbreak
of popular fury known as the Church and King riots of 1791.
For some years there had been much political activity in Bir-
mingham, the dissenters, particularly the Unitarians, being
desirous of relief from the political and religious disabilities under
which they laboured. The leader in these movements was the
famous Dr Priestley, who kept up an active controversy with the
local clergy and others, and thus drew upon himself and his
co-religionists the hatred of the more violent members of the
Church and Tory party. The smouldering fire broke out on the
occasion of the French Revolution. On the i4th of July a dinner
of Birmingham Liberals was held at the Royal hotel to celebrate
the destruction of the Bastille. This was the signal of a popular
outbreak. A Church and King mob, encouraged and organized
by leaders of better station, who were too cowardly to show
themselves, began an attack upon the Unitarians. Priestley
was not present at the dinner, but his house at Fair Hill, Spark-
brook, was one of the first to be sacked and burnt his library
and laboratory, with all his manuscripts, the records of life-long
scientific and philosophical inquiries, perishing in the flames.
The house and library of Hutton the historian were also
destroyed. The Unitarian chapel was burnt, and several houses
belonging to members of the sect were sacked and burnt. The
riot continued until a strong body of troops was marched into
the town, but before their arrival damage to the amount of more
than 60,000 had been done. Some of the rioters perished in the
burning buildings, in the cellars of which they drank themselves
into stupefaction. Others were tried and imprisoned, and four
of the prisoners were hanged. The persecuted Unitarians
recovered a small part of their losses from the county; but
Priestley himself, owing in a great measure to the unworthy
prejudice against him, was forced to remove to the United States
of America, where he spent the rest of his life. A late atonement
was made by the town to his memory in 1873, by the erection
of a statue in his honour in front of the town hall and the
foundation of a Priestley scholarship at the Midland Institute.
As if ashamed of the excesses of 1791, Birmingham thenceforth
became, with one or two exceptions, a peaceful town. In the
dismal period from 1817 to 1819, when the manufacturing
districts were heavily distressed and were disturbed by riots,
Birmingham remained quiet. Even when some of the inhabitants
were tried and punished for demanding parliamentary repre-
sentation, and for electing Sir Charles Wolseley as their delegate,
there was no demonstration of violence the wise counsels of
the leaders inducing orderly submission to the law. The same
prudent course was observed when in the Reform agitation of
1831-1832 the Political Union was formed, under the leadership
of Thomas Attwood, to promote the passing of the Reform Bill.
Almost the whole town, and great part of the surrounding
district, joined in this agitation; vast meetings were held on
Newhall Hill; there was much talk of marching upon London
100,000 strong; but, owing to the firmness and statesmanship
of Attwood and his associates, there was no rioting or any sign
of violence. Ultimately the Political Union succeeded in its
object, and Birmingham helped to secure for the nation the
enfranchisement of the middle classes and other political reforms.
One exception to the tranquillity of the town has to be recorded
the occurrence of riots in 1839, during the Chartist agitation.
Chartism took a strong hold in Birmingham, and, under the
influence of Feargus O'Connor and some of his associates, nightly
meetings of a threatening character were held in the Bull Ring.
The magistrates resolved to put these down, and having obtained
the help of a detachment of the metropolitan police the town
then having no local police force a meeting was dispersed, and
a riot ensued, which resulted in injury to several persons and
required military force to suppress it. This happened on the
4th of July. On the isth of the same month another meeting
took place, and the mob, strongly armed and numbering many
thousands, set fire to several houses in the Bull Ring, some of
which were burned to the ground and others were greatly
damaged. The military again interfered, and order was restored,
several of the ringleaders being afterwards tried and imprisoned
for their share in the disturbance. There was another riot in
1867, caused by the ferocious attacks of a lecturer named
Murphy upon the Roman Catholics, which led to the sacking of
a street chiefly inhabited by Irishmen; but the incident was
comparatively trivial and further disorders were prevented by
the prompt action of the authorities.
See W. Hutton, History of Birmingham (2nd ed., Birm., 1783);
J. A. Langford, A Century of Birmingham Life, 1741-1841 (Birm.,
1868), and Modern Birmingham and its Institutions, 1841-1871
(Birm., 1873) ; J. T. Bunce, History of the Corporation of Birmingham
(Birm., 1885).
BIRNEY, JAMES GILLESPIE (1792-1857), American reformer,
leader of the conservative abolitionists in the United States from
about 1835 to 1845, was born in Danville, Kentucky, of a family
of wealth and influence, on the 4th of February. 1792. He
graduated at the College of New Jersey (now Princeton Uni-
versity) in 1810. In 1814, after a course of legal study, he began
the practice of the law at Danville. He entered immediately, as
a Democrat, into Kentucky politics, and political ambition caused
his removal in 1818 to northern Alabama, near Huntsville.
There was at that time in the south-west much anti-slavery
sentiment. Birney's father was among those who advocated a
" free state " constitution for Kentucky, and the home environ-
ment of the boy had thus fostered a questioning attitude towards
slavery, though later he was himself a slave-holder. In the
general assembly of Kentucky in 1816, and in that of Alabama
in 1819, he opposed inter-state rendition of fugitive slaves and
championed liberal slave-laws. His career as a lawyer in
Alabama was exceptionally brilliant; but his political career
was abruptly wrecked by his opposition in 1819 to Andrew
Jackson, whose friends controlled the state. His tariff and anti-
slavery views, moreover, carried him more and more away from
the Democratic party and toward the Whigs.
About 1826 he began to show an active interest in the American
Colonization Society, and in 1832-1833 served as its agent in the
south-west. In 1833 he returned to Danville, and devoted
himself wholly to the anti-slavery cause. He freed his own
slaves in 1834. Convinced that gradual emancipation would
merely stimulate the inter-state slave trade, and that the dangers
of a mixed labour system were greater than those of emancipa-
tion in mass, he formally repudiated colonization in 1834;
moreover, gradualism had become for him an unjustifiable
compromise in a matter of religion and justice. At this time
also he abandoned the Whig party. He delivered anti-slavery
addresses in the North, accepted the vice-presidency of the
American Anti-Slavery Society and announced his intention to
establish an anti-slavery journal at Danville (1835). For this he
was ostracized from Kentucky society; his anti-slavery journals
were withheld in the mails; he could not secure a public hall or
a printer. In these circumstances, he removed to Cincinnati,
Ohio, and there, in January 1836, founded the Philanthropist,
which, in spite of rancorous opposition, became of great influence
in the north-west. Birney soon relinquished its active control in
order to serve the Anti-Slavery Society as secretary and as a
lecturer. He favoured immediatism, but he differed sharply
from the Garrisonian abolitionists, who abhorred the federal
Constitution and favoured secession. He always wrote, spoke
and laboured for the permanent safety of the Union. The
assaults of the South in defence of slavery upon free speech, free
press, the right of petition and trial by jury, he pronounced
BIRON BIRRELL
989
" exorbitant claims ... on the liberties of the free states ";
the contest had become, he said, " one not alone of freedom for
the blacks but of freedom for the whites." Twenty-three years
before William H. Seward characterized as an " irrepressible
conflict " the antagonism between freedom and slavery, Birney
proclaimed: " There will be no cessation of conflict until slavery
shall be exterminated or liberty destroyed " -" liberty and
slavery cannot both live in juxtaposition " (1835). The ends
being political, so also, thought Birney, must be the means; as
parties in the south were fusing, he laboured to re-align parties in
the north, and advocated the formation of an independent anti-
slavery party. After the separation of the Garrisonian and the
political abolitionists in 1840 the new party was formed, and in
1840, and again in 1844, as the Liberty party (q.v.), it made
Birney its candidate for the presidency. In 1840 he received
7069 votes; in 1844, 62,263. A fall from his horse in 1845 made
him a hopeless invalid, and completely removed him from public
life. He died at Perth Amboy, New Jersey, on the 25th of
November 1857.
Two of Birney's sons, William Birney (1810-1907) and David
Bell Birney (1825-1864), were prominent as officers on the
Federal side during the Civil War in America.
See James G. Birney and His Times (New York, 1890), by his son,
William Birney; and his principal writings: On the Sin of Holding
Slaves (1834). Letter on Colonization (1834), Vindication of Abolition-
ists (1835), American Churches the Bulwark of American Slavery
(1840, 3rd ed. 1885); Speeches in England (1840); and Case of
Strader et al. v. Graham (1852).
BIRON, ARMAND DE GONTAUT, BARON DE (1524-1592),
a celebrated French soldier of the i6th century. His family, one
of the numerous branches of the house of Gontaut, took its title
from the territory of Biron in Perigord, where on a hill between the
Dropt and the Lide still stands the magnificent castle begun by
the lords of Biron in the nth century. As a page of the queen
of Navarre Biron attracted the notice of the marshal de Brissac,
with whom he saw active service in Italy. A wound received by
him in his early years made him lame for life, but he did not
withdraw from the military career, and he held a command in
Guise's regiment of light horse in 1557. A little later he became
chief of a cavalry regiment, and in the wars of religion he
repeatedly distinguished himself.
His great services to the royal cause at Dreux, St Denis, Jarnac
and Moncontour were rewarded in 1569 by his appointment as
a privy councillor of the king and grand master of artillery.
He commanded the royal forces at the siege of La Rochelle
in 1572, and four years later was made a marshal of France.
From 1576 to 1588 he was almost continuously employed in high
command. From 1589 he supported the cause of Henry of
Navarre, but was suspected of prolonging the civil wars in bis
own interest. Biron was killed by a cannon-ball at the siege of
Epernay on the 26th of July 1 592. He was a man of considerable
literary attainments, and used to carry a pocket-book, in which
he noted everything that appeared remarkable. Some of his
letters are preserved in the Bibliotheque Nationale and in the
British Museum; these include a treatise on the art of war.
His son, CHARLES DE GONTAUT, due de Biron (1562-1602),
fought brilliantly for the royal party against the League. He
was made admiral of France in 1592, and marshal in 1594;
governor of Burgundy in 1595, he took the towns of Beaune,
Autun, Auxonne and Dijon, and distinguished himself at the
battle of Fontaine-Frangaise. In 1596 he was sent to fight the
Spaniards in Flanders, Picardy and Artois. After the peace of
Vervins he discharged a mission at Brussels (1598). From that
time he was engaged in intrigues with Spain and Savoy, and,
notwithstanding, directed the expedition sent against the duke
of Savoy (1599-1600). After fulfilling diplomatic missions for
Henry IV. in England and Switzerland (1600), he was accused
and convicted of high treason and was beheaded in the Bastille
on the 3ist of July 1602.
His collateral descendant, ARMAND Louis DE GONTAUT, due de
Lauzun, afterwards due de Biron (1747-1793), is known for the
part he played in the War of American Independence and the
revolutionary wars. Until 1 788, when he succeeded to the duchy
of Biron on the death of his uncle, Louis Antoine de Gontaut,
due de Biron (1700-1788) he bore the title of due de Lauzun,
which had passed, on the death of Antoine Nompas de Caumont,
due de Lauzun (1633-1723), to his niece, the wife of Charles
Armand de Gontaut, due de Biron (1663-1756). After for a
while wasting his fortune in dissipation in various parts of Europe,
tie attracted attention by an essay on the military defences of
Great Britain and her colonies (tat de defense d'Angleterre et de
toutes ses possessions dans les quatres parties du monde). This led
to his appointment to a command against the English in 1779,
in which he gained several successes. In the following year he
took a conspicuous part in the War of American Independence,
and on his return to France was made martchal de camp. In 1 789
tie was returned as deputy to the states-general by the noblesse of
Quercy, and attached himself to the revolutionary cause. In
1791 he was sent by the Constituent Assembly to receive the oath
of the army of Flanders, and subsequently was appointed to it*
command. In July 1792 he was nominated commander of the
army of the Rhine, with the duty of watching the movements of
the Austrians. In May 1793 he was transferred to the command
of the army of La Rochelle, operating against the insurgents of
La Vendee. He gained several successes, among them the
capture of Saumur and the victory of Parthenay; but the
insubordination of his troops and the intrigues of revolutionary
agents made his position intolerable and he sent in his resignation.
He was thereupon accused by the notorious Carrier of incivisme
and undue leniency to the insurgents, deprived of his command
(July), imprisoned in the Abbaye and condemned to death by the
Revolutionary Tribunal. He was guillotined on the 3ist of
December 1 793. Some Memoires, which come down to 1 783, were
published under his name in 1822 (new ed. 1858), and in 1865
letters said to have been written by him in 1 789 to friends in the
country, describing the states-general.
BIRR, or PARSONSTOWN, a market-town of King's county,
Ireland, on an acclivity rising above the Birr, and on a branch of
the Great Southern & Western railway by which it is 87 m.
W.S.W. from Dublin. Pop. of urban district (1901) 4438.
Cumberland Square, in which there is a Doric column surmounted
by a statue of the duke of Cumberland, to commemorate the
battle of Culloden, is the point from which the several principal
streets diverge in regular form. The fine castle of Birr, beside
its historical interest, has gained celebrity on account of the
reflecting telescope erected here (1828-1845) by William, third
earl of Rosse. This is 56 ft. in length and weighs 3 tons; and
there is another smaller instrument. Among institutions the
model and preparatory schools of the Brothers of the Presentation
Order are noteworthy. There is a bronze statue by Foley of
Lord Rosse (d. 1867). Some trade is carried on in corn and
timber, and in brewing and distilling.
An abbey was founded at Birr by St Brendan (d. 573), to whom
the present parish church is dedicated. The district formed part
of Ely O'Carroll, and was not included in King's county till the
time of James I. A great battle is said to have been fought near
Birr in the 3rd century between Cormac, son of Cond of the
Hundred Battles, and the people of Munster. The castle was
the chief seat of the O'Carrolls. In the reign of James I. it and
its appendages were assigned to Lawrence Parsons, brother of
Sir William Parsons, surveyor-general. From him the alternative
name of the town is derived. The castle was more than once
besieged in the time of Cromwell, and was taken by Ireton in
1650. It also suffered assault in 1688 and 1600.
BIRRELL, AUGUSTINE (1850- ), English author and
politician, son of a Nonconformist minister, was born near
Liverpool on the igth of January 1850. He was educated at
Amersham Hall school and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He
went to the bar, and gradually obtained a good practice; in 1893
he became a K.C., and he was professor of law at University
College from 1896 to 1899. But it was as a literary critic of
unusually clever style and an original vein of wit, that he first
became known to the public, with his volume of essays entitled
Obiter Dicta (1884). In 1889 he was returned to parliament for
West Fifeshire as a Liberal. In the House of Commons his light
990
BIRTH
but pointed humour gradually led to the coining of a new word,
"birrelling," and his literary and oratorical reputation grew apace.
Whether he was writing miscellaneous essays or law-books, his
characteristic style prevailed, and his books on copyright and
on trusts were novelties indeed among legal textbooks, no less
sparkling than his literary Obiter Dicta. A second series of the
latter appeared in 1887. Res Judicatae in 1892 and various
other volumes followed, for he was in request among publishers
and editors, and his easy charm of style and acute grasp of
interesting detail gave him a front place among contemporary
men of letters. Mr Birrell was first married in 1878, but his wife
died next year, and in 1888 he married Mrs Lionel Tennyson,
daughter of the poet Frederick Locker (Locker-Lampson). At
the general election of 1900 he preferred to contest the N.E.
division of Manchester rather than retain his seat in Fifeshire,
but was defeated. He did valuable service, however, to his party
by presiding over the Liberal Publication Department, and at the
general election of 1906 he was returned for a division of Bristol.
He had been included in Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman's
cabinet, and as minister for education he was responsible for the
education bill which was the chief government measure in their
first session. But the prolonged controversy over the bill, and
its withdrawal in the autumn owing to the refusal of the govern-
ment to accept modifications made by the House of Lords in
the denominational interest, made his retention of that office
impossible, and he was transferred (January 1907) to the post of
chief secretary for Ireland, which he subsequently retained when
Mr Asquith became prime minister in 1908. In the session of 1907
he introduced an Irish Councils bill, a sort of half-way house to
Home Rule; but it was unexpectedly repudiated by a Nationalist
convention in Dublin and the bill was promptly withdrawn.
His prestige as a minister, already injured by these two blows,
suffered further during the autumn and winter from the cattle-
driving agitation in Ireland, which he at first feebly criticized
and finally strongly denounced, but which his refusal to utilize
the Crimes Act made him powerless to stop by the processes of
the " ordinary law "; and the scandal arising out of the theft
of the Dublin crown jewels in the autumn of 1907 was a further
blot on the Irish administration. On the other hand his scheme
for a reconstituted Irish Roman Catholic university was very
favourably received, and its acceptance in 1908 did much to
restore his reputation for statesmanship.
BIRTH (a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages
irom the root of the verb " to bear "), the act of bringing forth
a child, or the fact of its being born; so also a synonym for descent
or lineage. In law, a child not actually born, but en venire
sa mere, is supposed for many purposes to be actually born, and
may take any benefit to which it would have been entitled if
actually born, i.e. it may take as legatee or devisee, or even as
next-of-kin or heir, but none of these conditions will take effect,
unless the child is born alive (see MEDICAL JURISPRUDENCE).
The given year of age of a child is gained at the first instant of the
day preceding the birthday, and no account is taken of parts of
a day, e.g. a child born at 11.59 on tne night of the znd~3rd of
May 1900, would be of age the first moment after midnight of
the ist-2ndof May 1921. In English law, by the Offences against
the Person Act of 1 86 1, it is a misdemeanour punishable by a
maximum of two years' imprisonment with hard labour, to endeav-
our to conceal the birth of a child by any secret disposition of its
dead body, whether the child died before, after or at its birth.
Registration of Births. The registration of baptisms is said to
have been first introduced by Thomas Cromwell when vicar-
general in 1538, but it is only in comparatively modern times
that registration has been fully carried out. The law relating
to the registration of births was consolidated for England by the
Births and Deaths Registration Act 1874, and for Ireland by the
Births and Deaths Registration Act (Ireland) 1880. In Scotland
it depends upon the Registration of Births, Deaths and Marriages
(Scotland) Act 1854, as amended by later acts. Previously to
the passing of the Births and Deaths Registration Act 1836, the
records of the births were compiled from parish registers, which
were formerly a part of the ecclesiastical organization, and con-
tinued to be attached, more or less, to the church till the passing
of the act of 1836. That act provided a far more complete
machinery than that before existing for the exact record of all
births. The new system relieved the clergy from all functions
previously thrown upon them, and finally, after improvement
by subsequent acts, was made compulsory in 1874. The act
of 1836 established a general register office in London, presided
over by an officer called the registrar-general, with general
superintendence over everything relating to registration. The
registrar-general is appointed under the Great Seal. Every poor-
law union or parish is divided into districts, each of which is
called by a distinct name, and is in charge of a registrar, who is
a local officer appointed by the guardians of the union. Over
each union is a superintendent registrar, who has supervision
over the registrars within his district. The office of super-
intendent registrar is usually filled by the clerk to the guardians of
the union. He receives quarterly from every registrar within his
district certified copies of the births registered by him and having
verified their correctness, transmits them to the registrar-general.
He takes charge of the register-books within the district, when
filled. Every registrar is required to inform himself carefully
of every birth which happens within his sub-district and register
the same, with the various particulars required, according to
the forms laid down for the purpose. It is the duty of the father
or mother of any child born alive, or in their default, then of
the occupier of the house (if he knows of the birth) or of any
person present at the birth or having charge of the child, to
give to the registrars, within forty-two days after the day of
the birth, information of the particulars required to be registered
concerning the birth, and in the presence of the registrar to sign
the register. Every person required to give information con-
cerning any birth who wilfully refuses to answer questions put
to him by the registrar concerning the particulars required
to be registered, or who refuses or fails without reasonable
excuse to give information of any birth, becomes liable to a
penalty of forty shillings. After three months a birth can only
be registered in the presence of the superintendent registrar,
and after the expiration of twelve months a birth can only be
registered with the written authority of the registrar-general.
In the case of an illegitimate child, no person as the father of
such child is required to give information, nor is the name of
any one entered in the register as the father of such a child,
unless at the joint request of the mother and the person who
acknowledges himself to be the father. An additional duty
is placed upon the father by the Notification of Births Act 1907.
By that act it is the duty of the father of a child if he is actually
residing in the house where the birth takes place at the time of
its occurrence to give notice in writing of the birth to the medical
officer of health of the district in which the child is born within
thirty-six hours of the birth. The same duty is also imposed
upon any person in attendance (i.e. medical practitioner or
midwife) upon the mother at the time of or within six hours
after the birth. The medical officer of health is then in a posi-
tion to take such steps, by advice or otherwise, as may, in his
opinion lead to the prevention of infant mortality. Notice
under the act is given by posting a prepaid letter or postcard
to the medical officer of health giving the necessary information.
Failure to give notice entails on summary conviction a penalty
not exceeding twenty shillings. The act is optional to local
authorities, but may be enforced within any area by the Local
Government Board. By the Births and Deaths Registration
Act 1874 and the Merchant Shipping Act 1894, commanding
officers of ships trading to or from British ports must, under a
penalty, transmit returns of all births occurring on board their
ships to the registrar-general of shipping, who furnishes certified
copies of such returns to the registrars-general for England,
Scotland and Ireland. These returns of births (and deaths)
constitute the " Marine Register Book."
Registration is very efficiently carried out in practically every
European country, with the exceptions of Turkey and Russia.
In the United States laws requiring registration vary in the
different states.
BIRUNI BISCAY, BAY OF
991
Tax on Birth. In 1694 an act was passed in England for
" granting to His Majesty certain rates and duties upon marriages,
births and burials, upon bachelors and widowers for the term of
five years, for carrying on the war against France with vigour."
The taxes were graduated, rising from four shillings on the burial
of the humblest person to 50 in the case of a duke or duchess.
The duty on births varied according to the rank of the parents.
A duke paid 30 on the birth of an eldest son, and 25 for every
other child; a baronet or knight, 5 for an eldest son, and i
each for other children. An archbishop or bishop, or a doctor
of divinity, law or physic paid i for every child; a gentleman
having a personal estate of 600 or a real estate worth 50 per
annum, paid ten shillings on the birth of each child. Every
other person not receiving alms paid a tax of two shillings on
the birth of each child. This measure, however, was only
temporary, and passed for revenue purposes solely.
See also articles ILLEGITIMACY; INFANTICIDE; LEGITIMACY AND
LEGITIMATION; POPULATION; SUCCESSION; OBSTETRICS, &c.
BlRUNl [ABU-R-RAUJAN MUHAMMAD AL-BlRUNl] (973-1048),
Arabian scholar, was born of Persian parentage in Khwarizm
(Khiva), and was a Shi'ite in religion. He devoted his youth
to the study of history, chronology, mathematics, astronomy,
philosophy and medicine. He corresponded with Ibn Sln<i
(see AVICENNA), and the answers of the latter are still preserved
in the British Museum. For some years he lived in Jurjan, and
then went to India, where he remained some years teaching Greek
philosophy and learning Indian. In 1017 he was taken by
Mahmud of Ghazni to Afghanistan, where he remained until
his death in 1048. His Athar ul-Bdkiya (Vestiges of the Past)
was published by C. E. Sachau (Leipzig, 1878), and a translation
into- English under the title The Chronology of Ancient Nations
(London, 1879). His History of India was published by C. E.
Sachau (London, 1887), and an English translation (2 vols.,
London, 1888). Other works of his, chiefly on mathematics and
astronomy, are still in manuscript only.
See C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar,
1898), vol. i. pp. 475-476. (G. W. T.)
BISALTAE, a Thracian people on the lower Strymon (Struma;
Karasu, " black water "), in the district between Amphipolis and
Heraclea Sintica on the east and Crestonice on the west. They
also made their way into the peninsulas of Acte and Pallene in
the south, beyond the river Nestus in the east, and are even said
to have raided Cardia. Under a separate king at the time of the
Persian wars, they were annexed by Alexander I. (498-454 B.C.)
to the kingdom of Macedonia. At the division of Macedonia
into four districts by the Romans after the battle of Pydna (168)
the Bisaltae were included in Macedonia Prima (Livy xlv. 29).
Their country was rich in figs, vines and olive trees; the
silver mines in the mountain range of Dysorum brought in a
talent a day to their conqueror Alexander. The Bisaltae are
referred to by Virgil (Georgics, iii. 461) in connexion with the
treatment of the diseases of sheep. The fact that their eponymus
is said to have been the son of Helios and Ge points to a very
early settlement in the district.
See Smith's Diet, of Greek and Roman Geography; M. Ihm in
Pauly-Wissowa's Realencydopddie, iii. part i. (1897) ; W. Tomaschek,
Die alien Thraker (Vienna, 1893) ; and for the coins of the Bisaltic
kings, B. V. Head, Historia Numorum, p. 178.
BISCAY (Vizcaya), a maritime province of northern Spain;
bounded on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Guipuzcoa, S. by
Alava and W. by Burgos and Santander. Pop. (1900) 311,361;
area, 836 sq.m. A small strip of isolated territory within the
borders of Biscay, on the west, is officially included in the
province of Santander. Biscay is one of the Basque Provinces,
and its name is occasionally employed as geographically equivalent
to Basque, in that case including the three provinces of Biscay
proper, Guipuzcoa and Alava. The coast-line, which extends
from Ondarroa to a short distance east of Castro Urdiales, is bold
and rugged, and in some places is deeply indented. The surface
of the country is for the most part very mountainous, being
traversed towards the south by the great Cantabrian chain; but
at the same time it is diversified with numerous narrow valleys
and small plains. Some of the mountains are almost entirely
composed of naked calcareous rock, but most of them were
formerly covered to their summits with forests of oaks, chestnuts
or pine trees, now destroyed to provide fuel. Holly and arbutus
are common, and furze and heath abound in the poorer parts.
The only river of any size is the Nervion, Ansa or Ibaizabal, on
which Bilbao is situated; the others, which are numerous, are
merely large mountain streams. The climate is rather inclement
and variable; but the thermometer seldom drops below freezing-
point, nor does snow fall frequently in winter except on the
highest summits. The rainfall is on an average greater than in
any province except those of the extreme north-west. The soil,
though not very fertile, except in some of the valleys and sheltered
hillsides, produces wheat, maize, barley, rye, flax, grapes, peaches,
apples and other fruits. The mountainous slopes of Biscay are
studded with the traditional Basque caserio, or farmhouse, in
which the peasantry live on the mttayer system, dividing the
profits of the soil with absentee landlords. The farms are
generally small, and are for the most part tilled by manual
labour. The fisheries are actively prosecuted along the coast by a
hardy race of fishers, who were the first of their craft in Europe
to pursue the whale, formerly abundant in the Bay of Biscay.
Cod, bream, tunny and anchovy are the principal fish taken.
The fishing fleet consists of several hundred boats, manned by
nearly 5000 men and boys. Biscay is very rich in minerals.
Iron of the finest quality is found in almost every part, and
forms a main article of export. At the beginning of the 2oth
century an average of about 5,000,000 tons was produced every
year, and many large foundries were at work. Lead and zinc are
mined in much smaller quantities, alum and sulphur are also-
present, and marble, lime and sandstone are abundant. Another
very important industry is the manufacture of dynamite and
other explosives at Baracaldo, closely connected with the
mining interests. There are also potteries, paper, soap and shoe
factories, flour mills and breweries, and the many mineral springs
and spas are frequented by people from all parts of Spain. The
mining and industrial interests of Biscay were very materially
assisted by the quick and important development of means of
communication of every kind. The provincial and parish roads,
kept up by the local government, are excellent. No province in
Spain had at the beginning of the 2oth century such a complete
network of railways, all built since 1870.
Bilbao (pop. 83,306), the capital and principal port, and
Baracaldo (15,013), an important industrial town, are described
in separate articles. Sestao (10,833) is the only other town of
more than 10,000 inhabitants; the port of Bermeo (9061) is the
chief fishing station; Durango (4319), on the river of the same
name, was founded by the early kings of Navarre in the loth
century, obtained the rank of a count ship in 1153, and contains
one of the oldest churches in the Basque Provinces, San Pedro
de Tavira; Guernica (3250), a picturesque village on the river
Mondaca, was until 1876 the meeting-place of the provincial
parliament. The deputies assembled under an old oak-tree,
celebrated by the Basque poet, Jos6 Maria Iparraguirre, in a
song which is regarded by the Spanish Basques almost as a
national anthem. For the history of the Basques, see BASQUE
PROVINCES; for their origin, language and customs, see BASQUES.
The inhabitants of Biscay are intelligent, enterprising and
well-educated; and, owing to the uniformly high birth-rate, low
death-rate, and very slight loss by emigration, their numbers
increased rapidly during the latter part of the 1 9th century, until
in 1900 the density of population (372-4 per sq. m.) was greater
than in any other Spanish province.
BISCAY, BAY OF (Fr. Goife de Gascogne; Sp. Golfo de
Vizcaya), an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean; bounded on the E. and
N.E. by France, as far as the island of Ushant, and on the S. by
Spain as far as Cape Ortegal. The Bay of Biscay is the Sinus
Aquitanictts, Sinus Cantabricus or Cantaber Oceania of the
Romans; hence it is sometimes known as the Cantabrian Sea.
Its modern English name is a corrupt form of the Spanish Viteaya.
The bay forms a fairly regular curve, broken on the French sea-
board only by the estuaries of the Loire, Garonne. Adour and
other rivers. The rugged Spanish coast is indented by many
992
BISCEGLIE BISECTRIX
fjord-like inlets, especially in the west, where navigation is some-
times difficult and dangerous; but its rivers are comparatively
unimportant. The exposed position of the bay, and the diversity
of its currents, have rendered it notorious for its storms.
BISCEGLIE (perhaps anc. Natiolum), a seaport and epis-
copal see of Apulia, Italy, on the E.S.E. coast, in the province
of Bari, from which it is distant 215 m. by rail. Pop. (1901)
30,885. Two towers, one some 90 ft. high, of a once strong
Norman castle still remain; the cathedral belongs to the same
period. The church of S. Margherita, founded in 1197, has fine
canopied Gothic tombs of the Falcone family.
BISCHOFSWERDA, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Saxony, on the Wesenitz, and at the junction of the Dresden-
Gorlitz and Bischofswerda-Zittau railways in the governmental
district of Bautzen. Pop . (1905) 7465. There are cloth, artificial
flower, and cigar factories, glass-works, potteries, and in the
neighbourhood large granite quarries. It is famous as the scene
of a battle, on the 1 2th of May 1813, between the French and the
Allies after Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. It was the residence
of Benno, bishop of Meissen, in the nth century, and the
" Bishop's Road " still runs from here to Meissen.
BISCHWEILER, a town of Germany, in the imperial territory
of Alsace-Lorraine, district of Lower Alsace, 23 m. by rail N.
by E. from Strassburg. Pop. (1900) 7897. It has manufactures
of jute and machinery, brewing and iron-founding.
BISCUIT (pronounced according to the old spelling " bisket,"
a Fr. form from Lat. bis, twice, and coctum, cooked, in reference
to the original method of preparation; cf. Ital. biscolto, Sp.
bizcocho, &c.), a form of unvesiculated bread (q.v.), which is
made in thin cakes of various shapes and baked in such a way
as to be crisp and short. In the United States of America
biscuits of this kind are usually called crackers, but the word
biscuit is used there, as also in the north of England, for vesi-
culated bread baked in little flat loaves or cakes. Earthenware,
porcelain, &c., which has undergone its first baking and is ready
to be glazed is also known as biscuit or bisque.
The raw material chiefly used in biscuit manufacture is flour,
but many other substances, such as butter, sugar, salt, various
flavouring essences, &c., are also employed. The flour used by
the biscuit-maker differs somewhat from that preferred by the
bread-baker. In the main the bread-baker wants flour of some
strength, that is to say, flour capable of absorbing a considerable
proportion of water and of making a loaf of more or less volume.
For biscuits flour strength is not such a desideratum, and as
a matter of fact such moisture as is used to make the dough is
largely evaporated by the oven; but, except for the commoner
kind of biscuits, colour is most essential, as well as sweetness
of flavour. In a large biscuit factory several hundred different
kinds of biscuits are made, ranging from plain water biscuits
to the daintiest fancy biscuits glistening in sugar and piping.
The storage required for such an establishment is extensive,
but lifts serve to handle both raw material and finished products
with a minimum of labour. The flour used by a firm which has
a reputation to maintain is sifted as a precaution against the
presence of bits of string or other foreign bodies which will
make their way into flour sacked by the most careful of millers,
and like the butter, sugar and other raw materials, is carefully
inspected and tested before being accepted. After blending it
is run through a shoot or sleeve to the mixers, which may be
of any type used in bakehouses (see BREAD). From the mixers
or kneaders the dough is delivered on a flat table, or it may go
direct to a pair of rolls. These consist of iron rollers with a
reversing motion, between which the dough is rolled backwards
and forwards into sheets of uniform thickness. The next stage
END OF THIRD VOLUME
is the feeding of portions of this slab of dough to a cutting and
panning machine. In details this apparatus differs as supplied
by different makers, but the broad principle is the same in
every case. The dough, after first passing through a pair of
gauging rollers, which still further thin out the sheet and are
capable of regulating its thickness with the utmost nicety, is,
received by an endless conveyor-band of webbing or similar
material. By this band it is carried forward by intermittent
motion to a set of punches or stamps which descend on it in
quick succession, and serve to mould the surface and cut the
edges to the required pattern. This operation completed, the
moulded dough passes forward on the same endless band.
The dough has now been cut into two distinct divisions, the
moulded biscuits and the unworked portion which forms a
continuous sheet of a sort of scrap. The latter is separated from
the moulded dough, and is carried upwards by another band,
which delivers it on a tray or box whence it is returned to the
rollers to be reworked. The moulded dough intended for the
oven is carried along by the first band and is gently deposited
on trays of sheet iron or woven wire. These trays are taken from
the machine by boys and placed on the travelling-chains at the
oven, or the trays may be automatically moved forward by a
travelling-band and placed on the oven. The oven used for
biscuit-baking is quite unlike any bread oven. It is much
longer and is provided with sets of endless chains moving in
parallel lines, and travelling over sprocket-wheel terminals and
intermediate supports. The chains have special attachments
on which the trays of biscuits are rested, and thus pass them
through the oven, and discharge them at the opposite end.
Some ovens are provided with a sort of endless belt of iron plates
on which the biscuits are placed. These travelling bands are
used chiefly for ship and also for dog biscuits, but the most
usual type is the oven in which trays are moved on the travelling
chains already described. The exact rate of travel, or the time
during which the biscuits are in the oven, can be easily adjusted
by means of countershafts and leather belts running on cone
pulleys fitted at the discharging end. The heat of the oven as
well as the rate of travel is varied according to the kind of biscuit,
some varieties requiring a gentle heat and a comparatively long
sojourn in the oven, while others must be exposed to a fierce heat,
but only for a few minutes. The ovens, fired by coke, may be 38 to
50 ft. in length. Their temperature is not generally raised above
500 degrees, but the speed of travel of the trays ranges between
3 1 and 25 minutes. The whole process of biscuit-making is
thus rapid and continuous. The dough is kneaded in the mixers
in a few minutes, and when discharged on the dough table is
rapidly moulded into the required form by the cutter and panner.
By means of endless bands the material is kept moving forwards,
whether on the cutter or in the oven. For certain fancy biscuits
special processes are used. Piping and sugar decoration is still
necessarily done by hand, and the glaze on some fancy biscuits is
imparted by spraying the moulded biscuit with very fine jets
of fresh milk. Cracknels are made from a very stiff dough, and
when cut out are thrown into coppers of boiling water. They
speedily float to the top, remaining apart and not forming into
groups. From these coppers they are taken out in trays pierced so
as to drain off the water. Then they go into vats of cold water,
from which they are again removed, and after being strained of
their moisture are panned and baked in a fierce oven. (G. F. Z.)
BISECTRIX (fern, of Lat. bisector, from bi-, two, secare, to cut),
in geometry, the same as bisector, i.e. a point which divides a
line, or a line which divides an angle, into two equal parts; in
crystallography it denotes the bisector of the angle between
the optic axes.
/ HILL
REFERENCE
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